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romantic drama film directed by Yash Chopra and written and produced by Aditya Chopra under their production banner , Yash Raj Films . It features Shah Rukh Khan , Katrina Kaif and Anushka Sharma in lead roles . The movie is the first collaboration between Khan and Kaif , and the second between Khan and Sharma ( they previously featured in the 2008 film Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi ) . Yash Chopra returned to directing eight years after Veer @-@ Zaara . This was to be his final film before his death in October 2012 , at age 80 . The background score and soundtrack was composed by A.R. Rahman , with lyrics from Gulzar .
Set in London , England , Jab Tak Hai Jaan tells the story of Akira Rai ( Anushka Sharma ) , an ambitious , hardworking intern at the Discovery Channel . Akira finds the diary of Samar Anand ( Shah Rukh Khan ) , a bomb @-@ disposal expert . The diary recounts Samar 's time as a struggling immigrant to London , and later details his whirlwind romance with Meera Thapar ( Katrina Kaif ) . The film was released during the six @-@ day Diwali weekend beginning on 13 November 2012 . The movie received positive @-@ to @-@ mixed reviews from critics in India and positive reviews overseas . It opened well at the box office , and Box Office India declared the film a " hit " in India and a " blockbuster " overseas . Jab Tak Hai Jaan emerged as the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film overseas at that time , after 3 Idiots and My Name Is Khan ( 2010 ) .
The film was praised for its direction , cinematography and the chemistry between its lead actors . Khan and Sharma were lauded for their performances , though the movie 's predictable plot drew criticism . At the end of its theatrical run Jab Tak Hai Jaan received a number of awards , including four Filmfare Awards , which included trophies for Best Supporting Actress ( Anushka Sharma ) and Best Lyrics for Gulzar .
= = Plot = =
Samar Anand ( Shahrukh Khan ) , a major in the Indian Army , defuses a bomb in Ladakh without fear or regard for his safety . Akira Rai ( Anushka Sharma ) , a Discovery Channel filmmaker , dives into a river in Ladakh on a dare and soon regrets it after learning she has plunged into freezing water . Samar , who happens to be by the shore , rescues her . Samar gives her his jacket and leaves without retrieving it . Later , Akira finds his diary in the jacket pocket and begins reading .
The diary recounts Samar 's earlier years as a struggling immigrant in London , working as a busker who also performs other odd jobs to support himself and his roommate Zain ( Sharib Hashmi ) . One day while cleaning snow outside a church , he sees Meera Thapar ( Katrina Kaif ) for the first time and instantly begins to like her . Samar is working part @-@ time as a waiter when he meets Meera again at her and her fiance Roger 's engagement party . Samar is a little bit disheartened seeing that . Meera grew up , motherless , in an affluent Indian family . Meera 's mother ( Neetu Singh ) left her family for another man ( Rishi Kapoor ) when Meera was twelve . This leaves the dominant parental figure in her life to be her father ( Anupam Kher ) , for whose company she works . Meera approached Samar to teach her a beautiful Punjabi song for her father 's 50th birthday and in return Samar asks Meera to give him language tuitions for one month.Meanwhile , Samar founds out the real naughty Meera inside Meera . Samar notices that Meera often prays when he sees her at church , and after a night of wild street dancing , Samar and Meera begin to fall in love . Samar helps Meera face her past , taking her to visit her estranged mother and foster reconciliation . Some days later Meera decides to confess to her father about her relationship with Samar and break her engagement , but Samar has a serious accident on his motorbike . Meera , believing she is the cause of Samar 's spate of bad luck , prays to God to save his life and promises never to see him again . Samar recovers and Meera admits her vow to him . Angry , he leaves her and even London . Samar challenges God to keep him alive while he risks his life every day , because he believes his death is the only way to make Meera lose her faith in God . He goes to India and enlists in the army , becoming a bomb @-@ disposal expert .
When Akira finishes reading the diary , she obtains permission to make a documentary about bomb @-@ disposal squads . She asks Samar for help to make her film and develops an acquaintance with him and his team . Akira develops a crush on Samar ; however , he does not reciprocate her feelings owing to his unresolved passion for Meera . Akira makes a successful film and prepares to leave for London . She wants Samar come along to help her publicise the documentary . After he reluctantly agrees to come to London , he is struck by a car .
Samar is diagnosed with retrograde amnesia , and he remembers only the events before his first accident a decade ago . Concerned , Akira tracks Meera down and persuades her to aid in Samar 's recovery . Meera agrees , pretending to be Samar 's wife . In the meantime , Akira realises that Major Samar is only a fragment of the young Samar ; he used to be happy and sociable , but is now bitter and lonely . One day Samar finds a bomb planted in the London Underground , and helps defuse it . The event jogs his memory , and he realises that Meera is lying to him . Samar confronts Meera with a choice : to either be with him honestly , or to see him keep risking his life until he is dead . Meera is unable to give a definitive answer ; heartbroken , Samar leaves for Kashmir , where he continues defusing bombs . During a conversation with Akira , Meera realises that her beliefs and prayers subjected Samar to a fate worse than death ; realising her mistake , she goes to Kashmir and they reunite . Samar defuses his last bomb , and then proposes to her .
= = Cast = =
Shah Rukh Khan as Major Samar Anand ( Soldier for the Bomb Disposal Squad )
Katrina Kaif as Meera Thapar ( A businesswoman who falls in love with Samar )
Anushka Sharma as Akira Rai , a documentary filmmaker for Discovery Channel
Sarika Thakur as Dr. Zoya Ali Khan . The doctor who helps Samar get well
Andrew Bicknell as Frank , Samar 's boss
Sharib Hashmi as Zain , Samar 's best friend and roommate
Jahidul Islam Shuvo as Major 's friend
Jasmine Jardot as Maria , Zain 's wife
Gireesh Sahedev as Captain Jagdeep Deewan
Amarinder Sodhi as Captain Kamal Singh
Varun Thakur as Lieutenant Hari Krishnan
Jay Conroy as Roger
Anupam Kher as Mr Thapar , Meera 's father ( Special Appearance )
Rishi Kapoor as Imraan , Meera 's step @-@ father ( Special Appearance )
Neetu Singh as Pooja , Meera 's mother ( Special Appearance )
= = Production = =
In June 2011 , Yash Raj Films released a statement announcing a new directorial venture by Yash Chopra coinciding with the 50th anniversary of his Bollywood career . The producers also announced that the film would be released during the Diwali 2012 weekend . Chopra said the film was untitled at that time , similar to previous project Veer @-@ Zaara ( which was named on the day of its submission to the Central Board of Film Certification ) . The producers considered a number of titles but were not satisfied with any of them . In September 2012 , it was announced that the title of the film was Jab Tak Hai Jaan . It was inspired by a similarly titled song from the 1975 film , Sholay .
Aditya Chopra wanted his father , Yash Chopra , to make another film and approached him with the concept for Jab Tak Hai Jaan . Shah Rukh Khan was their first choice for the role of Samar Anand , due to his long @-@ standing relationship with the production house and the Chopra family . Khan , who was working on other projects at that time , was unavailable for the shooting schedule so it was changed . As in his previous productions , Yash Chopra wanted to introduce a fresh pairing in Jab Tak Hai Jaan and chose Katrina Kaif to star with Khan . Anushka Sharma was cast in a supporting role to complete her three @-@ film contract with Yash Raj Films , with whom she had worked on many previous projects . Though casting was quickly completed , shooting was delayed because the lead actors were busy with other projects .
Khan 's role spans two ages : one ( age 28 ) as a London @-@ based street musician and the other ( ten years later ) as an introverted , composed and dutiful army officer in Kashmir . In an interview , Khan revealed details about his character : Samar is " angry , unforgiving , with loads of emotional baggage . I play him sweet when he needs to be . Actually , he is a lot like I am . Samar is a combination of angst , tenderness , anger , and yeah , he ’ s pretty unforgiving . "
Kaif 's role was described as " the archetypal Yash Chopra seductress , an unattainable beauty " . She worked hard to make her character believable ( with help from Khan , who had previous experience with the director ) . Sharma 's character , Akira , was described as a " 21 @-@ year @-@ old who works for the Discovery Channel and makes documentaries . She is on a quest to discover the truth behind the story of The Man Who Cannot Die ( Samar Anand ) in the film . She is extremely ambitious and will do anything to make it big and realize her dreams . "
= = = Filming = = =
The film 's principal photography was expected to begin in November 2011 but was delayed because Khan wanted to take a break after his two previous films , Ra.One and Don 2 . Principal photography began on 9 January 2012 at Yash Raj Studios in Mumbai , where a significant part of was shot .
After filming in India , the crew began a 35 @-@ day shooting schedule in London on 22 February 2012 . It was shot under the working title Production 45 . Khan arrived in London on 21 February 2012 , and finished filming on 26 March 2012 . During the filming , photos of the actors on @-@ set were leaked on the Internet , triggering a camera ban by the producers and increased security . A number of locations throughout the city featured in Jab Tak Hai Jaan , including the Borough Market , Jubilee Walk , the Great Conservatory , the Palace of Westminster , Westminster Bridge , Trafalgar Square , the Hungerford Bridge and Golden Jubilee Bridges , the O2 Arena , the Tower Bridge and Canary Wharf . A dance sequence was filmed next to the law school of King 's College London in Somerset House . A car @-@ crash scene was filmed at Shepherd 's Bush by closing four streets in the area . Filming was completed on 27 March 2012 at an indoor location in East London .
The romantic scenes were directed by Chopra 's son , Aditya , to give them a more contemporary feel . The " Ishq Shava " dance scene was shot with the leading duo and freestyle dancers in an underground club and aboard a boat on the River Thames . The film 's climax , initially planned by Chopra to be shot in the mountains of Kashmir , was moved to Ladakh . This was reportedly suggested by Khan , whose Dil Se .. was shot in the area many years earlier . Portions of Jab Tak Hai Jaan were filmed in three Kashmiri cities : Srinagar , Pahalgam and Gulmarg .
Yash Chopra wanted to add scenes from the Swiss Alps to the title song ; however , the scheduled shoot was cancelled after his death . Aditya Chopra wanted to keep the film as it was because he felt that doing otherwise would " tamper " with his father 's vision .
= = Marketing = =
A preliminary trailer was released with Ek Tha Tiger and through the company 's official YouTube channel on 15 August 2012 . The 90 @-@ second clip featured glimpses of Yash Chopra 's successful , acclaimed directorial ventures and highlighted his upcoming film , incorporating the prelude of " Challa " as background music . The film remained untitled : A Yash Chopra Romance . The trailer had over one million views in less than three days .
The two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute main theatrical trailer , with the film 's title , was released on 20 September 2012 on Yash Raj Films ' YouTube channel . It received a million views on the first day and thirty thousand " likes " within a week ( surpassing the record held by The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn – Part 2 ) , making it the first film trailer to have so many views so quickly . The trailer recorded more than eight million views on YouTube , making it the most @-@ watched Bollywood film trailer at that time .
Following the trailer 's success , Yash Raj Films released promotional videos of songs on YouTube and Bollywood Hungama . " Challa " , " Saans " , " Jiya Re " , " Heer " and " Ishq Shava " were well received . The marketing also involved public appearances by Kaif , Khan and Sharma . A premiere of Jab Tak Hai Jaan was held on 12 November 2012 ( a day before its worldwide release ) in honour of Yash Chopra .
= = Soundtrack = =
The music for the film was composed by A.R. Rahman , who teamed up with Yash Chopra for the first time . He signed to compose the soundtrack in May 2011 . The first song of the soundtrack was completed in December 2011 . By February 2012 , Rahman said in an interview with The Times of India that he had completed three songs for the film . He summarized the soundtrack album : " It 's a combination . They wanted to do my kind of songs at the same time they wanted the old charm and soul of music that Indian audience would love and which I wanted to do for a long time . " The soundtrack features nine songs , with eight lyrics by Gulzar and the title track written by Aditya Chopra . It was released by YRF Music on 9 October 2012 .
= = Release = =
Jab Tak Hai Jaan was released on 600 screens in overseas markets ; the estimated number of release screens in India was about 2 @,@ 500 . Yash Raj Films distributed the film to 1 @,@ 000 multiplexes and 1 @,@ 500 single @-@ screen cinemas . Jab Tak Hai Jaan was selected for the Doha Tribeca Film Festival and the Marrakech International Film Festival . It was chosen to " honour the legacy " of Yash Chopra , since it was his last project .
= = = Controversy = = =
Two weeks before Jab Tak Hai Jaan 's release , Ajay Devgn sent a notice to the Competition Commission of India accusing Yash Raj Films of monopolistic business practices ; the notice contended that they used " their dominant position in the Bollywood film market " to secure many desirable single @-@ screen theatres for their release . Yash Raj Films responded by saying that they were " shocked " and questioned Devgn 's " motives " . The studio denied Devgn 's claim that high @-@ quality single @-@ screens were unavailable , pointing out that they had only booked 1 @,@ 500 single @-@ screens for Jab Tak Hai Jaan out of the 10 @,@ 500 available in India . After the rebuttal by Yash Raj Films , Devgn said he only managed to book 600 single @-@ screens for Son of Sardaar and would take legal action if not allotted more . He accused Yash Raj Films of signing tie @-@ in agreements for Ek Tha Tiger with exhibitors , requiring them to show Jab Tak Hai Jaan on Diwali and keep it in cinemas for at least two weeks thereafter . A week before the release of Jab Tak Hai Jaan and Son of Sardaar , the commission dismissed Devgn 's claim . In an interview a commission spokesperson said , " We considered the plea application . We have not found any merit in the case as there is no case of abuse of dominant position . There is no violation . " After his notice was rejected , Devgn appealed the decision ; the Appellate Tribunal refused Devgn 's request to nullify agreements made with single @-@ screen exhibitors for the release of Jab Tak Hai Jaan , but agreed to reexamine the case to determine if Yash Raj Films engaged in monopolistic practices . Both films were released on 13 November 2012 in the number of single @-@ screens originally contracted .
= = Critical reception = =
Jab Tak Hai Jaan received positive @-@ to @-@ mixed reviews from critics in India and positive reviews from critics overseas . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film received an average rating of 67 % from the audience .
= = = India = = =
Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 4 ( out of 5 ) stars , saying that it was " attention @-@ grabbing from inception till conclusion . The drama only soars higher and the complex love story gets more and more gripping as the conflict between the characters come to the fore . " Rachit Gupta of Filmfare gave it 4 ( out of 5 ) stars : " At a gracious 3 hours runtime , JTHJ feels like an epic love story . And it is just that . JTHJ is the perfect adieu to a hallmark career . It is the best romantic film made in this generation . " Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV gave it 3 @.@ 5 ( out of 5 ) stars : " Despite the lovey @-@ dovey nothingness that drives the plot , Jab Tak Hai Jaan has more substance than most romantic films that come out of Bollywood . " Meena Iyer of The Times of India rated it 3 @.@ 5 ( out of 5 ) stars , saying " Every frame is picture @-@ perfect , the emotions are well nuanced . But there is one inherent flaw – the story by Aditya Chopra is hackneyed . " Subhash Jha ( also from The Times of India ) said , " Jab Tak Hai Jaan makes you fall in love with love all over again . " Anupama Chopra of the Hindustan Times gave the film 3 ( out of 5 ) stars : " Jab Tak Hai Jaan is too tangled to transport you . But I recommend that you see it . Because only Yash Chopra could make heartache so attractive and ennobling that his characters wear it like a badge of honor . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave it 3 ( out of 5 ) stars : " I 'm going with three out of five for the late Yash Chopra 's Jab Tak Hai Jaan . Despite its many script problems , it 's a consistently watchable film that oozes with feeling and real emotion . A fitting swan song . " OPEN magazine gave the film 3 ( out of 5 ) stars , praising Yash Chopra 's direction . Ajit Duara called it " a deeply @-@ felt cinematic perspective from 80 years of living . " Raja Sen of Rediff.com gave it 3 ( out of 5 ) stars , saying " As a swan @-@ song for the master director , Jab Tak Hai Jaan might only be a middling effort . But then , sometimes , all we need is a Khan @-@ song . " Shabana Ansari of Daily News and Analysis gave the film 3 ( out of 5 ) stars : " If you must , watch Jab Tak Hai Jaan for Shah Rukh , who can still convey love and passion in a fleeting look or a dimpled smile ; and for Yash Chopra who gave us some of the most enduring romances of all times . "
Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express gave the film 2 @.@ 5 ( out of 5 ) stars , saying " watch this one for Shah Rukh , who can still do the dimpled boy wonder and the older , mature lover with a wry smile and wounded wink and sexy nudge . " Sukanya Verma ( also from Rediff.com ) described it as an " elegant , harmless entertainer for [ the ] most part " , praising the visuals , acting and music . She criticised the screenplay , contending that the film could have been " snappier " , and gave it 2 @.@ 5 ( out of 5 ) stars . Piyasree Dasgupta of First Post wrote , " You have seen everything Jab Tak Hai Jaan has many times before , just in other films . And probably with far better music than A.R. Rahman threw into this one . "
= = = Overseas = = =
Jab Tak Hai Jaan received positive reviews from critics overseas . Priya Joshi of Digital Spy gave it 3 ( out of 5 ) stars : " The film is invested with a healthy dose of Shah Rukh , the very heart and saans of Yash Chopra and the message which he lived and breathed through his films : that love is eternal . " Simon Foster of the Special Broadcasting Service also gave it 3 ( out of 5 ) stars , calling it " a grand cinematic work boasting all the pros and cons of the genre . " He observed , " Chopra fans will not hear complaints that the great producer @-@ director had become mired in a rut , or that his films are rote melodramas reliant on boisterous music ( here , a typically string @-@ heavy work from the omnipresent A.R. Rahman ) and over @-@ active camerawork . One could argue that it 's their very vivid cinematic nature that makes them particularly noteworthy , even when the dialogue ( at times , awful ) and plotting ( rarely based in logical realism ) can test one 's patience . " Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times wrote , " The film has a freshness that would never lead one to think it was directed by an 80 @-@ year @-@ old while at the same time it has a sureness of tone , a certainty about itself even at its most audacious , that only comes from the hand of a seasoned master ... Jab Tak Hai Jaan serves as a fitting tribute to the career of Chopra . " Lisa Tsering of The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " Director @-@ producer Yash Chopra 's film , his final project before he died , delivers not only the romance and human touch , but also reflects a modern sensibility . " Nicolas Rapold of The New York Times wrote , " Even though the film drags , the magic of Bollywood is that this story 's muddle of twists only clarifies the urgency behind the undying desires of all concerned parties . " Mazhar Farooqui of the Gulf News wrote , " Despite its inherent flaws , JTHJ comes across as a beguiling romantic film that takes you on a roller coaster ride of high emotions set amidst picture postcard locales but more than anyone the movie belongs to Chopra . In his swan song , the celebrated director once again proved why his legacy will be hard to match . "
= = Awards = =
Jab Tak Hai Jaan received a number of nominations and awards at Bollywood award shows . The film has been praised for its direction , cinematography and chemistry between the lead actors , with Shahrukh Khan and Anushka Sharma receiving accolades for their performances ; however , its script and predictable plot have been criticised . The film won four Filmfare Awards , five Zee Cine Awards and two Colors Screen Awards . Jab Tak Hai Jaan received several marketing and business awards for its overseas performance , promotions , distribution and music . However , Sharma and Kaif were nominated for Golden Kela and Ghanta awards ; some critics felt that their acting was less than stellar . Anushka Sharma and Shreya Ghoshal were the main recipients who were given awards .
= = Box office = =
Jab Tak Hai Jaan grossed ₹ 2 @.@ 11 billion ( US $ 31 million ) worldwide . Box Office India declared the film a hit in India and a blockbuster overseas .
= = = Domestic = = =
Jab Tak Hai Jaan had 95 to 100 @-@ percent occupancy at multiplexes and single screens across India on its opening day . It earned about ₹ 125 @.@ 0 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 9 million ) on its first day . Jab Tak Hai Jaan showed 50 @-@ percent growth and earned ₹ 195 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 9 million ) on its second day , netting ₹ 448 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 7 million ) during its first three days . The film earned ₹ 736 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 11 million ) over its long six @-@ day weekend .
Earnings dropped the following Monday to ₹ 48 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 710 @,@ 000 ) , bringing the total to ₹ 780 million ( US $ 12 million ) for its first week of release . The film continued to do well at the box office after its first week , netting ₹ 822 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 12 million ) in ten days . It faltered during its second week ( netting only ₹ 157 @.@ 9 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) ) , and crossed the ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) mark 20 days after release . After three weeks , Jab Tak Hai Jaan earned ₹ 1 @.@ 02 billion ( US $ 15 million ) . The distributor share was ₹ 570 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 5 million ) , and Box Office India declared it a hit in India .
The earnings of Jab Tak Hai Jaan and Son of Sardaar were affected by their conflict on Diwali day . Jab Tak Hai Jaan outperformed Son of Sardaar , earning ₹ 140 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 1 million ) more than Son of Sardaar in India and ₹ 580 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 6 million ) more overseas . According to Box Office India , Jab Tak Hai Jaan netted ₹ 1 @.@ 02 billion ( US $ 15 million ) domestically near the end of its run and Son of Sardaar netted ₹ 880 million ( US $ 13 million ) . The earnings difference between the films was greater abroad ; Son of Sardaar earned $ 3 million overseas , and Jab Tak Hai Jaan earned more than $ 13 million .
= = = Overseas = = =
Jab Tak Hai Jaan earned US $ 1 @.@ 3 million on its first day and $ 3 @.@ 50 million at the end of three days in overseas markets . After the first weekend , the film earned $ 7 @.@ 58 million in six days . Jab Tak Hai Jaan grossed about $ 11 million overseas in thirteen days before the number of screens decreased . At the end of its theatrical run , it is estimated to have earned ₹ 745 @.@ 0 million ( US $ 11 million ) . Box Office India declared it a blockbuster overseas .
= = = Records = = =
At the time of release , Jab Tak Hai Jaan set records for the highest opening @-@ day earnings in Singapore and Pakistan by grossing $ 100 @,@ 000 . Jab Tak Hai Jaan became the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film in the United Arab Emirates and the Middle East , earning more than $ 4 million . It was the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film overseas for 2012 , and the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film that year , after Ek Tha Tiger and Dabangg 2 .
= = Home media = =
Yash Raj Films launched Jab Tak Hai Jaan in VCD , DVD and region @-@ free high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray Disc formats on 3 January 2013 . The Blu @-@ ray Disc edition featured Dolby TrueHD 96k upsampling , DTS @-@ HD Master Audio 5 @.@ 1 , Dolby Surround 5 @.@ 1 sound and two additional DVDs . Four hours of extra footage were included on the discs , including the making of the film and songs , an interview with Yash Chopra and Shahrukh Khan , deleted scenes , videos of Khan learning to play the guitar and ride a bicycle , and a preview from the film 's premiere held in a specially constructed vintage theatre at Yash Raj Studios .
= Tjunkiya Napaltjarri =
Tjunkiya Napaltjarri ( also known as Tjunkiya Kamayi , Tjungkiya , Tunkaii Napaltari , Kowai or Kamayi ) ( c . 1927 – 2009 ) was a Pintupi @-@ speaking Indigenous artist from Australia 's Western Desert region . She is the sister of artist Wintjiya Napaltjarri .
Tjunkiya 's paintings are held in major public art collections , including those of the National Gallery of Australia , the Art Gallery of New South Wales , the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory and the National Gallery of Victoria .
= = Life = =
Tjunkiya was born around 1927 : the main biographical reference work for the region gives a date of circa 1927 ; while the Art Gallery of New South Wales suggests circa 1930 . The ambiguity around the year of birth is in part because Indigenous Australians operate using a different conception of time , often estimating dates through comparisons with the occurrence of other events .
'Napaljarri ' ( in Warlpiri ) or ' Napaltjarri ' ( in Western Desert dialects ) is a skin name , one of sixteen used to denote the subsections or subgroups in the kinship system of central Australian Indigenous people . These names define kinship relationships that influence preferred marriage partners and may be associated with particular totems . Although they may be used as terms of address , they are not surnames in the sense used by Europeans . Thus ' Tjunkiya ' is the element of the artist 's name that is specifically hers .
A Pintupi speaker , Tjunkiya was born in the area northwest of Walungurru ( known as Kintore , Northern Territory ) , near the Western Australian border , and west of Alice Springs ) , after which her family moved to Haasts Bluff . She became second wife to Toba Tjakamarra , father of one of the prominent founders of the Papunya Tula art movement , Turkey Tolson Tjupurrula . At Haasts Bluff she had ten children : these included sons Billy Rowe and Riley Rowe , both of whom painted for Papunya Tula , and daughter Mitjili ( born c . 1948 ) , who married Long Tom Tjapanangka and went on to paint at Haasts Bluff . From Haasts Bluff the family moved to Papunya and in 1981 to Kintore .
Tjunkiya was the sister of artist Wintjiya Napaltjarri , who was also a wife to Toba . Seriously ill in the mid @-@ 1990s , Tjunkiya died in 2009 .
= = Art = =
= = = Background = = =
Contemporary Indigenous art of the western desert began when Indigenous men at Papunya began painting in 1971 , assisted by teacher Geoffrey Bardon . Their work , which used acrylic paints to create designs representing body painting and ground sculptures , rapidly spread across Indigenous communities of central Australia , particularly following the commencement of a government @-@ sanctioned art program in central Australia in 1983 . By the 1980s and 1990s , such work was being exhibited internationally . The first artists , including all of the founders of the Papunya Tula artists ' company , had been men , and there was resistance amongst the Pintupi men of central Australia to women painting . However , there was also a desire amongst many of the women to participate , and in the 1990s large numbers of them began to create paintings . In the western desert communities such as Kintore , Yuendumu , Balgo , and on the outstations , people were beginning to create art works expressly for exhibition and sale .
= = = Career = = =
Like a number of the other central and western desert women in the region , Tjunkiya was introduced to painting through the Minyma Tjukurrpa ( Women 's Dreaming ) painting project in the mid @-@ 1990s . Along with sister Wintjiya and other women , she participated in a painting camp in 1994 which resulted in " a series of very large collaborative canvases of the group 's shared Dreamings " . Western Desert artists such as Tjunkiya frequently paint particular ' dreamings ' , or stories , for which they have responsibility or rights . In this case , twenty @-@ five women were involved in planning the works , which included three canvases that were 3 metres square , as well as two that were 3 by 1 @.@ 5 metres , and Tjunkiya and Wintjiya performed a ceremonial dance as part of the preparations . Tjunkiya and her sister were determined to participate in the project despite cataracts interfering with their vision . Sources differ on when Tjunkiya and her sister Wintjiya had the cataracts removed : Vivien Johnson implies around 1999 , but art centre coordinator Marina Strocchi , who worked closely with the women , states that both had the operation in 1994 .
In the early 2000s she and her sister painted at Kintore , but in 2008 they were working from their home : " the widows ' camp outside her ' son ' Turkey Tolson 's former residence " . Tjunkiya and her sister Wintjiya did not confine their activities to painting canvases . The National Gallery of Victoria in 2001 purchased a collaborative batik work , created in 1994 by the sisters in cooperation with several other artists , together with a work completed by Tjunkiya alone . The sisters also worked using drypoint etching , with 2004 a print by Tjunkiya – Rumiya kutjarra # 2 – held by the National Gallery of Australia .
Works by Tjunkiya are held in major private collections , such as Nangara ( also known as the Ebes Collection ) . Her work has been acquired by the Art Gallery of New South Wales , the National Gallery of Australia , the National Gallery of Victoria , the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory , and the Northern Territory Supreme Court . Works by both Tjunkiya and her sister Wintjiya are traded in the auction market , fetching prices of a few thousand dollars .
In 1996 , Tjunkiya was represented in the Papunya Women group exhibition at Utopia Art Gallery in Sydney , while in 2000 she had an exhibition at Melbourne 's William Mora Galleries and was included in the Art Gallery of New South Wales ' major exhibition , Papunya Tula : Genesis and Genius .
= = Collections = =
National Gallery of Australia
Araluen Collection ( Alice Springs )
Art Gallery of New South Wales
Campbelltown City Art Gallery
Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory
National Gallery of Victoria
Supreme Court of the Northern Territory
Artbank
= ReactOS =
ReactOS is an open @-@ source operating system for x86 / x64 PCs intended to be binary @-@ compatible with computer programs and device drivers made for Windows Server 2003 .
Development started in 1996 , as a Windows 95 clone project , which was in 1998 continued as ReactOS with the incremental addition of features of later Windows versions . ReactOS has been noted as a potential open @-@ source drop @-@ in replacement for Windows and for its information on undocumented Windows APIs . As stated on the official website , " The main goal of the ReactOS project is to provide an operating system which is binary compatible with Windows ... such that people accustomed to the familiar user interface of Windows would find using ReactOS straightforward . The ultimate goal of ReactOS is to allow you to remove Windows and install ReactOS without the end user noticing the change . " As of May 2016 , ReactOS is considered alpha software , feature @-@ incomplete but with many Windows applications already working ( e.g. Adobe Reader 6 @.@ 0 , OpenOffice etc ) , and therefore recommended by the developers only for evaluation and testing purposes .
ReactOS is primarily written in C , with some elements , such as ReactOS File Explorer , written in C + + . The project partially implements Windows API functionality and has been ported to the ARM and AMD64 processor architectures . ReactOS , as part of the FOSS ecosystem , re @-@ uses and collaborates with many other FOSS projects , most notably the Wine project which develops a Windows compatibility layer for Unix @-@ like operating systems .
= = History = =
= = = Early development = = =
Around 1996 , a group of free and open @-@ source software developers started a project called FreeWin95 to implement a clone of Windows 95 . The project stalled in discussions of the design of the system .
While FreeWin95 had started out with high expectations , there still had not been any builds released to the public by the end of 1997 . As a result , the project members , led by coordinator Jason Filby , joined together to revive the project . The revived project sought to duplicate the functionality of Windows NT . In creating the new project , a new name , ReactOS , was chosen . The project began development in February 1998 by creating the basis for a new NT kernel and basic drivers . The name ReactOS was coined by Jeff Knox . While the term " OS " stood for operating system , the term " react " referred to the group 's dissatisfaction with – and reaction to – Microsoft 's monopolistic position .
= = = Ekush OS fork = = =
In 2004 , a copyright / license violation of ReactOS GPL 'ed code ( and other FOSS code ) was found when someone distributed a ReactOS fork under the name Ekush OS . The webpage later went offline .
= = = Internal audit = = =
In order to avoid copyright prosecution , ReactOS must be expressively completely distinct and non @-@ derivative from Windows , a goal which needs very careful work . A claim was made on 17 January 2006 , by now former developer Hartmut Birr on the ReactOS developers mailing list ( ros @-@ dev ) that ReactOS contained code derived from disassembling Microsoft Windows . The code that Birr disputed involved the function BadStack in syscall.S. as well as other unspecified items . Comparing this function to disassembled binaries from Windows XP , Birr argued that the BadStack function was simply copy @-@ pasted from Windows XP , given that they were identical . Alex Ionescu , the author of the code , asserted that while the Windows XP binary in question was indeed disassembled and studied , the code was not merely copy @-@ pasted , but reimplemented ; the reason why the functions were identical , Ionescu claimed , was because there was only one possible way to implement the function .
On 27 January 2006 , the developers responsible for maintaining the ReactOS code repository disabled access after a meeting was held to discuss the allegations . When approached by NewsForge , Microsoft declined to comment about the incident . Since ReactOS is a free and open source software development project , the claim triggered a negative reaction by the free software community ; in particular , Wine barred several ( as of 2016 ) inactive developers from providing contributions and formal high level cooperation between the two projects remains difficult to this date . Contributions from several active ReactOS developers have been accepted post @-@ audit , and low level cooperation for bug fixes still occurs .
In a statement on its website , ReactOS cited differing legal definitions of what constitutes clean @-@ room reverse engineering as a cause for the conflict . Some countries , including the United States , require that a reimplementation based on disassembled code must be written by someone other than the person having disassembled and examined the original code , whereas other countries allow both tasks to be performed by the same individual . Consequently , ReactOS clarified that its Intellectual Property Policy Statement requirements on clean room reverse engineering conform to US law . An internal source code audit was conducted to ensure that only clean room reverse engineering was used , and all developers were made to sign an agreement committing them to comply with the project 's policies on reverse engineering . Contributors to its development were not affected by these events , and all access to the software development tools was restored shortly afterward . In September 2007 , with the audit nearing completion , the audit status was removed from the ReactOS homepage . Though the audit was completed , specific details were not made public as it was only an internal effort to ensure compliance with the project 's own policies .
Much of the assembly code that was allegedly copied has also been replaced as a natural progression in ReactOS development , with developers having reimplemented the functionality in C for portability reasons .
Also , the 2004 leaked Windows source code was not seen as legal risk for ReactOS , as the trade secret was considered indefensible in court due to broad spread .
= = = Public demonstration = = =
Demonstrations of the operating system have been given , mainly to Russian political figures . Viktor Alksnis met with project coordinator Aleksey Bragin , who gave a presentation and demonstration of the project , showing ReactOS running with Total Commander and Mozilla Firefox in 2007 . Dmitry Medvedev was also given a demonstration during a visit as President of Russia to a high school in Verhnerusskoe , Stavropol , attended by one of the development team members in 2011 .
On 31 July 2012 , Vladimir Putin was also given a demonstration during his visit as President of Russia to Seliger Youth Forum , attended by Marat Karatov , one of the development team members .
= = = Funding campaigns = = =
On 1 May 2012 a 30 @,@ 000 euro funding campaign was started to finance additional development projects . On the end of the year approximately 50 % of the funding goal was achieved and it was decided to continue the funding campaign without deadlines . The money went to ReactOS Deutschland e . V .. As the tax law in Germany for this form of a registered voluntary association ( Eingetragener Verein ) makes it problematic to pay developers directly , indirect possibilities like Stipends were evaluated .
= = = Thorium Core Cloud Desktop project = = =
When ReactOS was awarded as Project of the Month on SourceForge on June 2013 , a crowdfunding campaign on Kickstarter was announced in an interview with the project 's coordinator , Aleksey Bragin . On 23 December 2013 the announced project was revealed as a Kickstarter campaign with the goal of US $ 120 @,@ 000 was started . The Thorium Core Cloud Desktop dubbed Cloud computing service would use ReactOS as core and could allow the use of Windows compatible applications from mobile devices ( like smartphones , tablets ) , workstations or any other connected device . On 21 February 2014 , fundraising ended short of the target amount , with $ 48 @,@ 965 of $ 120 @,@ 000 raised , resulting in no transferred money .
= = = ReactOS Community Edition = = =
In April 2014 , the ReactOS project announced an Indiegogo campaign to launch ReactOS Community Edition , a version of ReactOS based on the 0 @.@ 4 release . The flexible funding campaign had a goal of US $ 50 @,@ 000 with additional stretch goals beyond that . Development of ReactOS Community Edition would be community @-@ centric , with ReactOS users voting and funding to decide which software and hardware drivers the project will aim to support . On 1 June 2014 , the flexible crowdfunding campaign on Indiegogo was finished with raising $ 25 @,@ 141 for the development of the community edition , and the voting process to support hardware and software was started shortly after .
= = = ReactOS Hackfest 2015 = = =
The ReactOS project organized a Hackfest from 7 to 12 August 2015 , in the German city of Aachen .
= = = Google Summer of Code participation = = =
3 times - 2006 , 2011 , 2016
= = Release history = =
= = Development = =
= = = ReactOS core development = = =
ReactOS is primarily written in C , with some elements , such as ReactOS Explorer and the sound stack , written in C + + . The project compiles using both MinGW and Microsoft Visual Studio , and contributes to the development of the build systems used through the submission of patches to its components .
The developers aim to make the kernel more compatible with Windows NT version 5 @.@ 2 ( Windows Server 2003 ) , the usermode APIs with Windows NT 6 @.@ 3 ( Windows 8 @.@ 1 ) , and to add support for more applications and hardware . DirectX support is undertaken through ReactX , an in @-@ house implementation . 2D hardware @-@ accelerated rendering is done natively , while other drawing functionality is redirected to OpenGL as a stopgap solution .
The development progress is influenced by the size of the development team and the level of experience among them . As an estimate of the effort required to implement Windows 7 , Microsoft employed 1 @,@ 000 or so developers , organized into 25 teams , with each team averaging 40 developers . As of 2 September 2011 , in the ReactOS entry in Ohloh , the page followed through the " Very large , active development team " link lists 33 developers who have contributed over a 12 @-@ month period and a cumulative total of 104 present and former users who have contributed code to the project via Subversion since its inception . In his presentation at Hackmeeting 2009 in Milan , ReactOS developer Michele C. noted that most of the developers learn about Windows architecture while working on ReactOS and have no prior knowledge .
While ReactOS targets currently mainly the x86 / AMD64 PC platform , it has been also partially ported to the ARM architectures . Support for the Xbox , a variant IA @-@ 32 architecture , was added through the use of an architecture @-@ specific HAL , although this , along with a port to PowerPC , are no longer actively maintained .
= = = Collaboration and reuse = = =
While ReactOS has the aim to build a Windows @-@ compatible kernel as open @-@ source software , much of the surrounding required functionality to create a complete OS is already available in the greater open @-@ source ecosystem . When available and possible , ReactOS therefore builds on and collaborates with already existing open @-@ source projects . Wayaround , projects like Wine , Captive NTFS or Longene re @-@ use the open @-@ source ReactOS code @-@ base as well .
= = = = Hardware driver stack = = = =
On the hardware driver side , for instance the UniATA project provides Serial ATA drivers for ReactOS . The project has also experimented with using the FullFAT library in its rewrite of its FAT Installable File System . ReactOS makes use of the USB stack from Haiku both as a reference and as a foundation for its USB support . Mesa 3D provides OpenGL rendering .
= = = = Networking = = = =
ReactOS ' network stack is built on the TCP portion of OSKit 's port of the network stack in FreeBSD , along with an internally developed implementation for packet @-@ oriented protocols like IP . Later , lwIP was integrated into the ReactOS ' network stack . Windows network services like LSASS , SAM , NETLOGON , Print spooling are already available as open @-@ source alternative by the Samba / Samba TNG project . A fork of rdesktop is used as an implementation of a client software for Microsoft 's proprietary Remote Desktop Protocol .
= = = = Wine collaboration = = = =
The ReactOS and the Wine projects share the goal to run binary Windows software natively and can share therefore many dependencies and development . ReactOS uses portions of the Wine project so that it can benefit from Wine 's progress in implementing the Win32 API . While Wine 's NTDLL , USER32 , KERNEL32 , GDI32 and ADVAPI32 components cannot be used directly by ReactOS due to architectural differences , code snippets of them and other parts can be shared between both projects . The kernel is developed by ReactOS separately as Wine relies here on existing unixoid kernels .
Separately , the experimental Arwinss branch was created as an alternative means to improve USER32 and GDI32 support through an alternative implementation of the Win32 API . Whereas ReactOS 's original Win32 subsystem was closely modeled after its equivalent in Windows , Arwinss combines the architecture of that subsystem with the corresponding implementation in Wine . To this end , Arwinss uses Wine 's GDI32 and USER32 libraries with few changes to take fuller advantage of Wine 's existing software compatibility . Arwinss also allows the user to optionally use a remote X server instead of a local display .
= = = = Other = = = =
The Tango Desktop Project initiative provides open @-@ source design guidelines and resources ( as icons ) for applications on desktop environments . FreeType is an open @-@ source software development library , used to render text on to bitmaps and provides support for other font @-@ related operations . The KernelEx project is an Windows @-@ API extension and compatibility layer project , which provides open @-@ source implementations of some Windows @-@ APIs . Other contributing projects are MinGW , SYSLINUX , adns , ICU , GraphApp , Ext2 , GNU FreeFont , DejaVu fonts , and Liberation fonts .
= = Reception = =
Various people have acknowledged ReactOS and the implications of having a viable open @-@ source drop @-@ in replacement for Windows . A 2004 article and interview of the German weekly magazine Der Spiegel describes ReactOS as directed at Windows users who want to renounce use of proprietary commercial software without having to switch to Linux . DistroWatch , a Linux distribution 's monitoring website , lists also ReactOS and describes it as " a free and open @-@ source operating system based on the best design principles found in the Windows NT architecture . " .
In his column for Free Software Magazine , David Sugar noted in 2006 that ReactOS would allow the use of applications depending on older versions of Windows whose APIs have been deprecated . He also recognized its potential to expand the total deployed base of free software , and as a resource for developers wanting to know undocumented Windows APIs in the course of writing portable applications . PC Magazine columnist John C. Dvorak remarked in 2008 that the Windows NT architecture had remained largely unchanged , making it an ideal candidate for cloning , and believed that ReactOS could be " a bigger threat than Linux to Microsoft 's dominance " . In response to Dvorak 's column , ZDNet technology journalist Dana Blankenhorn noted in 2008 that a lack of corporate sponsors and partners had rendered the project harmless to Microsoft . Echoing this , Thom Holwerda of OSNews in 2009 categorized ReactOS under a family of hobby operating systems maintained only by small groups of developers working in their spare time , lacking the financial support of more mainstream operating systems and the legacy of formerly mainstream ones such as RISC OS .
In October 2015 , a Network World review of ReactOS v0.3.17 noted impressed " It 's just like running Windows 2000 " and praised the extension by an application package manager , a feature the original Windows is missing .
= = = Awards = = =
The ReactOS Project won on the annual Seliger Youth Forum " The Best Presentation " award with 100 @,@ 000 Russian rubles ( ≈ US $ 2700 ) in 2011 , attended by Alexander Rechitskiy , one of the development team members .
ReactOS was a featured project on SourceForge for the week beginning 27 February 2012 , and 25 April 2013 along with several others . It was Project of the Month on Sourceforge for June 2013 .
In 2015 , ReactOS was named by the Russian Ministry of Communications as support @-@ worthy " client operating system / Server Operating System " alternative , for its potential in reducing Russia 's dependency from proprietary software imports .
= Friday the 13th ( 2009 film ) =
Friday the 13th is a 2009 American slasher film written by Damian Shannon and Mark Swift , and directed by Marcus Nispel . The film is a reboot of the Friday the 13th film series , which began in 1980 , and is the twelfth installment in the franchise . Nispel also directed the 2003 remake of Tobe Hooper 's The Texas Chain Saw Massacre ( 1974 ) . Shannon and Swift wrote the screenplay for the 2003 crossover Freddy vs. Jason . Friday the 13th follows Clay Miller ( Jared Padalecki ) as he searches for his missing sister , Whitney ( Amanda Righetti ) , who is captured by Jason Voorhees ( Derek Mears ) while camping in woodland at Crystal Lake .
The 2009 film was originally conceived as an origin story , but the project evolved into a re @-@ imagining of the first four Friday the 13th films . The character Jason Voorhees was redesigned as a lean , quick killer with a backstory that allows the viewer to feel a little sympathy for him , but not enough that he would lose his menace . Although this film rewrote the continuity , Jason 's iconic hockey mask — which was not introduced until the third film in the series — is acquired during the film . In keeping with the tone of the film , Jason 's mask was recreated from a mold of the original mask used for Part III ; though there were subtle changes . Friday the 13th includes some of Harry Manfredini 's musical score from the previous Friday the 13th films because the producers recognized its iconic status .
Friday the 13th was released in theaters on Friday , February 13 , 2009 . It received mainly negative reviews and earned approximately US $ 19 million on its opening night and $ 40 million during its opening weekend , when it broke two records ; the highest @-@ earning opening day for the film series and the highest @-@ earning opening weekend for any horror film . As of July 2014 , it is the second @-@ highest grossing film in the Friday the 13th film series ( $ 65 million ) , and has earned over $ 91 @.@ 3 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
On June 13 , 1980 , a young Jason Voorhees ( Caleb Guss ) watches as his mother Pamela ( Nana Visitor ) is beheaded by a camp counselor ( Stephanie Rhodes ) , who was trying to escape Mrs. Voorhees 's murder spree around Camp Crystal Lake . Almost thirty years later , a group of friends — Wade ( Jonathan Sadowski ) , Richie ( Ben Feldman ) , Mike ( Nick Mennell ) , Whitney ( Amanda Righetti ) and Amanda ( America Olivo ) — arrive at Crystal Lake on a camping trip to search for marijuana growing in the woods . That night , Jason ( Derek Mears ) , now an adult , kills Wade , Amanda , and Richie . Jason also kills Mike , but he spares Whitney because she resembles his mother at a young age , and kidnaps her .
Six weeks later , Trent ( Travis Van Winkle ) , his girlfriend Jenna ( Danielle Panabaker ) , Chelsea ( Willa Ford ) , Bree ( Julianna Guill ) , Chewie ( Aaron Yoo ) , Nolan ( Ryan Hansen ) , and Lawrence ( Arlen Escarpeta ) arrive at Trent 's summer cabin on the shore of Crystal Lake . Meanwhile , Whitney 's brother Clay Miller ( Jared Padalecki ) arrives at the lake to search for her . Clay visits Trent 's cabin , and Jenna agrees to help him search for Whitney . As they search , Jason kills Chelsea and Nolan while they are wakeboarding on the lake . Clay and Jenna search the old Crystal Lake campgrounds where they see Jason hauling a body into the abandoned camp house .
Jenna and Clay run to warn the others about Jason , who arrives and disconnects the cabin 's electricity . Jason kills Chewie and Lawrence outside the cabin and sneaks inside and kills Bree . Trent , Clay , and Jenna escape the cabin , but Trent is killed when he reaches the main road . Jason chases Clay and Jenna back to the campgrounds , where Clay discovers Jason 's lair and finds his sister chained to the wall . Clay frees Whitney , and all three try to escape as Jason arrives . They find an exit , but Jenna is killed before she can escape . Jason chases Clay and Whitney ; Whitney pretends to be Pamela , to confuse Jason and stabs him in the chest with his own machete . Clay dumps Jason 's dead body into the lake , but before Clay and Whitney leave , Jason bursts through the wooden dock and grabs Whitney .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
New Line Cinema 's Toby Emmerich approached Platinum Dunes producers Michael Bay , Brad Fuller and Andrew Form about remaking Friday the 13th in the same way they restarted the Texas Chainsaw Massacre franchise . They agreed and spent over a year obtaining the film rights from Paramount Pictures , New Line , and Crystal Lake Entertainment — the latter run by Friday the 13th creator Sean S. Cunningham . Paramount executives gave Platinum Dunes producers a license to use anything from the original films , including the title . Paramount was given the rights to distribute the film internationally and New Line retained U.S. distribution rights . Fuller and Form said they did not want to make Friday the 13th Part 11 or 12 , but wanted to rework the mythology . They liked elements from the first four films — such as plot points and ways particular characters are killed — and planned to use these in their remake , which they did with Paramount 's approval . Fuller said , " I think there are moments we want to address , like how does the hockey mask happen . It ’ ll happen differently in our movie than in the third one . Where is Jason from , why do these killings happen , and what is Crystal Lake ? " The producers initially expressed an interest in using Tommy Jarvis , a recurring character who first appeared in Friday the 13th : The Final Chapter , but the idea was scrapped .
Though the producers decided that Friday the 13th would not be an origin story , they said that they wanted to work out a logical origin story for Jason that would provide a sense of history as the film progressed . Form and Fuller explained that the audience gets to see how Jason attains his famous hockey mask , and is given a reason for why he puts it on . Jason would transition from wearing a bag over his head — similar to the one seen in Friday the 13th Part 2 — to finding and wearing his hockey mask , whereas in Friday the 13th Part III he obtains the mask off @-@ screen and comes out of a barn already wearing it .
Unlike The Texas Chainsaw Massacre remake ( 2003 ) and the The Amityville Horror remake ( 2005 ) — both of which were produced by Bay , Form , and Fuller — it was decided that Friday the 13th would not be a period piece . Form and Fuller said the film was not strictly a remake so there was no reason they could not set the story in the 2000s . In October 2007 , Damian Shannon and Mark Swift , the writers of Freddy vs. Jason , were hired to write a script for Friday the 13th . Jonathan Liebesman was in negotiations to direct the film , but scheduling conflicts meant he was unavailable and Fuller and Form chose Marcus Nispel . Nispel was apprehensive about taking the job , mainly because he would be taking over another film franchise , but Fuller eventually persuaded him to direct the project . Principal photography began on April 21 , 2008 , in Austin , Texas , and finished on June 13 , 2008 .
= = = Casting = = =
Stuntman Derek Mears was hired to portray Jason Voorhees at the recommendation of special make @-@ up effects supervisor Scott Stoddard . Before the producers contacted him , Mears had already heard about the production of a new Friday the 13th and had decided to start physical training so he could pursue the role . He was unaware that Stoddard and other industry professionals were suggesting him to the producers . The studio worried that Mears ' pleasant demeanor might affect his ability to portray a menacing character , but Mears assured them he was suitable for the role . Mears said he related to " Jason the victim " when he was growing up , and he wanted to portray Jason as a victim in the film . To Mears , Jason represents people who were bullied in high school — specifically those with physical deformities — for being outcasts . Jason is unusual because he exacts his revenge on those trying to take over his territory at Crystal Lake .
When Mears went to audition for the role , he was asked , " Why do we need an actor as opposed to just a guy in a mask ? " Mears said portraying Jason is similar to Greek Mask Work , in which the mask and the actor are separate entities , and depending on the scene , there will be various combinations of mask and actor in the performance . Mears said the energy from the actor 's thoughts will be picked up by the camera . He compared his experience behind the camera to a stock car race : he is the driver and the effects team is his pit crew . As he performs , the effects team subtly suggest ways he can give the character more life on camera .
Amanda Righetti had not read the script when she was offered the role of Whitney Miller . She wanted to be part of the Friday the 13th franchise from the start . Righetti said she wanted to act in the film after she read the script . Jared Padalecki describes Clay Miller as a real hero because he sets out " to do the right thing " when his sister goes missing , and goes about it as a " lone wolf " who wants to take on the responsibility alone . Adjustments were made to the filming schedule to accommodate Aaron Yoo , who portrays Chewie . Yoo had his appendix removed shortly before filming began , and could not film his scenes immediately . As soon as Yoo was ready for filming , Nispel immediately hung him upside down from some rafters , exposing the staples over his surgical wound for the character 's post @-@ death shot .
Fuller and Form said the casting process for Friday the 13th was more difficult than that for The Texas Chainsaw Massacre because thirteen young actors were involved in Friday the 13th , as opposed to five in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre . The pair continually recast roles to find which actors worked best together . This recasting process lasted until the start of filming . Hostel : Part II 's Richard Burgi , who was cast as Sheriff Bracke , did not sign his contract until twelve hours before he was due to start filming his scenes .
= = = Writing = = =
When Shannon and Swift began writing the script for Friday the 13th , they imposed some rules based on their experiences of writing Freddy vs. Jason on themselves . They wanted their teenage characters to " sound normal " . Shannon and Swift said they did not want the characters to know Jason 's name or to become what they considered " the Scooby @-@ Doo cliché where it 's a bunch of kids trying to figure something out " . The writers also wanted to distance themselves from self @-@ referential slasher films such as Scream and to give the film a gritty , more 1980s feel that had been lost in recent films . They wanted to create a quick , loose Jason . The writing team decided to create a version of Jason " who was actually in the woods surviving off the land " , and whose killings are presented as a way of defending his territory rather than randomly murdering whoever came along .
The writers did not want to spend a lot of time covering Jason 's childhood experiences , which they felt would remove the sense of mystery from the character . They tried to write scenes that would add verisimilitude , like the audience finding a deer carcass lying on the ground as they follow Jason through his underground tunnels . Fuller told the writers they would have to do without it because it would cost $ 100 @,@ 000 . Because of budget constraints , certain character deaths and the ending of the film were also scaled back from what Shannon and Swift originally envisioned .
The writers had written a scene in which Willa Ford 's character Chelsea is stranded on the lake for hours after she sees Jason standing on the shore . Eventually , the girl would tire and drown . Shannon and Swift felt this was something they had not seen in slasher films , but later decided to make the death quicker and more visceral . A similar incident occurred with Danielle Panabaker 's character Jenna . Panabaker said Jenna was scripted to survive longer than she did in the final version of the film ; Jenna was supposed to escape Jason 's lair and recite a " cute line " about a second date with Clay before an elaborate fight sequence that ends in her death . The writers wanted to strike a balance between finding new and interesting ways to kill characters and paying homage to popular death scenes that appeared in previous installments of the series . To accomplish this , Shannon and Swift included the presence of a wheelchair and a sweater in Jason 's tunnels ; the character Mark ( Tom McBride ) was a paraplegic who was killed by Jason in Friday the 13th Part 2 and Mrs. Voorhees wore the sweater in the original version of Friday the 13th .
The writers altered Jason 's character . Mears describes him as a combination of John Rambo , Tarzan , and the Abominable Snowman from Looney Tunes . To Mears , Jason is similar to Rambo because the audience sees him setting up the other characters to fall into his traps . Like Rambo , he is calculating because he feels he has been wronged and he is fighting back ; he is supposed to be more sympathetic in this film . However , Fuller and Form said they learned from their experience with The Texas Chainsaw Massacre : The Beginning not to make Jason too sympathetic to the audience . They decided against an origin story because they did not want to focus on Jason 's tormented childhood because the producers felt that would " demystify " the character in an unhelpful manner . Fuller said , " We do not want him to be sympathetic . Jason is not a comedic character , he is not sympathetic . He 's a killing machine . Plain and simple . "
= = = Visual effects = = =
The producers used Asylum Visual Effects to create digital effects for Friday the 13th . Although director Marcus Nispel is a proponent of practical effects , Asylum had to digitally create some shots to protect the actors and to allow the director to achieve a specific look . Visual effects supervisor Mitchell Drain assigned ten crew members to work on the visual effects ; they first analyzed the script in pre @-@ production to decide which shots would need digital effects . Asylum worked on 25 shots for the film .
One of the first scenes Asylum was given was the scene depicting the death of Amanda , in which Jason ties her into her sleeping bag and hangs her over a campfire . The risk to the actor and the surrounding woodland was deemed too great to physically perform the scene . Asylum created a composite of two shots to show Amanda burning to death in her sleeping bag . Instead of creating a computer generated ( CGI ) model of the campfire , a real campfire was filmed . Asylum compositor John Stewart blended that footage with shots of the hanging sleeping bag into a single shot . Stewart digitally altered the flames to keep continuity between frames . Another composite shot is used in the scene in which Chelsea is hit by a speedboat . Because the scene would be too dangerous for even a stuntperson to perform , Asylum digitally combined footage of Willa Ford reacting to an imaginary boat that runs over her with shots of the actual boat to create the effect .
Asylum also enhanced some of Jason 's signature machete kills . In several scenes , the company used a computer @-@ generated machete because Nispel wanted to show multiple characters ' deaths in one shot instead of cutting from the acts of murder to the aftermath of their deaths . In one scene , Jason kills Richie by slamming a machete into his head . Instead of using a real machete with a fake head , Nispel had Feldman act dead as Mears pulled a handle — with only a portion of the blade attached — away from Feldman 's head . Then , Asylum digitally created the rest of the machete blade to complete the effect . For this scene , Asylum adjusted the actor 's facial expressions to create a " post mortem " look . The special effects team digitally drooped half of the actor 's face to appear as though the nerves had been severed by Jason 's machete .
Asylum digitally created weapons for various scenes . In the scene in which Nolan is killed suddenly by a shot in the head from Jason 's arrow , Asylum created the arrow in post @-@ production . Another scene involved Jason hurling a hatchet at Lawrence as he runs away , striking him in the back . The shot of a hatchet flying through the air — in one instance appearing in the same frame as the actor — would be too difficult to achieve practically . Asylum rendered a complete 3D model of the hatchet then inserted the model into the frames leading up to the frame in which it hits the character in the back . One of the final images added by Asylum was for Trent 's death scene . Here , Asylum digitally created a metal spike that bursts through Trent 's chest as Jason slams him onto the back of a tow truck .
= = = Creating Jason = = =
Effects artist Scott Stoddard described his look for Jason 's face as a combination of Carl Fullerton 's design for Friday the 13th Part 2 and Tom Savini 's design for Friday the 13th : The Final Chapter . Stoddard 's vision of Jason included hair loss , skin rashes , and the traditional deformities in his face . Stoddard tried to craft Jason 's look so it would allow more human side of the character to be seen . Mears was required to wear full body make @-@ up from the chest upwards while performing as Jason . The actor wore a chest plate with fake skin that would adjust to his muscle movements . He wore a hump on his back to give the impression that Jason had scoliosis . A prosthetic eye was glued to Mears ' face to show realistic eye movements . Stoddard initially spent three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours applying the make @-@ up to Mears ' head and torso . He was eventually able to reduce the required time to just over an hour for scenes in which Mears wore the hockey mask . For scenes in which Jason 's face is revealed , it took approximately four hours to apply the make @-@ up .
For Jason 's wardrobe , Mears was given a pair of combat boots and a " high @-@ priced t @-@ shirt " that allowed the special effects make @-@ up to be seen through holes in the shirt . The jacket Jason wears in the film was created by combining a hunting jacket and a military jacket . Mears wanted to use the hunting jacket , but the creative team liked the way the military jacket billowed as he was making his " kill movements . " The top of the hunting jacket was removed and placed over the top of the military jacket . Mears called it a " giant Frankenstein jacket . " He describes Jason as leaner in this film because the character does not eat much . A leaner Jason was deemed more functional and allowed more emphasis to be placed on the hump on his back . Stoddard was inspired by the third and fourth films when designing Jason 's hockey mask . Using an original mold , Stoddard made six new versions of the mask . He said , " Because I didn 't want to take something that already existed . There were things I thought were great , but there were things I wanted to change a bit . Make it custom , but keep all the fundamental designs . Especially the markings on the forehead and cheeks . Age them down a bit . Break them up . "
= = = Music = = =
Form and Fuller recognized the iconic status of the music used in the first four Friday the 13th films . For their 2009 film , they immediately had the studio attain the licensing rights to the music , which was composed and originally performed by Harry Manfredini . They did not plan to use the score in its entirety , but they used Steve Jablonsky to compose a score that was reminiscent of Manfredini 's and created the atmosphere for the 2009 film . Nispel contacted Jablonsky to score Friday the 13th after having worked with him on the remake of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre . Nispel told Jablonsky he wanted him to create something that Nispel could " whistle when [ he ] left the theater " , but was subtle enough that it would not immediately register while watching the film . Nispel said , " I don 't believe that , when you watch a Friday the 13th film , you want to feel like John Williams is sitting next to you with the London Symphony Orchestra " .
= = Release = =
On Friday , February 13 , 2009 , Friday the 13th was released in 3 @,@ 105 theaters in North America . The 2009 film was given the widest release of any Friday the 13th film , including the crossover film with A Nightmare on Elm Street . It was released in nearly three times as many theaters as the original 1980 film and exceeded Freddy vs. Jason by 91 theaters . Friday the 13th was also released in 2 @,@ 100 theaters in 28 markets outside North America . The film was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray , and Apple TV on June 16 , 2009 . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases contain the theatrical release and an extended cut of the film .
= = = Box office = = =
On its opening day , Friday the 13th grossed $ 19 @,@ 293 @,@ 446 , and immediately exceeded the individual box office grosses for Jason Takes Manhattan ( 1989 ) , Jason Goes to Hell ( 1993 ) , and Jason X ( 2002 ) , which earned $ 14 @,@ 343 @,@ 976 , $ 15 @,@ 935 @,@ 068 , and $ 13 @,@ 121 @,@ 555 , respectively . From February 14 – 16 , Friday the 13th earned an additional $ 24 @,@ 292 @,@ 003 , making its four @-@ day President 's Day weekend total $ 43 @,@ 585 @,@ 449 . By the end of its three @-@ day opening weekend , it was already the second highest grossing film in the series , having earned $ 40 @,@ 570 @,@ 365 , slightly exceeding The Grudge ( 2004 ) for the best 3 @-@ day weekend opening of any horror film . When comparing the 2009 film 's opening weekend to that of its 1980 counterpart in adjusted 2009 US dollars , the original Friday the 13th film earned $ 17 @,@ 251 @,@ 975 . Although the 2009 film made more money , when factoring in the number of theaters each film was released in , the 1980 film earned an average of $ 15 @,@ 683 per theater , compared to the 2009 film 's average of $ 13 @,@ 066 .
Friday the 13th saw a significant drop in attendance in its second weekend at the box office . On its second Friday , the film earned $ 2 @,@ 802 @,@ 977 — a decrease of 85 @.@ 5 % from its opening Friday . By the end of its second weekend , the film had earned $ 7 @,@ 942 @,@ 472 — a decrease of 80 @.@ 4 % from the previous weekend . As a result , the film went from first place to sixth in the weekend box office chart . By its third weekend , Friday the 13th had left the top ten , earning $ 3 @,@ 689 @,@ 156 — a 53 @.@ 6 % decrease from its second weekend . By the end of its box office run , Friday the 13th earned an estimated $ 65 million at the United States box office , but failed to regain a top ten spot after its third weekend .
As of July 2014 , the 2009 film is the fifth @-@ highest earning President 's Day weekend with $ 45 @,@ 033 @,@ 454 . It is the eighth @-@ highest grossing weekend in the month of February , and the eighth- highest @-@ grossing weekend for the winter season — the period from the first day after the New Year weekend until the first Thursday of March . Friday the 13th finished as the fourth @-@ highest grossing film of any February with $ 59 @.@ 8 million , just behind Taken with $ 84 @.@ 3 million , He 's Just Not That into You with $ 77 @.@ 2 million , and Madea Goes to Jail , with $ 60 @.@ 9 million .
Friday the 13th was the fifteenth @-@ highest grossing R @-@ rated film of 2009 . Because of the significant decrease in box office revenues in its second weekend , the film had the sixth @-@ largest second @-@ weekend drop . It is the seventh @-@ largest drop for a film that opened as the top @-@ earning film in the United States . With its $ 65 million revenue at the North American box office , Friday the 13th is the highest @-@ grossing film among the recent slasher remakes , which comprise When a Stranger Calls ( 2006 ) , Black Christmas ( 2006 ) , Halloween ( 2007 ) , Prom Night ( 2008 ) , and My Bloody Valentine 3D ( 2009 ) . The film is ranked seventh @-@ highest earning of all horror remakes , and is the seventh @-@ highest earning slasher film in unadjusted dollars .
In addition to its North American box office gross , Friday the 13th earned over $ 9 @.@ 5 million in foreign markets on its opening weekend . The film 's biggest markets were the United Kingdom , Russia , Italy , Spain , and Germany . Friday the 13th took
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disputes between gentlemen with swords or guns that had its origins in European chivalry . By the second half of the 19th century , few Americans still fought duels to solve their problems , and became a thing of the past in the United States by the start of the 20th century . Writer Wyatt @-@ Brown in his book " Southern Honor : Ethics and Behavior in the Old South " described dueling in the American frontier as a " custom " , and was primarily used for teenage disputes , rise in ranking , status and scapegoating .
The most famous and well @-@ recorded duel occurred on 21 July 1865 , in Springfield , Missouri . Wild Bill Hickok and Davis Tutt quarreled over cards and decided to have a gunfight . They arranged to walk towards each other at 6 p.m. Wild Bill 's armed presence caused the crowd to immediately scatter to the safety of nearby buildings , leaving Tutt alone in the northwestern corner of the square . When they were about 50 yards apart , both men drew their guns . The two fired at the same time , but Hickok 's shot hit Tutt in the heart , while Tutt 's shot missed . This was the first recorded example of two men taking part in a quick @-@ draw duel . The following month Hickok was acquitted after pleading self @-@ defense . The first story of the shootout was detailed in an article in Harper 's Magazine in 1867 , and became a staple of the gunslinger legend .
The famous lawman Wyatt Earp gave an account of having participated a duel once during his vendetta . While in the South Pass of the Dragoon Mountains , Earp 's posse found one of the outlaw cowboys named " Indian Charlie " Cruz . One account says that after the party recognized Cruz , they chased him down and a gunfight ensued . The party manage to capture Cruz and he confessed to have taken part in Morgan 's murder , and that he identified Stilwell , Hank Swilling , Curly Bill and Johnny Ringo as other of Morgan 's killers . During that time , Wyatt allowed Cruz to keep his revolver to " give him a chance to fight like a man . " After the confession , Wyatt told Cruz to draw , challenging him to a duel , and the posse counted to three before Wyatt gunned Cruz down . The Langford - Peel duel occurred in July 22 , 1867 between gunmen John Bull and Langford Peel .
Doc Holliday himself had a duel in a saloon in Las Vegas , New Mexico . One of the women who worked there had an ex @-@ boyfriend named Mike Gordon who had just been discharged from the Army . Gordon wanted her to stop working . When she told him to leave her alone , he became angry , went outside the saloon , and started shooting out the windows with his pistol . As bullets went through the saloon , Doc unflinching , holstered his Colt Peacemaker revolver , and walked outside . Gordon then started shooting at him but missed . Holliday then drew his pistol and shot Gordon at long range with one shot . He then went back to the saloon . Gordon died the next day and Holliday fled . Doc Holliday has also been credited with wounding and shooting a pistol out of saloon owner Milt Joyce 's hand when he tried to brandish it at Holliday .
Another well @-@ known duel in the American West happened in Fort Worth , Texas , and was known as the Luke Short @-@ Jim Courtright Duel . Timothy Isaiah " Longhair Jim " Courtright was running the T.I.C. Commercial agency in Fort Worth , which provided " protection " to gambling dens and saloons in return for a portion of their profits . At the same time , Luke Short , a former friend of Courtright 's , was running the White Elephant Saloon and Jim was trying to get Short to utilize his services . But the Dodge City gunfighter told Courtright to " go to Hell , " that he could do anything that was necessary to take care of his business . On February 8 , 1887 , the two quarreled , and with Bat Masterson at Short 's side , Courtright and Short dueled in the street . They drew their pistols at close range , and Short fired first , blowing off Courtright 's thumb . Courtright attempted the " border shift " , a move where a gunfighter switches his gun to his uninjured hand , but he was too slow . Short shot him in the chest , killing him .
The Long Branch Saloon Shootout , involving Levi Richardson , a buffalo hunter , and " Cockeyed Frank " Loving , a professional gambler , happened on April 5 , 1879 . Richardson had developed some affection for Loving 's wife Mattie , and the two began to argue about her . In the saloon , Frank sat down at a long table , Richardson turned around and took a seat at the same table . The two were then heard speaking in low voices . After the conversation , Richardson drew his pistol , and Loving drew his in response . The Long Branch Saloon was then filled with smoke . Dodge City Marshal Charlie Bassett , who was in Beatty & Kelley 's Saloon , heard the shots and came running . Both men were still standing , although Richardson had fired five shots from his gun and Loving 's Remington No. 44 was empty . Deputy Sheriff Duffey threw Richardson down in a chair and took his gun , while Bassett disarmed Loving . Richardson then got up and started toward the billiard table , when he fell to the floor with a fatal gunshot in the chest , as well as a shot through the side and another through the right arm . Frank Loving , who had only a slight scratch on the hand , was immediately taken to jail . Two days later , the coroner 's inquest ruled that the killing had been in self @-@ defense and Loving was immediately released .
On March 9 , 1877 , gamblers Jim Levy and Charlie Harrison argued over a game of cards in a saloon in Cheyenne , Wyoming . They met in an alley following an argument about a card game . Harrison shot first , but missed . Levy aimed carefully and hit Harrison , who died a week later .
Not as well known today but famous in his time was the dapper , derby @-@ wearing train robber Marion Hedgepeth , who despite his swell appearance , " was a deadly killer and one of the fastest guns in the Wild , Wild West " . William Pinkerton , whose National Detective Agency had sought to capture Hedgepeth and his gang for years , noted that Hedgepeth once gunned down another outlaw who had already unholstered his pistol before Hedgepath had drawn his revolver . The infamous assassin Tom Horn was also said to have participated in a duel with a second lieutenant from the Mexican Army , due to a dispute with a prostitute when he was twenty @-@ six years old . Gunfighters Jim Levy and Tom Carberry became infamous for participating in at least two quick draw duels in their lifetimes .
= = Living on reputation = =
Most Old West men who were labeled as being " gunfighters " did not kill nearly as many men in gunfights as they were given credit for , if any at all . They were often labeled as such due to one particular instance , which developed from rumors into them having been involved in many more events than they actually were . Often their reputation was as much " self @-@ promotion " as anything else ; such was the case of Bat Masterson . Wyatt Earp with his brothers Morgan and Virgil along with Doc Holliday killed three outlaw Cowboys in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone , Arizona Territory . He has been said to have been involved in more than one hundred gunfights in his lifetime . But Prof. Bill O 'Neal cites just five incidents in his Encyclopedia of Western Gunfighters . Earp expressed his dismay about the controversy that followed him his entire life . He wrote in a letter to John Hays Hammond on May 21 , 1925 , that " notoriety had been the bane of my life . "
After his brother Virgil was maimed in an ambush and Morgan was assassinated by hidden assailants , the men suspected of involvement were provided alibis by fellow Cowboys and released without trial . Wyatt and his brother Warren set out on a vendetta ride to locate and kill those they felt were responsible . Wyatt has been portrayed in a number of film and books as a fearless Western hero . He is often viewed as the central character and hero of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral , at least in part because he was the only one who was not wounded or killed . In fact , his brother , Tombstone Marshal and Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp had considerably more experience with weapons and combat as a Union soldier in the Civil War , and in law enforcement as a sheriff , constable , and marshal . As city marshal , Virgil made the decision to disarm the Cowboys in Tombstone and requested Wyatt 's assistance . But because Wyatt outlived Virgil and due to a creative biography , Wyatt Earp : Frontier Marshal published two years after Wyatt 's death , Wyatt became famous and the subject of various movies , television shows , biographies and works of fiction .
There are no records to support the reputation that Johnny Ringo developed . Of the documented instances where Ringo killed men , they were unarmed , and there is no evidence to support his participation in a single gunfight . Others deserved the reputation associated with them . Jim Courtright and Dallas Stoudenmire both killed several men in gunfights both as lawmen and as civilians . Clay Allison and Ben Thompson had well @-@ deserved reputations . At the same time , gunmen like Scott Cooley are all but unknown , when they actually led a life reflective of what most would consider a gunfighter to be . In other cases , certain gunfighters were possibly confused , over time , with being someone else with a similar name . The most well known of Butch Cassidy 's Wild Bunch gang , the Sundance Kid , was in reality only known to have been in one shootout during his lifetime , and no gunfights . Some historians have since stated that it is possible that over time he was confused with another Wild Bunch member , Kid Curry , who was without a doubt the most dangerous member of the gang , having killed many lawmen and civilians during his lifetime before being killed himself . Hence , it is the Sundance Kid who is better known .
= = Outlaw or lawman = =
It is often difficult to separate lawmen of the Old West from outlaws of the Old West . In many cases , the term gunfighter was applied to constables . Despite idealistic portrayals in television , movies , and even in history books , very few lawmen / gunfighters could claim their law enforcement role as their only source of employment . Unlike contemporary peace officers , these lawmen generally pursued other occupations , often earning money as gamblers , business owners , or outlaws — as was the case with " Curly " Bill Brocius , who , while always referred to as an outlaw , served as a deputy sheriff under sheriff Johnny Behan . Many shootouts involving lawmen were caused by disputes arising from these alternative occupations , rather than the lawman 's attempts to enforce the law .
Tom Horn , historically cited as an assassin , served both as a deputy sheriff and as a Pinkerton detective , a job in which he shot at least three people as a killer for hire . Ben Thompson , best known as a gunfighter and gambler , was a very successful chief of police in Austin , Texas . King Fisher had great success as a county sheriff in Texas . Doc Holliday and Billy the Kid both wore badges as lawmen at least once . " Big " Steve Long served as deputy marshal for Laramie , Wyoming , while the entire time committing murders and forced theft of land deeds . A town with a substantial violent crime rate would often turn to a known gunman as their town marshal , chief , or sheriff , in the hopes that the gunman could stem the violence and bring order .
Known gunmen / lawmen were generally effective , and in time the violence would subside , usually after the gunman / lawman had been involved in several shooting incidents , eventually leading to a substantial and well earned fear that kept everyone in line . At times they were hired by cattlemen or other prominent figures to serve as henchmen or enforcers during cattle wars . Although sanctioned by law enforcement officials , the gunmen were not always actually deputized . Sometimes , however , just to make things " official " , they would go through the formality of deputization . A case in point : the service of the Jesse Evans Gang , and outlaw Jesse Evans himself , as agents for the Murphy @-@ Dolan faction during the Lincoln County War . While technically working as lawmen , they were little more than hired guns .
Usually , when a gunman was hired by a town as town marshal , they received the full support of the townspeople until order was restored , at which point the town would tactfully indicate it was time for a change to a less dangerous lawman who relied more on respect than fear to enforce the law . A good example was the 1882 decision by the El Paso , Texas , town council to dismiss Town Marshal Dallas Stoudenmire . He entered the council hall and dared the councilors to try to take his guns or his job , at which point they immediately changed their mind , saying he could keep his job . He resigned on his own a couple of days later .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Modern gunslinger = = =
People relive the Wild West both historically and in popular culture by participating in cowboy action shooting events , where each gunslinger adopts his or her own look representing a character from Western life in the late 1800s , and as part of that character , chooses an alias to go by . The sport originated in Southern California , USA , in the early 1980s but is now practiced in many places with several sanctioning organizations including the Single Action Shooting Society ( SASS ) , Western Action Shootists Association ( WASA ) , and National Congress of Old West Shooters ( NCOWS ) , as well as others in the USA and in other countries . There are different categories shooters can compete in . There 's the gunfighter , frontiersman , classic cowboy and duelist - each with its own specifications .
Alongside the iconic cowboy , gunfighters have become a cultural image of the American people abroad , and also as an idealized image of violence , frontier justice , and adventure . Even outside of the Western genre , the term ' gunslinger ' has been used in modern times to describe someone who is fast and accurate with pistols , either in real life or in other fictional action genre .
The quick draw which gunfighters help popularize , is still an important skill in the American military .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Gunfighters have been featured in media even outside the Western genre , often combined with other elements and genres , mainly science @-@ fiction Space Westerns , steampunk , and the contemporary setting . Abilities , clothing and attitude associated with gunfighters are seen in many other genres . An example of these is Han shot first , in which Han Solo , a gunfighter @-@ like protagonist in Star Wars , kills his opponent with a subtle , under @-@ the @-@ table draw . He also wore his holster low on , and tied to , the thigh with a cutaway for the trigger . Roland Deschain from the fantasy series The Dark Tower is a gunfighter pitted against fantasy @-@ themed monsters and enemies . Inspired by the " Man with No Name " and other spaghetti @-@ western characters , he himself is detached or unsympathetic , often reacting as uncaring or angry at signs of cowardice or self @-@ pity , yet he possesses a strong sense of heroism , often attempting to help those in need , a morality much seen in Westerns .
Jonah Hex , from DC Comics , is a ruthless bounty hunter bound by a personal code of honor to protect and avenge the innocent . IGN ranked Jonah Hex the 73rd greatest comic book hero of all time . Throughout the DC Universe , Hex has been , on many occasions , transported from the Old West to the contemporary setting and beyond . Even in an unfamiliar territory and time period , Hex managed to outgun his enemies with more advanced weaponry . Two @-@ Gun Kid is another comic book gunfighter from Marvel Comics . Skilled with revolvers , he has aided many super @-@ heroes in future timelines , most notably She @-@ Hulk .
Many Japanese manga and anime have also adopted the western genre . Yasuhiro Nightow is known for creating the space western Trigun . The story 's protagonist , Vash the Stampede , is a wandering gunslinger with a dark past . Unlike other violence @-@ themed gunslingers , Vash carries a Shane @-@ like pacifist attitude , and avoids killing men , even dangerous enemies . Behind him is the gun @-@ toting priest named Nicholas D. Wolfwood , who carries with him a heavy machine gun and rocket launcher shaped like a cross . Nicholas is more violent than Vash , and the two would often argue about killing opponents . Other western genre themed manga and anime include Cowboy Bebop and Kino 's Journey , who both incorporate knight @-@ errant gunslinger themes .
Modern @-@ day western gunslingers have also appeared in recent Neo @-@ Westerns . Raylan Givens from the television series Justified shares the same ambiguous moral code of an Old West sheriff , even using a fast draw to dispatch his enemies . The hitman Anton Chigurh from No Country For Old Men shares many elements of a hunted outlaw . Additionally , the comic book character Vigilante is a self @-@ proclaimed gunfighter born in the 1940s .
Gunfighters have also been featured in many video games , both in traditional Old West , and in contemporary and future settings . Colton White , the protagonist of 2005 's best @-@ selling western video game Gun . Another well @-@ known video game Western protagonist is John Marston from Red Dead Redemption , who was nominated for 2010 Spike 's Video Game Awards . The New York Times stated : " he and his creators conjure such a convincing , cohesive and enthralling re @-@ imagination of the real world that it sets a new standard for sophistication and ambition in electronic gaming . " The main character Caleb in the video games Blood and Blood II : The Chosen is also a former Old West gunfighter . Gunfighter is also a callsign for a group of two Apache Helicopters in the video game Medal of Honor . They appear on mission named " Gunfighters " , and the player will act as Captain Brad " Hawk " Hawkins from 1st Aviation Regiment .
Former professional American football quarterback Brett Favre was nicknamed " The Gunslinger " due to his rural , Southern upbringings and his wild , risky , quick @-@ throwing play @-@ style that led him to great success in the National Football League .
= Daredevil ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the American web television series Daredevil , which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name , follows Matt Murdock / Daredevil , a blind lawyer @-@ by @-@ day who fights crime at night , crossing paths with the deadly Frank Castle / Punisher along with the return of an old girlfriend – Elektra Natchios . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise . The season is produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios , with Doug Petrie and Marco Ramirez serving as showrunners , and series creator Drew Goddard acting as consultant .
Charlie Cox stars as Murdock , while Jon Bernthal and Élodie Yung are introduced as Castle and Natchios . Deborah Ann Woll , Elden Henson , Rosario Dawson , and Vincent D 'Onofrio also return from the first season , with Stephen Rider joining them . The season was ordered in April 2015 after the successful release of the first , with Petrie and Ramirez replacing the season one showrunner Steven S. DeKnight . Production on the season began in July 2015 and continued through December , with the season focusing on the nature of heroism through comparison of Murdock to Castle and Natchios , and showing how the latter two affect Murdock 's life .
The first two episodes of the season premiered in Paris on March 7 , 2016 , with the full season of 13 episodes released on Netflix on March 18 . Critics praised the introduction of Castle and Natchios , as well as Bernthal 's performance in particular , the season 's action , and storylines . However , many missed the presence of Vondie Curtis @-@ Hall 's Ben Urich from season one , and D 'Onofrio 's Wilson Fisk during the first half of season two . The series was renewed for a third season in July 2016 .
= = Episodes = =
= = Cast and characters = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
When asked about the future of the series following the first season , showrunner Steven S. DeKnight said that Daredevil " is one part of the bigger plan — Jessica Jones , Luke Cage , Iron Fist , and then The Defenders . How that all fits together , and whether or not there will be a second season of this show — or if it will fold into the others — are questions nobody really has answers to yet . " In November 2014 , DeKnight said that there " probably will be more " seasons of Daredevil following the first . In January 2015 , Netflix COO Ted Sarandos stated the series was " eligible to go into multiple seasons for sure " and Netflix would look at " how well [ they ] are addressing both the Marvel fanbase but also the broader fanbase " to determine if additional seasons would be appropriate .
On April 21 , 2015 , Marvel and Netflix announced that the series had been renewed for a second season , with Doug Petrie and Marco Ramirez replacing DeKnight as showrunners as well as acting as executive producers ; both served as writers in the first season and worked closely with DeKnight and series creator Drew Goddard . The season introduces the Punisher , whom DeKnight and the writers had wanted to introduce in a post @-@ credits scene during the first season finale but were unable due to the way that Netflix begins the next episode during the credits of the current one . DeKnight felt that this " was the right decision . I think there ’ s a better , more organic way to introduce him to the world . " Ramirez referred to the second season internally as " Daredevil vs. the Punisher " . In September 2015 , Goddard explained that he was still involved with the season as an executive producer , consulting with Petrie and Ramirez when asked to . The season consists of 13 hour @-@ long episodes .
= = = Writing = = =
Ramirez talked about how the second season would be different from the first , saying that the writers had spent the first season wondering " if there was a place for dark and gritty content in superheroes " and because of the positive fan reaction to that ( " we got a loud answer of ' yes ' " ) , approached the second season with the mindset , " you wanted grounded and wanted dark , here ’ s Elektra and Punisher . You asked for it . " Petrie , talking about the potential use of flashbacks in the season , said that sometimes it is best to " peel back the layer of the onion through flashback , or two people in a room talking can have all the power in the world . That ’ s something we get to pick and choose . "
On including the Punisher specifically in the season , where he is introduced to the Marvel Cinematic Universe , Goddard felt television was the best fit for the character , as the writers are " able to do things on the small screen that fit that character better than if we had to water him down for the movies . " Goddard stated that the season 's approach to the characters and their actions would be to do what makes sense for the characters rather than " pushing the boundary " or looking to shock the audience , though he noted that this could still go in a more " adult ... darker , dirtier " way due to the freedom of Netflix and the presence of characters such as the Punisher . Petrie stated that the writers hoped to " stir the pot " and " get people to think " with the inclusion of the Punisher and his lethal methods , adding , " Taking lethal justice into your own hands in America in 2015 is tricky shit . We have not shied away from the rich complicated reality of Now . If you 've got a gun and you 're not the police you 're going to incite strong feelings . " Ramirez added that Castle was not referred to as " Punisher " in the writer 's room , similarly to Wilson Fisk not being called " Kingpin " for season one , as it allowed the writers to think " about [ Castle ] as a man with a vendetta , who made an oath to his dead family . The more specific it got , the less it became about issues outside of Hell ’ s Kitchen or other things . " In the series , the moniker of " The Punisher " is given to Castle by the media due to his aggressive actions .
For the timing of introducing the new characters , the showrunners decided to introduce the Punisher immediately and hold back on Elektra briefly , with Ramirez explaining that " one of the pitfalls when we have this many great characters to play with is wanting to throw them at the wall " , but it was important to take the time to introduce the new characters properly to the audience , particularly to the people who weren 't already familiar with them . Elaborating on the aim to keep the story focused on Murdock , Petrie revealed that the writers would often come up with " amazing stuff " for the season , but then realize that they had forgotten about Murdock and had to " completely turn it over and look at how this affects Matt and filter it through that prism . " Ramirez added ,
It could easily become The Punisher story or the Elektra story that Matt cameos in , and not vice versa . So , we built it like a Matt story , in terms of what we wanted to put him through , where we wanted to get him , by the end of the season , and what we wanted to have him learn about himself , and we used an Elektra and Frank story throughout , to get him there ... we talked about when we watch shows in 13 episode stretches , how do we watch them ? What is an exciting structure that we would like to think about here ? Do we divide it right down the middle ? Do we do a three @-@ act structure ? ... If you were to sit and watch 13 episodes , you would absolutely feel a structure , much like in the comics . That ’ s what we did this season .
Charlie Cox explained that with Wilson Fisk imprisoned following the first season , season two picks up with " the crime rate [ having ] plummeted . Things have returned to normal , if not better than normal " , which is when Punisher is introduced , who makes Matt Murdock " question everything . Matt has to reevaluate who is [ sic ] and what he does " . Jeph Loeb , head of Marvel Television , said that " if season one was really about Matt ’ s decision to become a hero , then season two really became about what is it to be a hero . " By introducing the Punisher and Elektra , the writers were able to " push and pull " on Murdock , contrasting their three ideologies — the Punisher seeing " justice in a very black @-@ and @-@ white kind of way " , and Elektra living " more in the gray " . On Elektra in particular , Loeb said that she has a very clear , self @-@ motivated agenda , and she challenges Murdock 's own agenda and " quest for justice . Who are you doing this for ? Why are you doing this ? What ’ s the end goal that you ’ re trying to achieve ? "
= = = Casting = = =
Charlie Cox , Deborah Ann Woll , Elden Henson , Rosario Dawson , and Vincent D 'Onofrio return from the first season as Matt Murdock / Daredevil , Karen Page , Franklin " Foggy " Nelson , Claire Temple , and Wilson Fisk / Kingpin , respectively . In June 2015 , Jon Bernthal was cast as Frank Castle / Punisher , and Élodie Yung was cast as Elektra a month later . In September , Stephen Rider joined the cast as Blake Tower .
Also returning from season one are Royce Johnson as Brett Mahoney , Susan Varon as Josie , Geoffrey Cantor as Mitchell Ellison , Scott Glenn as Stick , Peter Shinkoda as Nobu Yoshioka , Rob Morgan as Turk Barrett , Matt Gerald as Melvin Potter , Peter McRobbie as Lantom , Amy Rutberg as Marci Stahl , Kevin Nagle as Roscoe Sweeney , Wai Ching Ho as Gao , and Suzanne H. Smart as Shirley Benson . Ron Nakahara , John Pirkis , and Marilyn Torres have recurring roles as Hirochi , Stan Gibson , and Louisa Delgado , respectively , while Michelle Hurd and Carrie @-@ Anne Moss reprise their Jessica Jones roles of Samantha Reyes and Jeri Hogarth .
= = = Design = = =
Joshua Shaw designed costumes for characters in the season . Petrie stated that more layers were added to the series ' atmosphere to keep the season dark but provide more clarity to the viewer , an issue that occurred in the first season . Petrie also talked about the costumes for characters such as Elektra , noting that they had to not only look at the comics and " what looks cool " , but also " what would you really fight in ? What would protect you ? ... will people be wearing kick ass costumes in this show ? At some point , everybody does . We promise . But , that said , we want to make them feel as organic and grounded as possible .
Lorraine Calvert joined the series as costume designer for the season . On adapting Elektra 's costume for the season , which in the comics usually consists of impractically " strappy " red cloth , Calvert decided to make it utilitarian and appealing , while still being faithful to the comics . Originally starting out opposite of the eventual sleek design for both her fighting and daytime attire , Calvert said , " Ideas were tossed around about how she was possibly bohemian , [ because ] she was a free spirit who traveled all over the world with as much money as she possibly could . ” This eventually led to the final , sleeker design , because Elektra " really needs a very simple , elegant line because too much cloth is overwhelming . " The costume consisted of " black moto pants , a one @-@ piece zippered body suit , a sleeveless vest , and red cloth to provide the highlights and the hood covering Elektra ’ s face . " The shade of the red used for Elektra throughout the season was chosen so it would not clash with the red in Daredevil 's costume , as well as to match the darker tone of the series . Daredevil 's costume was also upgraded in the season , with Calvert calling it " a much more fluid suit and much more tactical in a way . ” The costume department " streamlined " the suit to make it simpler , using less material on the gauntlets and boots .
= = = Filming = = =
Production on the season began in July 2015 in East Harlem , with the working title Ringside , and a nine @-@ day @-@ per @-@ episode schedule . Filming ended in December 2015 . Martin Ahlgren joined the series as director of photography for the season , deciding to " go in a slightly different direction " than the first season , but retaining " the yellowish street light color that gave season one a very distinct style " . Ahlgren filmed season two in 4K resolution on RED Dragon cameras , and tried to use in @-@ shot lighting such as lamps and car headlights , as well as " 4 × 4 Light Blankets — flexible sheets of LED that was small enough to fit into tight locations and light enough that it could be taped to a wall , yet outputs a very nice soft light that can be adjusted from daylight to tungsten color " .
Ahlgren highlighted the car chase at the beginning of " Guilty as Sin " as a challenge , noting the many ninjas chasing the car , and the one that " jumps up on the car and travels on the roof for a block " , with all the stunts filmed on location . An Ultimate Arm , " a motorized crane mounted on a Porsche Cayenne " , was used for the sequence , a break from the series ' usual handheld and steadicam operations . The chase was shot over two nights in Greenpoint , Brooklyn , with the interior of the car then filmed on a green screen stage , a rarity for the series , " to give the actors a better environment to act in " .
On the season 's fight sequences and choreography , Bernthal said , " The fights are all character @-@ driven and the fights tell a story . " Cox added that " there is absolutely an attempt to make sure every punch or kick that is thrown is like a line of dialogue ; there is motive behind it , there is reason behind it , it means something . " Cox 's stunt double , Chris Brewster , explained how the series ' fight choreography has evolved , with the first season having shown Murdock just starting out as a vigilante — " he fought with all heart and soul , but wasn 't a polished fighter .... he was more raw and gritty " — while the second season sees the character having learned from previous mistakes — " his style is more defined and thought out now , but he will always fight with the Daredevil flair " . As for the fighting styles of Punisher and Elektra , Brewster said that because of the Punisher 's military background he uses a lot of weapons , and his " hand to hand style is more of a close quarter combat nature " , while Elektra was trained by Stick and the Hand , so she has similar movement to Daredevil who was also trained by Stick . " However , " Brewster continued , " The Hand are trained assassins who are all about stealth takeouts and quick kills . Her style shows elements of " that as well . The season uses multiple different martial art styles , including kali , Chinese kung fu , wing chun , kenjutsu , and boxing .
The one @-@ take fight in " New York 's Finest " in which Daredevil fights gang members down a staircase was described by Cox as " kind of like an homage " to the first season 's well received one @-@ take hallway fight scene , and " almost like that scene on crack " . Silvera noted that it is a metaphorical " descent into Hell " rather than a " test of will " like the first season 's scene . The stunt team had three days to prepare the fight , and the final sequence was filmed in a day and a half . Unlike the first season 's scene , which was shot on a set and used a camera mounted on a ceiling track , the stairwell sequence was filmed on location , and required the camera to be passed around multiple people to get the final shot . The season includes another homage to the hallway scene in " Seven Minutes in Heaven " , where the Punisher has his own hallway fight . Silvera noted that this " full @-@ blown " , murdering Punisher was " a strong contrast to Daredevil " . For all the season 's fights , the stunt team filmed a previsualization version using stunt doubles , with the actors , such as Cox , then shown this in sections on the day of filming , and allowed to make adjustments where necessary . Though the actors completed the majority of the fights , doubles were used for flips and major stunts .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Shade VFX returns from the first season to work on the visual effects for the series .
= = = Music = = =
By September 2015 , John Paesano had begun composing music for the season . He felt that the season 's new showrunners " were true to what we were trying to do in season one . There were just elements in season two that we had to acknowledge " such as the Punisher and Elektra . He jokingly said that " it ’ s not like we all of the sudden went into John Williams territory , you know ? It ’ s definitely still dark , still gritty ... but it definitely jumps up a couple levels . " When approaching the characters of Punisher and Elektra , with whom Paesano was familiar from the comics and previous adaptations , he " took all those preconceived notions I had with a grain of salt " and waited to see what the season 's interpretation of the characters would be . Paesano worked closely with the series ' sound design team , spotting episodes with them to coordinate where " we were going to hit what " and " maintain that definable aspect of New York " and its sound . A soundtrack album for the season was released digitally on July 15 , 2016 .
All music composed by John Paesano , unless otherwise noted .
= = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = =
On references to the larger MCU , Ramirez said " those little Easter eggs that come along the way are fun " , but there were times when the writers did not take opportunities to reference the rest of the universe because they felt like distractions from the series ' narrative and characters . Petrie stated that the writers wanted to " keep it in Hell 's Kitchen " and focus on issues such as " the air conditioner doesn ’ t work at Nelson and Murdock . That ’ s really what we ’ re interested in . " He explained that the real life New York City " has a larger than life presence " with celebrities that live there — " If you see Derek Jeter walking down the street , that ’ s great , but then you turn the corner and you get into an argument with the guy who overcharged you for a pretzel . We want our guys to be real New Yorkers . " The season features the motorcycle gang Dogs of Hell , who were first introduced through their Nevada chapter in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode " Yes Men " , and Roxxon Energy Corporation , a company featured throughout the MCU . It also mentions the vigilantes Jessica Jones and Luke Cage , the death of Oscar Clemons , and the law firm Hogarth , Chao , and Benowitz , which are all references to the first season of Jessica Jones .
= = Release = =
The second season of Daredevil was released on March 18 , 2016 on the streaming service Netflix , in all territories where it is available , in Ultra HD 4K . Preparing for the release , Netflix created eight different images to use as cover art for the season on its site . The images were randomly distributed among select subscribers , with Netflix tracking to see which one was the best @-@ performing to eventually use for all subscribers . Netflix also debuted a countdown timer to a percentage of its users worldwide , allowing them to see how long it was until the season would debut .
= = = Marketing = = =
Footage from the season was shown at New York Comic Con in October 2015 , and at Comic Con Experience that December . On February 15 , 2016 , the first part of the season trailer was released focusing on the Punisher , while the second part focusing on Elektra was released 10 days later , on February 25 . Scott Mendelson of Forbes felt the first part is " clearly going for a vibe similar to that first full @-@ length Dark Knight teaser back in December of 2007 , with Castle being framed as a natural byproduct of / reaction to Daredevil ’ s own vigilantism " . He also appreciated that it appeared Castle would be presented as a villain , as the previous film adaptions of the character always had Castle " still a hero at the end . " Mendelson 's one drawback to the trailer was when Castle starts " monologue @-@ ing " in the last third , feeling Bernthal " casts such an imposing and grim shadow as a near @-@ silent angel of death that the [ haunting and mythological ] mood is almost broken " . Joanna Robinson at Vanity Fair felt that the premise of the trailer , with Daredevil facing the Punisher , is " right in line with the big superhero trend this spring " , comparing it to Captain America : Civil War and Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice , which feature Captain America fighting Iron Man and Batman fighting Superman , respectively . Robinson wondered if , like those films , the season also has a separate , " bigger bad waiting in the wings to unite our vigilantes " that the trailer is hiding .
On March 7 , 2016 , the first two episodes of the season premiered in Paris , with a premiere in New York City on March 10 . Also in early March , billboards were erected in Toronto featuring character posters for Daredevil , Punisher and Elektra . The series ' Twitter account encouraged users to vote for which character was their favorite , with the other two receiving blood and bruises added to their billboards .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 74 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 based on 31 reviews . The website 's critical consensus reads , " Bolstered by some impressive action , Daredevil keeps its footing in season two , even if the additions of Punisher and Elektra can 't quite fill the void left by Wilson Fisk . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 68 out of 100 , based on 12 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Reviewing the first seven episodes , Brian Lowry of Variety said , the season begins " on an uneven note " , comparing some of the early moments to the works of Sam Peckinpah , " complete with slow @-@ motion bullets and blood sprays . Stick with it , though , and the show blossoms , featuring a few terrific action sequences while introducing into this grim world seminal characters the Punisher and Elektra . " Kevin Fitzpatrick of Screen Crush felt the first seven episodes of the season seemed " to have learned the best of both " from season one and Jessica Jones , " placing its most compelling imagery front and center straightaway , but still taking time to pick apart the characters beneath them , rather than shout platitudes about saving the city . " He also praised the castings of Bernthal and Yung as Punisher and Elektra , respectively , and enjoyed " the improved spotlight " for Foggy and Karen , given the reduction of Dawson saying , " So many superhero series struggle to draw its supporting characters as compellingly as the action , and Daredevil 's particular blend of set piece and legal thriller feels inescapably original . " However , Fitzpatrick did note the series lacked the presence Vondie Curtis @-@ Hall brought as Ben Urich in the first season . He concluded that the season 's progression " feels much cleaner " than the first 's , " moving almost in acts more than back and forth victories ... Even the aim feels that much more cohesive , to start in a place of Matt , Foggy and Karen all confident in their new roles , but wrestling with the consequence of their choice to always help the helpless . " Merrill Barr of Forbes said , " Daredevil season two is very much the same excellent show Daredevil season one was ... but in the places it isn ’ t , it ’ s also very much improved " . Barr praised Bernthal as the Punisher , and noted the reduction in the amount of " thick blacks " in the cinematography that the first season was criticized for .
Collider.com 's Chris Cabin also praised the first seven episodes of the season , giving it four stars , and saying that the series " finds overwhelmingly sincere and effective traces of humanity in a genre that has been hard @-@ pressed to feel overtly pre @-@ conceived in its political , societal , and philosophical ideas . " He said Daredevil , like Jessica Jones , " feels like a show that is constantly evolving , and consistently searching for challenges . " Cabin also felt that " the show ’ s use of sound and image to infer or suggest as much as any line of dialogue ... continues to set this series apart from its half @-@ measured kin . " He added that the season " goes to great lengths to make the stakes of " the moral and ethical issues , as seen by pitting Daredevil 's methods against the Punisher , " intensely involving and thrilling , " while also praising the action sequences of the season and the " streamlined focus on character in the writing " , claiming that " none of the [ MCU ] films have even an iota of the seductive intimacy and heart of this show . " Dennis Perkins writing for The A.V. Club awarded the season a " B + " , missing D ’ Onofrio ’ s " towering menace as Wilson Fisk " , but feeling that Bernthal and Yung " make Castle and Elektra an effective season @-@ long two @-@ pronged assault on Matt Murdock ’ s heroic identity , which gives Daredevil 's supporting characters a clearer purpose as well . " IGN reviewer Matt Fowler , after reviewing all the episodes of season two individually , gave the season a 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 , saying that it " excelled at both action and story while giving us a more complex and layered season than the first .... Gone was a notable ' main villain ' , but instead we were given fantastic performances by not only the main cast but by newcomers Jon Bernthal and Elodie Yung . "
Jack Shepherd of The Independent was slightly more critical of the early episodes of the season , saying the ideological battle between Murdock and Castle " is the crux of these first few episodes and also highlights the main problem with Daredevil " pointing out that " there is no real bad guy here " and there " is only so many times you can watch an episode end with Daredevil and Punisher beating each other up before you start thinking there is a glitch in the Matrix . " He also agreed with Fitzpatick regarding Curtis @-@ Hall 's presence as Ben Urich not being filled in the season . Despite this , Shepherd added that the season began to pick up by the fourth episode , with the introduction of Elektra , capping with episodes six and seven , which he called " by far the season ’ s best , laying the foundation for an exciting story ahead " , while also praising Cox , Henson , Woll , Bernthal and Yung for their performances . Daniel Fienberg , reviewing the first seven episodes for The Hollywood Reporter , expressed similar sentiments as Shepherd , feeling the episodes missed what Vincent D 'Onofrio brought as Wilson Fisk in the first season , or at least " the through @-@ line threat that he presented ... Fortunately , the [ Punisher and Elektra ] are vividly realized and the action is still visceral and brutal and maybe the big picture will emerge in the season 's second half . Because of the portrayals of those two characters , he felt " that there 's a challenge to remain wholly invested in plotlines that don 't involve them " . Despite being " right on the edge of desensitization " regarding the fight scenes , Fienberg still praised them , highlighting the different styles Elektra and the Punisher used " vary [ ing ] the dynamic enough " .
Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen award the season a " C " , calling it " a straight @-@ up disappointment . " Calling the early episodes with Daredevil 's face @-@ off with the Punisher " skimpy and sluggish from the get @-@ go " , Jensen also added that they were " a flatline of inert drama , with long scenes of windy exposition or dull skulking interrupted by the occasional well @-@ staged if ridiculously gory fight sequence . " Jensen added that " hope for improvement " came with the introduction of Elektra , and that the sixth episode should be a template for the rest of the season , which ultimately , he felt was " stiff and silly . " Daniel D 'Addario for Time was also disappointed with the season , saying , " it ’ s hard not to feel that one is being taken for a long , and not particularly enjoyable , ride ... Daredevil just wants to dole out fun doses of extreme gore on the path to an endpoint on a business plan . Any viewer committed to story is left searching in the dark . " Vulture 's Abraham Riesman joined the criticism , calling the seven episodes reviewed " a dour parade of one cliché after another , recycling themes , images , and rhetoric that audiences have seen countless times before . " Though he wouldn 't call it " bad " , he felt that with all the other superhero content released in the same year , " it feels woefully unnecessary . " However , he did praise Bernthal 's performance , saying it was " another excitingly sympathetic antagonist " after D 'Onofrio 's " standout performance " as Fisk in the first season , but was " nowhere near as fun " . In contrast to the first season of Jessica Jones , which Riseman called Marvel 's " first attempt to depict sex in any kind of realistic way " , he called the second season of Daredevil " astoundingly un @-@ sexy . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Got Your 6 , which " champions positive portrayals of military veterans in Hollywood " , deemed " Semper Fidelis " to be " 6 Certified " for " responsibly and accurately portray [ ing ] veterans via the character of Frank Castle , The Punisher , who insists that his legal representation not perpetuate veteran stereotypes of PTSD in order to defend his actions " .
= Velites =
Velites ( singular : veles ) were a class of infantry in the Roman army of the mid @-@ Republic . Velites were light infantry and skirmishers who were armed with a number of light javelins ( Latin : hastae velitares ) to fling at the enemy , and also carried short thrusting swords , or gladii , for use in melee . They rarely wore armour as they were the youngest and poorest soldiers in the legion and could not afford much equipment . They did carry small wooden shields for protection though , and wore a headdress made from wolf skin to allow officers to differentiate between them and other heavier legionaries .
Velites did not form their own units ; a number of them were attached to each maniple of hastati , principes and triarii . They were typically used as a screening force , driving off enemy skirmishers and disrupting enemy formations with javelin throws before retiring behind the lines to allow the heavier @-@ armed hastati to attack . They were normally the ones who engaged war elephants and chariots if they were present on the field ; their high mobility and ranged weaponry made them much more effective against these enemies than heavy infantry . An early Roman legion contained approximately 1000 velites . Velites were eventually done away with after the Marian reforms .
= = Equipment and organization = =
Velites were the youngest and usually the poorest soldiers in the legion , and could rarely afford much equipment . They were armed with hastae velitares , light javelins with tips designed to bend on impact to prevent it being thrown back , similar to the heavier pila of other legionaries . As backup weapons , they also carried gladii , relatively short thrusting swords 74 centimetres ( 29 inches ) in length that were the main weapons of the hastati and principes . They fought in a very loose , staggered formation like most irregular troops and carried small round shields , 90 cm ( 3 feet ) in diameter .
In the legion , the velites were attached to each maniple of hastati , principes and triarii . They usually formed up at the front of the legion before battle to harass the enemy with javelin throws and to prevent the enemy doing the same before retiring behind the lines to allow the heavier infantry to attack . In a pitched battle , the velites would form up at the front of the legion and cover the advance of the hastati , who were armed with swords , and were the first line of attack . If the hastati failed to break the enemy , they would fall back and let the principes , similarly equipped though more experienced infantry , take over . If the principes failed , they would retire behind the triarii , heavily armoured , spear armed legionaries and let them carry on .
= = History = =
Velites were descended from an earlier class of light infantry , leves , dating from the Camillan legion of the 5th century BC , who had a very similar role to the velites . They were also the poorer and younger soldiers in the legion , though the rorarii and accensi classes were considerably poorer and were eventually done away with , having insufficient equipment to be effective soldiers . Leves were likewise armed with a number of javelins , but carried a spear rather than a sword . Like the velites , leves did not have their own units , but were attached to units of hastati .
Velites were first used at the siege of Capua in 211 BC , and were made up of citizens who would normally be too poor to join the hastati but were called up due a shortage of manpower . They were trained to ride on horseback with the Equites and jump down at a given signal to fling javelins at the enemy . After the siege , they were adopted into the legions as a force of irregular light infantry for ambushing and harassing the enemy with javelins before the battle began in earnest .
With the formal military reforms of Gaius Marius in 107 BC , designed to combat a shortage of manpower due to wars against Jugurtha , the different classes of units were done away with entirely . The wealth and age requirements were scrapped . Now soldiers would join as a career , rather than as service to the city , and would all be equipped as medium infantry with the same , state purchased equipment . Auxilliae , local irregular troops , would now be used to fulfill other roles such as archery , skirmishing and flanking .
= Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI =
Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI ( [ peŋxiaˈnatan ˈɡe ˈtiɡa ˈpulʊh ˈɛs ˈpe ˈka ˈi ] ; Indonesian for Treachery of G30S / PKI ) is a 1984 Indonesian docudrama written and directed by Arifin C. Noer , produced by G. Dwipayana , and starring Amoroso Katamsi , Umar Kayam , and Syubah Asa . Produced over a period of two years with a budget of Rp . 800 million , the film was sponsored by Suharto 's New Order government . It was based on an official history of the 30 September Movement ( Gerakan 30 September , or G30S ) coup in 1965 written by Nugroho Notosusanto and Ismail Saleh , which depicted the coup as being orchestrated by the Communist Party of Indonesia ( Partai Komunis Indonesia , or PKI ) .
The film depicts the period leading up to the coup and several days after it . In a time of economic turmoil , six generals are kidnapped and killed by the PKI and Air Force , purportedly to pre @-@ empt a coup against President Sukarno . General Suharto destroys the coup and , afterwards urges the Indonesian populace to commemorate those killed and fight against all forms of communism . The film shows the G30S leadership as ruthless and planning " every move to the last detail " , taking joy in using excessive violence and torturing the generals , depictions which have been read as portraying " the state 's enemies as outside the realm of the human " .
The first commercially released domestic feature film to deal with the events of 1965 , Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI was a commercial and critical success . It was nominated for seven awards at the 1984 Indonesian Film Festival , winning one , and reached record viewership numbers – although in many cases audiences were required to see the film . It was used as a propaganda vehicle by the New Order government until its collapse ; televised annually on 30 September and became mandatory viewing for students . Since the fall of Suharto in 1998 , such use of the film has become less common . Although the film 's artistic aspects remain well @-@ received , its misrepresentation of history has been criticised .
= = Background = =
Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI was based on the version of the coup endorsed by Suharto 's New Order government , in which the 30 September Movement ( Gerakan 30 September , or G30S ) coup was orchestrated by the Communist Party of Indonesia ( Partai Komunis Indonesia , or PKI ) . In the early 1960s the PKI and other leftist parties had the support of President Sukarno , giving them great political power . By 1965 the PKI claimed millions of members , a growing number influenced by hyperinflation and widespread poverty . The Army , however , was distrustful of the PKI , a feeling which the PKI reciprocated .
On the night of 30 September – 1 October 1965 , a group of Indonesian National Armed Forces members calling themselves the 30 September Movement captured and killed six Army generals thought to belong to an anti @-@ revolutionary " Generals ' Council " , including Commander of the Army Ahmad Yani ; another target , Abdul Haris Nasution , escaped . The bodies , along with those of others captured by the G30S , were dumped down a well at Lubang Buaya , Jakarta . Later that morning , armed forces occupied Merdeka Square in central Jakarta . From the Radio Republik Indonesia ( RRI ) office there , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Untung Syamsuri of the Presidential Guard announced that the movement had secured several key locations in the city in an attempt to forestall a coup by the Generals ' Council . They also announced that President Sukarno was under their power . The movement 's core leadership , later joined by the President , stayed at Halim Perdanakusuma Air Force Base .
Major @-@ General Suharto , the interim leader after Yani 's death , became aware of the movement on the morning of 1 October . By evening he had convinced a G30S battalion in Merdeka Square and those occupying the RRI building to surrender , without any bloodshed . Army loyalists under Suharto retook Halim Air Force Base early the following morning . By that time the G30S leadership had escaped , while Sukarno had withdrawn to his palace in Bogor . In the years that followed , the Indonesian Army and general populace undertook a campaign of retribution , killing or capturing registered and suspected PKI members – including most of the G30S leadership .
= = Plot = =
Indonesia is in turmoil . The populace lives in poverty , while the rich flaunt their wealth . President Sukarno ( Umar Kayam ) is ill and may die . Meanwhile , his political concept of Nasakom ( nationalism , religion , and communism ) has promoted an explosive growth in the PKI . The party , which staged a coup in 1948 , has been attacking and killing people throughout the country . The weakened president is also being manipulated by the party . The PKI has manufactured a story , based on the forged Gilchrist Document , that a Generals ' Council is preparing for a coup should Sukarno die . Aidit ( Syubah Asa ) , Syam , and the Communist Party leadership secretly plan to use this as an excuse for their own coup . The rank and file members of the Party accept the leadership 's explanation and , with the help of " forward @-@ thinking " soldiers and officers ( mostly from the Air Force ) , work to gather the Party 's forces . They plan to kidnap seven generals ( said to be members of the Generals ' Council ) , overtake the city , and secure Sukarno . The newly named G30S begins training . The rightist members of the Army are unaware of this upcoming coup , living happily with their families . By the time they realise that something is amiss , it is too late .
On the night of 30 September – 1 October , seven units are sent to kidnap the generals associated with the Council . Nasution manages to escape over a wall , while his attaché Pierre Tendean comes running out , wielding a gun ; Tendean is quickly captured and , when asked where Nasution is , confesses himself to be the general . Yani , who fights back , is killed in his home ; Major General M. T. Haryono meets a similar fate . Chief Military Prosecutor Sutoyo Siswomiharjo , Major General Siswondo Parman , and Lieutenant General Soeprapto are captured . Brigadier General D. I. Pandjaitan goes willingly , but when he prays for too long before entering the truck he is killed . The bodies and prisoners are taken to the G30S / PKI camp in Lubang Buaya , where the survivors are tortured and killed . Their bodies are then thrown into a well . Later that morning , members of the movement take over the RRI office and force the staff there to read a speech by Untung ( Bram Adrianto ) , which states that the G30S has moved to forestall a coup by the Generals ' Council and announces the formation of a " Revolutionary Council " . Other G30S / PKI men go to the palace to secure the president but find that he has already left . At Halim , the president speaks with the G30S leaders and declares that he will take full control of the Army . Another radio speech is soon read , outlining the composition of the new Revolutionary Council and announcing changes to Army hierarchy . The G30S leaders begin planning their escape from Halim , to be done before midnight .
Suharto ( Amoroso Katamsi ) , awoken early in the morning , denies Untung 's announcement , stating explicitly that there is no Generals ' Council and making an adjunct record notes on the true nature of G30S . As there is a power vacuum with Yani dead , Suharto takes temporary control of the Army and begins planning a counter @-@ assault with his men ; he is , however , unwilling to force a fight . He instead states that he will give a radio announcement , which is delivered after forces loyal to him retake the RRI office ; it outlines the situation , describes G30S as counter @-@ revolutionary , and states that the Army will deal with the coup . The G30S leaders flee Halim , and Suharto 's troops retake the air base . Some time later , forces under Suharto 's leadership attack a G30S / PKI headquarters . While PKI @-@ affiliated soldiers fight , the Party leadership escapes and separates , planning to continue their struggle underground .
Suharto is soon called to the secondary palace in Bogor to speak with Sukarno . There , the president says that he has received assurances from Air Marshal Omar Dani that the Air Force was not involved . Suharto refutes the statement , noting that the movement 's arms were like those of the Air Force . The meeting eventually results in Suharto being confirmed as leader of the Army , working together with Pranoto Reksosamodra . In their investigation of the events , the Army discovers the camp at Lubang Buaya – including the generals ' bodies , which are recovered while Suharto delivers a speech describing the coup and the PKI 's role in it . The generals are interred elsewhere and Suharto delivers a hagiographic eulogy in which he condemns the G30S and PKI and urges the Indonesian people to continue the fallen generals ' struggle .
= = Production = =
Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI was directed by Arifin C. Noer , a Citra Award @-@ winning director with a background in theatre . He had previous experience in the genre , having made the war film Serangan Fajar ( Dawn Attack ; 1981 ) , which emphasised Suharto 's role in the National Revolution . Noer was assigned to work on the film by the state @-@ owned National Film Production Company ( Perum Produksi Film Negara , or PPFN ) , which maintained a degree of control over the production . Professors of Indonesian culture Krishna Sen and David T. Hill suggest that Noer 's creative input was minimal . Instead , " for all intents and purposes " the film was the work of its producer , Brigadier @-@ General Gufran Dwipayana , then the head of PPFN and a member of the presidential staff . However , Noer 's wife Jajang C. Noer insists that he had remained independent while making the film .
The screenplay for Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI was based on a 1968 book by the military historian Nugroho Notosusanto and the investigator Ismail Saleh entitled The Coup Attempt of the 30 September Movement in Indonesia . The book , which was meant to counter foreign theories about the coup , detailed the 30 September Movement as the government viewed it . Only Notosusanto , the higher @-@ ranking of the two authors , was credited for his contribution . In adapting the book Noer read much of the available literature ( including court documents ) and interviewed numerous eyewitnesses ; Jajang , in a 1998 interview , said that her husband had not only read the official government version , but also the controversial Cornell Paper , which portrayed the coup as entirely an internal Army affair . During filming the crew emphasised realism , " paying great attention to detail " and using the generals ' actual homes .
Owing to the large number of roles – including some 100 bit parts and more than 10 @,@ 000 extras – casting for Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI was difficult . Noer attempted to cast actors who resembled the historical figures depicted ; Rano Karno later recalled that he was rejected for the role of Pierre Tendean as the latter did not have a mole on his face . Ultimately the film starred Bram Adrianto as Untung , Amoroso Katamsi as Suharto , Umar Kayam as Sukarno , and Syubah Asa as Aidit ; other actors included Ade Irawan , Sofia W.D. , Dani Marsuni , and Charlie Sahetapy . Kayam , then a lecturer at Gadjah Mada University in Yogyakarta , did not have the time to research Sukarno 's mannerisms from his books and speeches ; instead , he portrayed the president based on testimonials from the staff at the Bogor palace . Katamsi , on the other hand , studied Suharto 's role from books and , by the time filming had commenced , felt as if " was Pak Harto , not an imitation of Pak Harto . " Sanusi , meanwhile , considered his own performance underwhelming .
Production of Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI , originally titled Sejarah Orde Baru ( History of the New Order ) , took nearly two years , spending four months in pre @-@ production and a year and half in filming . It cost Rp . 800 million , receiving funding from the government . Cinematography was handled by Hasan Basri , with music by Arifin 's brother Embie C. Noer . Editing was done by Supandi . Parts of the film , particularly the final ten minutes , reused archival footage and newspaper clippings contemporaneous to the events .
= = Themes = =
Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI portrays the PKI and communism as inherently evil , with its followers " beyond redemption " , while the G30S leadership are seen as cunning and ruthless , plotting " every move to the last detail " . The historian Katherine McGregor finds this emphasised in the film 's portrayal of the G30S leadership as gangsters , sitting in secret meetings amidst clouds of cigarette smoke . She considers an opening scene , where the PKI attacks an Islamic school , as likewise meant to show the " evil " nature of communists .
The PKI are portrayed as enjoying violence , with the film heavily featuring " eye @-@ gouging women and decomposed , tortured bodies " . The generals are kidnapped , and in several cases killed , in front of their families ; later the captured generals are tortured while the communists dance around a bonfire . The sociologist Adrian Vickers suggests that the film 's violence was meant to portray " the state 's enemies as outside the realm of the human " , similar to monsters in horror films . Yoseph Yapi Taum of Sanata Dharma University notes that members of the leftist women 's movement Gerwani are shown as part of a " crazy " Communist Party , dancing in the nude and cutting off the general 's penises . However , Vickers considers these portrayals as ambiguous , suggesting that the New Order government was allowed a monopoly on violence . McGregor suggests that the violence in once @-@ tranquil homes shows the " ' destruction ' of the family " . Sen notes the violence belies a " representation of chaos before order " which is common in New Order films .
= = Release = =
Before its commercial release , Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI was pre @-@ screened for high @-@ ranking military officers who had been involved in stopping the coup , including Suharto and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo . The film was released in 1984 , the first commercially released domestic feature film to deal with the events of 1965 . It was seen by 699 @,@ 282 people in Jakarta by the end of 1984 , a national record which remained unbroken for over a decade . However , not all audiences attended of their own volition . The Indonesian sociologist Ariel Heryanto records students as being " required to pay " to see the film during school hours , a fact not reflected in contemporary records . A novelisation by popular writer Arswendo Atmowiloto likewise helped promote the film .
Dwipayana 's influence ensured that contemporary reviews , especially synopses , repeated the government 's position on the G30S coup . This is not to say all reviews were positive . Marselli of Kompas , for instance , found that Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI was highly detailed , with extensive work and quality acting going to represent events accurately . He felt , however , that the film felt too long and , as viewers knew instantly who the good and bad characters were , it became " nothing but a black @-@ and @-@ white portrait without any complex issues " , which ignored the underlying problems which had sparked the G30S movement .
Suharto , after viewing an early screening , stated that the story was unfinished and suggested that a sequel was necessary . Two sequels by PPFN , Operasi Trisula ( Operation Trisula ; 1987 ) and Djakarta 1966 ( Jakarta 1966 ; 1988 ) , followed . Operasi Trisula , directed by BZ Kadaryono , dealt with the extermination of G30S and PKI members in Blitar , East Java . Djakarta 1966 , meanwhile , was directed by Noer and showed the lead @-@ up to the signing of Supersemar on 11 March 1966 , in which Sukarno gave Suharto authority to take whatever measures he " deemed necessary " ; Kayam and Katamsi reprised their roles for the latter film , which won seven awards at the 1989 Bandung Film Festival .
= = Propaganda use = =
Beginning in 1984 the New Order government used Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI as a propaganda vehicle , showing it annually on 30 September . The film was broadcast by the state @-@ owned network TVRI , and later on private television stations after they were established . It was also shown at schools and government institutions ; students would be taken to open fields to view the film in a group . Because of this use , Sen and Hill suggest that Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI is the most @-@ broadcast and most @-@ watched Indonesian film of all time . A 2000 survey by the Indonesian magazine Tempo found 97 per cent of the 1 @,@ 101 students surveyed had seen the film ; 87 per cent of them had seen it more than once .
During the remainder of the 1980s and early 1990s the historical accuracy of Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI was little disputed , and the film became representative of canonical history ; its version of the 1965 events was the only one allowed in open discourse . By the mid @-@ 1990s , however , anonymous internet communities and small publications had begun questioning the movie 's contents ; one online message , sent anonymously through a mailing list , asked " If only a small section of the PKI leadership and military agents knew about [ the coup , as in the film ] , how is it that over a million people were killed and thousands of people who knew nothing had to be imprisoned , exiled , and lost their civil rights ? " Heryanto suggests that this resulted from an unintended polyphony in the film , while Sen and Hill opine that Noer may have been aware of the government 's intent for propaganda and thus made the film 's political message " obviously contradictory " .
In September 1998 , four months after the fall of Suharto , the Information Minister Yunus Yosfiah declared that the film would no longer be compulsory viewing material , reasoning that it was an attempt to manipulate history and create a cult with Suharto in the centre . Tempo reported in 2012 that Saleh Basarah of the Air Force had influenced this decree . The magazine stated that Basarah had called the Education Minister Juwono Sudarsono and asked him to not screen Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI , as it was damaging to the Air Force . Two other films , Janur Kuning ( Yellow Coconut Leaves ; 1979 ) and Serangan Fajar , were likewise affected by the decree ; Janur Kuning portrayed Suharto as the hero behind the 1 March 1949 General Assault while Serangan Fajar showed him as a major hero of the revolution . At the time it was suggested that TVRI was attempting to distance itself from the former president . This occurred in a period of desanctifying symbols related to the events , and by the early 2000s non @-@ government versions of the G30S coup were easily available in Indonesia .
= = Legacy = =
Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI has proven Noer 's most controversial film , although until his death in 1995 the director remained publicly ambivalent . The film 's visuals have generally received positive reviews , but its use for propaganda and historical accuracy have been widely condemned . The Indonesian director Hanung Bramantyo praised the film 's style , stating that close @-@ up shots of men smoking were " brilliant " and that , at times , he felt " it 's not a film . But real ! " The director Monty Tiwa likewise praised the film 's shots , citing a scene where Pandjaitan 's daughter cries hysterically as her father is shot as " full of drama and using a shot [ he had ] never seen before in an Indonesian film " . Sen and Hill , however , find " none of the aesthetic hallmarks " of the director 's other works .
Hilmar Farid , an Indonesian historian , called the film propaganda mixed with " some [ of the New Order 's ] fantasies " . The reporter Hendro Subroto , who recorded the retrieval of the generals ' bodies from Lubang Buaya , criticised the film 's accuracy in 2001 ; he stated that the bodies did not show any evidence of torture . The former Lekra writer Putu Oka Sukanta , meanwhile , described the film as underplaying the suffering of PKI members and other leftists in the events following the G30S coup , thus becoming " a lie to the people " . The historian John Roosa contrasts the portrayal of the G30S leadership with a document by Brigadier General M.A. Supardjo , which portrays the coup – led by " flummoxed , indecisive , and disorganized " men – as largely defeating itself .
In a 2012 interview , Katamsi admitted the film was in part overacted and that it had been a potent way to spread and indoctrinate viewers in the New Order 's ideology . The Tempo survey suggested that it was effective propaganda , leading viewers to " reject all that smelled of the PKI and communism " . Although it is no longer broadcast on 30 September , the film remains available . A video CD edition was released by Virgo in 2001 and the G30S / PKI museum at Lubang Buaya offers regular screenings in an on @-@ site cinema . Both a 35 mm and VHS copy are stored at Sinematek Indonesia in Jakarta .
= = Awards = =
Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI received seven nominations at the 1984 Indonesian Film Festival ( Festival Film Indonesia , or FFI ) , winning one Citra Award for Best Screenplay . It was beaten in four categories , for Best Director , Best Cinematography , Best Leading Actor , and Best Musical Direction , by Sjumandjaja 's Budak Nafsu ( Slave to Passion ) , while Slamet Rahardjo 's Ponirah Terpidana ( Ponirah Convicted ) took Best Artistic Direction . At the 1985 FFI Pengkhianatan G30S / PKI received an Antemas Award as the best @-@ selling film of the preceding calendar year . The film scholar Thomas Barker suggests that the film 's awards were , in part , a conjunction of state and FFI interests : both were focused on promoting a united national culture .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Louise Nevelson =
Louise Nevelson ( September 23 , 1899 – April 17 , 1988 ) was an American sculptor known for her monumental , monochromatic , wooden wall pieces and outdoor sculptures .
Born in the Poltava Governorate of the Russian Empire ( present @-@ day Ukraine ) , she emigrated with her family to the United States in the early 20th century . Nevelson learned English at school , as she spoke Yiddish at home .
By the early 1930s she was attending art classes at the Art Students League of New York , and in 1941 she had her first solo exhibition . A student of Hans Hofmann and Chaim Gross , Nevelson experimented with early conceptual art using found objects , and dabbled in painting and printing before dedicating her lifework to sculpture . Usually created out of wood , her sculptures appear puzzle @-@ like , with multiple intricately cut pieces placed into wall sculptures or independently standing pieces , often 3 @-@ D. A unique feature of her work is that her figures are often painted in monochromatic black or white . A figure in the international art scene , Nevelson was showcased at the 31st Venice Biennale . Her work is seen in major collections in museums and corporations . Nevelson remains one of the most important figures in 20th @-@ century American sculpture .
= = Early personal life = =
Louise Nevelson was born Leah Berliawsky in 1899 in Perislav , Poltava Governorate , Russian Empire , to Minna Sadie and Isaac Berliawsky , a contractor and lumber merchant . Even though the family lived comfortably , Nevelson 's relatives had begun to leave the Russian Empire for America in the 1880s . The Berliawskys had to stay behind , as Isaac , the youngest brother , had to care for his parents . While still in Europe , Minna gave birth to two of Nevelson 's siblings : Nathan ( born 1898 ) and Anita ( 1902 ) . On his mother 's death , Isaac moved to the United States in 1902 . After he left , Minna and the children moved to the Kiev area . According to family lore , young Nevelson was so forlorn about her father 's departure that she became mute for six months .
In 1905 , Minna and the children emigrated to the United States , where they joined Isaac in Rockland , Maine . Isaac initially struggled to establish himself there , suffering from depression while the family settled into their new home . He worked as a woodcutter before opening a junkyard . His work as a lumberjack made wood a consistent presence in the family household , a material that would figure prominently in Nevelson 's work . Eventually he became a successful lumberyard owner and realtor . The family had another child , Lillian , in 1906 . Nevelson was very close to her mother , who suffered from depression , a condition believed to be brought on by the family 's migration from Russia and their minority status as a Jewish family living in Maine . Minna overly compensated for this , dressing herself and the children up in clothing " regarded as sophisticated in the Old Country " . Her mother wore flamboyant outfits with heavy make @-@ up ; Nevelson described her mother 's " dressing up " as " art , her pride , and her job " , also describing her as someone who should have lived " in a palace " .
Nevelson 's first experience of art was at the age of nine at the Rockland Public Library , where she saw a plaster cast of Joan of Arc . Shortly thereafter she decided to study art , taking drawing in high school , where she also served as basketball captain . She painted watercolor interiors , in which furniture appeared molecular in structure , rather like her later professional work . Female figures made frequent appearances . In school , she practiced her English , her second language , as Yiddish was spoken at home . Unhappy with her family 's economic status , language differences , the religious discrimination of the community , and her school , Nevelson set her sights on moving to high school in New York .
She graduated from high school in 1918 , and began working as a stenographer at a local law office . There she met Bernard Nevelson , co @-@ owner with his brother Charles of the Nevelson Brothers Company , a shipping business . Bernard introduced her to his brother , and Charles and Louise Nevelson were married in June 1920 in a Jewish wedding at the Copley Plaza Hotel in Boston . Having satisfied her parent 's hope that she would marry into a wealthy family , she and her new husband moved to New York City , where she began to study painting , drawing , singing , acting and dancing . She also became pregnant , and in 1922 she gave birth to her son Myron ( later called Mike ) , who grew up to be a sculptor . Nevelson studied art , despite the disapproval of her parents @-@ in @-@ law . She commented : " My husband 's family was terribly refined . Within that circle you could know Beethoven , but God forbid if you were Beethoven . "
In 1924 the family moved to Mount Vernon , New York , a popular Jewish area of Westchester County . Nevelson was upset with the move , which removed her from city life and her artistic environment . During the winter of 1932 – 1933 she separated from Charles , unwilling to becoming the socialite wife he expected her to be . She never sought financial support from Charles , and in 1941 the couple divorced .
= = Artistic career = =
= = = 1930s = = =
Starting in 1929 , Nevelson studied art full @-@ time under Kenneth Hayes Miller and Kimon Nicolaides at the Art Students League . Nevelson credited an exhibition of Noh kimonos at the Metropolitan Museum of Art as a catalyst for her to study art further . In 1931 she sent her son Mike to live with family and went to Europe , paying for the trip by selling a diamond bracelet that her now ex @-@ husband had given her on the occasion of Mike 's birth . In Munich she studied with Hans Hofmann before visiting Italy and France . Returning to New York in 1932 she once again studied under Hofmann , who was serving as a guest instructor at the Art Students League . She met Diego Rivera in 1933 and worked as his assistant on his mural Man at the Crossroads at Rockefeller Plaza . The two had an affair which caused a rift between Nevelson and Rivera 's wife , Frida Kahlo , an artist Nevelson greatly admired . Shortly thereafter , Nevelson started taking Chaim Gross 's sculpture classes at the Educational Alliance . She continued to experiment with other artistic mediums , including lithography and etching , but decided to focus on sculpture . Her early works were created from plaster , clay and tattistone . During the 1930s Nevelson began exhibiting her work in group shows . In 1935 , she taught mural painting at the Madison Square Boys and Girls Club in Brooklyn as part of the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) . She worked for the WPA in the easel painting and sculpture divisions until 1939 . For several years , the impoverished Nevelson and her son walked through the streets gathering wood to burn in their fireplace to keep warm ; the firewood she found served as the starting point for the art that made her famous . Her work during the 1930s explored sculpture , painting and drawing . Early ink and pencil drawings of nudes show the same fluidity seen in the works of Henri Matisse . Nevelson also created terra @-@ cotta semi @-@ abstract animals and oil paintings .
= = = First exhibitions and the 1940s = = =
In 1941 , Nevelson had her first solo exhibition at Nierendorf Gallery . Gallery owner Karl Nierendorf represented her until his death in 1947 . During her time at Nierendorf , Nevelson came across a shoeshine box owned by local shoeshiner Joe Milone . She displayed the box at the Museum of Modern Art , bringing her the first major attention she received from the press . An article about her appeared in Art Digest in November 1943 . In the 1940s , she began producing Cubist figure studies in materials such as stone , bronze , terra cotta , and wood . In 1943 , she had a show at Norlyst Gallery called " The Clown as the Center of his World " in which she constructed sculptures about the circus from found objects . The show was not well received , and Nevelson stopped using found objects until the mid @-@ 1950s . Despite poor reception , Nevelson 's works at this time explored both figurative abstracts inspired by Cubism and the exploitative and experimental influence of Surrealism . The decade provided Nevelson with the materials , movements , and self @-@ created experiments that would mold her signature modernist style in the 1950s .
= = = Mid @-@ career = = =
During the 1950s , Nevelson exhibited her work as often as possible . Yet despite awards and growing popularity with art critics , she continued to struggle financially . To make ends meet she began teaching sculpture classes in adult education programs in the Great Neck public school system . Her own work began to grow to monumental size , moving beyond the human scale sized works she had been creating during the early 1940s . Nevelson also visited Latin America , and discovered influences for her work in Mayan ruins and the steles of Guatemala . In 1955 Nevelson joined Colette Roberts ' Grand Central Modern Gallery , where she had numerous one @-@ woman shows . There she exhibited some of her most notable mid @-@ century works : Bride of the Black Moon , First Personage , and the exhibit " Moon Garden + One " , which showed her first wall piece , Sky Cathedral , in 1958 . The 1958 series of exhibitions were described by critic Hilton Kramer as " remarkable and unforgettable . " That year the Museum of Modern Art purchased one of Nevelson 's Sky Cathedral works , and in 1959 Nevelson was included in MoMA 's Sixteen Americans exhibition . During this period , she painted her wood black and put on entirely black shows . In the early 1960s , she began creating white and gold pieces , and enclosing her small sculptures in wooden boxes . The change in scale of her sculptures , the influence of Latin American ancient art , and her gallery activity during this time is credited with bringing " Nevelson 's sculpture in league with the grand scale of Abstract Expressionist painting , as well as the earlier mural painting of Rivera . "
From 1957 to 1958 , she was president of the New York Chapter of Artists ' Equity and in 1958 she joined the Martha Jackson Gallery , where she was guaranteed income and became financially secure . That year , she was photographed and featured on the cover of Life . In 1960 she had her first one @-@ woman show in Europe at Galerie Daniel Cordier in Paris . Later that year a collection of her work , grouped together as " Dawn 's Wedding Feast " , was included in the group show , " Sixteen Americans " , at the Museum of Modern Art alongside Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns . In 1962 she made her first museum sale to the Whitney Museum of American Art , who purchased the black wall , Young Shadows . That same year , her work was selected for the 31st Venice Biennale and she became national president of Artists ' Equity , serving until 1964 .
In 1962 she left Martha Jackson Gallery for a brief stint at the Sidney Janis Gallery . After an unsuccessful first show in which none of her work sold , Nevelson had a falling out with gallery owner Janis over sums he advanced her and was unable to recoup . Nevelson and Janis entered into a contentious legal battle that left Nevelson broke , depressed , and at risk of becoming homeless . However , at this time Nevelson was offered a funded , six @-@ week artist fellowship at Tamarind Lithography Workshop ( now Tamarind Institute ) in Los Angeles , which allowed her to escape the drama of New York City . She explained , " I wouldn 't ordinarily have gone . I didn 't care so much about the idea of prints at that time but I desperately needed to get out of town and all of my expenses were paid . "
At Tamarind , Nevelson made twenty @-@ six lithographs and became the most productive artist to complete the fellowship up until that time . The lithographs she created were some of her most creative graphic work , using unconventional materials like cheese cloth , lace , and textiles on the lithographic stone to create interesting textural effects . With fresh creative inspiration and replenished funds , Nevelson returned to New York in better personal and professional circumstances . She joined Pace Gallery in the fall of 1963 , where she had shows regularly until the end of her career . In 1967 the Whitney Museum hosted the first retrospective of Nevelson 's work , showing over one hundred pieces , including drawings from the 1930s and contemporary sculptures . In 1964 she created two works : Homage to 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 I and Homage to 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 II as a tribute to victims of The Holocaust . Nevelson hired several assistants over the years : Teddy Haseltine , Tom Kendall , and Diana Mackown , who helped in the studio and handled daily affairs . By this time , Nevelson had solidified commercial and critical success .
= = = Later career and life = = =
Nevelson continued to utilize wood in her sculptures , but also experimented with other materials such as aluminum , plastic and metal . Black Zag X from 1969 , in the collection of the Honolulu Museum of Art is an example of the artist 's all @-@ black assemblages incorporating the plastic , Formica . In the fall of 1969 , she was commissioned by Princeton University to create her first outdoor sculpture . After completion of her first outdoor sculptures , Nevelson stated : " Remember , I was in my early seventies when I came into monumental outdoor sculpture ... I had been through the enclosures of wood . I had been through the shadows . I had been through the enclosures and come out into the open . " Nevelson also praised new materials like plexiglas and cor @-@ ten steel , which she described as a " blessing " . She embraced the idea of her works being able to withstand climate change and the freedom in moving beyond limitations in size . These public artworks were created by the Lippincott Foundry . Nevelson 's public art commissions were a monetary success , but art historian Brooke Kamin Rapaport states that these pieces were not Nevelson 's strongest works , and that Nevelson 's " intuitive gesture " is not evident in the large steel works .
In 1973 the Walker Art Center curated a major exhibition of her work , which traveled for two years . In 1975 she designed the chapel of St. Peter 's Lutheran Church in midtown Manhattan . When asked about her role as a Jewish artist creating Christian @-@ themed art , Nevelson stated that her abstract work transcended religious barriers . Also in 1975 , she created and installed a large wood sculpture titled Bicentennial Dawn at the new James A. Byrne United States Courthouse in Philadelphia . During the last half of her life , Nevelson solidified her fame and her persona , cultivating a personal style for her " petite yet flamboyant " self that contributed to her legacy : dramatic dresses , scarves and large false eyelashes . When Alice Neel asked Nevelson how she dressed so beautifully , Nevelson replied " Fucking , dear , fucking " , in reference to her sexually liberated lifestyle . The designer Arnold Scaasi created many of her clothes . Nevelson died on April 17 , 1988 .
At the time of his death in 1995 , her friend Willy Eisenhart was working on a book about Nevelson .
= = Style and works = =
When Nevelson was developing her style , many of her artistic colleagues – Alexander Calder , David Smith , Theodore Roszak – were welding metal to create their large @-@ scale sculptures . Nevelson decided to go in the opposite direction , exploring the streets for inspiration and finding it in wood . Nevelson 's most notable sculptures are her walls ; wooden , wall @-@ like collage driven reliefs consisting of multiple boxes and compartments that hold abstract shapes and found objects from chair legs to balusters . Nevelson described these immersive sculptures as " environments " . The wooden pieces were also cast @-@ off scraps , pieces found in the streets of New York . While Marcel Duchamp caused uproar with his Fountain , which was not accepted as " art " at the time of its release due to Duchamp 's attempt to mask the urinals true form , Nevelson took found objects and by spray painting them she disguised them of their actual use or meaning . Nevelson called herself " the original recycler " owing to her extensive use of discarded objects , and credited Pablo Picasso for " giving us the cube " that served as the groundwork for her cubist @-@ style sculpture . She found strong influence in Picasso and Hofmann 's cubist ideals , describing the Cubist movement as " one of the greatest awarenesses that the human mind has ever come to . " She also found influence in Native American and Mayan art , dreams , the cosmos and archetypes .
As a student of Hans Hofmann she was taught to practice her art with a limited palette , using colors such as black and white , to " discipline " herself . These colors would become part of Nevelson 's repertoire . She spray painted her walls black until 1959 . Nevelson described black as the " total color " that " means totality . It means : contains all ... it contained all color . It wasn 't a negation of color . It was an acceptance . Because black encompasses all colors . Black is the most aristocratic color of all . The only aristocratic color ... I have seen things that were transformed into black , that took on greatness . I don 't want to use a lesser word . " In the 1960s she began incorporating white and gold into her works . Nevelson said that white was the color that " summoned the early morning and emotional promise . " She described her gold phase as the " baroque phase " , inspired by the idea being told as a child that America 's streets would be " paved with gold " , the materialism and hedonism of the color , the sun , and the moon . Nevelson revisited the Noh robes and the gold coin collections at the Metropolitan Museum of Art for inspiration .
Through her work , Nevelson often explored the themes of her complicated past , factious present , and anticipated future . A common symbol that appears in Nevelson 's work is the bride , as seen in Bride of the Black Moon ( 1955 ) . The symbol of the bride referred to Nevelson 's own escape from matrimony in her early life , and her own independence as a woman throughout the rest of her life . Her Sky Cathedral works often took years to create ; Sky Cathedral : Night Wall , in the collection of the Columbus Museum of Art , took 13 years to build in her New York City studio . On the Sky Cathedral series , Nevelson commented : " This is the Universe , the stars , the moon – and you and I , everyone . "
Nevelson 's work has been exhibited in a number of galleries , including the Anita Shapolsky Gallery in New York City , Margot Gallery in Lake Worth , Florida , and Woodward Gallery in New York .
= = Legacy = =
Louise Nevelson constructed her sculpture much as she constructed her past : shaping each with her legendary sense of self as she created an extraordinary iconography through abstract means . – The Jewish Museum , 2007
A sculpture garden , Louise Nevelson Plaza ( 40 @.@ 7076 ° N 74 @.@ 0080 ° W / 40 @.@ 7076 ; -74.0080 ) , is located in downtown New York City and features a collection of works by Nevelson . Nevelson donated her papers in several installments from 1966 to 1979 . They are fully digitized and in the collection of the Archives of American Art . The Farnsworth Art Museum , in Nevelson 's childhood home of Rockland , Maine , houses the second largest collection of her works , including jewelry she designed . In 2000 , the United States Postal Service released a series of commemorative postage stamps in Nevelson 's honor . The following year , friend and playwright Edward Albee wrote the play Occupant as a homage to the sculptor . The show opened in New York in 2002 with Anne Bancroft playing Nevelson , but it never moved beyond previews owing to Bancroft 's illness . Nevelson 's distinct and eccentric image has been documented by photographers such as Robert Mapplethorpe , Richard Avedon , Hans Namuth and Pedro E. Guerrero . Nevelson is listed on the Heritage Floor , among other famous women , in Judy Chicago 's 1974 – 1979 masterpiece The Dinner Party .
Upon Nevelson 's death her estate was worth at least $ 100 million . Her son , Mike Nevelson , removed 36 sculptures from her house . Documentation showed that Nevelson had bequeathed these works , worth millions , to her friend and assistant of 25 years Diana MacKown , yet Mike Nevelson claimed otherwise . Proceedings began about the estate and will , which Mike Nevelson claimed did not mention MacKown . There was talk of a potential palimony case , but despite public speculation that the two women were lovers , MacKown maintained that she had never had a sexual relationship with Nevelson , as did Mike Nevelson .
In 2005 , Maria Nevelson , the youngest granddaughter , established the Louise Nevelson Foundation , a non @-@ profit 501c ( 3 ) . Its mission is to educate the public and celebrate the life and work of Louise Nevelson .
= = = Feminism and Nevelson 's influence on feminist art = = =
I 'm not a feminist . I 'm an artist who happens to be a woman . – Louise Nevelson
Louise Nevelson has been a fundamental key in the feminist art movement . Credited with triggering the examination of femininity in art , Nevelson challenged the vision of what type of art women would be creating with her dark , monumental , masculine and totem @-@ like artworks . Nevelson believed that art reflected the individual , not " masculine @-@ feminine labels " , and chose to take on her role as an artist , not specifically a female artist . Reviews of Nevelson 's works in the 1940s wrote her off as just a woman artist . A reviewer of her 1941 exhibition at Nierendorf Gallery stated : " We learned the artist is a woman , in time to check our enthusiasm . Had it been otherwise , we might have hailed these sculptural expressions as by surely a great figure among moderns . " Another review was similar in its sexism : " Nevelson is a sculptor ; she comes from Portland , Maine . You 'll deny both these facts and you might even insist Nevelson is a man , when you see her Portraits in Paint , showing this month at the Nierendorf Gallery . "
Even with her influence upon future generations of feminist artists , Nevelson 's opinion of discrimination within the art world bordered on the belief that artists who were not gaining success based on gender suffered from a lack of confidence . When asked by Feminist Art Journal if she suffered from sexism within the art world , Nevelson replied " I am a woman 's liberation . "
= Battle of Coral – Balmoral =
The Battle of Coral – Balmoral ( 12 May – 6 June 1968 ) was a series of actions fought during the Vietnam War between the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) and the North Vietnamese 7th Division and Viet Cong Main Force units , 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) north @-@ east of Saigon . Following the defeat of the communist Tet offensive in January and February , in late April two Australian infantry battalions — the 1st and 3rd Battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment ( RAR ) — with supporting arms , were again deployed from their base at Nui Dat in Phuoc Tuy Province to positions astride infiltration routes leading to Saigon to interdict renewed movement against the capital . Part of the wider allied Operation Toan Thang I , it was launched in response to intelligence reports of another impending communist offensive , yet the Australians experienced little fighting during this period . Meanwhile , the Viet Cong successfully penetrated the capital on 5 May , plunging Saigon into chaos during the May Offensive in an attempt to influence the upcoming Paris peace talks scheduled to begin on the 13th . During three days of intense fighting the attacks were repelled by US and South Vietnamese forces , and although another attack was launched by the Viet Cong several days later , the offensive was again defeated with significant losses on both sides , causing extensive damage to Saigon and many civilian casualties . By 12 May the fighting was over , and the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong were forced to withdraw having suffered heavy casualties . US casualties were also heavy and it proved to be their most costly week of the war .
1 ATF was redeployed on 12 May to obstruct the withdrawal of forces from the capital , with two battalions establishing a fire support base named FSB Coral , just east of Lai Khe in Binh Duong Province , in an area of operations known as AO Surfers . However , poor reconnaissance and inadequate operational planning led to delays and confusion during the fly @-@ in , and the Australians had only partially completed FSB Coral by the evening . The North Vietnamese mounted a number of battalion @-@ sized assaults on the night of 12 / 13 May , with a heavy bombardment from 03 : 30 signalling the start . Exploiting the disorganised defence to penetrate the Australian perimeter , the North Vietnamese 141st Regiment temporarily captured a forward gun position during close @-@ quarters fighting , before being repulsed by superior firepower the following morning . Casualties were heavy on both sides and although the Australians had won a convincing victory , they had come close to suffering both a political and military defeat at the hands of the North Vietnamese . The following day 1 RAR was deployed to defend FSB Coral , while 3 RAR established FSB Coogee to the west to ambush staging areas and infiltration routes . Coral was again assaulted in the early hours of 16 May , coming under a heavy barrage followed by another regimental @-@ sized attack . Again the base was penetrated but after a six @-@ hour battle the North Vietnamese were forced to withdraw after suffering heavy losses . Expecting further fighting , the Australians were subsequently reinforced with Centurion tanks and additional artillery . On 22 May , FSB Coral was again attacked overnight , coming under a short but accurate mortar bombardment which was broken up by Australian artillery and mortars .
The Australians then moved against the communist base areas east of Route 16 , with 3 RAR redeploying to establish FSB Balmoral on 24 May , 4 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) to the north . Now supported by tanks which had arrived from Coral just hours before , the infantry at Balmoral were subjected to a two @-@ battalion attack by the North Vietnese 165th Regiment . Following a rocket and mortar barrage at 03 : 45 on 26 May , the attack fell primarily on D Company before being repelled with heavy casualties by the combined firepower of the tanks and infantry . The next day the Australians at Coral assaulted a number of bunkers that had been located just outside the base , with a troop of Centurions supported by infantry destroying the bunkers and their occupants without loss . A second major North Vietnamese attack , again of regimental strength , was made against Balmoral at 02 : 30 on 28 May but was called off after 30 minutes after being soundly defeated by the supporting fire of the tanks , artillery and mortars . Regardless , the battle continued into June as the Australians patrolled their area of operations . However , with contacts decreasing , 1 ATF returned to Nui Dat on 6 June , being relieved by US and South Vietnamese forces . The battle was the first time the Australians had clashed with regular North Vietnamese Army units operating in regimental strength in conventional warfare . During 26 days of fighting the communists sustained heavy losses and were forced to postpone a further attack on Saigon , while 1 ATF also suffered significant casualties . The largest unit @-@ level action of the war for the Australians , today the battle is considered one of the most famous actions fought by the Australian Army during the Vietnam War .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
Based in Nui Dat in Phuoc Tuy Province , the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) was part of US II Field Force , Vietnam ( IIFFV ) , under the overall command of Lieutenant General Frederick Weyand . By early 1968 , 1 ATF had been reinforced and was at full strength with three infantry battalions supported by armour , artillery , aviation and engineers , while logistic arrangements were provided by the 1st Australian Logistic Support Group ( 1 ALSG ) based at the port of Vung Tau . Commanded by Brigadier Ron Hughes , 1 ATF had continued to operate independently within Phuoc Tuy , and while the war had become a series of large @-@ scale search @-@ and @-@ destroy operations in a war of attrition for the Americans , the Australians had largely pursued their own counter @-@ insurgency campaign despite the differences between Australian and American methods at times producing friction between the allies . Regardless , 1 ATF was also available for deployment elsewhere in the III Corps Tactical Zone and with the province coming progressively under control throughout 1967 , the Australians would increasingly spend a significant period of time conducting operations further afield .
The Tet offensive began on 31 January 1968 , with 85 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops simultaneously assaulting population centres and allied installations across South Vietnam in an attempt to incite a general uprising against the South Vietnamese government and its American supporters . In response , 1 ATF was deployed along likely infiltration routes in order to defend the vital Bien Hoa @-@ Long Binh complex near Saigon between January and March , as part of Operation Coburg . Heavy fighting resulted in 17 Australians killed and 61 wounded , while communist casualties included at least 145 killed , 110 wounded and five captured , with many more removed from the battlefield . Meanwhile , the remaining Australian forces in Phuoc Tuy were stretched thin , with elements of 3 RAR successfully repelling an assault on Ba Ria and later spoiling a harassing attack on Long Dien and conducting a sweep of Hoa Long , killing 50 Viet Cong and wounding 25 for the loss of five killed and 24 wounded .
At the strategic level the general uprising never eventuated , and in late @-@ February the communist offensive collapsed after suffering more than 45 @,@ 000 killed , against South Vietnamese and allied losses of 6 @,@ 000 men . Regardless , it proved to be a turning point in the war and although it had been a tactical disaster for the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong , Hanoi emerged with a significant political victory as confidence in the American military and political leadership collapsed , as did public support for the war in the United States . Prior to Tet , American commanders and politicians had talked confidently about winning the war , arguing that General William Westmoreland 's strategy of attrition had reached the point where the communists were losing soldiers and equipment faster than they could be replaced . Yet the scale of the offensive , and the surprise and violence with which it had been launched , had shocked the American public and contradicted such predictions of imminent victory ; in its wake President Lyndon Johnson announced that he would no longer seek a second term in office . Tet had a similar effect on Australian public opinion , and caused growing uncertainty in the government about the determination of the United States to remain militarily involved in Southeast Asia . Amid the initial shock , Prime Minister John Gorton unexpectedly declared that Australia would not increase its military commitment in Vietnam beyond the current level of 8 @,@ 000 personnel .
On the ground , the war continued without respite and Hughes — the 1 ATF commander — turned his attention to D445 Provincial Mobile Battalion , deciding to strike at its base areas in the Minh Dam Secret Zone located in the Long Hai hills south of Long Dien and Dat Do , 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) from Nui Dat . The 5th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 5 RAR ) had suffered heavy casualties in February 1967 while operating in the Long Hais , which were heavily defended by mines and booby traps ; despite previous operations by the US 173rd Airborne Brigade in June 1966 and two smaller South Vietnamese operations , the area had remained a Viet Cong safe haven . However , this time the Australians would use two battalions supported by tanks and air strikes in an attempt to reduce the base area . Operation Pinnaroo began on 27 February , with 2 RAR and 3 RAR cordoning off the complex with the rifle companies patrolling and ambushing at night in order to prevent the Viet Cong from escaping . On 8 March the Australians conducted a wide encircling movement to tighten the cordon , while a sustained bombardment by US B @-@ 52 heavy bombers and artillery targeted the hill the next day . A combined force of infantry from 3 RAR supported by armour then advanced on the foothills , before clearing the minefields and destroying an extensive base area which included a deep cave system that had first been used by the Viet Minh against the French in the 1950s . Each Australian rifle company then methodically searched its area of operations , while engineers destroyed the underground facilities ; a task which required the use of tonnes of explosives .
The operation lasted until 15 April , with mines — including many M16s that had been lifted by the Viet Cong from the controversial barrier minefield laid by the Australians at Dat Do — once again claiming a significant toll . Ten Australians were killed and another 36 were wounded , while known Viet Cong casualties included 21 killed , 14 wounded and 40 captured . Fifty @-@ seven camps and bunker systems were also destroyed , as were large quantities of weapons , munitions and supplies . Judged a success by the Australians despite their heavy losses , the operation had resulted in significant disruption to the Viet Cong and hindered their operations for some time . Regardless , with 1 ATF lacking the manpower to hold the area , the failure of South Vietnamese forces to permanently occupy the Long Hais meant that any gains were only fleeting , and the D445 Battalion headquarters soon returned to the area after ejecting a South Vietnamese regional force company a few months later . Meanwhile , 7 RAR had finished its last operation in March and was relieved by 1 RAR on 9 April , returning to Australia having completed its twelve @-@ month tour .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Planning and preliminary operations = = =
Despite their losses during the previous fighting , the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong appeared to have gained the initiative . Indeed , although the Tet offensive had devastated the Viet Cong , costing them about half their strength in the south , the Defense Minister of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam — General Vo Nguyen Giap — had moved quickly to replace these losses with reinforcements , and by early May 15 @,@ 000 North Vietnamese soldiers were serving in Viet Cong units in South Vietnam . On 8 April , Westmoreland launched a series of large @-@ scale sweeps involving over 70 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese , American , Australian , New Zealand and Thai troops , code @-@ named Operation Toan Thang I. Meanwhile , on 5 May the Viet Cong launched attacks against 119 provincial and district capitals , military installations and major cities during the May Offensive in an attempt to gain an advantage at the first session of peace negotiations scheduled to begin in Paris on the 13th . Saigon was successfully infiltrated in an event that received widespread international media coverage and resulted in considerable embarrassment for the Americans and their allies , with as many as five of the 13 attacking Viet Cong battalions penetrating the city 's outer defences , plunging the capital into chaos and resulting in heavy civilian casualties . After three days of intense fighting American and South Vietnamese forces successfully repelled the assault while , as the peace talks neared , a fresh wave of attacks was launched on Saigon several days later . However , by 12 May the fighting was over , and the communists were forced to withdraw having suffered more than 5 @,@ 500 dead in just over one week of fighting . US casualties were also heavy , amounting to 652 killed and 2 @,@ 225 wounded , which made it the most costly week of the war for the Americans .
The Australians were initially employed on operations inside Phuoc Tuy Province during Operation Toan Thang I. Viet Cong activity in their traditional base areas in the Hat Dich north of Nui Thi Vai hills , had been increasing in February and March and 3 RAR subsequently commenced operations along the north @-@ western border of Phuoc Tuy Province on 21 April . These operations resulted in little contact . In light of this
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while communist casualties included 24 dead and a further eight believed killed . Another group of 13 had also been engaged in the open by artillery , and were also possibly killed .
The North Vietnamese then appeared to abandon AO Surfers to the Australians , and increasingly diverted their movement around Coral and Balmoral . Operation Toan Thang I continued for another six days regardless , and 1 ATF patrolled extensively into June . However , with contacts decreasing , on 1 June Weyand judged the Australian blocking operation to have been successful in limiting the communist offensive against Saigon , and directed US and ARVN units to relieve them . Meanwhile , Hughes returned from leave and visited Dunstan at FSB Coral to discuss the situation and the task force 's redeployment to Phuoc Tuy . FSB Balmoral was subsequently declared closed on 5 June , with 3 RAR and its direct support battery returning to Nui Dat by air , while FSB Coral was also closed the following day . The operation finally concluded on 6 June , with 1 RAR returning to Nui Dat by Chinook after handing over the area of operations to the US 1st Infantry Division , while the logistic , artillery and armoured elements returned by road convoy . Yet the approach of the wet season concerned Hughes , who believed it could hinder the movement of the Centurions and leave them stranded 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) from base until the dry season . Nonetheless , the tanks departed FSB Coral on 5 June ; travelling via Bearcat and Route 15 , the road move went without incident and they returned to Nui Dat by 17 : 00 on 6 June .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
Although Operation Toan Thang I had begun relatively quietly for the Australians it had ended far more spectacularly . During 26 days of fighting they had inflicted punishing losses on the communists and forced the North Vietnamese 7th Division to postpone a further attack on Saigon . North Vietnamese and Viet Cong casualties in AO Surfers included 267 killed confirmed by body count , 60 possibly killed , 7 wounded and 11 captured , while Australian losses were 25 killed and 99 wounded . Five New Zealanders and five American soldiers were also wounded . Westmoreland had been impressed by the results achieved by 1 ATF in May and June , and while US and South Vietnamese forces had undoubtedly borne the brunt of the fighting for the allies during this time , 1 ATF had featured prominently in American reports . The battle was the first occasion that the Australians had met the North Vietnamese Army in regimental strength , and operating in depth in a series of engagements akin to conventional warfare they had ultimately fought their largest , most hazardous and most sustained battle of the war . For their involvement in the action the Royal Australian Regiment , the 3rd Cavalry Regiment and 1st Armoured Regiment were all subsequently awarded the battle honour " Coral @-@ Balmoral " , one of only five presented to Australian units during the war . On 14 May 2008 the 102nd Field Battery , RAA was awarded the honour title " Coral " in recognition of their involvement in the battle , the first such award to an Australian sub @-@ unit .
= = = Assessment = = =
The fighting represented a watershed in the campaign for the Australians , and while they had deployed outside Phuoc Tuy Province previously , they now faced regular North Vietnamese formations and Viet Cong Main Force units operating in battalion and regimental strength , rather than southern Viet Cong guerrillas . With 1 ATF deploying astride the communist lines of communication the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong had been forced to respond , resulting in a set @-@ piece battle far removed from the counter @-@ insurgency doctrine the Australians normally espoused . Yet while the battle ended in victory for 1 ATF , they had come close to suffering defeat at the hands of the North Vietnamese . Inexperienced at large air @-@ mobile operations , poor reconnaissance and inadequate operational planning had caused delays and confusion during the fly @-@ in to FSB Coral , leaving the Australian force exposed to attack on the first night . The North Vietnamese had fought in greater numbers , with heavier firepower and greater intensity than previously experienced by the Australians in Vietnam , forcing them to refine their tactics . Later , the Australian use of platoon patrols to search an area and conduct ambushes was challenged by the constant movement of North Vietnamese forces operating in superior strength , which threatened to quickly overwhelm an isolated patrol .
Meanwhile , prolonged operations outside of Phuoc Tuy during the first half of 1968 had placed considerable strain on the Australian logistic system . Australian logistic resupply arrangements for Operation Toan Thang I had been modelled on the experience of Operation Coburg , and again required the Vung Tau @-@ based 1 ALSG to be split in order to provide a forward logistic element at the US base at Long Binh . A forward task force maintenance area had also been established , first at Bearcat and then later at FSB Coral . Re @-@ supply by road had continued daily from Long Binh to Bearcat , while following the move to Coral re @-@ supply was primarily by air due to the threat of possible interdiction . Movement from unit echelons in the forward maintenance area was also undertaken by helicopter . Units in the field received one fresh meal each day , with the other two meals based half on the American C ration and half on the Australian combat ration . Although the supply of fuel and ammunition was generally satisfactory , stocks had run dangerously low on one occasion during heavy fighting at FSB Coral due to the calculation of usage rates based on previous operations , requiring an emergency night @-@ time resupply by Chinook while the base was under attack . Re @-@ supply of water had also been particularly difficult due to unavailability of a permanent water point . Ultimately water had to be delivered by air from Long Binh at a rate of 14 @,@ 000 liters ( 3 @,@ 700 U.S. gal ) per day using rubber fuel bladders .
While many of the failings in Australian command arrangements evident from the initial stages of the battle were rapidly rectified as 1 ATF developed more exact standard operating procedures , future operational planning would need pay greater heed to intelligence when determining the strength of patrols , as well as providing for quick reaction forces and rapidly responsive indirect fires to support sub @-@ units operating independently . Ultimately though the firepower of the Australian combined arms teams proved decisive . Indeed , while the value of using armour in Vietnam was originally questioned by the Australian Army , the performance of the tanks during the fighting at Coral and Balmoral demonstrated their advantages once and for all . Indeed , whereas before the battle some infantry had doubted the usefulness or necessity of the Centurions , afterwards they did not like working without them . Over the next four years the tanks would provide invaluable close support , particularly during the clearance of bunker systems , proving to be powerful weapons in both offence and defence and were later credited with limiting casualties among the Australian infantry .
In contrast , for the North Vietnamese the battle was just one part of the May Offensive , although they later claimed to have killed 800 Australians during a single attack — a fact which may have indicated the importance they placed on it at the time . They had reacted quickly and proficiently to mount a battalion attack on the first night in an attempt to push the Australians off their line of communications ; however , while the attacks on Coral and Balmoral had been well co @-@ ordinated , the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong had repeatedly surrendered the element of surprise with preparatory fire and poor light discipline alerting the defenders on each occasion . Meanwhile , rigid command @-@ and @-@ control arrangements and a lack of radio communications had forced the North Vietnamese to operate on fixed schedules , preventing them from taking the initiative or responding rapidly to changing situations . Such inflexibility had resulted in predictability , with the communist commanders ultimately committing their forces to a frontal assault on Coral on the first night , and mounting very similar attacks against Balmoral on the nights of 26 and 28 May , both of which ended in costly failures .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Meanwhile , 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 4 RAR ) had arrived to replace 2 RAR . Joined by two New Zealand infantry companies — W and V Companies — it was designated 4 RAR / NZ ( ANZAC ) and under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Lee Greville they commenced operations in June . Later , on 13 June , 1 RAR was again deployed to protect the bases at Long Binh and Bien Hoa from rocket attacks , operating to the north and east of Bien Hoa as part of a wider allied operation , known as Operation Toan Thang II . On 23 June the battalion was joined by 4 RAR / NZ ( ANZAC ) and 1 ATF headquarters was deployed under Dunstan 's command as the operation expanded . On 3 July , 1RAR was relieved by 3RAR and returned to Nui Dat . Largely uneventful , the operation resulted in minimal contact and lasted until 18 July . Three Viet Cong were killed and 13 captured , while Australian casualties included one killed and one wounded . The Australians then attempted to interdict Viet Cong supplies , with a small force of tanks and APCs supported B Company 3 RAR occupying the area along Route 15 to the west and north @-@ west of Baria between 25 – 30 June during Operation Ulladulla . As part of the operation the tanks ambushed a river and sank seven loaded sampans with their 20 @-@ pounder main armament .
On 10 June 1968 , General Creighton Abrams replaced Westmoreland and the change in command had resulted in a transformation of both the concept of the war and its conduct . Abrams directed that the allied main effort would switch to protecting population centres , rather than searching for and attempting to destroy North Vietnamese and Viet Cong main force units as they had done previously . Equally , the prosecution of the war would increasingly be handed over to the South Vietnamese under a policy of Vietnamization , with the Americans aiming to keep North Vietnamese and Viet Cong units off balance to prevent them from interfering with resupply and reinforcement until the South Vietnamese could fight the war on their own . For the Australians the change in allied strategy foreshadowed a return to the pacification of Phuoc Tuy Province . Operations outside the province over the previous eighteen months had been costly , and of the 228 Australians killed and 1 @,@ 200 wounded during the war to that point , almost two @-@ thirds had been killed since January 1967 . From July , 1 ATF completed a number of search @-@ and @-@ clear operations along the northern border areas and west of their Tactical Area of Responsibility in Phouc Tuy Province .
Meanwhile , the Viet Cong began their third general offensive for the year on 17 August 1968 , attacking dozens of towns and military installations throughout South Vietnam with rockets and mortars , including Saigon . As part of the allied response the Australians were deployed to defend Ba Ria , the provincial capital , while during 20 – 23 August , B and C Company , 1 RAR with a troop of Centurion tanks were involved in intense urban fighting while supporting South Vietnamese forces to clear a company @-@ sized force from D445 VC Battalion occupying Long Dien . At least 17 Viet Cong were killed during the fighting , while Australian casualties included six wounded . During the next three weeks , all three Australian battalions were deployed on search @-@ and @-@ destroy operations , yet the Viet Cong successfully eluded them . Continuing until 30 September , the renewed offensive lacked the scale of the previous attacks and again resulted in heavy communist casualties , failing to produce lasting military gains and contributing to an overall decline in Viet Cong and North Vietnamese combat power in the south . Yet such failures were neither final nor decisive and Hanoi seemed to increasingly hold the upper hand . The war continued regardless , while allied military strategic objectives were increasingly coming into question . In late @-@ 1968 1 ATF was again deployed outside its base in Phouc Tuy , operating against suspected communist bases in the May Tao and Hat Dich areas as part of Operation Goodwood . The operation led to sustained fighting during a 78 @-@ day sweep between December 1968 and February 1969 and later became known as the Battle of Hat Dich .
= 2007 Coca @-@ Cola 600 =
The 2007 Coca @-@ Cola 600 was the twelfth stock car race of the 2007 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series and the 48th iteration of the event . It was held on May 27 , 2007 , before a crowd of 175 @,@ 000 in Concord , North Carolina at Lowe 's Motor Speedway , one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races . The 400 @-@ lap race was won by Casey Mears of the Hendrick Motorsports team , who started from 16th position . J. J. Yeley finished second and Kyle Petty came in third .
Ryan Newman won the pole position and kept the lead for the first ten laps before his Penske Racing South teammate Kurt Busch moved into the lead on lap 11 . Busch held the lead for 107 laps ( longer than any other driver in the race ) until Brian Vickers moved into the lead after the first round of green @-@ flag pit stops . Jimmie Johnson gained the lead from Vickers on lap 185 and held it for 83 laps , battling with Vickers and Matt Kenseth for the position . At the race 's final restart on lap 342 , Tony Stewart led and maintained his position until he made a pit stop for fuel 51 laps later . Mears became the leader after Dale Earnhardt , Jr. and Denny Hamlin made similar pit stops ; Mears held the lead after slowing to conserve fuel to win the race . There were thirteen cautions and 29 lead changes among fifteen drivers during the race .
As of 2016 , the 2007 race is Mears ' only win of the Nextel Cup Series , which is now known as the Sprint Cup Series . After the race , Jeff Gordon 's lead in the Drivers ' Championship was reduced because he crashed in the early part of the race . Chevrolet increased its points advantage in the Manufacturers ' Championship , placing it 41 points ahead of Ford . Dodge moved further ahead of Toyota in the battle for third place , with 24 races left in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Coca @-@ Cola 600 was the twelfth scheduled stock car race of the 2007 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series , out of 36 , and the 48th iteration of the event . It was held on May 27 , 2007 in Concord , North Carolina at Lowe 's Motor Speedway , now called Charlotte Motor Speedway , one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Atlanta Motor Speedway , Chicagoland Speedway , Darlington Raceway , Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway , Kansas Speedway , New Hampshire Motor Speedway , Kentucky Speedway , Las Vegas Motor Speedway , and Texas Motor Speedway . The standard track at Lowe 's Motor Speedway is a four @-@ turn , 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) -long , quad @-@ oval track . The track 's turns are banked at 24 degrees ; both the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) and the back stretch ( opposite the front ) have a five @-@ degree banking .
Before the race , Jeff Gordon led the Drivers ' Championship with 1 @,@ 881 points , with teammate Jimmie Johnson in second and Matt Kenseth third . Denny Hamlin and Jeff Burton were fourth and fifth , and Tony Stewart , Kurt Busch , Kevin Harvick , Clint Bowyer , Carl Edwards , Kyle Busch and Jamie McMurray rounded out the top twelve . Chevrolet led the Manufacturers ' Championship with 96 points , 35 points ahead of its rival Ford in second . Dodge with 52 points was 19 points ahead of Toyota in the battle for third place . Kasey Kahne was the race 's defending champion .
The Coca @-@ Cola 600 was conceived by race car driver Curtis Turner , who built the Charlotte Motor Speedway . It was first held in 1960 in an attempt by NASCAR to stage a Memorial Day weekend race to compete with the open @-@ wheel Indianapolis 500 ; the two races were held together on the same day starting from 1974 . The race is the longest in terms of distance on the NASCAR calendar , and is considered by several drivers to be one of the sport 's most important races alongside the Daytona 500 , the Brickyard 400 and the Southern 500 . The long distance makes it the most physically demanding event in NASCAR , and teams adapt to changing track conditions because the race occurs between late afternoon and evening . It was known as the World 600 until 1984 when The Coca @-@ Cola Company purchased the naming rights to the race and renamed it the Coca @-@ Cola World 600 in 1985 . It has been called the Coca @-@ Cola 600 every year since 1986 except for 2002 when the name changed to Coca @-@ Cola Racing Family 600 .
In preparation for the race , NASCAR held several test sessions on May 7 – 8 , 2007 , to allow teams to prepare for the May races at Lowe 's Motor Speedway . Sessions began at 2 : 00 p.m. EDT on May 7 and concluded at 9 : 00 p.m. On May 8 , sessions started at 1 : 00 p.m. and stopped at 9 : 00 p.m. Eighty @-@ two cars participated in the May 7 afternoon session ; Martin Truex , Jr. was quickest with a speed of 180 @.@ 596 miles per hour ( 290 @.@ 641 km / h ) and David Stremme had the highest speed of the two days at 187 @.@ 000 miles per hour ( 300 @.@ 947 km / h ) in the evening session . Towards the end of the second session , Hamlin lost control of his car and made heavy contact with an outside SAFER barrier ; he was evaluated at the infield care center and was later released to continue testing . During the third session with eighty @-@ four cars , Jeremy Mayfield had the fastest speed of 183 @.@ 667 miles per hour ( 295 @.@ 583 km / h ) and Kurt Busch set the fastest speed of 185 @.@ 644 miles per hour ( 298 @.@ 765 km / h ) in the fourth and final session held in the evening . David Gilliland spun but avoided contact with the wall .
There was one change of driver before the race . Starting at the 2007 Coca @-@ Cola 600 , 1988 NASCAR Winston Cup Series champion Bill Elliott returned to NASCAR on a part @-@ time schedule for the Wood Brothers Racing team , replacing the team 's regular driver Ken Schrader , who drove in the season 's first eleven races . Elliott was eligible to use six Champion 's Provisionals if the need arose . Elliott was looking forward to returning to racing : " I was pretty honored to get a call from the Wood Brothers to drive the 21 car . I 've seen them struggle the last few weeks , being outside the top 35 , and it breaks my heart to see them miss races . I hope I can get in the car , get us qualified well every week and see what we can make up in the points battle along the way . "
= = = Practice and qualification = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race ; one on Thursday and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , the second 50 minutes and the third 60 minutes . In the first practice session , Elliott Sadler was fastest with a time of 29 @.@ 697 seconds ; Kahne was second and Ricky Rudd third . Johnson was fourth , and Casey Mears placed fifth . Kenseth , Joe Nemechek , Kyle Busch , Scott Riggs and Jamie McMurray completed the session 's top @-@ ten drivers . Sterling Marlin hit one of the walls lining the track and switched to a back @-@ up car . Michael Waltrip did not need to switch cars after a similar collision .
Although forty @-@ nine cars were entered in the qualifier ; according to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure only forty @-@ three could race . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitor 's fastest times . Drivers who set their laps late in qualifying had an advantage because the track was at its coolest . Ryan Newman clinched his thirty @-@ ninth pole position of his career , with a time of 29 @.@ 140 seconds . He was joined on the grid 's front row by his Penske Racing South teammate Kurt Busch , and was the second @-@ to @-@ last driver to record his lap . Sadler qualified third , Dale Earnhardt , Jr. fourth , and Kenseth started fifth . Hamlin , Rudd , Dave Blaney , Bobby Labonte and Stremme rounded out the top ten qualifiers . Jeff Green wrecked his car in the second turn while on a lap and used a provisional to qualify . The six drivers that failed to qualify were Kevin Lepage , David Reutimann ( who crashed on his lap ) Waltrip ( who lost control of his car in the second turn on his second qualifying lap , which tore off a front tire after hitting the inside wall and made contact with the wall a second time before stopping ) , Mike Bliss , Paul Menard and Ward Burton . After the qualifier , Newman said he felt pressure to achieve Penske 's Racing South 's first victory at Charlotte Motor Speedway : " He 's only been trying here for like 20 years , so yeah it would be special . It 's been something that weighs on the drivers and the teams " . He also said he felt he could have recorded a faster lap time and was worried about teammate Kurt Busch 's qualifying form .
On Saturday afternoon in sunny and warm weather conditions , Newman was fastest in the second practice session with a time of 30 @.@ 562 seconds , ahead of Sadler and Kurt Busch . Mark Martin was fourth @-@ fastest ; Greg Biffle was fifth and Earnhardt sixth . Edwards , Rudd , McMurray and Kahne followed in the top ten . During the session , teams were scuffing their tires ; in the first minute , Bowyer crashed after he spun in turn two and switched to a back @-@ up car in which he set five more lap times . Shortly afterward , Nemechek spun after exiting the second turn but avoided damaging his car . Later that day , Edwards paced the final practice session with a time of 30 @.@ 043 seconds ; Biffle was second and Newman third . Sadler was fourth @-@ fastest , ahead of J. J. Yeley and Truex . Kurt Busch was seventh @-@ fastest , Jeff Gordon eighth , Kenseth ninth , and Jeff Burton tenth . Kyle Busch damaged his right @-@ rear quarter after hitting the outside wall , but did not switch to a back @-@ up car .
= = = Race = = =
Live television coverage of the race began at 5 : 00 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time in the United States on Fox . Around the start of the race , weather conditions were partly cloudy with an air temperature between 70 and 87 ° F ( 21 and 31 ° C ) and a track temperature which ranged between 85 and 130 ° F ( 29 and 54 ° C ) . William K. Thierfelder , president of Belmont Abbey College in Belmont , North Carolina , began pre @-@ race ceremonies with an invocation . Country and pop music singer LeAnn Rimes performed the national anthem , and sponsored contest award winners commanded the drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , three drivers moved to the rear of the field because of unapproved changes ; Boywer had switched to his back @-@ up car , and David Ragan and Harvick had changed their engines .
The race began at 5 : 52 p.m. Newman maintained his pole @-@ position advantage heading into the first corner . After starting 21st , Jimmie Johnson moved up to 15th position by lap eight . Kurt Busch passed teammate Newman for the lead three laps later . By the 20th lap , Kurt Busch , Newman , Earnhardt , Kenseth and Yeley were running in the top five positions . Earnhardt got ahead of Newman for second place four laps later . Hamlin moved up to third position by lap 32 . Hamlin made up a further position on lap 43 after he passed Earnhardt for second and was 1 @.@ 2 seconds behind race leader Kurt Busch . The first caution of the race was shown four laps later when Biffle hit the turn two wall after his right @-@ front tire had been cut and dropped debris on the track . Biffle 's car sustained heavy damage to the right @-@ hand side , ending his race . All drivers elected to make pit stops for tires and fuel during the caution .
Kurt Busch , who made a 10 @.@ 4 @-@ second pit stop for fuel and no tires , maintained the lead on the lap @-@ 52 restart ahead of Hamlin , Kenseth , Earnhardt and Johnson . One lap later , a multi @-@ car collision occurred on the front stretch when A. J. Allmendinger lost control of his car in turn two and collided with the right @-@ rear quarter panel of Johnson 's car , which had a cut left @-@ rear tire that burst after leaving turn four . Johnson 's burst tire caused Blaney and Stewart to collide after Stewart slowed to avoid a collision with Johnson . Both drivers slid , collecting Gilliland , Sadler , Juan Pablo Montoya , Green , Bowyer , Truex , Marlin , Johnny Sauter , Kyle Petty and Harvick , all of whom had damage to their cars . The incident triggered the race 's second caution . Johnson and Stewart made pit stops to repair the damage to their cars ; both rejoined the race in eighteenth and twenty @-@ fifth positions .
Kurt Busch led on the lap @-@ 62 restart , ahead of Hamlin , Kenseth , Earnhardt , and Gordon . The third caution was prompted on the same lap when Tony Raines lost control of his car and slid sideways into Jeff Gordon , and both drivers were sent into the infield grass . Jeff Gordon went back up towards the outside wall and was hit by Allmendinger at the start @-@ finish line , which resulted in the former going airborne ; Robby Gordon and Burton were also involved in the accident . Gordon was unhurt ; drivers involved in the accidents , which caused the second and third cautions , made pit stops for repairs . Kurt Busch maintained his lead at the lap @-@ 70 restart , followed by Hamlin and Kenseth . Eight laps later , Burton caused the fourth caution after heavy contact with the turn three wall . During the caution , most of the leaders made pit stops ; Newman stopped for a track bar adjustment and had a new shifter ball installed . Kurt Busch and Kenseth chose not to pit and remained the leaders at the lap @-@ 83 restart , with Rudd in third place . Ten laps later , Newman , who was in eighth position , reported his car was " extremely tight " after the adjustments made at his pit stop . Stewart had moved back to eleventh and Johnson was thirteenth by lap 96 . Kurt Busch 's lead was four seconds over Kenseth after 100 laps , with Brian Vickers following in third , Ragan fourth and Kyle Busch in fifth . Johnson passed Yeley for seventh position eleven laps later .
Green @-@ flag pit stops began on lap 112 , with Kenseth pitting on the same lap for tires and a wedge change . Kurt Busch made his stop two laps later , handing the lead to Vickers for twelve laps . Kyle Busch took the lead on lap 126 with an advantage of ten seconds over Johnson by lap 131 . Kyle Busch made his pit stop on the next lap , handing the lead to Johnson for one lap . Stewart took over the lead until his stop on lap 133 , when Yeley became the race leader . Edwards and Elliott both held the lead in the next two laps . After the pit stops , Vickers regained the lead . On lap 140 , Vickers ' six @-@ second lead was reduced to nothing when the fifth caution was triggered after debris was spotted on the backstretch . Most of the leaders elected to make pit stops . Mears was observed speeding , and was required by NASCAR to drop to the rear of the longest line .
Racing resumed on lap 146 with Vickers leading Kyle Busch , Earnhardt , Yeley and Stewart as daylight began to fade . Mears was afflicted with an alternator issue on lap 149 , and switched to a back @-@ up battery . A flat tire slowed Earnhardt on lap 154 ; he pitted for new tires two laps later . Ragan moved back into the top five by lap 160 . Ten laps later , debris was spotted in the turn two groove , causing the sixth caution , during which all of the race leaders made pit stops . Vickers led on the lap @-@ 173 restart , followed by Kurt Busch and Martin . Kurt Busch drove down to the track 's inside and passed Vickers for the lead on lap 175 ; three laps later , Newman drove to his garage to retire with an engine failure . Mears ' team installed a new battery into his car , and switched between his main and back @-@ up battery to ensure engine power was maintained . Vickers retook the lead from Kurt Busch on the 181st lap , and Stewart got ahead of Kyle Busch one lap later . Johnson took the lead from Vickers on lap 185 .
On lap 186 , Kurt Busch nudged the turn two wall with his right @-@ rear side and spun on the backstretch , triggering the seventh caution . He regained control of his car to run in ninth place . Most of the leaders made pit stops . Johnson led at the lap @-@ 190 restart , followed by Vickers and Kenseth . Johnson held a one @-@ second lead over Vickers by the 200th lap , by which time Edwards had moved in front of Stewart . Vickers retook the lead from Johnson on lap 206 . Fifteen laps later , the eighth caution was triggered when Edwards 's car suffered a cut right @-@ rear tire , slowed on the track and spun at turn four while driving cautiously to the pit road . Edwards collected his teammate , Ragan , who was run into by Elliott . Mears was close by the incident but avoided damaging his car . On lap 222 , Vickers reported a power steering problem , and Kyle Busch was losing battery power . Most of the leaders , including Vickers , made pit stops . Kyle Busch 's car had a replacement battery fitted and Vickers topped up with more fluids ; both drivers rejoined in twelfth and thirteenth positions . Johnson led at the lap @-@ 227 restart , with Kenseth in second place . One lap later , Kenseth passed Johnson to take over first place , while Kyle Busch made heavy contact with the wall on his right side ; a caution was not needed . Johnson reclaimed the first position from Kenseth on the backstretch on the 245th lap . Kyle Busch 's right @-@ front tire was cut , and went into the turn four wall on lap 252 , triggering the ninth caution . During the caution , most of the leaders , including Johnson , chose to make pit stops . Johnson made changes to his car 's left and right rear spring rubber , and Stewart 's car 's air pressure was adjusted .
Kyle Busch drove to his garage with a broken brake motor on the 254th lap and Mayfield led the field back up to speed for the restart on the 256th lap , ahead of Kenseth , Vickers , Stewart and Johnson . Mayfield dropped to third place as Kenseth and Vickers moved into first and second places on lap 257 . Kenseth held a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ second lead over Stewart , who moved up to second and was closing on Kenseth by lap 265 . The race 's tenth caution was triggered two laps later when Kahne lost control of his car and hit the turn two outside wall . Most of the leaders , including Kenseth , elected to make pit stops . Johnson led the field on the lap @-@ 272 restart , followed by Kenseth and Stewart . Kenseth passed Johnson to reclaim the first position four laps later . Vickers and Rudd made contact while leaving the fourth turn on lap 281 but no caution was needed . Johnson retook the lead from Kenseth two laps later . Mayfield spun 360 degrees on the front stretch and went into the infield grass after trying to avoid a slower car on his outside on lap 291 , causing the eleventh caution . The leaders , including Johnson , made pit stops for tires under caution . Rudd took over the lead for one lap before pitting on lap 293 . Johnson regained the lead after the pit stops , maintaining it at the lap @-@ 297 restart ; he was followed by Kenseth and Earnhardt . Kyle Busch rejoined the race on the same lap . Kurt Busch lost control of his car on the backstretch on lap 298 ; his car spun off and hit the inside wall , causing the twelfth caution . He drove to his garage to retire .
Johnson led the field back up to speed at the lap @-@ 301 restart . Kenseth retook the lead from Johnson on the 311th lap , and Johnson reclaimed the position one lap later . Stewart got ahead of Kenseth for second place on lap 314 ; he was six @-@ tenths of a second behind race leader Johnson . After receiving a free pass from the tenth caution , Petty was running in ninth place by lap 316 ; he battled Reed Sorenson for eighth place . Fourteen laps later , Mears moved up into third position . The thirteenth ( and final ) caution of the race was triggered on lap 337 when Vickers hit the turn two wall , damaging his car 's right @-@ hand side , sustaining a cut right @-@ front tire and dropped debris onto the track . The leaders , including Johnson , made pit stops ; Johnson 's pit crew dropped a left @-@ rear lug nut , which cost him time while his mechanics looked for it , and he fell to tenth position . Stewart led the field on the lap @-@ 342 restart , ahead of Mears and Earnhardt . Johnson moved up to fourth place by lap 367 ; three laps later , Stewart had a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ second lead over Mears and had extended it to 2 @.@ 7 seconds by the 380th lap .
The second round of green @-@ flag pit stops for fuel began on lap 381 , as Earnhardt got ahead of Mears for second place on the following lap . Mears lost third place to his teammate Johnson on lap 390 . Johnson made his pit stop on the next lap and avoided a collision with Mears . Stewart drove slowly down the pit road on the 393rd lap because he was two laps short of fuel , allowing Earnhardt to move into first place before his own stop one lap later . Hamlin took over the lead before his pit stop on lap 395 , allowing Mears to take over the first position . By lap 398 , Mears held a ten @-@ second lead over Yeley , who was closing the gap , and felt his car was tight when he drove to the track 's outside , but held a strong line at the track 's bottom when he moved out of traffic . Mears conserved fuel after slowing his pace following persuasion by his crew chief Darian Grubb ; he maintained his lead for the remaining two laps to win his first race in the Nextel Cup Series . He ran out of fuel on his cool @-@ down lap ; his engine cut out shortly after crossing the start @-@ finish line . Yeley finished second , ahead of Petty in third , who secured his first top @-@ five finish since the 1997 MBNA 400 . Sorenson was fourth and Vickers came in fifth . Stewart , Rudd , Earnhardt , Hamlin and Johnson completed the top @-@ ten finishers . The race had thirteen cautions and 29 lead changes among 15 drivers . Kurt Busch 's total of 107 laps led was the highest of any competitor . Mears led for one period in the race , for a total of six laps .
= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
Mears appeared in victory lane to celebrate his first win in the Nextel Cup Series in front of the crowd ; the win earned him US $ 377 @,@ 425 and is his only career win as of 2016 . Mears was delighted with his victory , saying in the post @-@ race press conference , " This is unbelievable . I 'm very , very excited about it and , at the same time , very relieved . I was afraid Darien [ Grubb ] was going to call me in . I 'm glad he didn 't . The only way we could win was to gamble and that 's what we did . " Mears said he had " a fourth place car at best " . It was the first time since 1991 a person with the surname Mears had won in auto racing . Yeley , who finished second , said , " This is probably the first time in two years of Cup racing I didn 't catch the bad break . I 've always run into bad luck . " , and , " At the end , we were a top @-@ five car at best " . Third @-@ place finisher Petty said , " In all honesty , it 's just a race . We didn 't change the world tonight . It feels good to come back and race with these guys . I guess third place was just the cherry on the sundae . " He also said he had a car that was capable of finishing in the top ten and that he would not have been able to run with the top drivers . Petty also praised Mears for his victory and said he felt Mears would have similar success in the future . Hamlin said he felt the top @-@ five finishers were lucky to achieve their finishing positions and that his crew chief Mike Ford said there was " no glory in winning a fuel @-@ mileage race , other than saying you didn 't run hard and were saving fuel " .
Kurt Busch , who led 107 laps ( more than any other driver ) was frustrated after his lap @-@ 298 crash : " How in the world we can be so strong during the day here and almost in an instant go completely in the opposite direction is beyond my comprehension . We have to get a handle on it sooner or later . I 'm frustrated and down right now , but we 'll just keep plugging along looking for the answer . " Newman , who led the first ten laps of the race , was happy despite retiring from the race : " We had a good car . We had just gotten the lucky dog and we were going to be one of the 15 cars on the lead lap . Everybody at Penske Racing has been doing a great job . We 've just got to keep it up and stay focused . " After finishing the race in fifth place ( then the best finish for a Toyota car ) Vickers said it was " rough " driving without the use of power steering that cut in and out but he felt Red Bull Racing Team had " the best car " for the race . Stewart 's crew chief Greg Zipadelli was disappointed his driver could not take the victory : " If we hadn 't had an opportunity to win , I 'd say that finishing sixth and leading laps would be awesome , But sitting where we are right now , it seems that everything is stacked against us . We were probably a second- or third @-@ place car at worst , so it 's disappointing . " Eighth @-@ place finisher Earnhardt said he thought he secured a second @-@ place finish and was unaware the leaders had made pit stops . He said was happy with the way his team ran the race .
After retiring from the race on lap 221 , Elliott blamed himself for the collision with Ragan , saying he waited too long to react and was heavily committed to driving down the racetrack . He was also unable to remove his foot from his brake pedal . Ragan said he felt he should have passed Roush Fenway Racing teammate Edwards , who spun up the racetrack . Edwards also said he was trying to avoid wrecking himself . According to Montoya , who was involved in the multi @-@ car collision on the 53rd lap : " I saw a car flying , and as soon as I saw the car flying I checked up . We actually slowed down the car and everything . The ten car or somebody came right in behind us and just pushed us through the whole mess . " Jeff Gordon said he was " fine " after the accident and that it " looked a lot worse than it really was ... Unfortunate because , man , what an awesome race car we had . I was so proud of Steve Letarte and the guys . When we bring race cars like that to the track , it just makes me have a whole lot of fun . I was having a blast out there and I hate we are out of it . But I am ok . " Allmendinger claimed responsibility for causing the crash and asked his spotter to apologize to Johnson 's spotter , who relayed the message to Johnson via radio .
The result meant Jeff Gordon maintained his lead in the Drivers ' Championship with 1 @,@ 921 points , ahead of teammate Johnson with 1 @,@ 789 . Kenseth remained in third with his points advantage over Hamlin reduced to thirty @-@ two . Burton remained in fifth place and Stewart remained in sixth . Harvick moved into seventh position while Edwards moved up two positions to eighth . Kurt Busch 's non @-@ finish meant he slipped to ninth and Bowyer was tenth . Kyle Busch and McMurray rounded out the top twelve . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet with 105 points extended its lead to forty @-@ two points over its main rival Ford . Dodge increased its points advantage over Toyota in the battle for third place . The race took four hours , thirty @-@ six minutes and twenty @-@ seven seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 9 @.@ 561 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
= Nescopeck Creek =
Nescopeck Creek is a 37 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 60 @.@ 4 km ) tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . The creek is in the Coal Region of Pennsylvania . The meaning of the creek 's name is " deep black waters " . The waters of Nescopeck Creek have difficulty ratings between Class I and Class III . However , during parts of the year , Nescopeck Creek is impossible to navigate due to rapids , flooding , and tight bends . Nescopeck Creek is home to a number of species of trout , although the waters are not always optimal for them . Nescopeck Creek 's water is acidic , with a pH as low as 3 @.@ 6 in some studies .
Much of the land in the Nescopeck Creek 's watershed is forest . Farmland is common in the lower portions of the Nescopeck Creek watershed and the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed , while coal mines are more common on Nescopeck Creek 's tributaries Black Creek , Stony Creek , and Cranberry Creek . A 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) portion of Nescopeck Creek is considered a cold @-@ water fishery of high quality . There are also seven natural areas in the creek 's watershed , some of which contain rare species of plants and animals . On the Hilsenhoff Biotic Index , the streams in the watershed range from 0 to 18 . There are 51 genera of macroinvertebrates in the creek 's watershed . The habitats in the watershed primarily include mixed forest .
Nescopeck Creek 's watershed is 143 square miles ( 370 km2 ) in area and lies in parts of three counties . Slightly over half of the land in the watershed is deciduous forest . The rest is perennial herbaceous vegetation , mixed vegetation and annual herbaceous vegetation , and barren land . Some sub @-@ watersheds contain as much as 80 percent forest . Almost all of the streams in the watershed are within 330 feet ( 100 m ) of a road . Most of the land in the watershed has a slope of 0 to 3 percent , although there are areas with a slope of 8 percent or more .
There are five main soil series in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . These are the Hazleton @-@ Dekalb @-@ Buchanan series , the Wellsboro @-@ Oquaga @-@ Morris series , the Leck Kill @-@ Meckesville @-@ Calvin series , the Udorthents @-@ Urban Land @-@ Volusia series , and the Lackawanna @-@ Arnot @-@ Morris series . There are also coal veins in the watershed . The creek discharges aluminum , iron , and manganese , nitrogen , and phosphorus . The pH of the streams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed range from 4 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 2 . The main stem 's discharge ranged from 31 @.@ 8 to 227 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 90 to 6 @.@ 43 m3 / s ) between 1919 and 1926 . There are 10 dams in the watershed .
= = Course = =
Nescopeck Creek begins in Dennison Township , Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , at the confluence of an outlet of Olympus Pond and Creasy Creek . The creek 's source is also on the eastern edge of Mount Yeager . It flows northwest for a short distance before passing through Olympus Pond and turning west . For the next several miles the creek continues in this direction , running through Pennsylvania State Game Lands # 18 and receiving tributaries such as Reilly Creek and Little Nescopeck Creek A. Eventually , the creek passes the northwestern edge of Mount Yeager and continues into Butler Township . Here , the creek heads southwest at a more southerly angle , crossing Inerstate 80 , receiving Oley Creek , and passing an area of strip mines . A few miles later , the creek turns west @-@ southwest and corsses Pennsylvania Route 309 . Continuing onwards , it passes the communities of Rumbels and St. Johns and then crosses Interstate 81 . Several miles later , the creek leaves Butler Township and enters Sugarloaf Township . It continues west in this township , receiving the tributary Little Nescopeck Creek B , crossing Pennsylvania Route 93 , and making several meanders . After a number of miles , the creek meanders into Black Creek Township , where it turns north and picks up the tributary Black Creek right before crossing Interstate 80 and flowing through a gap in Nescopeck Mountain . In the gap , the creek crosses from Black Creek Township into Nescopeck Township , where it meanders northwest , passing the borough of Nescopeck and entering the Susquehanna River on the border between Nescopeck Township and Columbia County .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Nescopeck Creek has more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) of tributaries . This consists of 111 miles ( 179 km ) of named streams and 106 miles ( 171 km ) of unnamed ones . Major streams include Black Creek , two tributaries named Little Nescopeck Creek , Oley Creek , Creasy Creek , and Long Run . There are 13 named streams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed .
The portion of Nescopeck Creek from its mouth upstream to the mouth of Black Creek has a Strahler number of 5 . This makes up 8 @.@ 7 miles ( 14 @.@ 0 km ) of the streams in the watershed . Most of Black Creek and almost all of Nescopeck Creek upstream of Black Creek has a Strahler number of 4 . These make up 43 @.@ 2 miles ( 69 @.@ 5 km ) of streams in the creek 's watershed . Eight smaller tributaries in the watershed have Strahler number of three . These make up 14 @.@ 5 miles ( 23 @.@ 3 km ) of the creek 's watershed . A total of 25 streams in the creek 's watershed have a Strahler number of 2 . They make up 47 @.@ 4 miles ( 76 @.@ 3 km ) of the creek 's watershed . One hundred thirteen very small streams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed have a Strahler number of 1 . Such streams make up 104 @.@ 7 miles ( 168 @.@ 5 km ) of the creek 's watershed .
Little Nescopeck Creek A is one tributary of Nescopeck Creek . Its source is at the very northwestern edge of the creek 's watershed , and it joins the main stem of Nescopeck Creek slightly downstream of Olympus Pond . Little Nescopeck Creek B is in the south of the watershed and is slightly longer than Little Nescopeck Creek A. Little Nescopeck Creek B joins Nescopeck Creek at Sybertsville . Black Creek is the longest tributary of Nescopeck Creek , with a length of 24 @.@ 1 miles ( 38 @.@ 8 km ) . Reilly Creek is a tributary of Nescopeck Creek in the extreme east of the creek 's watershed . Only 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long , it is the shortest named tributary of Nescopeck Creek .
= = Hydrology = =
= = = Discharge = = =
From 1919 to 1926 , the discharge of Nescopeck Creek at St. Johns was 93 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 66 m3 / s ) . The month with the highest average discharge during this time was March , when there was a discharge of 227 cubic feet per second ( 6 @.@ 4 m3 / s ) . The month with the lowest average discharge during this time was September , when there was an average discharge of 31 @.@ 8 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 90 m3 / s ) . The highest discharge in a single month was 479 cubic feet per second ( 13 @.@ 6 m3 / s ) in March 1920 . The lowest discharge in a single month was 12 @.@ 9 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 37 m3 / s ) in September 1922 . The average discharge of Nescopeck Creek from 1995 to 2002 is 93 @.@ 7 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 65 m3 / s ) . From 1996 to 1998 , the Jeddo Tunnel discharged an average of 79 @.@ 4 cubic feet per second ( 2 @.@ 25 m3 / s ) of water into Little Nescopeck Creek .
= = = Dams = = =
There are ten dams on Nescopeck Creek 's watershed . The impoundments behind these dams have surface areas of 3 to 154 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 62 @.@ 3 ha ) . Nine of the dams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed are made from earthen @-@ fill . The tenth is an unnamed dam constructed of masonry . The dams range from 12 to 41 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 to 12 @.@ 5 m ) in height and 340 to 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 100 to 460 m ) in length . Their drainage areas are between 0 @.@ 6 and 8 @.@ 41 square miles ( 1 @.@ 6 and 21 @.@ 8 km2 ) .
= = = pH and contaminants = = =
In 2005 , a study was done on the pH of the waters of Nescopeck Creek and its tributaries . At three sites , its pH averaged 5 @.@ 06 , 4 @.@ 85 , and 4 @.@ 49 . However , the pH at Nescopeck Creek 's headwaters is between 6 @.@ 5 and 7 . The lowest pH level in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is 4 @.@ 2 , which is on some parts of Black Creek . Creasy Creek is the most alkaline tributary of Nescopeck Creek , with a pH ranging from 6 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 2 . Other relatively alkaline streams in the creek 's watershed include Long Run ( 6 @.@ 6 ) , Reilly Creek ( 6 @.@ 4 ) , Long Hollow ( 6 @.@ 4 ) , Oley Creek ( 6 @.@ 4 ) , Conety Run ( 6 @.@ 2 ) , and Little Nescopeck Creek A ( 5 @.@ 8 to 7 ) . Brook trout are able to tolerate pHs down to 4 @.@ 8 and the ideal pH range for freshwater fish is 6 @.@ 5 to 9 @.@ 0 .
At these sites , the study also found averages of 1 @.@ 7 , 2 @.@ 23 , and 5 @.@ 56 parts per million of aluminum , respectively . Concentrations of aluminium higher than 100 to 200 parts per million can cause suffocation of fish by accumulating in their gills . The toxicity of aluminum to fish is increased by a water pH of below 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 5 . There were also 0 @.@ 65 , 0 @.@ 81 , and 1 @.@ 84 parts per million of iron in these sites , and 0 @.@ 96 , 1 @.@ 15 , 0 @.@ 03 , and 2 @.@ 65 parts per million of manganese . There were 91 @.@ 37 , 114 @.@ 27 , and 274 @.@ 1 milligrams per liter of sulfates in the waters of Nescopeck at these sites .
A total of 318 metric tons ( 351 short tons ) of nitrogen per year are discharged from Nescopeck Creek . Thirty @-@ three percent of this came from land , 60 percent from groundwater , and 6 percent from leaking septic tanks . Its Black Creek tributary adds toxic amounts of copper , lead , and zinc to Nescopeck Creek 's watershed . In most parts of Nescopeck Creek and its tributaries , the concentration of phosphorus is slightly lower than the concentration of nitrogen . However , at St. Johns and Conyngham , the phosphorus leel is considerably higher than the nitrogen level . Most phosphorus contributed to Nescopeck Creek comes from sub @-@ watersheds instead of the main stem of the creek . The total amount of phosphorus in Nescopeck Creek is 16 @,@ 259 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 35 @,@ 846 lb ) . Cropland and quarries are the largest land sources of phosphorus in the watershed , each contributing 6 @,@ 226 @.@ 6 kilograms ( 13 @,@ 727 lb ) ( 43 @.@ 6 percent of land sources ) and 2 @,@ 109 @.@ 6 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 651 lb ) . The smallest sources of phosphorus in the watershed are unpaved roads , contributing 11 @.@ 8 kilograms ( 26 lb ) ( 0 @.@ 1 percent ) and mixed forest , contributing 28 @.@ 3 kilograms ( 62 lb ) ( 0 @.@ 2 percent ) . Groundwater contributes 1 @,@ 858 @.@ 3 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 097 lb ) and septic systems contribute 135 @.@ 1 kilograms ( 298 lb ) . Point source pollution in the watershed does not release any phosphorus .
Stony Creek 's water is the hardest water in the Nescopeck Creek watershed , with a concentration of over 100 milligrams per liter of dissolved minerals . Other streams in the watershed with hard water are Reilly Creek ( 28 milligrams per liter ) and Long Run ( 21 milligrams per liter ) . Some of the least hard waters in the Nescopeck Creek watershed are those of Little Nescopeck Creek A ( 3 to 8 milligrams per liter ) , Conety Run ( 5 milligrams per liter ) , and Oley Creek ( 7 milligrams per liter ) . However , the largest source of pollution in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is acid mine drainage ( AMD ) .
Above Little Nescopeck Creek B , Nescopeck Creek 's iron concentration is 110 micrograms per liter and the creek 's aluminum concentration is 40 micrograms per liter . Below Little Nescopeck Creek B , however , these values increase to 1260 micrograms per liter for iron and 7450 micrograms per liter for aluminum .
The vulnerability of groundwater to pollution in the Nescopeck Creek watershed has been measured using the DRASTIC system . It is lowest in the headwaters , as well as patches near the creek 's mouth , with a value of 69 to 90 . Values of 91 to 104 occur in the northern part of the watershed , as well as in scattered patches in the western part . Values of 105 to 115 occur in the southern , southwestern , and part of the central part of the watershed . Some areas with values 116 and higher are scattered throughout the watershed except near the headwaters .
= = Geology = =
Nescopeck Creek has coal veins near its source . These coal veins first appeared 300 million years ago . The thickness of these coal seams ranges from 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) in the Tracy Bed up to 50 to 114 feet ( 15 to 35 m ) in the Mammoth Bed . Nearly all of the Eastern Middle coal field is in the watershed of Nescopeck Creek . Sugarloaf Mountain is near Nescopeck Creek . Nescopeck Creek has a number of rapids . At its mouth , Nescopeck Creek carries 914 @.@ 9 pounds ( 415 @.@ 0 kg ) of aluminum , 1 @,@ 285 pounds ( 583 kg ) of iron , and 1 @,@ 127 pounds ( 511 kg ) of manganese per day .
Nescopeck Creek is in the geological region known as the Ridge and Valley region . This region is characterized by fertile valleys and steep ridges . However , the eastern reaches of the Nescopeck Creek watershed are near the border of the Appalachian Plateau region .
Nescopeck Creek 's watershed contains several major rock formations . These are the Mauch Chunk Formation , the Llewellyn Formation , the Pocono Formation , and the Pottsville Formation . The Mauch Chunk Formation is associated with large amounts of high @-@ quality groundwater . This formation consists of a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 910 m ) layer of shale , sandstone , and silt . It is situated under the Hazleton valley . The Mauch Chunk Formation contains outcrops of reddish rock . This formation is softer than many of the nearby rock formations . This formation makes up Sugarloaf Mountain and most of the Nescopeck Creek watershed . The Llewellyn Formation contains more coal than any other formation in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . This formation is 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) thick and is composed of brownish @-@ gray sandstone , siltstone , and shale . Buck Mountain , Mammoth Mountain , and Gamma Mountain are all carved out of the Llewellyn Formation and contain coal seams . The formation was once extensive , but has been worn down by erosion over millions of years . The Pottsville Formation also contains a large number of aquifers . This formation is 250 to 300 feet ( 76 to 91 m ) thick , and is composed of gray conglomerate and sandstone . While there is no anthracite in the Pottsville Formation , it does contain three @-@ foot seams of other varieties of coal . Groundwater from this formation is acidic and high in manganese and iron . The Pottsville Formation makes up the valleys directly surrounding Nescopeck Creek . The Pocono Formation consists of conglomerate and sandstone and surrounds the Pottsville Formation . The rock formations are typically more varied in the northern and western part of the watershed than the southern part .
There are also several less significant rock formations in Nescopeck Creek 's watershed . These include the Spechty Kopf Formation , the Hamilton Formation , and the Catskill Formation . Little is understood about the Spechty Kopf Formation , but it occurs between the Catskill and Pocono Formations . The Catskill Formation is grayish @-@ red shale , siltstone , and sandstone .
A total of 246 @,@ 594 metric tons ( 271 @,@ 823 short tons ) of material have eroded into Nescopeck Creek . Black Creek has the most erosion for an individual stream in the Nescopeck Creek watershed , with 123 @,@ 825 metric tons ( 136 @,@ 494 short tons ) of erosion . The main stem of Nescopeck Creek and Little Nescopeck Creek B also have high amounts of erosion , with 74 @,@ 365 metric tons ( 81 @,@ 973 short tons ) and 44 @,@ 876 metric tons ( 49 @,@ 467 short tons ) , respectively .
= = = Soils = = =
The most common soil series in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is the Hazleton @-@ Dekalb @-@ Buchanan series . Twenty @-@ six percent of Nescopeck Creek 's watershed contains this soil series . Much soil and bedrock in this series has been removed during mining operations . This soil series occurs in the southern part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed , near tributaries such as Black Creek and Stony Creek . The soils in this soil series are highly permeable .
Approximately 24 percent of the creek 's watershed contains the Wellsboro @-@ Oquaga @-@ Morris series . The series is made of Wellsboro soils , Oquaga soils , and some Morris soils . This type of soil series is most common near the creek 's source . Another twenty @-@ four percent of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is made up of the Leck Kill @-@ Meckesville @-@ Calvin series . This soil series tends to occur on hillsides near streams . The Leck Kill @-@ Meckesville @-@ Calvin series occurs quite near the mouth of Nescopeck Creek , with a large patch further upstream , and a small patch in the southwestern part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed .
Eleven percent of Nescopeck Creek 's watershed is made up of the Udorthents @-@ Urban Land @-@ Volusia series . There is some urban development over lands containing the soil series . Other areas where this soil series occurs have been surface @-@ mined . The limiting factor for plant growth in this series is the rocky surface and the depth of the bedrock below . The Udorthents @-@ Urban Land @-@ Volusia soil series occurs in the southeastern and parts of the southwestern parts of the Nescopeck Creek watershed . The Lackawanna @-@ Arnot @-@ Morris series is present in nine percent of Nescopeck Creek 's watershed . The Lackawanna @-@ Arnot @-@ Morris soil series mostly is near Nescopeck Creek 's source , but there is some of it in the central Nescopeck Creek watershed .
= = Watershed = =
Nescopeck Creek 's watershed is 143 square miles ( 370 km2 ) in area . Most of the watershed is in Luzerne County , but part of it also extends into Schuylkill and Columbia Counties . Nescopeck Creek 's watershed area includes one city , five boroughs , and thirteen townships . Most of the land in the Nescopeck Creek watershed , except for area near its source , is publicly owned . Thirteen percent of the land in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is owned by the state of Pennsylvania .
Fifty @-@ seven percent of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is composed of deciduous forest . Areas of perennial herbaceous vegetation make up 11 to 12 percent of the creek 's watershed . Additionally , there are scattered patches of mixed vegetation and annual herbaceous vegetation in the northwestern part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed . Four to seven percent of the Nescopeck Creek watershed consists of mines , quarries , and gravel pits . A total of 95 percent of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is rural . The remaining 5 percent is suburban or urban . Twenty @-@ seven percent of the streams in the Nescopeck Creek watershed are near surface @-@ mining operations and 73 percent are not . Most developed land tends to be located in the southern part of the watershed , while most undeveloped land is in the northern part of the watershed .
All sub @-@ watersheds of the Nescopeck Creek watershed contain at least 50 percent forest . A number of streams in the upper Nescopeck Creek watershed , in fact , have more than 80 percent forest coverage . Only 55 percent of the Black Creek watershed is covered by forest . Most sub @-@ watersheds of Nescopeck Creek have only a small amount of barren land . However , the Cranberry Creek watershed contains 6 @.@ 5 percent barren land , the Black Creek watershed contains 14 percent , and the Stony Creek watershed contains 30 percent . The Little Nescopeck Creek watershed contains 30 percent farmland and the Nescopeck Creek watershed contains 24 percent . Other sub @-@ watersheds of Nescopeck Creek range from 2 to 13 percent farmland .
There are 910 miles ( 1 @,@ 460 km ) of roads in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . Forty percent of the creek 's length is within 100 feet ( 30 m ) of a road . Eighty @-@ seven percent of Nescopeck Creek 's length is within 332 feet ( 101 m ) of a road . There are 286 miles ( 460 km ) of roads in Nescopeck Creek 's main stem sub @-@ watershed . There are 253 miles ( 407 km ) of roads in the Black Creek sub @-@ watershed . The Long Run and Little Nescopeck Creek sub @-@ watersheds also contain close to 122 and 113 miles ( 196 and 182 km ) of roads , respectively .
= = = Terrain = = =
Most of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is flat , with a slope of 0 to 3 percent . There are two major lines of hills in the watershed , one of which is in the northern part and the other of which is in the central part of the watershed . These lines of hills have a slope of 3 to 8 percent . In both of the lines of hills , there are patches where the slope is 8 to 15 percent and in the northern line of hills , there is an area with a slope of over 15 percent .
The elevation at Nescopeck Creek 's mouth and along Nescopeck Creek for a few miles upstream is in the range of 490 to 659 feet ( 149 to 201 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's watershed north of the northernmost line of hills is in the range of 663 to 994 feet ( 202 to 303 m ) . The central part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed , south of the northernmost line of hills , including the mouth of Black Creek , is also in this range . The area close to the main stem of the creek upstream to several miles from the source is in the range of 997 to 1 @,@ 161 feet ( 304 to 354 m ) . In the central part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed , several tributaries also lie in this elevation range . Near the creek 's source , its elevation is in the range of 1 @,@ 165 to 1 @,@ 496 feet ( 355 to 456 m ) . The central part of the Black Creek watershed is also in this range , as is much of the Nescopeck Creek watershed 's northernmost line of hills . Nescopeck Creek 's elevation within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of its source is in the range of 1 @,@ 499 to 1 @,@ 831 feet ( 457 to 558 m ) . The upper portion of the Black Creek watershed and the southeastern part of the Nescopeck Creek watershed is also in this range . Scattered parts of the creek 's watershed , such as its southwestern corner and the creek 's source , are in the elevation range of 1 @,@ 834 to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 559 to 610 m ) .
The Long Hollow sub @-@ watershed is Nescopeck Creek is Nescopeck Creek 's smallest sub @-@ watershed , with an area of 1 @.@ 1 square miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km2 ) . The main stem of Nescopeck Creek has the largest sub @-@ watershed , with an area of 67 @.@ 3 square miles ( 174 km2 ) . The Black Creek sub @-@ watershed is Nescopeck Creek 's second @-@ largest sub @-@ watershed . The Little Nescopeck Creek A at 14 square miles ( 36 km2 ) , Little Nescopeck Creek B at 8 @.@ 4 square miles ( 22 km2 ) , Cranberry Creek at 8 @.@ 4 square miles ( 22 km2 ) , and Oley Creek at 7 @.@ 2 square miles ( 19 km2 ) are also among the largest Nescopeck Creek sub @-@ watersheds .
= = History = =
= = = Native American inhabitation = = =
Nescopeck Creek 's name comes from a Lenape word meaning " deep black waters " . Historically , two tribes of Native Americans known as the Fork Indians and the Delaware Indians lived near the mouth of Nescopeck Creek . Other parts of the Nescopeck Creek watershed were settled by Lenni Lenape Indians . The Lenni Lenape inhabited the Nescopeck Creek watershed a thousand years before European settlers . There is no definitive record of permanent settlements in the interior of Nescopeck Creek 's watershed , but temporary Native American settlements existed in what is now Nescopeck State Park . By the 1700s , the Lenni Lenape had left the Nescopeck Creek watershed due to encroaching Iroquois and European settlers .
There were two major Native American trails in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . These were the Lehigh Path , which is also known as the Warrior Trail , and the Trade Trail . Parts of these trails would become Vine Street and Broad Street in Hazleton , respectively .
= = = European inhabitation = = =
In the early 1700s , some European settlers , who were granted warrants by William Penn , explored Native American trails in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . On these paths , skirmishes occasionally occurred between settlers and Native Americans . One example is the Sugarloaf Massacre , when a group of Native Americans ambushed some soldiers on the Lehigh Path near Nescopeck Creek in 1780 . The first mill was built in the Nescopeck Creek watershed in 1788 . By 1791 , there were four settlers along Nescopeck Creek . In 1795 , Samuel Mifflin built a sawmill at the mouth of Nescopeck Creek . A gristmill was built on Nescopeck Creek the same year . A flood of Nescopeck Creek in 1786 , known as the Pumpkin Flood , was noted for sweeping large numbers of pumpkins downstream on the creek .
Light industries , such as lumbering and tanning , gradually developed in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . This led to the creation of numerous communities in the Nescopeck Creek watershed , such as White Haven , Freeland , and Hazleton . Additionally , anthracite coal was discovered in 1813 . Coal became an important industry for the Nescopeck Creek region by 1836 with the formation of the Hazleton Coal Company . In the 1830s and 1840s , a number of " patch towns " designed to attend mines were built in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . The population in the Nescopeck Creek watershed began to increase rapidly around this time . By the 1880s , the patch towns attended over thirty mines in the watershed . However , the coal mining industry in the watershed began to lose value around this time , coal mining was no longer a significant source of industry in the Nescopeck Creek watershed by 1936 .
In 1830 , a forge which made bar iron was built on Nescopeck Creek . The most destructive flood on Nescopeck Creek occurred in 1850 , when a dam on the creek was breached , killing 22 people . From 1858 to 1870 there was a tannery on Nescopeck Creek . In 1828 , plans for a canal in Nescopeck Creek were made . In 1885 , a number of French Indian artifacts , which were Plaster of Paris casts for making sculptures , were discovered along Nescopeck Creek in Dennison Township .
In 1891 the first part of the Jeddo Tunnel , a tunnel in the Nescopeck Creek watershed , was built . The last tunnel in this system was built in 1932 . These tunnels drain more than 32 square miles ( 83 km2 ) , of which 13 square miles ( 34 km2 ) contain coal basins .
A dam on Nescopeck Creek was destroyed during Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . In the early 1900s , there was a steam @-@ electric power station at the mouth of Nescopeck Creek . The Wilkes @-@ Barre and Hazleton Railway passed over Nescopeck Creek in the beginning of the 1900s . The Jeddo Tunnel , which drained a colliery in the 20th century , emptied into Nescopeck Creek . After World War II , there was a large increase in unemployment rates in the Nescopeck Creek watershed due to the failing coal mining industry . From 1919 to 1926 , the United States Geological Survey had a station on Nescopeck Creek near the community of St. Johns . Two other stream gauging stations have been built on Nescopeck Creek . One of these stations , which was in use from 1949 to 1950 was in Nescopeck . The other , which was in use from 1963 to 1970 , was 0 @.@ 6 miles upstream of Nescopeck Creek 's mouth . In the 1990s , some people were caught stealing Native American artifacts at the Nescopeck Creek headwaters .
= = Biology = =
Nescopeck Creek is home to brown trout and brook trout near its source , but does not have much life further downstream because coal mine waste in Little Nescopeck Creek pollutes the lower reaches of Nesocpeck Creek . In 1999 , a study discovered 20 species of fish living in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . Of these , 15 had been observed before in the watershed , and five had not . Nesopeck Creek and its various tributaries are rated Class A to Class D for wild trout . There are a number of riparian buffers on Nescopeck Creek , of which 80 percent consist of forest . Along parts of Nescopeck Creek , there are a large number of shrub @-@ like oak trees . In the Nescopeck Creek watershed , there are prolific forests of oak , chestnut , and hemlock trees .
The entire Nescopeck Creek watershed has a high level of biodiversity , with the most diverse areas being Arbutus Peak , the Edgewood vernal pools , and the Nescopeck Creek valley . The creek 's southeastern corner contains the highest density of amphibian species in its watershed . The highest density of snake species in the watershed is in the same area . The lowest density of snake species in the watershed is along the central part of Nescopeck Creek . The highest density of bird species in the watershed is in the southern and central part of the watershed . The highest density of mammal species in the watershed is at Nescopeck Creek 's headwaters .
In the Nescopeck Creek watershed , there are seven natural areas . These are Arbutus Peak , Valmont Industrial Park , the Black Creek flats , the Humboldt barrens , the Nescopeck Creek valley , and the Edgewood vernal pools . Arbutus Peak is a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ to @-@ 6 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 400 ha ) area at Nescopeck Creek 's headwaters . Also , the Nescopeck Barrens are home to 15 rare species of plants and animals . The Nescopeck Creek valley also contains a number of rare species . The Edgewood vernal pools provide a breeding ground for wood frogs and Jefferson salamanders .
The Bird Community Index , a measure of the quality of a habitat based on the presence of songbirds , has been tested for most of the watershed of Nescopeck Creek . The Bird Community Index was high in one area near the source of Nescopeck Creek . In all other areas of the watershed , the index was low to medium . One of the lowest values is near Nescopeck Creek 's mouth . The Hilsenhoff Biotic Index ( HBI ) has been measured for a number of sites along Nescopeck Creek and its tributaries . Upstream of the Jeddo Tunnel , Little Nescopeck Creek B has a high HBI . However , just downstream of the Jeddo Tunnel , the HBI drops off by a large amount . Black Creek has an HBI of 0 to 6 @.@ 6 , and this tributary 's biodiversity is lower at its headwaters than at its confluence with Nescopeck Creek . Nescopeck Creek 's HBI is from 1 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 4 , depending on the site . In Nescopeck Creek , the total number of macroinvertebrate taxa at several sites ranges from 5 to 26 . In Little Nescopeck Creek , the values range from 1 to 18 . In Black Creek , the number ranges from 0 to 11 .
In 1999 , the only Class @-@ A fishery waters in the Nescopeck Creek watershed were those of Little Nescopeck Creek A , the headwaters of Nescopeck Creek , and several minor tributaries of Nescopeck Creek . Only one small stream near Nescopeck Creek 's mouth had Class @-@ C fishery waters . The central part of Nescopeck Creek , as well as most of Black Creek had Class @-@ D fishery waters . There were twenty species of fish in Nescopeck Creek in 1999 . Of these , seventeen had been seen in the watershed before . However , since between a 1999 study of the watershed and the study before that , the brown bullhead and the bluegill fish had vanished from the Nescopeck Creek watershed .
A large number of genera of macroinvertebrates have been discovered in and around Nescopeck Creek . These consist of one genus of segmented worm , one genus of sowbugs , 11 genera of mayflies , 8 genera of stone flies , 11 genera of caddisflies , 6 genera of dragonflies , 2 genera of helgrammites , 10 genera of beetles , and one genus of fly .
There are a total of 14 species of amphibians in the Nescopeck Creek watershed , of which 11 breed in the watershed . These species consist of 6 salamanders , 6 frogs , one newt , and one toad . There are seven species of reptiles in the watershed , of which five breed there . Five of these species are snakes and two are turtles . The biodiversity of birds in the watershed is much greater than that of amphibians or reptiles ; there are approximately one hundred different species of birds in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . A total of 29 mammals have been observed in the creek 's watershed , including three species of bats , two species of mice , and two species of foxes .
= = = Habitats = = =
The most common habitat in the Nescopeck Creek watershed is the dry @-@ oak mixed forest . Common trees in this habitat include northern red oak , white oak , and chestnut oak . This habitat also contains gray and black birch trees . Pine , hemlock , and some types of oak trees are found on the higher parts of this habitat . Lower to the ground are huckleberry , teaberry , blueberry , and hawthorn and other plants . The wildflowers in this habitat include wild onion and wild strawberries .
In the Nescopeck Creek watershed , pitch pine – scrub oak forests occur on Arbutus Peak and several barren areas in the southern part of watershed . In this type of forest , pitch pine , scrub oak , black oak and chestnut oak are the main trees . Bracken fern , teaberry , black chokeberry , blueberry , and huckleberry are the most common shrubs in this habitat .
All of the streams in the Nescopeck Creek are considered sub @-@ optimal habitats and rated on a scale of 1 to 240 . The most optimal water habitat in the watershed is a site along Nescopeck Creek , with a rating of 184 . The least optimal water habitats in the watershed are two sites along Black Creek . These sites are considered poor to marginal habitats , with ratings of 56 and 96 respectively .
= = Recreation = =
Nescopeck State Park is one source of recreation in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . Nescopeck Creek flows through this state park and on it there are opportunities for trout fishing . Nescopeck Creek takes up 3 @,@ 350 acres ( 1 @,@ 360 ha ) of the northwestern part in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . Additionally , there are four golf courses , two community parks , and two Pennsylvania State Game Lands , and ten sites for water @-@ based recreation , including Lake Francis in Nescopeck State Park . A tourist attraction , Eckley Miner 's Village , is within the Nescopeck Creek watershed . A resort known as the Eagle Rock Resort is in the Nescopeck Creek watershed . Since the late 1990s , there have been plans to convert old railroad lines in the Nescopeck Creek watershed to rail trails . One such plan is to link the Hazleton area to the Delaware and Lehigh National Heritage Corridor .
= Krusty the Clown =
Herschel Shmoikel Pinchas Yerucham Krustofsky , better known as Krusty the Clown ( sometimes spelled as Krusty the Klown ) , is a cartoon character in the animated television series The Simpsons . He is voiced by Dan Castellaneta . He is the long @-@ time clown host of Bart and Lisa 's favorite TV show , a combination of kiddie variety television hijinks and cartoons including The Itchy & Scratchy Show . Krusty is often portrayed as a cynical , burnt @-@ out , addiction @-@ riddled smoker who is made miserable by show business but continues on anyway . He has become one of the most common characters outside of the main Simpson family and has been the focus of several episodes , most of which also spotlight Bart. Krusty was created by cartoonist Matt Groening and partially inspired by Rusty Nails , a television clown from Groening 's hometown of Portland , Oregon . He was designed to look like Homer Simpson with clown makeup , with the original idea being that Bart worships a television clown who was actually his own father in disguise . His voice is based on Bob Bell , who portrayed WGN @-@ TV 's Bozo the Clown . Krusty made his television debut on January 15 , 1989 in the Tracey Ullman Show short " The Krusty the Clown Show " .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Krusty the Clown , born Herschel Shmoikel Pinchas Yerucham Krustofski , was born in the Lower East Side of Springfield and is the son of Hyman Krustofski . Very little is known about his mother , aside from her name being Rachel and that she died when Krusty was around thirteen . Hyman strongly opposed Krusty 's wish to become a clown and make people laugh , believing that it would distract him from his religion , wanting the boy to go to yeshiva instead . However , Krusty performed slapstick comedy behind his father 's back . One day , he was performing at a rabbis ' convention when one joking rabbi squirted seltzer on him , washing off his clown makeup . When Rabbi Krustofski found out , he disowned his son , and did not speak to him for 25 years . Krusty was later reconciled with his father with the assistance of Bart and Lisa Simpson . It was later revealed that Krusty did not have a Bar Mitzvah service , because Hyman feared he would violate the sanctity of the rites by " acting up " . Krusty had two adult Bar Mitzvah ceremonies : a Hollywood gala which Krusty uses to stage a comeback after his show is cancelled , then a simple ceremony intended to reconnect with his father . After leaving the Lower East Side of Springfield , Krusty started his show biz career as a street mime in Tupelo , Mississippi . Krusty later discovered that he has a daughter named Sophie . He had met Sophie 's mother when she served as a soldier in the Gulf War and he was entertaining the troops . After spending the night together , he prevented her from assassinating Saddam Hussein to protect his Saddam @-@ themed comedy act . After that she started hating clowns , and kept their daughter a secret from Krusty .
Krusty has his own show on Channel 6 in Springfield : The Krusty the Clown Show , which is aimed towards a children 's audience and has many followers , including Bart Simpson . Krusty has licensed the show to dozens of countries , including Ireland , China , Jamaica , and Romania , that produce localized versions . Some of the early details of Krusty 's career have been revealed in clips , but he himself has been contradictory . For example , Krusty once said that he was banned from television for consecutive 10 and 22 year periods - the first after saying " pants " on the air in " Day of the Jackanapes " during a sketch about the Sputnik satellite , and the second after a disastrous appearance on Rowan & Martin 's Laugh In , where the trap door he was supposed to appear through failed to open - taking him from 1957 to 89 . Yet he was back on TV as early as 1961 - an episode of Krusty 's show exists from that year in which he interviews AFL @-@ CIO president George Meany . Krusty 's show has gone through various phases : a clip from 1963 shows Krusty interviewing Robert Frost then dumping a load of snow on the poet . The show later took a different turn , featuring Ravi Shankar as a guest and having Krusty howl a drugged @-@ out version of The Doors ' " Break on Through ( To the Other Side ) " in 1973 . By the 1980s , the show had devolved into a children 's entertainment show . During the series , the Krusty the Clown Show is shown to be aimed almost entirely at children and features many characters , including Sideshow Mel , Mr. Teeny , Tina Ballerina , and Corporal Punishment . Sideshow Bob used to be Krusty 's main sidekick , but years of constant abuse led to Bob framing Krusty for armed robbery , although Bob was eventually foiled by Bart. Bob has since been replaced by Sideshow Mel , who has remained loyal to Krusty . He seems to retire from and then get back into show business repeatedly throughout his career . His most recent retirement was almost permanent because of recently paroled Sideshow Bob 's latest scheme – wiring plastic explosives to a hypnotized Bart and sending him up on stage . When Krusty makes a tribute to Bob at the last minute , however , Bob has a change of heart and stops Bart from fulfilling his mission . Bob and Krusty were later reconciled , with Krusty exclaiming that Bob 's attempts at Krusty 's life make his ratings shoot through the roof . This reconciliation remains for the rest of the series , as Bob abandons his attempts for revenge on Krusty in favor of targeting Bart exclusively .
Bart Simpson is one of Krusty 's biggest fans . In the episode " Krusty Gets Busted " ( Season 1 , Episode 12 ) he declared " I 've based my life on Krusty 's teachings " and sleeps in a room filled with Krusty merchandise . He exposed Sideshow Bob 's attempted framing , helped Krusty return to the air with a comeback special and reignite his career and reunited Krusty with his estranged father . For his part , Krusty is usually grateful for Bart 's assistance , but will almost immediately forget about it , presumably due to his excessive drinking and drug habits , and usually doesn 't even remember his name next time they encounter each other . One summer , Bart enthusiastically attended Kamp Krusty , largely because of the promise that he would get to spend his summer with Krusty . The camp turned out to be a disaster , with Krusty nowhere to be seen , as the camp was simply a franchise location that Krusty had licensed his image to . Bart kept his hopes up by believing that Krusty would show up , but one day the camp director Mr Black brought in Barney Gumble with clown makeup masquerading as Krusty . This pushed Bart over the edge . He decided that he was sick of Krusty 's shoddy merchandise and took over the camp . Krusty immediately visited the camp in hopes of ending the conflict and managed to appease Bart.
Krusty is a multimillionaire who amassed his fortune mostly by licensing his name and image to a variety of substandard products and services , from Krusty alarm clocks to Krusty crowd control barriers . Many of these products are potentially dangerous , such as Krusty 's brand of cereal , which in one episode boasted a jagged metal Krusty @-@ O in each box . One of many lawsuits regarding these products was launched by Bart , who ate a jagged metal Krusty @-@ O and had to have his appendix removed . The " Krusty Korporation " , the company responsible for Krusty 's licensing , has also launched a series of disastrous promotions and business ventures , such as sponsoring the 1984 Summer Olympics with a rigged promotion that backfired when the Soviet Union boycotted the games , causing Krusty to lose $ 44 million . In the TV series and comic books Krusty is also the mascot and owner of the restaurant Krusty Burger . He has been shut down by the health board many times for everything from overworking employees to stapling together half @-@ eaten burgers to make new ones , as well as using beef infected with Mad Cow Disease to save money . Krusty wastes money almost as fast as he earns it : lighting his cigarettes with hundred @-@ dollar bills , eating condor @-@ egg omelettes , spending huge sums on pornographic magazines , and losing a fortune gambling on everything from horse races to operas and betting against the Harlem Globetrotters .
Krusty is a hard @-@ living entertainment veteran , sometimes depicted as a jaded , burned @-@ out has @-@ been , who has been down and out several times and remains addicted to gambling , cigarettes , alcohol , Percodan , Pepto @-@ Bismol , and Xanax . He instantly becomes depressed as soon as the cameras stop rolling ; Marge states in " The Sweetest Apu " , that , " off camera , he 's a desperately unhappy man " . Krusty appeared to have used cocaine , one time emerging from a restaurant bathroom with white powder under his nose , but he explained that he was simply researching a part for a film , in which he played himself . In his book Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner describes Krusty as " the wizened veteran , the total pro " who lives the celebrity life . He is miserable but he needs his celebrity status . In " Bart the Fink " , Bart inadvertently reported Krusty for tax fraud to the Internal Revenue Service and as a result Krusty lost most of his money . Bart soon discovered that Krusty had faked his death and was living as Rory B. Bellows on a boat . Krusty declared that he was finished with the life of a celebrity and was unconvinced when Bart reminded him of his fans and his entourage . Finally , Bart told Krusty that leaving show business would mean losing his celebrity status , which convinced Krusty to return . Krusty has been described as " the consummate showman who can 't bear the possibility of not being on the air and not entertaining people . "
In the fourteenth season , Bart convinced Krusty to run for Congress so that Krusty could introduce an airline rerouting bill and stop planes from flying over the Simpsons ' house . Krusty agreed and ran on the Republican ticket . Although his campaign started off badly , Lisa suggested that he try connecting with regular families , which Krusty did , resulting in a landslide victory . Krusty 's term started off badly , as he was completely ignored by his new , more politically savvy colleagues . With the help of the Simpsons and an influential doorman , however , Krusty succeeded in passing his bill .
His body features are a third nipple , a veal @-@ shaped birthmark and a scar on his chest as a result of having a pacemaker inserted into his heart after suffering from a heart attack on the air in 1986 .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Krusty first appeared in " The Krusty the Clown Show " , one of The Simpsons shorts from The Tracey Ullman Show that first aired on January 15 , 1989 . The character was partially inspired by TV clown " Rusty Nails " whom The Simpsons creator Matt Groening and director Brad Bird watched as children while growing up in Portland , Oregon . Groening describes Rusty Nails as being a sweet clown whose show sometimes had a Christian message , but whose name scared Groening . Dan Castellaneta based his voice characterization on Chicago television 's Bob Bell who had a very raspy voice and portrayed WGN @-@ TV 's Bozo the Clown from 1960 to 1984 .
Many events in Krusty 's life parallel those of comedian Jerry Lewis , including his Jewish background , addiction to Percodan , and hosting of telethons . When asked , Groening has simply noted that " [ Simpsons ] characters are collaborations between the writers , animators , and actors " without specifically confirming or denying the association .
Krusty 's appearance and design is essentially that of Homer Simpson with clown makeup . Groening said that " The satirical conceit that I was going for at the time was that The Simpsons was about a kid who had no respect for his father , but worshiped a clown who looked exactly like his father " , a theme which became less important as the show developed . One concept initially saw Krusty being revealed as Homer 's secret identity but the idea was dropped for being too complex and because the writers were too busy developing the series . Krusty was originally just a normal man wearing clown makeup , but David Silverman noted that " at some point , we decided he looked [ like a clown ] all the time . " The producers had long discussions about whether or not Krusty would always remain in his clown makeup but eventually decided that it did not matter . The writers had tried showing Krusty 's real face a few times in early episodes , but decided that it did not look right , although his real face was seen in " Krusty Gets Busted " and " Like Father , Like Clown " . Later episodes made jokes about Krusty 's face . In " Homer 's Triple Bypass " , Krusty reveals that his " grotesque appearance " is the result of multiple heart attacks . Homer remarks that he seems fine , and Krusty replies , " This ain 't makeup . " In " Bart the Fink " , he abandons an idea to sail away with a new identity and swims towards shore , leaving a trail of yellow makeup in his wake and his natural white face underneath . On shore , he shakes off his black hair , revealing his natural green clown hair , and removes his normal @-@ looking fake nose to reveal his natural red bulbous clown nose underneath .
= = = Development = = =
The third season episode " Like Father , Like Clown " is the first to establish that Krusty is Jewish . Krusty 's religion had not been part of the original concept , and the idea came from Jay Kogen . The episode is a parody of The Jazz Singer , which is about a son with a strict religious upbringing who defies his father to become an entertainer . In order to make " Like Father , Like Clown " a full parody of The Jazz Singer , the decision was made to make Krusty Jewish and have his father be a Rabbi . Krusty 's real last name , Krustofski , was pitched by Al Jean . Krusty 's father , Rabbi Hyman Krustofski was played by Jackie Mason , who won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for the episode . It was established in " Krusty Gets Busted " that Krusty is illiterate . This was shown in subsequent episodes like " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " but the trait was dropped after the first few seasons because it was hard for the writers to write for an illiterate character .
Krusty 's design has undergone several subtle changes since the early years . For the episode " Homie the Clown " , Krusty 's design was permanently enhanced and he was given a different shaped mouth muzzle and permanent bags under his eyes in order to distinguish him from Homer . In the episode " Lisa 's Wedding " , which is set fifteen years in the future , Krusty 's design was significantly altered to make him look considerably older and was based on Groucho Marx .
Krusty is a favorite character of several of the original writers , many of whom related themselves to him and wanted to write the Krusty focused episodes . Krusty was used as a chance for show business jokes and thus many of Krusty 's experiences and anecdotes are based on real experiences and stories heard by the writers . He was a particular favorite of Brad Bird , who directed the first two Krusty episodes and always tried to animate a scene in every Krusty episode .
In 1992 , Matt Groening and James L. Brooks began planning a live @-@ action spinoff from The Simpsons that revolved around Krusty and would star Dan Castellaneta . They pitched the series in 1994 . Groening and Michael Weithorn wrote a pilot script where Krusty moved to Los Angeles and got his own talk show . A recurring joke throughout the script was that Krusty lived in a house on wooden stilts which were continuously being gnawed by beavers . Eventually , the contract negotiations fell apart and Groening decided to stop work on the project .
= = Reception = =
In 2004 , Dan Castellaneta won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in " Today I Am a Clown " , an episode that heavily features Krusty . Several episodes featuring Krusty have been very well received . In 2007 , Vanity Fair named " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as the ninth best episode of The Simpsons . John Ortved felt , " This is Krusty 's best episode — better than the reunion with his father , or the Bar Mitzvah episode , which won an Emmy much later on . The incorporation of guest stars as themselves is topnotch , and we get to see the really dark side of Krusty 's flailing showbiz career . Hollywood , television , celebrities , and fans are all beautifully skewered here . " Matt Groening cites " Krusty Gets Busted " as his ninth favorite episode and has said that he particularly loves Castellaneta 's voice work . Groening claims that he has to leave the room every time Castellaneta records as Krusty for fear of ruining the take . Star News Online named " Krusty the Clown 's hatred of children " , Kamp Krusty , and Krusty 's line " All these rules , I feel like I 'm in a strip club " as some of the four hundred reasons why they loved The Simpsons . The Observer listed two Krusty products , " Krusty 's Non @-@ Toxic Kologne " and " Krusty 's home pregnancy kit " , as part of their list of the three hundred reasons why they loved the show .
In 2003 , Krusty was included in a special history of Jewish entertainers exhibit at the Jewish Museum in New York City .
= = Merchandise = =
Krusty has been included in many Simpsons publications , toys and other merchandise . Krusty @-@ themed merchandise includes dolls , posters , figurines , Jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ boxes , Pint glasses , bobblehead dolls , costumes , and clothing such as T @-@ shirts . Playmates Toys has made a talking evil Krusty doll , based on the one that appeared in " Treehouse of Horror III " . In 1992 , Acclaim Entertainment released the video game Krusty 's Fun House for PC and home consoles . Krusty was made into an action figure , and several different versions were included as part of the World of Springfield toy line . The first , which shows Krusty in his normal clown attire with several Krusty products , was released in 2000 as part of " wave one " . The second , released in 2002 as part of " wave nine " , is called " busted Krusty " and shows him in a prison and without his clown makeup , as he was seen in " Krusty Gets Busted " . The third was released in 2003 as part of " wave thirteen " and was called " Tuxedo Krusty " . Several Krusty themed play sets were also released , including a Krusty @-@ Lu Studios and Krusty Burger playset , both released in 2001 .
In The Simpsons Ride , a simulator ride opened at Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Hollywood in May 2008 , Krusty builds and opens a cartoon theme park called Krustyland . Sideshow Bob makes an appearance and tries to murder the Simpson family . In July 2007 , convenience store chain 7 @-@ Eleven converted eleven of its stores in the United States and one in Canada into Kwik @-@ E @-@ Marts to celebrate the release of The Simpsons Movie . Amongst the products sold were " Krusty @-@ O 's " , which were made by Malt @-@ O @-@ Meal .
Krusty The Clown is also a playable character in Lego Dimensions
= Jane McCrea =
Jane McCrea ( sometimes spelled McCrae or MacCrae , 1752 – July 27 , 1777 ) was a young woman who was slain by Native Americans associated with the British army of Lieutenant General John Burgoyne during the American Revolutionary War . Affianced to a Loyalist serving in Burgoyne 's army , her slaying led to expressions of outrage and an increase in Patriot military recruiting , especially in the days following her killing .
The propaganda that followed greatly accentuated her beauty , and the fact that she was associated with Loyalists ( although her family was primarily active in serving the Patriot cause ) undermined British claims of protection for Loyalists . Burgoyne 's inability to punish the alleged killers also undermined British assertions that they were more civilized in their conduct of the war ; the dissemination of this propaganda contributed to the success of Patriot recruiting drives in New York for several years .
McCrea 's fiancé was reported to be bitter about the affair , and never married . The story of her life and death entered American folklore , and was used by James Fenimore Cooper in The Last of the Mohicans and Kenneth Lewis Roberts in Rabble in Arms .
= = Life and slaying = =
Jane McCrea was born one of the younger children in the large family of Rev. James McCrea of New Jersey . Since her mother 's death and her father 's remarriage she had been living with her brother John near Saratoga , New York , where she became engaged to David Jones . When the war began two of her brothers joined the American forces while her fiancé fled with other Loyalists to Quebec . As John Burgoyne 's expedition neared the Hudson River during the summer of 1777 , Colonel John McCrea took up his duty with a regiment of the Albany County militia . Jones was serving as a lieutenant in one of the Loyalist militia units accompanying Burgoyne , and was stationed at Fort Ticonderoga after its capture .
McCrea left her brother 's home and was travelling to join her fiancé at Ticonderoga . She had reached the village by the old Fort Edward , but so had the war . She was staying at the home of Sara McNeil , another Loyalist and an elderly cousin to the British General Simon Fraser . On the morning of July 27 , 1777 , a group of Native Americans , an advance party from Burgoyne 's army led by a Wyandot known as Le Loup or Wyandot Panther , descended on the village of Fort Edward . They massacred a settler and his family , and then killed Lieutenant Tobias Van Vechten and four others when they walked into an ambush . What happened next is a subject of some dispute ; what is known is that Jane McCrea and Sara McNeil were taken by the natives and separated . McNeil was eventually taken to the British camp , where either she or David Jones recognized McCrea 's supposedly distinctive scalp being carried by a native .
The traditional version of what happened appears to be based on the account of Thomas Anburey , a British officer . Two warriors , one of whom was Wyandot Panther , were escorting McCrea to the British camp , when they quarreled over an expected reward for bringing her in . One of them then killed and scalped her , and Wyandot Panther ended up with the scalp . Anburey claimed she was taken against her will , but there were also rumors that she was being escorted at her fiancé , David Jones ' request . The second version of the story , apparently advanced by Wyandot Panther under questioning , was that McCrea was killed by a bullet fired by pursuing Americans . James Phinney Baxter , in supporting this version of events in his 1887 history of Burgoyne 's campaign , asserts that an exhumation of her body revealed only bullet wounds , and no tomahawk wounds .
= = Reaction to killing = =
When Burgoyne heard of the killing he went to the Native American camp and ordered the culprit to be delivered , threatening to have him executed . He was told by General Fraser and Luc de la Corne , the agent leading the Native Americans , that such an act would cause the defection of all the Native Americans and might cause them to take revenge as they went back north . Burgoyne relented , and no action was taken against the Native Americans .
News of her death traveled relatively quickly by the standards of the time . News accounts were published in Pennsylvania on August 11 and on August 22 as far away as Virginia . Often the accounts became more exaggerated as they traveled , describing indiscriminate killings of large numbers of Loyalists and Patriots alike . Burgoyne 's campaign had intended to use the Indians as a means to intimidate the colonists ; however , the American reaction to the news was not the one hoped for . The propaganda war received a boost after Burgoyne wrote a letter to the American general Horatio Gates , complaining about American treatment of prisoners taken in the August 17 Battle of Bennington . Gates ' response was widely reprinted :
News accounts elaborated on her beauty , describing her as " lovely in disposition , so graceful in manners and so intelligent in features , that she was a favorite of all who knew her " , and that her hair " was of extraordinary length and beauty , measuring a yard and a quarter " . One of the only contemporary accounts by someone who actually saw her was that of James Wilkinson , who described her as " a country girl of honest family in circumstances of mediocrity , without either beauty or accomplishments . " Later accounts embellished on details ; historian Richard Ketchum notes that the color of her hair has been described as everything from black to blonde to red ; he also cites an 1840s examination of an alleged lock of her hair that described it as " reddish " .
Her death , and those of others in similar raids , inspired some of the resistance to Burgoyne 's invasion leading to his defeat at the Battle of Saratoga . The effect expanded as reports of the incident were used as propaganda to excite rebel sympathies later in the war , especially before the 1779 Sullivan Expedition .
David Jones , apparently bitter over the experience , never married , and settled in Canada as a United Empire Loyalist . The story eventually became a part of American folklore . An anonymous poet wrote " The Ballad of Jane McCrea " that was set to music and became a popular folk song . In Philadelphia in 1799 Ricketts ' Circus performed " The Death of Miss McCrea " , a pantomime co @-@ written by John Durang . John Vanderlyn painted the portrait ( shown above ) in 1803 , and James Fenimore Cooper described similar events in his novel The Last of the Mohicans . There are several markers in and near Fort Edward commemorating her death .
= = Exhumations = =
McCrea 's remains have been moved three times . The first time was in 1822 , and the second was in 1852 when they were moved to the Union Cemetery in Fort Edward . The body was exhumed again in 2003 in hopes of solving the mystery of her death . Unexpectedly , two bodies — those of McCrea and Sara McNeil — were found in the grave . The 1822 move had placed McCrea 's remains atop the burial vault of McNeil ( who died in 1799 of natural causes ) . The skeletons of both were largely complete , except that McCrea 's skull was missing , possibly due to reported grave @-@ looting in the 19th century . The bodies were exhumed again in 2005 for further analysis , and were this time reburied in separate graves .
= Jutland horse =
The Jutland horse ( Danish : Den jyske hest ) is a draft horse breed originating in Denmark , named after the Jutland Peninsula which forms the western part of the country . Usually chestnut , they are a compact , muscular breed known for their calm and willing temperament . The breed was originally developed for use in agriculture , but today is more often seen in urban settings and at horse shows . Some of the best known members of the breed pull beer wagons for the Carlsberg brewery around Copenhagen , as well as at competitions and for demonstrations . Images from the 9th century show a horse similar to the Jutland being used by Viking raiders in what is now Great Britain . The first written record is from the 12th century , when they were popular as war horses . Some infusion of bloodlines from other breeds occurred in the 18th century , but the modern Jutland type only began about 1850 with the addition of blood from several other breeds , mainly draft horses . A stud book was created in the late 19th century , and the Jutland population grew to a maximum of around 15 @,@ 000 by 1950 . Numbers subsequently declined , and as of 2011 it is estimated that there are only about 1 @,@ 000 horses remaining .
= = Characteristics = =
The Jutland is typically chestnut but may also be bay , gray , black or roan , and frequently have white markings . In the early 1900s most Jutlands were bay or black , but those colors are now in the minority ; chestnut is now considered to be the horse 's " national color " and is selectively bred . They generally stand between 15 and 16 @.@ 1 hands ( 60 and 65 inches , 152 and 165 cm ) , and weigh between 1 @,@ 430 and 1 @,@ 760 pounds ( 650 and 800 kg ) . The breed has a convex facial profile ; a short , arched neck ; low withers ; a wide chest and straight shoulder and a slightly sloped croup . Overall , it is a compact , muscular breed . Their temperament is calm yet energetic , and they are considered by breed enthusiasts to be willing workers .
Although compact in size , the Jutland is a strong , powerful horse that was used to transport carriages and heavy goods . An 1897 publication by the United States Bureau of Foreign Commerce noted the ability of the horse to pull carriages and stated , " For this class of work and for heavy draft generally there is probably no better animal than the Jutland horse — a heavy , powerful beast . "
= = History = =
The origins of the breed are not fully documented , but some evidence points to the ancestors of the Jutland being used by the Vikings during the early 9th century . Images from the time show Viking raiders in what is now Great Britain riding horses similar in appearance to the modern Jutland . Some of those horses may have been left behind , contributing to the base stock from which the Suffolk Punch was eventually developed . Horses from Jutland were exported to England , Germany and France during the Middle Ages , and were popular mounts for knights , especially for use in jousting . The first mention of the Jutland type is from the 12th century , when they are documented as war horses with many useful attributes . The Jutland horse appears in the Danish ballad Svend Felding 's Kamp med Risen , in which mythic hero Svend Fælling goes on a pilgrimage to Rome and on his journey encounters a giant . Other horses prove too shy or too weak to enable him to confront the giant , therefore Svend obtains a Jutland horse from a passing miller , who claims that it is strong enough to carry fifteen skippund . Mounted on the Jutland , Svend succeeds in killing the giant .
The Frederiksborg horse , another Danish breed , influenced the Jutland during the 18th century . The Frederiksborg had a significant amount of Spanish influence , and was used to give the Jutland more active gaits . Selection for the modern @-@ day Jutland appears to have begun around 1850 , when Suffolk Punch and Ardennes blood was crossbred on native bloodstock . Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach Horse ( a Cleveland Bay / Thoroughbred cross ) horses were also added during the 19th century . The development of the breed was significantly influenced by a stallion named Oppenheim LXII , imported into Denmark in 1862 . Sources disagree as to whether Oppenheim was a purebred Suffolk Punch or a Suffolk / Shire cross . Six generations from Oppenheim , his descendant , Aldrup Menkedal ( spelled Oldrup Munkedal in some sources ) , was foaled . Aldrup Munkedal is considered the founding stallion of the modern breed . Most Jutlands alive today descend from two of his sons , Hovding and Prins af Jylland . The Jutland strongly resembles the Schleswig , another heavy draft breed with similar origins that was influenced by Oppenheim LXII and his descendants . With the exception of feathering on its lower legs , the Jutland also resembles the Suffolk Punch .
The first stud book for the breed was created in 1881 , and 22 @,@ 000 horses were registered between then and 2007 . In 1887 the first breeders ' association was formed . The first stallions were evaluated according to breed standard in 1888 , the same year the Cooperative Jutlandic Breeding Association was created . In 1898 , the " Federated Funen Horse Breeding Societies " were established in Funen , dedicated to the development of Jutland horse breeding and other heavy draught horses . By the 1950s , Jutland population numbers exceeded 15 @,@ 000 , and 405 stud farms were devoted to their breeding in Denmark , but since that time , population numbers have dwindled . Though numbers dropped , a 2008 study of the 716 Jutland horses in the Danish studbook at that time concluded that there was little risk of the Jutland becoming extinct due to inbreeding or low genetic diversity . The study , which also included populations of the Knabstrupper and Fredericksborg breeds , theorized that the greatest loss to genetic diversity for horses in Denmark would be through the extinction of the Jutland breed , because of its genetic distance from the other two native breeds . The level of genetic diversity of the three Danish breeds was found to be similar to other European breeds . As of 2011 , one Danish breed conservation organization estimates that there are about 1 @,@ 000 Jutlands .
= = Uses = =
Although originally bred for use on farms , few members of the breed are used for agricultural purposes today , and are now mostly bred for horse shows and working in urban areas . However , the Carlsberg brewery has used the Jutland to pull its drays since 1928 . The brewery owned 210 Jutlands at their peak , and today still uses about 20 for transporting beer around Copenhagen . The Carlsberg horses also compete and put on demonstrations at many shows , promoting the brewery and the breed .
= German involvement in the Spanish Civil War =
German involvement in the Spanish Civil War commenced with the outbreak of war in July 1936 , with Adolf Hitler immediately sending in powerful air and armored units to assist General Francisco Franco and his Nationalist forces . The Soviet Union sent in smaller forces to assist the Republican government , while Britain and France and two dozen other countries set up an embargo on any munitions or soldiers into Spain . Germany also signed the embargo but simply ignored it . The war provided combat experience with the latest technology for the German military . However , the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into a world war for which Hitler was not ready . He therefore limited his aid , and instead encouraged Mussolini to send in large Italian units . Franco 's Nationalists were victorious ; he became an informal ally of Germany , while remaining neutral in the Second World War . The Spanish episode lasted three years and was a smaller @-@ scale prelude to the world war which broke out in 1939 .
Nazi support for General Franco was motivated by several factors , including as a distraction from Hitler 's central European strategy , and the creation of a Fascist Spain friendly to Germany to threaten France . It further provided an opportunity to train men and test equipment and tactics .
= = Military operations = =
Hitler decided to support the Nationalists in July 1936 . The German air force was used to carry the Army of Africa to Spain . A Spanish @-@ German Spanish @-@ Moroccan Transport Company ( HISMA ) and an entirely German company , the " Raw Materials and Good Purchasing Company " ( ROWAK ) were established . German transports moved nearly 2 @,@ 500 troops from Spanish Morocco to Spain . Early intervention helped to ensure the Nationalists successes in the war 's initial stages . The training they provided to the Nationalists proved as valuable , if not more so , than direct actions . From 29 July to 11 October the Germans transported 13 @,@ 523 Moroccan troops and 270 @,@ 100 kilograms of war material from Morocco to Andalusia ; and it was Franco 's African forces , thus transported and supplied , which were a decisive factor in the war . Germany signed the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement on 24 August 1936 , but consistently broke it . After a Republican air attack on the German warship Deutschland , Germany and Italy said they would withdraw from the Non @-@ Intervention Committee and from maritime patrols . Early June 1937 saw the return of Germany and Italy to the committee and patrols , but they withdrew from patrols following a further attack . The German military in Spain , who were later reorganised and renamed the Condor Legion , claimed to have destroyed a total of 372 Republican planes and 60 Spanish Republican Navy ships . They lost 72 aircraft due to hostile action and another 160 to accidents . German aid to the Nationalists amounted to approximately £ 43 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( $ 215 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) in 1939 prices .
German air crews supported the Nationalist advance on Madrid and the relief of the Siege of the Alcázar . The Condor Legion 's aircraft were accompanied by two armoured units . By the end of 1936 , 7 @,@ 000 Germans were in Spain . The Nationalists were supported by German units and equipment during the Battle of Madrid and during the Battle of Jarama of February 1937 . The fighting demonstrated the inadequacy of the Legion 's aircraft compared to superior Soviet @-@ made fighters . The War in the North was supported by a constantly re @-@ equipping Condor Legion . In Operation Rügen , waves of planes bombed and strafed targets in Guernica leaving 1 @,@ 685 people dead and over 900 injured . The offensive on Bilbao was supported by ground units and extensive air operations . It proved the worth of the Legion to the Nationalist cause . The Legion also took part in the Battle of Brunete and both land and air forces were involved in the Battle of Teruel . Up to 100 sorties a day were launched during the Nationalists ' counter @-@ offensive . The continued Nationalist offensive on Aragon in April – June 1937 , including the Battle of Belchite , involved bombing raids and the use of the Legion 's ground forces . On 24 – 25 July , Republican forces launched the Battle of the Ebro . Reconnaissance units of the Condor Legion warned Nationalists forces , but this went unheeded . 422 sorties by the Legion 's aircraft had considerable effect . A reinforcement of the Legion enabled an important Nationalist counter @-@ attack .
On the sea , the Maritime Reconnaissance Staffel of the Condor Legion acted against Republican shipping , ports , coastal communications and occasionally inland targets . The German North Sea Group around Spain , part of the Kriegsmarine , consisted of the pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral Scheer , the light cruiser Köln , and four torpedo boats . In addition , Operation Ursula saw a group of German U @-@ boats active around Spain , but was ultimately a failure .
= = Motivation and volunteers = =
In the years following the Spanish Civil War , Hitler gave several possible motives for German involvement . Among these were the distraction it provided from German re @-@ militarisation ; the prevention of the spread of communism to Western Europe ; the creation of a state friendly to Germany to disrupt Britain and France ; and the possibilities for economic expansion . Although the offensive on Madrid was abandoned in March 1937 , a series of attacks on weaker Republican @-@ controlled areas was supported by Germany ; despite prolonging the Civil War , it would help to distract the other western powers from Hitler 's ambitions in central Europe . The offensive on Vizcaya , a mining and industrial centre , would help fuel German industry . On 27 June 1937 , Hitler ( in a speech at Wurzburg ) declared he supported Franco to gain control of Spanish ore .
Discussions over German objectives for intervention occurred in January 1937 . Germany was keen to avoid prompting a Europe @-@ wide war , which at the time they felt committing further resources to Spain would do . Contradictory views were held by German officials : Ernst von Weizsäcker suggested it was merely a matter of graceful withdrawal ; Hermann Göring stated that Germany would never recognise a " red Spain " . A joint Italian – German decision , that the last shipments would be made by the start of February , was agreed . German aid would therefore prevent a Nationalist defeat with a minimum of commitment .
Involvement in the Spanish Civil War had drawn Mussolini closer to Hitler , helping to get Mussolini 's agreement for Hitler 's plans for union ( Anschluss ) with Austria . The authoritarian Catholic , anti @-@ Nazi Vaterländische Front government of autonomous Austria had been successfully opposing the rise of Fascism , and following the assassination of Austria 's authoritarian chancellor , Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934 , had already successfully invoked Italian military assistance in case of a German invasion . Hitler 's need to prevent an Italian invasion was settled with the Rome @-@ Berlin Axis , partway into the Spanish Civil War .
Around 5 @,@ 000 Germans and Austrians served with the International Brigades , some of whom were political refugees . There were few volunteers for the Nationalist side ( from any country ) , by comparison .
= = Non @-@ Intervention Agreement = =
Non @-@ intervention , and with it the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement , had been proposed in a joint diplomatic initiative by the governments of France and the United Kingdom , in order to prevent the war from escalating into a major pan @-@ European conflict . On 4 August 1936 , non @-@ intervention was put to Nazi Germany by the French . The German position was that such a declaration was not needed , but discussions could be held on preventing the spread of the war to the rest of Europe , so long as the USSR was present . It was mentioned at that meeting that Germany was already supplying the Nationalists . On 9 August , the Germans informed the British that ' no war materials had been sent from Germany and none will ' , which was blatantly false . One German Junker was captured when it came down in Republican territory . Its release would be required before Germany signed the Non @-@ Intervention Pact . There was a growing belief that countries would not abide by the agreement anyway . Admiral Erich Raeder urged the German government to either back the Nationalists more completely , and bring Europe to the brink of war , or abandon them . On the 24th , Germany signed . It was at this point that the Non @-@ Intervention Committee was created to uphold the agreement , but the double @-@ dealing of the USSR and Germany had already become apparent . Germany consistently broke the agreement they had signed .
The Non @-@ Intervention Committee was established to enforce the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement . Germany was represented by Joachim von Ribbentrop ( with Otto Christian Archibald von Bismarck as deputy ) but left the running to the Italian Dino Grandi , although they found working with him difficult . It became clear the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement was not preventing German aid to the Nationalists . On 18 November , the German government recognised the Nationalists as the true government of Spain . Germany met the request to ban volunteers on 7 January . Hitler himself authored the German declaration . German uneasiness about the scale , limitations and outcomes of intervention in Spain remained . German diplomats spoke as if their men in Spain were genuine volunteers . However , Britain , France , Germany , Italy and Russia continued to believe a European war was not in their best interests .
= = = Control plan = = =
Observers were posted to Spanish ports and borders , and both Ribbentrop and Grandi were told by their governments to agree to the plan , significant shipments already having taken place . The cost of the scheme was put at £ 898 @,@ 000 , Germany would pay 16 % . The German delegation appears to have hoped the control plan was effective .
In May , the Committee noted an attack on the German pocket battleship Deutschland . Germany and Italy said they would withdraw from the Committee , and from the patrols , unless it could be guaranteed there would be no further attacks . Early June saw the return of Germany and Italy to the committee and patrols . It continued to be a crime in Germany to mention German operations . Following attacks ( attributed to Republicans by Germany , but denied ) on the German cruiser Leipzig on 15 and 18 June , Germany and Italy once again withdrew from patrols , but not from the Committee . Discussions about patrols remained complicated . Britain and France offered to replace Germany and Italy in patrols of their sections , but the latter powers believed these patrols would be too partial .
= = Early intervention = =
Following the military coup in Spain at the start of the Spanish Civil War , the Spanish Second Republic turned to the Soviet Union and France for support , and the Nationalists requested the support of Hitler 's Germany and fascist Italy . The first attempt to secure German aviation was made on 22 July , with a request for 10 transport aircraft . Franco contacted Hitler directly . German ministers were split on whether to support the Nationalists , and possibly become embroiled in a European war as a result . Ultimately Hitler decided to support the Nationalists on 25 or 26 July , but was still
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= = Copyright issues = =
In 1991 , Bernie Besman , as the song 's publisher , La Cienega Music , brought legal action against ZZ Top for copyright infringement for their song " La Grange " . Writer Timothy English notes that of the various Hooker recordings of " Boogie Chillen ' " , the one released in 1971 with Canned Heat " has the most elements in common with ' La Grange ' , including the guitar pattern and the ' howl , howl , howl ' vocal line " . The case wound its way through the American legal system ( including an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court ) . When the ruling did not favor the publisher , the U.S. Congress was persuaded to amend the Copyright Act in 1998 to protect many songs recorded before 1978 from entering the public domain . ZZ Top settled out of court in 1997 , but Hooker again gained no financial reward from his song — Besman had obtained Hooker 's rights to the song years earlier . However , Gioia noted , " Nonetheless , his [ John Lee Hooker 's 1948 ] spontaneous performance in a recording studio had led to a substantial change in U.S. intellectual property law " .
= California State Route 275 =
State Route 275 ( SR 275 ) is a short unsigned state highway in the Sacramento area of the U.S. state of California . The highway is currently defined to be the length of the Tower Bridge between West Sacramento and downtown Sacramento .
Prior to 1996 , SR 275 was also known as the West Sacramento Freeway , and was a short spur from Interstate 80 Business / U.S. Route 50 in West Sacramento over the Tower Bridge into downtown Sacramento . West Sacramento completed a project to replace the freeway with a pedestrian @-@ friendly street named Tower Bridge Gateway .
= = Route description = =
The West Sacramento Freeway begins on Interstate 80 at exit 81 ( West Capitol Avenue ) , the east end of the Yolo Causeway . It soon splits , with I @-@ 80 exiting to bypass Sacramento to the north and Interstate 80 Business ( legislatively U.S. Route 50 ) continuing east via exit 82 towards downtown . After one interchange , at Harbor Boulevard ( exit 1 / 1B ) , the freeway splits again , with Bus . 80 turning abruptly southeast over the Pioneer Memorial Bridge to avoid downtown Sacramento . State Route 275 begins here , at exit 3 of Bus . 80 , with full access to and from the intersecting Jefferson Boulevard ( State Route 84 ) .
State maintenance ends just after the Jefferson Boulevard interchange , and the road — now maintained by the city of West Sacramento as Tower Bridge Gateway — crosses the new Garden Street at an at @-@ grade intersection . This intersection replaced a partial trumpet interchange , oriented towards West Capitol Avenue with a missing westbound entrance , in 2007 . After Tower Bridge Gateway crosses under the Union Pacific Railroad line that used to cross the Tower Bridge , it approaches an intersection with 5th Street . It was formerly a ramp that entered the westbound lanes from the intersection of West Capitol Avenue and 5th Street , which completed the former interchange at Riske Lane . Two blocks to the east , Tower Bridge Gateway approaches its final intersection in West Sacramento with 3rd Street . A westbound offramp formerly lead to West Capitol Avenue and 3rd Street , with eastbound access to Broderick to the north and the formerly industrial area to the south , now containing Raley Field .
State maintenance resumes once again as SR 275 crosses the Sacramento River on the Tower Bridge , a four @-@ lane lift bridge that formerly carried a Sacramento Northern Railroad track in the center . At the east end of the bridge , the roadway becomes Capitol Mall , maintained by the city of Sacramento , and crosses over Interstate 5 . Seven blocks later , the main road ends at 9th Street ; the last block of Capitol Mall to 10th Street , on which the State Capitol fronts , is a two @-@ lane road with a mid @-@ block traffic circle around a fountain .
= = History = =
SR 275 began as part of Legislative Route 6 , one of the shorter main routes of the initial system funded by the 1910 bond issue . This highway , which included the several @-@ mile @-@ long Yolo Causeway , connected Sacramento with the north – south Route 7 at Davis , thereby linking the capital city with the San Francisco Bay Area . Route 6 traffic initially left Sacramento on the 1911 I Street Bridge , heading southwest through the small settlement of Washington via D Street , 5th Street , and present Tower Court to West Capitol Avenue . The state highway was moved to the M Street Bridge in 1926 , as part of an improvement that also took it through a two @-@ lane subway under the Sacramento Northern Railroad , still present on West Capitol Avenue . The M Street Bridge was replaced by the Tower Bridge in 1935 .
U.S. Routes 40 and 99 ( soon 99W ) were marked along Route 6 in 1928 . These two routes remained on West Capitol Avenue until 1954 , when the new West Sacramento Freeway opened , connecting the west end of the Tower Bridge with the east end of the Yolo Causeway . Traveler @-@ oriented businesses along the bypassed West Capitol Avenue were hit hard by the shifting of through traffic .
The entire freeway was designated as part of Interstate 80 in the late 1950s . However , two bypasses were planned — a realignment of Route 6 that would take I @-@ 80 over a new bridge and around the south side of downtown , and a northern bypass of the entire city ( I @-@ 880 ) . Since the southerly bypass had not been completed in time for the 1964 renumbering , the route over the Tower Bridge — and along downtown streets — became Route 80 , but US 99W signage remained ( initially following Capitol Mall to near the State Capitol , later turning south onto 3rd and 5th Streets east of the bridge ) until the late 1960s , before I @-@ 5 had finished replacing old US 99W north of Woodland .
Normally , upon completion of the new I @-@ 80 south of downtown , the old alignment over the Tower Bridge and through downtown would be relinquished . The legislature recognized that it might be useful to keep a state highway to the Capitol , and so in 1966 it passed a concurrent resolution requesting that the California Highway Commission delay relinquishment west of 9th Street until the last day of the 1967 legislative session . During that session , a new Route 275 was created from that portion of former Route 80 . This consisted of the eastern part of the West Sacramento Freeway , the Tower Bridge , and Capitol Mall up to 9th Street , just west of the capitol building . The portion in Sacramento , east of the bridge , was not to be beautified with state highway funds . Due to the cancellation of a replacement of the North Sacramento Freeway , I @-@ 80 was moved to former I @-@ 880 around the city in 1981 , giving the West Sacramento Freeway three numbers : I @-@ 80 , US 50 , and SR 275 .
In 1993 , the West Sacramento City Council approved the " Triangle Specific Plan " for a new downtown in the triangle bounded by the Sacramento River , SR 275 , and US 50 ; this plan included downgrading the freeway to a surface road . The state legislature passed a law in 1994 that allowed Caltrans to come to an agreement with West Sacramento or Sacramento for the relinquishment of any part of SR 275 . Although no portions had yet been relinquished , the legislature deleted Route 275 from the Streets and Highways Code in 1996 .
The Triangle redevelopment happened slowly , with the first part — Raley Field — opening in 2000 . Effective January 1 , 2001 , Caltrans relinquished SR 275 to West Sacramento between postmiles 12 @.@ 4 ( west of Riske Lane ) and 13 @.@ 0 ( the west end of the Tower Bridge ) . The city renamed the road Tower Bridge Gateway and demolished the Riske Lane overpass in early 2007 , replacing it with a signalized intersection that now serves the new Garden Street .
The city of Sacramento also wished to modify its section of SR 275 , which , while not a freeway , was still designed for motor vehicle traffic . Capitol Mall east of postmile 0 @.@ 11 ( the east end of the Tower Bridge ) was relinquished to the city effective January 1 , 2006 . A ramp from the bridge to N Street was closed in July 2007 , allowing the block it had cut diagonally through to be sold . The ramp 's counterpart , from L Street to the Tower Bridge , remains open , though the lot that includes it was sold to the Sacramento Housing and Redevelopment Agency in 2005 .
These 2001 and 2007 relinquishments left Caltrans maintaining only two pieces of SR 275 — the Tower Bridge and the west end through the Jefferson Boulevard ( SR 84 ) interchange — for a total of about 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) , under half of the 1967 @-@ 2001 length . A joint project to widen the bridge sidewalks was carried out by Sacramento , West Sacramento , and Caltrans . The project was completed in May 2008 .
A second phase to convert the remaining section of freeway of Tower Bridge Gateway to a city street began in 2010 . The 3rd Street underpass and subsequent interchange was removed and signalized intersections at 5th and 3rd streets were created . The project was completed in November 2011 .
The legislature added Route 275 back to the Streets and Highways Code in 2010 , but its definition now only includes " Tower Bridge from the west side of the Sacramento River near the City of West Sacramento to the east side of the Sacramento River near the City of Sacramento . "
As of 2016 , only two interchanges of the former SR 275 remain : a diamond interchange at Jefferson Boulevard ( SR 84 ) and the split at Business Loop 80 / US 50 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment of Route 80 as it existed at that time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Utica , New York =
Utica ( pronounced / ˈjuːtᵻkə / ) is a city in the Mohawk Valley and the county seat of Oneida County , New York , United States . The tenth @-@ most @-@ populous city in New York , its population was 62 @,@ 235 in the 2010 U.S. census . Located on the Mohawk River at the foot of the Adirondack Mountains , Utica is approximately 90 miles ( 145 km ) northwest of Albany and 45 miles ( 72 km ) east of Syracuse . Although Utica and the neighboring city of Rome have their own metropolitan area , both cities are also represented and influenced by the commercial , educational and cultural characteristics of the Capital District and Syracuse metropolitan areas .
Formerly a river settlement inhabited by the Mohawk tribe of the Iroquois Confederacy , Utica attracted European @-@ American settlers from New England during and after the American Revolution . In the 19th century , immigrants strengthened its position as a layover city between Albany and Syracuse on the Erie and Chenango Canals and the New York Central Railroad . During the 19th and 20th centuries , the city 's infrastructure contributed to its success as a manufacturing center and defined its role as a worldwide hub for the textile industry . Utica 's 20th @-@ century political corruption and organized crime gave it the nicknames " Sin City " , and later , " the city that God forgot . "
Like other Rust Belt cities , Utica had an economic downturn beginning in the mid @-@ 20th century . The downturn consisted of industrial decline due to globalization and the closure of textile mills , population loss caused by the relocation of jobs and businesses to suburbs and to Syracuse , and poverty associated with socioeconomic stress and a decreased tax base . With its low cost of living , the city has become a melting pot for refugees from war @-@ torn countries around the world , encouraging growth for its colleges and universities , cultural institutions and economy .
= = Etymology = =
Several theories exist about the history of the name " Utica " . Although surveyor Robert Harpur stated that he named the village , the most accepted theory involves a 1798 meeting at Bagg 's Tavern ( a resting place for travelers passing through the village ) where the name was picked from a hat holding 13 suggestions , Utica being included because it is the name of a city of antiquity ( several other upstate New York cities had adopted classical Mediterranean city names earlier , such as Troy , New York ( 1789 ) and Rome , New York ( 1796 ) , or were to later , as with Syracuse , New York ( 1847 ) ) .
= = History = =
= = = Iroquois natives and European settlement = = =
Utica was established on the site of Old Fort Schuyler , built by English colonists for defense in 1758 during the French and Indian War , the North American front of the Seven Years ' War against France . Prior to construction of the fort , the Mohawk , Onondaga and Oneida tribes had occupied this area south of the Great Lakes region as early as 4000 BC . The Mohawk were the largest and most powerful tribe in the eastern part of the Mohawk Valley . Colonists had a longstanding fur trade with them , in exchange for firearms and rum . The tribe 's dominating presence in the region prevented the Province of New York from expanding past the middle of the Mohawk Valley until after the American Revolutionary War , when the Iroquois were forced to cede their lands as allies of the defeated British .
The land housing Old Fort Schuyler was part of a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 80 @.@ 94 km ² ) portion of marshland granted by King George II to New York governor William Cosby on January 2 , 1734 . Since the fort was located near several trails ( including the Great Indian Warpath ) , its position — on a bend at a shallow portion of the Mohawk River — made it an important fording point . The Mohawk called the bend Unundadages ( " around the hill " ) , and the Mohawk word appears on the city 's seal .
During the American Revolution , border raids from British @-@ allied Iroquois tribes harried the settlers on the frontier . George Washington ordered Sullivan 's Expedition , Rangers , to enter Central New York and suppress the Iroquois threat . More than 40 Iroquois villages were destroyed and their winter stores , causing starvation . In the aftermath of the war , numerous European @-@ American settlers migrated into the state and this western region from New England , especially Connecticut .
In 1794 a state road , Genesee Road , was built from Utica west to the Genesee River . That year a contract was awarded to the Mohawk Turnpike and Bridge Company to extend the road northeast to Albany , and in 1798 it was extended . The Seneca Turnpike was key to Utica 's development , replacing a worn footpath with a paved road . The village became a rest and supply area along the Mohawk River for goods and the many people moving through Western New York to and from the Great Lakes .
The boundaries of the village of Utica were defined in an act passed by the New York State Legislature on April 3 , 1798 . Utica expanded its borders in subsequent 1805 and 1817 charters . On April 5 , 1805 , the village 's eastern and western boundaries were expanded , and on April 7 , 1817 , Utica separated from Whitestown on its west . After completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 , the city 's growth was stimulated again .
The municipal charter was passed by the state legislature on February 13 , 1832 . The city 's growth during the 19th century is indicated by the increase in its population ; in 1845 the United States Census ranked Utica as the 29th @-@ largest in the country ( with 20 @,@ 000 residents ) , more than the populations of Chicago , Detroit and Cleveland , respectively . In the latter part of the century , Chicago became a boomtown based on resource extraction and processing from the Midwest , and as a railroad center .
= = = Industry , trade , and slavery = = =
Utica 's location on the Erie and Chenango canals encouraged industrial development , allowing the transport of anthracite from northeastern Pennsylvania for local manufacturing and distribution . Utica 's economy centered around the manufacture of furniture , heavy machinery , textiles and lumber . The combined effects of the Embargo Act of 1807 and local investment enabled further expansion of the textile industry . Like other upstate New York cities , mills in Utica processed cotton from the Deep South , a slave society . Much of the New York economy was closely involved with slavery ; in the antebellum period , half of New York 's exports were related to cotton .
In addition to the canals , transport in Utica was bolstered by railroads running through the city . The first was the Mohawk and Hudson Rail Road , which became the Utica and Schenectady Railroad in 1833 . Its 78 @-@ mile ( 126 km ) connection between Schenectady and Utica was developed in 1836 from the right @-@ of @-@ way previously used by the Mohawk and Hudson River railway . Later lines , such as the Syracuse and Utica Railroad , merged with the Utica and Schenectady to form the New York Central Railroad , which originated as a 20th @-@ century forest railway in the Adirondacks .
During the 1850s , Utica was known to aid more than 650 fugitive slaves ; it played a major role as a station in the Underground Railroad . The city was on a slave escape route from the Southern Tier to Canada by way of Albany , Syracuse and Rochester . The route , used by Harriet Tubman to travel to Buffalo , guided slaves to pass through Utica on the New York Central Railroad right @-@ of @-@ way en route to Canada . Utica was the locus for Methodist preacher Orange Scott 's antislavery sermons during the 1830s and 1840s , and Scott formed an abolitionist group there in 1843 . Despite efforts by local abolitionists , pro @-@ slavery riots and mobs , who wanted to protect the cotton mills , forced many abolitionist meetings to other cities .
= = = 20th century to present = = =
The early 20th century brought rail advances to Utica , with the New York Central electrifying 49 miles ( 79 km ) of track from the city to Syracuse in 1907 for its West Shore interurban line . In 1902 , the Utica and Mohawk Valley Railway connected Rome to Little Falls with a 37 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 60 @.@ 4 km ) electrified line through Utica .
By the 1950s , Utica was known as " Sin City " because of the extent of its corruption at the hands of the Democratic Party political machine . During the late 1920s , trucker Rufus Elefante rose to power although he never ran for office . Originally a Republican , Elefante 's power was enhanced by support from New York governor Franklin D. Roosevelt . Waves of Italian , Polish and Lebanese Maronite immigrants worked in the city 's industries in the early part of the 20th century . Until the 1980s , organized crime had a strong role in the city .
Strongly affected by the deindustrialization that took place in other Rust Belt cities , Utica suffered a major reduction in manufacturing activity during the second half of the 20th century . The 1954 opening of the New York State Thruway ( which bypassed the city ) and declines in activity on the Erie Canal and railroads throughout the United States also contributed to a poor local economy . During the 1980s and 1990s , major employers such as General Electric and Lockheed Martin began to close plants in Utica and Syracuse .
With city jobs moved to the towns and villages around Utica during the suburbanization of the postwar period . This led to the expansion of the nearby Town of New Hartford and the village of Whitesboro . Utica 's lack of quality academic and educational choices , when compared to Syracuse under an hour away , contributed to its decline in local businesses and jobs as some economic activity moved to Syracuse during the 1990s . Utica 's population fell while population in the county increased , reflecting a statewide trend of decreasing urban populations outside New York City . Residents who remain in the city struggle to handle poverty issues stemming from social and economic conditions caused partially by a smaller tax base ; this adversely affects schools and public services .
Despite the city 's economic decline , it has benefited from a low cost of living , attracting immigrants and refugees from around the world . Among the new waves of immigrants are Muslim Bosnians and Buddhist Vietnamese . Further bolstering the city are its commercial , educational and cultural ties to the Capital District and Syracuse metropolitan areas .
In 2010 , Utica , the focus of local , regional and statewide economic @-@ revitalization efforts , developed its first comprehensive master plan in more than a half @-@ century .
= = Geography = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , Utica has a total area of 17 @.@ 02 square miles ( 44 @.@ 1 km2 ) — 16 @.@ 76 square miles ( 43 @.@ 4 km2 ) of land and 0 @.@ 26 square miles ( 0 @.@ 67 km2 ) ( 1 @.@ 52 percent ) of water . The city is located at New York 's geographic center , adjacent to the western border of Herkimer County , New York , and at the southwestern base of the Adirondack Mountains . Utica and its suburbs are bound by the Allegheny Plateau in the south and the Adirondack Mountains in the north , and the city is 456 feet ( 139 m ) above sea level . The city is 90 miles ( 145 km ) northwest of Albany and 45 miles ( 72 km ) east of Syracuse .
= = = Topography = = =
The city 's Mohawk name , Unundadages ( " around the hill " ) refers to a bend in the Mohawk River that flows around the city 's elevated position as seen from the Deerfield Hills in the north . The Erie Canal and Mohawk River pass through northern Utica ; northwest of downtown is the Utica Marsh , a group of cattail wetlands between the Erie Canal and Mohawk River ( partially in the town of Marcy ) with a variety of animals , plants and birds . During the 1850s , plank roads were built through the marshland surrounding the city . Utica 's suburbs have more hills and cliffs than the city . Located where the Mohawk Valley forms a wide floodplain , the city has a generally sloping , flat topography .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Utica 's architecture features many styles that are also visible in comparable areas of Buffalo , Rochester and Syracuse , including Greek Revival , Italianate , French Renaissance , Gothic Revival and Neoclassical . The modernist 1972 Utica State Office Building , at 17 floors and 227 feet ( 69 m ) , is the city 's tallest .
Early settlers and property owners contributed to the development of the city , and many families and individuals are remembered in street names . Streets laid out when Utica was a village had more irregularities than those built later in the 19th and 20th centuries . As a result of the city 's location ( adjacent to the Mohawk River ) , many streets parallel the river , so they do not run strictly east @-@ west or north – south . Remnants of Utica 's early electric @-@ rail systems can be seen in the West and South neighborhoods , where the rails were set into the streets .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Utica 's neighborhoods have historically been defined by their residents , allowing them to develop their own individuality . Racial and ethnic groups , social and economic separation and the development of infrastructure and new means of transportation have shaped neighborhoods , with groups shifting between them as a result .
West Utica ( or the West Side ) was historically home to German , Irish and Polish immigrants . The Corn Hill neighborhood in the city center had a significant Jewish population . East Utica ( or the East Side ) is a cultural and political center dominated by Italian immigrants . North of downtown is the Triangle neighborhood , home to the city 's African American and Jewish populations . Neighborhoods formerly dominated by one or more groups saw other groups arrive , such as Bosnians and Latin Americans in former Italian neighborhoods and the Welsh in Corn Hill . Bagg Commemorative Park and Bagg 's Square West ( Utica 's historic centers ) are in the northeastern portion of downtown , with Genesee Street on the west and Oriskany Street on the south .
= = = Historic Places = = =
The following are listed on the National Register of Historic Places :
Byington Mill ( Frisbie & Stansfield Knitting Company )
Calvary Episcopal Church
Roscoe Conkling House
Doyle Hardware Building
First Baptist Church of Deerfield
First Presbyterian Church
Fort Schuyler Club Building
Globe Woolen Company Mills
Grace Church
John C. Hieber Building
Hurd & Fitzgerald Building
Lower Genesee Street Historic District
Memorial Church of the Holy Cross
Millar @-@ Wheeler House
Munson @-@ Williams @-@ Proctor Arts Institute
New Century Club
Rutger @-@ Steuben Park Historic District
St. Joseph 's Church
Stanley Theater
Tabernacle Baptist Church
Union Station
U.S. Post Office , Court House and Custom House
Utica Armory , Utica Daily Press Building
Utica Parks and Parkway Historic District
Utica Public Library
Utica State Hospital
Gen. John G. Weaver House
= = = Climate = = =
Utica has a continental climate with four distinct seasons and is in the humid continental climate ( or warm @-@ summer climate : Köppen Dfb ) zone , characterized by cold winters and temperate summers . Summer daytime temperatures range from 70 – 82 ° F ( 21 @-@ 28 ° C ) , with an average winter daytime temperature below -3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . The city is in USDA plant hardiness zone 5a , and native vegetation can tolerate temperatures from -10 ° F to -20 ° F ( -28.9 ° C to -26.1 ° C ) .
Winters are cold and snowy ; Utica receives lake @-@ effect snow from Lake Erie and Lake Ontario . Utica is colder on average than other Great Lakes cities because of its location in a valley and susceptibility to north winds ; temperatures in the single digits or below zero Fahrenheit are not uncommon on winter nights . Annual precipitation ( based on a 30 @-@ year average from 1981 – 2010 ) is 42 @.@ 1 inches ( 107 cm ) , falling on an average of 171 days .
= = Demographics = =
Although Utica 's population is predominantly European American , it has diversified since the 1990s . New immigrants and refugees have included Bosnians , displaced by the Bosnian War ) , Russians , Burmese , Vietnamese , and Latinos . More than 15 languages are spoken in the city . Utica has a low cost of living but its industrial and economic decline have posed difficulties for people trying to make a new start .
The city is the tenth most populous in New York , the seat of Oneida County , and ( with Schenectady ) a focal point of the six @-@ county Mohawk Valley region . According to a U.S. Census estimate , the Utica – Rome Metropolitan Statistical Area decreased in population from 299 @,@ 397 in 2010 to 296 @,@ 615 on July 1 , 2014 and its population density was about 3 @,@ 818 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 474 / km ² ) . Counties in the Mohawk Valley have a combined population of 622 @,@ 133 .
In the 2010 United States Census , Utica 's population was 62 @,@ 235 . Sixty @-@ nine percent of the population was European American ( of which 64 @.@ 5 percent was non @-@ Hispanic white ) , 15 @.@ 3 percent was African American , and 0 @.@ 3 percent was American Indian or Alaska Native . Asians were 7 @.@ 2 percent of the city 's population ( 3 @.@ 5 percent Burmese , 1 @.@ 5 percent Vietnamese , 0 @.@ 7 percent Cambodian , 0 @.@ 4 percent Indian , 0 @.@ 2 percent Chinese , and 0 @.@ 7 percent other Asian ; numbers do not add up to 7 @.@ 2 percent due to rounding ) , Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders were 0 @.@ 1 percent , and Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 10 @.@ 5 percent ( 6 @.@ 8 percent Puerto Rican , 1 @.@ 5 percent Dominican , 0 @.@ 4 percent Mexican , 0 @.@ 3 percent Salvadoran , 0 @.@ 2 percent Ecuadoran , 0 @.@ 1 percent Cuban and 1 @.@ 2 percent other Hispanic or Latino ) . Other races were 3 @.@ 9 percent , and multiracial individuals made up four percent of the population .
Median income for a Utica household was $ 30 @,@ 818 . Per capita income was $ 17 @,@ 653 , and 29 @.@ 6 percent of the population were below the poverty threshold .
= = Economy = =
During the mid @-@ 19th century , Utica 's canals and railroads supported industries producing furniture , locomotive headlights , steam gauges , firearms , textiles and lumber . World War I sparked the growth of Savage Arms , which produced the Lewis gun for the British Army , and the city prospered as one of the wealthiest per capita in the United States .
In the early 20th century , the local textile industry began to decline , which had a significant impact on the local economy . The boll weevil adversely affected southern cotton crops in this period . During the late 1940s , air @-@ conditioned mills opened in the southern United States , and jobs were lost as factories were moved south , where labor costs were lower because " right to work " laws weakened unions . Other industries also moved out of the city during a general restructuring in older industrial cities . New industries to rise in the city were electronics manufacturing ( led by companies such as General Electric , which produced transistor radios ) , machinery and equipment , and food processing .
The city struggled to make a transition to new industries . During the second half of the 20th century , the city 's recessions were longer than the national average . The exodus of defense companies ( such as Lockheed Martin , formed from the merger of the Lockheed Corporation and Martin Marietta in 1995 ) and the electrical @-@ manufacturing industry played a major role in Utica 's recent economic distress . From 1975 to 2001 , the city 's economic growth rate was similar to that of Buffalo , while other upstate New York cities such as Rochester and Binghamton outperformed both .
In the early 21st century , the Mohawk Valley economy is based on logistics , industrial processes , machinery , and industrial services . In Rome , the former Griffiss Air Force Base has remained a regional employer as a technology center . The Turning Stone Resort & Casino in Verona is a tourist destination , with a number of expansions during the 1990s and 2000s .
Utica 's larger employers include the ConMed Corporation ( a surgical @-@ device and orthotics manufacturer ) and Faxton St. Luke 's Healthcare , the city 's primary health care system .
Construction , such as the North @-@ South Arterial Highway project , supports the public @-@ sector job market . Although passenger and commercial traffic on the Erie Canal has declined greatly since the 19th century , the barge canal still allows heavy cargo to travel through Utica at low cost , bypassing the New York State Thruway and providing intermodal freight transport with the railroads .
= = Law , government , and politics = =
Democrat Robert M. Palmieri , elected in 2011 , is Utica 's current mayor . The common council consists of 10 members , six of whom are elected from single @-@ member districts . The other four , including its president , are elected at @-@ large . The council has eight standing committees for issues including transportation , education , finance and public safety . There is a relative balance between the Democratic and Republican parties , a change from the predominantly single @-@ party politics of the 20th century . Throughout the 1950s , Democrats ran the city council and mayoralty .
Utica is in New York 's 22nd congressional district , which has been represented by Republican Richard L. Hanna since 2013 . The city is served by the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York , with offices in the Alexander Pirnie Federal Building .
According to the comptroller 's office , Utica 's governmental expenses totaled $ 79 @.@ 3 million in 2014 ( a net increase of $ 940 @,@ 000 from the previous year ) . The 2015 – 16 budget proposes general @-@ fund spending of $ 66 @.@ 3 million . City taxes collected in 2014 were $ 25 @,@ 972 @,@ 930 , with a tax rate per thousand of $ 25 @.@ 24 .
According to the city 's police department , there were six murders , 125 robberies , 22 rapes , and 237 assaults in 2014 ( an increase from the previous year , representing a violent @-@ crime rate of 0 @.@ 6 percent ) . There were 432 burglaries , 1 @,@ 845 larcenies and 107 motor @-@ vehicle thefts ( a decrease from 2013 , representing a property @-@ crime rate of 3 @.@ 8 percent ) . Compared to other cities in New York , Utica 's crime rate is generally low . The Utica Police Department patrols the city , and law enforcement is also under the jurisdiction of the Oneida County Sheriff 's Office and the New York State Police . The Utica Fire Department coordinates four engines , two truck companies , and rescue , HAZMAT and medical operations with a 123 @-@ person crew .
= = Culture = =
Utica 's position in the northeastern United States has allowed the blending of cultures and traditions . The city shares characteristics with other cities in Central New York , including its dialect ( Inland Northern American English , also present in other Rust Belt cities such as Buffalo , Elmira and Erie , Pennsylvania ) .
Utica shares a cuisine with the mid @-@ Atlantic states , with local and regional influences . The city 's melting pot of immigrant and refugee cuisines , including Dutch , Italian , German , Irish and Bosnian , has introduced dishes such as ćevapi and pasticciotti to the community . Utica staple foods include chicken riggies , Utica greens , half @-@ moons , mushroom stew , and tomato pie . Other popular dishes are pierogi , penne alla vodka , and sausage and peppers . Utica has long had ties to the brewing industry . The family @-@ owned Matt Brewing Company resisted the bankruptcies and plant closings that came with the industry consolidation under a few national brands . As of 2012 , it was ranked the 15th @-@ largest brewery by sales in the United States .
The annual 15 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) Boilermaker Road Race , organized by the city in conjunction with the National Distance Running Hall of Fame , attracts runners from the region and around the world , including Kenya and Romania . The Children 's Museum of Natural History , Science and Technology , next to Union Station , opened in 1963 . In 2002 the museum partnered with NASA , featuring exhibits and events from the agency . The Munson @-@ Williams @-@ Proctor Arts Institute , founded in 1919 , features a PrattMWP program in cooperation with the Pratt Institute , and permanent collections and rotating exhibits .
The Utica Psychiatric Center is housed in a Greek Revival structure that was an insane asylum , and the birthplace of the Utica crib — a restraining device frequently used at the asylum from the mid @-@ 19th century to 1887 . The Stanley Center for the Arts , a mid @-@ sized concert and performance venue , was designed by Thomas W. Lamb in 1928 and today features theatrical and musical performances by local and touring groups . The Hotel Utica , designed by Esenwein & Johnson in 1912 , became a nursing and residential @-@ care facility during the 1970s . Notable guests had included Franklin D. Roosevelt , Judy Garland and Bobby Darin . It was restored as a hotel in 2001 .
= = Sports = =
Utica is home to the Utica Comets , a team affiliated with the National Hockey League 's Vancouver Canucks . Formerly the Peoria Rivermen , the team moved to Utica and began playing in the American Hockey League during the 2013 – 14 season . The 3 @,@ 815 @-@ seat Utica Memorial Auditorium , which opened in 1960 , is home to the Comets and the Utica College Pioneers . The Utica Devils played in the AHL from 1987 to 1993 , and the Utica Bulldogs ( 1993 – 94 ) , Utica Blizzard ( 1994 – 97 ) , and Mohawk Valley Prowlers ( 1998 – 2001 ) were members of the United Hockey League ( UHL ) .
The city was home to the Utica Blue Sox ( 1939 – 2001 ) , a New York – Penn League baseball team also affiliated with the Toronto Blue Jays and , later , the Miami Marlins . Other former baseball teams included the Utica Asylums ( 1900 ) and the Boston Braves @-@ affiliated Utica Braves ( 1939 – 42 ) .
= = = Area collegiate teams = = =
= = Parks and recreation = =
Utica 's parks system consists of 677 acres ( 274 ha ) of parks and recreation centers ; most of the city 's parks have community centers and swimming pools . Frederick Law Olmsted , Jr . , who designed New York City 's Central Park and Delaware Park in Buffalo , designed the Utica Parks and Parkway Historic District . Olmsted also designed Memorial Parkway , a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) tree @-@ lined boulevard connecting the district 's parks and encircling the city 's southern neighborhoods . The district includes Roscoe Conkling Park , the 62 @-@ acre F.T. Proctor Park , the Parkway , and T.R. Proctor Park .
The city 's municipal golf course , Valley View ( designed by golf @-@ course architect Robert Trent Jones ) , is in the southern part of the city near the town of New Hartford . The Utica Zoo and the Val Bialas Ski Chalet , an urban ski slope featuring skiing , snowboarding , outdoor skating , and tubing , are also in south Utica in Roscoe Conkling Park . Smaller neighborhood parks in the district include Addison Miller Park , Chancellor Park , Seymour Park , and Wankel Park .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
Griffiss International Airport in Rome primarily serves military and general aviation , and Syracuse Hancock International Airport and Albany International Airport provide regional , domestic , and international passenger air travel in the Utica – Rome Metropolitan Area . Amtrak 's Empire , Maple Leaf , and Lake Shore Limited trains stop at Utica 's Union Station . Bus service is provided by the Central New York Regional Transportation Authority ( CENTRO ) , a Syracuse public transport operator which runs 12 lines in Utica and has a downtown hub . Intercity bus service is provided by Greyhound Lines and the Birnie Bus Company , with weekday and Saturday service to Syracuse ; both stop at Union Station .
During the 1960s and 1970s , New York state planners envisioned a system of arterial roads in Utica that would include connections to Binghamton and Interstate 81 . Due to community opposition , only parts of the highway project were completed , including the North – South Arterial Highway running west of the city . Six New York State highways , one three @-@ digit interstate highway , and one two @-@ digit interstate highway pass through Utica . New York State Route 49 and State Route 840 are east – west expressways running along Utica 's northern and southern borders , respectively , and the eastern terminus of each is in the city . New York State Route 5 and its alternate routes — State Route 5S and State Route 5A — are east – west roads and expressways that pass through Utica . The western terminus of Route 5S and the eastern terminus of Route 5A are both in the city . With Route 5 and Interstate 790 ( an auxiliary highway of Interstate 90 ) , New York State Route 12 and State Route 8 form the North – South Arterial Highway .
= = = Utilities = = =
Electricity in Utica is provided by National Grid plc , a British energy corporation that acquired the city 's former electricity provider , Niagara Mohawk , in 2002 . Utica is near the crossroads of major electrical @-@ transmission lines , with substations in the town of Marcy . An expansion project by the New York Power Authority , National Grid , Consolidated Edison , and New York State Electric and Gas ( NYSEG ) is planned . In 2009 city businesses ( including Utica College and St. Luke 's Medical Center ) developed a microgrid , and in 2012 the Utica City Council explored the possibility of a public , city @-@ owned power company . Utica 's natural gas is provided by National Grid and NYSEG .
Municipal solid waste is collected and disposed of weekly by the Oneida @-@ Herkimer Solid Waste Authority , a public @-@ benefit corporation that coordinates single @-@ stream recycling , waste reduction , composting , and the disposal of hazardous materials and demolition debris . Utica 's wastewater is treated by the Mohawk Valley Water Authority , with a capacity of 32 million gallons per day . Treated water is tested for impurities including pathogens , nitrates , and nitrites . Utica 's drinking water comes from the stream @-@ fed Hinckley Reservoir in the foothills of the Adirondack Mountains , with 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) of piping throughout the city .
= = = Health care = = =
Primary health care in Utica is provided by the Mohawk Valley Health System , a nonprofit organization that operates Faxton St. Luke 's Healthcare and St. Elizabeth Medical Center . The St. Luke 's and Faxton hospitals have a total of 370 acute and 202 long @-@ term beds , and St. Elizabeth Medical Center has 201 acute @-@ care beds . St. Luke 's and Faxton are surgical centers , and St. Elizabeth is a trauma and surgical center . The Mohawk Valley Health System prefers to construct a new hospital in Downtown Utica by 2021 , consolidating operations at the existing hospitals .
= = Education = =
Like Ithaca and Syracuse , Utica has a mix of public and private colleges and universities ; three state colleges and four private colleges are in the Utica – Rome metropolitan area . SUNY Polytechnic Institute , on an 850 @-@ acre campus in North Utica and Marcy , has over 2 @,@ 000 students and is one of eight technology colleges and 14 doctorate @-@ granting universities of the State University of New York ( SUNY ) . Mohawk Valley Community College is the largest college between Syracuse and Albany with nearly 7 @,@ 000 students , and an Empire State College location serves Utica and Rome .
Formerly a satellite campus of Syracuse University , Utica College is a four @-@ year private liberal arts college with over 3 @,@ 000 students . Established in 1904 , St. Elizabeth College of Nursing partners with regional institutions to grant nursing degrees . Pratt Institute offers a local two @-@ year fine @-@ arts course , and the Utica School of Commerce has business @-@ related programs at its Central New York locations .
The Utica City School District had an enrollment of nearly 10 @,@ 000 in 2012 and is the most racially diverse school district in Upstate New York . District schools include Thomas R. Proctor High School , James H. Donovan Middle School , and 12 elementary schools . Utica 's original public high school , the Utica Free Academy , closed in 1987 . The city is also home to Notre Dame Junior Senior High School , a small Catholic high school founded in 1959 by the Xaverian Brothers .
= = Media = =
Utica is served by three stations affiliated with major television networks : WKTV 2 ( NBC on DT1 / CBS on DT2 / CW on DT3 ) , WUTR 20 ( ABC ) , and WFXV 33 ( Fox ) . PBS member station WCNY @-@ TV in Syracuse operates translator W22DO @-@ D on analog channel 22 and digital channel 24 . Several low @-@ power television stations , such as WPNY @-@ LP 11 ( MyNetworkTV ) , also broadcast in the area . Cable television viewers are served by the Syracuse office of Time Warner Cable , which offers a local news service , a local sports channel , and public @-@ access channels . Dish Network and DirecTV provide satellite television customers with local broadcast channels .
Utica 's main daily newspaper is the Observer @-@ Dispatch ; the Utica Phoenix , established in 2002 , is an alternative . The city has 26 FM radio stations and nine AM stations . Major station owners in the area include Townsquare Media and Galaxy Communications . In addition to minor popular @-@ culture references , Slap Shot ( 1977 ) was partially filmed in Utica , and the city has been featured on the TV series The Office .
The Mid York Library System serves Utica and is chartered by the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York . The library system operates 43 libraries ( including the Utica Public Library ) in Oneida , Herkimer and Madison counties .
= = Notable people = =
= SMS Prinz Adalbert ( 1901 ) =
For other ships of the same name , see SMS Prinz Adalbert
SMS Prinz Adalbert ( " His Majesty 's Ship Prince Adalbert " ) was an armored cruiser built in the early 1900s for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , named after Prince Adalbert of Prussia , former Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Prussian Navy . She was the lead ship of her class , which included a second ship , Friedrich Carl . Prinz Adalbert was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel . Her keel was laid in April 1900 , and she was launched in June 1901 . Her completion in January 1904 had been delayed by a surplus of construction projects at the Imperial Dockyard . She was armed with a main battery of four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns , a significant improvement over the previous armored cruiser , Prinz Heinrich , which carried only two such guns . The ship was capable of a top speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Upon commissioning , Prinz Adalbert served as a gunnery training ship , a role she held for the majority of her career . She trained with the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) , later renamed the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) , throughout the early 1900s , and she made several visits to foreign countries . After the outbreak of World War I in July 1914 , she was assigned to the reconnaissance forces in the Baltic and was tasked with protecting the German coast from Russian attacks . After her sister ship was sunk in November 1914 , she became the flagship of the cruiser squadron in the Baltic . She conducted operations against Russian forces , including bombarding the port of Libau in support of the German Army . She was torpedoed by a British submarine in July 1915 , but was able to return to port and was repaired . She was torpedoed a second time on 23 October 1915 ; the torpedo detonated her ammunition magazines and destroyed the ship . She sank quickly with heavy loss of life ; only three men were rescued from a crew of 675 . This proved to be the worst German naval disaster in the Baltic during the war .
= = Construction = =
Prinz Adalbert displaced 9 @,@ 087 t ( 8 @,@ 943 long tons ) as built and 9 @,@ 875 t ( 9 @,@ 719 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 126 @.@ 5 m ( 415 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 6 m ( 64 ft 4 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 43 m ( 24 ft 5 in ) forward . She was powered by three vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , with steam provided by fourteen coal @-@ fired boilers . The engines developed 17 @,@ 272 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 880 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 4 knots ( 38 km / h ; 23 mph ) on trials . She carried up to 1 @,@ 630 t ( 1 @,@ 600 long tons ; 1 @,@ 800 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of up to 5 @,@ 080 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 410 km ; 5 @,@ 850 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 35 officers and 551 enlisted men .
She was armed with four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns arranged in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one on either end of the superstructure , a significant improvement over the preceding design , Prinz Heinrich , which carried only two guns in single turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of ten 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns and four 45 cm ( 18 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow , one in the stern , and one on each beam . The ship was protected by a 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) armored belt consisting of Krupp cemented armor , along with an armored deck that was 40 to 80 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . Her main battery turrets had faces 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Prinz Adalbert was ordered under the provisional name " B " and built at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel under construction number 27 . Her keel was laid in April 1900 and she was launched on 22 June 1901 . The launching ceremony was attended by the Kaiser , Wilhelm II , his wife Kaiserin Augusta Victoria , his brother Admiral Prince Heinrich and Wilhem 's son , Prince Adalbert of Prussia . The ceremony of christening the ship was performed by Princess Irene of Prussia , wife of Prince Heinrich , who then delivered a speech . Fitting @-@ out work proceeded slowly , in large part the result of the Imperial Dockyard attempting to build too many ships at once , but the work was eventually completed by 12 January 1904 . Prinz Adalbert was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy the same day for sea trials , with Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) Hermann Jacobsen in command ; the ship was slated for service as a gunnery training ship . She had cost the Imperial German Government 16 @,@ 371 @,@ 000 Goldmarks . Sea trials were completed by 30 May , after which Prinz Adalbert began her duties as a gunnery training ship .
In September , the ship took part in the annual autumn maneuvers with the rest of the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) . A special training unit consisting of reserve ships , training ships like Prinz Adalbert , and a flotilla of torpedo boats was created in early 1905 ; Prinz Adalbert was the flagship of the unit from 1905 to 1907 , flying the flag of Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Hugo Zeye . Prinz Adalbert and the light cruiser Berlin escorted Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht Hohenzollern to Sweden for a visit to King Oscar II in July 1905 . The following month , she joined the light cruisers Undine and Nymphe for training maneuvers off Swinemünde ; the exercises were to test the ships against a simulated night attack by torpedo boats . The tests were observed by Konteradmiral Ludwig Schröder , the Inspector of Naval Weapons , aboard Prinz Adalbert . Wilhelm II boarded Prinz Adalbert for the conclusion of the exercises , in which the ship towed an old torpedo boat filled with cork while the light cruisers and torpedo boats fired on it with live shells . Prinz Adalbert did not participate in the 1905 autumn maneuvers , though she was present for the naval review at the end of the exercises on 13 September . In February 1906 , the tender Fuchs was assigned to support Prinz Adalbert . From 17 to 28 June , the cruiser served as the flagship of Prince Heinrich , then the commander of the Baltic Sea Naval Station . During this period the ship traveled to Norway to take part in the coronation festivities for King Haakon VII .
The cruiser again took part in the autumn maneuvers in 1907 and 1909 . During the latter maneuvers , Prinz Adalbert took part in the Reserve Division , commanded again by Zeye , who had now been promoted to Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) . The ship served as the flagship of the III Scouting Group , under Konteradmiral Johannes Merten , who would go on to command the Ottoman fortifications at the Dardanelles during World War I. In March 1910 and March 1911 , Prinz Adalbert conducted gunnery tests in the northern North Sea and visited Tórshavn and Vestmanna in the Faeroe Islands . She visited Ålesund in Norway in July and August that year . The ship 's first period in service came to an end in September , following a large naval review in the Kiel roadstead for Wilhelm II and Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir to the Austro @-@ Hungarian throne , which began on 5 September . Prinz Adalbert was then decommissioned in Kiel on the 29th , with the armored cruiser Blücher taking her place as the fleet 's gunnery training ship . After a lengthy overhaul , Prinz Adalbert returned to service on 1 November 1912 , again with the artillery school . She was based in Sonderburg , where she replaced the armored cruiser Prinz Heinrich .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in July 1914 , Prinz Adalbert was brought into front @-@ line service with the fleet , and Kapitän zur See Andreas Michelsen took command of the ship . She was assigned to the IV Scouting Group , under the command of Konteradmiral Hubert von Rebeur @-@ Paschwitz . On 26 August , she was sent to rescue the light cruiser Magdeburg , which had run aground earlier that day , though she was recalled after the Germans received word that Magdeburg 's crew had been forced to scuttle the ship . Prinz Adalbert was transferred to the North Sea on 7 September and was tasked two days later with protecting the minelaying cruisers Nautilus and Albatross and the auxiliary minelayer Kaiser while they laid a minefield to protect the southern entrance to the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . The ship was briefly detached to guard the Great Belt after the Germans received false intelligence suggesting that British warships would try to penetrate the Baltic . She then joined the High Seas Fleet for a sortie into the North Sea on 2 – 4 November .
After her sister ship Friedrich Carl was sunk in November 1914 , Prinz Adalbert was detached from the III Scouting Group to replace her in the Coastal Defense Division in the Baltic on 29 November . She became the flagship for Admiral Ehler Behring , the commander of the cruiser detachment in the Baltic , on 7 December . On the 15th , she sortied with the light cruisers Augsburg , Lübeck , Amazone , and Thetis and several torpedo boats for a reconnaissance sweep toward the Åland Islands ; the ships returned to port on 18 December without having engaged Russian forces . Another sweep followed on 27 – 29 December , this time to cover a sortie by the Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleship of the V Battle Squadron toward Gotland . On 6 January 1915 , Prinz Adalbert , Thetis , Augsburg , Lübeck , and several torpedo boats and U @-@ boats went on a patrol toward Utö , where they discovered a Russian base for submarines . The Germans planned to attack the base with the torpedo boats and Thetis , since she had the shallowest draft , but due to a miscommunication , the attack was not carried out .
On 22 January 1915 , Prinz Adalbert , in company with Augsburg and several torpedo boats , conducted another reconnaissance sweep toward the Åland Islands . While on the return voyage , she bombarded Russian positions at Libau . She ran aground off Steinort during the operation , and Augsburg struck a mine off Bornholm . After being freed from her grounding , the ship was repaired ; Michelsen temporarily served as the detachment commander in place of Behring from 13 February to 9 March , when the ship was ready to return to service . Behring returned to Prinz Adalbert on 20 March . In the meantime , the Russians had briefly captured Memel . The Admiralstab ( Admiralty Staff ) detached the II Battle Squadron , II Scouting Group , and two flotillas of torpedo boats from the High Seas Fleet to reinforce the forces in the Baltic . The ships began to make diversionary attacks to support the German Army 's campaign to retake Memel ; Prinz Adalbert supported one such operation , a raid of the II Scouting Group into the Bothnian Sea to attack Russian merchant shipping on 23 March . The following day , the ships from the High Seas Fleet were recalled to the North Sea , leaving Behring 's cruisers alone once again .
Behring conducted one last operation from 13 to 17 April , with Prinz Adalbert , Thetis , and Lübeck , to support the minelayer Deutschland , which laid a minefield off Dagö . On the 20th , the Admiralstab instituted a reorganization of the Baltic Sea forces , and Behring was replaced with Konteradmiral Albert Hopman . At the same time , Michelsen was promoted to Hopman 's chief of staff , with his place as Prinz Adalbert 's commanding officer being taken by Kapitän zur See Wilhelm Bunnemann . The ship remained the flagship of the unit , and Hopman made his first cruise aboard the vessel from Kiel to Danzig on 27 April . At this time , Generalfeldmarschall ( General Field Marshal ) Paul von Hindenburg , the commander in chief of German forces on the Eastern Front , ordered a major assault on Libau . Hopman ordered his forces to support an attempt by the German Army to seize the city . The pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the IV Battle Squadron and the IV Scouting Group were allocated to Hopman 's command to provide additional support to the operation . The attack took place on 7 May , and consisted of Prinz Adalbert and the armored cruisers Roon and Prinz Heinrich , the elderly coast defense ship Beowulf , and the cruisers Augsburg , Thetis , and Lübeck . They were escorted by a number of destroyers , torpedo boats , and minesweepers . The bombardment went as planned , though the destroyer V107 struck a mine in Libau 's harbor , which blew off her bow and destroyed the ship . German ground forces were successful in their assault and they took the city .
On 1 July , the minelayer SMS Albatross , escorted by the cruisers Roon , Augsburg , and Lübeck and seven destroyers , laid a minefield north of Bogskär . While returning to port , the flotilla separated into two sections ; Augsburg , Albatross , and three destroyers made for Rixhöft while the remainder of the unit went to Libau . Augsburg and Albatross were intercepted by a powerful Russian squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Bakhirev , consisting of three armored and two light cruisers . Commodore Johannes von Karpf , the flotilla commander , ordered the slower Albatross to steam for neutral Swedish waters and recalled Roon and Lübeck . Albatross was grounded off Gotland and Augsburg escaped , and the Russian squadron briefly engaged Roon before both sides broke contact . Upon being informed of the situation , Hopman sortied with Prinz Adalbert and Prinz Heinrich to support von Karpf . While en route , the cruisers encountered the British submarine E9 , which scored a hit on Prinz Adalbert . The torpedo hit below the conning tower , caused severe damage , and killed ten men . Hopman transferred to the torpedo boat V99 while Michelsen remained aboard Prinz Adalbert to oversee the return to port . The ship took on some 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) of water ; her draft increased significantly , which prevented her from being able to put in to Danzig . She instead had to make the journey back to Kiel for repairs , which she reached on 4 July .
Repairs were finally completed by September 1915 . On 21 September , Prinz Adalbert joined a sortie to the Gulf of Finland with the battleships Braunschweig , Elsass , Mecklenburg , Schwaben , and Zähringen and the light cruiser Bremen . They encountered no Russian forces and returned to port on the 23rd . Another operation followed on 5 October ; this was in company with Prinz Heinrich and Bremen , and was to cover a minelayer as it laid a field to the northwest of Östergarn . The ships completed their mission the next day and returned to port without incident . On 19 October , Hopman transferred his flag to Roon and ordered Prinz Adalbert to take up a patrol between Fårö and Dagerort . The ship was steaming some 20 miles west of Libau , en route to her patrol area , in company with a pair of destroyers on 23 October when she was intercepted by the submarine E8 . E8 fired a spread of torpedoes at a range of approximately 1 @,@ 200 m ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) , detonating the ship 's ammunition magazine . The massive explosion destroyed the ship , which sank immediately with the loss of 672 crew . There were only three survivors . The sinking was the greatest single loss of life for the German Baltic forces during the war .
= Poohsticks =
Poohsticks is a sport first mentioned in The House at Pooh Corner , a Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh book by A. A. Milne . It is a simple sport which may be played on any bridge over running water ; each player drops a stick on the upstream side of a bridge and the one whose stick first appears on the downstream side is the winner . The annual World Poohsticks Championships have been held at Day 's Lock on the River Thames in the UK since 1984 .
= = History = =
Poohsticks was invented by English author A. A. Milne for his son Christopher Robin Milne . The sport first came to prominence when it was described in the author 's book The House at Pooh Corner as well as in the Disney animated featurette Winnie the Pooh and a Day for Eeyore . Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh , the protagonist of the book , accidentally drops a pine cone into a river from a bridge and , after observing how it appeared on the other side of the bridge , devises the rules for Poohsticks . Pooh continues to play the sport with the other characters , Christopher Robin , Tigger and Eeyore .
The sport was first developed at a bridge located in Ashdown Forest , close to the village of Upper Hartfield , East Sussex , England . Built in 1907 and originally called Posingford Bridge , it is considered to be the bridge on which Milne and his son first played the game . However , it is uncertain whether the sport was first played at the bridge then written into the story , or vice versa . The bridge maintained the public 's interest and a campaign to rebuild it in the late seventies was considered important enough to feature on the BBC Nine O 'Clock News . The bridge was subsequently reopened by Christopher Robin Milne and officially renamed as Poohsticks Bridge .
The site was so popular that in 1999 the East Sussex county council made an appeal to Disney as the old wooden bridge had been worn down by an overwhelming number of visitors . The company provided a substantial donation towards the estimated £ 30 @,@ 000 needed to replace the bridge . Partly rebuilt in 1979 , the donations from Disney , building firms and members of the public funded its complete reconstruction . The newly built and modernised bridge retained its precursor 's original style . A plaque was also placed to commemorate the occasion and thank those who financially contributed to the project . The sport can still be played in Ashdown Forest to this day and the site regularly attracts tourists from as far afield as the United States and Japan . However , visitors are now advised to bring their own sticks , as previous visitors have caused damage to the trees in the vicinity .
= = Rules and strategy = =
A sport for two players or more , in the traditional version of poohsticks the participants must drop a stick simultaneously on the upstream side of a bridge and run to the other side . The winner is the player whose stick first appears on the other side of the bridge . Alternatively , players may decide upon a starting point on a river and a finish line farther downstream . The winner is the player whose stick first passes the finishing point .
It is generally agreed that the stick must be made of organic materials , preferably willow , and not of any artificial materials . All participants must drop their sticks at the same time , usually after a referee shouts " drop " , " twitch " or any other agreed keyword . Additionally , no advantage may be gained through either dismantling the bridge or the use of any self @-@ propelling stick devices . The stick must be dropped , not thrown , into the water and any player who is deemed to have thrown their stick is disqualified .
Poohsticks is considered to be a sport of chance yet some players claim skill is involved . Some strategies involve the way in which the stick is held before it is dropped and trying to find the fastest route in the river . Author Ben Schott outlined a throwing method as a winning strategy in his third book , Schott ’ s Sporting , Gaming and Idling Miscellany , but his method was dismissed as cheating by competition organisers . In any event , the turbulence around the bridge supports make the path of the stick very difficult to predict and may vary according to the season .
The traditional game has inspired filmmakers and screenwriters and has been portrayed in the 1998 film Into My Heart with Rob Morrow and Claire Forlani , BBC sitcom To the Manor Born and also in a Marks & Spencer clothes advert where models , including Twiggy and Myleene Klass , played the game . The popularity of the game was underlined when it featured as a question on long @-@ running British quiz series University Challenge .
= = World Poohsticks Championships = =
www.pooh @-@ sticks.com
Following the closure of the short @-@ lived Oxford University Poohsticks Society , Poohsticks was brought to a larger audience by the World Poohsticks Championships . The Championships took place annually at Day 's Lock on the River Thames near Dorchester @-@ on @-@ Thames , Oxfordshire and have attracted over 1 @,@ 500 visitors to the event , including many international visitors .
The championships features an individual event and a six @-@ person team event . Players come from a wide variety of countries including the United States , Japan , Kenya , Australia and England . The event took place from Little Wittenham Bridge which is about 100 yards ( 91 m ) downstream of the lock . However , the event is currently looking for a new home .
The sporting event was started in 1984 by the lockkeeper , Lynn David , as a fund @-@ raising event for the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ( RNLI ) . He noticed that people occasionally snapped sticks from nearby hedges to play the sport and he then came up with the idea of a competition to aid the charity . He put out a box of sticks and a collection box and it soon became an annual event . In this version of the game , a finish line is set up farther downstream and the winner is the first to pass this point . The competition originally took place every January , but it was moved to March due to icy weather in 1997 .
The event proved popular with the local community and even attracted the attention of the foreign media . After Lynn David 's retirement , the running of the event was taken over by the Rotary Club of Sinodun , based in nearby Wallingford . Additionally , the funds raised were divided between the RNLI and charitable projects supported by the Rotary Club . Twenty years after its first edition , the event had grown in popularity , attracting visitors from across the globe , and had been broadcast on television in countries including Russia , Japan and Czech Republic . Additionally , VisitBritain , the official British tourist board , named it as a highlight in its collection of " Quirky British Events " . Throughout its existence , it has raised around £ 30 @,@ 000 for the RNLI .
The Championships were at risk of decline when in 2008 the Rotary Club declared that its members were simply too old to stage an annual event of its size . The Sinodun president , David Caswell stated : " The trouble is there is a lot of heavy work staging the event . Some of our members are over 70 , and it was just getting too much " . However , the Rotary Club of Oxford Spires declared that its members would continue hosting the event , thus preserving the competition for future generations . The President of Oxford Spires for 2008 – 2009 , Liz Williamson , stressed that it should continue as the event was popular locally and demonstrated quirky English nature to a worldwide audience .
Unfortunately during the initial preparations for 2015 event it was realized that the Little Wittenham site was no longer suitable . The reason given was that the logistics had become more difficult over the previous few years , as the event had become more popular and the use of the land had changed . This was announced by the Rotary Club of Oxford Spires on 7 January 2015 .
On 7 June 2015 the World Championships were moved to one of the cycle track bridges over the river Windrush in Langel Common , next to the Cogges Manor Farm Museum in Witney , Oxfordshire . The new location still retains a rural atmosphere while being only a few minutes walk from Witney town centre with its convenient public transport links to Oxford . Car Parking is also much closer than at the original location , which was a factor that influenced the choice of venue . As this was the first year at the new location , the organizers decided not to hold the 2015 team games .
= = = Winners = = =
The winners of both the individual and team events receive a trophy , and the second- and third @-@ placed individuals and teams also receive a smaller trophy . Despite claims that the game involves skill more than luck , no team or individual has ever won the competition more than once . The individual competition usually involves winning three rounds of matches before receiving an entry to the final .
= = Notable Poohsticks Societies = =
= = = Rotary Club of Oxford Spires = = =
Although not a Poohsticks Society as such , the Rotary Club of Oxford Spires is responsible for the World Pooh Sticks Championships held annually since 1983 at Days Lock in Little Wittenham , near Abingdon , on the River Thames . The Championships were voted ' Britain 's Favourite Quirky Event ' by Countryfile magazine readers in 2012 and are carried out with the aim of raising money for a variety of charities .
= = = Magdalen College Pooh Sticks Society = = =
Revival of the Oxford University Pooh Sticks Society has begun thanks to students in Magdalen College , Oxford , with the creation of the Magdalen College Pooh Sticks Society ( MCPSS ) founded in April 2013 which mixes classic Pooh Sticks games with commentary and rules in the style of radio programme I 'm Sorry I Haven 't a Clue . Of late the club has become increasingly well @-@ known inside the University and is no longer a society dedicated purely to members of Magdalen College .
= = = Pembroke College Winnie the Pooh Society = = =
Founded in 1993 , students of Pembroke College , Cambridge , pay homage to the works of A. A. Milne in a variety of ways , including playing games of Poohsticks alongside events such as visits to the ' real @-@ life ' Hundred Acre Wood . The Society has gained significant fame at the University of Cambridge and claims Her Majesty the Queen as an honorary member .
= = Elsewhere in Popular Culture = =
Terry Pratchett mentioned the game in Thud ! as a popular children 's game played in the gutters during Sam Vimes ' childhood in Ankh @-@ Morpork , originally called " turd races " before renaming it " poohsticks " to take the game upmarket .
Julia Donaldson mentioned the game in her children 's book " Stickman " when the protagonist , Stickman , is used by a girl in a game of Poohsticks .
In Season 5 , Episode 7 of Downton Abbey , Tom Branson and young Sybil play a game of Poohsticks , without referencing the game by name , while he is telling her of his idea to leave Downton and move them to Boston .
= Fairy Flag =
The Fairy Flag ( Scottish Gaelic : Am Bratach Sìth ) is an heirloom of the chiefs of Clan MacLeod . It is held in Dunvegan Castle along with other notable heirlooms , such as the Dunvegan Cup and Sir Rory Mor 's Horn . The Fairy Flag is known for the numerous traditions of fairies , and magical properties associated with it . The flag is made of silk , is yellow or brown in colour , and measures about 18 inches ( 46 cm ) squared . It has been examined numerous times in the last two centuries , and its condition has somewhat deteriorated . It is ripped and tattered , and is considered to be extremely fragile . The flag is covered in small red " elf dots " . In the early part of the 19th century , the flag was also marked with small crosses , but these have since disappeared . The silk of the flag has been stated to have originated in the Far East , and was therefore extremely precious , which led some to believe that the flag may have been an important relic of some sort . Others have attempted to associate the flag with the Crusades or even a raven banner , which was said to have been used by various Viking leaders in the British Isles .
There are numerous traditions and stories associated with the flag , most of which deal with its magical properties and mysterious origins . The flag is said to have originated as : a gift from the fairies to an infant chieftain ; a gift to a chief from a departing fairy @-@ lover ; a reward for defeating an evil spirit . The various powers attributed to the Fairy Flag include : the ability to multiply a clan 's military forces ; the ability to save the lives of certain clanfolk ; the ability to cure a plague on cattle ; the ability to increase the chances of fertility ; and the ability to bring herring into the loch at Dunvegan . Some traditions relate that if the flag were to be unfurled and waved more than three times , it would either vanish , or lose its powers forever .
Clan tradition , preserved in the early 19th century , tells how the Fairy Flag was entrusted to a family of hereditary standard bearers . Only the eldest male of this family was ever allowed to unfurl the flag ; the first such hereditary standard bearer was given the honour of being buried inside the tomb of the chiefs , on the sacred isle of Iona . Tradition states that the flag was unfurled at several clan battles in the 15th and 16th centuries ; the flag 's magical powers are said to have won at least one of them . Another 19th century tradition linked the flag to a prophecy which foretold the downfall of Clan MacLeod ; but it also prophesied that , in the " far distant future " , the clan would regain its power and raise its honour higher than ever before . In the mid @-@ 20th century , the Fairy Flag was said to have extinguished a fire at Dunvegan Castle , and to have given luck to servicemen flying bombing missions in the Second World War .
= = Description = =
In the 19th century , the writer Rev. Norman Macleod ( 1783 – 1862 ) recalled seeing the Fairy Flag during his childhood around 1799 ( see relevant section below ) . He described the flag as then having crosses wrought in gold thread , and several " elf spots " stitched upon it . N. Macleod recollected that when the flag was examined , bits were taken off it from time to time ; so much so , that later in his life he did not believe the flag still existed . In August 1814 , Sir Walter Scott visited Dunvegan Castle on the Isle of Skye , and wrote of the visit in his diary . One of several items he mentioned seeing was the Fairy Flag . Scott described it as " a pennon of silk , with something like round red rowan @-@ berries wrought upon it " . John Francis Campbell saw the flag in 1871 , and described it as being " made of yellow raw silk with figures and spots worked on it in red " . In 1927 , Roderick Charles MacLeod described the flag as then being square and brown . He measured it as about 18 inches ( 46 cm ) squared . He considered the flag to have originally been much larger ; and remarked on its extreme fragility and the requirement for careful handling , if it should be handled at all . R.C. MacLeod noted N. Macleod 's description of the flag , but observed that it now only contained the " elf spots " — there was then no evidence of any crosses upon what remained of the flag . R.C. MacLeod also observed that several tears in the flag had been carefully mended .
The flag was examined in the early 20th century by A.J.B. Wace of the Victoria and Albert Museum , who concluded that the silk was woven in either Syria or Rhodes , and the darns were made in the Near East . It was his opinion that the flag , in its original state , would have been quite precious , possibly a relic like the shirt of a saint . The belief at the time of this examination was the MacLeods were descended from Harald Hardrada , who spent some time in Constantinople in the 11th century . In line with this belief , it was suggested that the flag may have passed from Harald Hardrada down to the eponymous ancestor of the clan — Leod . The MacLeod Estate Office ( Dunvegan Castle ) website claims that experts have dated the flag to the 4th and 7th centuries — hundreds of years before the Crusades . The flag is currently held in Dunvegan Castle , along with other notable heirlooms such as the Dunvegan Cup and Sir Rory Mor 's Horn .
= = Tradition and legend = =
= = = Thomas Pennant ( 1772 ) = = =
In 1772 , Thomas Pennant made a tour of the Hebrides and later published an account of his travels . One of the things Pennant noted while visiting the Isle of Skye , was the Fairy Flag . According to Pennant , the flag was named " Braolauch shi " , and was given to the MacLeods by Titania the " Ben @-@ shi " , wife of Oberon , king of the fairies . Titania blessed the flag with powers which would manifest when the flag was unfurled three times . On the third time , the flag and flag @-@ bearer would be carried off by an invisible being , never to be seen again . The family of " Clan y Faitter " had the task of bearing the flag , and in return for their services , they possessed free lands in Bracadale . Pennant related how the flag had already been produced three times . The first occasion was in an unequal battle between the MacLeods and the Macdonalds of Clanranald . On the unfurling of the flag , the MacLeod forces were multiplied by ten . The second time the flag was unfurled to preserve the life of the lady of the clan , and thus saved the clan 's heir . Pennant then declared that the flag was unfurled a third time to save his own life . He stated that the flag was by then so tattered that Titania did not seem to think it worth taking back . Pennant also noted the belief of the MacLeod 's Norse ancestry and the magical raven banners said to have been used by the Vikings in the British Isles .
= = = 19th @-@ century manuscript accounts of the flag = = =
Much of the traditional history of the Fairy Flag is preserved in manuscript form . In the early part of the 20th century , Fred T. MacLeod noted one manuscript written around 1800 , which he considered to be the most detailed description of the flag . Another source of the flag 's traditional history is the Bannatyne manuscript , which documents the traditional history of Clan MacLeod . It dates to the 1830s , however , it is thought to have been based upon earlier traditions .
= = = = Description = = = =
The c.1800 manuscript stated that both the honour and the very existence of Clan MacLeod was thought to have depended upon the preservation of the Fairy Flag . Only the " highest and purest blood of the race " and the most renowned heroes , were selected to guard the flag when it was displayed . These twelve men , with a sword in hand , would stand just behind the chief who was always put in front . One family produced the hereditary keepers of the flag ; and of this family , only the eldest living male could unfurl the flag . This family was called " Clan Tormad Vic Vurichie " ( " the children of Tormod , son of Murchadh " ) , and was descended from Sìol Torcaill . The 20th century Hebridean author Alasdair Alpin MacGregor , when writing of the traditions of the flag , stated that the flag 's bearers held lands on Skye near Bracadale for their services to the chiefs of Clan MacLeod . The first of the flag bearers from this family was buried within the same grave as the chief of the clan , on the island of Iona . The second , and last bearer , was buried at St Clements Church , in Rodel , on the island of Harris . This man 's remains were covered by a magnificent monument ; the stone coffin in which his body was placed , was six feet deep . A moveable iron grate rested about two feet from the lid , and the man 's body rested upon the grate . The man 's male descendants were also deposited within this coffin . This meant that when a newly deceased was placed within , the bones and dust of the previous occupant were sifted through the grate into the coffin below . The writer of the manuscript stated that in the time of his own father , the last male of this family was interred this way . The tomb was then sealed by this man 's daughter . The c.1800 manuscript also noted that this family , prior to its extinction , became miserably poor .
= = = = Unfurling at the Battle of Bloody Bay = = = =
The Bannatyne manuscript states that the flag was unfurled at the Battle of Bloody Bay in 1480 . The manuscript related that during the battle , the clan 's chief , William Dubh ( historically lived c.1415 – 1480 ) , was slain , and in consequence his clan began to lose heart . A priest then ordered the flag 's bearer , Murcha Breac , to unfurl the Fairy Flag to rally the clan . Up until this point , the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan were on the opposing side of their kinsmen , the MacLeods of Lewis . However , once the MacLeods of Lewis noticed that the flag had been unfurled , they switched sides to join forces with their kinsmen . Unfortunately for both MacLeod clans , the outcome of the battle had already been determined and they were on the losing side . Among the vast numbers of MacLeods slain were Murcha Breac and the twelve guardians of the flag . William Dubh is buried on the island of Iona with his predecessors , and the body of Murcha Breac is placed within the same tomb . The manuscript states that this was the greatest honour which could be bestowed upon his remains . R.C. MacLeod suggested that the MacLeod effigy within Iona Abbey may mark the burial of the first chiefs of the clan , as well as William Dubh , and the mentioned standard bearer . William Dubh is thought to have been the last MacLeod chief buried on Iona ; his son , Alasdair Crotach ( 1450 – 1547 ) , was buried in St Clements Church , on Harris .
= = = = Unfurling at the Battle of Glendale = = = =
According to the Bannatyne manuscript , the Fairy Flag was also unfurled during the Battle of Glendale , which the manuscript states to have been fought in about 1490 . At one point during this conflict , both the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan , and the MacLeods of Lewis , are on the verge of giving way to the invading MacDonalds . Just at this moment , the mother of Alasdair Crotach , chief of the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan , orders the Fairy Flag to be unfurled . The result is that both MacLeod clans renew the battle with redoubled fury , and despite immense losses , eventually win the battle . Among the MacLeod dead is the flag bearer , Paul Dubh , who carried the Fairy Flag throughout the conflict until his death . The Bannatyne manuscript relates that Paul Dubh was honourably buried in a deep stone coffin , with a metal grate — much like the account given in the c.1800 manuscript . The writer of the Bannatyne manuscript states that each successive flag bearer was buried within this tomb , and that the writer 's own grandfather saw the old ceremony performed for the last time , in the 18th century . The Bannatyne manuscript states that the tomb is located in the north @-@ east corner of the chancel at St Clements Church , in Rodel . R.C. MacLeod noted that there was no trace of such a coffin or tomb ; although , he suggested that it could have been buried or possibly built within a wall .
= = = = Legend of origin = = = =
The c.1800 manuscript presented a legend of the Fairy Flag 's origin . This legend concerned a MacLeod who went on a Crusade to the Holy Land . On his journey homewards , the MacLeod attempted to cross a dangerous mountainous pass on the borders of Palestine . Here , he met a hermit who gave him food and shelter . The hermit warned the MacLeod of a dangerous spirit that guards the pass , which had never failed to destroy a true believer . However , with the aid of a piece of the True Cross and certain directions from the hermit , the MacLeod is able to defeat the " She Devil " — who is called " Nein a Phaipen , or Daughter of Thunder " . In reward for conveying some secrets that the spirit wanted some friends to know , she revealed to the MacLeod " the future destinies of the Clan " . The writer of the c.1800 manuscript stated that this knowledge was said to have been held by this man 's family until its extinction . The spirit then gave the Macleod her girdle , telling him to convert it into a banner . The MacLeod then used his spear as a flag pole . The writer of the c.1800 manuscript stated that the spear was by then since lost , and that the secrets conveyed to MacLeod were lost forever . The writer also gave his own opinion on the origin of the Fairy Flag . The writer stated that the flag most probably originated as a banner used in the Holy Land , and that it was conveyed back home by the character portrayed in the legend .
= = = = Other episodes = = = =
The c.1800 manuscript related that the spell of the banner meant that it would vanish when it was displayed for the third time . The final unfurling of the banner would either gain the clan a complete victory over their enemies or meant that the clan was to suffer total extinction . The writer of the c.1800 manuscript went on to state that the temptation for unfurling the flag for the third and final time was always resisted ; and that at the time of his writing , there was not much chance of it ever being unfurled again , since it was in such a reduced state . The writer stated that of the few shreds that remained , he himself possessed a fragment .
The c.1800 manuscript also stated that the flag was once held in an iron chest , within Dunvegan Castle . The key to the chest was then always in the possession of the hereditary flag bearers . The c.1800 manuscript related how , on the death of the MacLeod chief Tormod , son of lain Breac , the succession to the chiefship nearly fell to the family of the MacLeods of Talisker . The young widow of the last chief refused to give up Dunvegan Castle to the next heir , knowing herself to be pregnant ( although she had only been married six weeks previous to her widowhood ) . In time , she gave birth to Tormod , the next chief . The c.1800 manuscript stated that at around this time , a man who wished to curry favour with the expectant heir ( MacLeod of Talisker ) attempted to steal the flag . Even though the Fairy Flag was later found , both the staff and iron chest were never seen again . Historically , the old chief , Tormod ( son of Iain Breac ) , died in the autumn of 1706 , and his son , Tormod , was born in July 1705 .
= = = Reported partial fulfilment prophecy around 1800 = = =
Late in his life , the writer Norman Macleod ( 1783 – 1862 ) related to one of his daughters of having heard an old Gaelic prophecy concerning the flag , and of events which took place in his childhood which were reported as examples of the prophecy being partially fulfilled . A summarised version of this prophecy was published in the late 19th century , within an account of the life of one of his sons . Soon after , in 1878 , Alexander Mackenzie proposed that the prophecy as dictated by N. Macleod , may have been a fragmented remembrance of one of the prophecies of Coinneach Odhar ( who is popularly known as the Brahan Seer ) . N. Macleod 's tale of the prophecy is as follows :
N. Macleod then related how as a child , he had been close to an English smith employed at Dunvegan . One day the smith told him in secrecy that the chest in which the flag was held was to be forced open the next morning , and that it had been arranged by Hector Macdonald Buchanan that the smith would be at the castle with the necessary tools . N. Macleod then asked Buchanan for permission to be present , and was granted leave on the condition that he not tell anyone — especially the chief — what was about to be done . The next morning the chest was forced open and the flag was found to be held within a wooden case . N. Macleod described the flag then as being a square @-@ shaped piece of cloth with crosses wrought on it with gold thread , and several " elf spots " stitched onto it . After the flag had been examined , it was placed back into its case . N. Macleod stated that at around this time it was learned that the heir to the chiefship , Norman , was killed at sea . The HMS Queen Charlotte , on which he was a lieutenant , caught fire and exploded at sea killing 673 officers and men . N. Macleod stated that at about the same time , MacLeod 's Maidens were sold to Campbell of Ensay . He also stated that he personally saw a fox with cubs , which lived in the west turret of the castle . N. Macleod related how he was grateful that the worst part of the prophecy remained unfulfilled ; and that the chiefly family still owned their ancestral lands .
R.C. MacLeod , who wrote in the early 20th century , considered that this prophecy seemed to have been fulfilled . At that time , the Macleod chief had no gentlemen of his clan as tenants on his estate ; also , an heir to the family — named Ian Breac — was killed in the First World War . R.C. MacLeod noted that the prophecy stated that a " John Breac " ( Gaelic : Iain Breac , " Iain the speckled " ) would restore the fortunes of the family . R.C. MacLeod stated his belief that this may still happen , when he lamented the loss of his son , stating that Iain Breac " showed that his race had not lost the loyalty and courage which were their chief claims to glory in ancient days " .
= = = Walter Scott , 1814 = = =
When Sir Walter Scott visited Dunvegan Castle in 1814 , he learned of several traditional tales relating to the area and the clan . He was told that the Fairy Flag had three magical properties . The first was that it multiplied the number of men upon a battlefield . The second was that when it was spread upon a nuptial bed , it ensured fertility . The third was that it brought herring into the loch .
= = = Other traditions = = =
In the early 20th century , R.C. MacLeod noted several traditions concerning the flag . One told how the flag came into the possession of the MacLeods through a fairy . A similar tradition relates of a fairy @-@ lullaby .
= = = = Fairy lover = = = =
The first of these traditions related by R.C. MacLeod tells how one of the chiefs of Clan MacLeod married a fairy ; however , after twenty years she is forced to leave him and return to fairyland . She bade farewell to the chief at the Fairy Bridge ( which stands about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Dunvegan ) and gave him the flag . She promised that if it was waved in times of danger and distress , help would be given on three occasions . A similar tradition , related by John Arnott MacCulloch , stated that although the fairy 's gift had the power to save both her husband and his clan , afterwards an invisible being would come to take both the flag and its bearer away — never to be seen again .
= = = = Fairy lullaby = = = =
R.C. MacLeod considered the above ' fairy lover ' tradition to be connected to another about a lullaby . This tradition originated with Neil MacLeod , who was the clan bard in the last half of the 19th century ; he obtained the tradition from several old women in ' MacLeod country ' . This lullaby @-@ tradition related how on an autumn night , a beautiful fairy visited Dunvegan Castle . She passed through several closed doors and entered the nursery where the infant heir to the chief was lying in his cradle . The nursemaid , who was within the room as well , was rendered powerless by a spell and could only watch as the fairy took the infant on her knee and sang him a lullaby . This song was so remarkable that it was imprinted upon the nursemaid 's memory , and later she lulled the baby asleep by singing the same song . R.C. MacLeod stated that , over time it was believed that any infant of the chiefly family , to whom this lullaby was sung , would be protected by the power of the fairies . For a while , no nurse was employed by the family who could not sing this song . A period of 200 years then passed before any chief had been born within the castle , and the custom of singing the fairy 's lullaby ceased to be followed — but according to R.C. MacLeod , not completely forgotten . R.C. MacLeod claimed that a nursemaid sang this lullaby at the castle in the year 1847 , for his infant elder brother , who would later become Sir Reginald MacLeod of MacLeod ( 1847 – 1935 ) , 27th chief of the clan . An English translation of the lullaby is shown to the right .
= = = = Fairy music = = = =
Another tradition , related by R.C. MacLeod , told of certain events which took place after an heir to the clan 's chiefship was born . The story related how at this time , there was much rejoicing at Dunvegan Castle , and since the infant 's nursemaid was anxious to join in the festivities in the hall below , she left the infant alone in her room . When the baby awoke , crying of cold , no human help could hear him in his secluded room ; however , a host of fairies appeared and wrapped the infant in the Fairy Flag . Meanwhile , the clansmen banqueting below demanded to see the child and the maid was ordered to bring him forth . When she brought out the baby , wrapped in the flag , everyone gazed in wonder at the child and the garb wrapped around him . The room was filled with the fairies ' song which declared that the flag had the power to save the clan three times . When the song ended , and silence fell across the crowded room , the flag was taken from the infant and locked in a chest where it has ever since been preserved .
= = = = Eastern origins = = = =
R.C. MacLeod listed another tradition , somewhat similar to the one that appeared in c.1800 manuscript . According to this version , a MacLeod joined a Crusading army , and went to the Holy Land . While in the desert @-@ wilderness , he came across a witch , from whom he managed to escape . He then came upon a river , and proceeded to cross it at a ford . However , a fairy maiden appeared from the water and blocked his passage . After a struggle , MacLeod overcame the fairy and passed over the river . He then became friends with her . Before they parted , the fairy maiden gave him a box of scented wood ; this box , she told him , held several other smaller boxes , which fitted inside one another . She told him that the innermost box contained a magic banner , which when waved would bring forth a host of armed men to aid its owner . The fairy warned the MacLeod , that if he were to open the box within a year and a day from then , that no crops would grow on his land , no livestock would be born , as well as no children . When the MacLeod returned home he gave the box to the chief 's wife . The wife , however , ignored the MacLeod 's warning , and opened the box . Immediately a host of armed men appeared and that year , no children were born . The tradition concluded that ever since that time , the flag had been preserved for a time when such an army might mean salvation for the clan .
= = = = Unfurled numerous times = = = =
R.C. MacLeod wrote of another tradition which stated that the flag was waved at a battle in Waternish , in about 1580 ; and of another which told of how it was waved during a time when a cattle plague was raging , and that it stopped the murrain . R.C. MacLeod stated his belief that the flag would only have been waved twice , and so rejected the tradition of it being unfurled at the Battle of Bloody Bay — because the MacLeods were on the losing side ! R.C. MacLeod also wondered if it had been waved in 1600 , when the clan was in a desperate state in the midst of warring with the Macdonalds of Sleat .
= = = Supposed powers of the flag in the 20th century = = =
In 1938 , a fire broke out in a wing of Dunvegan Castle , and according to Sir Iain Moncreiffe of that Ilk , the flames were checked and extinguished when the flag was carried past to safety . During the Second World War , the chief of the clan , Dame Flora MacLeod of MacLeod , received a letter from a member of the clan who attributed his luck during bombing missions over Germany to a photo of the flag which he carried in his pocket .
= Humphrey ( cat ) =
Humphrey ( c . 1988 – March 2006 ) was a cat employed as the Chief Mouser to the Cabinet Office at 10 Downing Street , the official residence of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , from October 1989 to 13 November 1997 . Arriving as a one @-@ year @-@ old stray , he served under the premierships of Margaret Thatcher , John Major and Tony Blair , retiring 6 months after the Blairs moved into Downing Street . He was the successor to Wilberforce . He was frequently referred to in jest by the press as an actual employee at Number 10 .
= = Start of employment = =
Humphrey was found as a stray by a Cabinet Office civil servant and named in honour of Sir Humphrey Appleby , the archetypal civil servant of Yes Minister and Yes , Prime Minister . After the death of the previous mouser , Wilberforce , in 1988 the Cabinet Office and Number 10 were in need of a replacement and so Humphrey began his work .
At a cost of about £ 100 a year ( paid for from the Cabinet Office 's budget ) , most of which went towards food , Humphrey was said to be of considerably better value than the Cabinet 's professional pest controller , who charged £ 4 @,@ 000 a year and is reported to have never caught a mouse . Frequently pictured posing by the famous Number 10 front door , Humphrey 's primary duties involved catching mice and rats in the maze of Downing Street buildings . The poor quality of the buildings , some of which date from the 16th century , and the nearby St. James 's Park ensure a continuous vermin problem . By the time of his retirement , Humphrey had risen to the position of Chief Mouser to the Cabinet Office .
= = Humphrey 's problems = =
In November 1993 , an internal memo was circulated in the Cabinet Office informing staff that Humphrey was suffering from a minor kidney complaint and had been put on a special diet . A ban on feeding him treats was instituted .
Humphrey was accused on 7 June 1994 , of having killed four robin chicks , which were nesting in a window box outside the office of John Major , then Prime Minister . However , Major exonerated him the next day , declaring , " I am afraid Humphrey has been falsely accused . " It was not until 2006 that he was finally cleared : journalist George Jones of The Daily Telegraph admitted that his piece in the paper 's diary column had been no more than " journalistic licence " printed with no supporting evidence . In September 1994 Humphrey was found in St. James 's Park and was blamed for having " savaged " a duck there , earlier in the year .
= = Goes missing = =
In June 1995 , Humphrey went missing . Downing Street did not disclose the fact until it was mentioned to Sheila Gunn , a journalist on The Times , after Gunn told a member of staff that her own cat had died . Gunn 's story was mentioned on the front page . The publicity led to his rediscovery in the nearby Royal Army Medical College , where he had been taken in as a presumed stray and renamed PC , short for " patrol cat " . Upon his return , Humphrey issued a statement through the civil service stating , " I have had a wonderful holiday at the Royal Army Medical College , but it is nice to be back and I am looking forward to the new parliamentary session . "
= = Humphrey and the Blairs = =
Within a week of Tony Blair moving to 10 Downing Street after the May 1997 general election , press reports of a rift between Humphrey and Cherie Blair , the new Prime Minister 's wife , emerged . Mrs Blair was reported to either be allergic to cats or to believe them to be unhygienic . Sheila Gunn , who had gone on to be John Major 's press advisor , later admitted that she was the source of these reports which her obituary says were based " on a hunch for which she had no evidence " .
At the time , a spokesperson insisted that Humphrey would not be moving out , stating that Number 10 " is Humphrey 's home and , as far as the Blairs are concerned , it will remain his home " . A photo of Humphrey and Mrs Blair was released , though this did little to allay fears that he would be forced out . Allegations were later made that Humphrey was sedated by press secretary Alastair Campbell before undergoing the ordeal . The photo was used on the cover of Private Eye with Humphrey stating ' I am going to hit the mouse running ' a paraphrase of a New Labour @-@ ism .
In November 1997 , Humphrey 's primary carer , Jonathan Rees , who worked in the Prime Minister 's Policy Unit , wrote a memo stating that the cat should retire to a " stable home environment where he can be looked after properly " . While his continuing kidney problems were given as the reason for his retirement , many believed that Mrs Blair was behind the decision .
= = Rumours of murder = =
Humphrey moved to his new home with an elderly couple in suburban London on 13 November 1997 , though his retirement was not announced until the next day to reduce the risk of kidnap attempts . The Conservatives were quick to point out that Humphrey lived happily at Number 10 for almost eight years under a Conservative government but moved out within six months of Labour taking power .
Conservative MP and animal lover Alan Clark was suspicious about the way Humphrey 's retirement was announced and demanded proof that the cat was still alive : " Humphrey is now a missing person . Unless I hear from him or he makes a public appearance , I suspect he has been shot . " This led to rumours that Humphrey had been put down on the orders of Mrs Blair .
The Prime Minister 's office insisted that veterinary advice was behind the decision to remove Humphrey from Downing Street , and on 24 November 1997 a group of journalists was taken to a secret location in south London and shown that Humphrey was still alive and well . Pictures of the cat posing with copies of the day 's newspapers were published and reports indicated that he had put on weight .
= = In retirement = =
Little was heard about Humphrey over the next few years , leading many to infer that he had died . The Daily Telegraph made a Freedom of Information Act request for documents relating to him in early 2005 , which led to more information about his time at Downing Street coming to light . In its March 2005 report about Humphrey , the Telegraph lamented " Where Humphrey is now – or even whether he is still with us – remains a mystery . ' I am not having much luck , ' a Cabinet Office spokesman confessed last night . His official minder has not heard from him in seven years . " However , on 22 July 2005 , The Independent reported that " the 17 @-@ year @-@ old mouser is alive and well and living in south London . " No further details were given in the text , which was part of a larger feature about celebrity pets .
In March 2006 , a spokesman for Tony Blair reported that Humphrey had died during the previous week , at the home of the Cabinet Office worker who had been accommodating him .
= = Successor = =
In September 2007 , the first Downing Street cat since Humphrey was introduced ; Sybil moved from Edinburgh with Chancellor of the Exchequer Alistair Darling and family . She shared a thespian name like her predecessor , being named after Sybil Fawlty from Fawlty Towers . Sybil returned to Edinburgh in early 2009 as she did not settle . Sybil died in July 2009 .
In February 2011 , a new cat was welcomed into Downing Street from London 's Battersea Dogs and Cats Home . Larry arrived following weeks of speculation about potential pest control measures after a large black rat was seen scuttling past No 10 .
= Scharnhorst @-@ class cruiser =
The Scharnhorst class was the last traditional class of armored cruisers built by the Kaiserliche Marine . The class comprised two ships , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau . They were larger than the Roon @-@ class cruisers that preceded them ; the extra size was used primarily to increase the main armament of 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 2 inch ) guns from four to eight . The ships were the first German cruiser to reach equality with their British counterparts . The ships were named after 19th century Prussian army reformers , Gerhard von Scharnhorst and August von Gneisenau .
Built for overseas service , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were assigned to the East Asia Squadron in 1909 and 1910 , respectively . Scharnhorst relieved the old armored cruiser Fürst Bismarck as the squadron flagship , which had been on station since 1900 . Both ships had short careers ; shortly before the outbreak of World War I , the ships departed the German colony at Tsingtao . On 1 November 1914 , the ships destroyed a British force at the Battle of Coronel and inflicted upon the Royal Navy its first defeat since the Battle of Plattsburgh in 1814 . The East Asia Squadron , including both Scharnhorst @-@ class ships , was subsequently annihilated at the Battle of the Falkland Islands on 8 December .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the class were 144 @.@ 6 meters ( 474 ft ) long overall , and 143 @.@ 8 m ( 472 ft ) long at the waterline . They had a beam of 21 @.@ 6 m ( 71 ft ) , a draft of 8 @.@ 4 m ( 27 ft 7 in ) , and displaced 11 @,@ 616 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 433 long tons ; 12 @,@ 804 short tons ) standard , and 12 @,@ 985 t ( 12 @,@ 780 long tons ; 14 @,@ 314 short tons ) at full load . The ships ' hulls were constructed of transverse and longitudinal steel frames , over which the outer hull plating was riveted . The vessels had 15 watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 50 % of the length of the hull .
The ships had a standard crew of 38 officers and 726 enlisted men . Scharnhorst , as the squadron flagship , had a larger crew , including an additional 14 officers and 62 men . Gneisenau , when serving as the squadron second command flagship , had an extra staff of 3 officers and 25 men . The ships carried a number of smaller vessels , including two picket boats , two launches , one pinnace , two cutters , three yawls , and one dinghy .
= = = Machinery = = =
The Scharnhorst @-@ class ships used the same powerplant as in the preceding Roon class : three 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Each engine drove a single propeller ; the center shaft on Scharnhorst was 4 @.@ 7 m ( 15 ft ) in diameter while the outer two were 5 m ( 16 ft ) wide . Gneisenau 's screws were slightly smaller , at 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) wide on the center shaft and 4 @.@ 8 m ( 16 ft ) on the outer pair . The triple expansion engines were supplied with steam by 18 coal @-@ fired marine @-@ type boilers with 36 fire boxes . The engines were designed to provide 26 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower , though on trials they achieved higher figures — 28 @,@ 782 ihp for Scharnhorst and 30 @,@ 396 ihp for Gneisenau . The ships were rated at a top speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) , though on trials Scharnhorst steamed at a maximum of 23 @.@ 5 knots ( 43 @.@ 5 km / h ; 27 @.@ 0 mph ) , while Gneisenau ran at 23 @.@ 6 knots ( 43 @.@ 7 km / h ; 27 @.@ 2 mph ) . The vessels carried 800 t ( 790 long tons ; 880 short tons ) of coal normally , though they were capable of storing up to 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) of coal . This provided a maximum range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at a cruising speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The ships had a single rudder .
The vessels also carried the same electrical plant as in the older Roon @-@ class ships . It consisted of four turbo @-@ generators that delivered 260 kilowatts at 110 volts . The Scharnhorst @-@ class ships were the last cruisers built by Germany to be equipped with generators that put out power at 110 volts ; the subsequent design , Blücher , had generators that ran at 225 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' main battery armament consisted of eight 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) SK L / 40 guns , four in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the main superstructure , and the remaining four were mounted in single wing turrets . The 21 cm guns fired a 108 kg ( 238 lb ) armor @-@ piercing projectile at a muzzle velocity of 780 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The guns had a rate of fire of between 4 – 5 rounds per minute . The guns were supplied with a total of 700 rounds . The guns mounted in the twin turrets
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station , and head for Chile to refuel . The flotilla would then attempt to return to Germany via the Atlantic Ocean . Admiral von Spee also intended to attack the three British cruisers under the command of Admiral Christopher Cradock , and any British shipping encountered . On 22 September , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau approached the island of Papeete in French Polynesia with the intention of seizing the coal stockpiled in the harbor . The ships conducted a short bombardment that resulted in the sinking of the old gunboat Zélée . However , von Spee feared that the harbor had been mined , and decided to avoid the risk . The French had also set fire to the coal stocks to prevent the Germans from using the coal .
= = = Battle of Coronel = = =
At approximately 17 : 00 on 1 November 1914 , the East Asia Squadron encountered Cradock 's ships off Coronel . Because the German ships had an advantage in speed , von Spee was able to keep the distance to 18 kilometers , before closing to 12 km ( 1 @.@ 2 × 1013 nm ) to engage the British flotilla at 19 : 00 . Scharnhorst hit Good Hope some 34 times ; at least one of the shells penetrated Good Hope 's ammunition magazines , which resulted in a tremendous explosion that destroyed the ship . The light cruiser Nürnberg closed to point @-@ blank range to attack Monmouth ; after a severe pummeling , Monmouth sank as well . The British light cruiser Glasgow and the auxiliary cruiser Otranto both escaped under the cover of darkness . First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher remarked that it was " the saddest naval action of the war . " The defeat was the first to be inflicted on the Royal Navy since the 1814 Battle of Plattsburgh . After news of the battle reached Kaiser Wilhelm II in Berlin , he ordered 300 Iron Crosses to be awarded to the men of von Spee 's squadron . After refueling in Valparaiso , the East Asia Squadron departed for the Falkland Islands , in order to destroy the British wireless transmitter located there .
= = = Battle of the Falkland Islands = = =
Some six hours after news of the battle reached England , Admiral Fisher ordered Admiral John Jellicoe , the commander of the Grand Fleet , to detach the battlecruisers Invincible and Inflexible to hunt down the German ships . Vice Admiral Doveton Sturdee was placed in command of the flotilla , which also included the armored cruisers Carnarvon , Cornwall , Defence , and Kent , and the light cruisers Bristol and Glasgow , which had survived Coronel . Sturdee 's ships reached the Falklands by the morning of 8 December , shortly before von Spee 's squadron arrived . The British spotted the East Asia Squadron at 09 : 40 ; von Spee was unaware that the British had sent the two battlecruisers , and when he observed them , he ordered his ships to withdraw . Despite the head start , the fast battlecruisers quickly caught up with the worn @-@ out German ships , which had just completed a 16 @,@ 000 mile voyage without repairs .
At approximately 13 : 20 , the battlecruisers opened fire at a range of 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) . After a two @-@ hour @-@ long battle , Scharnhorst was dead in the water and listing heavily . The ship was sunk shortly thereafter . Gneisenau had been hit more than 50 times at close range ; the crew gave three cheers for the Kaiser before the vessel sank . Nürnberg and Leipzig were also sunk , though Dresden managed to escape temporarily , before she too was destroyed off Juan Fernández Island . Some 2 @,@ 200 men were killed , among them Admiral von Spee .
= Livonian War =
The Livonian War ( 1558 – 1583 ) was fought for control of Old Livonia ( in the territory of present @-@ day Estonia and Latvia ) when the Tsardom of Russia faced off against a varying coalition of Denmark – Norway , the Kingdom of Sweden , the Union ( later Commonwealth ) of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland .
During the period 1558 – 1578 , Russia dominated the region with early military successes at Dorpat ( Tartu ) and Narva . Russian dissolution of the Livonian Confederation brought Poland – Lithuania into the conflict while Sweden and Denmark both intervened between 1559 and 1561 . Swedish Estonia was established despite constant invasion from Russia and Frederick II of Denmark bought the old Bishopric of Ösel – Wiek , which he placed under the control of his brother Magnus of Holstein . Magnus attempted to expand his Livonian holdings to establish the Russian vassal state Kingdom of Livonia , which nominally existed until Magnus ' defection in 1576 .
In 1576 , Stefan Batory became King of Poland as well as Grand Duke of Lithuania and turned the tide of the war with his successes between 1578 and 1581 , including the joint Swedish – Polish – Lithuanian offensive at the Battle of Wenden . This was followed by an extended campaign through Russia culminating in the long and difficult siege of Pskov . Under the 1582 Truce of Jam Zapolski , which ended the war between Russia and Poland – Lithuania , Russia lost all its former holdings in Livonia and Polotsk to Poland – Lithuania . The following year , Sweden and Russia signed the Truce of Plussa with Sweden gaining most of Ingria and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Pre @-@ war Livonia = = =
By the mid @-@ 16th century , economically prosperous Old Livonia had become a region organised into the decentralised and religiously divided Livonian Confederation . Its territories consisted of the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order , the prince @-@ bishoprics of Dorpat , Ösel – Wiek , as well as Courland , the Archbishopric of Riga and the city of Riga . Together with Riga , the cities of Dorpat and Reval ( Tallinn ) , along with the knightly estates , enjoyed privileges enabling them to act almost independently . The only common institutions of the Livonian estates were the regularly held common assemblies known as landtags . As well as a divided political administration , there were also persistent rivalries between the archbishop of Riga and the landmeister of the Order for hegemony . A schism had existed within the Order since the Reformation had spread to Livonia in the 1520s , although the transformation of the country into a Lutheran region was a gradual process , resisted by part of the Order which to a varying degree remained sympathetic to Roman Catholicism . As war approached , Livonia had a weak administration subject to internal rivalries , lacked any powerful defences or outside support , and was surrounded by monarchies pursuing expansionist policies . Robert I. Frost notes of the volatile region : " Racked with internal bickering and threatened by the political machinations of its neighbours , Livonia was in no state to resist an attack . "
The Order 's landmeister and gebietiger , as well as the owners of Livonian estates , were all lesser nobles who guarded their privileges and influence by preventing the creation of a higher , more powerful noble class . Only the archbishopric of Riga successfully overcame resistance of the lesser nobles . Wilhelm von Brandenburg was appointed as archbishop of Riga and Christoph von Mecklenburg as his coadjutor , with the help of his brother Albert ( Albrecht ) of Brandenburg – Ansbach , the former Prussian hochmeister who had secularised the southern Teutonic Order state and in 1525 established himself as duke in Prussia . Wilhelm and Christoph were to pursue Albert 's interests in Livonia , among which was the establishment of a hereditary Livonian duchy styled after the Prussian model . At the same time the Order agitated for its re @-@ establishment ( " Rekuperation " ) in Prussia , opposed secularization and creation of a hereditary duchy .
= = = Aspirations of Livonia 's neighbours = = =
By the time the Livonian War broke out , the Hanseatic League had already lost its monopoly on the profitable and prosperous Baltic Sea trade . While still involved and with increasing sales , it now shared the market with European mercenary fleets , most notably from the Dutch Seventeen Provinces and France . The Hanseatic vessels were no match for contemporary warships , and since the league was unable to maintain a large navy because of a declining share of trade , its Livonian members Riga , Reval and trading partner Narva were left without suitable protection . The Danish navy , the most powerful in the Baltic Sea , controlled the entrance to the Baltic Sea , collected requisite tolls and held the strategically important Baltic Sea islands of Bornholm and Gotland .
A long bar of Danish territories in the south and her lack of sufficient year @-@ round ice @-@ free ports severely limited Sweden 's access to the Baltic trade . Nevertheless , the country prospered due to exports of timber , iron and most notably copper , coupled with the advantages of a growing navy and proximity to the Livonian ports across the narrow Gulf of Finland . Before the Livonian war , Sweden had sought expansion into Livonia , but the intervention of the Russian Tsar temporarily stalled these efforts through the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1554 – 1557 , which culminated in the 1557 Treaty of Novgorod .
Through its absorption of the principalities of Novgorod ( 1478 ) and Pskov ( 1510 ) , the Tsardom of Russia had become Livonia 's eastern neighbour and grown stronger after annexing the khanates of Kazan ( 1552 ) and Astrakhan ( 1556 ) . The conflict between Russia and the Western powers was exacerbated by Russia 's isolation from sea trade . The new Ivangorod port built by Tsar Ivan on the eastern shore of the Narva River in 1550 was considered unsatisfactory on account of its shallow waters . Thereafter the Tsar demanded that the Livonian Confederation pay about 6 @,@ 000 marks to keep the Bishopric of Dorpat , based on the claim that every adult male had paid Pskov one mark when it had been an independent state . The Livonians eventually promised to pay this sum to Ivan by 1557 , but were sent from Moscow when they failed to do so , ending negotiations . Ivan continued to point out that the existence of the Order required passive Russian support , and was quick to threaten use of military force if necessary . He aimed to establish a corridor between the Baltic and the new territories on the Caspian Sea because if Russia were to engage in open conflict with major western powers , it would need imports of more sophisticated weaponry .
The Polish King and Lithuanian Grand Duke Sigismund II Augustus was wary of Russian expansionist aspirations . Expansion of Russia into Livonia would have meant not only a stronger political rival but also loss of lucrative trade routes . Therefore , Sigismund supported his cousin Wilhelm von Brandenburg , archbishop of Riga , in his conflicts with Wilhelm von Fürstenberg , the Livonian Order 's landmeister . Sigismund hoped that Livonia , just like the Duchy of Prussia under Duke Albert , would become a vassal state of Poland – Lithuania . With weak support in Livonia , von Brandenburg had to largely rely on external allies . Among his few Livonian supporters was landmarschall Jasper von Munster , with whom he planned an April 1556 attack on his opponents that would involve military aid from both Sigismund and Albert . However , Sigismund hesitated over participation in the action , fearing that it would leave the Kiev Voivodeship exposed to a pending Russian attack . When von Fürstenberg learned of the plan , he led a force into the archbishopric of Riga and in June 1556 captured the main strongholds of Kokenhusen and Ronneburg . Jasper von Munster fled to Lithuania , but von Brandenburg and Christoph von Mecklenburg were captured and detained at Adsel and Treiden . This resulted in a diplomatic mission to petition for their release being dispatched by the Pomeranian dukes , the Danish King , Emperor Ferdinand I and the estates of the Holy Roman Empire . A cross @-@ party meeting in Lübeck to resolve the conflict was scheduled for 1 April 1557 , but was cancelled due to quarrels between Sigismund and the Danish envoys . Sigismund used the killing of his envoy Lancki by the landmeister 's son as an excuse to invade the southern portion of Livonia with an army of around 80 @,@ 000 . He forced the competing parties in Livonia to reconcile at his camp in Pozvol in September 1557 . There they signed the Treaty of Pozvol , which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance , with its primary target Russia , and provoked the Livonian War .
= = 1558 – 1562 : Dissolution of the Livonian Order = =
= = = Russian invasion of Livonia = = =
Ivan IV regarded the Livonian Confederation 's approach to the Polish – Lithuanian union for protection under the Treaty of Pozvol as casus belli . - in 1554 Livonia and Russia had signed a fifteen @-@ year truce in which Livonia agreed not to enter into an alliance with Poland – Lithuania . In January 1558 , Ivan reacted with the invasion of Livonia . The Russians were seen by local peasants as liberators from the German control of Livonia . Many Livonian fortresses surrendered without resistance while Russian troops took Dorpat in May , Narva in July , and laid siege to Reval . Reinforced by 1 @,@ 200 landsknechte , 100 gunners and ammunition from Germany , Livonian forces successfully retook Wesenberg ( Rakvere ) along with a number of other fortresses . Although the Germans raided Russian territory , Dorpat , Narva and many lesser fortresses remained in Russian hands . The initial Russian advance was led by the Khan of Kasimov Shahghali , with two other Tartar princes at the head of a force that included Russian boiars , Tartar and pomest 'e cavalry as well as cossacks , who at that time were mostly armed foot soldiers . Ivan gained further ground in campaigns during the years 1559 and 1560 . In January 1559 , Russian forces again invaded Livonia . A six @-@ month truce covering May to November was signed between Russia and Livonia while Russia fought in the Russo @-@ Crimean Wars .
Prompted by the Russian invasion , Livonia first unsuccessfully sought help from Emperor Ferdinand I , then turned to Poland – Lithuania . Landmeister von Fürstenburg fled to Poland – Lithuania to be replaced by Gotthard Kettler . In June 1559 , the estates of Livonia came under Polish – Lithuanian protection through the first Treaty of Vilnius ( Vilna ) . The Polish sejm refused to agree to the treaty , believing it to be a matter affecting only the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . In January 1560 , Sigismund sent ambassador Martin Volodkov to the court of Ivan in Moscow in an attempt to stop the Russian cavalry rampaging through rural Livonia .
Russian successes followed similar patterns featuring a multitude of small campaigns , with sieges where musketmen played a key role in destroying wooden defences with effective artillery support . The Tsar 's forces took important fortresses like Fellin ( Viljandi ) , yet lacked the means to gain the major cities of Riga , Reval or Pernau . The Livonian knights suffered a disastrous defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Ērģeme in August 1560 . Some historians believe the Russian nobility were split over the timing of the invasion of Livonia .
Eric XIV , the new King of Sweden , turned down Kettler 's requests for assistance , along with a similar request from Poland . Kettler turned to Sigismund for help . The weakened Livonian Order was dissolved by the second Treaty of Vilnius in 1561 . Its lands were secularised as the Duchy of Livonia and Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and assigned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Kettler became the first Duke of Courland , in doing so converting to Lutheranism . Included in the treaty was the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti by which Sigismund guaranteed the Livonian estates privileges including religious freedom with respect to the Augsburg Confession , the Indygenat , and continuation of the traditional German administration . The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the Protestant order by religious or secular authorities .
Some members of the Lithuanian nobility opposed growing Polish – Lithuanian union , and offered the Lithuanian crown to Ivan IV . The Tsar publicly advertised this option , either because he took the offer seriously , or because he needed time to strengthen his Livonian troops . Throughout 1561 , a Russo @-@ Lithuanian truce ( with a scheduled expiration date of 1562 ) was respected by both sides .
= = = Danish and Swedish interventions = = =
In return for a loan and a guarantee of Danish protection , Bishop Johann von Münchhausen signed a treaty on 26 September 1559 giving Frederick II of Denmark the right to nominate the bishop of Ösel – Wiek , an act which amounted to the sale of these territories for 30 @,@ 000 thalers . Frederick II nominated his brother , Duke Magnus of Holstein as bishop , who then took possession in April 1560 . Lest Danish efforts create more insecurity for Sweden , Denmark made another attempt to mediate a peace in the region . Magnus at once pursued his own interests , purchasing the Bishopric of Courland without Frederick 's consent and trying to expand into Harrien – Wierland ( Harju and Virumaa ) . This brought him into direct conflict with Eric .
In 1561 , Swedish forces arrived and the noble corporations of Harrien – Wierland and Jerwen ( Järva ) yielded to Sweden to form the Duchy of Estonia . Reval , similarly , accepted Swedish rule . Denmark dominated the Baltic , and Sweden wished to challenge this by gaining territory on the Eastern side of the Baltic . Doing so would help Sweden control the West 's trade with Russia . This helped to precipitate the Northern Seven Years ' War since in 1561 , Frederick II had already protested against Swedish presence in Reval , claiming historical rights relating to Danish Estonia . When Erik XIV 's forces seized Pernau in June 1562 , his diplomats tried to arrange Swedish protection for Riga which brought him into conflict with Sigismund .
Sigismund maintained close relations with Erik XIV 's brother , John , Duke of Finland ( later John III ) and in October 1562 , John married Sigismund 's sister , Catherine , thereby preventing her marrying Ivan IV . While Erik XIV had approved the marriage , he was upset when John lent Sigismund 120 @,@ 000 dalers and received seven Livonian castles as security . This incident led to John 's capture and imprisonment in August 1563 on Erik XIV 's behalf , whereupon Sigismund allied with Denmark and Lübeck against Erik XIV in October the same year .
= = 1562 – 1570 = =
The intervention of Denmark , Sweden and Poland @-@ Lithuania into Livonia began a period of struggle for control of the Baltic , known contemporaneously as the dominium maris baltici . While the initial war years were characterised by intensive fighting , a period of low @-@ intensity warfare began in 1562 and lasted until 1570 when fighting once more intensified . Denmark , Sweden and to some extent Poland – Lithuania were occupied with the Nordic Seven Years ' War ( 1563 – 1570 ) taking place in the Western Baltic , but Livonia remained strategically important . In 1562 , Denmark and Russia concluded the Treaty of Mozhaysk , respecting each other 's claims in Livonia and maintaining amicable relations . In 1564 , Sweden and Russia concluded a seven @-@ years truce . Both Ivan IV and Eric XIV showed signs of mental disorder with Ivan IV and turning against part of the Tsardom 's nobility and people with the oprichina that began in 1565 , leaving Russia in a state of political chaos and civil war .
= = = Russian war with Lithuania = = =
When the Russo @-@ Lithuanian truce expired in 1562 , Ivan IV rejected Sigismund 's offer of an extension . The Tsar had used the period of the truce to build up his forces in Livonia , and invaded Lithuania . His army raided Vitebsk and , after a series of border clashes , took Polotsk in 1563 . Lithuanian victories came at the Battle of Ula in 1564 and at Czasniki ( Chashniki ) in 1567 , a period of intermittent conflict between the two sides . Ivan continued to gain ground among the towns and villages of central Livonia but was held at the coast by Lithuania . The defeats of Ula and Czasniki , along with the defection of Andrey Kurbsky , led Ivan IV to move his capital to the Alexandrov Kremlin while the perceived opposition against him was repressed by his oprichniki .
A " grand " party of diplomats left Lithuania for Moscow in May 1566 . Lithuania was prepared to split Livonia with Russia , with a view to a joint offensive to drive Sweden from the area . However , this was seen as a sign of weakness by Russian diplomats , who instead suggested that Russia take the whole of Livonia , including Riga , through the ceding of Courland in southern Livonia and Polotsk on the Lithuanian – Russian border . The transfer of Riga , and the surrounding entrance to the River Dvina , troubled the Lithuanians , since much of their trade depended on safe passage through it and they had already built fortifications to protect it . Ivan expanded his demands in July , calling for Ösel in addition to Dorpat and Narva . No agreement was forthcoming and a ten @-@ day break was taken in negotiations , during which time various Russian meetings were held ( including the zemsky sobor , the Assembly of the Land ) to discuss the issues at stake . Within the Assembly , the church 's representative stressed the need to " keep " Riga ( it not yet having been conquered ) while the Boyars were less keen on an overall peace with Lithuania , noting the danger posed by a joint Polish @-@ Lithuanian state . Talks were then halted and hostilities resumed upon the ambassadors ' return to Lithuania .
In 1569 , the Treaty of Lublin unified Poland and Lithuania into the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . The Duchy of Livonia , tied to Lithuania in real union since the Union of Grodno in 1566 , came under Polish – Lithuanian joint sovereignty . In June 1570 a three @-@ year truce was signed with Russia . Sigimund II , the Commonwealth 's first King , died in 1572 leaving the Polish throne with no clear successor for the first time since 1382 and thus began the first free election in Polish history . Some Lithuanian nobles , in an effort to retain Lithuanian autonomy , proposed a Russian candidate . Ivan , however , demanded the return of Kiev , an Orthodox coronation , and a hereditary monarchy in parallel to Russia 's , with his son , Fedor , as King . The electorate rejected these demands and instead chose Henry of Valois ( Henryk Walezy ) , brother of King Charles IX of France .
= = = Russian war with Sweden = = =
In 1564 , Sweden and Russia agreed the Treaty of Dorpat , whereby Russia recognised Sweden 's right to Reval and other castles , and Sweden accepted Russia 's patrimony over the rest of Livonia . A seven @-@ year truce was signed between Russia and Sweden in 1565 . Eric XIV of Sweden was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in the Sture Murders ( Sturemorden ) of 1567 , and was replaced by his half @-@ brother John III . Both Russia and Sweden had other problems , and were keen to avoid an expensive escalation of the war in Livonia . Ivan IV had requested the delivery of John 's wife , the Polish @-@ Lithuanian princess Catherine Jagellonica to Russia , since he had competed with John to marry into the Lithuanian @-@ Polish royal family . In July 1569 John sent a party to Russia , led by Paul Juusten , Bishop of Åbo which arrived in Novgorod in September , following the arrival in Moscow of the ambassadors sent to Sweden in 1567 by Ivan to retrieve Catherine . Ivan refused to meet with the party himself , forcing them to negotiate instead with the Governor of Novgorod . The Tsar requested that Swedish envoys should greet the governor as ' the brother of their king ' , but Juusten refused to do so . The Governor then ordered an attack on the Swedish party and that their clothes and money be taken , they be deprived of food and drink and be paraded naked through the streets . Although the Swedes were also to be moved to Moscow , fortunately for them , this occurred at the same time Ivan and his oprichniki were on their way to an assault on Novgorod .
On his return to Moscow in May 1570 , Ivan refused to meet the Swedish party , and with the signing of a three @-@ year truce in June 1570 with the Commonwealth he no longer feared war with Poland – Lithuania . Russia considered the delivery of Catherine to be a precondition of any deal and the Swedes agreed to meet in Novgorod to discuss the matter . According to Juusten , at the meeting the Russians demanded they abandon their claim to Reval , provide two or three hundred cavalry when required , pay 10 @,@ 000 thaler in direct compensation , surrender Finnish silver mines near the border with Russia and allow the Tsar to style himself " Lord of Sweden " . The Swedish party left following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia or there would be war . Juusten was left behind while John rejected Ivan 's demands , and war broke out anew .
= = = Impact of the Northern Seven Years ' War = = =
Quarrels between Denmark and Sweden had led to the Northern Seven Years ' War in 1563 which ended in 1570 with the Treaty of Stettin . Primarily fought in western and southern Scandinavia , the war involved important naval battles fought in the Baltic . When Danish @-@ held Varberg surrendered to Swedish forces in 1565 , 150 Danish mercenaries escaped the subsequent massacre of the garrison by defecting to Sweden . Among them was Pontus de la Gardie , who became an important Swedish commander in the Livonian War thereafter . Livonia was also affected by the naval campaign of Danish admiral Peter or Per Munck , who bombarded Swedish Reval from sea in July 1569 .
Under the Treaty of Stettin , Denmark became the supreme and dominating power in Northern Europe , yet failed to restore the Kalmar Union . Unfavourable conditions for Sweden led to a series of conflicts that only ended with the Great Northern War in 1720 . Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia in return for a payment by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II . However , Maximilian failed to pay the promised compensation , and thereby lost his influence on Baltic affairs . The terms of the treaty regarding Livonia were ignored , and thus the Livonian War continued . From Ivan 's point of view , this merely enabled the powers involved to form an alliance against him , now that they were no longer fighting each other .
= = 1570 – 1577 : Russian dominance and the Kingdom of Livonia = =
During the early 1570s , King John III of Sweden , faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia . Reval withstood a Russian siege in 1570 and 1571 , but several smaller towns were taken by Russian forces . At 23 January a Swedish army of 700 infantry and 600 cavalry under command of Clas Åkesson Tott ( the Elder ) clashed with an Russian and Tartar army of 16 @,@ 000 men under the command of Khan Sain @-@ Bulat at the Battle of Lode by the village of Koluvere . The Russian advance concluded with the sacking of Weissenstein ( Paide ) in 1573 where , after its capture , the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive , including the commander . This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John centred on Wesenberg , to which the army departed in November 1573 with Klas Åkesson Tott in overall command and Pontus de la Gardie as field commander . There were also Russian raids into Finland , including one as far as Helsingfors ( Helsinki ) in 1572 . A two @-@ year truce on this front was signed in 1575 .
John 's counter @-@ offensive stalled at the siege of Wesenberg in 1574 when German and Scottish units of the Swedish army turned against each other . This failure has also been blamed on the difficulties of fighting in the bitter winter conditions , particularly for the infantry . The war in Livonia was a great financial burden for Sweden and by the end of 1573 , Sweden 's German mercenaries were owed 200 @,@ 000 daler . John gave them the castles of Hapsal , Leal and Lode as security but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark .
Meanwhile , efforts by Magnus to besiege Swedish @-@ controlled Reval were faltering , with support from neither Ivan nor Magnus ' brother , Frederick II of Denmark forthcoming . Ivan 's attention was focused elsewhere while Frederick 's reluctance perhaps stemmed from a new spirit of Swedish – Danish unity which made him unwilling to invade Livonia on behalf of Magnus , whose state was a vassal of Russia . The siege was abandoned in March 1561 whereupon Swedish action in the Baltic escalated , with the passive backing of Sigismund , John 's brother @-@ in @-@ law .
At the same time Crimean Tatars devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow during the Russo @-@ Crimean Wars . Drought and epidemics had fatally affected the Russian economy while oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government . Following the defeat of Crimean and Nogai forces in 1572 , oprichnina was wound down and with it the way Russian armies were formed also changed . Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy whereby he relied on tens of thousands of native troops , cossacks and tartars instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries , as was the practice of his adversaries .
Ivan 's campaign reached its height in 1576 when another 30 @,@ 000 Russian soldiers crossed into Livonia in 1577 and devastated Danish areas in retaliation for the Danish acquisition of Hapsal , Leal and Lode . Danish influence in Livonia ceased , as Frederick accepted deals with Sweden and Poland to end nominal Danish involvement . Swedish forces were besieged in Reval and central Livonia raided as far as Dünaburg ( Daugavpils ) , formally under Polish – Lithuanian control since the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius . The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal , Magnus , declared monarch of the Kingdom of Livonia in 1570 . Magnus defected from Ivan IV during the same year , having started to appropriate castles without consulting the Tsar . When Kokenhusen ( Koknese ) submitted to Magnus to avoid fighting Ivan IV 's army , the Tsar sacked the town and executed its German commanders . The campaign then focussed on Wenden ( Cēsis , Võnnu ) , " the heart of Livonia " , which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance , but also symbolic of Livonia itself .
= = 1577 – 1583 : Defeat of Russia = =
= = = Swedish and Polish – Lithuanian alliance and counter @-@ offensives = = =
In 1576 , the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania after a contested election to the joint Polish – Lithuanian throne with the Habsburg Emperor Maximilian II . Both Batory 's fiancèe Anna Jagiellon and Maximilian II had been proclaimed elected to the same throne in December 1575 , three days apart ; Maximilan 's death in October 1576 prevented the conflict from escalating . Batory , ambitious to expel Ivan IV from Livonia , was constrained by the opposition of Danzig ( Gdansk ) , which resisted Batory 's accession with Danish support . The ensuing Danzig War of 1577 ended when Batory conceded further autonomous rights to the city in return for a payment of 200 @,@ 000 zloty . For a further 200 @,@ 000 zloty payment , he appointed Hohenzollern George Frederick as administrator of Prussia and secured the latter 's military support in the planned campaign against Russia .
Batory received only few soldiers from his Polish vassals and was forced to recruit mercenaries , primarily Poles , Hungarians , Bohemians , Germans and Wallachians . A separate Szekler brigade fought in Livonia .
Swedish King John III and Stefan Batory allied against Ivan IV in December 1577 , despite problems caused by the death of Sigimund which meant that the issue of the substantial inheritance due to John 's wife , Catherine had not been resolved . Poland also claimed the whole of Livonia , without accepting Swedish rule of any part of it . The 120 @,@ 000 daler lent in 1562 had still not been repaid , despite Sigismund 's best intentions to settle it .
By November , Lithuanian forces moving northward had captured Dünaburg while a Polish – Swedish force took the town and castle of Wenden in early 1578 . Russian forces failed to retake the town in February , an attack followed by a Swedish offensive , targeting Pernau ( Pärnu ) , Dorpat and Novgorod among others . In September , Ivan responded by sending in an army of 18 @,@ 000 men , who recaptured Oberpahlen ( Põltsamaa ) from Sweden and then marched on Wenden . Upon their arrival at Wenden , the Russian army laid siege to the town , but was met by a relief force of around 6 @,@ 000 German , Polish and Swedish soldiers . In the ensuing Battle of Wenden , Russian casualties were severe with armaments and horses captured , leaving Ivan IV with his first time serious defeat in Livonia .
Batory accelerated the formation of the hussars , a new well @-@ organised cavalry troop that replaced the feudal levy . Similarly , he improved an already effective artillery system and recruited cossacks . Batory gathered 56 @,@ 000 troops , 30 @,@ 000 of them from Lithuania , for his first assault on Russia at Polotsk , as part of a wider campaign . With Ivan 's reserves in Pskov and Novgorod to guard against a possible Swedish invasion , the city fell on 30 August 1579 . Batory then appointed a close ally and powerful member of his court , Jan Zamoyski , to lead a force of 48 @,@ 000 including 25 @,@ 000 men from Lithuania , against the fortress of Velikie Luki which he went on to capture on 5 September 1580 . Without further significant resistance , garrisons such as Sokol , Velizh and Usvzat fell quickly . In 1581 , the force besieged Pskov , a well @-@ fortified and heavily defended fortress . However , financial support from the Polish parliament was dropping , and Batory failed to lure Russian forces in Livonia out into open field before the onset of winter . Not realising that the Polish – Lithuanian advance was on the wane , Ivan signed the Truce of Jam Zapolski .
The failure of the Swedish siege of Narva in 1579 led to Pontus de la Gardie 's appointment as commander @-@ in @-@ chief . The towns of Kexholm and Padis were taken by Swedish forces in 1580 then in 1581 , concurrent with the fall of Wesenberg , a mercenary army hired by Sweden recaptured the strategic city of Narva . A target of John III 's campaigns , since it could be attacked by both land and sea , the campaign made use of Sweden 's considerable fleet but later arguments over formal control in the long term hampered any alliance with Poland . Following la Gardie 's taking of the city , and in retaliation for previous Russian massacres , 7 @,@ 000 Russians were killed according to Russow 's contemporary chronicle . The fall of Narva was followed by those of Ivangorod , Jama and Koporye , leaving Sweden content with its gains in Livonia .
= = = Truces of Jam Zapolski and Plussa = = =
Subsequent negotiations led by Jesuit papal legate Antonio Possevino resulted in the 1582 Truce of Jam Zapolski between Russia and the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . This was a humiliation for the Tsar , in part because he requested the truce . Under the agreement Russia would surrender all areas in Livonia it still held and the city of Dorpat to the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , while Polotsk would remain under Commonwealth control . Any captured Swedish territory — specifically Narva — could be retained by the Russians and Velike Luki would be returned from Batory 's control to Russia . Possevino made a half @-@ hearted attempt to get John III 's wishes taken into consideration , but this was vetoed by the Tsar , probably in collusion with Batory . The armistice , which fell short of a full peace arrangement , was to last ten years and was renewed twice , in 1591 and 1601 . Batory failed in his attempts to pressure Sweden into relinquishing its gains in Livonia , particularly Narva .
Following a decision by John , the war with Russia ended in 1583 when the Tsar concluded the Truce of Plussa ( Plyussa , Pljussa , Plusa ) with Sweden . Russia relinquished most of Ingria but left Narva and Ivangorod under Swedish control . Originally scheduled to last three years , the Russo @-@ Swedish truce was later extended until 1590 . During the negotiations , Sweden made vast demands for Russian territory , including Novgorod . Whilst these conditions were probably only for the purposes of negotiation , they may have reflected Swedish aspirations of territory in the region .
= = Aftermath = =
The post @-@ war Duchy of Courland and Semigallia south of the Düna ( Daugava ) river experienced a period of political stability based on the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius , later modified by the 1617 Formula regiminis and Statuta Curlandiæ , which granted indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke 's expense . North of the Düna , Batory reduced the privileges Sigismund had granted the Duchy of Livonia , regarding the regained territories as the spoils of war . Riga 's privileges had already been reduced by the Treaty of Drohiczyn in 1581 . Polish gradually replaced German as the administrative language and the establishment of voivodeships reduced the Baltic German administration . The local clergy and the Jesuits in Livonia embraced the counter @-@ reformation in a process assisted by Batory , who gave the Roman Catholic Church revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants as well as initiating a largely unsuccessful recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists . Despite these measures , the Livonian population did not convert en masse , while the Livonian estates in Poland – Lithuania were alienated .
In 1590 , the Russo @-@ Swedish truce of Plussa expired and fighting resumed while the ensuing Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1590 – 5 ended with the Treaty of Teusina ( Tyavzino , Tyavzin ) , under which Sweden had to cede Ingria and Kexholm to Russia . The Swedish – Polish alliance began to crumble when the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund III , who as son of John III of Sweden ( died 1592 ) and Catherine Jagellonica , was the successor to the Swedish throne , met with resistance from a faction led by his uncle , Charles of Södermanland ( later Charles IX ) , who claimed regency in Sweden for himself . Sweden descended into a civil war in 1597 , followed by the 1598 – 1599 war against Sigismund , which ended with the deposition of Sigismund by the Swedish riksdag .
Local nobles turned to Charles for protection in 1600 when the conflict spread to Livonia , where Sigismund had tried to incorporate Swedish Estonia into the Duchy of Livonia . Charles then expelled the Polish forces from Estonia and invaded the Livonian duchy , starting a series of Polish – Swedish wars . At the same time , Russia was embroiled in civil war over the vacant Russian throne ( " Time of Troubles " ) when none of the many claimants had prevailed . This conflict became intertwined with the Livonian campaigns when Swedish and Polish – Lithuanian forces intervened on opposite sides , the latter starting the Polish – Muscovite War . Charles IX 's forces were expelled from Livonia after major setbacks at the battles of Kircholm ( 1605 ) and Klushino ( 1610 ) . During the later Ingrian War , Charles ' successor Gustavus Adolphus retook Ingria and Kexholm which were formally ceded to Sweden under the 1617 Treaty of Stolbovo along with the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia . In 1617 , when Sweden had recovered from the Kalmar War with Denmark , several Livonian towns were captured , but only Pernau remained under Swedish control after a Polish – Lithuanian counter @-@ offensive a second campaign that started with the capture of Riga in 1621 and expelled Polish – Lithuanian forces from most of Livonia , where the dominion of Swedish Livonia was created . Swedish forces then advanced through Royal Prussia and Poland – Lithuania accepted Swedish gains in Livonia in the 1629 Treaty of Altmark .
The Danish province of Øsel was ceded to Sweden under the 1645 Treaty of Brömsebro , which ended the Torstenson War , one theatre of the Thirty Years ' War . It was retained after the Peace of Oliva and the Treaty of Copenhagen , both in 1660 . The situation remained unchanged until 1710 when Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia during the Great Northern War , an action formalised in the Treaty of Nystad ( 1721 ) .
= Mi Chico Latino =
" Mi Chico Latino " ( English : " My Latin Boy " ) , is a song recorded by English singer Geri Halliwell for her debut solo album Schizophonic ( 1999 ) . It was written by Halliwell , Andy Watkins and Paul Wilson , whilst produced by the latter two , who are known collectively as Absolute . " Mi Chico Latino " was released as the album 's second single on 16 August 1999 , by EMI . It is a Latin pop song which is centred on a lost love theme . The song was written by Halliwell in order to pay homage to her mother , who has Spanish background , whilst it also has a number of Spanish lyrics .
" Mi Chico Latino " received mixed reviews from music critics , who noted it was a contribution to the Latin pop phenom at the time , while others criticized Halliwell 's Spanish pronunciation . The song was a commercial success in the United Kingdom , debuting at number one on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Halliwell 's first number @-@ one solo single in the country . The song also attracted moderate success worldwide . " Mi Chico Latino " ' s accompanying music video was directed by Doug Nichol and filmed in Sardinia . It depicts the singer wearing a black bikini and dancing with semi @-@ nude male dancers . In order to promote the single , Halliwell performed the song on Top of the Pops and Party in the Park in 1999 .
= = Background and development = =
" Mi Chico Latino " was written by Halliwell , Andy Watkins and Paul Wilson in the autumn of 1998 . The singer wanted to make a song with Spanish influences , in order to pay homage for her Spanish mother . During a day in the studio , they came up with a melody but did not have any words . Then she called her mother for help . Halliwell recalled asking her , " Mum , what do you say to a bloke in Spanish if you fancy him and are being romantic ? " Her mother then said she did not remember that . So she asked her look at her library of Spanish language romances , and she read the titles out to Halliwell . Eventually she came out with " ¿ Dónde está el hombre con fuego en la sangre ? " ( " Where is the man with fire in his blood ? " in English ) , and she liked the way it sounded , and included the line at the beginning of the song . After " Look at Me " peaked only at number two , her record company wanted her to release " Lift Me Up " , while the Absolute team wanted " Bag It Up " , but she chose to release " Mi Chico Latino " after receiving good reception from children . She also thought ,
" First and foremost I thought it was a good record . It was poppy and catchy and perfect for the summer . I think my core audience is young teenage girls and gay guys . Both of those groups tend to like pure pop music and I think that 's what ' Chico ' was . It was very different from the slightly leftfield style of ' Look at Me ' . [ ... ] The other thing that ' Chico ' had going for it was that the music was Latin @-@ based , I had written the song back in 1998 but by the time the summer of 1999 came around Latin @-@ influenced music was ruling the charts . Ricky Martin had recently had a number one and there were others on the way . So it was a strange example of synchronicity that I should be ready to go with a Latin track which I had written almost a year before " .
= = Composition = =
" Mi Chico Latino " is a Latin pop song which moves at a moderate tempo of 104 beats per minute . At the beginning of the song , Halliwell chants the spoken word line " ¿ Dónde está el hombre con fuego en la sangre ? " . The lyrics to the song are centred on a lost love theme , with castanets in the background . During the song , the singer also sings in Italian on its chorus , when everything else is Spanish . According to biographer David Sinclair in his book Spice Girls Revisited : How The Spice Girls Reinvented Pop , Halliwell continued to explore the Riviera @-@ pop theme of the Spice Girls ' song , " Viva Forever " , whilst " murmuring sweet nothings in a peculiar brand of estuary Spanish while castanets and timbales clattered alongside a cod @-@ flamenco guitar " .
= = = Controversy = = =
In 1999 , Israeli singer Alabina said " Mi Chico Latino " was a plagiarism from her song " Alabina ( De La Noche A La Manana ) " , released the year before . A spokesman for Alabina 's French record label Atal said that they were " anxiously contacting " Halliwell 's record label about the songs ' similarities . However , no legal actions were made .
= = Critical reception = =
" Mi Chico Latino " received mixed reviews from music critics . Jon Perks , whilst reviewing Schizophonic for Sunday Mercury , gave a positive review , stating , " Okay , so it sounds like a hybrid of La Vida Loca and Madonna 's La Isla Bonita , but with a swimming @-@ costumed Geri on the cover and a summery tune , it 's a winning combination " . Chris Charles from BBC News commented that " Mi Chico Latino " could be mistaken with " Spice Up Your Life " , Halliwell 's previous hit with the Spice Girls . For Russell Baillie from The New Zealand Herald , Halliwell spends time on the album " flashing her eyelashes at [ menfolk ] , especially if they 're foreign " , calling the song " glutinous " . According to Rolling Stone , " Mi Chico Latino " was her " impeccably timed contribution to the Latin @-@ pop phenom , complete with awkwardly pronounced Spanglish " . Jonathan O 'Brien from Hot Press magazine was negative , stating that " Mi Chico Latino " was " a dreadful pastiche of Madonna 's ' La Isla Bonita ' " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Mi Chico Latino " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart on 22 August 1999 , becoming Halliwell 's first number @-@ one solo single in the country . It also was the beginning of a sequence of four consecutive Halliwell singles reaching number one in the United Kingdom . It spent fifteen weeks in the charts , and went on to sell almost 380 @,@ 000 copies in the UK and was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . " Mi Chico Latino " experienced moderate success in other European markets . In Austria , it entered the singles chart at number 34 , eventually peaking at number 27 and spending a total of eight weeks on the chart . In France , the song peaked at number 40 , remaining on the chart for ten weeks in total . On the Swiss Singles Chart dated 19 September 1999 , it peaked at number 26 . In Australia , " Mi Chico Latino " debuted at its peak of number 43 on the issue dated 5 September 1999 . The song also experienced success in the United States , peaking at number 19 on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Mi Chico Latino " was directed by Doug Nichol and filmed in Sardinia from 5 @-@ 8 July 1999 . Halliwell wanted the video for the song to be very different in style to her previous single " Look At Me " , as that one was filmed in Prague in the freezing cold , and she wanted something to connect with her fans . According to her , the video was also pretty easy to get : " a yacht , a girl in a bikini and some sexy boy dancers to keep both sets of fans [ gay guys and teenage girls ] happy " . After the video was released , the singer got a huge amount of attention from it . " People came up to me and told me how great and how sexy it was . They also told me I looked really healthy , but how wrong they were . I wasn 't healthy because I wasn 't eating properly and although I was slim at the time , that was a mirage too because the tough regime of the diet was always going to lead me to binge and put the weight back on " , and later , she began taking recovery meetings for bulimia .
= = Live performances = =
Halliwell first performed " Mi Chico Latino " as the opening number at her show held at G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub . According to Brian Logan from The Guardian , the performance " served only to stress " her certain brand of pop , referring to it as " Madonna @-@ lite . " Halliwell also performed the single in front of 100 @,@ 000 fans at Party in the Park event in early July 1999 . On 26 August 1999 , the singer performed the song on Top of the Pops .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Geri Halliwell — songwriter
Absolute — songwriters , producers , instruments
Tracey Ackerman – backing vocalist
Milton Mcdonald – guitar
Karlos Edwards – percussion
Mike Higham – programming
Paul " P " Dub Walton – audio engineer
Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing
Wayne Wilkins – mixing assistant
Stylorouge – design , art direction
Dean Freeman – photographer
Credits and personnel adapted from Schizophonic album liner notes .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= Hurricane Arthur ( 2014 ) =
Hurricane Arthur was the earliest known hurricane to make landfall in the U.S. state of North Carolina . The first named storm of the 2014 Atlantic hurricane season , Arthur developed from an initially non @-@ tropical area of low pressure over the Southeastern United States that emerged into the western Atlantic Ocean on June 28 . After sufficiently organizing , developing a well @-@ defined circulation and deep convection amid a favorable environment , it was classified a tropical depression on July 1 . The system continued to strengthen , and was declared a tropical storm later that day . Drifting northward , the storm reached hurricane status early on July 3 and curved toward the north @-@ northeast . Further structural organization resulted in additional intensification , and by 01 : 00 UTC on July 4 , the system attained its peak winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Arthur made landfall at 03 : 15 UTC over North Carolina 's Shackleford Banks , positioned between Cape Lookout and Beaufort , and intensified slightly further , with a minimum atmospheric pressure of 973 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 70 inHg ) . The storm then trekked swiftly northeast , weakening as it passed by Cape Cod and Nantucket , before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone and coming ashore at Meteghan , Nova Scotia , on July 5 . The remnants continued generally northeastward through Atlantic Canada before ultimately dissipating on July 9 over the Labrador Sea .
Numerous tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued for areas along the East Coast of the United States . A state of emergency was declared for 26 North Carolina counties , and both mandatory and voluntary evacuations were imposed along the state 's coast . Several hundred government personnel were deployed to assist in evacuation and preparation efforts , along with heavy equipment capable of removing sand and debris . Due to the hurricane 's timing , many Independence Day activities in the U.S. were cancelled or rescheduled . Damage was limited to strewn debris and inundated roads , and though 44 @,@ 000 power outages were reported and widespread flooding occurred along northern sections of the coast , no deaths or serious injuries were reported . In New England , Arthur brought flash flooding and caused additional power outages , resulting in widespread road closures and suspension of ferry service . Losses in the country amounted to US $ 3 @.@ 25 million .
In Atlantic Canada and Quebec , hurricane @-@ force gusts associated Arthur 's remnants produced widespread damage . Countless trees and power lines fell across the region , leaving more than 300 @,@ 000 without electricity . Damage to the power grid in Nova Scotia was regarded as the worst since Hurricane Juan in 2003 . Efforts to restore and repair infrastructure were prolonged , with thousands still without power 10 days after the storm . Efforts to restore and repair damage to the electrical grid cost C $ 8 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 5 million ) . Reviews of Nova Scotia Power ( NSP ) and New Brunswick Power ( NBP ) were called upon due to numerous complaints from customers and politicians alike . A communication breakdown between NSP and the public exacerbated problems , and Nova Scotia Premier Stephen McNeil condemned the company 's response as " inexcusable . " Similarly severe impacts were felt by NBP which suffered a record @-@ breaking C $ 23 million ( US $ 20 @.@ 1 million ) in damage from the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 25 , 2014 , an area of showers and thunderstorms developed over the northern Gulf of Mexico ahead of a shortwave trough in Texas . That day , National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the possibility of tropical cyclogenesis off the Southeast United States over the following week as the system was expected to encounter favorable environmental conditions . An area of low @-@ level vorticity consolidated within the system on June 26 as it moved northeast across Louisiana , Mississippi , and Alabama . The following day it became intertwined with a frontal boundary over Georgia and South Carolina before emerging over the far western Atlantic Ocean early on June 28 . An area of low pressure soon formed within the system just off the coast of South Carolina . Generally favorable environmental conditions fostered further organization of the low , though convection remained minimal for several days . During the latter half of June 30 , a United States Air Force weather reconnaissance mission into the system confirmed the presence of a well @-@ organized circulation ; however , displacement of showers and thunderstorms from its center delayed its classification . Subsequent organization of convection into a banding feature along the system 's southern flank , as depicted by radar imagery , prompted the NHC to designate the low as Tropical Depression One at 00 : 00 UTC on July 1 . Situated 70 mi ( 110 km ) east @-@ southeast of Fort Pierce , Florida , the newly christened depression moved slowly westward within an area of weak steering currents . A turn northward was forecast as a mid @-@ level ridge built over the Atlantic .
Throughout July 1 , steady structural organization ensued . Around 15 : 00 UTC winds of 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) were measured at Settlement Point on Grand Bahama , prompting the NHC to upgrade the depression to a tropical storm and assign it the name Arthur . Though environmental conditions surrounding the cyclone favored development , moderate wind shear and intrusions of dry air into the circulation prolonged organization . The effects of the shear showed clearly on WSR @-@ 88D radar imagery from Melbourne , Florida which depicted a mid @-@ level eye feature displaced 30 to 35 mi ( 48 to 56 km ) from the low @-@ level center . By July 2 , Arthur acquired a steady northward track as previously forecast . Throughout the day , convection consolidated around a developing eye as wind shear abated and the storm neared hurricane strength , with winds reaching 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .
Early on July 3 , data from hurricane hunters flying in the storm indicated that Arthur attained hurricane @-@ status about 190 mi ( 310 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cape Fear , North Carolina . At this time , the hurricane began turning slightly to the north @-@ northeast as it approached a weakness in the subtropical ridge ahead of a deep @-@ layer trough over the Eastern United States . Continued improvement of the storm 's convective structure fostered intensification as the storm neared the North Carolina coastline . At 00 : 00 UTC on July 4 , Arthur reached its peak winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , ranking it as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . It was the first hurricane to reach such strength since Hurricane Sandy in the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season . The storm featured a well @-@ defined 25 to 30 mi ( 40 to 48 km ) wide eye at this time . Thereafter , the hurricane made landfall at 03 : 15 UTC over the Shackleford Banks of North Carolina , located between Cape Lookout and Beaufort . Upon doing so , it became the earliest instance of a hurricane making landfall in the state during a calendar year , surpassing the previous record of July 11 set by an unnamed hurricane in 1901 . Slight deepening of the cyclone occurred as it moved over Pamlico Sound , with its barometric pressure bottoming out at 973 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) . Continuing across Pamlico Sound , Arthur 's eye brushed the coastline of Dare County before striking the northern portion of the Outer Banks at 07 : 00 and 08 : 00 UTC , respectively .
After re @-@ emerging over the Atlantic Ocean on July 4 Arthur began to weaken . Though its eye remained well @-@ defined , winds aloft in the storm failed to effectively mix down to the surface . Traversing decreasing sea surface temperatures and amid increasing shear , Arthur began transitioning into an extratropical cyclone later that day . Cloud tops associated with the system warmed and the structure became asymmetric . Reconnaissance continued to indicate strong flight @-@ level winds of 119 mph ( 192 km / h ) but surface winds at the time did not exceed 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Accelerating ahead of the trough over the East Coast , Arthur 's eye dissipated early on July 5 ; the storm passed within 75 mi ( 120 km ) of Chatham , Massachusetts around 03 : 00 UTC . Convection became increasingly displaced to the northeast as dry air entrained into the western portions of the circulation . Surface winds decreased below hurricane @-@ force by 06 : 00 UTC , and Arthur completed its conversion to an extratropical system at 12 : 00 UTC as it moved over the Bay of Fundy . The NHC subsequently issued its final advisory on the storm and shifted warning responsibility to the Canadian Hurricane Centre .
The remnants of Arthur re @-@ intensified somewhat as it traversed The Maritimes ; a sting jet with gusts of 65 – 80 mph ( 100 – 130 km / h ) developed along the storm 's backside . The former hurricane made an additional landfall in the region near Fundy National Park by 18 : 00 UTC . By July 6 , the sting jet had dissipated , and steady weakening of the cyclone resumed as only a split jet provided upper @-@ level support to the storm . Turning back to the northeast , Arthur moved through Labrador later that day . Once over the Labrador Sea , Arthur turned northwest while weakening before doubling back to the southeast . After weakening below gale @-@ force strength , the extratropical system dissipated late on July 9 .
Meteorologists noted to improved accuracy in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory and Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting models in predicting the intensity and track of Hurricane Arthur .
= = Warnings and watches = =
Multiple tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted along the East Coast of the United States in advance of Arthur 's impacts in Florida , the Carolinas , New England , and Atlantic Canada . Upon developing into a tropical cyclone early on July 1 , a tropical storm watch was issued in Florida from Fort Pierce to Flagler Beach . At 09 : 00 UTC the next day , the tropical storm watch was discontinued south of Sebastian Inlet , while another one was posted from the Santee River in South Carolina to Bogue Banks in North Carolina . Additionally , a hurricane watch was issued for Oregon Inlet to the North Carolina – Virginia state line . Later on July 2 , a tropical storm warning became in effect from the North Carolina side of the Little River Inlet to the state line with Virginia . Simultaneously , the tropical storm watch in Florida was removed .
At 21 : 00 UTC on July 2 , a hurricane warning was posted in North Carolina from Surf City to Duck , including Albemarle and Pamlico sounds . Additionally , a tropical storm warning was issued from the Santee River to Surf City , while another one became in effect from Duck to Cape Charles Light in Virginia , including the mouth of Chesapeake Bay . A tropical storm warning was posted in Massachusetts at 21 : 00 UTC on July 3 , stretching from Provincetown to Chatham along Cape Cod including Nantucket , in addition to a tropical storm watch between Port Maitland and Point Aconi issued by Environment Canada . Around 01 : 00 UTC on July 4 , the hurricane watch was discontinued south of Surf City , while the tropical storm warning was discontinued south of Little River Inlet . Two hours later , the tropical storm warning was canceled south of Cape Fear , North Carolina , and tropical storm watches in Canada were expanded to encompass New Brunswick from the Canada – United States border to Grande Anse , Nova Scotia including Cape Breton Island , and Prince Edward Island .
The tropical storm warning from Surf City to Cape Fear was discontinued at 05 : 00 UTC on July 4 . A few hours later , the portion of the hurricane warning south of Bogue Inlet was removed . At 09 : 00 UTC on July 4 , the tropical storm warning in Massachusetts was extended westward to Woods Hole . Around that time , areas west of Cape Lookout in North Carolina were no longer under a hurricane warning . In North Carolina , the hurricane warning was canceled for areas south of Ocracoke Inlet at 11 : 00 UTC . All hurricane warnings in the state were discontinued four hours later , as was the tropical storm warning at Albemarle Sound ; in addition , all tropical storm watches issued by Environment Canada were then converted to tropical storm warnings . By 18 : 00 UTC on July 4 , the tropical storm warning on the east coast of Virginia , including the mouth of Chesapeake Bay , was discontinued . After passing by Nantucket and Cape Cod , the remaining tropical storm warnings in New England were rescinded .
= = Preparations = =
Governor of North Carolina Pat McCrory declared a state of emergency for 25 counties in advance of the hurricane 's arrival . Fourteen shelters were opened , and the deteriorating North Carolina Highway 12 Bonner Bridge was closed as a precaution . Mandatory evacuations were declared for Hatteras Island and Richland Township in Beaufort County while voluntary evacuations were announced for Ocracoke Island , Aurora , Pamlico Beach , and Belhaven . Approximately 4 @,@ 300 individuals fled from Ocracoke Island via ferry despite only being under a voluntary evacuation , and while a mandatory evacuation had been encouraged by Hyde County 's emergency management director , other officials turned down the request . Tornado watches were issued for 10 North Carolina counties . In preparation for the possibility that Arthur 's storm surge would make North Carolina Highway 12 and Hatteras Island inaccessible , local officials deployed heavy equipment capable of removing sand and other debris .
To assist in storm preparations , 105 North Carolina National Guard members and 400 state highway patrol officers helped facilitate evacuations and storm preparations along the state 's coastline . Pamlico Sound ferry service was suspended , and various Independence Day activities rescheduled . Meanwhile , in Ocean City , Maryland , a celebratory fireworks event was postponed to July 5 , and in Boston , a Fourth of July Boston Pops concert and fireworks display were rescheduled to July 3 . Fireworks displays were also postponed throughout Rhode Island . National Weather Service and Coast Guard officials warned of the potential for rip currents along the East Coast resulting from Arthur . The National Park Service @-@ operated Wright Brothers National Memorial and Cape Lookout National Seashore were closed in anticipation of the storm . Several airlines waived change fees for travelers in areas affected by Arthur . Officials at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base sent more than 54 aircraft to Dayton , Ohio to prevent the occurrence of potential wind damage . In Nantucket , Massachusetts , a school was converted to a temporary shelter in anticipation of Arthur 's arrival .
In anticipation of Arthur 's arrival , Nova Scotia Power prepared and collected resources in case of power outages and other impacts in the region . Numerous weekend events were called off throughout the Canadian Maritimes , including the Stan Rogers Folk Festival . Multiple boat @-@ owners and fisherman took extra precautions by battening down hatches and tying extra lines to wharves to keep ships and boats from coming loose in the storm . Environment Canada officials issued high wind warnings in addition to earlier tropical storm warnings for the Maritimes and considered imposing rainfall warnings for western portions of Prince Edward Island as well . Province @-@ managed parks in Nova Scotia , including beaches and camping grounds , were shut down prior to Arthur 's arrival , and several airlines waived transfer fees . Officials in Moncton stated that city personnel would be prepared to respond to potential issues caused by Arthur , such as flooding or fallen trees , while the Canadian Red Cross readied volunteers in case of the need for emergency assistance . The Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station took precautionary measures against the storm , with Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission employees deployed to the site .
= = Impact = =
= = = Bahamas and Southeastern United States = = =
Between June 30 and July 1 , the outer bands of Arthur produced light rain over the northwestern Bahamas , with 1 @.@ 26 in ( 32 mm ) measured in Freeport . Winds at Settlement Point on Grand Bahama peaked at 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) with gusts to 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) .
Although Arthur remained offshore , large scale northerly flow from the west side of the cyclone sparked scattered severe thunderstorms across Florida for several days . Effects from these storms were generally minor with damage amounting to only $ 23 @,@ 000 . On July 3 however , one storm produced straight @-@ line winds estimated at 70 – 80 mph ( 110 – 130 km / h ) and caused two barns to collapse near Elkton . Additionally , rip currents affected Atlantic coastal areas of the state . In Daytona Beach , a dozen swimmers had to be rescued by lifeguards due to the strong currents generated by Arthur . Similar effects were felt in coastal Georgia with scattered thunderstorms causing minor damage . Farther north in South Carolina , Arthur produced wind gusts up to 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) along coastal areas , resulting in scattered power outages . Heavy rains also fell in and around Myrtle Beach , with a peak of 8 @.@ 73 in ( 222 mm ) measured just outside the city ; this was the highest total observed in relation to the storm throughout the country .
= = = North Carolina = = =
Hurricane Arthur was the earliest recorded landfalling North Carolina hurricane , coming onshore at 03 : 15 UTC on July 4 . At Cape Lookout , a peak wind gust of 101 mph ( 163 km / h ) and 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) were recorded . A United States Coast Guard station in Cape Hatteras observed a peak gust of 91 mph ( 146 km / h ) . An EF1 tornado touched down in Duplin County , damaging two structures and many trees , while a funnel cloud was sighted within the vicinity of Elm City . Another EF1 tornado was reported in Martin County , which knocked a tree onto a house . The highest rainfall total measured as a result of Arthur in North Carolina , 4 @.@ 20 inches ( 107 mm ) , was recorded at Kinston . High tides were reported along the coast , with a peak storm surge of 4 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) at Oregon Inlet .
Arthur caused power outages impacting at least 44 @,@ 000 customers , of which 16 @,@ 500 were in Carteret County ; another 1 @,@ 000 outages each occurred in Craven and New Hanover counties . As a result , Duke Energy deployed over 500 personnel to restore electrical service , while Tideland EMC handled more than 2 @,@ 000 outages in Pamlico , Hyde and Craven counties . Strong winds toppled trees and power poles in Hyde County and Ocracoke Island , and flooding occurred just south of downtown Wilmington , North Carolina . On other areas along the coast , flood waters reached 3 to 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 83 m ) deep ; with widespread coastal erosion observed in many areas . Meanwhile , at Wrightsville Beach , the hurricane tore off shingles and partially defoliated palm trees , and in Manteo , 6 to 8 inches ( 150 to 200 mm ) of water inundated several businesses . Nearby , Kill Devil Hills experienced flooding to numerous residences and roads . Copious rainfall and strong winds were reported along the Outer Banks ; at least one additional county was added to the North Carolina 's state of emergency declaration , and while officials in Dare County initially intended to cut off access to the county while potential destruction was being surveyed , the curfew ended just after sunrise . Emergency officials announced the intention to begin damage assessments throughout the state as sunrise approached and Arthur departed the region .
After experiencing a " communication failure " with Ocracoke Island officials , a generator and communication equipment were delivered via ferry there . North Carolina Highway 12 , the only road linking Hatteras Island to the mainland , remained closed after Arthur 's passage , covered under water and sand . The repair cost for the road was less than $ 1 million . In Manteo , parts of U.S. Route 64 were shut down due to flooding , and northern portions of the North Carolina coastline also experienced significant flooding . Few flight cancellations were made necessary by Arthur 's approach along the East Coast , as the storm 's impacts were primarily offshore , and damage was limited to strewn debris and inundated roads . Overall , damage along the North Carolina shoreline was slight , and no fatalities or severe injuries were recorded . Throughout the county a total of 161 structures sustained damage , 16 of which had major damage , while none were destroyed . Damage in North Carolina amounted to $ 2 @.@ 34 million , almost entirely in Dare County alone . The low damage across the state was largely due to the storm 's fast motion .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England = = =
Owing to Arthur 's somewhat large size , strong winds and light rains impacted portions of the Delmarva Peninsula . In Virginia , sustained winds peaked at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) at Rappahannock Light with gusts up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . Tropical storm force winds were mostly confined to coastal areas of Delaware and Maryland . Maximum storm surge was 2 @.@ 38 ft ( 0 @.@ 73 m ) in Money Point , Virginia and 2 @.@ 34 ft ( 0 @.@ 71 m ) in Lewes , Delaware . Notable storm tides also occurred in Connecticut , New Jersey , and New York , peaking at 3 @.@ 49 ft ( 1 @.@ 06 m ) in Bridgeport , Connecticut .
Sustained winds of 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) and gusts to 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) were reported near Nantucket Island in Massachusetts as Arthur passed just offshore . Flooding was reported within the vicinity of Broad and Easy streets on Nantucket Island , and heavy rains induced widespread flooding elsewhere as well , with up to 8 @.@ 00 inches ( 203 mm ) of rain measured at New Bedford , 7 @.@ 20 inches ( 183 mm ) at Plymouth , and 6 @.@ 26 inches ( 159 mm ) at Fairhaven . The accumulation at New Bedford ranked Arthur as the ninth wettest tropical cyclone on record in the state . Massachusetts State Police shut down access to parts of Interstate 195 , Massachusetts Route 18 , and U.S. Route 6 as a precaution . Nearby in Fairhaven , Adams Street was inundated and inaccessible , while the heavy rainfall resulted in flash flooding at New Bedford ; as a result , a flash flood emergency was imposed by the National Weather Service . In addition , ferry service to and from Martha 's Vineyard and Nantucket was suspended . Minor flooding also led to road closures around Boston , including the Interstate 93 tunnel near Leverett Circle . The New Bedford Whaling Museum was also flooded , inundated under 20 inches ( 510 mm ) of water . Several boats were beached , and some flooding occurred at Cape Cod . NSTAR reported 8 @,@ 451 outages , 7 @,@ 500 of them on Cape Cod , while National Grid recorded 1 @,@ 900 , of which 1 @,@ 400 affected customers in Middlesex County . Moisture from Arthur also aided in the development of damaging thunderstorms across western Massachusetts . Total losses in the state amounted to $ 889 @,@ 000 .
In Maine , tropical storm @-@ force wind gusts downed numerous trees and power lines across eastern portions of the state . Winds on the mainland gusted to 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) while Machias Seal Island observed 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) . Outages in Maine affected 20 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 residences , primarily in Hancock and Washington counties . About 2 @,@ 800 Central Maine Power customers and 4 @,@ 390 Emera Maine patrons lost power , mostly due to overturned trees and branches throughout the state . Locally significant damage took place in Aroostook County where heavy rains enabled winds aloft to mix down to the surface . Alongside the winds heavy rainfall affected the state , with a maximum of 6 @.@ 48 inches ( 165 mm ) near Whiting . Effects from the rains were negligible , with only minor stream flooding reported in Hancock and Washington Counties . Further inland in Vermont , 1 @,@ 600 customers lost power .
= = = Atlantic Canada and Quebec = = =
Powerful winds gusted up to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) across much of Nova Scotia , with a confirmed peak value of 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) in Greenwood and an unconfirmed value of 112 mph ( 181 km / h ) in Sluice Point . Arthur knocked out power to more than 290 @,@ 000 individuals in the Maritimes ; 144 @,@ 000 of those were customers of Nova Scotia Power ( NSP ) , and 1 @,@ 500 of Maritime Electric on Prince Edward Island . In New Brunswick , power outages affected upwards of 140 @,@ 000 individuals , of which 52 @,@ 000 were situated near Fredericton , forcing the closure of the local University of New Brunswick campus . Copious rainfall was recorded in southwestern parts of New Brunswick , with 5 @.@ 91 in ( 150 mm ) measured at Gagetown . Flooding at Saint John , New Brunswick made two local streets inaccessible , while winds downed electrical poles in Fredericton . In Onslow , Nova Scotia , firefighters rescued a man trapped under a tree limb , while a sailboat capsized at Charlottetown harbor and another was washed out to sea . The hurricane forced temporary suspension of the MV Nova Star ferry service between Yarmouth , Nova Scotia and Portland , Maine . The storm caused flight delays and cancellations at Halifax Stanfield International Airport , while LaHave and Tancook Island ferries were shut down ; in addition , access to the A. Murray MacKay Bridge was restricted to smaller vehicles . In Stratford , Prince Edward Island , a woman died after being struck by a door that was caught by a gust of wind , and in Woodstock , New Brunswick , a man died when his oxygen support was cut off during a power outage . In some parts of Nova Scotia , damage to the electrical grid was reported to be the worst since Hurricane Juan in 2003 . Damage throughout New Brunswick amounted to at least C $ 12 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 11 million ) .
Effects from Arthur extended as far away as Quebec , where topographic wind enhancement occurred . Gusts of 50 to 62 mph ( 80 to 100 km / h ) affected the Gaspésie – Îles @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Madeleine region . Locally heavy rains fell in some parts of the province , with maximum amounts reaching 3 @.@ 1 in ( 80 mm ) . The heaviest damage took place along the Chaleur Bay . Numerous trees and power lines were downed by the storm , leaving 23 @,@ 000 Hydro Québec customers without electricity . A portion of Quebec Route 132 near Carleton @-@ sur @-@ Mer was temporarily shut down due to fallen debris . Severe flooding impacted Mont @-@ Louis , with 40 homes affected , culverts washed away , and roads rendered impassable . A portion of Quebec Route 198 near the area was washed away . In nearby Marsoui , water and sewer service was disrupted with damage estimated in excess of C $ 1 million ( US $ 930 @,@ 000 ) .
= = Aftermath = =
Power outages across Nova Scotia lasted for a week after the storm 's passage . This prompted numerous complaints from residents and officials , both criticizing NSP for their slow response . On July 9 , NSP President and CEO Bob Hanf issued a public apology for the communication breakdown between his company and customers . By July 11 , 2 @,@ 400 customers remained without electricity with 187 crews working to restore it . The delay in restoration prompted numerous complaints from residents and Nova Scotia Premier Stephen McNeil condemned NSP 's response as " inexcusable . " McNeil ordered a review of the company to be made by provincial regulators . He and Energy Minister Andrew Younger agreed that there was a total failure of communication , namely through their website , between NSP and residents . One resident in Annapolis Valley stated that the company continuously told her power would be restored soon , when it ultimately took five days for it to return . NSP stated that in the four years prior to Arthur , C $ 70 million had been spent on improving the electrical infrastructure ; however , the storm was of a severity beyond any other since Hurricane Juan .
Similar issues occurred in New Brunswick where 18 @,@ 000 customers remained without power through July 11 . More than 310 crews remained deployed throughout the province with electricity expected to be fully restored by the following week . Costs to repair the power grid were estimated in excess of C $ 12 million ( US $ 11 @.@ 1 million ) . There was criticism that New Brunswick Power did not appropriately prepare for the storm and actually requested assistance from other public power companies and private contractors after the storm had struck . Two public buildings in Fredericton were utilized as recharging centers for residents to charge their phones and shower . An estimated 6 @,@ 000 people took advantage of this through July 10 . Shaved ice was later distributed from the Grant @-@ Harvey Centre in the city while several waste disposal sites were opened for residents to get rid of spoiled food from power outages . Gaëtan Thomas , president and chief executive officer of NB Power , likened the effects of Arthur in the region to Hurricane Katrina along the United States Gulf Coast in August 2005 . He referenced that during Katrina , 50 percent of the affected region lost power , while in the wake of Arthur 57 percent of New Brunswick was in the dark over a similar geographic area . Earlier cuts to the company 's tree @-@ trimming budget were cited as a possible cause in the scale of damage . As such , their budget for trimming in 2015 was increased from C $ 6 million to C $ 8 million .
Emergency management officials in Fredericton stated that it could be years before the city fully recovered from the storm . Power restoration in the province reached over 99 percent on July 16 with only 750 customers still out . However , a thunderstorm that evening revealed the weak nature of the power grid as outages jumped back over 4 @,@ 000 . The following week , Energy Minister Craig Leonard rebutted claims that a public review of NB Power was necessary , despite the longevity and severity of the power outages . New Brunswick 's Liberal and Green parties both supported an independent review of the company , while Leonard claimed only an internal review was necessary . The total cost to restore and repair damage to the power grid wrought by the storm amounted to C $ 8 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 5 million ) . This ranked it as the second @-@ costliest event for Nova Scotia Power from a tropical cyclone , only behind Hurricane Juan . New Brunswick Power reported even greater losses from Arthur with damage amounting to C $ 23 million ( US $ 20 @.@ 1 million ) . This marked the costliest disaster in the company 's history , surpassing the December 2013 ice storm . In light of the severe damage , NB Power allocated an extra C $ 5 @.@ 1 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 5 million ) for tree trimming during the 2014 @-@ 2014 fiscal year .
By July 9 , 11 municipalities across Quebec were declared disaster areas and made eligible for federal funding . Ten more municipalities were placed under this declaration on July 11 following further damage assessments . The Canadian Red Cross provided residents in Marsoui with food and aid . Quebec Premier Philippe Couillard allocated C $ 100 @,@ 000 in aid for the affected areas and promised further funding .
A few weeks after the storm , a severe outbreak of fire blight , a bacterial infection , occurred in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia , affecting as many as 80 percent of the Valley 's apple orchards . The storm was blamed for causing microscopic cracks in leaves , which allowed airborne bacteria to enter the plants .
= German cruiser Seydlitz =
Seydlitz was a heavy cruiser of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine , fourth in the Admiral Hipper class , but was never completed . The ship was laid down in December 1936 and launched in January 1939 , but the outbreak of World War II slowed her construction and fitting @-@ out work was finally stopped in the summer of 1940 when she was approximately 95 percent complete . The unfinished ship remained pier @-@ side in the shipyard until March 1942 , when the Kriegsmarine decided to pursue aircraft carriers over surface combatants . Seydlitz was among the vessels chosen for conversion into auxiliary aircraft carriers .
Renamed Weser , the ship was to have had a complement of ten Bf 109 fighters and ten Ju 87 divebombers . Work was not completed , however , and the incomplete vessel was towed to Königsberg where she was eventually scuttled . The ship was seized by the advancing Soviet Army and was briefly considered for cannibalization for spare parts to complete her sistership Lützow for the Soviet Navy . This plan was also abandoned , and the ship was broken up for scrap .
= = Construction = =
Seydlitz was ordered by the Kriegsmarine from the Deschimag shipyard in Bremen . Seydlitz was originally designed as a light cruiser version of the Admiral Hipper class heavy cruisers , armed with twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns instead of the Admiral Hipper 's eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns . The Kriegsmarine decided , however , to complete the ship identically to Admiral Hipper on 14 November 1936 . Her keel was laid on 29 December 1936 , under construction number 940 . The ship was launched on 19 January 1939 , but after the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , work was halted when the ship was approximately 95 percent complete .
Seydlitz was 210 meters ( 690 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 21 @.@ 80 m ( 71 @.@ 5 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 90 m ( 25 @.@ 9 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 17 @,@ 600 t ( 17 @,@ 300 long tons ; 19 @,@ 400 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 19 @,@ 800 long tons ( 20 @,@ 100 t ) . Seydlitz was powered by three sets of geared steam turbines , which were supplied with steam by twelve ultra @-@ high pressure oil @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's top speed was 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , at 132 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 98 @,@ 000 kW ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 340 enlisted men .
Seydlitz 's primary armament was eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 60 guns mounted in four twin gun turrets , placed in superfiring pairs forward and aft . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and eight 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . The ship also carried a pair of triple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo launchers abreast of the rear superstructure . The ship was equipped with three Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Seydlitz 's armored belt was 70 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 12 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick while the main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces and 70 mm thick sides .
= = Conversion = =
Following the loss of the battleship Bismarck in May 1941 , during which British aircraft carriers proved instrumental , and the near torpedoing of her sistership Tirpitz in March 1942 , the Kriegsmarine became convinced of the necessity of acquiring aircraft carriers . Work on the purpose @-@ built carrier Graf Zeppelin , which had been halted in April 1940 , was resumed in March 1942 . The Kriegsmarine also decided to convert a number of vessels into auxiliary aircraft carriers . Seydlitz was among the ships selected for
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received territories from the king , along with the office of Crown oboźny . In 1653 he led a unit to Ukraine , ransacking much of the Cossack @-@ held lands , although the attrition among the troops was high . During that campaign Czarniecki was wounded at Monastyryska . He continued his suppression campaign in 1654 , and the following January took part in the battle of Okhmativ . In May 1655 he was called from Ukraine to Warsaw , as the king John Casimir Vasa , respected his experience and requested his presence at a new war council , convened to discuss the looming thread of the war with Sweden . At that time his reputation was significant ; Sejm often passed resolutions applauding him for his efforts to reclaim Ukraine , and he was even held in much consideration by the Ottomans , then temporarily allied with the Commonwealth . On 14 May 1655 he received the office of the castellan of Kiev , a position that made him a member of the Senate of Poland .
= = = The Swedish Deluge = = =
When Charles X of Sweden invaded Poland in 1655 , Czarniecki distinguished himself by his defence of Kraków , which he eventually surrendered on good terms , retreating with his army . He remained loyal to the Polish king , even when much of the army , including most of the senators and the hetmans , temporarily joined the Swedes . His vocal support for the wavering king , which at that time found refuge abroad , and was considering abdication , was instrumental . For his continuing support , the Polish king rewarded him with more lands , and the office of the royal army regimentarz .
He led guerrilla warfare against Swedish troops of Charles X , a type of a campaign he authored , despite the objections of the hetmans , who by that time returned to serve under John Casmimir Vasa . The mobile Swedish forces , even with their significant firepower , proved to be rather vulnerable to Czarniecki 's guerrilla @-@ style warfare . Czarniecki was defeated at the battle of Gołąb in mid @-@ February 1656 , but later inflicted serious defeats upon the Swedes , notably at the Battle of Warka in April that year . The tide of the war turned several times that year , and he was again defeated at the battle of Kłecko and battle of Kscynia . His defeats , however , were limited , and in most cases he was able to retreat with most of his army in good order . Under his direction the popular rising against the Swedish troops in Greater Poland proved highly successful . It was against his advice that the battle of Warsaw was fought , and his subsequent strategy neutralized the ill effects of this defeat . Despite support from the king , Czarniecki was seen by many older , established noble family as an arrogant newcomer , and they prevented him from getting the hetman office that year ; instead early next year he received the office of the voivode of Ruthenia , and an extraordinary title of the " general and vice commander of the royal forces " , which put him in a position of an unofficial hetman @-@ like authority . The Field Crown Hetmanship went to Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski , also an accomplished commander , if not so much as Czarniecki – but from a magnate Lubomirski family ; Czarniecki commented famously that " Not of salt , or fields , I am , but from what hurts me " , alluding to the fact that Lubormirski family built its fortune on salt trade and agriculture , whereas his smaller one was built through military service – yet it was money and politics , not military experience , that decided who was to get the hetman 's office .
= = = Final battles = = =
In 1657 he was instrumental in defeating the forces of George II Rákóczi at the battle of Magierów . In 1658 and 1659 he aided Danes during the Danish – Swedish War , fighting at Als and at the battle of Kolding .
On the conclusion of the Peace of Oliwa , which adjusted the long outstanding differences between Poland and Sweden , Czarniecki was transferred to the eastern frontier where the war with Russia reignited . He distinguished himself in the campaign of 1660 , where he won the victories of the battle of Połonka , battle of Basia , and battle of Kuszliki . This campaign , however , marked the zenith of his popularity . King John II Casimir Vasa attempted to involve him in the unpopular plan of vivente rege – to bypass the traditions of the royal elections in Poland and instead chose the next successor to the Polish throne ( John II Casimir favored Louis , Grand Condé ) still during the life of the previous king . His reputation among the unpaid and dissenting military took a dive ; and many criticized him for appropriating the entire ransom that the Russians paid for their prisoners from Połonka . During the Sejm of 1662 some military representatives demanded sanctions and punishments to be levied on him .
His last campaign took place at the end of 1664 . He led an army against the Russians , but the Siege of Hlukhiv was not successful , and a new Cossack uprising of Ivan Sirko forced the Polish troops to fall back .
On 22 July 1664 he received the office of the voivode of Kiev , and on 2 January 1665 he was appointed Field Crown Hetman . Before receiving the news of the nomination he desired for years , he was wounded at Lysianka . Called back by the king , who feared that magnate Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski that he just banished might start a rebellion , his recent wound became infected , and he died on 16 February 1665 in Sokołówka ( now Sokolívka ) near Lwów , six weeks after receiving this supreme distinction .
= = Legacy = =
Czarniecki received a state funeral in Warsaw , and has been interred in the tomb chapel of the church founded by him in Czarnca . He left his estates to a nephew , Stefan Stanisław Czarniecki , but the Czarniecki name did not last long , and the wealth he gathered became instead the foundation of the Branicki family of magnates .
Czarniecki is remembered as one of the most able Polish commanders of all times . Podhorecki called him the greatest Polish military expert in " hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics " , and notes that he was the longest @-@ serving of the major Polish military commanders of his era , that he participated in 27 large battles , commanding 17 of them . He is seen as instrumental in defeating the Swedes during the Deluge , although he was even more successful in his battles against the Russians . His career , rising from a simple noble family to the rank of a hetman and a wealthy magnate , was unprecedented in the Commonwealth 's history .
His legend had begun growing even during his lifetime , as he became a hero of poems and songs . Few negative rumors about him , popular in the last few years of his life , survived after his death . During the period of Enlightenment in Poland he was written about by poets and writers such as Stanisław Potocki , Franciszek Karpiński , Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and Franciszek Ksawery Dmowski . A biography by Michał Krajewski cemented his legend of a hero rescuing Poland from anarchy and invasion . That legend that became even stronger during the times of the partitions of Poland in the 19th century , where the artists of the Polish romanticism period used him as a symbol of patriotism , and a reminder of military successes . He appears in the poem Przedświt of Zygmunt Krasiński , but much more significant was his portrayal in The Trilogy of Henryk Sienkiewicz , particularly the second book , The Deluge . It was during that time that his pursuit of the retreating Swedes to Pomerania and Denmark ( 1658 – 1659 ) , particularly his crossing with his entire army to the Danish isle of Alsen , was commemorated in the song of the Polish Napoleonic Legions that would eventually become the Polish national anthem , the " Dąbrowski 's Mazurka " , with the words commemorating his marine excursion to the island of Als : It was only during the time of the Second Polish Republic when more modern , serious historical work begun analyzing his history that a less hagiographic account begun emerging ; Władysław Czapliński wrote that Czarniecki was " first and foremost a soldier " , and noted his faults such as brutality and greed . Modern historiography of Czarniecki includes works of Czapliński , Stanisław Herbst , Adam Kersten and Zdzisław Spieralski ; however Podhorecki notes that while he has been a major figure in the Polish history , and is discussed extensively in Polish historiography , he has never been a subject of much interest to foreign historians , concluding that he was a major persona in Polish , but not European , history .
= SS Montanan =
SS Montanan was a cargo ship built in 1912 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I service for the United States Army Transport Service , she was known as USAT Montanan . Montanan was built by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , and was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Panama Canal after it opened .
In World War I , USAT Montanan carried cargo and animals to France , and was in the first American convoy to sail to France after the United States entered the war in April 1917 . While in another eastbound convoy in August 1918 , USAT Montanan was torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 90 some 500 nmi ( 900 km ) west of Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer , France . Of the 86 men aboard the ship , 81 were rescued by a convoy escort ; five men died in the attack .
= = Design and construction = =
In September 1911 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for four new cargo ships — Minnesotan , Dakotan , Montanan , and Pennsylvanian . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , but with a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 per ship . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash , with nine monthly installments for the balance . The deal had provisions that allowed some of the nine installments to be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Montanan , including financing costs , was $ 73 @.@ 62 per deadweight ton , which came out to just over $ 692 @,@ 000 .
Montanan ( Maryland Steel yard no . 126 ) was the second ship built under the original contract . She was launched on 25 January 1913 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian in April . Montanan was 6 @,@ 649 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 428 ft 9 in ( 130 @.@ 68 m ) in length and 53 ft 7 in ( 16 @.@ 33 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 9 @,@ 406 LT DWT , and her cargo holds , which had a storage capacity of 438 @,@ 154 cu ft ( 12 @,@ 407 @.@ 1 m3 ) , were outfitted with a complete refrigeration plant so that she could carry perishable products from the West Coast — such as fresh produce from Southern California farms — to the East Coast . Montanan had a single steam engine powered by oil @-@ fired boilers which drove a single screw propeller at a speed of 15 kn ( 17 mph ; 28 km / h ) .
= = Early career = =
When Montanan began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route arrived at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , for westbound cargo — and traversed the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . Montanan sailed in this service on the east side of North America .
While headed from New York to Coatzacoalcos in October 1913 , Montanan ran aground on Mantanilla Reef , north of The Bahamas . Answering Montanan 's distress calls , the Standard Oil Company tanker Rayo assisted in freeing Montanan from the reef . Although she was leaking slightly , Montanan continued on to her destination , and put in for repairs after a return trip to New York .
Following the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which took place while six American @-@ Hawaiian ships were being held in various Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access , coupled with the fact that the Panama Canal was not yet open , caused American @-@ Hawaii to return to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan in late April . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to the canal route .
On 2 December , The Washington Post reported an incident involving Montanan . While headed down the Pacific coast of Mexico with a cargo of dried fruits and canned goods , Montanan was approached by a Japanese warship , which fired a warning shot for Montanan to stop . After doing so , a boarding party with Japanese officers in a launch headed to Montanan . When the American identity of Montanan was established to the satisfaction of the Japanese , they returned to their ship without boarding Montanan . The news report did not identify the type or the name of the Japanese warship , which had been searching for a German vessel thought to be operating in the area .
On Montanan 's next trip , the ship collided with a wharf in Los Angeles Harbor . Montanan had arrived in Los Angeles from Puget Sound on 22 January 1915 to complete her load before sailing for New York and Boston . The almost fully loaded ship was slow to respond to the helm and ended up " ploughing through " 50 ft ( 15 m ) of Municipal Pier A on Mormon Island channel before coming to a stop at a stone bulkhead . One hull plate on Montanan was dented , but the ship was otherwise undamaged . Montanan 's captain , who had a local license , did not take on a harbor pilot and American @-@ Hawaiian was liable for the damage , estimated by the harbor engineer to be $ 2 @,@ 500 .
Contemporary news reports offer hints at cargoes that Montanan carried during this period . In April 1915 , the Los Angeles Times reported on the sailing of Montanan with a full cargo . The majority of the cargo was rice — from Japan , China , and California — which was destined for the United Kingdom to feed Indian troops fighting in Europe . In June , The Wall Street Journal reported that Montanan and Santa Clara ( of the Grace Line ) had sailed from Tacoma , Washington , with 2 @,@ 500 tons of copper between them .
In October 1915 , landslides closed the Panama Canal and all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including Montanan , returned to the Straits of Magellan route again . Montanan 's exact movements from this time through early 1917 are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service , or she may have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore .
= = U.S. Army service = =
After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , the United States Army — needing transports to get its men and materiel to France — had a select committee of shipping executives pore over registries of American shipping . The committee selected Montanan , her sister ship Dakotan , and 12 other American @-@ flagged ships that were sufficiently fast , could carry enough fuel in their bunkers for transatlantic crossings , and , most importantly , were in port or not far at sea . After Montanan discharged her last load of cargo , she was officially handed over to the Army on 29 May .
Before troop transportation began , all of the ships were hastily refitted . Of the fourteen ships , four , including Montanan and Dakotan , were designated to carry animals and cargo ; the other ten were designated to carry human passengers . Ramps and stalls were built on the four ships chosen to carry animals . Gun platforms were installed on each ship before docking at the Brooklyn Navy Yard , where the guns were put in place . All the ships were manned by merchant officers and crews but carried two U.S. Navy officers , Navy gun crews , quartermasters , signalmen , and wireless operators . The senior Navy officer on board would take control if a ship came under attack .
The American convoy carrying the first units of the American Expeditionary Force was separated into four groups ; Montanan was in the fourth group with her sister ship Dakotan , Army transports El Occidente and Edward Luckenbach , and escorts consisting of cruiser St. Louis , U.S. Navy transport Hancock , and destroyers Shaw , Ammen , and Flusser . Montanan departed with her group on the morning of 17 June for Brest , France , steaming at an 11 kn ( 13 mph ; 20 km / h ) pace . A thwarted submarine attack on the first convoy group , and reports of heavy submarine activity off of Brest , resulted in a change in the convoy 's destination to Saint @-@ Nazaire where the convoy arrived 2 July .
Montanan departed Saint @-@ Nazaire on 14 July in the company of her convoy mates El Occidente , Dakotan , and Edward Luckenbach . Joining the return trip were Army transport Momus , Navy armed collier Cyclops , Navy oiler Kanawha , and cruiser Seattle , the flagship of Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves , the head of the Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force .
Sources do not reveal Montanan 's movements over the next months , but on 1 August 1918 , Montanan sailed in Convoy HB @-@ 8 with U.S. Navy cargo ships West Alsek , West Bridge , and 13 others for France . Escorted by armed yacht Noma , destroyers Burrows and Smith , and French cruiser Marseillaise , the convoy was 500 nmi ( 600 mi ; 900 km ) west of its destination of Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer by the end of the day on 15 August . At sundown , shortly before 18 : 00 , German submarine U @-@ 90 launched three torpedoes at Montanan . The first two , spotted by lookouts aboard Montanan , missed , but a third , unseen torpedo struck Montanan amidships on her port side , opening a large hole . Montanan began to settle and was abandoned quickly . Two of Montanan 's Naval Armed Guardsmen drowned when their lifeboat capsized in the heavy seas ; three of her civilian crewmen also died in the attack . Montanan 's 81 survivors were rescued by convoy escort Noma .
Shortly after Montanan was attacked , West Bridge , which had previously developed engine trouble and was drifting , was torpedoed by U @-@ 107 and abandoned . By the morning of 16 August both Montanan and West Bridge , with decks awash , were still afloat some 4 nmi ( 4 @.@ 6 mi ; 7 @.@ 4 km ) apart . Montanan 's captain and several officers reboarded the ship the next morning for an attempt to get her under tow , but despite their efforts , the ship sank later that morning .
= The Rocky Horror Glee Show =
" The Rocky Horror Glee Show " is the fifth episode of the second season of the American television series Glee , and the twenty @-@ seventh episode overall . It was written by Ryan Murphy , from a story by Murphy and Tim Wollaston , directed by Adam Shankman , and premiered on Fox on October 26 , 2010 . The episode features the glee club paying tribute to the 1973 musical The Rocky Horror Show , with elements of its 1975 film adaptation The Rocky Horror Picture Show , by staging it as a school musical . While cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) attempts to sabotage the production , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) dwells on his feelings for guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , and club members Finn ( Cory Monteith ) and Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) deal with body image issues . Barry Bostwick and Meat Loaf who star in the original film appear in cameo roles in this episode .
Elements of Rocky Horror were sanitized for the episode , including the costumes and lyrics . Creator Richard O 'Brien expressed disappointment in the dilution of the musical 's themes , and a spokesperson for the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation criticized the episode for its use of the pejorative term " tranny " . Watched by 11 @.@ 76 million US viewers , " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " was the fifth consecutive episode of Glee to become the top @-@ rated program on the night of broadcast in the 18 – 49 demographic . It received a mixed response from critics , was alternatively deemed the series ' best ever themed @-@ episode by Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman , and was described as the worst hour in the show 's history by Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club .
The episode featured cover versions of seven Rocky Horror songs , which were released on an extended play album . Glee : The Music , The Rocky Horror Glee Show reached number six on the Billboard 200 . It marked the lowest debut and sales for the Glee cast in the US , but the highest position ever reached for a Rocky Horror album . The songs attracted mixed commentary , particularly the performance of " Time Warp " , which was given a grade of " A + " by Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack , but derided by Matt Zoller Seitz of Slant Magazine as " very possibly the weakest , most uninspired rendition " he had ever heard .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with the red lips of glee club member Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) against a black background as she sings " Science Fiction / Double Feature " . In the school auditorium , the glee club members rehearse The Rocky Horror Show , performing " Over at the Frankenstein Place " . They are interrupted by Dr. Carl Howell ( John Stamos ) , who accuses club director Will Schuester of trying to steal his girlfriend , school guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury . The episode continues in flashback format , with Will recalling the events leading up to Carl 's accusation .
Will learns that Emma and Carl attended a midnight screening of The Rocky Horror Picture Show , which helped to lessen some of her obsessive – compulsive behaviors . As Emma is a fan , Will decides to direct the glee club in a production of the musical , casting co @-@ captains Finn Hudson and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) in the lead roles of Brad and Janet , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) as Dr. Frank N. Furter , and Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) as Rocky . While Sam is proud of his physique and secure in his own body @-@ image , Finn feels self @-@ conscious at the prospect of appearing in his underwear , as the role necessitates .
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester is approached by news station managers Tim Stanwick ( Barry Bostwick ) and Barry Jeffries ( Meat Loaf ) about producing an undercover exposé of the play , and convinces Will to involve her in the production . When Mike 's parents refuse to let him play Frank N. Furter , a transvestite , Sue manipulates Carl into saving the musical . He auditions with the song " Hot Patootie " , but feels that it would be more appropriate for him to play Eddie . The role of Frank , traditionally played by a male , is instead claimed by Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) .
Will grows increasingly jealous of Carl as he joins the production . When Sam becomes hesitant to wear his skimpy costume , Will decides that he will play Rocky instead , and asks Emma to rehearse the suggestive " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " with him . Will is later called into Principal Figgins ' ( Iqbal Theba ) office , where he learns that Finn has been suspended for walking through the hallway in his underwear , attempting to become comfortable with his costume . He convinces Figgins to reduce Finn 's punishment , and the episode returns to the opening scene as Carl confronts Will over his private rehearsal with Emma . Alerted to Sue 's planned exposé , Will concedes that his motivations in putting on the production were questionable . He tells Emma that he will cease interfering with her relationship . Though he cancels the play , he has the glee club perform it for themselves , and the episode ends with a group rendition of " Time Warp " .
= = Production = =
When casting Glee , series creator Ryan Murphy required that auditioning actors without theatrical experience demonstrate their ability to sing and dance as well as act . Mays , who was cast as guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury , auditioned with the song " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " from The Rocky Horror Picture Show . In April 2009 , Murphy told the Los Angeles Times that he would like to have Mays perform the song on Glee . In October 2009 , cast member Chris Colfer deemed " Time Warp " the song he would most like to perform on the show , and suggested a Rocky Horror @-@ themed Halloween episode . Colfer re @-@ iterated his desire to perform " Time Warp " at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , which prompted Murphy to reveal that a Glee episode devoted to Rocky Horror was planned for the show 's second season . At the 2010 Television Critics Association Summer Press Tour , Murphy stated he would be directing the episode , and also revealed that Adam Shankman would guest @-@ direct one of the first ten episodes of the season . Shankman later revealed via the social networking website Twitter that he would in fact be directing the Rocky Horror episode , and commented , " Rocky Horror , while really risqué , is perfect for Glee because they all , in theory , feel like misfits . "
Elements of Rocky Horror were sanitized for the episode , and Shankman believes that he was sought out in order to make the production more audience appropriate . Stamos was initially set to play Dr. Frank N. Furter , but the role was recast due to network resistance . Costumes used in the episode were inspired by the Rocky Horror musical and film , but were adapted for the Glee cast and cost over $ 30 @,@ 000 . The tight gold lamé underwear worn by Peter Hinwood in the 1975 film were replaced by board shorts for Overstreet . In dressing Riley as Frank , series costume designer Lou Eyrich found it challenging to select outfits which would be acceptable for a primetime series , yet would still appeal to all audiences . To appeal to younger viewers , Eyrich updated the costume worn by Colfer as Riff Raff , pairing a tailcoat with jeans and a J.Crew henley shirt . Michele 's costuming as Janet was similar to her regular wardrobe as Rachel , with Eyrich commenting , " That 's why she was the perfect Janet . " Prior to broadcast , cast member Mark Salling claimed that he would play Rocky Horror 's talking lips . In the event , however , Salling did not appear in the episode . He was temporarily absent from the series , reportedly for creative reasons , and returned in November 2010 . The lips were instead played by Rivera .
Original Rocky Horror cast members Barry Bostwick and Meat Loaf guest @-@ starred in the episode . Bostwick deemed their roles " stunt casting " , but suggested his character may return to the show in future and become involved with Sue . Susan Sarandon told People she was open to appearing in the episode depending on the role , and stated that she was flattered by the planned Glee tribute , but was not approached about appearing . An advance midnight screening of the episode was previewed on October 21 , 2010 at the Angelika Film Center in New York City .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " was watched by 11 @.@ 76 million US viewers and attained a 4 @.@ 9 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . For the fifth consecutive episode , Glee was the top @-@ rated program of the night among adults aged 18 – 49 . Both viewership and ratings rose from the previous episode , " Duets " , which was watched by 11 @.@ 36 million viewers and attained a 4 @.@ 7 / 13 rating / share among adults aged 18 – 49 . In the weekly program rankings , Glee was the fifth most @-@ viewed show among adults 18 – 49 , and the second scripted show behind only Modern Family . In overall viewers , it placed twentieth for the week .
In Canada , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 48 million viewers , ranking as the fourth most @-@ watched program for the week of broadcast . Viewership was again up on " Duets " , which attained 2 @.@ 25 million viewers and ranked seventh . The episode 's Australian broadcast drew 1 @.@ 34 million viewers , making Glee the fifth most @-@ watched show of the night and the most @-@ watched with viewers aged under 50 . It placed eleventh in the weekly program rankings . There also , " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " registered a rise on the previous episode , which was watched by 1 @.@ 04 million viewers , placed ninth on the night and twenty @-@ eighth for the week . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 50 million viewers — 2 @.@ 121 million on E4 , and 385 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 — becoming the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week . Viewership remained static from " Duets " , which also attained an audience of 2 @.@ 50 million .
= = = Critical response = = =
Rocky Horror creator Richard O 'Brien was disappointed that the episode diluted the themes of the musical , and was puzzled that the word " transsexual " was censored . Matt Kane , entertainment media manager for the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation , criticized the use of the pejorative term " tranny " in its place , and found it " particularly alarming " given that the season one episode " Theatricality " presented a negative reaction to the use of a homophobic slur . " Critics had a mixed reaction to the episode . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club graded it an " F " and said it was " the worst hour this show has ever produced " . He felt that it was overly ambitious , and that in attempting to skirt humorously around the issue of transsexuals , the end result was " more offensive than if the show had simply ignored the whole thing to begin with . " Matt Zoller Seitz of Slant Magazine called it a " travesty " and criticized " the arms @-@ length treatment of the Frank N. Furter character " , and Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times deemed the episode flawed through its sanitization , despite initially having found the two shows " a particularly promising match " .
" The Rocky Horror Glee Show " received several favorable comparisons to previous themed episodes ; Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone deemed it the best yet . Both Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack and Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post preferred it to the Britney Spears tribute episode " Britney / Brittany " ; Wieselman hailed it as a " run @-@ away success " that would satisfy Rocky Horror fans without being a " homage for homage 's sake " like the Spears episode , and Stack felt that Rocky Horror was a " perfect fit " for Glee , due to thematic similarities between the two . While previous Glee tributes attracted criticism for their focus on musical numbers to the detriment of plot , Jenna Mullins of E ! Online and CBS News ' Jessica Derschowitz appreciated that " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " was more story @-@ driven .
Critics generally disliked the focus the episode placed on the adult characters , with many objecting to Will 's characterisation . VanDerWerff wrote that his storyline with Emma " misplac [ ed ] what made either of the characters enjoyable in the first place " , and IGN 's Robert Canning — who otherwise enjoyed the episode , and rated it 8 @.@ 5 / 10 — observed that Will was presented as being selfish and a " terrible educator " , in contrast to his former role as the moral centre of the show . Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post initially found the focus on the adults a welcome change , but felt their storyline rapidly became convoluted . Anthony Benigno of the Daily News liked Will less as the episode progressed , and deemed it overall , " Creepy , vaguely uncomfortable , in slightly poor taste but well @-@ intentioned , and ultimately , thoroughly entertaining to watch for reasons I can 't quite put into words . " CNN 's Lisa Respers France actually enjoyed the episode for the additional depth it brought to Will and his feelings for Emma , as well as Finn and his body image issues . While Stack commended the male body image storyline , and found it refreshing for a program to examine the objectification of men , de Moraes derided it , and likened Finn and Sam 's discussion about eating healthily and working out to an " after school special " .
The episode 's conclusion — in which Will declares that the original Rocky Horror fans and New Directions members are united by their outcast status — was widely criticized , with VanDerWerff deeming it a " series lowpoint " , and " a muddled , terrible message , particularly in an episode that seems to have an uneasy relationship with actual outcasts , transsexuals . " Both Reiter and Aly Semigran of MTV questioned the resolution , with Reiter stating that it was unclear what message the creators were attempting to convey , and Semigran finding it disjointed , suggesting " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " to be a " rare Glee misstep " .
= = Music = =
= = = Performances = = =
Seven Rocky Horror songs were covered in the episode . The opening number of " Science Fiction / Double Feature " , performed by Rivera and represented by a disembodied pair of red lips , mirrored the opening to The Rocky Horror Picture Show . The song segued into a rehearsal of " Over at the Frankenstein Place " , which was followed by a rehearsal of " Dammit Janet " — the former with Michele on lead vocals , and the latter featuring Michele , Monteith , Colfer , Agron and Riley . Stamos ' first vocal performance for the series followed , as he gave a rendition of " Hot Patootie " . Stamos reportedly feigned illness in order to work with a private vocal coach and dance instructor on the number , and hired his own studio in which to rehearse . The performance entailed a shot @-@ by @-@ shot recreation of the original choreography . " Sweet Transvestite " featured Riley on lead vocals , and " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " showcased Mays , in her first lead performance since " I Could Have Danced All Night " in season one . The episode then closed with a group rendition of " Time Warp " .
= = = Commentary = = =
Musical performances in the episode attracted mixed commentary , particularly " Time Warp " . Stack rated all of the songs a " B " grade or higher , and gave " Time Warp " the highest grade of an " A + " . He called it his favorite moment of the episode , and praised its energy ; he wrote that Quinn made a " surprisingly good " Magenta . Semigran also praised the number , and commended the performances by Morris , Monteith , Agron and particularly Colfer , who , she wrote , " looked and sounded the part so well , you 'd swear you were watching the original Rocky Horror Picture Show " . In a generally negative review of the episode , Reiter commented that despite her dissatisfaction , she found herself singing along to " Time Warp " with " disconcerting enthusiasm " , and was " nostalgically transported against [ her ] better judgment " . In contrast , VanDerWerff stated that he would have increased his review of the episode from an " F " to a " D " had " Time Warp " been better , as he had " never seen a more lifeless version " . Zoller Seitz similarly called it " very possibly the weakest , most uninspired rendition " he had ever seen , and criticized the side @-@ lining of Colfer in favor of Monteith .
Semigran said the song " Dammit Janet " was " spirited and spot @-@ on " , and Benigno graded it an " A " , though observed that it was " painfully obvious " Michele and Monteith were lip @-@ syncing . Futterman described the performance as " fully engaged , campy to the max and totally on point " . " Hot Patootie " resulted in praise for Stamos , with Stack grading it an " A " and comparing it favorably to the actor 's singing on Full House , and Semigran recommending that he be cast in a Broadway revival of The Rocky Horror Show . Benigno wrote that his voice lacked Meat Loaf 's " rock n ' roll howl " , but praised his charisma and dancing , and graded the performance an " A − " .
Critics disagreed over the casting of Mercedes as Frank . Semigran felt that , as sung by a female , " Sweet Transvestite " lost its shock value . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal would have preferred Salling 's Puck in the role , but praised Riley 's vocals , writing that her solo " woke us all up from the timid pacing " . Benigno also enjoyed the number , and found that while Mercedes lacked the stage presence of Tim Curry , Riley did something " completely remarkable " as Frank , giving a largely flawless performance . He named " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " the best song of the episode , and graded it " A + " . Despite finding the episode " abrupt , uneven [ and ] sanitized " , Flandez felt that it was saved by this performance . Futterman remarked that having Emma in the role of Janet was " ideal " , but preferred the song visually to vocally . Zoller Seitz disliked the change in Emma 's characterization which brought about the number , and while he wrote that " Mays was so charming that she almost , almost saved it " , he ultimately found the " motivational contortions " insulting to the audience .
= = = Chart history = = =
Glee : The Music , The Rocky Horror Glee Show , an extended play accompanying the episode , was released on October 19 , 2010 . Its tracklist includes each of the seven songs covered . The soundtrack debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 , with 48 @,@ 000 copies sold . It marked the lowest debut and sales for the Glee cast in the US , but the highest position ever reached for a Rocky Horror album . The EP attained lower chart positions internationally , peaking at number eight in Australia , ten in Canada , fifteen in Ireland , and twenty @-@ three in the UK . " Time Warp " was the only song from the EP to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , attaining a position of eighty @-@ nine . Internationally , its highest peak was in Ireland , where it reached number forty @-@ two . " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " was the only other track from the EP to place on the singles charts , peaking at number seventy @-@ two in the UK .
= Pilot ( Sit Down , Shut Up ) =
The pilot episode of the American animated television series Sit Down , Shut Up originally aired in the United States on April 19 , 2009 on the Fox network . The episode introduced the faculty and staff at Knob Haven High School in the fictional town of Knob Haven , Florida . In the episode , the school is facing a financial crisis and acting principal Sue Sezno has to either fire a teacher or make sure the school wins a football game . Meanwhile , assistant principal Stuart Proszakian becomes addicted to drugs that were found in a student 's locker .
The episode was written by series creator Mitchell Hurwitz and directed by Dwayne Carey @-@ Hill . The first draft was written by Hurwitz in 2000 , before he pitched Arrested Development . Hurwitz based Sit Down , Shut Up on the Australian sitcom of the same name . After he had rewritten the script several times , the series was picked up by Fox . The episode received generally mixed reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 5 @.@ 21 million households in its original airing .
= = Plot = =
Acting Principal of Knob Haven High School Sue Sezno finds a case of pills in a student 's locker . Believing them to be drugs , she hands them over to science teacher Miracle Grohe to study . Miracle , however , tells them the pills may be steroids ; Sue decides to test them on her new assistant Principal , Stuart Proszakian . With the assistance of P.E. teacher Larry Littlejunk , she manages to successfully trick Stuart into taking the pills , telling him that they are vitamins .
Meanwhile , Sue informs the staff that the school is in financial trouble , and the only way to raise money is to gain alumni donations from the upcoming football game or face firing a teacher . German teacher Willard Deutschebog informs English teacher Ennis Hofftard that a student may have caught him buying " filthies " ( porn ) at a newsstand that morning ; because of this , Willard fears that if Sue hears , he may be the one getting fired . At the same time , Larry attempts to ask Miracle out on a date , but finds he cannot stand Miracle 's " stupid " thoughts . As it turns out , she was the one responsible for his students ' poor training in gym : she repeatedly throws out food , in honor of those in third @-@ world countries .
At the game , bisexual drama teacher Andrew LeGustambos attempts to grab the attention of both Larry and Miracle , but the whole school stands in shock as Stuart arrives with two full and augmented breasts ; the pills he had taken were actually librarian Helen Klench 's female hormone replacements . Nonetheless , the school loses the game . Sue finally reveals she was not planning on actually firing any teacher on her watch . Helen arrives to inform them that they did not need to win the game after all ; she had found a rare time capsule with treasures . Upon opening the time capsule , it is revealed that it is full of Willard 's porn magazines that Ennis hid . Sue pitifully looks at Willard and tells him he is fired .
= = Production = =
The pilot episode of Sit Down , Shut Up was written by series creator Mitchell Hurwitz and directed by Dwayne Carey @-@ Hill . It was originally written by Hurwitz in 2000 , but he " kept it in a drawer for a long time " and brought it out when he needed money . The idea for the series was based on the Australian situation comedy of the same name . He pitched his adaption to different networks that were interested in the concept , but they turned it down , because the characters were " way too broad and way too self @-@ centered and oblivious , " and they told him that he had to rewrite it . The Fox network picked it up in April 2008 under the name Class Dismissed , later changed to Sit Down , Shut Up . Hurwitz 's adaption was originally planned to be live @-@ action like its counterpart , but he decided to make it an animated series to " avoid some work " . He chose to use real images as backgrounds after he saw Mo Willems ' Knuffle Bunny in a book store . He then contacted Willems to design the characters for Sit Down , Shut Up . The images for the school were taken at a school next door to the Rough Draft Studios , the series ' animation studio . Production of the series halted in June 2008 , when the writers found out that they would be under the jurisdiction of the IATSE Animation Guild , instead of Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) . A month later , the writers and the production company , Sony Pictures , reached an agreement saying that the writers would still be covered by the IATSE , but their contract would be the same as the WGA 's in certain areas . This made Sit Down , Shut Up the only primetime animated series on Fox not to be covered by the WGA . During this process , head writer Bill Oakley left the series .
Cast members Jason Bateman , Will Arnett and Henry Winkler , who also starred on Hurwitz 's show Arrested Development , voice Larry Littlejunk , Ennis Hofftard and Willard Deutschebog , respectively . Will Forte voices Stuart Proszakian , who was also featured in the Australian series . Kristin Chenoweth stars as Miracle Grohe . The part was originally given to Maria Bamford , but she was later replaced with Chenoweth . The executives still allowed Bamford to do some " side voices " on the show , including in this episode . Cheri Oteri was picked as the voice of Helen Klench , a " totally unresourceful " librarian , and Nick Kroll was picked as the voice of Andrew LeGustambos , the drama teacher whose surname translates " he likes both " , referring to his bisexuality . Regina King was replaced with Kenan Thompson , who took over the role as Sue Sezno , the acting principal . Tom Kenny voices Muhannad Sabeeh " Happy " Fa 'ach Nuabar , the secretive custodian .
= = Reception = =
Despite airing after The Simpsons and before Family Guy , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 21 million viewers in its original airing in the United States on April 19 , 2009 . The episode acquired a 2 @.@ 3 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing third in its timeslot after Amazing Race and a rerun of Extreme Makeover : Home Edition . It finished first in its timeslot in the 18 – 34 demographic , where it acquired a 2 @.@ 7 rating .
The episode received generally mixed reviews from critics . Brian Lowry of Variety said : " Despite a pedigree that includes Arrested Development creator Mitch Hurwitz and many of that program 's stars , Sit Down seldom rises above sniggering double entendre . " Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club graded the episode B , saying : " I 'm staying optimistic that the characters are going to get fleshed out in upcoming episodes , because this is obviously going to be a character @-@ based ensemble comedy . " Jonah Krakow of IGN was more positive about the episode , noting the " familiar aspects " of Arrested Development , such as the " deft wordplay , biting sarcasm and inappropriate humor " . He concluded , saying : " As long as the talented cast can continue to play to their strengths and the scripts can humorously tackle dicey subject matter , this should continue to be a very entertaining show . " Kona Gallagher of TV Squad watched the episode twice , and said that it " definitely grows on you . " She concluded , saying : " In all , I think the first time you watch Sit Down , Shut Up , it 's really easy to blow it off as another animated show that 's trying too hard . However , it 's actually worth sticking around and watching a couple of episodes . "
= EarthBound fandom =
The 1994 video game EarthBound is known for its cult following and fan community . Multiple video game journalists have written about the dedication of the game 's fans in producing fan art and lobbying Nintendo for further releases in the series . The company has been largely unresponsive to their efforts . Prominent fansites include Starmen.net and EarthBound Central . The former was started in 1999 and became the definitive community website . Their members organized petitions and campaigns to bring English @-@ localized games from the Mother series to North America . One such effort included a full @-@ color , 270 @-@ page EarthBound Anthology as a demonstration of consumer demand for further releases . After nearly a decade , EarthBound was rereleased for the Wii U Virtual Console in 2013 , whereupon it became a bestseller .
The fandom also spun @-@ out other enterprises . When Nintendo did not release a localized version of Mother 3 , fans organized their own fan translation . The video game merchandising business Fangamer grew out of the Starmen.net community , and sells video game @-@ related items online . A full @-@ length documentary on Starmen.net and the fan community , EarthBound , USA , is in production . And while the series creator has stated that he is finished with the series , a fan @-@ created sequel , Mother 4 , is also in development .
= = Fan base = =
EarthBound is known for having a cult following , which developed over time well after its release . Colin Campbell of Polygon wrote that " few gaming communities are as passionate and active " as EarthBound 's , and 1UP.com 's Bob Mackey wrote that no game was as poised to have a cult following . Wired described the amount of EarthBound " fan art , videos , and tributes on fan sites like EarthBound Central or Starmen.net " as mountainous . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas wrote in 2006 that EarthBound 's " persistent " , " ambitious " , and " religiously dedicated collective of hardcore fans " would be among the first groups to influence Nintendo 's decision @-@ making through their purchasing power on Virtual Console . The Verge cited the two @-@ year fan translation of Mother 3 as proof of the fanbase 's dedication , and Nintendo president Satoru Iwata credited the community response on their online Miiverse social platform as leading to EarthBound 's eventual rerelease on their Virtual Console platform .
EarthBound was hard to find before the rerelease . In 2013 , prices for the game 's cartridge alone were more than twice its retail cost at its 1995 release . IGN wrote that the game became a " cult classic " for its unique RPG and psychedelic elements alongside its reflection on American culture , and Eurogamer credited EarthBound 's " cute and funny modern @-@ world styling of the Japanese RPG " . Kotaku hypothesized that fan favorite aspects of the game would include its " feeling of innocence , ... sense of whimsical adventure " , " humor " , " charm " , " wonder " , and " beautiful 2D maps " . Marcus Lindblom , the game 's English localizer , cited its " cuteness , colors , and hallucinatory bits " as fan favorites . Reid Young of Starmen.net and Fangamer credits EarthBound 's popularity to its " labor of love " nature , with a " double @-@ coat of thoughtfulness and care " across all aspects of the game by a development team that appeared to love their work .
Digital Trends 's Anthony John Agnello wrote that " no video game fans have suffered as much as EarthBound fans , and cited Nintendo 's reluctance to release Mother series games in North America . IGN described the series as neglected by Nintendo in North America for similar reasons . Aaron Linde of Shacknews felt that Nintendo 's " historic passive @-@ aggression towards EarthBound fans [ seemed ] somehow anachronistic " in response to the outcries from the game 's fan community . He added that while the company is known for providing " the most personal experiences in gaming 's history " , Nintendo lacks the " bedside manner " required of contemporary game companies , and that he could not think of a " more deserving fan base " than EarthBound 's .
Marcus Lindblom , who localized the Japanese Mother 2 into the English EarthBound , followed the fan community from afar and , in mid @-@ 2012 , introduced himself at the Penny Arcade Expo Fangamer booth . When the game 's Wii U re @-@ release was announced , the press became interested in Lindblom 's experience . Lindblom had planned a book about the game 's development , release , and fandom as a Kickstarter project before a reply from Nintendo discouraged him from pursuing the idea . He plans to continue to communicate directly with the community about the game 's history . For instance , Lindblom struck down a popular ( " infamous " ) " abortion theory " that the game 's final sequence is a metaphor for an abortion , with Giygas as the fetus .
= = Starmen.net = =
Reid Young started an EarthBound fansite in 1997 while in middle school . It was one of the first EarthBound fansites on the Internet . By 1999 and with co @-@ founder Clyde " Tomato " Mandelin , the site grew into Starmen.net , named for the game 's " most iconic villain , the Starman . " 1UP.com described the site as " the definitive fan community for EarthBound on the web " and Shacknews called it the fan community 's " one @-@ stop " resource for a decade . Though EarthBound was more obscure at the time , the site quickly grew in popularity and featured " constant updates " and a burgeoning community by 1999 . 1UP.com said the viewership growth was " almost inexplicable " when accounting for the game 's unpopularity , but credited Super NES emulation , which let " thousands " of people experience the game who might not have otherwise . Young credited the site 's growth to the fan content generated by the community . Shacknews described the site 's collection of fan @-@ made media as " absolutely massive " . It also provided a place to aggregate information on the Mother series and to coordinate fan actions .
The EarthBound fan community at Starmen.net coalesced with the intent to have Nintendo of America acknowledge the Mother series . 1UP.com described their intent as reasonable given the company 's " frequent dismissal " of the series alongside the community 's " monumental efforts to increase American EarthBound awareness " . Young felt that their " underdog status " kept Starmen.net vigilant . He also said that he views the community as " a big group of friends having fun together " and sometimes thinks that it is just happenstance that EarthBound was what brought them together , as opposed to another franchise like Pokémon . As the site started in 1999 , the community started a petition to have Nintendo release Mother for the Game Boy Color , and collected 1850 physical signatures to this end and bound it in a book for Nintendo . The final word from Nintendo was that the package was received . Other petitions include the 2000 10 @,@ 000 @-@ person petition for a North American Mother 3 release on the Nintendo 64 , the 2003 31 @,@ 000 @-@ person petition for a North American Mother 1 + 2 Game Boy Advance release , and letter and phone campaigns . A source internal to Nintendo later told them that the 2003 campaign was almost successful , but fell out of consideration as the phone campaign ended after a week . The community resolved to never let up again .
In time , the fan community 's requests shifted from specific demands to no demand at all , wanting only their interest to be recognized by Nintendo . The Starmen.net community launched several campaigns to bring attention to the series . In their 2007 " The EB Siege " project to have Mother 3 receive an official North American localization , community members sent letters and made phone calls to Nintendo . They ultimately created a full @-@ color , 270 @-@ page art book , The EarthBound Anthology , to send to Nintendo and press outlets as demonstration of their interest . They also hoped the volume would mobilize established industry professionals to take up their cause in advance of the 2007 Electronic Entertainment Expo . Shacknews wrote that the " folk history " was more of a proposal than a collection of fan art — " the greatest gaming love letter ever created " . Wired 's Chris Kohler used the Anthology 's occasion to explain how Nintendo 's upper management has heard the fan community . The Anthology additionally received mention in Nintendo Power . Upon " little " response from Nintendo , they decided to localize the game themselves . Starmen.net co @-@ founder Tomato led the project , and the complete fan translation was finished in October 2008 . They then printed a " professional quality strategy guide " through Fangamer , a site that spun off from Starmen.net.
Other oblique strategies included an attempt to license Mother 3 for North America from Nintendo through a small video game development studio , but Nintendo replied that the property was theirs and would never be developed externally . In 2008 , the site hosted a YouTube contest for videos that raised the visibility for the series in a final effort to get the game on the Wii Virtual Console , but Young found community spirit to be atrophied . A week later , the game appeared on the ESRB website , which signaled success after many years of work . It was finally rereleased for the Wii U Virtual Console in 2013 via a Nintendo Direct announcement . The game was a " top @-@ seller " on the platform , and Kotaku users and first @-@ time EarthBound players had an " overwhelmingly positive " response to the game .
= = = Mother 3 fan translation = = =
After a decade of development hell , the Japanese video game Mother 3 was released in April 2006 . When fan interest in an English localization went unanswered by Nintendo , Starmen.net announced their own fan translation in November 2006 . The project was led by the fansite 's Clyde " Tomato " Mandelin , a professional game translator whose previous work includes games such as Kingdom Hearts II and anime such as Dragon Ball .
The dozen fans who worked on the project had been vetted by Mandelin and had prior localization experience . Thousands of hours were put into the project between hacking the game data and translating the 1 @,@ 000 pages of scripted dialogue . They built their own tools for the work . The final version was released in October 2008 and issued as a patch to be used with an emulator , a process of murky legality . The patch was downloaded over 100 @,@ 000 times in its first week . A fan @-@ made , full @-@ color , 200 @-@ page , professional @-@ quality player 's guide was released alongside the fan translation . 1UP.com wrote that " no other game in the history of time garnered such a rabid demand for translation " , and The Verge cited the effort as proof of the fan base 's dedication .
= = = Fangamer = = =
Fangamer is a video game merchandising business spun out from Starmen.net. The online store sells items including hats , pins , and T @-@ shirts branded with video game @-@ related designs from games such as EarthBound , Chrono Trigger , and Metal Gear Solid . 1UP.com described their fare as " much less tacky than your typical mall @-@ bought video game apparel " . The site began in part due to Young 's experience with targeted fan communities . In October 2008 , he was attempting to get the site officially licensed . Later that month , they released the Mother 3 Handbook , a full @-@ color , 200 @-@ page player 's guide akin to a professional strategy guide . Wired reported its quality to be " on par with ... Prima and BradyGames " .
= = = EarthBound , USA = = =
In April 2014 , brothers Jeff and Robbie Benson announced the production of their documentary " about how EarthBound fans have fought to popularize the Mother series in North America since the 1990s " , EarthBound , USA . The Bensons had been conducting interviews with EarthBound fans and Starmen.net members for a year prior to the announcement . They had previously begun a feature @-@ length film about the events of EarthBound . Starmen.net " inspired " the documentary , which seeks to explain how the site 's members convened via online message board and the consequent " re @-@ emergence of a cult classic " and birth of Fangamer . The filmmakers had been planning to wait longer before making the announcement , but were preempted in part by interest following a tweet from series creator Shigesato Itoi , which mentioned their interview . The film is planned for release in 2016 with a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign later in 2014 .
= = Mother 4 fangame = =
After Mother 3 , Shigesato Itoi declared that he was done with the series . In response to Nintendo 's seeming indifference to another Mother sequel , fans began to develop their own entry , Mother 4 , in October 2010 . As of August 2013 , the Mother 4 development team had not received a cease and desist letter from Nintendo . In a preview of the game , Jason Schreier of Kotaku said Mother 4 looked " stunning " , as " everything you could possibly want out of a new Mother game " , from the music to the environment design . The fan @-@ made game was planned for release in 2014 but has been delayed twice . No future release date has been set . Mother 4 will be playable as a standalone game , without need for an emulator .
The game takes place in a parody of contemporary America , as a boy named Travis leaves his town of Belring to join three others in a fight against the " mysterious " Modern Men . The game is expected to associate with the stories of the previous series games , and be similar in length . Its music and visuals are similar in style to the rest of the series . Mother 4 features a new soundtrack . Its creators are currently working on a voluntary basis without compensation .
= Hans Philipp =
Hans Philipp ( 17 March 1917 – 8 October 1943 ) was a German Luftwaffe fighter ace during World War II . A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat . He is credited with 206 enemy aircraft shot down in over 500 combat missions . The majority of his victories were claimed over the Eastern Front , with 29 claims over the Western Front .
Born in Meissen , Philipp grew up in the Weimar Republic and Third Reich as the only child of a single parent , Alma Philipp . He was raised under challenging financial circumstances , and volunteered for military service in the Wehrmacht in 1936 . Following flight training , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 76 ( JG 76 — 76th Fighter Wing ) and participated in the invasion of Poland and as a Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) in the Battle of France . His unit was reformed as II . / Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 — 54th Fighter Wing ) in June 1940 . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 22 October 1940 during the Battle of Britain . He then fought in the aerial battles of the Balkans Campaign and Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . He received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) after 62 aerial victories on 24 August 1941 and the Swords ( Schwerter ) to his Knight 's Cross on 12 March 1942 , his score now at 86 aerial victories . He claimed his 100th victory on 31 March 1942 , the fourth fighter pilot to achieve this mark , and his 150th aerial victory on 14 January 1943 . Philipp claimed four aircraft shot down on 17 March 1943 taking his total to 203 aerial victories . He thus surpassed Hermann Graf as the leading German fighter pilot at the time , and six months after Graf , became the second pilot to claim more than 200 victories .
Philipp was promoted to Major ( major ) and given command as the Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 — 1st Fighter Wing ) on 1 April 1943 , conducting Defense of the Reich operations against the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) . He was promoted to Oberstleutnant ( lieutenant colonel ) on 1 October 1943 and was killed in action a week later on 8 October during an attack on Bremen . It is believed that he was shot down by the P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt pilot Robert S. Johnson . Philipp managed to bail out but his parachute failed to open .
= = Childhood and education = =
Johannes " Hans " Fritz Philipp was born on 17 March 1917 at 22 : 45 at Gustav @-@ Graf @-@ Straße 5 in Meissen , in the Kingdom of Saxony , part of the German Empire . His mother Alma Philipp was not married . His father was Leopold Gushurst whom his mother had met while serving at the hospital at Meissen @-@ Zaschendorf . Gushurst had studied medicine at the universities in Erlangen ( 1912 – 14 ) and Freiburg ( 1914 – 16 ) and served as battalion doctor with the heavy artillery on the Western and Eastern Fronts of World War I. He attained his doctorate in the field of radiology in April 1920 and opened his medical practice in Plauen . In the 1920s , his social status as a doctor did not allow him to disclose his relationship with the unmarried mother of his child .
Philipp 's mother , who never married , was the eighth child of relatively poor parents . Her father made a living as a driver and as a laborer in the construction business . The financial situation was always tight , and taught everyone in the family discipline and to work hard to survive . To support the family , Alma worked as an accountant and clerk . Philipp 's father paid a monthly alimony of 35 Reichsmark ( RM ) until 1933 . Initially he had to be reminded by his mother of his obligations . Philipp was baptized on 29 July 1917 , taking the name Johannes Fritz , and was confirmed in 1931 .
In 1924 , Philipp attended the 4 . Volksschule ( Pestalozzischule — 4th elementary school ) in Meissen . Philipp was a very good student . His mother understood that education was essential to Philipp 's future . She worked very hard to raise the funds to pay for higher education in order to send Philipp to a Gymnasium ( secondary school ) . In 1927 , she managed to have Philipp admitted to the Franziskaneum in Meissen , the Realgymnasium — a secondary school built on the mid @-@ level Realschule to achieve the Abitur ( university entry qualification ) — in Meissen . Alma , desperate to secure her son 's schooling , wrote to the city council of Meissen in 1932 asking if the school fees could be waived .
Philipp participated in various sporting events organized by the Christlicher Verein Junger Männer ( CVJM — the German equivalent of YMCA ) such as hiking , bicycling , skiing , paddling and rowing . He also was a member of the Hitlerjugend ( HJ — Hitler Youth ) and received the HJ @-@ Ehrenzeichen ( Honor Badge ) . Philipp learned to fly glider aircraft in the Hitler Youth and received his A and B glider license , leading the local HJ @-@ Fliegerschar ( Flying Squad ) in Meissen . Adolf Hitler officially re @-@ established the Luftwaffe in March 1935 . Following this event , Philipp then changed his mind and decided he did not want to become a journalist . He passed his physical examination to become a pilot , observer , aircraft mechanic and or radio operator on 6 September 1935 in Dresden . The financial situation of the Philipp family was always a cause for concern . When Alma 's mother was paralyzed and required nursing care , the financial situation became severe . Alma 's monthly income was 225 RM and the annual school fee of 180 RM was a big burden . She wrote to the city council multiple times asking for the fees to be waived . By early 1935 , the family was behind on their payments which had accumulated to a debt of 390 RM by 31 March 1935 . Philipp 's graduation from school was at risk as he was threatened with expulsion on financial grounds . Philipp 's decision to opt for military service in the Wehrmacht eased the financial tension . He was permitted to graduate , provided that his mother paid back the debt in instalments of 10 RM per month .
= = Early career = =
Following his graduation from school , Philipp had to complete his compulsory six months in the Reichsarbeitsdienst ( RAD — Reich Labor Service ) . He began his RAD service on 2 January 1936 in Lager 5 / 150 ( Camp 5 / 150 ) in Riesa . He was released early and started his military training as a Fahnenjunker ( cadet ) on 6 April 1936 at the 2nd Air Warfare School ( Luftkriegsschule 2 ) at Gatow , on the south @-@ western outskirts of Berlin . Among his classmates were Werner Baumbach , who became a bomber pilot , and Helmut Lent , a nightfighter pilot . Philipp , as a member of the 4 . Schülerkompanie ( 4th Student Company ) , completed Lehrgang I ( 1st course ) by 4 August 1936 , Lehrgang II ( 2nd course ) by 31 May 1937 , and the final Lehrgang III ( 3rd course ) by 31 August 1937 . He received the Pilot 's Badge after completing these courses . During this training period he was promoted to Fahnenjunker @-@ Gefreiter ( cadet @-@ private ) on 1 October 1936 , Fahnenjunker @-@ Unteroffizier ( cadet @-@ corporal ) on 1 December 1936 , Fähnrich ( ensign ) on 1 April 1937 and Oberfähnrich ( senior ensign ) on 1 December 1937 . Philipp was promoted to the officer rank of Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 24 February 1938 , with the effective date was backdated to 1 January 1938 . His commanding officer released him with the words , " I release you with great concern for your own career , but with even greater concern for the Air Force as a whole " — apparently Philipp had been aware that his promotion was at risk for his opposition to the monotony of the training system . Just prior to his promotion he had started looking for an alternative employment with the Maschinenfabrik Pekrun ( machine factory Pekrun ) in Coswig , which his dance partner , Margarete Strunz , had helped to arrange .
Philipp was transferred to the I. Gruppe of Kampfgeschwader 253 ( I. / KG 253 — 1st group of the 253rd Bomber Wing ) on 1 March 1938 . This assignment did not suit Philipp , and on 1 May 1938 he managed to get himself transferred to the Jagdfliegerschule Werneuchen ( fighter pilot school ) in Werneuchen , then under the command of Oberst ( Colonel ) Theodor Osterkamp . The Anschluß , the 1938 occupation and annexation of Austria into the German Reich , spawned the rapid expansion of the Luftwaffe . Philipp 's fighter pilot career benefited from this expansion and he was transferred to the I. / Jagdgeschwader 138 ( I. / JG 138 — 1st group of the 138th Fighter Wing ) stationed in Wien @-@ Schwechat on 1 July 1938 . Here he underwent flight conversion training from the Heinkel He 51 biplane to the then modern Messerschmitt Bf 109 . This posed challenges , and on 21 June and again 19 July 1939 , he damaged his Bf 109 during takeoff and landing . In 1939 , Philipp bought a DKW Meisterklasse automobile . With this car he went on a tour through Italy where he met his future fiancée Katharina Egger from South Tyrol . On 1 May 1939 , his unit I. / JG 138 was re @-@ designated I. / Jagdgeschwader 76 ( I. / JG 76 — 1st group of the 76th Fighter Wing ) .
= = World War II = =
The German invasion of Poland began on 1 September 1939 , and marked the beginning of World War II in Europe . Philipp 's unit was tasked with bomber escort and ground attack as well as combat air patrol missions . He was credited with his first aerial victory on 5 September 1939 without firing a single shot . Philipp maneuvered himself into a favorable attack position and aimed carefully . Just as he was about to open fire , the enemy pilot bailed out . Nevertheless , he was given credit for the destruction of the aircraft and was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 2 . Klasse ) , which was presented to him on 10 October 1939 . He lost his wingman during the Phoney War air skirmishes with the Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) in late November 1939 .
Case Yellow ( Fall Gelb ) , the invasion of France and the Low Countries on 10 May 1940 , marked the beginning of the Battle of France . Philipp claimed four victories in the early phase of the campaign which earned him the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 1 . Klasse ) on 31 May 1940 . The next day , 1 June , he was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) and appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) . His unit was tasked with bomber escort missions against the British Expeditionary Force in the Battle of Dunkirk and was relocated to airbases in the vicinity of Paris on 3 June . Following the armistice on 22 June I. / JG 76 was moved to Eindhoven and Schiphol where they were tasked with the aerial defense of the Netherlands . On 6 July 1940 , I. / JG 76 was renamed II . / Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 — 54th Fighter Wing ) and at the same time relocated at Campagne , south of Calais . Here , Philipp served as Staffelkapitän of the 4 . Staffel ( 4 . / JG 54 — 4th squadron of 54th Fighter Wing ) .
= = = Battle of Britain = = =
Aerial operations in what would become the Battle of Britain began for his unit on 12 July 1940 . The fighting reached a climax on 7 August when Eagle Day was launched ( code name Adlertag ) . Hitler had issued Führer Directive no . 17 ( Weisung Nr. 17 ) on 1 August 1940 ; the strategic objective was to engage and defeat the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) to achieve air supremacy , or at least air superiority , in preparation for Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ) , the proposed amphibious invasion of Great Britain . From 7 September onwards , the Luftwaffe switched to attack British towns and cities , with London coming under particularly heavy attack , during what was dubbed The Blitz by the British . In total , Philipp flew 130 missions over England . His number of aerial victories increased , including his 12th to 15th on 27 September , which led to the presentation of the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) on 28 September 1940 . He claimed his 20th victory on 20 October , and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) . He was the second pilot of JG 54 to receive this award . The first was his Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) Hauptmann Dietrich Hrabak , who received the award one day earlier .
The German air offensive against England was a failure , and only resulted in heavy losses . To replenish these , II . / JG 54 was withdrawn from the Channel Front on 3 December 1940 and stationed at Delmenhorst . The pilots were sent on a ski vacation at Kitzbühl and given home leave . Philipp made a public propaganda appearance at his Franziskaneum home school on 16 December , speaking of his actions as fighter pilot . On 15 January 1941 , his unit was moved to Le Mans , southwest of Paris , to protect the airspace over Normandy . Here they stayed until 29 March 1941 when they were ordered to Graz in preparation for the attack on Yugoslavia .
= = = Balkans campaign and Operation Barbarossa = = =
The Balkans campaign began on 6 April 1941 , with multiple objectives . Operation Marita was the codename for the German invasion of Greece , while JG 54 's Stab , II . Gruppe , and III . Gruppe were committed to the invasion of Yugoslavia . During the early missions , JG 54 engaged the Bf 109s of the Jugoslovensko Kraljevsko Ratno Vazduhoplovstvo ( JKRV — Yugoslav Royal Air Force ) in numerous air battles . Philipp claimed two JKRV Bf 109s shot down during a Stuka escort mission on the second day of operations on 7 April , taking his total to 25 aerial victories .
Following the surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April 1941 , while stationed at an airfield at Zemun near Belgrade , the Geschwader received orders on 3 May 1941 to turn over all Bf 109 @-@ Es so they could receive the new Bf 109 @-@ F variant . Transition training was completed at Airfield Stolp @-@ Reitz in Pomerania . Following intensive training , the Geschwader was moved to airfields in Eastern Prussia . On 22 June at 03 : 05 , 120 aircraft of the Geschwader crossed into Soviet airspace in support of Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . Philipp , like many other German fighter pilots , enjoyed superiority over his Soviet adversaries in the early phase of Barbarossa , both in terms of the training he had received and the aircraft that he flew . He quickly accumulated further victories and on account of his 31st to 33rd victories achieved on 4 July was honorably mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht radio report , the first of five such mentions , on 7 July .
Philipp claimed his 62nd victory on 24 August 1941 , an achievement which earned him the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) . He was the 33rd member of the German armed forces to be so honored . The presentation was made on 27 August 1941 by Hitler at the Führer Headquarter Wolfsschanze ( Wolf 's Lair ) in Rastenburg ( now Kętrzyn in Poland ) . Following the loss of Hauptmann Franz Eckerle , who had been reported as missing in action since 14 February 1942 , Philipp , who had claimed his 77th victory , was appointed Gruppenkommandeur of I. / JG 54 on 22 March 1942 . On 23 February , Philipp shot down his 82nd opponent , the 158 IAP 's ( 158th Fighter Aviation Regiment ) Leytenant Mikhail Satalkin , who was posted as missing in action .
= = = Eastern Front = = =
Following his 86th victory claimed on 12 March 1942 , Philipp became the first member of the Geschwader to receive the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub mit Schwertern ) . The Swords had been awarded only seven times before . The presentation on 5 April 1942 was again made by Hitler himself at the Wolfsschanze . By this date his total had increased further . On 31 March 1942 , he became only the fourth Luftwaffe fighter pilot to achieve 100 victories .
Following the presentation of the Swords , Philipp went on home leave . Again he was asked to make a number of propaganda appearances . On 1 May 1942 , he spoke before his home school and before the Meissen youth at the Hamburger Hof . He , his mother and his fiancée were also invited to Meissen Town Hall on 30 April . Among other officials , present were the NSDAP @-@ Kreisleiter ( county leader ) Helmut Böhme and the mayor of Meissen , Walter Kaule . Philipp was granted the privilege of signing the Meissen Golden Book ( Goldenes Buch ) — a book signed in German communities and cities by special guests of honor .
Philipp returned to the Eastern Front at Krasnogwardejsk south of Leningrad and claimed his 101st to 103rd victories on 6 June 1942 , which were mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht on 7 June . His third mention in the Wehrmachtbericht on 27 June came after he achieved his 108th to 110th victories on 26 June . In addition to the references in the Wehrmachtbericht he received the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) on 29 June 1942 . He also received the Croatian Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir ( Red krune kralja Zvonimira ) 2nd Class with Swords on 15 September 1942 for his work with the Croatian Air Force Legion 's fighter unit commanded by Franjo Džal . On 14 January 1943 , he claimed his 150th aerial victory . This led to the presentation of the Picture of the Reichsmarschall in Silver Frame ( Bild des Reichsmarschalls im Silberrahmen ) on 16 February 1943 . His unit received the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 in February 1943 . He quickly accumulated further victories , and on 17 March 1943 , his 26th birthday , he claimed his 200th to 203rd enemy aircraft shot down , recognized by his fourth mention in the Wehrmachtbericht . He was the second pilot after Hermann Graf to achieve this mark , and at the time was the most successful fighter pilot of the Luftwaffe .
= = = Wing commander of JG 1 and death = = =
In April 1943 , Philipp was transferred to Defense of the Reich duties as Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of Jagdgeschwader 1 ( JG 1 — 1st Fighter Wing ) , flying high altitude interception operations against the USAAF Eighth Air Force over the North Sea and northern Germany . He claimed his 204th victory on 2 May , and his 205th on 18 May before falling ill with appendicitis . This required hospitalization in Meissen . On 4 October 1943 , Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring is said to have issued the following instructions after another attack by the Eighth Air Force .
There are no meteorological conditions which would prevent fighters from taking off and engaging in combat .
Every fighter pilot returning in a machine not showing any sign of combat , or without having recorded a victory will be prosecuted by a court @-@ martial .
In the case of where a pilot uses up his ammunition , or if his weapons are unusable , he should ram the enemy bomber .
Philipp 's response was " As far as I 'm concerned , I categorically refuse to allow myself to be held to such advice ; I know what I have to do ! "
On 8 October 1943 , the US Eighth Air Force attacked targets in Bremen and Vegesack with 156 bombers . The bombers were escorted by more than 250 Thunderbolts from six different fighter groups . Phillipp 's flight was intercepted by P @-@ 47s of the 56th Fighter Group . The Stab Flight of the Geschwader heard Philipp announce a victory over a Thunderbolt . The last transmission from him was , " Reinhardt , attack ! " , Feldwebel Hans @-@ Günther Reinhardt was Philipp 's wingman on this day . He last saw the Kommodore 's aircraft disappear in a cloud . Reinhardt was wounded after colliding with an enemy aircraft , but made a successful forced landing . Later that evening , the Geschwader learned that their Geschwaderkommodore had been shot down and killed in his Fw 190 A @-@ 6 " Red 6 " ( Werknummer 530407 — factory number ) .
The report filed by Reinhardt on 10 October 1943 stated that he and Philipp had taken off at 14 : 11 on a mission against enemy bombers in the vicinity of Bremen . The group led by Y @-@ Verfahren ( Y @-@ Control ) had sighted a formation of about 30 Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses southwest of Bremen at 15 : 12 . The bombers had already completed their bomb run and were returning to England . Philipp started his attack from the right , driving the attack to pointblank range , flaming one of the B @-@ 17s which crashed at 15 : 32 . Philipp then flew under the formation to the left when he was hit from the defensive fire of a rear gunner on one of the B @-@ 17s which was lagging behind . Philipp then went into a dive and Rheinhardt asked by radio " what has happened ? " His response was " Reinhardt , attack " . Reinhardt , who had seen that Philipp had been hit , followed Philipp down until he disappeared in a lower cloud layer . More recent research has suggested that Philipp may also have been hit by a P @-@ 47 " Thunderbolt " piloted by Robert S. Johnson of the 61st Fighter Squadron . Philipp tried to return to his airfield , but was forced to bail out at low altitude at 15 : 45 between Hardenberg and Itterbeck ( 52 ° 31 ′ 44 ″ N 06 ° 43 ′ 08 ″ E ) . His parachute failed to open and the jump from an altitude of about 50 meters ( 160 ft ) caused several fatal injuries . His body was recovered and examined in the field hospital in Rheine the next day . The post mortem examination revealed extensive burns , particularly to the face , a laceration on the back of his head , multiple broken bones and flesh wounds as well as a particularly deep injury to his upper abdomen and inner organs .
From Rheine , on 10 October 1943 Philipp 's body was transported to Meissen by train where it arrived the next day . The Wehrmachtbericht announced his death on 12 October . The funeral at the Trinitatisfriedhof ( Trinitatis Cemetery ) in Meissen , on 14 October 1943 , was dominated by military , public and Nazi officials . His coffin , which was draped in the national flag of the Third Reich along with his honors and decorations on a velvet cushion , was put on display on the entry steps of the town hall in Meissen . Present at the funeral along with his mother , his fiancée and other members of the family , were Oberstleutnant Hannes Trautloft and Generaloberst Alfred Keller , who delivered the eulogy . Philipp 's mother died on 7 May 1973 , her urn was buried next to her son .
= = Awards = =
Wound Badge in Black
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots
in Gold ( 19 May 1941 )
with Pennant ( 4 October 1942 )
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( 28 September 1940 )
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 10 October 1939 )
1st Class ( 31 May 1940 )
German Cross in Gold on 18 June 1942 as Hauptmann in the II . / JG 54
Eastern Front Medal ( 8 August 1942 )
Croatian Order of the Crown of King Zvonimir 2nd Class with Swords ( 15 September 1942 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 22 October 1940 Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 4 . / JG 54
33rd Oak Leaves on 24 August 1941 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 4 . / JG 54
8th Swords on 12 March 1942 Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the I. / JG 54
Mentioned five times in the Wehrmachtbericht on ( 7 July 1941 , 7 June 1942 , 27 June 1942 , 18 March 1943 and 12 October 1943 )
= = = Wehrmachtbericht references = = =
= = = Dates of rank = = =
= Kentucky gubernatorial election , 1899 =
The Kentucky gubernatorial election of 1899 was held on November 7 , 1899 , to choose the 33rd governor of Kentucky . The incumbent , Republican William O 'Connell Bradley , was term @-@ limited and unable to seek re @-@ election .
After a contentious and chaotic nominating convention at the Music Hall in Louisville , the Democratic Party chose state Senator William Goebel as its nominee . A dissident faction of the party , styling themselves the " Honest Election Democrats " , were angered by Goebel 's political tactics at the Music Hall convention and later held their own nominating convention . They chose former governor John Y. Brown as their nominee . Republicans nominated state Attorney General William S. Taylor , although Governor Bradley favored another candidate and lent Taylor little support in the ensuing campaign . In the general election , Taylor won by a vote of 193 @,@ 714 to 191 @,@ 331 . Brown garnered 12 @,@ 040 votes , more than the difference between Taylor and Goebell . The election results were challenged on grounds of voter fraud , but surprisingly , the state Board of Elections , created by a law Goebel had sponsored and stocked with pro @-@ Goebel commissioners , certified Taylor 's victory .
An incensed Democratic majority in the Kentucky General Assembly created a committee to investigate the charges of voter fraud , even as armed citizens from heavily Republican eastern Kentucky poured into the state capital under auspices of keeping Democrats from stealing the election . Before the investigative committee could report , Goebel was shot by an unknown assassin while entering the state capitol on January 30 , 1900 . As Goebel lay in a nearby hotel being treated for his wounds , the committee issued its report recommending that the General Assembly invalidate enough votes to give the election to Goebel . The report was accepted , Taylor was deposed , and Goebel was sworn into office on January 31 . He died three days later on February 2 .
Lieutenant Governor J. C. W. Beckham ascended to the office of governor , and he and Taylor waged a protracted court battle over the governorship . Beckham won the case on appeal , and Taylor fled to Indiana to escape prosecution as an accomplice in Goebel 's murder . A total of sixteen people were charged in connection with the assassination . Five went to trial ; two of those were acquitted . Each of the remaining three were convicted in trials fraught with irregularities and were eventually pardoned by subsequent governors . The identity of Goebel 's assassin remains a mystery .
= = Background = =
In the 1895 gubernatorial election , Kentucky elected its first @-@ ever Republican governor , William O. Bradley . Bradley was able to capitalize both on divisions within the Democratic Party over the issue of Free Silver and on the presence of a strong third @-@ party candidate , Populist Thomas S. Pettit , to secure victory in the general election by just under 9 @,@ 000 votes . This election marked the beginning of nearly thirty years of true , two @-@ party competition in Kentucky politics .
A powerful Democratic foe of Bradley had begun his rise to power in the Kentucky Senate . Kenton County 's William Goebel became the leader of a new group of young Democrats who were seen as enemies of large corporations , particularly the Louisville and Nashville Railroad , and friends of the working man . Goebel was known as aloof and calculating . Unmarried and with few close friends of either gender , he was singularly driven by political power .
Goebel was chosen president pro tem of the Senate for the 1898 legislative session . On February 1 , 1898 , he sponsored a measure later called the Goebel Election Law . The law created a Board of Election Commissioners , appointed by the General Assembly , who were responsible for choosing election commissioners in all of Kentucky 's counties and were empowered to decide disputed elections . Because the General Assembly was heavily Democratic , the law was attacked as blatantly partisan and self @-@ serving to Goebel ; it was opposed even by some Democrats . Nevertheless , Goebel was able to hold enough members of his party together to override Governor Bradley 's veto , making the bill law . As leader of the party , Goebel essentially hand @-@ picked the members of the Election Commission . He chose three staunch Democrats — W. S. Pryor , former chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals ; W. T. Ellis , former U. S. Representative from Daviess County ; and C. B. Poyntz , former head of the state railroad commission . Republicans organized a test case against the law , but the Court of Appeals found it constitutional .
= = Democratic nominating convention = =
Three Democratic candidates had announced intentions to run for governor in 1899 — Goebel , former Kentucky Attorney General P. Wat Hardin , and former congressman William J. Stone . Hardin , a native of Mercer County , had the backing of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . Lyon County 's Stone had the backing of the state 's agricultural interests . Goebel generally had the backing of urban voters . Going into the party 's nominating convention , Hardin was the favorite to win the nomination . Knowing that combining forces was the only way to prevent Hardin 's nomination , representatives of Goebel and Stone met on June 19 , 1899 , to work out a deal . According to Urey Woodson , a Goebel representative at the meeting , the two sides signed an agreement whereby half of the Louisville delegation , which was committed to Goebel , would vote for Stone . Both men agreed that , should one of them be defeated or withdraw from the race , they would encourage their delegates to vote for the other rather than support Hardin .
The Democratic nominating convention began on June 20 , at the Music Hall on Market Street in Louisville . The first order of business was to nominate a convention chairman . Ollie M. James , a supporter of Stone , nominated Judge David Redwine . When Woodson seconded the nomination , the deal between Stone and Goebel became apparent to all . Hardin supporters nominated William H. Sweeney , but the Stone @-@ Goebel alliance elected Redwine . The membership of several county delegations was challenged ; these cases would be decided by the credentials committee . This committee was also stacked against Hardin ; his supporters made up just four of the thirteen members . Prolonged deliberations by the credentials committee caused the delegates to become restless , and hundreds of people — both delegates and non @-@ delegates — entered the Music Hall attempting to disrupt the convention . When Redwine summoned Louisville city police to the hall to maintain order , Hardin supporters accused him of using intimidation tactics . The credentials committee finally issued its report on June 23 . Of the twenty @-@ eight cases where delegates were contested , twenty @-@ six of them were decided in favor of Goebel or Stone supporters .
Formal nominations began the following day . Hardin felt as though he had been cheated and withdrew his candidacy , although some loyal delegates continued to vote for him . Delegate John Stockdale Rhea nominated Stone . Stone believed that his agreement with Goebel meant , with Hardin 's withdrawal , Goebel would instruct his delegates to vote for Stone , maintaining a unified party . That understanding vanished when another delegate nominated Goebel . Stone was further incensed when all of the Louisville delegation voted for Goebel instead of being split between Stone and Goebel , as the two men had previously agreed . In retaliation , some Stone supporters began to back Hardin . Seeing the breakdown of the Stone @-@ Goebel alliance , Hardin reversed his withdrawal . After numerous ballots , the convention was deadlocked on the night of June 24 with each candidate receiving about one @-@ third of the votes . No deliberations were held on Sunday , June 25 , and when the delegates reconvened on Monday , June 26 , the hall was filled with police per Redwine 's request . Rhea requested that the police be removed to prevent intimidation , but Redwine ruled the motion out of order . Another delegate appealed Redwine 's decision , and , in violation of parliamentary rule , Redwine ruled the appeal out of order . Angered by Redwine 's obviously biased rulings , delegates for Stone and Hardin then began trying to disrupt the convention by blowing horns , singing , yelling , and standing on chairs . Although voting was attempted , many delegates abstained because they were unable to hear and understand what was going on . When the voting — such as it was — ended , the chair announced that Goebel had a majority of the votes cast , but Goebel sent word to Redwine that he would only accept the nomination if he received an absolute majority of the delegates . Further attempts to vote were likewise disrupted , and the meeting adjourned for the day .
On the morning of June 27 , the hall was orderly . Stone and Hardin both called for the convention to adjourn sine die . Again , Redwine ruled this motion and the subsequent appeal of his decision out of order . Leaders for Stone and Hardin announced they would not disrupt the proceedings as they had the previous day and that they would abide by the convention 's decision . As voting proceeded , Stone and Hardin unsuccessfully tried to form an alliance against Goebel , and the balloting was deadlocked for twenty @-@ four consecutive ballots . The delegates agreed to drop the third @-@ place candidate on the next ballot ; that turned out to be Stone . The votes of the urban centers , previously divided between Stone and Goebel , now went entirely to Goebel , while the rural western counties that had supported Stone went to Hardin . The vote remained close , but as the alphabetical roll call proceeded , Goebel secured the votes of Stone 's Union County delegation , giving him the nomination . Following the vote , Hardin and Stone leaders pledged their support to Goebel , though some did so in qualified terms . For lieutenant governor , the Democrats nominated J. C. W. Beckham who , at age 29 , was not yet legally old enough to assume the governorship if called on to do so . Goebel questioned the selection of Beckham because Beckham 's native Nelson County had voted for Hardin and was largely controlled by political boss Ben Johnson , but Goebel 's allies convinced him that Beckham would be loyal to his program . Among the other nominees was ex @-@ Confederate soldier Robert J. Breckinridge , Jr . , for attorney general . This nomination helped placate the numerous ex @-@ Confederates in the party , since Goebel 's father had fought for the Union . It was not enough , however , to persuade Breckinridge 's brother , former congressman W. C. P. Breckinridge , to support the ticket .
= = Republican nominating convention = =
Potential Republican gubernatorial candidates were initially few . Some saw Kentucky 's 18 @,@ 000 @-@ vote plurality for William Jennings Bryan in the 1896 presidential election as a sure sign that the state would vote Democratic in 1899 . Others were not interested in being on the defense against the inevitable Democratic attacks on the Bradley administration . Still others were intimidated by the prospect of being defeated by the machinery of the Goebel Election Law . Party leaders were encouraged , however , by the deep Democratic divisions at the Music Hall Convention . Sitting attorney general William S. Taylor was the first to announce his candidacy and soon secured the support of Republican senator William Deboe . Later candidates included Hopkins County judge Clifton J. Pratt and sitting state Auditor Sam H. Stone . The former was the choice of Governor Bradley , while the latter was supported by Lexington Herald editor Sam J. Roberts . Taylor , like Goebel , was a skilled political organizer . He was able to create a strong political machine amongst the county delegations and seemed the favorite to win the nomination .
The Republican nominating convention convened on July 12 in Lexington , Kentucky . Angry that his party had not more seriously considered his candidate , Governor Bradley did not attend . Black leaders in the party threatened to follow Bradley and organize their own nominating convention , as they believed Taylor represented the " lily @-@ white " branch of the party . Taylor attempted to hold the party together by making one of the black leaders permanent secretary of the convention and promising to appoint other black leaders to his cabinet if elected . He also tried to bring Bradley back to the convention by promising to nominate Bradley 's nephew , Edwin P. Morrow , for secretary of state . Bradley refused the offer . In the face of Taylor 's superior organization , Auditor Stone announced that he desired to see a united party and moved that Taylor be nominated unanimously ; Judge Pratt seconded the motion . Other notable nominations were John Marshall for lieutenant governor , Caleb Powers for secretary of state , and Judge Pratt for attorney general .
= = " Honest Election Democrats " = =
Some Democrats remained unsatisfied with the outcome of the Music Hall Convention . After a period of silence , candidate William Stone publicly detailed the arrangement he believed he had with Goebel and how Goebel had broken it . Although Goebel 's allies attempted to defend him against the charges , Stone 's story was soon corroborated by former congressman W. C. Owens . Owens called on Democrats to vote for the Republican candidate , and to do so in such large numbers that no amount of political wrangling by Goebel could give him the governorship .
A group of Louisville Democrats , supporters of U. S. Senator Jo Blackburn , made the first formal calls for a new convention . A short time after , a large meeting at Mount Sterling gave the movement a definite form . They called for a meeting in Lexington on August 2 to organize the details of a new convention . At subsequent mass meetings , it was announced that former governor John Y. Brown would accept the nomination of a second convention , should one be held . As Brown had been thought to be a supporter of Goebel , this announcement caused no small stir among Democrats . Representatives of sixty counties attended the August 2 meeting in Lexington . Resolutions endorsing the Democratic platform from the 1896 Democratic National Convention and the candidacy of William Jennings Bryan in 1900 were adopted . Then , ex @-@ governor Brown addressed the crowd . Finally , the representatives agreed to a nominating convention to be held on August 16 .
Representatives from 108 of Kentucky 's 120 counties attended the convention . Among the attendees were the editors of the Lexington Herald , Louisville Evening Post , and Louisville Dispatch , former congressman Owens , former Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives Harvey Myers , Jr . , and political bosses William Mackoy , John Whallen , and Theodore Hallam . The convention nominated an entire slate of candidates for state office , with former governor Brown at the head . They also put forward a platform condemning the Music Hall Convention , the Goebel Election Law , and the presidential administration of William McKinley .
= = Campaign = =
Goebel 's campaign staff included Senator Jo Blackburn , former governor James B. McCreary , and political boss Percy Haly . Goebel opened his campaign on August 12 in Mayfield , a city in the heavily Democratic Jackson Purchase region of the state . He attacked the Louisville and Nashville Railroad and charged that wealthy corporate interests from outside the state were attempting to influence the choice of Kentucky 's governor .
Taylor opened his campaign on August 22 in London , a Republican stronghold in eastern Kentucky . Among his supporters were Senator Deboe , Congressman Samuel Pugh , Caleb Powers , and former Republican gubernatorial candidate Thomas Z. Morrow ( who was also the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Governor Bradley ) . Taylor stressed the economic prosperity brought about during the McKinley administration . He reminded the crowd that the Republicans had not supported the enslavement of blacks and stated they would not now support what he called the " political enslavement " that would result from electing Goebel .
Brown opened his campaign in Bowling Green on August 26 . Because of his age and ill health , he made no more than one speech per week . Nevertheless , he toured the Commonwealth , questioning the sincerity of Goebel 's Free Silver views . He continued to attack the Music Hall Convention , asking whether past great Democrats such as John C. Breckinridge and Lazarus W. Powell would have supported the events that took place there . He also derided the Goebel Election Law as creating an oligarchy . Brown 's limited appearances were supplemented by speeches from his supporters .
Although ex @-@ Confederates were generally a safe voting bloc for Democrats , Goebel could not heavily rely on them because of his father 's ties to the Union . Also , in 1895 , Goebel had killed John Sanford , an ex @-@ Confederate , in a duel stemming from a personal dispute between the two men . This made him particularly odious to Brown supporter Theodore Hallum , a friend of Sanford 's , who said of Goebel at a campaign rally in Bowling Green " [ W ] hen the Democratic Party of Kentucky , in convention assembled , sees fit in its wisdom to nominate a yellow dog for the governorship of this great state , I will support him — but lower than that you shall not drag me . " Goebel tried to mitigate his lukewarm support from ex @-@ Confederates by courting the black vote , long given to the Republicans , though he had to do so carefully to avoid further alienating his own party base . Unlike other Democrats , Goebel had not voted on the Separate Coach Bill , a law that required blacks and whites to use segregated railroad facilities . Most blacks opposed the bill , and Goebel tried to remain silent on the issue , but when pressed , he admitted in a campaign event in Cloverport that he supported the bill and would oppose its repeal . Likewise , Taylor had tried to dodge the issue of the Separate Coach Bill to avoid upsetting the " lily white " branch of his party , but a week after Goebel took a position in favor of the bill , Taylor came out against it . This marked a turning point in the campaign , as blacks , at first cool toward Taylor , now actively supported him .
The dying Populist Party had also nominated a full slate of candidates for state offices , eroding some of Goebel 's populist base . Although the Populist Party platform was similar to Goebel 's , it also explicitly condemned the Goebel Election Law . Thomas Pettit , the Populist candidate from the 1895 gubernatorial election , campaigned for Goebel , but many of the other leaders in the party did not . With his support slipping on every side , Goebel appealed to William Jennings Bryan to come to the state and campaign for him . Known as " the Great Commoner " , Bryan was immensely popular with Kentuckians , particularly Democrats and Populists . After refusing initial requests , Bryan finally came to the state and , in three days , crisscrossed the state with Goebel to stir up support . Bryan 's visit helped solidify Democrats behind Goebel and took significant support from the Brown ticket .
No sooner had Bryan left the state than Governor Bradley reversed course and began stumping for Taylor . Though he insisted he only wanted to defend his administration from Democratic attacks , Louisville Courier @-@ Journal editor Henry Watterson suggested that Bradley was seeking to enlist Taylor 's support for his anticipated senatorial bid . Bradley kicked off his tour of the state in Louisville , charging that Democrats had to import an orator for their candidate because all of the state 's best men had deserted him . As evidence , he cited Goebel 's lack of support from Democrat John G. Carlisle , his former ally , as well as Senator William Lindsay , W. C. P. Breckinridge , John Y. Brown , Theodore Hallum , W. C. Owens , Wat Hardin , and William Stone . He also encouraged blacks not to desert the Republican Party . He contrasted his appointments of blacks to his cabinet with the Democrats ' support of the Separate Coach Bill . Bradley and Republican leader ( and later governor ) Augustus E. Willson toured the state on behalf of the Republican ticket , often drawing crowds larger than those assembled for Taylor .
In the final two weeks of the campaign , Brown was injured in an accident and became a wheelchair user . This was a severe blow to an already faltering campaign , and it became clear that the race would primarily be between Goebel and Taylor . Both men spent the last days of the campaign in Louisville , knowing that , with its sizable population , it would be key to the election . Goebel continued his attack on the Louisville and Nashville Railroad , supporting striking laborers from the railroad and charging that the Republican party was controlled by trusts . Both Republicans and Democrats warned of the possibility that election fraud and violence would be perpetrated by the other side . Louisville mayor Charles P. Weaver , a Goebel Democrat , added 500 recruits to the city 's police force just before the election , leading to charges that voter intimidation would occur in that city . Governor Bradley countered by ordering the state militia to be ready to quell any disturbances across the state . On election day , the headline of the Courier @-@ Journal proclaimed " BAYONET Rule " .
= = Election and aftermath = =
For all the claims about the potential for violence , election day , November 7 , remained mostly calm across the state . Fewer than a dozen people were arrested statewide . Voting returns were slow , and on election night , the race was still too close to call . When the official tally was announced , Taylor had won by a vote of 193 @,@ 714 to 191 @,@ 331 . Brown had garnered 12 @,@ 040 votes , and Populist candidate Blair had captured 2 @,@ 936 . Had Goebel been able to win the votes that went to either of the third party candidates , he could have saved the election for the Democrats . Charges of fraud began even before the official returns were announced . In Nelson County , 1 @,@ 200 ballots listed the Republican candidate as " W. P. Taylor " instead of " W. S. Taylor " ; Democrats claimed these votes should be invalidated . In Knox and Johnson counties , voters complained of " thin tissue ballots " that allowed the voter 's choices to be seen through them . One Democratic political boss even called for the entire Louisville vote to be invalidated because the state militia had intimidated voters there . ( Taylor had won by about 3 @,@ 000 votes in Louisville . )
Republicans gained an early victory when the Court of Appeals ruled that the Nelson County vote should stand . The final result of the election , however , would be decided by the Board of Elections , created by the Goebel Election Law . Newspapers across the state , both Democratic and Republican , called for the Board 's decision to be accepted as final . Tensions grew as the date for the Board 's hearings drew near , and small bands of armed men from heavily Republican eastern Kentucky began to arrive in Frankfort , the state capital . Just before the Board 's decision was announced , the number of armed mountain men was estimated at 500 . Although the Board was thought to be controlled by Goebel , it rendered a surprise 2 – 1 decision to let the announced vote tally stand . The Board 's majority opinion claimed that they did not have any judicial power and were thus unable to hear proof or swear witnesses . Taylor was inaugurated on December 12 , 1899 . Democrats were outraged ; party leaders met on December 14 and called on Goebel and Beckham to contest the election . Goebel had been inclined to let the result stand and seek a seat in the U. S. Senate in 1901 , but he heeded the wishes of his party 's leaders and contested the Board 's decision .
Allie Young , chairman of the state Democratic Party , called a caucus of the Democratic members of the General Assembly to be held on January 1 , 1900 . As a result of the caucus , J. C. S. Blackburn was nominated for a seat in the U. S. Senate , Goebel was nominated as president pro tem of the Kentucky Senate , and South Trimble was nominated as speaker of the House . When the General Assembly convened , each Democratic nominee was elected , the party possessing heavy majorities in both houses . Lieutenant Governor Marshall presented a list of committees to the Senate , but that body voted 19 – 17 to set aside this list and approve a list provided by Goebel instead . Similarly , in the House , the list of committees presented by Speaker Trimble and approved by that body enumerated forty committees , none of them with a Republican majority .
Goebel 's and Beckham 's challenges to the election results were received by the General Assembly on January 2 . The following day , the Assembly appointed a contest committee to investigate the allegations contained in the challenges , voter fraud and illegal military intimidation of voters among them . The members of the committee were drawn at random , although the drawing was likely rigged — only one Republican joined ten Democrats on the committee . ( Chance dictated that the committee should have contained four or five Republicans . ) The joint committee on the rules recommended that the contest committee report at the pleasure of the General Assembly , that debate was limited once the findings were presented , and that the report be voted on in a joint session of the Assembly . The rules further provided that the speaker of the House would preside over this joint session instead of the lieutenant governor , as was customary . The Republican minority fought these provisions , but the Democratic majority passed them over their opposition .
= = = Goebel 's assassination = = =
Republicans around the state expected the committee to recommend disqualification of enough ballots to make Goebel governor . Additional armed men from eastern Kentucky filled the capital . Taylor , recognizing that the slightest incident could lead to violence , ordered the men home , and many of them complied . Still , two or three hundred remained , awaiting the election committee 's findings . Others remained as witnesses set to testify before the contest committee . Some of these Republican witnesses were arrested by local police , who were mostly Goebel partisans . Governor Taylor issued pardons for some of them , citing their claims that the police robbed them upon their arrest . To avoid arrest for carrying a concealed weapon , many of the Republican partisans began wearing their guns openly , adding to the tensions in the city , but effectively reducing the number of arrests by local police .
On the morning of January 30 , as Goebel and two friends walked toward the capitol building , a shot rang out , and Goebel fell wounded . He was taken to a nearby hotel to be treated for his wounds . Soldiers filled the streets and blocked entrance to the capitol . Defiantly , the contest committee met in Frankfort 's city hall . By a strictly party @-@ line vote , they adopted a majority report that claimed Goebel and Beckham had received the most legitimate votes and should be installed in their respective offices .
A little over an hour after the committee 's meeting , Governor Taylor declared a state of insurrection and called out the state militia . He called the legislature into special session , not in Frankfort , but in heavily Republican London , which he insisted was a safer location . Defiant Democratic legislators refused to heed the call to London , but when they attempted to convene first in the state capitol and later in other public locations in Frankfort , they found the doors barred by armed citizens . On January 31 , 1900 , they convened secretly in a Frankfort hotel , with no Republicans present , and voted to certify the findings of the contest committee , invalidating enough votes to make Goebel governor . Goebel was sworn in , and immediately ordered the state militia to stand down . He also ordered the General Assembly to reconvene in Frankfort . The Republican militia refused to disband , and a rival Democratic militia formed across the lawn of the state capitol . Civil war seemed possible .
Taylor apprised President McKinley of the situation in Kentucky . He stopped short of asking for intervention by federal troops , and McKinley assured a delegation of Kentucky 's federal legislators that such intervention would occur only as a last resort . Republican legislators made preparations to heed Taylor 's call to convene in London on February 5 . Meanwhile , in order to resolve any doubts about the legitimacy of their earlier meeting , Democratic legislators met at the state house — no longer being denied entrance by the state militia — and again voted to adopt the majority report declaring Goebel and Beckham the winners of the election . Both men again took the oath of office .
As a test to see if his gubernatorial authority was still recognized , Taylor issued a pardon for a man convicted of manslaughter in Knott County . The pardon was signed by the proper county officials , but officers at the penitentiary refused to release the man . It was feared that Taylor would dispatch the state militia to remove the prisoner , but no further attempts were made to secure his release . Continuing to live under heavy guard in his executive office , Taylor was criticized for not having offered a reward for the capture of Goebel 's unknown assailant . Responding that he was not authorized to make an offer in the absence of a request to do so by the officials in Franklin County , he offered a $ 500 reward from his own money .
Goebel died of his wounds on February 3 . He remains the only American governor ever assassinated while in office . With Goebel , the most controversial figure in the election , dead , tensions began to ease somewhat . Leaders from both sides drafted an agreement whereby Taylor and Lieutenant Governor Marshall would step down from their respective offices ; in exchange , they would receive immunity from prosecution in any actions they may have taken with regard to Goebel 's assassination . The state militia would withdraw from Frankfort , and the Goebel Election Law would be repealed and replaced with a fairer law . Despite the agreement of his allies , Taylor refused to sign the agreement . He did , however , lift the ban on the General Assembly meeting in Frankfort .
= = = Legal challenges = = =
When the legislature convened on February 19 , two sets of officers attempted to preside . Marshall and Goebel 's lieutenant governor , J. C. W. Beckham , both claimed the right to preside over the state senate . Taylor sued to prevent Beckham from exercising any authority in the senate ; Beckham counter @-@ sued for possession of the capitol and executive building . The cases were consolidated , and both Republicans and Democrats agreed to let the courts decide the election . On March 10 , a circuit court found in favor of Beckham and the Democrats . By a 6 – 1 vote , the Kentucky Court of Appeals , the state 's court of last resort at the time , upheld the circuit court 's decision on April 6 , legally unseating Taylor and Marshall . The case of Taylor v. Beckham was eventually appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States , but the court refused to intervene in the case because it found that there were no federal questions involved . The lone justice dissenting from that opinion was Kentuckian John Marshall Harlan .
Sixteen indictments were returned in connection with Goebel 's assassination , including one against deposed governor Taylor . In May 1900 , Taylor fled to Indianapolis , Indiana , and the governor , James A. Mount refused to extradite him for trial . Three others charged in the assassination turned state 's evidence . Only five of the sixteen went to trial ; two of those were acquitted . Three men were eventually convicted for playing roles in Goebel 's assassination . Taylor 's secretary of state , Caleb Powers , was accused of being the mastermind behind the assassination . Henry Youtsey , a clerk from Northern Kentucky , was said to have aided the assassin . James B. Howard , a participant in a bloody feud in Clay County was charged with being the actual assassin .
According to the prosecution 's theory , the assassin shot Goebel from the secretary of state 's office on the first floor of a building next to the state capitol . However , much of the testimony against the accused men was conflicting , and some of it was later proven to be perjured . Most of the state 's judges were Democratic supporters of Goebel and juries were packed with partisan Democrats . The appellate courts , however , were largely Republican , and the convictions returned by the lower courts were often overturned , with the cases being remanded for new trials . Howard was tried and convicted in September 1900 , January 1902 , and April 1903 ; his final appeal failed , and he was sentenced to life in prison . Powers was also convicted three times — in July 1900 , October 1901 , and August 1903 ; a fourth trial in November 1907 ended in a hung jury . In 1908 , Powers and Howard were pardoned by Republican governor Augustus E. Willson . Months later , Willson also issued pardons for former governor Taylor and several others still under indictment . Despite the pardon , Taylor seldom returned to Kentucky ; he became an insurance executive in Indiana and died there in 1928 . Youtsey , the only defendant not to appeal his sentence , was paroled in 1916 and pardoned in 1919 by Democratic governor James D. Black .
= Atlantic blue marlin =
The Atlantic blue marlin ( Makaira nigricans ) is a species of marlin endemic to the Atlantic Ocean . The Atlantic blue marlin ( hereafter , blue marlin ) feeds on a wide variety of organisms near the surface . It uses its bill to stun , injure , or kill while knifing through a school of fish or other prey , then returns to eat the injured or stunned fish . Marlin is a popular game fish . The relatively high fat content of its meat makes it commercially valuable in certain markets . It is the national fish of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas and is thus featured on its Coat of Arms .
Blue marlin are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic , Indian , and Pacific Oceans . A bluewater fish that spends the majority of its life in the open sea far from land , the blue marlin preys on a wide variety of marine organisms , mostly near the surface , often using its bill to stun or injure its prey .
Females can grow up to four times the weight of males . The maximum published weight is 818 kg ( 1 @,@ 803 lb ) and length 5 m ( 16 @.@ 4 ft ) .
Adult blue marlin have few predators apart from man . They are sought after as a highly prized game fish by anglers and are taken by commercial fishermen , both as a directed catch and as bycatch in major industrial tuna fisheries . Blue marlin are currently considered a threatened species by the IUCN due to overfishing .
Some other historic English names for the blue marlin are Cuban black marlin , ocean gar , and ocean guard .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The blue marlin is placed in the genus Makaira . This name is derived from the Greek word machaira , meaning " a short sword or bent dagger " , and the Latin machaera , " sword " . The specific epithet nigricans is Latin for " becoming black " . The blue marlin is part of the billfish family Istiophoridae and is in the perch @-@ like order Perciformes . In addition , it is in the suborder Xiphioidei and is a member of the subclass Neopterygii , which means " new wings " . It is also in the class of Actinopterygii , which includes ray @-@ finned fishes and spiny @-@ rayed fishes , and the superclass Osteichthyes , which includes all of the bony fishes .
The classification of the Atlantic blue marlin ( Makaira nigricans ) and the Indo @-@ Pacific blue marlin ( Makaira mazara ) as separate species is under debate . Genetic data suggest , although the two groups are isolated from each other , they are both the same species , with the only genetic exchange occurring when Indo @-@ Pacific blue marlin migrate to and contribute genes to the Atlantic population . A separate study by V. P. Buonaccorsi , J. R. Mcdowell , and Graves indicated that both Indo @-@ Pacific and Atlantic show " striking phylogeographic partitioning " of mitochondrial and microsatellite loci .
= = = Synonyms = = =
Synonyms of Makaira nigricans are :
Maikaira nigricans ( sic ) Lacepède , 1802
Makaira nigricans nigricans Lacepède , 1802
Xiphias ensis Lacepède , 1800 ( ambiguous )
Makaira ensis ( Lacepède , 1800 ) ( ambiguous )
Tetrapturus herschelii J. E. Gray , 1838
Histiophorus herschelii ( J. E. Gray , 1838 )
Makaira herschelii ( J. E. Gray , 1838 )
Tetrapturus amplus Poey , 1860
Makaira ampla ( Poey , 1860 )
Makaira ampla ampla ( Poey , 1860 )
Makaira nigricans ampla ( Poey , 1860 )
Tetrapturus mazara D. S. Jordan & Snyder , 1901
Istiompax mazara ( D. S. Jordan & Snyder , 1901 )
Makaira ampla mazara ( D. S. Jordan & Snyder , 1901 )
Makaira mazara ( D. S. Jordan & Snyder , 1901 )
Makaira nigricans mazara ( D. S. Jordan & Snyder , 1901 )
Makaira bermudae Mowbray , 1931
Orthocraeros bermudae ( Mowbray , 1931 )
Eumakaira nigra Hirasaka & H. Nakamura , 1947
Makaira nigra ( Hirasaka & H. Nakamura , 1947 )
Makaira perezi F. de Buen , 1950
Istiompax howardi Whitley ,
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990s , a programme of afforestation resulted in the establishment of Community Forests and the National Forest , which celebrated the planting of its seven millionth tree in 2006 . As a result of these initiatives , the British Isles are one of a very few places in the world where the stock of forested land is actually increasing , though the rate of increase has slowed since the turn of the millennium .
England Rural Development Programme is the current overarching grants scheme that includes money for forested land within it .
= = Ancient woodland = =
Ancient woodland is defined as any woodland that has been continuously forested since 1600 . It is recorded on either the Register of Ancient Semi @-@ Natural Woodland or the Register of Planted Woodland Sites . There is no woodland in Britain that has not been profoundly affected by human intervention . Apart from certain native pinewoods in Scotland , it is predominantly broadleaf . Such woodland is less productive , in terms of timber yield , but ecologically rich , typically containing a number of " indicator species " of indigenous wildlife . It comprises roughly 2 @.@ 5 % of the forested area .
= = Native and historic tree species = =
Britain is relatively impoverished in terms of native species . For example , only thirty @-@ one species of deciduous tree and shrub are native to Scotland , including ten willows , four whitebeams and three birch and cherry . This is a list of tree species that existed in Britain before 1900 . The sheer number of tree species planted subsequently precludes a complete list .
= = Threats = =
Most serious disease threats to British woodland involve fungus . For conifers , the greatest threat is White Rot Fungus ( Heterobasidion annosum ) . Dutch Elm Disease arises from two related species of fungi in the genus Ophiostoma , spread by Elm Bark Beetles and acute oak decline has a bacterial cause . Another fungus , Nectria coccinea , causes Beech bark disease , as does Bulgaria polymorpha . Ash canker results from Nectria galligena or Pseudomonas savastanoi , and most trees are vulnerable to Honey Fungus ( Armillaria mellea ) . The oomycete Phytophthora ramorum ( responsible for " Sudden oak death " in the USA ) has killed large numbers of Japanese Larch trees in the UK .
Beetles , moths and weevils can also damage trees , but the majority do not cause serious harm . Notable exceptions include the Large Pine Weevil ( Hylobius abietis ) , which can kill young conifers , the Spruce Bark Beetle ( Ips typographus ) which can kill spruces , and the Cockchafer ( Melolontha melolontha ) which eats young tree roots and can kill in a dry season . Rabbits , squirrels , voles , field mice , deer , and farm animals can pose a significant threat to trees . Air pollution , acid rain , and wildfire represent the main environmental hazards .
= = Timber industry = =
In 2013 , the UK produced 3 @,@ 582 @,@ 000 cubic metres of sawn wood , 3 @,@ 032 @,@ 000 cubic metres of wood @-@ based panels and 4 @,@ 561 @,@ 000 tonnes of paper and paperboard . The UK does not produce enough timber to satisfy domestic demand , and the country has been a net importer of timber and paper for many years . In 2008 the country imported sawn and other wood to a value of £ 1 @,@ 243 million and exported £ 98 million ; imported £ 832 million of wood @-@ based panels and exported £ 104 million ; and imported paper and paper @-@ based products to a value of £ 4 @,@ 273 million and exported £ 1 @,@ 590 million . In 2012 approximately 15 @,@ 000 people were employed in forestry and 26 @,@ 000 in primary wood production in the country , resulting in a gross value added to the country of £ 1 @,@ 936 million . With the ongoing closure of sawmills , the biomass industry is likely to be a key driver for future growth .
= = = Planting = = =
Successful forestry requires healthy , well @-@ formed trees that are resistant to diseases and parasites . The best wood has a straight , circular stem without a spiral grain or fluting , and small , evenly spaced branches . The chances of achieving these are maximised by planting good @-@ quality seed in the best possible growing environment .
Commercial seed is relatively inexpensive , but some foresters still prefer to collect their own seed . This should be done in dry weather , the seed kept in a well @-@ ventilated place away from damp ; broadleaved seeds do not keep well in long @-@ term storage ( apart from oak , sweet chestnut and sycamore , which can be kept ) . Conifer seed does tend to be storable . Stored seed is best pre @-@ treated by being chilled and moistened before planting .
Tree breeding programmes , to ensure the best seed , are hampered by the trees ' long life @-@ cycles . However , particularly since the 1950s , the Forestry Commission among other organisations has been running a programme of breeding , propagation , induced flowering and controlled pollination with the aim of producing healthy , disease @-@ resistant , fast @-@ growing stock .
= = = Stewardship and management = = =
The Forestry Commission manages almost 700 @,@ 000 hectares ( about 1 @.@ 7 million acres ) of land in England and Scotland , making it the country 's biggest land manager . The majority of the land ( 70 % ) is in Scotland , 30 % of the landholding is in England . Activities carried out on the forest estate include maintenance and improvement of the natural environment and the provision of recreation , timber harvesting to supply domestic industry , regenerating brownfield and replanting of harvested areas .
Afforestation was the main reason for the creation of the commission in 1919 . Britain had only 5 % of its original forest cover left and the government at that time wanted to create a strategic resource of timber . Since then forest coverage has doubled and the commission 's remit expanded to include greater focus on sustainable forest management and maximising public benefits . Woodland creation continues to be an important role of the commission , however , and works closely with government to achieve its goal of 12 % forest coverage by 2060 , championing initiatives such as The Big Tree Plant and Woodland Carbon Code .
The Forestry Commission is also the government body responsible for the regulation of private forestry ; felling is generally illegal without first obtaining a licence from the Commission . The Commission is also responsible for encouraging new private forest growth and development . Part of this role is carried out by providing grants in support of private forests and woodlands .
In contrast , Natural Resources Wales ( Welsh : Cyfoeth Naturiol Cymru ) is a Welsh Government sponsored body , for the management of all the natural resources of Wales . It was formed from a merger of the Countryside Council for Wales , Environment Agency Wales , and the Forestry Commission Wales , and also assumes some other roles formerly taken by Welsh Government .
The Forest Stewardship Council , more specifically FSC UK , sets forest management standards for the UK , promotes the system and provides an information service . It looks at the environmental , social and economic impacts of the timber industry . It has issued 2 @,@ 340 Certificates of Conformity encompassing 1 @,@ 609 @,@ 414 ha of forest .
Plans featuring " good forestry practice " must always consider the needs of other stakeholders such as nearby communities or rural residents living within or adjacent to woodland areas . Foresters consider tree felling and environmental legislation when developing plans . Plans instruct the sustainable harvesting and replacement of trees . They indicate whether road building or other forest engineering operations are required .
= = = Transportation = = =
Currently , the vast majority of Britain 's timber uses road haulage . As forests are located in rural areas , the heavy timber vehicles have severely damaged many single lane tracks , especially in the Highlands . In order to combat this , companies are being forced to provide funding for repairs , as well as using alternative transport systems such as rail and coastal shipping . Despite the number of forest railways plummeting after the Beeching Axe , rail 's share of timber transport has risen from 3 % in 2002 with the opening of new lines in Devon , the Pennines , Scotland and South Wales by Colas Rail .
= = Land values = =
The price of woodland has risen out of proportion to its productivity , and in 2012 reached peak prices over £ 10 @,@ 000 per acre . Woodland prices are affected by its very favourable tax treatment and its high amenity value .
= Speechless ( Lady Gaga song ) =
" Speechless " is a song written and performed by American singer Lady Gaga , from her third EP , The Fame Monster . The song was written by Gaga to convince her father , Joseph Germanotta , to undergo open @-@ heart surgery , in order to repair his malfunctioning aortic valve , and as a reminder for her younger fans to appreciate their parents . " Speechless " is described as Gaga 's " Fear of Death Monster " .
The 1970s rock music @-@ inspired power ballad received mixed reviews from critics , who praised it for drawing influences from Queen , as well as its sincerity while others criticized it for " com [ ing ] off as a fraud . " " Speechless " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at ninety @-@ four for the week of December 12 , 2009 . Gaga performed the song in a number of live appearances including the 2010 Grammys , 2009 American Music Awards , The 2009 Royal Variety Performance and The Monster Ball Tour .
= = Background = =
" Speechless " was written by Lady Gaga and produced by Ron Fair . Gaga explained in a November 2009 interview that her father , Joseph Germanotta , had a heart condition for approximately 15 years . She went on to say , " He has or he had a bad aortic valve , and his body for a very long time was only pumping a third of the blood that you 're supposed to get every time his heart beat . " She added ,
" My mom called me and I was very depressed . I was on tour and I couldn 't leave , so I went into the studio and I wrote this song ' Speechless , ' and it 's about these phone calls . My dad used to call me after he 'd had a few drinks and I wouldn 't know what to say . I was speechless and I just feared that I would lose him and I wouldn 't be there . "
The song was written as a plea for Germanotta to have the open @-@ heart surgery he needed for his condition . In October 2009 , Gaga confirmed that Germanotta had undergone the surgery . " My Daddy had open @-@ heart surgery today . And after long hours , and lots of tears , they healed his broken heart , and mine , " she announced through her official Twitter account . She stated that she hoped the song would inspire her younger fans to appreciate their parents . " I have a lot of fans who are really lovely , young , troubled fans , but I want to remind them that you only get one set of parents , " she said .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Speechless " is a rock power ballad with influences of 1970s rock , blues rock , glam rock with a slight element of country music as well . The song 's musical style has drawn comparisons to David Bowie during the Ziggy Stardust era , Queen and Pink . It consists of vocal harmonies and guitar riffs which , according to PopMatters , are comparable to the work of Freddie Mercury and Queen . " Speechless " was recorded at Record Plant Studios , Los Angeles , California with all live instruments , such as drums , guitars and bass with Gaga playing piano and she described the recording process as " that really organic , delicious feeling " . Along with the production works , Fair also did the arrangement and conduction for the recording , while Tal Herzberg played bass guitar and did the audio engineering of the track with Frank Wolff . Other musicians included Abraham Laboriel Jr. who played drums and John Goux on guitar . " Speechless " was mixed by Jack Joseph Puig while the audio mastering was done at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California , by Gene Grimaldi . Personnel assisting the recording included Ryan Kennedy , Tal Oz and Joe Cory . " Speechless " is set in the time signature of common time , with a tempo of 76 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C major , with Gaga 's vocal range spanning between the high note of C5 to the low note of G3 . The song has a basic sequence of C – G / B – Am – G – F as its chord progression .
= = Critical reception = =
" Speechless " received mixed reviews from critics . Kitty Empire of The Observer gave a negative review of the song , noting that ballads are Gaga 's " weak point " . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters noted similarities between the song and the music of Queen , adding , " Although the resulting tune doesn 't have the same driving oomph of a peak @-@ era Queen number , the imitation is admirable if not just for the fact that it manages to rub shoulders with such sacred company without once feeling like a gimmick . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called the song the lone " dud " from The Fame Monster , " not because it 's a bad song or poorly performed , but because , like on The Fame , when [ Gaga ] does try to show her softer side , it comes off as a fraud — at least alongside the rest of her material . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic felt that the song had a " galvanized Eurotrash finish " to it , comparing the guitar playing in the song to the work of Noel Gallagher , the lead guitarist of Oasis .
= = Chart performance = =
Although it has not been released as a single , " Speechless " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at ninety @-@ four for the week of December 12 , 2009 . After the medley performance of the song at the 2010 Grammy Awards , " Speechless " topped the Billboard Hot Singles Sales chart , with sales of 7 @,@ 000 units according to Nielsen Soundscan , becoming Gaga 's third number @-@ one single on this chart . It also shifted an additional 13 @,@ 000 digital downloads to bubble under the main Hot Digital Songs chart . As of August 2010 , the song has sold 197 @,@ 000 downloads according to Nielsen Soundscan . " Speechless " also debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 at sixty @-@ seven on the same issue . On the UK Singles Chart , " Speechless " entered the chart at number 106 , due to downloads from The Fame Monster . It left the chart the following week but re @-@ entered at number eighty @-@ eight for the week of December 27 , 2009 .
= = Live performances = =
" Speechless " was performed for the first time at the 30th anniversary celebration for the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art on November 14 , 2009 . Gaga performed the song on and at a pink Steinway & Sons piano decorated with painted @-@ on butterflies . The song was performed while ballet dancers from the Bolshoi Theatre , who danced alongside Gaga in a performance art number directed by artist Francesco Vezzoli and members of Russia 's Bolshoi Ballet Academy , titled " The Shortest Musical You Will Never See Again . " It was performed at the 2009 American Music Awards . She coupled it with " Bad Romance " from The Fame Monster . Gaga was dressed in a flesh @-@ colored bodysuit wrapped with white piping , embedded with flashing lights imitating ribs and a spine . The performance started with " Bad Romance " ; then she segued into " Speechless " by using her microphone stand to break open a glass box with a piano inside . She sat on the piano bench and began the performance , while her piano caught on fire . Throughout the song , she continued to smash liquor bottles on the piano . Both " Bad Romance " and " Speechless " were performed at The Ellen DeGeneres Show on November 25 , 2009 . Gaga performed the song at the Royal Variety Performance , which was attended by Queen Elizabeth II . Gaga wore a red PVC dress inspired by the Elizabethan era , and played a piano suspended ten feet in the air that was supported by stilts . The piano was inspired by the giant elephants in Salvador Dalí 's 1946 painting , The Temptation of St. Anthony .
Gaga performed the song during The Monster Ball Tour . On the tour 's first show in Montreal , Quebec , Canada , her father was in attendance , and the song came after a cabaret performance of " Poker Face " with a freestyle rap from Kid Cudi . She wore a dress with black shoulder pads and a black mask . T 'Cha Dunlevy for The Gazette noted that the performance was lacking — " The elements are there but they haven 't all been brought together " — adding that the show never reached its peak until the end , when Gaga performed the " real rendition " of " Poker Face " and " Bad Romance " . " Better late than never , " Dunlevy concluded . However Jane Stevenson from Toronto Star called the performance as the emotional high point of the show . On December 8 , 2009 , Gaga performed the song live at the launch party of Vevo in New York . The musical accompaniment consisted only of Gaga on piano . Gaga opened the 52nd Grammy Awards telecast with a performance of " Poker Face " , immediately followed by a piano duet with Elton John of " Speechless " in a medley with " Your Song " . In May 2011 , Gaga performed a jazz version of the song during Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle , Cumbria .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from The Fame Monster album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Weaves ( EP ) =
Weaves is the debut extended play of Canadian indie pop group Weaves , consisting of vocalist Jasmyn Burke , guitarist Morgan Waters , drummer Spencer Cole and bassist Zach Bines . Two @-@ thirds of the record were produced by Waters with Garageband , the other third produced by David Newfeld . Praised by music journalists for its varied style and Burke 's vocal performance , Weaves combines elements of high @-@ quality recording common in pop music with lo @-@ fi noise music styles to create a " disgusting " yet " catchy " feel . Released for streaming on March 26 , 2014 and in stores on April 1 , 2014 by Buzz Records , the EP was promoted with four singles ( " Hulahoop " , " Motorcycle " , " Take A Dip " and " Buttercup " ) , with music videos for the latter three , a two @-@ month tour and a remix record . Weaves was ranked number eight on Popmatters ' list of best indie rock albums of 2014 .
= = Production and composition = =
Jasmyn Burke and Morgan Waters , who first met each other in a bar , started Weaves in 2012 when the two made demo songs based on files of song ideas Burke recorded on her iPhone . In 2013 , bassist Zach Bines and drummer Spencer Cole joined the project and started recording their self @-@ titled debut EP immediately after . " Motorcycle " , " Take A Dip " , " Do You See Past " and " Hulahoop " were produced by Waters in his bedroom using Garageband , while " Buttercup " and " Closer " was produced by David Newfeld in his church studio of Dobbstown North . Waters described Newfeld 's production contributions as " music lessons and artist lessons in a way , " given that he knew what he was making . He also said , " That open mindedness and visibility to capture what happens in the moment and allow mistakes and encourage them brings you out of your comfort zone . "
The indie pop album combines elements of high @-@ quality recording common in pop music with lo @-@ fi noise music styles , leading to a complicated sound of " bombast and confusion " and a feel of the tracks being " disgusting " yet " catchy " as the band described . Now 's Carla Gillis gave style descriptions such as " soul @-@ grunge " and " sludge @-@ pop " to label this sound . Elements from a big number of genres are present on Weaves , such as neo @-@ pop , R & B , soul , art rock , and psychedelic music . The lyrics on the songs are filled with sexual innuendo such as " Won 't you ride my motorcycle / Take a ride " , which Gillis wrote " can turn into both amusing nah @-@ nah @-@ nah insolence and wailing , dead @-@ serious desperation on a dime . "
= = Promotion = =
Four songs were released as singles before Weaves was issued : " Hulahoop " on April 30 , 2013 , " Motorcycle " on July 23 , 2013 , " Take A Dip " on September 23 , 2013 , and " Buttercup " on February 18 , 2014 . " Take a Tip " was a premiere by Spin magazine . The blog BrooklynVegan premiered Weaves for streaming on March 26 , 2014 . A tour in Ontario and New York promoting the EP last from April 10 to June 22 , 2014 . On July 21 , 2014 , Noisey premiered the remix EP for Weaves , which features a re @-@ edit of " Hulahoop " by Bram Gielen . The video for the remix was released by Chart Attack on July 29 , 2014 , and in the video , Burke " drinks from straw glasses , waves torches and sparklers and performs some lounging , laconic dance moves . "
On August 12 , 2013 , a music video for the song " Motorcycle " was released . Chart Attack noted the video 's " weird , wrong @-@ handed sketches , which divert from the Badlands 4 Kidz plot with lots of delightful non @-@ sequiter cutaways to make it a junky feast for your rapidly deteriorating attention span . " On March 24 , 2014 , Rookie magazine premiered the video for " Buttercup " . The werid , crazy look of the video is meant to match the pretty @-@ looking yet poisonous aspect of a buttercup , a flower the song is named after . Both videos were directed and created by Jason Harvey , who Waters described as " a really talented guy " with his own " strong voice " . On October 15 , 2013 , the video for " Take a Dip " was released ; it depicts Burke dressed in a white @-@ colored shawl in a dark @-@ lit church . The other band members appear near the end of the video , where she grates cheeder cheese onto their heads as they bow to her .
= = Critical reception = =
Response towards Weaves from music journalists upon release was generally favorable . Critics from publications like Exclaim ! and Noisey praises included the record 's combination of numerous musical styles to the point where the overall genre the EP could be labeled its own category or could be very hard to pin @-@ point . Noisey said that the EP " experiments and dips across genre lines in a balancing act between of laxity and concentration , without all of the pretension and exclusivity that normally accompanies a buzzing indie band " . A more mixed review came from Liz Fox of Popmatters , finding most of the aspects of Weaves typical of indie music released in the previous fifteen years but praising Burke 's " sultry " vocal performance that " improve the elaborate backdrop , allowing for some simplicity among the chaos " . Now called the EP an " excellent introduction for new fans " , writing that its only downfall was the track " Do You See Past " due to its " more sophisticated , less interesting electro @-@ pop sound " . In a list by another Popmatters journalist of the best indie rock albums of 2014 , Weaves ranked number eight .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Jasmyn Burke and Morgan Waters .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from liner notes of Weaves .
Locations
Produced , mixed and engineered at Dobbstown North ( unknown location ) , also engineered at Candle Recording in Toronto , Ontario and Echo Valley ( unknown location )
Credits
= = Release history = =
= New York State Route 216 =
New York State Route 216 ( NY 216 ) is a short state highway located entirely in Dutchess County , New York , in the United States . At 6 @.@ 22 miles ( 10 @.@ 01 km ) in length , it connects NY 52 and NY 55 between the hamlets of Stormville ( within the town of East Fishkill ) at the east end and Poughquag ( within the town of Beekman ) at the west . The route serves the hamlet of Green Haven and passes by the Green Haven Correctional Facility .
Route 216 was originally part of NY 39 in the 1920s . The portion of NY 39 from Stormville to West Patterson was redesignated as part of NY 52 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . At the same time , an alternate route of NY 52 between Stormville and Towners was assigned the NY 216 designation . The alignments of NY 52 and NY 216 between the two locations were largely swapped c . 1937 . In 1970 , Route 216 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Poughquag .
= = Route description = =
NY 216 's western terminus is at an intersection with NY 52 just south of the Trump National Golf Club in Stormville , a hamlet within the town of East Fishkill . It heads northeast into the center of Stormville and intersects with Old Route 52 , a former alignment of NY 52 . The route makes a sharp turn to the north before intersecting with Phillips Road and turning eastward . Proceeding east , NY 216 intersects Green Haven Road ( County Route 8 or CR 8 ) in the hamlet of Green Haven . South of this intersection is the Green Haven Correctional Facility . After intersecting with several local roads , it turns north and intersects Main Street ( CR 7 ) in the Beekman hamlet of Poughquag . South of the Beekman Cemetery , NY 216 terminates at NY 55 .
= = History = =
In the mid @-@ 1920s , NY 39 was assigned to an alignment extending from Poughkeepsie to Patterson via East Fishkill , Stormville and Poughquag . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the portion of NY 39 between East Fishkill and the western fringe of Patterson was redesignated as part of the new NY 52 while the segment between Patterson and NY 22 was renumbered to NY 311 . At the same time , NY 216 was assigned to a highway extending from NY 52 in Stormville southeast to NY 52 near Towners . NY 216 followed modern NY 52 north of Ludingtonville and Ludingtonville Road south of the hamlet .
NY 52 and NY 216 largely swapped alignments c . 1937 as part of a larger realignment of NY 52 through Dutchess and Putnam counties . Route 52 was relocated onto NY 216 between Stormville and Ludingtonville , from where it followed a new roadway south to Lake Carmel . The former alignment of NY 52 between Stormville and Towners became NY 216 , which was also extended eastward along NY 164 to a new eastern terminus at NY 22 east of Towners . The alignment of NY 216 remained unaltered until January 1 , 1970 , when Route 216 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Poughquag . As part of the truncation , NY 216 's former alignment from West Pawling to Patterson was renumbered to NY 292 while the east – west roadway through Towners became NY 164 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Dutchess County .
= Spotted eagle ray =
The spotted eagle ray ( Aetobatus narinari ) is a cartilaginous fish of the eagle ray family , Myliobatidae . It can be found globally in tropical regions , including the Gulf of Mexico , Hawaii , off the coast of West Africa , the Indian Ocean , Oceania , and on both coasts of the Americas at depths down to about 80 meters ( 262 ft ) . The rays are most commonly seen alone , but occasionally swim in groups . Rays are ovoviviparous , the female retaining the eggs then releasing the young as miniature versions of the parent .
This ray can be identified by its dark dorsal surface covered in white spots or rings . Near the base of the ray 's relatively long tail , just behind the pelvic fins , are several venomous , barbed stingers . Spotted eagle rays commonly feed on small fish and crustaceans , and will sometimes dig with their snouts to look for food buried in the sand of the sea bed . These rays are commonly observed leaping out of the water , and on at least two occasions have been reported as having jumped into boats , in one incident resulting in the death of a woman in the Florida Keys . The spotted eagle ray is hunted by a wide variety of sharks . The rays are considered near threatened on the IUCN Red List . They are fished mainly in Southeast Asia and Africa , the most common market being in commercial trade and aquariums . They are protected in the Great Barrier Reef .
= = Taxonomy = =
The spotted eagle ray was first described by Swedish botanist Bengt Anders Euphrasén as Raja narinari in 1790 from a specimen collected at an unknown location ( possibly the coast of Brazil ) during a trip he made to the Antilles , and was later classified as Stoasodon narinari . Its current genus name is Aetobatus , derived from the Greek words aetos ( eagle ) and batis ( ray ) . The spotted eagle ray belongs to the Myliobatidae family , which includes the well known manta ray . Most rays in the Myliobatidae swim in the open ocean rather than close to the sea floor .
The spotted eagle ray has many different common names , including white @-@ spotted eagle ray , bonnet skate , bonnet ray , duckbill ray and spotted duck @-@ billed ray .
= = Description and behavior = =
Spotted eagle rays have flat disk @-@ shaped bodies , deep blue or black with white spots on top with a white underbelly , and distinctive flat snouts similar to a duck 's bill . Their tails are longer than those of other rays and may have 2 – 6 venomous spines , just behind the pelvic fins . The front half of the long and wing @-@ like pectoral disk has five small gills in its underside .
Mature spotted eagle rays can be up to 5 meters ( 16 ft ) in length ; the largest have a wingspan of up to 3 meters ( 10 ft ) and a mass of 230 kilograms ( 507 lb ) .
= = = Reproduction = = =
One male , or sometimes several , will pursue a female . When one of the males approaches the female , he uses his upper jaw to grab her dorsum . The male will then roll the female over by grabbing one of her pectoral fins , which are located on either side of her body . Once he is on her ventral side , the male puts a clasper into the female , connecting them venter to venter , with both undersides together . The mating process lasts for 30 – 90 seconds .
The spotted eagle ray develops ovoviviparously ; the eggs are retained in the female and hatch internally , feeding off a yolk sac until live birth . After a gestation period of one year the mother ray will give birth to a maximum of four pups . When the pups are first born , their discs measure from 170 – 350 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 – 13 @.@ 8 in ) across . The rays mature in 4 to 6 years .
= = = Feeding and diet = = =
Spotted eagle ray preys mainly upon bivalves , crabs , whelks , benthic infauna they also feed on mollusks , crustaceans , particularly malacostracans. and also upon hermit crabs , shrimp , octopi , and some small fish .
The spotted eagle ray 's specialized chevron @-@ shaped tooth structure helps it to crush the mollusks ' hard shells . The jaws of these rays have developed calcified struts to help them break through the shells of mollusks , by supporting the jaws and preventing dents from hard prey . These rays have the unique behavior of digging with their snouts in the sand of the ocean . While doing this , a cloud of sand surrounds the ray and sand spews from its gills . One study has shown that there are no differences in the feeding habits of males and females or in rays from different regions of Australia and Taiwan .
= = = Behavior = = =
Spotted eagle rays prefer to swim in waters of 24 to 27 ° C ( 75 to 81 ° F ) . Their daily movement is influenced by the tides ; one tracking study showed that they are more active during high tides . Uniquely among rays they dig with their snouts in the sand , surrounding themselves in a cloud of sand that spews from their gills . They also exhibit two motions in which the abdomen and the pectoral fins are moved rapidly up and down : the pelvic thrust and the extreme pelvic thrust . The pelvic thrust is usually performed by a solitary ray , and repeated four to five times rapidly . The extreme pelvic thrust is most commonly observed when the ray is swimming in a group , from which it will separate itself before vigorously thrusting with its pectoral fins . The rays also performs dips and jumps ; in a dip the ray will dive and then come back up rapidly , perhaps as many as five times consecutively . There are two main types of jump : in one , the ray propels itself vertically out of the water , to which it returns along the same line ; the other is when the ray leaps at a 45 degree angle , often repeated multiple times at high speeds . When in shallow waters or outside their normal swimming areas the rays are most commonly seen alone , but they do also congregate in schools . One form of traveling is called loose aggregation , which is when three to sixteen rays are swimming in a loose group , with occasional interactions between them . A school commonly consists of six or more rays swimming in the same direction at exactly the same speed .
= = Human interaction = =
The dorsal spots make the spotted eagle ray an aquarium attraction , although because of its large size it is likely kept only at public aquariums . There are no target fisheries for the spotted eagle ray , but it is often eaten after being caught unintentionally as bycatch . There have been several reported incidents of spotted eagle rays leaping out of the water onto boats and landing on people . Nevertheless , spotted eagle rays do not pose a significant threat to humans , as they are shy and generally avoid human contact . Interactions with an individual snorkeler in the Caribbean has been reported especially in Jamaica involving one , two and even three spotted eagle rays . The rays may exhibit a behavior similar to human curiosity which allows the snorkeler to observe the eagle ray who may slow down so as to share more time with the much slower human observer if the human observer appears to be unthreatening or interesting to the spotted eagle ray .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Spotted eagle rays , in common with many other rays , often fall victim to sharks such as the tiger shark , the lemon shark , the bull shark , the silver tip shark , and the great hammerhead shark . A great hammerhead shark has been observed attacking a spotted eagle ray in open water by taking a large bite out of one of its pectoral fins , thus incapacitating the ray . The shark then used its head to pin the ray to the bottom and pivoted to take the ray in its jaws , head first . Sharks have also been observed to follow female rays during the birthing season , and feed on the newborn pups .
As other rays , spotted eagle rays are host to a variety of parasites . Internal parasites include the gnathostomatid nematode Echinocephalus sinensis in the spiral intestine . External parasites include the monocotylid monogeneans Decacotyle octona , Decacotyle elpora and Thaumatocotyle pseudodasybatis on the gills .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Spotted eagle rays are found globally in tropical regions from the Indo @-@ Pacific region from the western Pacific Ocean , the Indian Ocean , and the western Atlantic Ocean .
They are found in shallow coastal water by coral reefs and bays , in depths down to 80 meters ( 262 ft ) . Spotted eagle rays are found in warm and temperate waters worldwide . In the western Atlantic Ocean it is found off the eastern coast of United States of America , the Gulf Stream , the Caribbean , and down past the southern part of Brazil . In the Indian Ocean , it is found from the Red Sea down to South Africa and eastward to the Andaman Sea . In the western Pacific Ocean , it can be found from the Red Sea to South Africa and also in northern Japan and Australia . In the Eastern @-@ Pacific Ocean , it is found in the Gulf of California down through Puerto Pizarro , an area that includes the Galapagos Islands . Spotted eagle rays are most commonly seen in bays and reefs . They spend much of their time swimming freely in open waters , generally in schools close to the surface , and can travel long distances in a day .
= = Conservation = =
The spotted eagle ray is included in the IUCN 's Red List as " near threatened " . The rays are caught mainly in Southeast Asia and Africa . They are also common in commercial marine life trade and are displayed in aquariums . Among the many efforts to help protect this species , South Africa 's decision to deploy fewer protective shark nets has reduced the number of deaths caused by entanglement . South Africa has also placed restrictions on the number of rays that can be bought per person per day . In the state of Florida in the United States , the fishing , landing , purchasing and trading of spotted eagle ray is outlawed . The spotted eagle ray is also protected in the Great Barrier Reef on the eastern coast of Australia .
= = In popular culture = =
Mr. Ray , a spotted eagle ray , appeared in the 2003 Disney / Pixar film Finding Nemo as a teacher to other young fishes , including Nemo . He also appears in the 2016 sequel Finding Dory , trying to find a substitute teacher so he can go on his annual migration , a job eventually filled by Hank , the " Septopus " . Mr. Ray is voiced by Bob Peterson .
= Holiday ( Madonna song ) =
" Holiday " is a song by American singer Madonna from her eponymous debut studio album Madonna ( 1983 ) . Sire Records released it as the album 's third single on September 7 , 1983 . " Holiday " later appeared remixed on the remix compilation You Can Dance ( 1987 ) and the greatest hits compilation The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) , and in its original form on the greatest hits album Celebration ( 2009 ) . Written by Curtis Hudson and Lisa Stevens of Pure Energy , the track was offered to Madonna by her producer John " Jellybean " Benitez when she was looking for a potential hit track to include in her debut album . After accepting the song , she and Jellybean worked on it and altered its composition by the addition of a piano solo performed by their friend , Fred Zarr .
" Holiday " features instrumentation from guitars , electronic handclaps , a cowbell , and a synthesized string arrangement , while its lyrics speak about the universal sentiment of taking a holiday . Universally acclaimed by critics , the song became Madonna 's first mainstream hit single in the United States , reaching the top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100 . It also became her first top @-@ ten single in several countries , including Australia , Belgium , Germany , Ireland , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . Madonna has performed " Holiday " on most of her tours and it is generally included as a part of the encore . Different performances of the song are included in the recorded releases of her tours . Cover versions by a number of artists have been released , and it has also appeared in the soundtrack of sitcoms like Will & Grace .
= = Background = =
In 1983 , Madonna was recording her eponymous debut album with Warner Bros. Records producer Reggie Lucas , after Sire Records green @-@ lit it when her first single " Everybody " became a club hit . However , she did not have enough material for the album . Lucas brought two new songs to the project and John " Jellybean " Benitez , a DJ at Funhouse disco was called to remix the available tracks . In the meantime , due to conflict of interest , Madonna 's collaborator on " Everybody " , Steve Bray had sold another song " Ain 't No Big Deal " to an act on another label , rendering it unavailable for Madonna 's project . It was Benitez who discovered a new song written by Curtis Hudson and Lisa Stevens of the pop group Pure Energy . The song , titled " Holiday " , had been turned down by Phyllis Hyman and Mary Wilson , formerly of The Supremes . Jellybean and Madonna sent the demo to their friend , Fred Zarr so he could embellish the arrangement and program the song with his synthesizer magic . After the vocals were added by Madonna , Benitez spent four days and tried to enhance the commercial appeal of the track before the April 1983 deadline . Just before it was completed , Madonna and Benitez met Fred Zarr at Sigma Sound in Manhattan where Zarr added the now familiar piano solo towards the end of the track .
Initially it was decided that " Lucky Star " would be released as a single ; instead " Holiday " was released in the U.S. when the latter became a dance hit . The original British cover art for " Holiday " did not carry Madonna 's picture since Sire did not want the British people to find out that she was not a R & B artist . Instead it carried the picture of a train station and an engine . " Holiday " was later remixed in dub and groove versions for the 1987 remix album You Can Dance It also appeared in her first greatest hits compilation , The Immaculate Collection , in a remixed and shortened form . During a 2005 interview with CBS News , Madonna said that " Holiday " was her favourite among all her songs .
In the United Kingdom , " Holiday " has been released three times as a single ; in January 1984 , reaching number six , re @-@ issued in August 1985 reaching number 2 ( only being kept from number one by her own " Into the Groove " single ) . It was re @-@ released with new artwork in 1991 to promote The Immaculate Collection with a limited edition EP titled The Holiday Collection , which contained tracks omitted from the compilation ; this version reached number five . Although the song was released to promote the greatest hits collection , it did not include the shorter remix from the album , instead it included the original album version from Madonna ( 1983 ) . The photography used for the 1991 release was by Steven Meisel and had previously been used for the February 1991 cover for Vogue Italia .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Holiday " is set in the time signature of common time with a medium tempo of 116 beats per minute . The song is composed in the key of D major and is six minutes seven seconds in length . Madonna 's vocal range spans from B3 to C ♯ 5 . The song follows in the chord progression of G – A – A – Bm in the first line , when Madonna sings " Holiday ! " and changes to G – A – F ♯ m – G in the second line , when Madonna sings " Celebrate ! " . The four bar sequence of the progression continues and features instrumentation from guitars , electronic handclaps , cowbell played by Madonna , and a synthesized string arrangement . A side @-@ by @-@ side repetitive progression is achieved by making use of the chorus . Towards the end of the song , a change in the arrangement happens , where a piano break is heard . Lyrically the song expresses the universal sentiment — that everybody needs a holiday .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Author Rikky Rooksby in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna commented that " ' Holiday ' was as infectious as the plague . One listen and you could not get the damn hook out of your mind . " Jim Farber of Entertainment Weekly commented that " Holiday " satisfied the musical ear of both the sides of the Atlantic . While reviewing The Immaculate Collection album , David Browne from Entertainment Weekly commented that " Holiday " was a " spunky dance @-@ beat trifle " . He also complimented the song 's expert production .
Mary Cross in her biography of Madonna , described " Holiday " as " a simple song with a fresh appeal and a good mood . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described the song as airy . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic called it effervescent and one of the great songs of the Madonna album . While reviewing The Immaculate Collection , he called it one of her greatest hits . Don Shewey of Rolling Stone commented that the simple lyrics of the song sound clever .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Holiday " was released on September 7 , 1983 , and became Madonna 's first hit single and remained on the charts from the timespan of Thanksgiving to Christmas in 1983 . It was Madonna 's first song to enter the Billboard Hot 100 , at 88 on the issue dated October 29 , 1983 @.@ and reached a peak of 16 on January 28 , 1984 and was on the chart for 21 weeks . The song debuted at eight on the Hot Dance Club Play chart on the issue dated November 2 , 1983 and was Madonna 's first number one single on the Hot Dance Club Play chart remaining at the top for five weeks . It was released with " Lucky Star " as a double @-@ A side single . The song also made an entry in the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and peaked at 25 , remaining on the chart for 20 weeks . In Canada , the song debuted at number 48 position of the RPM singles chart on January 21 , 1984 and peaked at number 39 . The song again entered the chart at number 45 in March 1984 , and peaked at number 32 on April 1984 . It was present on the chart for a total of 12 weeks .
In the United Kingdom , " Holiday " was released in 1984 whence it charted and reached a peak of six on the chart . However , a re @-@ release in 1985 with " Think of Me " on the B @-@ side , saw the song enter the charts at number 32 and reached a new peak of two on the chart , being held off the number one spot by Madonna 's own " Into the Groove " , while being present for ten weeks . Another re @-@ release in 1991 saw the song reach a peak of five on the chart . The song was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in August 1985 , and according to the Official Charts Company , " Holiday " has sold 709 @,@ 400 copies there . Across Europe , the song reached the top ten of Belgium , Netherlands , Germany and Ireland while reaching the top 40 in France , Italy , Sweden and Switzerland . It also made the top five in Australia . The song debuted at number 37 on the New Zealand Singles Chart , making it Madonna 's debut chart appearance in the country . It peaked at number seven .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna has performed " Holiday " on almost all of her tours , namely The Virgin Tour , Who 's That Girl , Blond Ambition , The Girlie Show , Drowned World , Re @-@ Invention , Sticky & Sweet Tour and Rebel Heart Tour . In 1984 , Madonna performed Holiday on the hit dance show American Bandstand with Dick Clark . Madonna then added it to the set list of her 1985 Virgin Tour . It was performed as the second song of the tour . The same year she performed the song at the Live Aid benefit concert in Philadelphia in July .
The Who 's That Girl World Tour in 1987 had Madonna performing " Holiday " as the last song of the tour . Madonna performed an energetic version of the song , signalling the celebratory and wholesome nature of the song 's theme . She sang the final chorus twice , and on some dates asked the audience for a comb so that she could fix her hair and finished the performance . Two different performances are found in Ciao Italia : Live from Italy tour video filmed at Stadio Communale in Turin , Italy on September 4 , 1987 and the Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan tour video filmed at Korakuen Stadium in Tokyo , Japan on June 22 , 1987 .
For the Blond Ambition World Tour in 1990 , Madonna said , " I wanted to throw an old song for fun , and ' Holiday ' seemed to be a universal favourite . In addition to that it 's one of the only old songs I 've done that I can still sing and not feel I 've totally outgrown it . " Performing it as a part of the encore , Madonna appeared on the stage in a polka @-@ dotted blouse with matching flounces at the bottom of white trousers and hair in a top knot with a ponytail . The costume was adopted from a My Fair Lady dress and was designed by Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier . Three different performances are found in the Blond Ambition : Japan Tour 90 VHS , the Blond Ambition World Tour Live VHS and the Truth or Dare documentary . The performance included in the documentary was used as a music video to promote it . The performance received four nominations at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards , including Best Female Video , Best Dance Video , Best Choreography in Video and Best Cinematography in Video , but did not win any of the categories .
In The Girlie Show in 1993 , the song was performed in an alternate version as the second to last song of the tour . It had a military theme to it . Halfway through the performance Madonna paused the song for a military drill with the dancers and the audience . The performance met with strong reaction in Puerto Rico , when Madonna rubbed the Puerto Rican national flag between her legs in between the performance . For the Drowned World Tour in 2001 Madonna wore a fur coat , velvet fedora and a customised Dolce & Gabbana T @-@ shirt which proclaimed ' Mother ' in the front and ' F * cker ' in the back painted in silver . This demonstrated her ghetto @-@ girl appearance adopted for the song 's performance .
In the Re @-@ Invention Tour in 2004 , the song was again performed as the ending song of the tour . The song was given a tribal feeling with Madonna wearing Scottish kilts during the performance . The performance started with Madonna and her dancers doing a dance routine in front of the stage , then Madonna going on the revolving tiers of the stage to sing the song as confetti fell from above . The performance was included in the I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret live album and documentary . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic commented that the performance " feels like they could fit the Eurotrash , campy retro @-@ disco feel of Confessions . "
The song was added to the 2009 leg of her Sticky & Sweet Tour . It replaced the song " Heartbeat " from Hard Candy and was used as a tribute to singer Michael Jackson who died a week prior to the start of the second leg of the tour . As Madonna sang the song , a picture of a young Jackson appeared on stage , followed by a Jackson impersonator wearing garments in Jackson style . The music then switched to a medley of his songs , like " Billie Jean " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , and the impersonator worked through his moves , including the moonwalk as well as the spinning and gyrating . Madonna clapped her hands , swayed from side to side and jumped up and down while images of Jackson over the years flashed on a big screen . After the performance , Madonna told the crowd , " Let 's give it up for one of the greatest artists the world has ever known , " and the crowd applauded .
The song was the closing number to Madonna 's Rebel Heart Tour in 2015 .
= = Covers and media appearance = =
British synthpop band Heaven 17 recorded a cover for the 1999 compilation Virgin Voices Vol . 1 : A Tribute To Madonna . In 2002 , Mad 'House recorded a Club cover of the song for their album Absolutely Mad . Girl Authority covered the song in 2007 for their album , Road Trip . French singer and adult film star Quentin Elias has also covered the song in live performances . In 1986 , Dutch rap duo MC Miker G & DJ Sven released " Holiday Rap " , a song which sampled the tune and chorus of Madonna 's " Holiday " . It achieved commercial success by peaking the charts in countries like France , Netherlands and Switzerland and going the top ten of Austria , Norway and Sweden . The bassline of the song was sampled by The Avalanches for their 2000 album Since I Left You . It was used on the songs " Stay Another Season " and " Little Journey " .
The song was redone by the Will & Grace cast as " He 's Hot " for the sitcom 's soundtrack in 2004 and even includes vocal samples from Madonna herself . Almost all of the instrumental part of the song " He 's Hot ! " uses samples from the original song . The Canadian teen drama Degrassi : The Next Generation , which is known for naming each episode after an 80s hit song , named a two @-@ part episode after " Holiday " . In 2006 , critics noted strong similarity between " Holiday " and American singer Jessica Simpson 's single " A Public Affair " . When criticized for its unoriginality , Simpson told MTV : " I think people are ready to hear something that Madonna used to do . We all need to hear that every now and again . It wasn 't a sample or something I meant to do , but she did influence me and still does today . " In 2008 , " Holiday " appeared on the video game Karaoke Revolution Presents : American Idol Encore . Kelis often performs a mash @-@ up of her own hit " Milkshake " with " Holiday " live . In 2003 , a snippet of the song appeared in the film Rugrats Go Wild , when the families went on their cruise .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – vocals , cowbell
Curtis Hudson – writer , guitars
Lisa Stevens – writer
John " Jellybean " Benitez – producer
Fred Zarr – drum programming , moog bass , synthesizer , acoustic piano
Raymond Hudson – bass
Bashiri Johnson – percussion
Tina B. – background vocals
Norma Jean Wright – background vocals
Credits adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Joe 's Garage =
Joe 's Garage is a 1979 rock opera by Frank Zappa . Zappa self @-@ deprecatingly described the album as a " stupid little story about how the government is going to do away with music . " Originally released as two separate studio albums on Zappa Records , the project was later remastered and reissued as a triple album box set , Joe 's Garage , Acts I , II & III , in 1987 . The story is told by a character identified as the " Central Scrutinizer " narrating the story of Joe , an average adolescent male , who forms a garage rock band , has unsatisfying relationships with women , gives all of his money to a government assisted and insincere religion , explores sexual activities with appliances , and is imprisoned . After being released from prison into a dystopian society in which music itself has been criminalized , he lapses into insanity .
The album encompasses a large spectrum of musical styles , while its lyrics often feature satirical or humorous commentary on American society and politics . It addresses themes of individualism , free will , censorship , the music industry and human sexuality , while criticizing government and religion , and satirizing Catholicism and Scientology . Joe 's Garage is noted for its use of xenochrony , a recording technique that takes guitar solos from older live recordings and overdubs them onto new studio recordings . All of the guitar solos on the album are xenochronous except for " Crew Slut " and " Watermelon in Easter Hay " , a signature song that Zappa has described as the best song on the album , and according to his son Dweezil , the best guitar solo his father ever played .
The album initially received mixed to positive reviews , with critics praising its innovative and original music , but criticizing the scatological , sexual and profane nature of the lyrics . Since its original release , Joe 's Garage has been reappraised as one of Zappa 's best works . This is Official Release # 28 and # 29 .
= = Background = =
After being released from his contractual obligations with Warner Bros. Records , Frank Zappa formed Zappa Records , a label distributed at that time by Phonogram Inc .. He released the successful double album Sheik Yerbouti ( 1979 , recorded 8 / 1977 @-@ 2 / 1978 ) , and began working on a series of songs for a follow @-@ up album . The songs " Joe 's Garage " and " Catholic Girls " were recorded with the intention that Zappa would release them as a single . Throughout the development of Joe 's Garage , Zappa 's band recorded lengthy jams which Zappa later formed into the album . The album also continued the development of xenochrony , a technique Zappa also featured on One Size Fits All ( 1975 ) , in which aspects of older live recordings were utilized to create new compositions by overdubbing them onto studio recordings , or alternatively , selecting a previously recorded solo and allowing drummer Vinnie Colaiuta to improvise a new drum performance , interacting with the previously recorded piece .
Midway through recording the new album , Zappa decided that the songs connected coherently and wrote a story , changing the new album into a rock opera . Joe 's Garage was the final album Zappa recorded at a commercial studio . Zappa 's own studio , the Utility Muffin Research Kitchen , built as an addition to Zappa 's home , and completed in late 1979 , was used to record and mix all of his subsequent releases .
= = Style and influences = =
= = = Lyrics and story themes = = =
The lyrical themes of Joe 's Garage involve individualism , sexuality , the danger of large government , and " the foolishness of white males " , according to Kelly Fisher Lowe in The Words and Music of Frank Zappa . The album is narrated by a government employee identifying himself as The Central Scrutinizer , who delivers a cautionary tale about Joe , a typical adolescent male who forms a band as the government prepares to criminalize music . The Central Scrutinizer explains that music leads to a " slippery slope " of drug use , disease , unusual sexual practices , prison , and eventually , insanity . According to Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz , Zappa 's narrative of censorship reflected the censorship of music during the Iranian Revolution of 1979 , where rock music was made illegal .
The title track is noted as having an autobiographical aspect , as the character of Larry ( as performed by Zappa himself ) sings that the band plays the same song repeatedly because " it sounded good to me " . In real life , Zappa said he wrote and played music for himself , his sole intended audience . The song also takes lyrical inspiration from bands playing in bars like The Mothers of Invention once had , and shady record deals Zappa had experienced in the past . In " Joe 's Garage " , Joe finds that the music industry is " not everything it is cracked up to be " . The song refers to a number of music fads , including new wave , heavy metal , disco and glitter rock , and is critical of the music industry of the late 1970s .
" Catholic Girls " is critical of the Catholic Church , and satirizes " the hypocrisy of the myth of the good Catholic girl . " While Zappa was in favor of the sexual revolution , he regarded himself as a pioneer in publicly discussing honesty about sexual intercourse , stating
" American sexual attitudes are controlled as a necessary tool of business and government in order to perpetuate themselves . Unless people begin to see through that , to see past it to , what sex is really all about , they 're always going to have the same neurotic attitudes . It 's very neatly packaged . It all works hand @-@ in @-@ hand with the churches and political leaders at the point , where elections are coming up . "
This view inspired the lyrical content of " Crew Slut " , in which Mary , Joe 's girlfriend , falls into the groupie lifestyle , going on to participate in a wet T @-@ shirt contest in the following track , " Wet T @-@ Shirt Nite . "
" Why Does It Hurt When I Pee ? " was written in the summer of 1978 . Zappa 's road manager , Phil Kaufman , alleged , that the song was written after Kaufman had asked that very question ; within the context of the album 's storyline , it is sung by Joe after he receives a sexually transmitted disease from Lucille , " a girl , who works at the Jack in the Box " . The Central Scrutinizer continues to express the hypothesis that " girls , music , disease , heartbreak [ ... ] all go together . " Halfway through the album 's libretto , Zappa expressed the belief , that governments believe , that people are inherently criminals , and continue to invent laws , which gives states the legal grounds to arrest people , leading to the fictional criminalization of music , which occurs towards the end of the album 's storyline .
" A Token of My Extreme " satirizes Scientology and L. Ron Hubbard , as well as new age beliefs and the sexual revolution . It describes an insincere religion , which co @-@ operates with a " malevolent totalitarian regime . " " Stick It Out " contains lyrical references to Zappa 's songs " What Kind Of Girl " , " Bwana Dik " , " Sofa No. 2 " , and " Dancin ' Fool " . " Dong Work For Yuda " was written as a tribute to Zappa 's bodyguard , John Smothers , and features Terry Bozzio imitating Smothers ' dialect and speech . " Keep It Greasy " is a lyrical tribute to anal sex . Following Joe 's imprisonment and release , the libretto describes a dystopian future , accompanied musically by long guitar solos , which Joe imagines in his head . The penultimate song , " Packard Goose " , criticizes rock journalism , and features a philosophical monologue delivered by the character Mary , who had been absent since the first act . In the epilogue song " A Little Green Rosetta , " Joe gives up music , returns to sanity , hocks his imaginary guitar and gets " a good job " at the Utility Muffin Research Kitchen Facility ( a self @-@ reference to Zappa 's own personal studio ) , and the Central Scrutinizer turns off the plastic megaphone that he has been whispering into , sings the last song on the album in his regular voice , and joins in a long musical number with most of the other people that worked with Zappa around 1979 . The lyrics also lampoon Steve Gadd 's status as one of the highest @-@ paid session drummers in popular music .
= = = Music and performance = = =
The music of Joe 's Garage encompassed a variety of styles , including blues , jazz , doo wop , lounge , orchestral , rock , pop and reggae . " Catholic Girls " makes musical reference to Zappa 's controversial song " Jewish Princess " , as a sitar plays the melody of the earlier song during the fadeout of " Catholic Girls " . " Crew Slut " is performed as a slow blues song , with slide guitar riffs and a harmonica solo . According to Kelly Fisher Lowe , the song is " more Rolling Stones or Aerosmith than it is Gatemouth Brown or Guitar Watson " . The extended three and a half minute , two @-@ part guitar solo in " Toad @-@ O @-@ Line " is taken from Zappa 's earlier song , " Inca Roads . "
" A Token Of My Extreme " originated as an instrumental song played during improvised conversations by saxophonist Napoleon Murphy Brock and George Duke on keyboards . It typically opened Zappa 's concerts in 1974 ; a recording of this version of the piece was released under the title " Tush Tush Tush ( A Token of My Extreme ) " on You Can 't Do That on Stage Anymore , Vol . 2 .
" Lucille Has Messed My Mind Up " first appeared on Jeff Simmons ' album of the same name , on which its writing is credited to " La Marr Bruister " , one of Zappa 's pseudonyms . The Joe 's Garage arrangement is radically different , and is played in a reggae style . " Stick It Out " originated as part of the Mothers of Invention 's " Sofa " routine in the early 1970s . The Joe 's Garage version is musically influenced by funk and disco , with its lyrics performed first in German , and then in English . " Sy Borg " derives from funk , reggae and R & B.
" Keep It Greasy " had been performed by Zappa since 1975 ; the Joe 's Garage album version features a guitar solo from a March 1979 live performance of the song " City of Tiny Lights " . Another March 1979 guitar solo from " City of Tiny Lights " is incorporated into the song " Outside Now " using the same recording technique . " Packard Goose " also uses xenochrony , with its guitar solo taken from a March 1979 performance of " Easy Meat " .
The album concludes with a long guitar instrumental , " Watermelon in Easter Hay " , the only guitar solo recorded for the album , in 9 / 4 time ; every other guitar solo on the album was xenochronous — overdubbed from older live recordings . In their review of the album , Down Beat magazine criticized the song , but subsequent reviewers have championed the song as Zappa 's masterpiece . Lowe called it the " crowning achievement of the album " and " one of the most gorgeous pieces of music ever produced " . Zappa told Neil Slaven that he thought it was " the best song on the album " . The songs ' title is thought to have come from a saying used by Zappa while recording the album : " Playing a guitar solo with this band is like trying to grow watermelon in Easter hay " . After Zappa died , " Watermelon in Easter Hay " became known as one of his signature songs , and his son , Dweezil Zappa , later referred to it as " the best solo Zappa ever played " .
The song is followed by " A Little Green Rosetta " , a song that was originally intended to appear on Zappa 's shelved Läther album , but rerecorded with different lyrics for Joe 's Garage .
= = Release = =
Joe 's Garage was initially released in separate units , beginning with the single LP Act I in September 1979 . For the album artwork , Zappa was photographed in blackface , holding a mop . The gatefold sleeve of Act I was designed by John Williams , and featured a collage , which included a naked Maya , vague technical drawings , pyramids and fingers on the fret of a guitar . The lyric insert featured similar illustrations , which related to the content of the songs and storyline . The title track was released as a single , with " The Central Scrutinizer " as its B @-@ side . It did not chart .
Act I peaked at # 27 on the Billboard Pop Albums chart . It was followed by the double album Acts II & III in November . The gatefold of Acts II & III featured collages taken from a medical journal , while the cover for Acts II & III featured a makeup artist applying blackface makeup to Zappa 's face . Acts II & III peaked at # 53 on the Pop Albums chart .
Joe 's Garage was reissued in 1987 as a triple album , combining Acts I , II & III into a single box set , and as a double album on compact disc . The song " Wet T @-@ Shirt Nite " received two alternate titles , when the album was released on CD : the libretto referred to the song as " The Wet T @-@ Shirt Contest " , while the back cover referred to the song as " Fembot in a Wet T @-@ Shirt " . In an interview , Zappa explained that the " fembot " was the name given to a female robot in an episode of the TV series The Six Million Dollar Man . The instrumental " Toad @-@ O Line " was renamed " On the Bus " . The Central Scrutinizer monologue at the end of " Lucille Has Messed My Mind Up " , which concludes the story 's first act , was indexed as its own track on the CD reissue , under the title " Scrutinizer Postlude " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Joe 's Garage received mixed to positive reviews upon release , with criticisms aimed at its profane lyrical content , but has since been reappraised as a landmark album . AllMusic writer William Ruhlmann gave 3 out of 5 stars for the individual releases Act I and Acts II & III . Ruhlmann wrote of Act I , " although his concern with government censorship would see a later flowering in his battles with the Parents Music Resource Center ( PMRC ) , here he wasn 't able to use it to fulfill a satisfying dramatic function . " Ruhlmann also felt that Acts II & III " seems so thin and thrown together , musically and dramatically " .
Don Shewey of Rolling Stone magazine wrote , " If the surface of this opera is cluttered with cheap gags and musical mishmash , its soul is located in profound existential sorrow . The guitar solos that Zappa plays in Joe 's imagination burn with a desolate , devastating beauty . Flaws and all , Joe 's Garage is Frank Zappa 's Apocalypse Now . " The collected Acts I , II & III release received 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars from Allmusic 's Steve Huey , who wrote " in spite of its flaws , Joe 's Garage has enough substance to make it one of Zappa 's most important ' 70s works and overall political statements , even if it 's not focused enough to rank with his earliest Mothers of Invention masterpieces . "
For his performance on Joe 's Garage , Vinnie Colaiuta was named " the most technically advanced drummer ever " by Modern Drummer , which ranked the album as one of the top 25 greatest drumming performances of all time . On September 26 , 2008 , Joe 's Garage was staged by the Open Fist Theatre Company in Los Angeles , in a production authorized by the Zappa Family Trust .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Frank Zappa .
= = Personnel = =
= = = The Musicians = = =
Frank Zappa – lead guitar , vocals
Warren Cuccurullo – rhythm guitar , vocals
Denny Walley – slide guitar , vocals
Ike Willis – lead vocals
Peter Wolf – keyboards
Tommy Mars – keyboards
Arthur Barrow – bass , guitar ( on " Joe 's Garage " ) , vocals
Patrick O 'Hearn – bass on " Outside Now " and " He Used to Cut the Grass "
Ed Mann – percussion , vocals
Vinnie Colaiuta – drums , combustible vapors , optometric abandon
Jeff ( Jeff Hollie ) – tenor sax
Marginal Chagrin ( Earle Dumler ) – baritone sax
Stumuk ( Bill Nugent ) – bass sax
Dale Bozzio – vocals
Al Malkin – vocals
Craig Steward – harmonica
= = = The Cast = = =
Frank Zappa – Central Scrutinizer , Larry , L. Ron Hoover , Father Riley & Buddy Jones
Ike Willis – Joe
Dale Bozzio – Mary
Denny Walley – Mrs. Borg
Al Malkin – Officer Butzis
Warren Cuccurullo & Ed Mann – Sy Borg
Terry Bozzio – Bald @-@ Headed John
The Utility Muffin Research Kitchen Chorus – Al Malkin , Warren Cucurullo , Dale Bozzio , Geordie Hormel , Barbara Issak & most of the people who work at Village Recorders
= = = Production staff = = =
Ferenc Dobronyi – Cover Design
Steve Alsberg – Project Coordinator
Joe Chiccarelli – Engineer , Mixing , Recording
Norman Seeff – Photography , Cover Photo
John Williams – Artwork
Steve Nye – Remixing
Mick Glossop – Remixing
Stan Ricker – Mastering
Jack Hunt – Mastering
Thomas Nordegg – Assistant
Tom Cummings – Assistant
= = Charts = =
Album - Billboard ( North America )
Joe 's Garage Act I
Joe 's Garage Acts II & III
= Dr. No ( novel ) =
Dr. No is the sixth novel by the English author Ian Fleming to feature his British Secret Service agent James Bond . Fleming wrote the novel in early 1957 at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica . It was first published in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape on 31 March 1958 . The novel centres on Bond 's investigation into the disappearance in Jamaica of two fellow MI6 operatives . He establishes that they had been investigating Doctor No , a Chinese operator of a guano mine on the fictional Caribbean island of Crab Key . Bond travels to the island and meets Honeychile Rider and later Doctor No .
The novel began as a 1956 screenplay for the producer Henry Morgenthau III for a proposed television show entitled Commander Jamaica . When those plans foundered , Fleming adapted the ideas as the basis for a novel , provisionally titled The Wound Man . The book 's eponymous villain was influenced by Sax Rohmer 's Fu Manchu stories .
Dr. No was the first of Fleming 's novels to face widespread negative criticism in Britain ; Paul Johnson of The New Statesman dismissed the book as one of " Sex , Snobbery and Sadism " . When released on the American market it was received more favourably . Dr. No was serialised in The Daily Express , first in an abridged story form and later as a comic strip . The story was adapted in 1962 as the first film in the Bond series , with Sean Connery in the lead role ; in 2008 BBC Radio 4 broadcast a version , with Toby Stephens as Bond .
= = Plot = =
After recovering from tetrodotoxin poisoning inflicted by the SMERSH agent Rosa Klebb ( in From Russia , with Love ) the MI6 agent James Bond is sent by his superior , M , on a rest cure to the British colony of Jamaica . While there he is instructed to investigate the disappearance of Commander John Strangways , the head of MI6 's Station J in Kingston , and his secretary . Bond is briefed that Strangways had been investigating the activities of Doctor Julius No , a reclusive Chinese @-@ German who lives on the fictional island of Crab Key and runs a guano mine . The island has a colony of roseate spoonbills at one end while local rumour is that a vicious dragon also lives there . The spoonbills are protected by the American National Audubon Society , two of whose representatives died when their plane crashed on No 's airstrip .
On his arrival in Jamaica , Bond soon realises that he is being watched , as his hotel room is searched , a basket of poisoned fruit is delivered to the room ( supposedly a gift from the colonial governor ) and a deadly centipede is placed in his bed while he is sleeping . With the help of an old friend , Quarrel , Bond surreptitiously visits Crab Key to establish whether there is a connection between No and the disappearance of the MI6 personnel . Bond and Quarrel meet Honeychile Rider , who is there to collect valuable shells . Bond and Rider are captured by No 's men after Quarrel is burned to death by the doctor 's " dragon " — a flamethrowing armoured swamp buggy designed to keep away trespassers .
Bond discovers that No is working with the Russians and has built an elaborate underground facility from which he can sabotage US test missiles launched from Cape Canaveral . No had previously been a member of a Chinese tong , but after he stole a large amount of money from their treasury , he was captured by the organisation . The tong 's leaders had No 's hands cut off as a warning to others , and then shot . Because No 's heart was on the right side of his body ( dextrocardia ) , the bullet missed his heart and he survived . Interested in the ability of the human body to withstand and survive pain , No forces Bond to navigate his way through an obstacle course constructed in the facility 's ventilation system . Bond is kept under observation as he suffers electric shocks , burns and an encounter with large poisonous spiders . The ordeal ends in a fight with a captive giant squid , which he defeats by using improvised weapons . After his escape he encounters Rider , who has been pegged out to be eaten by crabs ; they had ignored her and she managed to escape .
Bond kills No by taking over the guano @-@ loading machine at the docks and diverting the flow of guano to bury him alive . Bond and Rider then escape from No 's complex in the " dragon " buggy .
= = Background and writing history = =
In June 1956 the author Ian Fleming began a collaboration with the producer Henry Morgenthau III on a planned television series , Commander Jamaica , which was to feature the Caribbean @-@ based character James Gunn . When the project foundered , and Fleming could not fashion a new plot for his next Bond novel , he used the idea as the basis for Dr. No . By January 1957 he had published four Bond novels in successive years from 1953 — Casino Royale , Live and Let Die , Moonraker and Diamonds Are Forever . A fifth , From Russia , with Love , was being edited and prepared for production . That month Fleming travelled to his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica to write Dr. No . He followed his usual practice , which he later outlined in Books and Bookmen magazine : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " By the time he returned to London in late February , he had completed a 206 @-@ page first draft , which he initially titled The Wound Man .
Although Fleming did not date the event within his novels , John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom wrote books for Ian Fleming Publications — have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . Chancellor put the events of Dr. No in 1956 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place in February and March of that year .
As with his previous four novels , Fleming came up with the concept of the front cover design ; he considered Honeychile Rider to have a Venus @-@ like quality when introduced in the book and wanted this echoed on the cover . When Fleming commissioned Pat Marriott to illustrate the cover , he instructed that she be shown on a Venus elegans shell .
Prior to the release of Dr. No — and unconnected with the book itself — Bernard Bergonzi , in the March 1958 issue of Twentieth Century , attacked Fleming 's work , saying that it contained " a strongly marked streak of voyeurism and sado @-@ masochism " and that the books showed " the total lack of any ethical frame of reference " . The article also compared Fleming unfavourably to John Buchan and Raymond Chandler in both moral and literary measures . The writer Simon Raven , while appreciating Bergonzi had produced a " quiet and well @-@ argued article " , thought that the critic 's conclusion was naïve , and asked " Since when has it been remarkable in a work of entertainment that it should lack a specific ' ethical frame of reference ' ? " Raven continued , saying Fleming " by reason of his cool and analytical intelligence , his informed use of technical facts , his plausibility , sense of pace , brilliant descriptive powers and superb imagination , provides sheer entertainment such as I , who must read many novels , am seldom lucky enough to find " .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
In March 1956 Fleming and his friend Ivar Bryce accompanied Robert Cushman Murphy ( of the American Museum of Natural History ) and Arthur Vernay ( of the Flamingo Protection Society ) on a trip to a flamingo colony on Great Inagua in the south of the Bahamas . The colony was 100 square miles ( 260 km2 ) of dense mangrove swamp and salt flats , home to flamingos , egrets and roseate spoonbills ; the location inspired Crab Key . Much of the travel overland on Great Inagua was by a swamp vehicle , a Land Rover fitted with over @-@ large tyres that became the model for the " dragon " used in the story .
Fleming 's inspiration for the Doctor No character was Sax Rohmer 's villain Dr Fu Manchu , who featured in books Fleming had read and enjoyed in earlier years . Aspects of the plot were influenced by Rohmer 's work , and Winder observes that the use of the centipede was " a straight steal " from a Fu Manchu novel ; other devices from Rohmer 's novels included Doctor No 's secret lair and the use of the mad scientist trope .
After Diamonds Are Forever was published in 1956 , Fleming received a letter from Geoffrey Boothroyd , a Bond enthusiast and gun expert , who criticised the author 's choice of firearm for Bond . Boothroyd suggested that Bond should swap his Beretta for a Walther PPK 7 @.@ 65 mm , an exchange that made it to the novel . Boothroyd also gave Fleming advice on the Berns @-@ Martin triple draw shoulder holster and a number of the weapons used by SMERSH and other villains . In thanks , Fleming gave the MI6 Armourer the name Major Boothroyd in Dr. No and M introduces him to Bond as " the greatest small @-@ arms expert in the world " .
As he had done in his previous novels , Fleming borrowed names from his friends and associates to use in his book ; Ivar Bryce 's housekeeper , May Maxwell , became Bond 's Scottish " treasure " May . One of Fleming 's neighbours in Jamaica , and later his lover , was Blanche Blackwell : Fleming named the guano @-@ collecting ship in Dr. No as Blanche . His friend Patricia Wilder found that her nickname of Honey Chile was used for the novel 's main female character , and John Fox @-@ Strangways — a friend from the gentlemen 's club White 's — saw part of his surname being used for the name of the MI6 station chief in Jamaica . Fleming also used the physical descriptions of people he knew ; Quarrel , who previously appeared in the novel Live and Let Die , was based on a Jamaican fisherman who often took Fleming shark fishing .
= = = Characters = = =
In Dr. No , for the first time in the Bond novels , there is friction between Bond and M , brought about because Bond was nearly killed by the SMERSH agent Rosa Klebb in From Russia , with Love . M orders Bond to use a new gun and sends him on a holiday assignment , which Bond resents . The writer Raymond Benson — who later wrote a series of Bond novels — sees M at his most authoritarian in Dr. No , punishing Bond both in terms of stripping him of his gun and then sending him on what both Bond and M considered at first to be a " soft " assignment .
Honeychile Rider is one of three women in the Bond canon who have been scarred by rape . This follows a pattern where the women Bond comes across are somehow different to the norm , although Black points out that this gives Bond an opportunity to help and save both Rider and the others . Other female characters in the Bond series have flaws , and Rider has a broken nose — the result of the rape she suffered . The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett , in their analysis of the roles of women in the Bond novels , consider that Rider is " not archetypically feminine " , but is " constructed according to the formula ' equal but yet subordinate ' . " Rider is described in the book as having buttocks like a boy , which brought a response from Fleming 's friend Noël Coward that " I was also slightly shocked by the lascivious announcement that Honeychile 's bottom was like a boy 's . I know that we are all becoming more broadminded nowadays , but really old chap what could you have been thinking of ? "
Fleming 's villain was physically disfigured , similar to many of Bond 's later adversaries ; No is 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) tall , with steel pincers for hands and has dextrocardia . Bond describes him as " a giant venomous worm wrapped in grey tin @-@ foil " . Benson considers that No is " a wickedly successful villain " , the best since Hugo Drax in Moonraker , while Time thought No to be " one of the less forgettable characters in modern fiction " .
Quarrel was Fleming 's idealised concept of
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of the Vichy French air force , over Aleppo . He shared in its destruction with John Jackson , after which the pair tossed a coin to take full credit for it , and Gibbes won . In September , No. 3 Squadron transferred to the Western Desert Campaign , where it saw action against German and Italian forces . On 20 November , during Operation Crusader , Gibbes took part in the destruction of a Messerschmitt Bf 110 with three other pilots , crash landing back at base with damage to his own aircraft . He had a particularly successful day on 25 November , when he shot down two Fiat G.50s and damaged three more , as well as a Messerschmitt Bf 109 . Five days later he destroyed a G.50 over Tobruk . On 22 January 1942 , he brought down a Junkers Ju 87 and damaged two G.50s. He was promoted to acting flight lieutenant the same month .
Raised to acting squadron leader , Gibbes was appointed commanding officer of No. 3 Squadron on 26 February 1942 . The unit 's Tomahawks had by this time been replaced by Kittyhawks , and Gibbes emblazoned his with a cartoon depicting a kangaroo kicking a dachshund in the rear . He claimed a Bf 109 ( possibly a misidentified Macchi C.202 ) during the Siege of Tobruk on 7 May . On 26 May , he was shot down while leading an attack on a heavily escorted force of Luftwaffe bombers near El Adem . After firing at and probably destroying a Bf 109 , Gibbes was hit by fire from a Ju 88 and had to bail out . Part of his parachute became entangled with the tailplane of his stricken aircraft and he struggled to escape . He broke his ankle in the landing but within six weeks was flying again , his leg still in a cast . Due to his enforced absence , fellow ace Nicky Barr was given command of No. 3 Squadron until he himself was shot down and taken prisoner on 26 June , at which point Gibbes again took charge of the unit . Barr later noted that although Gibbes was not a brilliant shot , he had the keenest eyesight of any pilot he knew when it came to locating enemy aircraft and alerting his fellows for the attack . Another No. 3 Squadron pilot , Tom Russell , also recalled that Gibbes was particularly adept at finding targets , and that " if we got scattered in a dogfight he had the uncanny ability to get us back into formation in a very short space of time " .
Gibbes was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) on 28 July 1942 for his actions on 26 May , the citation noting his " exceptional skill and gallantry " . On 1 September , he destroyed a Bf 109 and damaged two others during the Battle of Alam el Halfa , east of El Alamein . He claimed No. 3 Squadron 's 200th victim , a Bf 109F , during the Battle of El Alamein on 28 October . Air Marshal Sir Peter Drummond , Deputy Air Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief Middle East , sent him a signal reading " Heartiest congratulations to you and all ranks in the squadron on the achievement of your double century — not out " . Around this time Gibbes also managed to fly Bf 109F and G fighters captured from the Germans , and came away impressed . He was credited with another Bf 109 on 17 November . On 21 December , he landed his Kittyhawk in rugged terrain near Hun , Libya , to rescue a fellow pilot who had been forced down . Gibbes threw out his own parachute to make room in the cockpit for his passenger and lost part of his undercarriage taking off , necessitating a one @-@ wheeled landing back at base . Recommended for the Victoria Cross for this action , he was instead awarded the Distinguished Service Order , which was promulgated on 15 January 1943 and cited his " outstanding qualities of leadership and enthusiasm " . Gibbes himself crash landed behind enemy lines on 14 January 1943 , walking 50 miles ( 80 km ) in the desert before being picked up by a British Army patrol . He was awarded a bar to his DFC for this feat , and for his " exceptional leadership , skill and courage , contributing in a large measure to the success of the squadron he commands " . The award made him the most highly decorated pilot in the RAAF .
On 22 January 1943 , Gibbes claimed his last kill , a C.202. He was officially credited with a total of 10 ¼ victories , though other estimates gave him a score of 12 , including two shared . He was also credited with five " probables " , and another 16 damaged . During his tour of duty in the Middle East , he flew 274 sorties and became No. 3 Squadron 's longest @-@ serving wartime commanding officer . Squadron member Bob Smith recalled him as lacking somewhat in administrative ability , but an " Errol Flynn " in the air . Gibbes , for his part , later admitted to being in " an absolute state of terror " before missions , only to " sort of become mechanical " once the shooting started . He described his post @-@ combat feelings thus :
Man becomes animal when he thinks he is about to die . As you fly back to your base , now safe at last , a feeling of light @-@ hearted exuberance comes over you . It is wonderful to still be alive and it is , I think , merely the after @-@ effect of violent , terrible fear .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
Gibbes handed over command of No. 3 Squadron to Squadron Leader Brian Eaton on 19 April 1943 . With his rank of squadron leader confirmed the same month , Gibbes departed North Africa to serve at RAAF Overseas Headquarters , London , until October . While in England he converted to de Havilland Mosquito night fighters and was slated to command No. 464 Squadron RAAF , but was instead posted back to Australia , via Canada . There , according to Gibbes , he gave a series of morale @-@ building lectures on air combat to Empire Air Training Scheme students : " So I , you know , went round and lied like hell . I said that it was all a piece of cake . " In January 1944 , he joined No. 2 Operational Training Unit ( OTU ) at Mildura , Victoria , becoming chief flying instructor in March . He worked with Clive Caldwell , Australia 's top @-@ scoring ace , to improve the success rate at No. 2 OTU by personally selecting the most promising pilots from local service flying training schools . Gibbes was promoted to temporary wing commander on 1 July . In October he was posted to Darwin in the Northern Territory , flying Supermarine Spitfires as wing leader of No. 80 Wing . The role made him deputy to Group Captain Caldwell , the wing 's commanding officer . Gibbes later suffered burns in a crash landing following engine failure . In December he met , in his own words , " a little dark @-@ haired popsy " named Jeannine Ince , a volunteer with the Red Cross who had nursed him in hospital . They married on 23 January 1945 .
No. 80 Wing had begun transferring to the Dutch East Indies in December 1944 , and the main body followed in January 1945 . Gibbes ' injuries prevented him from joining the formation at its base on Morotai , where it came under the control of the Australian First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) , until 9 March . Once there , he took over as temporary commanding officer for a few days when Caldwell was called to Manila . In April , Gibbes was one of eight senior pilots , including Caldwell and fellow aces Wilf Arthur and John Waddy , who tendered their resignations in protest at the relegation of RAAF fighter squadrons to apparently worthless ground @-@ attack missions . The incident became known as the " Morotai Mutiny " . Gibbes later declared that " ... after I myself had been operating for a week or so and had a really good look around and seen the futility of the operations which had been given , I could not see any point in carrying on . I certainly lost all keenness for remaining in the service . " As a former jackaroo , he was especially upset about one sortie that involved attacking cattle : " I felt horrible about it , being an ex bushy ... at about lunch time I went out and darned if I didn 't have to turn butcher . And Heavens , it was butchering too , in every sense of the word . No — not the Japs . Cattle ... If we are to get the Japs out of this area without loss of human lives , starvation will be our main weapon ... God , I hated doing it but could do nothing else . Felt as sick as hell . " No action was taken against the " mutineers " for their attempted resignations ; a subsequent government inquiry found that their protest was justified . In the meantime , Gibbes and Caldwell were court martialled for their involvement in alcohol trafficking on Morotai . Both were reduced to the rank of flight lieutenant ; the Air Officer Commanding No. 1 TAF , Air Commodore Harry Cobby , himself shortly to be dismissed over the " mutiny " , restored Gibbes to squadron leader effective 23 April .
= = Post @-@ war career and later life = =
In July 1945 , Gibbes was assigned to the staff of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . Following his discharge from the Air Force on 11 January 1946 , he was initially employed as a stock and station agent in Coonamble , New South Wales . He flew a Butler Bat twin @-@ engined aircraft to facilitate his work , reportedly the only New South Welshman in his profession to do so at the time . Gibbes spent much of the next 30 years in New Guinea , pioneering the island 's transport , coffee and hospitality industries . In January 1948 , he formed Gibbes Sepik Airways using , among other types , three German Junkers Ju 52s , one of which was said to have been the personal transport of senior Luftwaffe commander Albert Kesselring . He was joined briefly in this venture , headquartered at Wewak , by Nicky Barr . Gibbes also established a tea and coffee plantation at Mount Hagen , New Guinea , in 1950 , and served as a member of the RAAF Active Reserve , based in Townsville , Queensland , from 1952 until 1957 . In 1958 , he sold his share in Gibbes Sepik Airways to Mandated Airlines , which was later bought out by Ansett Australia . He continued to develop coffee plantations in New Guinea , and built a large chain of hotels beginning with the Bird of Paradise in Goroka .
Gibbes sold his interests in New Guinea in 1972 . He spent most of the remainder of the decade in the Mediterranean , aboard his catamaran Billabong . In his 60s , he sailed Billabong from England to Australia by himself , braving heavy seas and Malaysian pirates along the way . By 1979 he was living in Sydney and had begun building his own twin @-@ engined plane , which he eventually took to the air in 1990 . In 1994 , Gibbes published his autobiography , You Live But Once . He continued to fly until forced to give up his civil aviation licence at the age of 85 . In 2002 , he appeared in an episode of the television series Australian Story dedicated to Nicky Barr . Gibbes was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia on 26 January 2004 for " service to aviation and to tourism , particularly in Papua New Guinea " . He died of a stroke at Mona Vale Hospital in Sydney on 11 April 2007 , aged 90 , and was survived by his wife and two daughters . His funeral service at St Thomas ' Church , North Sydney , was attended by 350 mourners , including the Chief of Air Force , Air Marshal Geoff Shepherd , and 40 members of No. 3 Squadron led by the commanding officer . A Spitfire in the " Grey Nurse " livery of one of Gibbes ' World War II aircraft overflew the church , along with four F / A @-@ 18 Hornet jet fighters from No. 3 Squadron in a " missing man " formation .
= Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough =
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " is a single written and recorded by American singer Michael Jackson . Released under Epic Records on August 10 , 1979 , the song is the first single from Jackson 's fifth studio album , titled Off the Wall . The song was the first solo recording over which Jackson had creative control .
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " was Jackson 's first single to hit # 1 on the United States Billboard Hot 100 chart in seven years , and his first solo # 1 on the Soul singles chart . It remained at # 1 for six weeks on Billboard 's Soul chart . The song was a worldwide success . Within a few months of release , the 45 was certified Gold , and eventually earned a Platinum certification for sales in excess of two million US copies .
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " was well received by contemporary music critics . An accompanying music video for the song was released in October 1979 . The video shows Jackson dancing , as well as being shown in a triplicate , in different color backgrounds . The song also won Jackson his first solo Grammy and American Music Awards . " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " is considered to be the first song to showcase Jackson 's talent as a solo artist , both as a singer and songwriter . Since the song 's release , it has been covered by numerous musicians .
= = Background and production = =
In 1978 , Jackson starred as the Scarecrow in The Wiz , an urbanized retelling of L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . After the filming , Jackson , who was still a member of The Jacksons , approached the film 's musical director , Quincy Jones , to ask if he knew of any producers to help with Jackson 's future solo endeavors . Jones suggested himself , and the two began work on Off the Wall . After listening to hundreds of demos , the two decided upon the ones to record . These included " Workin ' Day and Night " , " Get on the Floor " and " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . The song was recorded in Los Angeles recording studios . Jackson claimed that when the melody of " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " came to him , he couldn 't shake it off . He found himself humming and singing it while walking through the Jacksons ' Encino home . As Michael could not play , he had his brother Randy perform the melody on a piano in the family 's recording studio . When Jackson 's mother , Katherine Jackson , a devout Jehovah 's Witness , heard the song , she was shocked by the lyrical content , and felt that the title could be misconstrued as pertaining to sexual activity . Jackson reassured her that the song was not a reference to sex , but could mean whatever people wanted it to . Upon playing the recording to Jones , it was agreed that the song would be featured on Off the Wall .
= = Composition = =
Musically " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " is credited as a disco @-@ funk song . The song 's full length on Off The Wall is just over 6 minutes . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " introduced Jackson 's falsetto voice and vocal hiccups , which would become one of Jackson 's signature techniques . Along with Jackson 's vocal hiccups , Jackson 's voice in the song was described as having vocal tics — from the hiccups , a " grunt " , and " the ' oho ! ' " . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " is played in the key of B Mixolydian and in common time signature . In the song , Jackson 's voice range is from G # 3 to F # 5 . Instruments for " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " are a 6 piece horn section ( 2 trumpets , alto sax , tenor sax , trombone , and baritone sax ) , string section ( arranged by Ben Wright ) , and 2 guitars , keyboards , bass , drums and percussion . The song 's tempo is upbeat at 120 beats per minute . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " begins with Jackson speaking , before singing the song 's lyrics .
= = Release and reception = =
" Don ’ t Stop ' til You Get Enough " was released on August 10 , 1979 , under Epic Records ; Jackson 's first solo album away from Motown Records . It was well received by contemporary critics . Stephen Holden , of Rolling Stone , described the song as " one of a handful of recent disco releases that works both as a dance track and as an aural extravaganza comparable to Earth , Wind and Fire 's ' Boogie Wonderland ' " . Within three months of its release , the song was at the top of the charts and had been certified gold . Reaching number one on Billboard 's Hot 100 and Hot Soul Singles charts in the United States ; it was Jackson 's first solo number one single since " Ben " , seven years prior . It remained atop of the Billboard Hot 100 for one week . It also reached the top of the charts in Australia , New Zealand , Norway and South Africa , and peaked at number three in the United Kingdom . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " s was awarded platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1989 .
In 2006 , " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " reached number 17 in the United Kingdom , following the Visionary campaign , whereby 20 of Jackson 's hit singles were reissued in several European countries . Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music saw an increase in popularity . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " peaked at number seven on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs Chart , peaking at number nine on the charts issue date July 11 , 2009 . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " charted within the top ten , placing at number nine , in France , and charted within the top 20 in Portugal and Switzerland , placing at number 18 and 20 . The song also charted at number 21 in Australia , 38 in the United Kingdom , and 50 in Sweden , respectively . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " s least successful country was Japan , peaking at number 77 . " Don ’ t Stop ' til You Get Enough " was certified gold in Australia by Australian Recording Industry Association in 2009 for the shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units .
" Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " earned Jackson his first solo Grammy Award , winning Best Male R & B Vocal Performance at the 1980 Grammy Awards . It was also nominated for Best Disco Recording . The song also received Favorite Soul / R & B Single at the 1980 American Music Awards .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " was directed and produced by Nick Saxton and made its world premiere in October 1979 . It was Jackson 's first music video as a solo artist . The music video shows a smiling Jackson dancing and singing " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " in a black and white tuxedo with a black bow tie while appearing chroma keyed over a background of abstract geometric figures . At one stage , Jackson is seen dancing in triplicate , which was considered innovative at the time .
The music video was included on the video albums : Video Greatest Hits - HIStory , Number Ones and Michael Jackson 's Vision .
= = Live performances = =
Michael Jackson performed this song on The Jacksons ' Destiny Tour on the second leg , as well as the Triumph Tour . During the ' ' Victory Tour ' ' and the first leg of the Bad Tour , Michael would sing lines from the song while performing " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " . Michael also performed this song as part of the " Off the Wall Medley " on his HIStory World Tour , but only on certain concerts . Jackson was also going to perform it for the This Is It concert series , but the shows were cancelled due to his death .
= = Michael Jackson : The Experience = =
The song is featured in the video game Michael Jackson : The Experience .
= = Cover versions = =
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " has been covered by multiple artists since its release in 1979 .
In 1980 : A reggae version was released by Derrick Laro & Trinity as a 12 " single .
In 1985 : the song was included in the second album of Dominican Juan Luis Guerra & 440 , Mudanza y Acarreo . This version is a merengue based on disco and rock sounds and was titled " Dame " ( Give me ) .
In 1999 : The song was covered by BB Band in 1999 on their album entitled , The Detroit Sound .
Chris Tucker and Adrienne Bailon recorded a new version of the song for the 2001 film Rush Hour 2 , which stars also Tucker .
In 2005 : Westlife performed the song live on their The Number Ones Tour .
In 2005 : The song was also covered by James Chance on his 2005 album , which included a recorded and live version .
In 2005 : " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " was covered by Melissa Forbes on her 2005 album entitled , No More Mondays .
In 2007 : American pop @-@ rock band Shivaree covered " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " on their 2007 album of cover versions , entitled , Tainted Love : Mating Calls and Fight Songs .
The song was covered by Rod Hanna , on his album of covers entitled Rod Hanna Live : Discofesta 70 's Superhits - Rod Hanna .
In 2009 : Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , the band U2 began their world tour , entitled U2 360 ° Tour , with renditions of two of Jackson 's songs , " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " and " Man In The Mirror " ( from Jackson 's 1987 album Bad ) on June 30 , 2009 .
Also in 2009 , Egyptian singer Tamer Hosny heavily sampled " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " in his song , " Howa Fein ( Don 't Stop ) , which is featured on his album , " Haeesh Hayati " .
Cookin Soul did a remix cover of the track , entitled , " Don ’ t Stop ‘ til You Get Enough feat . Jay @-@ Z " . The remixed version was performed during Cookin Souls Shade45 show , and the track was made available as a digital download track . Amos Barshad and Nick Catucci , of NYMag.com , commented that the remix version was a " surprisingly great meeting of music and lyrics , connecting MJ and rap without overstating the shared DNA " .
Former rival Prince covered it on his 2011 " Welcome 2 America " tour .
Usher performed the song and a few other mix of songs as a tribute to Jackson on his OMG Tour .
Maroon 5 incorporated the song in its set list on the U.S. Overexposed Tour following the band 's opening song " Payphone " and is prior to the next song , " Makes Me Wonder . "
Anthony Strong 's jazzy version appears on the album On a Clear Day ( 2015 ) .
= = Legacy = =
James Montgomery of MTV noted that " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " , along with Off the Wall 's other three singles , " showcased ( or , more specifically , unleashed ) Jackson 's talents as a [ sic ] entertainer , a vocalist , a writer and , most importantly , as a leading man . " After Jackson 's death , AOL 's Radio Blog released a list , entitled " 10 Best Michael Jackson Songs " , which placed " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " at number ten on the list .
William Ruhlmann , author of The All @-@ Music Guide to Rock , praised " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " as an " irresistible dance track " . John Lewis , author of 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , noted that the " jittery , frenetic opening track " is the centerpiece of Off the Wall . He concluded that " Jackson 's falsetto hollers and frisky yelps serve as an obbligato to the lead line , punctuating Ben Wright 's thrilling string arrangement and Jerry Hey 's tight horn charts " . Jason Elias , a writer for Allmusic , noted that " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " presents a " new Michael Jackson " that was " sexual , [ an ] adult , and aggressive . Elias commented that " Like the best of Jones ' late- ' 70s , early- ' 80s work , this [ song ] wasn 't quite disco , couldn 't be hardcore funk - it was an amalgam of styles with the all @-@ important pop accessibility . "
Jackson 's biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli described Jackson 's unveiling of a " sexy , playful falsetto " that " no one had ever heard from him before " . Nelson George stated that the argument for Jackson 's greatness began with the arrangements of " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . He noted that the percussion and backing vocals were " artfully choreographed " to " create drama and ecstasy on the dance floor " . He concluded , " It 's one thing to make a dance record — it is another to instill that track with an epic , celebratory quality as Michael does here " . James Montgomery of MTV noted that Off The Wall contained a " masterful mixture of fiery disco tracks " , specifying " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " and " Workin ' Day and Night " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= Nottingham Panthers =
The Nottingham Panthers are a British professional ice hockey club based in Nottingham , England . They are members of the Elite Ice Hockey League . The team is officially known as the GMB Nottingham Panthers due to a sponsorship agreement with the GMB union .
The Nottingham Panthers have won four league titles ( two English National League titles , one British National League title and one Elite Ice Hockey League title ) , five Championships , six Autumn Cups and eight Challenge Cups during their history . They are the only team to have played in every season where a British league championship has been contested and are the only founding member of the Premier Division in 1983 to have continually participated in the top flight league . The Panthers have 16 members enshrined in the British Ice Hockey Hall of Fame and have had 34 players represent Great Britain at the World Championships and in Olympic qualifying .
The club was founded in 1946 after earlier attempts to establish a team were postponed due to World War II . During their first eight seasons the Panthers played in the English National League . They joined the newly formed British National League in 1954 , which they competed in until its disbandment in 1960 . With no league to play in the club also ceased operations . In 1980 , players and officials from the Sheffield Lancers relocated to Nottingham and reformed the Panthers . Both the original and modern Nottingham Panthers played their home games at the Ice Stadium until 2000 when the team moved into the National Ice Centre .
The Nottingham Panthers have one of the largest fanbases in British ice hockey , averaging over 5 @,@ 000 spectators per game during the 2014 – 15 season . Their supporters have shared a number of rivalries with other teams during their history . Currently the Panthers have a fierce rivalry with the Sheffield Steelers . The two sides have played over 200 games , including eleven major finals , since 1992 .
= = History = =
= = = 1946 – 60 : Original era = = =
An initial attempt to bring a professional ice hockey team to Nottingham was made in 1939 following the completion of the Ice Stadium in Nottingham City Centre . A team was assembled and brought to the United Kingdom from Canada to compete in the 1939 – 40 English National League season but were promptly sent home having not played a single game due to the outbreak of World War II . Seven years later , after the war had ended , a second effort to bring ice hockey to the city was begun . With a team of Canadians largely from Winnipeg , Manitoba , the Nottingham Panthers played their first competitive game on 22 November 1946 with a 3 – 2 home victory over the Wembley Monarchs .
The Panthers struggled during their early years and only once during their first four seasons did they finish in the upper half of the league table . The club 's first coach , Alex Archer , left Nottingham after two seasons and was replaced by Archie Stinchcombe who would coach the team until 1955 . Despite a lack of success in their formative years the team had a number of players who would become local heroes including forwards Les Strongman and Chick Zamick . Zamick became one of the most prolific scorers in the league and won the Nottingham Sportsman of the Year award on two occasions , defeating sportsmen such as the Notts County and England international footballer Tommy Lawton .
The club 's first major title came in the 1950 – 51 season . After finishing fourth in the Autumn Cup the Panthers won 18 of their 30 league games and clinched the league championship . The team also ended the campaign having scored the most goals and conceded the least . The following season Nottingham lost Chick Zamick to injury and fell to the bottom of the rankings . Success returned in 1953 – 54 when , after a last place finish in the Autumn Cup , the Panthers secured their second English League title by one point over Streatham .
In the close season of 1954 the English League and the Scottish League were merged to form a British League . The Panthers finished second to the Harringay Racers in the eleven team competition . After one season all the Scottish teams , with the exception of the Paisley Pirates , withdrew from the British League and left it with only five members . The close season of 1955 also saw the departure of Stinchcombe who was replaced as coach by Zamick . The 1955 – 56 season proved to be one of the club 's most successful . Nottingham won the Autumn Cup at the beginning of the season before clinching their third league title on goal average ahead of the Wembley Lions . They also travelled to Sweden where they won the Ahearne Cup .
The 1955 – 56 title win proved to be the original Panthers ' last . Over the next four years Nottingham alternated between bottom and second place in the league standings . After finishing runner @-@ up in 1959 – 60 , the Panthers took part in the first British Championship final in thirty years where they faced the Brighton Tigers . Nottingham were defeated 3 – 2 in the first leg but won the second in regulation time by the same scoreline forcing overtime . The Tigers clinched the tie 6 – 5 after six minutes and 32 seconds of the extra session . During the close season of 1960 the British National League collapsed and the Nottingham Panthers were disbanded . Ice hockey would not return to Nottingham for the next two decades .
= = = 1980 – present : Modern era = = =
= = = = Ice Stadium years = = = =
The Nottingham Panthers were revived largely thanks to the efforts of Gary Keward . In 1980 the Ice Stadium directors , led by Charles Walker , agreed to a request by Keward to give ice hockey another chance . The Sheffield Lancers , a team Keward helped to run , were relocated to Nottingham taking the name of the team that had occupied the same building 20 years earlier . On 20 September 1980 the modern Panthers took to the ice for the first time defeating the Solihull Barons 7 – 4 at the Ice Stadium .
During their first three seasons the Panthers played in regional leagues , first in the English League South and then in Section B of the British Hockey League . In 1983 the British Hockey League reconstituted itself into the first truly national ice hockey league for 23 years and Nottingham became one of nine founder members of the league 's Premier Division . The Panthers were one of the best supported teams in the league with games regularly selling out but success on the ice eluded them as the team struggled against more established opponents such as the Durham Wasps and the Murrayfield Racers . It was not until the appointment of Alex Dampier as coach in 1985 that the team 's fortunes began to change . In his first season Dampier led Nottingham to the playoffs for the first time since reforming . The Panthers lost all four of their quarter final group games and failed to advance to the finals at Wembley Arena .
In 1986 Nottingham secured their first trophy since reforming and their first overall in thirty years when they defeated the Fife Flyers 5 – 4 in overtime to win the Norwich Union Trophy at the NEC in Birmingham in front of a crowd of 5 @,@ 600 . Layton Eratt scored the winning goal after one minute and 53 seconds of the extra session in a game that had seen both the Panthers and the Flyers lead twice . In the league Nottingham again succeeded in qualifying for the playoffs but again failed to register a point . The team repeated this in the Championships the following season bringing the number of consecutive playoff defeats to twelve .
In 1988 – 89 the Panthers enjoyed one of their most successful seasons . They finished third in the league and were not only able to register their first win in the playoffs but also advance to the finals at Wembley for the first time . Nottingham met Whitley Warriors in the semi final , winning the match 8 – 6 . In the final the following day the Panthers defeated the Ayr Bruins 6 – 3 , clinching their first Championship title . Another Autumn Cup followed in 1991 but Dampier left the club during the 1992 – 93 season to join the newly formed Sheffield Steelers . He was replaced by Kevin Murphy who coached the team for the remainder of the campaign . Murphy was in turn replaced by Mike Blaisdell during the close season of 1993 .
Blaisdell assembled a strong team for the 1994 – 95 season and led the Panthers to the Benson & Hedges Cup with a 7 – 2 victory over the Cardiff Devils in the final . Nottingham opened their league campaign with a 21 @-@ game unbeaten run but four defeats over the final two weekends of the regular season , including an 8 – 6 home defeat by nearest rivals and eventual champions Sheffield , denied the club their first league championship in 39 years . During the 1995 – 96 season the Panthers made it to both the Benson & Hedges Cup and playoff finals , but they were defeated on each occasion by the Steelers .
In 1996 the Panthers became a founder member of the new Ice Hockey Superleague . The new league abolished the wage cap and restrictions on the number of non @-@ British trained players a club was allowed . Many of Nottingham 's British players , who had risen through the ranks of the club 's youth development system , were dropped in favour of North American imports . Of Nottingham 's locally trained contingent only Randall Weber , Ashley Tait and Simon Hunt were retained . The Panthers began the season by qualifying for the Benson & Hedges Cup final for a third straight year following a 6 – 3 aggregate victory over arch rival Sheffield at the semi final stage . In the final they defeated the Ayr Scottish Eagles 5 – 3 , taking the lead 29 seconds into the game and never relinquishing it . The Panthers finished fourth in the league and qualified for the last four in the playoffs after finishing top of their group with five wins and one overtime loss from six games . Their semi final against the Ayr Scottish Eagles became the longest game in British ice hockey history . The scores were level at 5 – 5 after regulation time and each of the following five periods of ten @-@ minute overtime ended goalless . Only in the sixth period of overtime , with the two @-@ hour mark of the match nearing , did Jeff Hoad finally score a shorthanded winner for Nottingham ending the game after 115 minutes and 49 seconds . In the final the Panthers met Sheffield where they were defeated 3 – 1 after taking an early lead .
In 1997 the Panthers franchise was sold after directors revealed the club was in considerable debt . A buyer was found in London based businessman Neil Black and his sports management company . The 1998 – 99 season saw the Panthers sign one of their strongest ever line @-@ ups . After finishing third in their Benson & Hedges Cup group , the Panthers eliminated the Slough Jets and Newcastle Riverkings before defeating the Manchester Storm in the semi final despite being depleted by injuries and facing a full strength Storm side . The final saw the Panthers taking on the Ayr Scottish Eagles in a repeat of the 1996 final . Here Nottingham came from behind to defeat the Eagles 2 – 1 with Finn Pekka Virta scoring both goals . In the league the Panthers finished in third place , twelve points behind champions Manchester . Nottingham also qualified for the finals of the Challenge Cup and the playoffs but the team were defeated by the Sheffield Steelers and Cardiff Devils respectively . During the course of the season Paul Adey and Greg Hadden scored 141 points between them , four players scored more than 20 goals , six players earned more than 30 assists and seven players achieved 30 or more points .
The 1999 – 00 season was the club 's final year at the Ice Stadium before moving to the National Ice Centre . The budget for players was limited by the club chairman so that the Panthers would be able to break even the following season . Players were asked to take a wage cut , leading to the departure of Trevor Robins , Mike Bishop , Mark Kolesar , Eric Dubios and record goalscorer Paul Adey . This frustrated Mike Blaisdell who left the club in November to become head coach of the Sheffield Steelers . He was replaced by former coach Alex Dampier . Lacking the spending power of many of their rivals , Nottingham finished sixth in the eight team league . The club fared better in the Challenge Cup where it made the final for the second successive year but the team was defeated 2 – 1 at London Arena by Mike Blaisdell 's Steelers . On 22 March 2000 the Panthers hosted Newcastle in their final game at the Ice Stadium . Jamie Leach scored Nottingham 's last goal at their home of 54 years but the club was defeated 2 – 1 in overtime .
= = = = Move to the National Ice Centre = = = =
The Panthers moved to the new National Ice Centre in September 2000 but endured a terrible first season in their new home . They were knocked out at the semi final stage of the Benson & Hedges Cup by the Steelers and suffered a dire first half to the regular season . By Christmas the team faced the prospect of not qualifying for the playoffs for the first time since 1985 . Form improved during the second half of the season with the team winning five of their first seven home games during 2001 , including a 6 – 4 victory over the Sheffield Steelers marred by a violent bench clearing brawl . The Panthers still lay in ninth and last place going into their final game of the regular season , three points behind their opponents Newcastle Jesters . Nottingham required a regulation time win to claim the eighth and final playoff berth , something they had not done away from their home ice all season . The Jesters needed only to tie . With 10 @.@ 1 seconds to go , the game was locked at 2 – 2 , but with an extra attacker the Panthers won a faceoff next to the Newcastle goal and Robert Nordmark scored with 4 @.@ 4 seconds remaining to take them into the playoffs and eliminate the Jesters . In the playoffs a 5 – 0 win over a financially troubled Sheffield Steelers was their only victory of the post season .
In 2003 the Superleague collapsed after financial problems ; it was left with only five members and faced the prospect of having only three . After uncertainty over which league the Panthers would be taking part in and even uncertainty over the future of the club itself , Nottingham became a founding member of the new Elite Ice Hockey League . Changes to the rules regarding the number of non @-@ British trained players a club was allowed to sign saw the Panthers make substantial changes to their squad . After finishing second in the league , their highest finish in twelve years , Panthers qualified for the Challenge Cup final . Their opponent in the two @-@ legged final was arch rival Sheffield Steelers , a team that Nottingham had failed to beat in each of the six finals the two club 's had contested . The first leg ended in a 1 – 1 tie in Nottingham . In the second leg at Sheffield Arena the Panthers raced to an early 3 – 1 aggregate lead . However , Sheffield pulled a goal back late in the second period and equalised with ten minutes remaining , forcing overtime . After 53 seconds of the extra session Kim Ahlroos scored the winning goal , ending an eight @-@ year wait for the Panthers to beat the Steelers in a showpiece final and securing the club 's first silverware since 1998 . The Panthers followed up their trophy win with a strong playoff campaign , but after a 6 – 1 win over the Manchester Phoenix in the semi final , the Steelers avenged their Challenge Cup defeat with a narrow 2 – 1 win in the final .
The 2004 – 05 season saw the club take part in the Continental Cup . The Panthers were placed into a group with host team Gothiques d 'Amiens , Italian side Milano Vipers and Slovenian side Olimpija Ljubljana . Nottingham tied their first game against Milan before recording 1 – 0 and 3 – 1 victories over the Slovenians and French , narrowly missing out on a place in the second round of the competition due to Milan 's better goal difference . Domestically the team struggled for much of season and only during the end of season playoffs did the Panthers replicate the form they showed in Europe where , despite being depleted by injuries , they qualified for a second successive playoff final , losing 2 – 1 in overtime to eventual Grand Slam winners Coventry Blaze .
Mike Blaisdell briefly returned to the club as coach for the 2005 – 06 season , before being succeeded by Mike Ellis . Ellis made numerous changes to the playing staff and led the Panthers to a fifth place league finish . In the playoffs Nottingham eliminated the Sheffield Steelers and Belfast Giants before defeating the Cardiff Devils to clinch their first playoff title in 18 years . All three ties were decided on penalty shots with goaltender Rastislav Rovnianek saving all seven shots he faced during the course of the competition . The following season the Panthers won a second Challenge Cup title , defeating the Sheffield Steelers 9 – 7 on aggregate in the final . This was the first time that the Panthers had won major honours in successive seasons .
= = = = The Corey Neilson era = = = =
Coach Mike Ellis departed the club following the 2007 – 08 season , to be replaced by Corey Neilson . After a third @-@ place finish in the 2008 – 09 season , the Panthers mounted a title challenge during 2009 – 10 , remaining in contention for the championship until the final stages of the season . They eventually finished third for a third successive season . The Panthers also won the Challenge Cup for the second time in three seasons , defeating the Cardiff Devils 8 – 7 on aggregate in the final . The 2010 – 11 season started strongly , but the Panthers suffered a poor mid season run which scuppered their chances of winning the regular season title and led to players being fined a proportion of their wages . The team were able to rebound from this , first securing a 4 – 3 aggregate victory over the Belfast Giants to successfully defend the Challenge Cup , then securing their third playoff championship with a 5 – 4 win over the Cardiff Devils . The Panthers repeated the double in the 2011 – 12 season first winning a third straight Challenge Cup with a 10 – 4 aggregate victory over Belfast . In the playoffs , the Panthers defeated Braehead and Hull in the playoffs before winning 2 – 0 against Cardiff in the final . The game was a tight affair , with David @-@ Alexandre Beauregard breaking the deadlock after 53 goalless minutes .
The 2012 off @-@ season began with the release of captain Danny Meyers and his replacement by fellow Great Britain international Jonathan Weaver . Other new additions included forwards David Ling , Patrick Galivan and Bruce Graham , while Jason Beckett and Eric Werner were brought in as new defencemen . The season began with the Panthers losing 2 of their first 4 home games . This prompted Neilson to re @-@ sign defenceman Guillaume Lepine as well as Anthony Stewart , then of the Carolina Hurricanes , on a short @-@ term deal due to the NHL lockout . Form began to improve and , following a shootout win in Cardiff on 8 December , Panthers went top of the league standings . They remained there for the rest of the season , clinching their first regular season title in 57 years on 15 March 2013 . Patrick Galivan scored the championship @-@ sealing goal late in the third period before Matt Francis added an empty @-@ netter in a 5 – 3 victory over the Belfast Giants . Five days later the Panthers defeated Sheffield 4 – 1 in the first leg of the Challenge Cup final . This proved decisive , and a 2 – 1 defeat in the second leg was not enough to deny the Panthers a fourth consecutive Challenge Cup title . Nottingham went on to face Belfast in the playoff final . The Panthers opened a 2 – 0 lead before the Giants rallied to tie the game and force overtime . On the powerplay in the extra session , captain Jordan Fox scored to give Panthers the win and complete the Grand Slam .
By contrast , the 2013 – 14 season was plagued by injuries , suspensions and a high turnover of players , and the Panthers fell to fourth in the final league table . They once again reached the Challenge Cup final , but were considered outsiders against a Belfast Giants team that comfortably won the league championship and finished 32 points ahead of Nottingham . The Panthers lost the first leg 5 – 2 , a result that left the Giants as strong favourites to lift the cup . However , the Panthers won the second leg 4 – 1 to level the tie and force overtime . When that finished goalless , goaltender Craig Kowalski saved all three Belfast penalty shots and Petr Kalus scored to give Panthers a 7 – 6 aggregate victory and a fifth consecutive Challenge Cup .
On the 2 May 2014 it was confirmed that the Panthers would be taking part in the Champions Hockey League after Belfast Giants had to turn down the offer due to ice time issues . The Group Draw , which took place in Minsk on the 21 May saw Panthers come up against Hamburg Freezers of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga , Lukko Rauma of the SM @-@ liiga and Luleå Hockey from the Swedish Hockey League .
= = Name origins , logos and colours = =
The origin of the name Panthers is uncertain . One of the most widely known theories is that the club were named for a squadron of Canadian airmen based near Nottingham during World War II . However , there is no evidence to suggest that such a squadron existed and records indicate that the name was coined before these events could have taken place . A souvenir brochure produced to mark of the opening of the Ice Stadium in April 1939 stated that the venue 's new team would be known as the Nottingham Panthers . It does not , however , explain the rationale behind the name . Three games were played by teams using the name Nottingham Panthers during the winter of 1939 – 40 before the name was revived in 1946 .
During the original era the Panthers did not have a logo , instead using stylised lettering on the front of their shirts . The club 's current logo was adopted in 2003 and is the fifth to be used since the Panthers were reformed . The first was used between 1980 and 1994 and was the silhouette of a Panthers ' head in a red circle . The second logo , adopted in 1994 , was similar to the first but used a more detailed Panthers ' head . The third logo , introduced in 1998 , featured a keyhole shaped like the head of a cat with a Panther reaching through it . The fourth logo was adopted following the move to the National Ice Centre and was similar to the logo of German side Augsburger Panther . The stylised lettering used during the original era was used again on special shirts made to mark the sixtieth anniversary of the club in 2006 .
The colours used by the original Panthers were black and white . Home shirts were black with a black and white striped lining on the shoulders . When the club reformed in 1980 , the black and white colours were also revived , with a gold lining also being added to the jerseys . In 1996 red was added to the colour scheme of the shirts . In 2001 – 02 the club 's colour scheme was changed to black and gold . Home jerseys are gold with a black lining with away jerseys being the reverse . In 2007 – 08 , the Panthers brought out a predominantly white third jersey for the Challenge Cup .
= = Stadiums = =
The original home of the Panthers was the Ice Stadium . Built by Sims , Sons and Cooke Ltd , the Ice Stadium was based on the Harringay Arena design and officially opened on 10 April 1939 . The building hosted its first game two days later with the Harringay Greyhounds defeating the Harringay Racers 10 – 6 in a challenge game in front of a crowd of 5 @,@ 000 spectators . Though a team playing under the name Nottingham Panthers would play three games during the winter of 1939 – 40 , it would be 1946 before the venue would host a competitive match . During World War II the Ice Stadium served as a makeshift munitions store and morgue . The building reopened on 31 August 1946 and hosted another game between the Greyhounds and Racers before the Panthers made their competitive debut on 22 November , defeating the Wembley Monarchs 3 – 2 . The venue became the home of the team between 1946 and 1960 and again from the club 's reformation in 1980 to 2000 .
The Ice Stadium held a capacity of 2 @,@ 950 spectators and had an ice pad measuring 185 feet ( 56 m ) by 85 feet ( 26 m ) . After the club 's reformation a second ice pad was installed in 1983 . In October 1996 plans were announced by Nottingham City Council to replace the ageing building with a twin @-@ rinked National Ice Centre . Work began on the 6 @,@ 500 capacity arena section of the facility in the summer of 1998 and was completed in the spring of 2000 . The Panthers played their final game at the Ice Stadium on 22 March 2000 . After the game supporters were allowed to dismantle anything easily removable from the interior of the building to take home as souvenirs . The Ice Stadium was demolished soon afterwards to allow for the completion of the new Ice Centre .
The new National Ice Centre was designed by Nottingham City Council officials and was built by John Laing plc . The building cost £ 40 million to construct , of which £ 22 @.@ 5 million was awarded by the National Lottery . The arena half of the facility was opened on 1 April 2000 , with the second public skating pad opening a year later . Both rinks are Olympic sized ice pads measuring 196 feet ( 60 m ) by 97 feet ( 30 m ) . The Panthers played their first game at their new home on 2 September 2000 when the team hosted the London Knights in the Benson & Hedges Cup . Barry Nieckar scored the club 's first goal in a 2 – 1 Panthers victory played to a crowd of 4 @,@ 800 .
= = Honours and awards = =
= = Records and statistics = =
Randall Weber holds the record for Nottingham Panthers appearances , having played for the club 845 times between 1985 and 2002 . Centre Chick Zamick comes second , having appeared 624 times between 1947 and 1958 .
Canadian forward Paul Adey is the club 's all @-@ time leader in goals , assists and points . He scored 828 goals and 781 assists for a total of 1 @,@ 609 points in 609 appearance between 1988 and 1999 . Zamick is in second place having scored 774 goals and 638 assists for 1412 points . He is the only other player to have amassed more than 1 @,@ 000 points for the Panthers . Adey also holds the record for the most goals scored by a Panthers player in a single season with 120 during the 1994 – 95 season . During the same season Rick Brebant set club records for the most assists and most points in a single season with 156 and 241 respectively .
British forward Simon Hunt holds the club record for the most penalty minutes , serving 1 @,@ 226 minutes in 524 appearances between 1988 and 1999 . During 2000 – 01 Barry Nieckar earned 352 penalty minutes , the highest number for a player in a single season .
The club 's record win came on 31 October 1981 when the Panthers defeated the Southampton Vikings 31 – 2 at the Ice Stadium . A few weeks earlier , on 4 October , the Panthers had recorded their record away victory with a 23 – 1 win over the same opposition . The team 's heaviest defeat came on 20 March 1988 with a 23 – 1 away defeat at the Whitley Warriors . Nottingham 's largest home defeat was a 14 – 2 loss to the Dundee Rockets on 25 February 1984 .
The Nottingham Panthers have held continuous membership of British ice hockey 's highest division since the foundation of the Premier League in 1983 and are the only team to have this distinction . The club are one of the oldest in the Elite Ice Hockey League having been founded eight years after the Fife Flyers , but forty years before the Cardiff Devils .
On 29 December 2011 , forward David Clarke became the Elite Ice Hockey League All @-@ time leading goalscorer in all competitions . Clarke scored to move on to 230 goals and pass Adam Calder .
In the same game , another milestone was set as David @-@ Alexandre Beaurgard reached his 1 @,@ 000 career point .
On 9 March 2014 David Clarke registered his 600th EIHL point in his career , in the same game Corey Neilson also became Nottingham Panthers most successful coach , overtaking Mike Blaisdell .
= = Current roster = =
2015 – 16 EIHL season
= = Confirmed signings for the 2016 @-@ 17 season = =
= = Honoured members = =
The Panthers have retired the numbers of five players since reforming : The number 3 of defenceman Gary Rippingale was retired following his death at the age of eighteen in 1992 . Randall Weber , who spent his entire seventeen @-@ year career at the Panthers , had his number 10 retired following his final game for the club in 2002 . The number 11 of forward Greg Hadden and the number 22 of the club 's all @-@ time leading goal , assist and point scorer Paul Adey were retired in 2003 . The number 77 of defenceman and head coach Corey Neilson was retired in 2013 on the same night the club were presented with their first league championship trophy since 1956 .
Sixteen people who have been associated with the Panthers are members of British ice hockey 's Hall of Fame . As a member of the Great Britain team that won gold at the 1936 Winter Olympics , Panthers coach Archie Stinchcombe was inducted in 1951 . The club 's first coach , Alex Archer was posthumously elected to the Hall of Fame as a member of the Olympic winning team in 1993 . Forward Chick Zamick , who played for the Panthers between 1947 and 1958 and holds the original club 's records for most goals and most appearances , was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1951 while fellow forward and team mate Les Strongman who went on to serve as the modern club 's coach , secretary and as a club director was inducted in 1987 . Coaches Alex Dampier and Mike Blaisdell were inducted in 1995 and 2004 respectively while Paul Adey was inducted in 2006 . Former players George Beach , Rick Brebant , Johnny Carlyle , Stephen Cooper , Jack Dryburgh , Art Hodgins , Chris Kelland , Jimmy Spence and Mike Urquhart are also members of the Hall of Fame . Zamick is the only person associated with the Nottingham Panthers to have membership of another Hall of Fame , having been inducted into the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame in 1995 .
= = Leaders = =
= = = Head coaches = = =
† Dampier was Director of Hockey between 2000 and 2002 . Coaching during this period was overseen by Peter Woods ( 2000 – 01 ) and Paul Adey ( 2001 – 02 ) , however overall responsibility for the team remained with Dampier .
= = = Team captains = = =
= Dan Povenmire =
Daniel Kingsley " Dan " Povenmire ( / ˈpɒvənmaɪər / ; born September 18 , 1963 ) is an American television director , writer , producer , storyboard artist , and voice actor associated with several animated television series , best known as the co @-@ creator of the Disney animated series Phineas and Ferb in which he also voiced the show 's villain , Heinz Doofenshmirtz . Povenmire grew up in Mobile , Alabama , where he was a talented art student who spent summers outdoors and making movies . Povenmire attended the University of South Alabama before deciding to pursue a film career and transferring to the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts .
Povenmire has been a long @-@ time contributor to the animation business , working on several different animated television series such as Hey Arnold ! , The Simpsons , Rocko 's Modern Life and SpongeBob SquarePants . He was a longtime director on the prime time series Family Guy , where he was nominated for an Annie Award in 2005 . He left the series to create Phineas and Ferb with Jeff " Swampy " Marsh . Povenmire has been nominated for several awards for his work on the show , including a BAFTA , an Annie , and an Emmy Award . As of 2015 , he and Marsh are currently producing a new series for Disney entitled Milo Murphy 's Law .
= = Early life = =
Povenmire was born in San Diego , California on September 18 , 1963 , and grew up in the city of Mobile , Alabama . A child prodigy , he began drawing at age two ; by the time he was ten , his work was displayed in local art shows . His first efforts in animation included a series of flip books that he produced in his school text books . As a child , Povenmire considered animator Chuck Jones his hero ; in a 2009 interview , he stated that " every drawing he [ Jones ] did was beautiful to look at and had so much energy in it " . Hayao Miyazaki was also an early influence .
= = Education = =
Povenmire received his secondary education at Shaw High School in Mobile . Initially , he attended the University of South Alabama , where he created his first popular comic strip , Life is a Fish , devoted to the life of Herman the goldfish and the college students he lives with . Povenmire also supported himself as a waiter and performer at a dinner theater . In 1985 , he transferred to the University of Southern California ( USC ) , planning to pursue a career in film .
Soon after arriving at USC , he pitched Life is a Fish to Mark Ordesky , the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Daily Trojan , the university newspaper . Ordesky first " basically brushed [ him ] off " , but , after viewing Povenmire 's portfolio , accepted the strip . Fish ran daily in the paper . Though the rapid pace left Povenmire afraid he was " running out of ideas " , he never missed a deadline and made $ 14 @,@ 000 a year through Fish merchandise , which included T @-@ shirts , books , and calendars sold at the campus craft fair . The discipline of regular production also helped teach Povenmire to " represent something in the least amount of lines " .
= = Career = =
= = = Early works = = =
Povenmire left USC without finishing the degree requirements , and used the money from Fish merchandise to fund a short @-@ lived career as a street artist . His first professional animation commission came on the Tommy Chong project Far Out Man , for which Povenmire produced two minutes of animation . By age 24 , Povenmire was freelancing on several animated television series , including Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles . In 1989 , he appeared in a small role as a band member in Adam Sandler 's first film , Going Overboard .
In the 1990s , Povenmire secured a job as a character layout animator on the hit animated series The Simpsons . His desk placed him opposite Jeffery Marsh , another up @-@ and @-@ coming animator . They shared similar tastes in humor and music , and later became colleagues on other projects .
Povenmire 's experience , from both previous industry work and from his own projects , earned him respect at The Simpsons . He worked on layout animation and collaborated on storyboard production for the series , recalling later that staff were handed pages of production notes and instructed to " Do the Brad Bird notes and any others that make sense . " He maintained a side interest in film , writing scripts and the screenplay for a low @-@ budget horror movie , Psycho Cop 2 . The movie 's producers offered Povenmire the opportunity to direct the film , but its terms required that he quit The Simpsons . Povenmire chose to stay with The Simpsons , which he enjoyed and considered a better fit with his future ambitions . Rif Coogan ended up directing the picture instead .
= = = Rocko 's Modern Life = = =
Work on The Simpsons involved an irregular schedule . The producers laid off the animation staff for two @-@ to @-@ three @-@ month periods , and rehired the staff later in the production cycle . During one of these layoffs , Povenmire found a temporary job on the series Rocko 's Modern Life , Nickelodeon 's first in @-@ house cartoon production . The show 's creator , television newcomer Joe Murray , hired Povenmire solely on the strength of his Life is a Fish comic strips , which proved he could both write and draw .
Though Povenmire started on Rocko simply to occupy his downtime from The Simpsons , he found the greater creative freedom he enjoyed on his temporary job compelling , and quit The Simpsons to work on Rocko full @-@ time . There , he reunited with Jeff Marsh , this time as a writing partner ; Marsh claimed the crew hoped Povenmire 's neatness would offset his own sloppy storyboarding . The pair developed a distinctive style characterized by characteristic musical numbers and chase scenes . Povenmire and Marsh won an Environmental Achievement Award for a 1996 Rocko episode they had written .
= = = Family Guy = = =
Povenmire later became a director on Family Guy , starting with the season two episode , " Road to Rhode Island " . Creator Seth MacFarlane granted Povenmire substantial creative freedom . Povenmire recalled that MacFarlane would tell him " We 've got two minutes to fill . Give me some visual gags . Do whatever you want . I trust you . " Povenmire praised MacFarlane 's management style for letting him " have [ ... ] fun . " Povenmire brought realism and material from his own experiences to the visual direction of Family Guy . For " One if By Clam , Two if By Sea " ( August 1 , 2001 ) , several characters demonstrate Fosse @-@ like moves in prison . To correctly depict the moves , Povenmire asked color artist Cynthia MacIntosh , who had been a professional dancer , to strike poses so he could properly illustrate the sequence . In the episode " To Love and Die in Dixie " ( November 15 , 2001 ) , Povenmire drew on his childhood in the Deep South to create and sequence a background scene in which the redneck character nonchalantly kicks a corpse into the nearby river .
" Brian Wallows and Peter 's Swallows " ( January 17 , 2002 ) , a Family Guy episode which Povenmire directed , won the Emmy Award for Best Song . Creator MacFarlane , the recipient of the award , noted that Povenmire deserved to have received the award for the contribution the visuals made to the episode 's win . Povenmire jokingly responded " That 's a nice sentiment and all , but did he offer to give me his ? No ! And it 's not like he doesn 't already have two of his own just sitting in his house ! " Povenmire was nominated for an Annie Award for Directing in an Animated Television Production for the episode " PTV " ( November 6 , 2005 ) but lost out to a fellow Family Guy director Peter Shin , who had directed the episode " North By North Quahog " . Povenmire and several others were also nominated for their work on " PTV " in the Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) category at the Primetime Emmy Awards . Povenmire also received the same nomination for " Road to Rhode Island . "
While directing for Family Guy , Povenmire was offered a job as storyboard director of the series SpongeBob SquarePants . He wrote various musical numbers for the series , including " The Campfire Song Song " in " The Camping Episode " ( April 3 , 2004 ) .
= = = Phineas and Ferb = = =
In 1993 , Povenmire and Marsh conceived the series Phineas and Ferb , based on their similar experiences of childhood summers spent outdoors . Povenmire spent 14 – 16 years pitching Phineas and Ferb to several networks . Most rejected it as unfeasible for the complexity of its plots , but Povenmire persevered , later observing " It was really the show we wanted to see : if this was on the air , I 'd watch it , and I don 't always feel that about every show I work on . " Even the Walt Disney Company initially rejected Povenmire 's pitch , but asked to keep the proposal packet : " Usually that means they throw it in the trash later , " Povenmire recalled . Eventually Disney called Povenmire back with an acceptance , on the condition that he would produce an 11 @-@ minute pilot . He called Marsh , who was living in England , to ask him if he would like to work on the pilot ; Marsh accepted immediately and moved back to the United States .
Instead of a conventional script , the pair pitched the pilot by recording reels of its storyboard , which Povenmire then mixed and dubbed to produce action and vocals . The network approved the show for a 26 @-@ episode season . Povenmire left Family Guy to create the series .
Povenmire and Marsh wanted to incorporate into Phineas and Ferb the kind of humor they had developed in their work on Rocko 's Modern Life . They included action sequences and , with Disney 's encouragement , featured musical numbers in every episode subsequent to " Flop Starz " . Povenmire described the songs as his and Marsh 's " jab at immortality " , but the pair have earned two Emmy nominations for Phineas and Ferb songs to @-@ date . A third Emmy nomination , for the episode " The Monster of Phineas @-@ n @-@ Ferbenstein " ( 2009 ) , pitted the show against SpongeBob SquarePants , although neither nominee received the award due to a technicality . In 2010 , Povenmire was nominated amongst several other Phineas and Ferb crew members for the Daytime Emmy Award for both " Outstanding Writing in Animation " and " Outstanding Original Song – Children ’ s and Animation " for their work on the show , winning for " Outstanding Writing in Animation " .
The distinctive style of the animation legend Tex Avery influenced the show 's artistic look . Like Avery , Povermire employed geometric shapes to build both the characters and the background . The style developed almost accidentally , with Povenmire 's first sketch of title character , Phineas Flynn , which he produced while eating dinner with his family in a restaurant in South Pasadena , California . He doodled a triangle @-@ shaped child on the butcher paper covering the table . He was so taken with sketch he tore it out , kept it , and used it as the prototype for Phineas and as the stylistic blueprint for the entire show .
= = = Musical endeavors = = =
During his college years , Povenmire had performed with a band that played at clubs and bars across Los Angeles , California . His current band , Keep Left , releases albums through Arizona University Recordings . Their second CD , Letters from Fielding , became available for download on aurec.com during 2004 . They have an official website maintained and updated by artist Larry Stone . A 2004 email exchange about the website between Stone and Povenmire resulted in a " clever and twisted " series of comic strips drawn by the two , eventually moved to the website Badmouth .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= Hurricane Emmy =
Hurricane Emmy was the longest @-@ lived hurricane of the 1976 Atlantic hurricane season . The fifth tropical cyclone and the third hurricane of the season , Emmy developed from a tropical wave on August 20 to the east of the Lesser Antilles . After changing its direction three times over several days , during which it reached a peak intensity of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , it turned to the east and slowly weakened . Emmy passed through the Azores on September 3 , and a day later it was absorbed by approaching Hurricane Frances .
Emmy passed within 135 miles ( 215 km ) of the Lesser Antilles , though only minor effects were experienced . No damage was reported in the Azores , though strong winds from the hurricane caused a Venezuelan air force flight to crash near Lajes Field , killing all 68 aboard .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa between August 15 and August 16 . The wave moved westward at 15 to 20 mph ( 24 to 32 km / h ) , and developed atmospheric convection along the wave axis . It slowly organized , developing a low @-@ level circulation , and formed into a tropical depression on August 20 while located about 775 miles ( 1 @,@ 250 km ) east of Barbados . A reconnaissance aircraft flight into the system on August 21 confirmed the existence of a depression , which reported winds of only 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) with a pressure of 1 @,@ 012 mbar . The depression slowly strengthened and organized , and after turning to the west @-@ northwest , it intensified into Tropical Storm Emmy on August 22 while located 370 miles ( 600 km ) east @-@ northeast of Guadeloupe . The tropical wave from which Emmy developed from continued westward through the Caribbean Sea and ultimately developed into Tropical Storm Joanna in the eastern Pacific Ocean .
Tropical Storm Emmy turned more to the northwest , and passed about 135 miles ( 220 km ) northeast of Barbuda on August 23 . The rapid development of an unseasonable frontal low pressure system to the northeast of the storm turned Emmy sharply east @-@ northeastward on August 25 . Its eastward movement at such a low latitude for the time of year was unprecedented . The storm steadily intensified and Emmy attained hurricane status later on the 25th while located 270 miles ( 430 km ) north of Barbuda . After moving eastward for about 24 hours , the Westerlies retreated northward , and Emmy turned gradually to the northwest .
A strong ridge over the north Atlantic Ocean turned Emmy sharply eastward on August 29 . The hurricane continued to strengthen , and Emmy attained a peak intensity of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) shortly after turning to the east while located 500 miles ( 800 km ) northeast of Bermuda . The hurricane maintained its peak intensity for 42 hours while moving eastward at 17 mph ( 27 km / h ) , and slowly weakened after peaking in strength . On September 1 , Emmy turned to the east @-@ southeast , and a day later it turned to the northeast as its forward motion decreased . Emmy passed through the Azores on September 3 , and the following day it became extratropical to the north of the islands . The extratropical remnant persisted another six hours before being absorbed by approaching Hurricane Frances .
= = Impact and preparations = =
Initially , the path of Emmy was uncertain whether it would affect the Lesser Antilles . As a result , officials issued a hurricane watch for the northeastern Leeward Islands . The warning was cancelled when the storm turned more to the north , with the outer fringes of the hurricane slightly impacting Antigua . Several ships experienced rough seas and strong winds from Emmy , though none reported any damage . After Emmy turned to the west for the final time , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center considered the hurricane not a real threat to land , though they indicated it had a remote chance to affect land masses . The hurricane also posed a threat to the island of Bermuda initially , though it remained away from the island . Two days before Emmy passed through the Azores , the National Hurricane Center advised citizens there to closely monitor the progress of the storm . No damage reports exist from the Azores , though it was likely not severe .
On September 3 , a C @-@ 130 Hercules air force flight left Caracas , Venezuela for Spain , with a flight crew of 10 and 58 members of the Central University of Venezuela choir . That night , heavy rainfall from the hurricane forced the plane to land on the Azores island of Terceira Island , Portugal . After attempting twice to land in hurricane @-@ force winds , the plane crashed in a hill one mile from the runway of Lajes Field , killing all 68 aboard .
= Beach Games =
" Beach Games " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the third season of the US version of The Office , and the 51st of the series . In this episode , the office goes to a nearby lake for some " beach games " . It is revealed that Michael ( Steve Carell ) is being interviewed for a position at Corporate and that the winner of the beach games will become regional manager . Meanwhile , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) and Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) sabotage Andy ( Ed Helms ) , and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) spends her day taking notes of the office workers ' activities .
The episode was written by Jennifer Celotta and Greg Daniels and directed by Harold Ramis . Filming took place at a fake beach near Hansen Dam , as it was " the bleakest lake [ they could ] find . " The crew had to deal with hot temperatures during the day and " frigid " weather at night . One of Helms ' scenes involved him being trapped on a lake in a sumo wrestling outfit , forcing him to wear a harness and be pulled by a boat manned by a crew member . For the fire walk , orange and yellow gels and lava rocks were used , and gas lines were installed to produce flames .
An estimated 7 @.@ 2 million viewers watched " Beach Games " on its first American broadcast on May 10 , 2007 , resulting in the episode placing fourth for the night in its timeslot . It received mainly positive reviews from television critics , and many cited the sumo suit scenes as particular highlights . Most critics praised Pam 's speech at the end of the episode , though one found it out of character .
= = Synopsis = =
When Michael ( Steve Carell ) is invited to interview for a position at Dunder @-@ Mifflin corporate headquarters in New York City , he assumes he will get the job and decides to hold a Survivor @-@ like competition at Lake Scranton to determine his successor . The entire office travels to the lake by bus , except for Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) , whom Michael will not allow to attend , much to Toby 's disappointment because he anticipated getting to see Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) wearing her bikini .
Michael selects the " tribe " captains – Jim ( John Krasinski ) , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , Andy ( Ed Helms ) and Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) – and instructs Pam to take detailed notes on the events of the day , which include games such as egg and spoon races and hot dog eating contests . Initially unaware of the purpose of the exercise , the employees do not all take it seriously . Once the job in New York is revealed , Andy and Dwight step up their efforts , Stanley tries to be enthusiastic but gives up , and Jim decides to interview for the same position that Michael is pursuing . Karen ( Rashida Jones ) also applies for the position .
To support her secret lover Dwight , Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) sabotages Andy , leaving him adrift in the lake in an inflatable sumo wrestling costume . Michael 's final event is a walk across hot coals . Initially , only Pam volunteers , but Michael refuses to let her walk across because she is not being considered to replace him . However , Michael cannot even bring himself to do it . Dwight throws himself on the coals , refusing to leave until he is given the job , and he writhes in agony until he is dragged off .
As a last @-@ ditch effort to salvage the day , Michael assembles a " Tribal Council " stand @-@ up comedy competition . Jim declines to participate , and reveals that he has applied for the position in New York . Separated from the group , a barefoot Pam runs across the hot coals and , feeling a new sense of confidence because of the experience , interrupts the Tribal Council to berate her colleagues for treating her poorly , citing the fact that almost no one attended her art show . She rounds on Jim , and tells him that she called off her wedding because of him , that it is " fine " that he is with someone else now , but that she misses the fun that they had as best friends before he transferred . As she runs to cool her feet in the water , the cameraman turns to Jim who is now in a blank stare , shaken by the confession .
= = Production = =
" Beach Games " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jennifer Celotta and series creator Greg Daniels , and was directed by Harold Ramis , whose credits include the episodes " A Benihana Christmas " and " Safety Training " . Celotta and Daniels came up with the idea for the opening scene while researching medical symptoms at WebMD ; they began considering ideas for the episode 's cold open , and decided to write on what " we 're doing right now , " resulting in Michael researching symptoms . Michael 's later conversation with David Wallace set an important foundation for both the season and the series , as it established that several people would be competing for a corporate job and solidified the CFO as an important character . The actor who plays Wallace , guest star Andy Buckley , was then working at Merrill Lynch as a stockbroker .
Originally the crew sought to film at a lake that resembled Lake Scranton . However , upon arriving at one in the area they found that it was too beautiful , as they had wanted a lake that was the equivalent of the dour office : " the bleakest lake [ they could ] find . " Eventually , much of the episode was filmed at a fake beach at the reservoir of Hansen Dam , where it was " a thousand degrees during the day and minus 40 at night , " Celotta remarked in the DVD audio commentary . " We had tents pumping air conditioning that didn 't work all day long , " according to one crew member . And at night , the production crew set up heaters everywhere because the weather became " frigid " .
Actress Kate Flannery later said that the days of filming were extremely " hot " , and she became sick of hot dogs after eating many of them in the contest seen in the episode . Many cast members spit out the hot dogs after putting them in their mouths , an act that sometimes activated Ed Helms ' gag reflex . The cast members found the sumo suits uncomfortable , both due to the hot weather and the inability to sit down . Actress Angela Kinsey previewed before the episode broadcast that she would " forever look at John Krasinski differently , because he looked so hilarious to me " wearing his sumo suit . For the scenes of Helms floating in the lake in his sumo suit , the actor wore a harness and a fishing line that snaked out through his sleeve , the purpose being to drag him farther out on the lake . A crew member pulled him in a row boat ; the crew would film a take of the scene , and then would have to wait fifteen minutes to do it again .
To create a safe enough fire pit to allow the actors to walk on it , the crew used a " light box buried in the ground with orange and yellow gels on it , with lava rocks on top , " according to Ramis . Gas lines were also buried in the sand to supply a steady stream of flames . Many of the scenes and lines of dialogue were improvised , such as Andy throwing a rock at a duck and Jim guiding an unsuspecting Karen into the water . For Pam 's speech , Daniels and Celotta knew it was important , and discussed with Ramis for about 45 minutes about how best to shoot it . Many different takes were shot , and Celotta thought Fischer " was so amazing , take after take after take . " Ramis believed the past 28 episodes had contained a slow build @-@ up to this scene . Daniels wrote most of the speech , though Celotta did contribute some parts .
The third season DVD contains a number of deleted scenes . Notable cut scenes included Jim receiving a call informing him of the job opening , Michael annoying Pam when she 's preparing the hot dogs by telling her to grill faster , Dwight sumo wrestling with Stanley , Ryan asking to participate in the fire walk , and Andy failing to flag down a passing car .
= = Cultural references = =
On the bus , the cast sing songs such as the Kenny Rogers song " The Gambler " and the Flintstones theme song . Ramis encouraged them to sing , as he had never ridden on a bus where people did not sing . Also in the episode , Michael wears Sandals gear and a beaded necklace , a reference to his Jamaican vacation in " Back from Vacation " . According to Helms and the episode 's writers , the plot references the reality television series Survivor and The Bachelor , and The Apprentice . Before their work on The Office , the camera men used in this episode shot Survivor for four years . Several media outlets noted similarities between Michael and Jeff Probst , the host of Survivor .
= = Reception = =
The episode first aired in the U.S. on May 10 , 2007 , attracting 7 @.@ 2 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 9 / 11 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 . It ranked fourth in its timeslot behind episodes of Survivor : Fiji , Ugly Betty , and Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader ? . It was a special 28 @-@ minute " supersized " episode .
Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West considered Pam 's speech to be " a terrific payoff for those of us invested ( some might say too much ) in the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Karen love triangle . " West also praised other aspects of the episode , such as the fire walk and the sequences with Stanley ' to her , " everyone brought his or her A game ( in hilarity , if not in effort ) to the race to succeed Michael . " IGN 's Travis Fickett rated " Beach Games " 8 @.@ 5 / 10 , an indication of a " great " episode . Like West , he highlighted Stanley for praise , and also liked Helms being trapped on the lake . Fickett concluded that " while this episode 's closing scene doesn 't have the impact of Jim telling Pam he was in love with her at the end of Season 2 , it is one of those long awaited moments that we knew was coming . And Jenna Fischer , as Pam , handles it perfectly . Once again the Scranton branch is facing some big changes , and the show has us eagerly awaiting the season finale . "
Give Me My Remote writer Kath Skerry liked the cast 's scenes with the sumo suits , but saved most of her praise for Pam 's speech . She declared that it " was AMAZING . Jenna Fischer blew me away with that speech . It ’ s what I have been hoping for since the first episode of this season . It didn ’ t end with Jim swooping in and kissing Pam but there ’ s still one episode left in the season . So that ’ s what we have to ponder over the next week . " Jay Black of AOLTV also enjoyed the episode . He wrote , " I thought that it was a bit more low key than some of the previous episodes ( hilarious sumo outfits not withstanding ) and that suited me just fine . I thought that Michael 's ridiculousness , always a difficult balancing act , was reigned @-@ in to just this side of believable where it belongs . I thought that it was filled with a great assortment of gags , both character @-@ based and farcical . " However , Black was critical of Pam 's speech because it felt both " forced " and out of character for Pam to publicly state her feelings .
= After This =
After This is a 2006 novel by award @-@ winning American author Alice McDermott . The novel follows a working @-@ class American family who reside on Long Island , New York and their four children , who are enduring their own experiences during the times of the sexual revolution . It is set during the mid @-@ 20th century , a time after the end of World War II , through to the presidency of Richard Nixon .
The book received many positive reviews from critics , often commenting on the writing styles of McDermott . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette commented that the storyline is " sophisticated in design , spare like an elegant entrée at a fine restaurant . " The book was highlighted among the 100 Notable Books of the Year of The New York Times .
= = About the author = =
Alice McDermott was born in Brooklyn , New York on June 27 , 1953 . In 1975 , McDermott received her B.A. from the State University of New York and her M.A from the University of New Hampshire in 1978 . She began writing at an early stage in her life , although her first novel , A Bigamists ' Daughter , was not published until 1982 . In 1987 , McDermott was a recipient of the Whiting Writers Award for her novels , several of which had been finalists for the Pulitzer Prize or winners of the National Book Award .
= = Content = =
The book is set on Long Island , New York , shortly after the ending of World War II . Mary Rose , a lonely , thirty @-@ year @-@ old woman with the responsibility of looking after her father and brother , leaves Church on an April day in the 1940s . She goes to a Schrafft 's outlet and becomes acquainted with a man there ordering food . When she sees him there the next day , the pair begin dating and eventually marry . Together , they have four children . Their first three children , Jacob , Michael , and Annie live with their parents in an Irish @-@ Catholic community on Long Island .
Their fourth child , Claire , is delivered by a neighbor of the family in the lounge of their house as a hurricane is heading towards the Eastern Seaboard . The book follows the family through the 1960s and 1970s , as the children enter adolescence and discover themselves during the changing times of the 1960s and the Sexual Revolution . The Keane children , on entering early adulthood , begin to break away from their family and religious backgrounds . Jacob , the eldest child , serves in Vietnam and is killed in the French trenches . Michael moves away from Long Island and goes to study in a college in northern New York , but later turns to sex and drugs . Meanwhile , Annie , the bookworm of the family , leaves to study in England , but quickly changes her plans after meeting a man on a bus whom she likes . Claire , the youngest , returns from a summer vacation to her former Catholic high school , showing a changed personality and increased self @-@ confidence .
= = Reception = =
The Washington Post commented that " in After This there is no excess , no look @-@ at @-@ me pyrotechnics in her prose ; with the mastery of a poet , she distills the life of the Keanes to its essence . " A review by The Chicago Tribune noted that " It is hard to know how to start piling on the praise for this gripping , poignant book . It would seem there is no technique of fiction McDermott has not mastered . Like the masters , she makes it look effortless . " Writing for the New York City @-@ circulated Wall Street Journal , Kate Flatley LaVoie praised the book , praised the book , writing : " Through sharp , funny , heartbreaking and breathtaking vignettes , Ms. McDermott conveys the family 's evolution ( and America 's too ) — from John and Mary 's first meeting at a diner in postwar New York City through the children 's traditional Catholic school youth in the 1950s to the inevitable turbulence of the 1960s . "
USA Today wrote " McDermott 's prose is stunning yet emotionally cool , " adding : " While it fails as a cohesive novel , After This shines in its small moments , much like a story collection . " Entertainment Weekly described it as a " lovely needlepoint of a novel . " The Economist reviewed the book positively , writing " After This is more than a book about an influential time in history and its effect on those living through it . In its portrayal of the emotions that hold people and families together — the loyalties and frustrations , the sorrows and joys — this quietly unusual novel is ultimately about what it is to be human . "
= Ten Hamadi =
Ten Hamadi ( Arabic : تن حمادي ) or Tenhemad is a village and rural commune in southern Mauritania , in the Aïoun El Atrouss department of the Hodh El Gharbi region . In 2000 , the commune had a population of 2 @,@ 264 , of which 155 lived in the village of Ten Hamadi itself , approximately 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) southwest of the main town and departmental capital of Aïoun El Atrouss . The population estimate in 2007 was 3 @,@ 686 , spread over 16 villages .
The northern part of the commune is hilly but relatively favorable to agriculture , while the southern part is flat and characterized by sand dunes . Situated at the southern boundary of the Sahara @-@ Sahel region of southern Mauritania , the climate is generally hot and dry .
Most of the population live in poverty , occupied in farming or raising livestock . Some have moved to the cities to seek a higher standard of living , returning to help during the peak periods of agricultural activity . Infrastructure is underdeveloped ; there is no electricity supply , most water comes from traditional wells , and the rudimentary school system provides only elementary education in poorly equipped establishments .
= = History = =
Settlement of the commune began with the establishment of the village of El Emn in 1960 , followed by the main village of Ten Hamadi in 1962 . El Bakhakh was established in 1972 , and is one of the fastest @-@ growing settlements in the commune . Its population more than doubled between 2000 and 2007 , from 111 to an estimated 230 , making it more populous than the main village of Ten Hamadi . Egueni Ehl Ahmed Zein , established in 1980 , on the other hand , has declined in population by more than 75 percent , with a population of 1 @,@ 252 in 2000 to an estimated 284 in 2007 . In 2007 , nearby Aïoun El Atrouss was one of the stops on the 2007 Dakar Rally .
= = Geography and climate = =
Ten Hamadi is situated at the southern boundary of the Sahara @-@ Sahel region of southern Mauritania . By air it is located approximately 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) southwest of the departmental capital of Aioun El Atrouss , and the main village of Ten Hamadi is accessed via a dirt trail leading south off National Route 3 , which connects it to this town and to the town of Tintane to the west . The commune is bordered to the north by the village and rural commune of Doueirara , to the north @-@ east by the town and urban commune of Aioun El Atrouss , to the east by the village and rural commune of Beneamane , to the south by the village and rural commune of Hassi Ehel Bechna Ahmed , and to the west by the village and rural commune of Hassi Abdallah .
The northern part of the commune is hilly but relatively favorable to agriculture , while the southern part is flat and characterized by sand dunes . Sixteen caves are found within the area . The earth is mainly composed of stony rocks , sandy loam soils , and clay loam soils in the beds of wadis in the area . The soils in the hills have pockets of alluvium and sandy loam suitable for crop development , particularly on the hillsides and at the foot of the hills . Clay loam soils are found in the bowls and beds of wadis , which although suitable for farming are susceptible to gully and water erosion during the rainy season . The aquifers of shallow wells with depths varying from 25 – 50 metres ( 82 – 164 ft ) , yielding little more than 2 cubic metres / hour ( 71 cu ft ) , vary widely in availability . Deeper aquifers offer larger quantities of water , but its quality is generally brackish . The wadis are generally dry , usually only inundated after rainfall .
Vegetation is typical of the Sahara @-@ Sahel region , and is mainly desert with thorny steppe land . Soil erosion is a problem , as many previously wooded areas have disappeared as the locals use wood for fuel , and inadequate farming practices have sometimes resulted in soil exhaustion .
Ten Hamadi has three main climatic seasons . The wet season from July to October has temperatures of the order of 30 – 40 ° C ( 85 – 105 ° F ) and irregular rainfall . The dry and cold season in November to February has temperatures that can fall below 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) during the night . During the hot and dry season from March to June temperatures reach 40 – 45 ° C ( 105 – 115 ° F ) during the day .
= = = Villages = = =
In 2007 , there were 16 villages in the commune according to the Mauritanian government , with a total estimated population of 3 @,@ 686 .
= = Demography and religion = =
In 2000 , the commune had a population of 2 @,@ 264 people , with 155 people in the village of Ten Hamadi itself . In 2007 , the commune had 3 @,@ 686 inhabitants in about 791 households . The population is generally young , and more than 53 percent are female . Most people belong to the Tenwajiw tribe , although small numbers belong to the Oulad Nasser , Smalil and Leglal tribes . Most live in the north and east of the commune owing to greater availability of water and land that can be used for crops or grazing . More than half the population live below the poverty line . There is seasonal migration from the commune to the cities of Aïoun and Nouakchott in the dry season , then back to the commune in the winter season , when many people return to help their families with tilling and planting . Like the rest of Mauritania , Islam is the primary religion , which according to the Central Intelligence Agency has a 100 percent following in the country .
= = Economy = =
The economy is mostly based on agriculture and raising livestock , with some commerce and artisan activity . There are some dams and ditches to support irrigation , but they are in a poor condition . In 2007 , there were 361 farmers , most of whom relied on irrigation to some extent , nine grain banks and one grain mill . There were 311 sedentary stock owners , 115 semi @-@ migratory and 65 practicing large @-@ scale migration , mostly to Mali . An estimate of herd sizes gave 10 @,@ 340 goats , 8 @,@ 870 cattle , 1 @,@ 361 camels , 652 donkeys and a few horses and sheep . There were 63 full @-@ time retailers and 143 people practicing trade to some extent . There were 45 full @-@ time artisans and 65 part @-@ time craftspeople . Activities included masonry , transport by cart , butchering , bakery and woodworking .
= = Education = =
In 2001 , the commune had eight primary schools with 19 teachers for 595 children . There were 20 mahadras , or traditional schools , in 11 locations . Only four had a library or document repository . There were 11 writing rooms of varying quality , and one small vocational training centre . By 2007 , the commune had 11 primary schools with 689 students ( 45 percent of whom were girls ) and 28 teachers , but no secondary school . Only three schools had desks . All had latrines , but not all had drinking water or facilities for preparing meals for the children . The quality of education was mixed .
= = Public services = =
Until fairly recently , Ten Hamadi had no mains power supply , no radio communication , and no fixed telephone lines , but most areas now have mobile coverage from at least one of the three local operators : Mauritel , MATTEL and Chinguitel . Fewer than a third of families have a latrine . In 2001 , there was one health centre in the village of Ten Hamadi , built of cement with a corrugated roof and with six rooms . A pharmacy was operated on a cost @-@ recovery basis . By 2007 , there were two health posts in the commune , each staffed by one nurse , but there were no midwives . The health posts had no running water , electricity or latrines , and were not equipped with radio or ambulances , although the post at Ten Hamadi village did have a refrigerator and a pharmacy .
The commune has six wells with pumps supplying 221 connections , 15 modern wells and 61 traditional wells . The water tends to become salty towards the end of the dry season . The main village of the commune relies on two traditional wells . The " Route de l ’ Espoir " ( Road of Hope ) crosses the commune , providing good access to several villages . The commune has several permanent tracks , but some villages are difficult to access , particularly in winter . About 20 percent of the dwellings are concrete ; the others are shacks or , in a few cases , tents .
= Banded archerfish =
The banded archerfish ( Toxotes jaculatrix ) is a brackish water perciform fish of the archerfish genus Toxotes . It is silvery in colour and has a dorsal fin towards the posterior end . It has distinctive , semi @-@ triangular markings along its sides . It is best known for its ability to spit a jet of water to " shoot down " prey . Larger specimens may be able to hit prey 2 to 3 metres ( 6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in ) away . The banded archerfish may reach the displaced prey within 50 milliseconds of its hitting the water .
The name ( binomial as well as common ) refers to Sagittarius the archer , because of the unusual method banded archerfish use to capture prey . Banded archerfish are found in Indo @-@ Pacific and Oceanian waters , generally in river mouths and mangrove estuaries . They move between fresh , salt , and brackish water over the course of their lifetime , though not to breed . Because of their markings and silvery colour , banded archerfish are sometimes kept as aquarium fish , though they are difficult to care for and not recommended for most home aquaria .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
Toxotes jaculatrix were originally described by Peter Simon Pallas in 1767 . Since then , several synonyms ( such as Labrus jaculatrix and Sciaena jaculatrix ) and misspellings ( Toxotes jaculator ) have come into use .
Toxotes is Greek for " bowman " or " archer " , and specifically refers to Sagittarius . The species name jaculatrix is related to the English jaculate and means " thrower " or " caster " ( of a dart or arrow ) . Both the common name and binomial name refer to the banded archerfish 's habit of catching prey by shooting " arrows " of water through its mouth .
= = Description = =
Banded archerfish have four dorsal spines , 11 to 13 dorsal soft rays , three anal spines ( of which the third is longest ) and 15 to 17 anal soft rays . The first spine is always the shortest ; the rays become shorter toward the posterior end . There are about 23 scales between the first dorsal spine and the posterior nostrils . Certain areas of the body are tinged green . The back of the fish is olive @-@ green or brown . The dorsal fin is yellowish @-@ green and located towards the posterior end , and its base is shorter than that of the anal fin . The caudal fin is " dirty green " and about the same height until the point of attachment , where it becomes shallower . The anal fin is silver .
The body of the banded archerfish is oblong in shape and raised on the posterior side . The body is generally silver @-@ white in colour , though varying colourations , such as yellow , have been observed . Four to six broad black bars may be present on the dorsal side . The first bar is found anterior to the operculum , the bony plate covering the gills , and the second is found behind the operculum . The third bar is found below the origin of the dorsal fin , the fourth bar below the soft dorsal , and the fifth ( if any ) on the area between the anal fin and caudal fin ( caudal peduncle ) . These bars become shorter as the fish ages . The lateral line curves upwards at the area between the fourth and ninth lateral scales . Banded archerfish can reach a maximum length of 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) ; however , average length is about 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) .
Banded archerfish have large eyes , which , unlike many other fishes , are positioned for binocular vision . The head is slightly shorter than the body , with a distinctively pointed snout . Juveniles may be yellow @-@ green to brown on the dorsal side and silvery on the ventral side . The juveniles ' flanks are grey @-@ green . Some banded archerfish have irregular yellow patches between their bands .
The possibility of sexual dimorphism in banded archerfish has not been investigated .
= = = Comparison to other archerfish = = =
The banded archerfish and its relative the largescale archerfish ( Toxotes chatareus ) are sometimes grouped and sold together under the label " archerfish " . However , the banded archerfish has four dorsal spines whereas largescale archerfish has five . The banded archerfish usually has four to five wedge @-@ shaped bands , but largescale archerfish has six or seven spots and shorter bands in a regular , alternating pattern . Unlike the silvery banded archerfish , the largescale is sooty in colour . The banded archerfish may also be confused with the smallscale archerfish , Toxotes microlepis . These are more difficult to distinguish , but the most striking difference is in the last two bands . While both species have four or five wedge @-@ shaped bands , those of the banded archerfish extend to the dorsal fin , whereas those of the smallscale archerfish do not ; there are two spots on the dorsal fin separate from the main bar .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Banded archerfish are omnivorous . In the daytime , they come to the surface to feed on floating matter . Their diet comprises plant matter and insects , which they are able to " shoot down " . Banded archerfish are also able to capture prey by jumping out of the water and seizing it from low overhanging branches . Young archerfish form small schools while learning aim , increasing the chance that at least one shot will hit the target . Their diet also comprises underwater prey , including crustaceans and small fishes .
= = = Shooting = = =
Banded archerfish have mouths adapted to spit jets of water over distance , usually to knock prey into the water . The banded archerfish shoots the jet of water by raising its tongue against the roof of its mouth , forming a tube . The opercula then close quickly , pressurizing water along the tube . Most archerfish are able to spit at a range of 150 centimetres ( 59 in ) , though some larger specimens may be capable of ranges of up to 2 to 3 metres ( 6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in ) . When a prey is shot down , the banded archerfish begins to move towards the place where it will land within 100 milliseconds and can reach it within 50 ms of its hitting the water .
A study found that banded archerfish could be trained to hit moving targets at an accuracy rate of greater than 50 % . According to this study , the ability to hit moving targets is a complex learned behaviour , and can be learnt from other members of the school . The study concluded that fish could shoot more accurately after observing other members of the school shooting .
The banded archerfish is able to hit targets with a high degree of accuracy , despite refraction of light at the water @-@ air interface . It was believed that they are able to achieve this level of accuracy by positioning their bodies to shoot from directly under the intended target . However , later studies have found that banded archerfish are able to achieve great accuracy even at angles , suggesting that they are somehow able to compensate for refraction . This may also suggest that banded archerfish are capable of three @-@ dimensional tasks .
= = = Breeding = = =
The breeding habits of the banded archerfish are not well known . Banded archerfish first begin to breed when they are about 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . The banded archerfish reproduces by spawning . There are reports that banded archerfish go to saltwater reefs to spawn , but these have not been confirmed . Archerfish lay 20 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 eggs at a time . Banded archerfish rarely breed in captivity .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The banded archerfish inhabits the Indo @-@ Pacific and waters off northern Australia , and less frequently those on the southern coast of Australia . It can be found from India eastwards to the Philippine Islands , southwards to Australia , as well as in waters off the Solomon Islands and the Indonesian Archipelago . It has been observed as far east as the New Hebrides ( now known as Vanuatu ) . The banded archerfish occurs mainly in areas of brackish water . Mangrove estuaries are its primary habitat , though it occasionally moves upstream into freshwater rivers . It is associated with reefs and has been reported to occur near overhanging vegetation . While they may move between fresh and salt water during their life cycle , they do not do so to breed .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Banded archerfish are fairly common in the Indo @-@ Pacific and are not currently endangered . They have a minor commercial role in fisheries and may be sold fresh in markets or collected for the aquarium trade . Banded archerfish are threatened by the destruction of their mangrove swamp habitat and by pollution .
= = = In aquaria = = =
Species in the genus Toxotes , including the banded archerfish , are kept as aquarium fish . In aquaria , the banded archerfish can grow up to 25 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) long . They swim at the top level of the aquarium . Banded archerfish can be kept in small groups of three to five ; fish of the same size get along but fish that are larger may be aggressive towards those that are smaller , and even try to eat them . They may live from five to eight years in captivity , and occasionally nine or ten . Banded archerfish need warm water , usually between 25 and 30 ° C ( 77 and 86 ° F ) . The aquarium should be large with middling amounts of plant growth and plenty of space for swimming . It should be at least 20 to 30 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 to 11 @.@ 8 in ) deep .
Banded archerfish are generally not recommended for average home aquaria despite their attractive appearance because they are difficult to care for and require special conditions . Banded archerfish prefer to shoot and capture live food rather than be fed flake food , and are therefore difficult to feed . They need brackish water as well as a tall canopy . In the wild they are able to jump out of the water to capture prey on overhanging branches ; a tall canopy is required to prevent their jumping out of the aquarium . Banded archerfish should be kept in an aquarium with a volume of at least 45 to 55 US gallons ( 170 to 210 l ; 37 to 46 imp gal ) , though a greater volume is preferred . Because of such difficulties in caring for banded archerfish , the species has not yet been successful in captivity .
= Dude , We 're Getting the Band Back Together =
" Dude , We 're Getting the Band Back Together " is the 22nd aired episode of the animated television series Phineas and Ferb . The episode aired originally on the United States Disney Channel on March 8 , 2008 . The plot concerns an attempt by Phineas Flynn and Ferb Fletcher to reform the band Love Händel for their parents ' wedding anniversary .
The story was written by Bobby Gaylor and Martin Olson , and storyboarded by Chris Headrick and Chong Lee . It was directed by series co @-@ creator Dan Povenmire . The episode 's central characters , the members of Love Händel , are parodies of three of the production staff , Gaylor , Povenmire , and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh . Jaret Reddick , Carlos Alazraqui , and Steve Zahn guest starred as the band members themselves .
" Dude , We 're Getting the Band Back Together " was well received and is considered a " fan favorite . " It has been referred to by the Phineas and Ferb co @-@ creators as one of their favorite episodes in several different interviews . The episode garnered a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for the song " I Ain 't Got Rhythm " in the category " Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics . "
= = Episode summary = =
Phineas and Ferb 's parents , Linda and Lawrence , are arguing over something Lawrence has forgotten . Linda goes out alone for the afternoon , leaving Lawrence confused ; then Candace informs him that today is his wedding anniversary . Lawrence goes to the garage to search for a gift and discovers an old album by Love Händel : he explains to the children that he and Linda shared their first kiss at the band 's farewell concert . Lawrence despairs of recapturing the moment , but Candace , Phineas , and Ferb watch a Where Are They Now ? -type special about Love Händel , and decide to reform the band . Candace tries to keep Linda away from the house while Phineas and Ferb are looking for the members of the band .
Meanwhile , the boys ' pet secret @-@ agent platypus , Perry , breaks into the hideout of his foe , the evil Dr. Doofenshmirtz , only to discover that he is only putting a birthday party for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Vanessa . Doofenshmirtz explains that he has been trying to give out the best birthday parties for her , but failed for some reasons , as she felt so extremely unhappy about her birthdays all her life ( this was evident of several birthday photos that Doofenshmirtz shows to Perry in his wallet ) . Seeing this , Perry agrees to set aside his rivalry and help Doofenshmirtz prepare for the party .
Phineas and Ferb set out to convince the members of Love Händel - lead singer Danny , bassist Bobbi Fabulous , and drummer Swampy - to reform . Danny alone agrees immediately , with a song ; the other two need convincing , through song as well . At the same time , Isabella and the Fireside Girls are starting the stage building . Lawrence , at the same time , tries to cater a small dinner and hires a singing telegram ; unfortunately , the dinner catches fire , and Lawrence 's hastily planned evening goes up in smoke . Phineas and Ferb arrive and assure Lawrence that all is well , explaining that the band has agreed to reform . Meanwhile , Candace continues keeping Linda away from the house by taking her to the mall to try on some dresses .
Doofenshmirtz , back at his lair , ties Perry to a giant firecracker rocket , explaining that he will end the party with fireworks and kill Perry at the same time . When Vanessa arrives , however , she hates the " girly " theme Doofenshmirtz has chosen and sits down to mope at a table , fearing that this would embarrass her in front of her arriving goth friends . At Phineas and Ferb 's house , Love Händel 's rehearsal descends into infighting ; sure that no one will want to hear them any more , the band are again on the verging of breaking up when they hear the roar of the crowd . Meanwhile , Doofenshmirtz mopes of failing another attempt of giving Vanessa a good party , so he decides to ignite Perry 's rocket to cheer himself up , but Perry frees himself and a fight ensues , during which Doofenshmirtz becomes tied to the rocket by accident instead . At the same moment the band begins to play ; Candace and Linda arrive home . Linda reunites with her husband , and eventually kiss , thanks to some motivation from Ferb , who yells to Lawrence to kiss her .
The explosion as Doofenshmirtz 's firecracker rocket launches leaves the lair filthy and partly destroyed ; the creepy look thrills Vanessa 's arriving goth friends , who find it to be cool . Touched by this , Vanessa happily thanks both her father for getting one birthday party right for her and Perry for helping her father out . As the rocket ascends , Doofenshmirtz is himself cursing Perry , as usual , but pauses to notice Love Handel singing below . The band finish their song just as Doofenshmirtz 's rocket explodes with a heart @-@ shaped flare . The episode ends with Love Handel singing " Music Makes Us Better " and with everyone ( including Doofenshmirtz , who has survived the explosion unscathed ) dancing .
= = Production = =
" Dude , We 're Getting the Band Back Together " was written by Bobby Gaylor and Martin Olson , with storyboards by Chris Headrick and Chong Lee . Series co @-@ creator Dan Povenmire directed the episode . Povenmire and Headrick had previously collaborated on a direct @-@ to @-@ video Looney Tunes short entitled Hare and Loathing in Las Vegas .
Each member of Love Händel was inspired by a member of the production team , who had previously been musicians themselves . Danny was named after and based on Povenmire , Bobbi Fabulous on Gaylor , and Swampy on co @-@ creator Jeff " Swampy " Marsh . Povenmire and Marsh each played in different bands in Los Angeles for over a decade . Gaylor was a spoken word performer who played pop and rock music ; he recorded an album titled Fuzzatronic Dreams .
As well as the show 's regular voice actor cast members , " Dude , We 're Getting the Band Back Together " featured guest stars in the roles of the three band members . Jaret Reddick ( the leader of the Grammy @-@ nominated band Bowling for Soup , who also perform the show 's regular , Emmy @-@ nominated theme song ) , Carlos Alazraqui , and Steve Zahn portrayed each of the bandmates .
= = Reception = =
Newsarama reporter Steve Fritz called the episode a fan favorite . Fritz praised it for demonstrating " incredible ways to play within the walls of [ the show 's ] formula , constantly coming up with refreshingly different plot lines . "
The episode was also popular among the production staff : Povenmire named it as his and Marsh 's favorite , citing the quality of the songs , the " sort of touching " ending , and the " really good feel " of the story . In April 2009 , Marsh cited " Rollercoaster " as his favorite , tying " Dude , We 're Getting the Band Back Together " in second place with " The Chronicles of Meap . "
One of the episode 's songs , " Ain 't Got Rhythm , " was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the category " Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics " later in 2008 . The nomination credited Danny Jacob , Marsh , Povenmire , Olson , and Robert Hughes for the song . This was the series ' second Emmy nomination for songwriting .
= = = Legacy = = =
Love Händel made a cameo appearance in the season two episode " Thaddeus and Thor . " In this episode , Doofenshmirtz sings about his childhood to the tune of the song " Snuck Your Way into My Heart " , then introduces the band to finish the song . He then gloats to Perry about having the band appear in his " back story " . Three songs featured in the episode ( " Ain 't Got Rhythm , " " Fabulous , " and " You Snuck Your Way Right Into My Heart " ) are available on the self @-@ entitled Phineas and Ferb soundtrack . " Danny 's Story " and " Music Make Us Better " are not included . " Ain 't Got Rhythm " was voted # 8 on Phineas and Ferb 's Musical Cliptastic Countdown , a viewer @-@ voted countdown of the best songs from the first season of the show . The band also was seen in " Just Passing Through " as well as and " Hip Hip Parade " , and also sung two songs for Phineas and Ferb : Summer Belongs To You ! : " Bouncin ' Around the World " and " The Ballad of Klimpaloon " , the latter only available on the soundtrack . They also made an appearance in the " Carpe Diem " song in " Rollercoaster : The Musical ! "
= Squatina squatina =
Squatina squatina , the angelshark or monkfish , is a species of shark in the family Squatinidae ( known generally also as angel sharks ) , once widespread in the coastal waters of the northeastern Atlantic Ocean . Well @-@ adapted for camouflaging itself on the sea floor , the angelshark has a flattened form with enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins , giving it a superficial resemblance to a ray . This species can be identified by its broad and stout body , conical barbels , thornless back ( in larger individuals ) , and grayish or brownish dorsal coloration with a pattern of numerous small light and dark markings ( that is more vivid in juveniles ) . It measures up to 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long .
Like other members of its family , the angelshark is a nocturnal ambush predator that buries itself in sediment and waits for passing prey , mostly benthic bony fishes , but also skates and invertebrates . An aplacental viviparous species , females bear litters of seven to 25 pups every other year . The angelshark normally poses little danger to humans , though if provoked , it is quick to bite . Since the mid @-@ 20th century , intense commercial fishing across the angelshark 's range have decimated its population via bycatch – it is now locally extinct or nearly so across most of its northern range , and the prospects of the remaining fragmented subpopulations are made more precarious by its slow rate of reproduction . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as Critically Endangered .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The angelshark was originally described by the Swedish natural historian Carl Linnaeus , known as the " father of taxonomy " , in the 1758 tenth edition of Systema Naturae as Squalus squatina . He did not designate a type specimen . The word squatina is the angelshark 's name in Latin , derived from the word for skate ; it was made the genus name for all angel sharks by the French zoologist André Duméril in 1806 . Other common names used for this species include angel , angel fiddle fish , angel puffy fish , angel ray , angelfish , escat jueu , fiddle fish , monk , and monkfish . Stelbrink and colleagues ( 2010 ) conducted a phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial DNA , and found that the sister species of the angelshark is the sawback angelshark ( S. aculeata ) . The two species formed a clade with a number of Asian angelshark species .
= = Description = =
One of the largest members of its family , female angelsharks can attain a length of 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) and males 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) ; the maximum reported weight is 80 kg ( 180 lb ) . This species shares in common with other angelsharks a flattened body and large , wing @-@ like pectoral fins whose anterior lobes are not fused to the head . The head and body are very broad and stocky , with small eyes positioned dorsally and followed by a pair of larger spiracles . A pair of unadorned barbels occurs in front of the nares , as well as a smooth or weakly fringed flap . Folds of skin with a single triangular lobe are present on the sides of the head . The teeth are small , sharp , and of similar shape in both jaws .
The pectoral and pelvic fins are wide with rounded tips ; the two dorsal fins are positioned on the muscular tail behind the pelvic fins . The anal fin is absent , and the caudal fin has a larger lower lobe than upper . The dermal denticles are small , narrow , and pointed , and cover the entire upper and most of the lower body surface . There are patches of small spines on the snout and over the eyes . Small individuals have a row of thorns down the middle of the back . The coloration is gray to reddish or greenish brown above , with many small black and white spots , and white below . Juveniles are more ornately patterned than adults , with pale lines and darker blotches . The dorsal fins have a darker leading margin and lighter trailing margin . Some individuals have a white spot on the back of the " neck " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Historically , the angelshark occurred in the temperate waters of the northeastern Atlantic , from southern Norway and Sweden to the Western Sahara and the Canary Islands , including around the British Isles and in the Mediterranean and Black Seas . In recent times , it has been extirpated from the North Sea and large portions of the northern Mediterranean . This benthic shark inhabits the continental shelf , preferring soft substrates such as mud or sand , and can be found from near the coast to a depth of 150 m ( 490 ft ) . It sometimes enters brackish environments . Northern angelshark subpopulations migrate northward in summer and southward in winter .
= = Biology and ecology = =
During daytime , the angelshark usually lies motionless on the sea floor , buried under a layer of sediment with only its eyes showing . At night , it becomes more active , and may sometimes be seen swimming above the bottom . Aggregations numbering up to a hundred have been observed off Gran Canaria in the summer . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Grillotia smaris @-@ gora , G. angeli , and Christianella minuta , the fluke Pseudocotyle squatinae , the monogenean Leptocotyle minor , and the isopod Aega rosacea .
The angelshark is an ambush predator that feeds mainly on bottom @-@ dwelling bony fishes , especially flatfishes , though it also preys on skates and invertebrates . Prey reported taken include the hake Merluccius merluccius , the bream Pagellus erythrinus , grunts in the genus Pomadasys , the flatfishes Bothus spp . , Citharus linguatula , and Solea solea , the squid Loligo vulgaris , the cuttlefishes Sepia officinalis and Sepiola spp . , and the crabs Medorippe lanata , Geryon trispinosus , Dromia personata , Goneplax rhomboides , Liocarcinus corrugatus , and Atelecyclus rotundatus . The stomachs of some examined specimens have also contained seagrass or birds ( in one case an entire cormorant ) . Individual sharks select sites that offer the best ambush opportunities , and if successful , may remain there for several days .
Angelsharks are aplacental viviparous , meaning the young hatch inside the mother 's uterus and are nourished by a yolk sac until birth . Females have two functional ovaries , with the right ovary containing more oocytes and the right uterus correspondingly containing more embryos ; this functional asymmetry is not present in other angel shark species . Unlike most sharks , in which vitellogenesis ( yolk formation ) occurs concurrently with pregnancy , in the angelshark , the onset of vitellogenesis is delayed until halfway through the gestation period . The mature ova measure 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) across and are not enclosed in a capsule . The reproductive cycle has been estimated at 2 years with ovulation taking place in spring , though this periodicity is ill @-@ defined . The litter size ranges from seven to 25 and is correlated with the size of the mother ; the young are gestated for 8 – 10 months . Parturition occurs from December to February in the Mediterranean and in July off England , with the newborns measuring 24 – 30 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) long . Males and females mature at lengths of 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 3 m ( 2 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 3 ft ) and 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 7 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 6 ft ) , respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
The angelshark is generally not aggressive towards humans , though it can deliver a severe bite if disturbed . When approached underwater , the angelshark usually remains still or swims away , though one circling a diver with its mouth open is recorded . Fishery workers in particular should treat it with caution ; in the 1776 edition of British Zoology , Thomas Pennant wrote that it is " extremely fierce and dangerous to be approached . We know of an instance of a fisherman , whose leg was terribly torn by a large one of this species , which lay within his nets in shallow water , and which he went to lay hold of incautiously . "
Humans have used the angelshark for thousands of years . Ancient Greek authors , such as Diphilus and Mnesitheus , described its meat as " light " and " easily digestible " , and Pliny the Elder noted in his Naturalis Historia ( 77 – 79 AD ) that its rough skin was valued by craftsmen for polishing wood and ivory . Aristotle recorded elements of its natural history , including that it bore live young , and correctly recognized that it was a shark despite its resemblance to rays and skates . The use of this species for food has continued into modern times ; it is sold fresh or dried and salted , often under the name " monkfish " ( which also refers to the goosefishes of the genus Lophius ) . The angelshark may also be a source for shark liver oil and fishmeal .
= = = Conservation status = = =
Sources from the 19th and early 20th centuries indicate that the angelshark was once abundant all around the coasts of Western Europe . Yarrell ( 1836 ) , Day ( 1880 – 04 ) , and Garstang ( 1903 ) all noted that the angelshark was common around the British Isles , and Rey ( 1928 ) recorded that this species was common around the Iberian Peninsula and in the Mediterranean . However , from the latter half of the 20th century onwards , the angelshark has come under intense pressure from commercial fisheries operating across much of its range . Due to its benthic , near @-@ shore habits , individuals of all ages are susceptible to incidental capture by bottom trawls , trammel nets , and bottom longlines ; the low reproductive rate of this shark limits its capacity to withstand population depletion .
Angelshark numbers have declined precipitously across most of its range ; it is now believed to be extinct in the North Sea and most of the northern Mediterranean , and has become extremely rare elsewhere . During the comprehensive Mediterranean International Trawl Survey program from 1995 to 1999 , only two angelsharks were captured from 9 @,@ 905 trawls . Similarly , another survey by the Italian National Project ( National Group for Demersal Resource Evaluation ) around the same period caught angelsharks in only 38 of 9 @,@ 281 trawls . Fishery data compiled by the Working Group for Elasmobranch Fishes ( WGEF ) show that no angelsharks have been landed in the Northeast Atlantic since 1998 . Fewer than a dozen angelsharks are thought to remain in Irish waters . Healthy subpopulations of angelsharks are thought to still persist in areas off North Africa and around the Canary Islands , though a more thorough assessment is urgently needed .
As a result of these steep population declines and the ongoing threat from demersal fisheries , the IUCN has assessed the angelshark as Critically Endangered . It is listed on Annex III of the 1976 Barcelona Convention , which aims to limit pollution in the Mediterranean Sea . This species is protected within three marine reserves in the Balearic Islands , although it has not been reported from this area since the mid @-@ 1990s . In 2008 , the angelshark also received full legal protection from human activities in the waters off England and Wales from the coast to a distance of 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) , under the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act . The United Kingdom and Belgium have pushed , unsuccessfully , for this species to be listed on the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North @-@ East Atlantic Priority List of Threatened and Endangered Species . A captive breeding program has been initiated at Deep Sea World , North Queensferry , with the first live pups born in 2011 .
= Fettering of discretion in Singapore administrative law =
Fettering of discretion by a public authority is one of the grounds of judicial review in Singapore administrative law . It is regarded as a form of illegality . An applicant may challenge a decision by an authority on the basis that it has either rigidly adhered to a policy it has formulated , or has wrongfully delegated the exercise of its statutory powers to another body . If the High Court finds that a decision @-@ maker has fettered its discretion , it may hold the decision to be ultra vires – beyond the decision @-@ maker 's powers – and grant the applicant a suitable remedy such as a quashing order to invalidate the decision .
It is not wrong for a public authority to develop policies to guide its decision @-@ making . Neither will it necessarily be considered to have fettered its discretion by adhering to such policies , as long as it approaches decisions with an open mind and is willing to give genuine consideration to each case at hand . It has been noted that by endorsing its application in this manner , the High Court has given legal effect to informal rules or policies , which therefore amount to " soft law " .
Where a statute gives a decision @-@ maker a discretionary power , it is generally unlawful for the decision @-@ maker to delegate that power to another person or body unless the statute itself expressly provides that this may be done . Thus , it is illegal for a decision @-@ maker to abdicate its responsibility of exercising power by taking orders from other bodies . The Carltona doctrine of English administrative law ( which Singapore inherited at independence ) allows a civil servant to take a decision on behalf of a minister , even where the statute confers discretion on the minister . The Interpretation Act of Singapore provides that the exercise of a minister 's power may be done under the signature of the permanent secretary to the ministry which the minister is responsible for , or by any public officer authorized in writing by the minister . In addition , ministers are permitted to depute other persons to exercise certain powers or perform certain duties on their behalf .
= = Introduction = =
In the context of Westminster systems of government , all legal power conferred on the executive by legislation is " inevitably discretionary to a greater or lesser extent " . When exercising judicial review of such discretionary powers , the courts are concerned with whether they have been exercised in a lawful manner in accordance with Parliament 's presumed intentions in conferring such powers .
Over time , the courts have developed various grounds upon which discretionary powers may be reviewed , holding that Parliament must be assumed not to have intended for decision @-@ makers to exercise powers in such improper ways . The wrongful exercise of discretion may refer to " not exercising it at all or being subject to external influences in its exercise , as well as abusing conferred discretion " .
When a public authority fetters its discretion , it can either be said to have failed to exercise its discretionary power or to have been subject to external influences . In the Singapore High Court decision Lines International Holding ( S ) Pte . Ltd. v. Singapore Tourist Promotion Board ( 1997 ) , two distinct forms of fettering of discretion were recognized : fettering of discretion through rigid adherence to a policy , and fettering of discretion by an unlawful delegation of authority . These two forms of fettering of discretion have been said to represent two elements defining the concept of discretion in administrative law – the first form relates to freedom of choice , and second form the notion of one 's personal discretion .
It has been observed that in Singapore administrative law , " extensive reference is made to the landmark English cases " , and in particular English administrative law has largely influenced the adoption of the doctrine of fettering of discretion in Singapore . One exception is that although a contractual fetter on discretion has been established in English law to be a separate ground of review , this has yet to be recognized by the Singapore courts . In Birkdale District Electricity Supply Co. v. Southport Corporation ( 1926 ) , the House of Lords held that if legislation entrusts a public authority with certain powers and duties to be exercised for public purposes , it is illegal for the authority to enter into a contract that prevents itself from exercising its powers .
= = Fettering discretion by rigid adherence to a policy = =
Public authorities given discretion under statute to make certain decisions often adopt non @-@ statutory policies to guide them in their exercise of such discretionary powers . In Lines International , Justice Judith Prakash noted that were it the case that statutory bodies could not formulate policies or guidelines except through duly promulgated regulations , " then everything would come to a grinding halt while policy decisions had to be communicated to the Attorney @-@ General 's Chambers , then drafted into regulations and then the drafts approved by the organisation concerned before being sent on to Parliament and effected by gazette notification . That is not the way the executive arm of any common law country functions . "
The principle of not fettering one 's discretion " directs attention to the attitude of the decision @-@ maker , preventing him from rigidly excluding the possibility of any exception to that rule or policy in a deserving case " . A decision @-@ maker must not " shut his ears " to exceptional cases because of such a policy .
The ground of fettering discretion on this basis is distinct from the right to a fair hearing . The latter relates to a separate ground of judicial review , namely , procedural impropriety , and particularly the audi alteram partem ( " hear the other side " ) principle .
= = = English position = = =
The English courts have held that there is nothing wrong with a public authority adopting a policy to base its decisions on as long as the authority does not refuse to listen at all to anyone who has something new to say . Both the English and Singapore positions are similar in that they both regard consideration of exceptional cases as the benchmark for whether discretion has been fettered . In R. v. Port of London Authority , ex parte Kynoch , Ltd . ( 1918 ) , the Court of Appeal of England and Wales held that :
Where a tribunal in the honest exercise of its discretion has adopted a policy , and , without refusing to hear an applicant , intimates to him what its policy is , and that after hearing him it will in accordance with its policy decide against him , unless there is something exceptional in his case ... if the policy has been adopted for reasons which the tribunal may legitimately entertain , no objection could be taken to such a course .
The House of Lords agreed with ex parte Kynoch in British Oxygen Co . Ltd. v Minister of Technology ( 1970 ) . The court held that there was nothing to stop the Minister from requiring the operation of some limiting rule if that is what policy or good administration requires . It also reiterated that for discretion to be unfettered , consideration must be given to exceptional cases . " What the authority must not do is to refuse to listen at all . There can be no objection to [ the formulation of the rule ] , provided the authority is always willing to listen to anyone with something new to say . "
This position was further buttressed in Re Findlay ( 1984 ) , where four prisoners contended that the Home Secretary 's new policy of refusing parole in all but exceptional cases was a fetter upon his discretion . The House of Lords rejected the argument that the relevant statutory provisions required " individual consideration of individual cases in every instance , free of presumptions or policies " , and held that it would be difficult to understand how a Secretary of State could properly manage the complexities of his statutory duty without a policy .
= = = Singapore position = = =
= = = = Lines International conditions = = = =
In Lines International , the plaintiff , a cruise operator , challenged the adoption by the Singapore Tourist Promotion Board ( " STPB " ) and the Port of Singapore Authority ( " PSA " ) of a general policy in the form of non @-@ statutory guidelines regulating cruises @-@ to @-@ nowhere ( " CNWs " ) , which were mainly operated for gambling purposes . The guidelines had been read out to cruise operators at a meeting . One condition was that berths might not be allocated for CNWs if operators scheduled more than 30 % of their cruises as CNWs over a three @-@ month period . The plaintiff argued that the PSA 's power to control the use of its berths had to be exercised through subsidiary legislation . The High Court held that the PSA had discretion in deciding which vessels could use which berths , and went on to consider whether the PSA had fettered its discretion in enforcing the guidelines . Justice Prakash laid out a set of conditions by which the adoption of a policy by an authority exercising discretionary power would be valid . The conditions were that such a general policy will be valid if :
the policy is not Wednesbury unreasonable in the sense used in Associated Provincial Picture Houses v. Wednesbury Corporation ( 1947 ) , that is , it is not " a decision that is so outrageous in its defiance of logic or accepted moral standards that no sensible person who applied his mind to the question to be decided could have arrived at it or that no reasonable person could have come to such a view " ;
in considering what constitutes " reasonableness " , the courts are not to substitute their views of how the discretion should be exercised , and the plaintiff bears the burden of proving that the policy or guideline is illegal or ultra vires ;
the guidelines must be made known to the persons affected ; and
the authority must not fetter its " discretion in the future and is prepared to hear out individual cases or is prepared to deal with exceptional cases " . In the formulation of this condition , the judge referred to the English cases of British Oxygen ( 1970 ) and Re Findlay ( 1984 ) , and accepted that a decision @-@ maker cannot fetter its discretion by rigid adherence to a policy .
On the facts of Lines International , the judge held that the policy satisfied all four conditions and that the adoption of the guidelines was valid . On the fourth consideration relating to fettering of discretion , the judge found that the PSA and STPB had not rigidly enforced the guidelines as they had made it clear at the meeting attended by the plaintiff that they would consider representations from cruise operators , and , in fact , a number of such concessions were made . Hence , the guidelines had been flexibly applied and the PSA had not fettered its discretion by rigidly adhering to a policy . The Lines International conditions were approved by the Court of Appeal in JD Ltd. v. Comptroller of Income Tax ( 2005 ) .
Non @-@ statutory rules or policies are " often drafted in a more flexible and less formalistic and precise way than statutory rules , thus leaving more leeway in their application " . Such policies are often referred to as " soft law "
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. Such soft law " may be understood as a descriptive umbrella for non @-@ binding instruments containing recommendations or hortatory , programmatic statements , taking the form of informal rules like circulars , self @-@ regulating codes of conduct or government white papers . These soft law instruments co @-@ exist with ' hard ' law and may have legal impact . " It has been commented that the High Court 's formulation of the Lines International conditions has given legal effect to informal rules or policies issued by public authorities .
= = = = Application of the conditions = = = =
The Lines International conditions were applied by a different High Court judge in the case of Borissik Svetlana v. Urban Redevelopment Authority ( 2009 ) . The plaintiff argued that the Urban Redevelopment Authority ( " URA " ) had not been transparent while processing her application for permission to redevelop her house , or had not given her case genuine consideration . The Court held that the URA had considered the planning approval application , and had explained to the plaintiff the implications of her proposal and had extended several invitations to discuss the proposal but the plaintiff had declined to amend her redevelopment plans . On these facts , the Court held that the URA had thoroughly considered the plaintiff 's application and had not fettered its discretion .
The issue in the High Court decision Komoco Motors Pte . Ltd. v. Registrar of Vehicles ( 2007 ) and the appeal to the Court of Appeal from that decision , Registrar of Vehicles v. Komoco Motors Pte . Ltd . ( 2008 ) , was whether the Registrar of Vehicles had acted correctly in relying on the open market value ( " OMV " ) of vehicles determined by the Singapore Customs to calculate the additional registration fee ( " ARF " ) payable on such vehicles . This practice , referred to as the " administrative convention " in the case , had existed for over 40 years . In the High Court , the judge found that the Registrar had fettered her discretion in relation to the valuation of the cars because , having instituted a policy of adopting the Customs ' valuation of the OMV , she had not been prepared to hear out with an open mind Komoco 's case that the ARF was incorrect . The judge dismissed the fact that the Registrar had held meetings with her senior officers and had taken extended periods of time to make a decision , holding that these did not show she had given genuine consideration to Komoco 's case as " the passing of time [ did ] not by itself indicate how the time was used " . The judge also found that the absence of the Registrar 's comments on Komoco 's arguments , especially on some which the judge found credible , strengthened the case that genuine consideration had not been given . Lastly , the judge held the Registrar had indicated that she had dealt with Komoco 's representations with a predisposed frame of mind as her reply to Komoco was that " the policy was very clear " and that the ARF had been " computed based on the OMVs as assessed by Customs " .
The High Court 's decision was overruled by the Court of Appeal . The Court held that the Registrar had given genuine consideration to Komoco 's arguments . It found that the Registrar had been entitled to take , prima facie , the Customs ' OMV figures as correct unless they had been shown to be incorrect . Although the Registrar had been disposed to follow the Customs ' OMV , she had equally been concerned to find out whether there had been sufficient reasons for her not to follow the administrative convention . Komoco had neither challenged the sworn evidence given by the Registrar by applying to cross @-@ examine her , nor adduced any evidence to disprove the Registrar 's sworn statement . There was thus no merit in Komoco 's contention that the Registrar had not given genuine consideration to its representation . Furthermore , Komoco had not provided new evidence not already presented to the Customs to justify a departure from the administrative convention . Therefore , there had not been any compelling reason for the Registrar to re @-@ evaluate her decision . She had adequately justified her refusal to depart from the policy , and had not fettered her discretion .
The principle against a public authority fettering its discretion by rigid adherence to a policy also applies to the exercise of discretionary police powers , as indicated by obiter dicta in the High Court case of Chee Soon Juan v. Public Prosecutor ( 2011 ) . Although the case did not involve judicial review and did not specifically cite Lines International , Justice Woo Bih Li discussed the validity of a general police policy in the context of judicial review , opining that the adoption of a policy " determining that political activities as a class posed a greater threat to public order than commercial activities ... was not in itself offensive for the purposes of administrative law provided that the police do not fetter their discretion and remain prepared to consider the facts of each case " .
= = Fettering discretion by wrongful delegation of responsibility or powers = =
Where a statute gives a decision @-@ maker a discretionary power , whether of a judicial , legislative or administrative nature , it is generally unlawful for the decision @-@ maker to delegate that power to another person or body unless the statute itself expressly provides that this may be done . In exercising his discretionary powers , a government official is expected to " apply his own mind in the matter " .
= = = English position = = =
= = = = Delegation of authority to an absolute body = = = =
The case of Ellis v. Dubowski ( 1921 ) lays down the principle that there can be no delegation of authority to an absolute body from which no right of appeal exists . In this case , a licensing committee exercising statutory powers to license cinemas to be used for film screenings had imposed a condition in a licence that films had to be certified by the British Board of Film Censors before they could be shown . This was found to be ultra vires because the Board should not be made the final dictator . Furthermore , the fact that the Board had been given absolute power to prohibit films for reasons which might be private or influenced by trade considerations was sufficient to render the condition ultra vires .
= = = = Nature of function delegated = = = =
The nature of the function delegated by a public authority is crucial in determining whether such delegation offends the law . Where functions are considered administrative , delegation may not be wrongful . In R. v. Race Relations Board , ex parte Selvarajan ( 1975 ) , it was accepted that the Board could establish a committee in order to investigate and conduct preliminary inquiries , and that it was not practical for the whole body to be engaged in such a task . On the other hand , it is an established principle that no tribunal can delegate judicial or quasi @-@ judicial functions such as disciplinary powers .
= = = = Delegation by minister = = = =
In the case of ministerial discretion , it has been established in Carltona Ltd. v. Commissioner of Works ( 1943 ) that it is not unlawful for a civil servant to take a decision on behalf of the minister , even where a statute confers discretion on a minister . Parliament will expect only that the power is to be exercised by an appropriate official . However , the minister is ultimately responsible for decisions taken on his or her behalf . While there has been discussion in case law about whether a minister should be required to personally exercise discretion in decisions that affect a person 's liberty , the courts have usually been reluctant to hold so . Such a requirement , however , has been made by way of statutes which require the minister to act personally .
Although ministers are entitled to obtain views from other departments or ministries when making decisions , they must consider objections and not disable themselves from exercising their discretion . In H. Lavender and Son Ltd. v. Minister of Housing and Local Government ( 1969 ) , the Housing Minister 's decision was quashed because he had , by his stated policy , delegated to the Minister of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food the effective decision on any appeal where the latter had an objection .
= = = Singapore position = = =
= = = = Abdication of responsibility and delegation of powers to another agency = = = =
The English common law position that a public body cannot fetter its discretion by abdicating its responsibility and powers to another was discussed and adopted in Lines International . The general rules that Justice Prakash enunciated in the case are that , first , a public body has the duty to exercise discretion by itself ; it cannot abdicate this responsibility by taking orders from other bodies unless it is under a legal duty to do so . Therefore , a condition in its policy that appeared to be a direction by the PSA to itself to take orders from either the Gambling Suppression Branch ( " GSB " ) of the Singapore Police Force or STPB to deny berths to cruise vessels was a fetter on PSA 's exercise of discretion and was held to be invalid . However , the invalid condition alone did not mean that the PSA had in fact fettered its discretion . The High Court stated that while the PSA had agreed to take orders from the GSB and STPB on the basis of the invalid condition , whether it had in fact done so was another matter . On the evidence , the Court went on to find that the PSA had in fact made its own decision in the matter .
In Komoco Motors , the Court of Appeal held that the Registrar of Vehicles had not abdicated to the Customs her discretionary power . Expressing the view of the Court , Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong held that the Lines International conditions " although correct in law , [ were ] inapplicable to the factual context of the appeal " . The Court distinguished the factual context in Lines International from the present case on two bases . First , it found that the Registrar had made the decision in the lawful exercise of her power and for practical reasons , which included the Customs ' reliability in assessing the OMV of vehicles . In any case , an aggrieved importer had a statutory right to object to and be heard on the Customs ' determination of OMVs . Secondly , while Lines International involved a determination of whether a vessel should be given berthing space , the PSA had to exercise its judgment as to how to weigh up various relevant factors . However , in Komoco Motors , once the Registrar had decided to adopt the Customs ' OMV of a motor vehicle as its " value " for the purposes of the ARF Scheme , no further exercise of judgment was required of the Registrar . The Court held that the calculation of the ARF was simply an arithmetical exercise of applying the percentage stated in subsidiary legislation to the Customs ' OMVs , and hence did not involve the taking of instructions by the Registrar from another statutory agency .
While the Court found that there was a suggestion that the Registrar could only decide whether to reconsider the ARF imposed on cars if she received Customs ' further advice , she nevertheless had not abdicated her power as she could determine the value of vehicles , " after making such enquiries , if any , as [ she ] thinks fit " . Thus , the Registrar did not need to make any inquiries at all as she had a reliable means of determining each vehicle 's value . Furthermore , her statutory discretion was so wide that she could exercise it to determine the appropriate value of a motor vehicle in every case by relying on the Customs ' OMV .
The plaintiff in Lines International argued that the guidelines adopted by the multi @-@ agency committee set up by the PSA , STPB and GSB were invalid as the committee had no existence at law . The High Court held that there was nothing unlawful or even intrinsically wrong with these government agencies setting up such a committee to discuss matters of relevance to their respective jurisdictions as long as each agency made its own decisions within the ambit of its own statutory powers . The notion that such a committee fettered PSA 's discretion was dismissed by a further finding of fact that the ad @-@ hoc committee had not acted as an entity in itself . Enforcement and appropriate action were left to the agencies . A meeting attended by the plaintiff 's representatives at which the guidelines relating to cruises @-@ to @-@ nowhere were announced was facilitated by a moderator rather than a chairperson , and each of the agencies read out guidelines which they themselves would be adopting and implementing .
= = = = Delegation by minister = = = =
Under section 35 of the Interpretation Act , if written law confers power on a minister to give a direction , issue an order or authorize something to be done , exercise of the power may be done ( unless the law states otherwise ) under the signature of the permanent secretary to the ministry which the minister is responsible for , or of any public officer authorized in writing by the minister . Section 36 of the Act permits a minister empowered to exercise a power or perform a duty to , in the absence of any statutory provision to the contrary , depute another person to exercise the power or perform the duty on his or her behalf . The delegation must be approved by the President ( acting on Cabinet 's advice ) ; may be made subject to conditions , exceptions and qualifications ; and must be published in the Government Gazette . The minister remains capable of exercising the power or performing the duty personally . The power to make subsidiary legislation cannot be delegated .
= = = Relevance of delegatus non potest delegare maxim = = =
The doctrine of wrongful delegation is sometimes said to be a reflection of the Latin maxim delegatus non potest delegare ( a delegate cannot appoint another ) , which means that a body to which or person to whom power was delegated by Parliament cannot further delegate the power to another . Academics have submitted that the maxim does not state a rule of law , but is " at most a rule of construction " and in applying it to a statute " there , of course must be a consideration of the language of the whole enactment and of its purposes and objects " . Thus , in reality , there is no such principle as delegatus non potest delegare ; the maxim plays no real part in the decision of cases but is sometimes used as a convenient label . Consequently , in most cases the courts have adopted such a construction as will best accord with the facts of modern governmental agencies . For statutory powers , the important question is whether it is intended that a power conferred upon A may be exercised on A 's authority by B. The maxim is merely the pencil with which the court is able to draw the line between authorized and unauthorized sub @-@ delegation , and the courts must then ask whether statutory discretion remains in the hands of the proper authority , or whether some other person purports to exercise it . Thus where an Act said that an inspector of nuisances " may procure any sample " of goods for analysis , it was held that the inspector might validly send his assistant to buy a sample of coffee , as he had in no way authorized his assistant to exercise the discretion legally reposed in himself . Ultimately , the courts must decide the issue based on what Parliament has authorized according to what may be summarized as the language , scope and objects of the empowering statute .
= = = Cases = = =
Lines International Holding ( S ) Pte . Ltd. v. Singapore Tourist Promotion Board [ 1997 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 56 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Komoco Motors Pte . Ltd. v. Registrar of Vehicles [ 2007 ] SGHC 74 , [ 2007 ] 4 S.L.R. ( R. ) 145 , H.C. ( Singapore ) ( " Komoco Motors ( H.C. ) " ) .
Registrar of Vehicles v. Komoco Motors Pte . Ltd . [ 2008 ] SGCA 19 , [ 2008 ] 3 S.L.R. ( R. ) 340 , C.A. ( Singapore ) ( " Komoco Motors ( C.A. ) " ) .
= = = Legislation = = =
Interpretation Act ( Cap . 1 , 2002 Rev. Ed . ) ( " IA " ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Cane , Peter ( 2004 ) , " Making Decisions and Rules " , Administrative Law ( 4th ed . ) , Oxford : Oxford University Press , pp. 192 – 220 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 926898 @-@ 6 .
Leyland , Peter ; Anthony , Gordon ( 2009 ) , " Illegality II " , Administrative Law ( 6th ed . ) , Oxford : Oxford University Press , pp. 258 – 283 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 921776 @-@ 2 .
Lord Woolf ; Jowell , Jeffrey ; Le Sueur , Andrew ( 2007 ) , " Illegality " , De Smith 's Judicial Review ( 6th ed . ) , London : Sweet & Maxwell , pp. 225 – 317 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 421 @-@ 69030 @-@ 1 .
Wade , William ; Forsyth , Christopher ( 2009 ) , " Retention of Discretion " , Administrative Law ( 10th ed . ) , Oxford : Oxford University Press , pp. 259 – 285 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 923161 @-@ 4 .
= = = Articles = = =
Hilson , Chris ( 2002 ) , " Judicial Review , Policies and the Fettering of Discretion " , Public Law : 111 – 129 .
Hilson , Chris ( December 2006 ) , " Policies , the Non @-@ Fetter Principle and the Principle of Substantive Legitimate Expectations : Between a Rock and a Hard Place " , Judicial Review 11 ( 4 ) : 289 – 293 .
Keyes , John Mark ( 1987 ) , " From Delegatus to the Duty to Make Law " , McGill Law Journal 33 : 49 – 89 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 26 January 2013 .
Lanham , David ( 1984 ) , " Delegation and the Alter Ego Principle " , Law Quarterly Review 100 : 587 .
= = = Books = = =
Craig , Paul [ P. ] ( 2008 ) , " Failure to Exercise Discretion [ ch . 16 ] " , Administrative Law ( 6th ed . ) , London : Sweet & Maxwell , pp. 501 – 530 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84703 @-@ 283 @-@ 6 .
= Carlos Ruiz ( baseball ) =
Carlos Joaquín Ruiz ( born January 22 , 1979 ) is a Panamanian professional baseball catcher for the Philadelphia Phillies of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . His nicknames include Chooch , Bad Dude and Señor Octubre . He grew up in David , Chiriquí , Panama , and resolved to play Major League Baseball after his father and grandmother both died within two weeks of each other when he was seven years old . He made his way through the Phillies ' farm system from 1998 until 2006 , playing at each level of Minor League Baseball , until finally making his debut with the Phillies in 2006 , fulfilling his childhood dream . He battled adversity in his progression through the system , including feeling homesick , a position change and the language barrier ( he spoke Spanish , while most teammates and team officials spoke English ) .
He spent his first full season in the major leagues in 2007 and has remained there since . In 2008 , for his strong postseason performance , including a walk @-@ off hit , during the Phillies playoff run that concluded with victory in the 2008 World Series , he earned the nickname " Señor Octubre " ( Mr. October ) . Despite being one of the quietest players on the team , he was subsequently called the " heart and soul " of the Phillies ; he serves as a constant source of encouragement and rebuke alike to his teammates . Over the following seasons , he was a part of the core group of players that led the Phillies to five consecutive playoff appearances from 2007 until 2011 . He had his best season in 2012 , holding a batting average of over .300 , earning his first appearance in the Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , and finishing in the top 30 of the National League Most Valuable Player voting . In 2013 , he began the season with a 25 @-@ game suspension for using Adderall , and subsequently spent time on the disabled list , ultimately playing in fewer than 100 games for the first time in his MLB career .
Ruiz is the only player in the National League to catch four no @-@ hitters , and one of only two catchers in Major League Baseball , the other being Jason Varitek .
= = Early life = =
Ruiz grew up in David , Panama , and was the oldest of three sons . His father was a police officer and his mother was an elementary school teacher . When he was seven years old , his father Joaquin was patrolling in his police jeep when a tire blew out , causing the vehicle to flip , throwing Joaquin into a ditch , and then crushing him when it fell on top of him . Just weeks before , his grandmother died of cancer . As a result , Ruiz became " the new father " , starting work shortly thereafter as a laborer on a coffee farm to supplement the family income , and by age 10 was earning about US $ 3 per day . He also promised his widowed mother that he would make it to Major League Baseball to support the family . Subsequently , he began attending college to earn a degree in physical education , but dropped out shortly after he began to attend the Phillies baseball academy .
Ruiz 's upbringing contributed to his approach to the game . His mother insisted that he excel academically , and would not allow him to play baseball unless he did well in school . Baseball was his first love , and he was responsible for organizing the community 's games :
" Ruiz 's natural leadership skills flourished . As a boy , Ruiz , who had chosen to play with baseballs instead of toy cars even as a toddler , was always the one in his neighborhood to organize pickup baseball games . It was he who brought the balls and bats , and it was he who picked the teams and ordered everyone to their positions . He had an acute understanding of the game . Ruiz was made to lead , and playing catcher eventually suited him perfectly . "
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
In 1998 , Ruiz followed his dream of playing professional baseball first by attending the Phillies Baseball Academy in La Vega , Dominican Republic , where he played catcher for the first time , moving from his initial position of second base . Though he was ready to quit because " he looked and felt like a 10 @-@ year @-@ old among the tall , athletic prospects surrounding him " , his uncle convinced him in a phone conversation to stick with it . The Phillies signed him as an amateur free agent on December 4 , 1998 for US $ 8 @,@ 000 , and he made his professional debut in 1999 with the Dominican Summer League ( DSL ) team DSL Phillies , with whom he compiled a .305 batting average , 4 home runs , and 35 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 60 games . Prior to the 2000 season , Ruiz met Mick Billmeyer , the Phillies ' minor league catching coordinator , who served as his mentor . Billmeyer sought to learn Spanish while Ruiz sought to learn English , and the two bonded as Billmeyer helped mold Ruiz into an eventual top prospect and ultimately a starting catcher . In 2000 , he came to America , progressing to play in the Gulf Coast League ( GCL ) for the GCL Phillies , and hitting .277 in 38 games . He earned another promotion in 2001 , playing for the Lakewood BlueClaws of Class A Minor League Baseball . In 2001 , his performance was similar in quality to his first two seasons , and he was promoted to the Clearwater Threshers of Class A @-@ Advanced , with whom he played over parts of the next two seasons . He struggled at the plate in 2002 , compiling just a .213 batting average in 92 games , but hit .315 in 15 games in 2003 , and that year earned another promotion .
In 2004 , Ruiz spent the entire season with the Double @-@ A Reading Phillies , posting a .284 batting average and hitting 17 home runs , the latter of which was second among catchers in the Eastern League . In addition to his strong offensive numbers , he threw out 25 of 76 attempted base stealers ( 32 @.@ 9 % ) . Off the field , it was in 2004 that Ruiz first gained the original form of his nickname " Chooch " . Though a quiet individual , Ruiz frequently muttered " chucha " ( a word equivalent to the f @-@ bomb in Panama ) under his breath , and teammate Anderson Machado thus began to address Ruiz as " chucha " , which was later shortened to " Chooch " , and the nickname 's usage snowballed from there . His strong performance earned him another promotion in 2005 when he played for the Triple @-@ A Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre Red Barons , and posted a better batting average but fewer home runs than in Reading : .300 , 4 home runs , 40 RBIs in 100 games . Before the 2006 season , he played for his native Panama in the first World Baseball Classic . His final season in the minor leagues was 2006 . During 100 games , he hit .307 with 16 home runs and 69 RBIs , earning International League all @-@ star accolades . He moved back and forth between Triple @-@ A and the major league Phillies all year long , making his MLB debut on May 6 , 2006 .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies ( 2006 – present ) = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Ruiz was first brought up to the major league level when Phillies ' starting catcher Mike Lieberthal went on the disabled list ( DL ) in May 2006 , and Ruiz debuted on May 6 . When Lieberthal returned , Ruiz was sent back to the minors . When Lieberthal went once again on the DL in June , the Phillies used Sal Fasano and Chris Coste rather than recalling Ruiz . He was recalled on July 4 , when he hit his first major league home run off San Diego Padres ' pitcher Clay Hensley . He was optioned back to the minor leagues once more before his recall on August 31 — essentially a September callup . Overall , with the big league club , he hit .261 with 3 home runs and 10 RBIs .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Ruiz permanently joined the Phillies ' roster on opening day 2007 , after eight seasons in the minor leagues . He ultimately " grabbed hold of the top job [ as starting catcher ] and never let go " . The Phillies signed Rod Barajas before the season because of concerns about Ruiz 's ability to catch , hit , and generally hold up over a full season at the major league level , as seasons there are longer than in the minor leagues . During the season , he honed his confidence and earned the trust of the Phillies ' pitching staff , including veteran Jamie Moyer , who commented , " I see a real assuredness to his body language . He 's not cocky or brash . He just seems very confident in what 's going on . " On June 26 , Ruiz stole home on the front end of a double steal in an 11 – 4 home win over the Cincinnati Reds , becoming the first Phillie to steal home since Scott Rolen in 1997 . He eventually played 115 games over the season , and from then on was the Phillies ' regular starting catcher . Statistically , he committed only two errors , which tied for second @-@ best among MLB catchers with at least 100 games played . He had 27 multi @-@ hit games , hit 6 home runs and 51 RBIs with a .259 batting average . At the conclusion of the season , he was named to the Topps All @-@ Star Rookie Team .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Ruiz entered the 2008 season focused predominantly on defense , specifically helping the pitcher :
" ... Ruiz invests himself in the pitcher 's performance . He and the pitcher succeed or fail together ... Everything starts with pitching . ' Hitting is nice , but working with the pitcher is my No. 1 job . ... I want to feel like we are one person . ' "
Ruiz struggled to hit consistently throughout the season , specifically in the first half ; from the beginning of the year until July 11 , he hit .206 with 2 home runs and 20 RBIs . Nevertheless , due to his rapport with the pitching staff ( pitchers ' ERA when throwing to him ( catcher 's ERA ) was 3 @.@ 56 , the best for any catcher in the National League ( NL ) ) , and a vote of confidence from manager Charlie Manuel , he was secure in his position . In late July , he had a multi @-@ hit game against the New York Mets , which may have helped him break out of his slump . Ultimately , during the regular season , he hit .219 with 4 home runs and 31 RBIs .
Despite his struggles at the plate during the regular season , Ruiz was an integral part of the Phillies ' postseason success . After the Phillies clinched the 2008 National League Championship Series , he commented that the glory of winning a crucial baseball game that clinched the series , which he had witnessed while growing up in Panama on television , " happened to me " , noting the aura of the moment , and that it culminated and validated the hard work he had put in over the years . Subsequently , in game 3 of the 2008 World Series , Ruiz tapped a ground ball up the third @-@ base line for a walk @-@ off infield single , the first in MLB history . Ruiz noted , " I heard them cheering . And that 's when I knew , ' Okay it 's over ' ... I 'll take a win . " The Phillies eventually won the World Series for the first time since 1980 , doing so in five games , the last of which began on October 27 and ended on October 29 after it was suspended part @-@ way through due to rain . For his performance in the playoffs , he earned the nickname " Señor Octubre " ( Mr. October in Spanish ) .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Initially , Ruiz elected not to play in the 2009 World Baseball Classic , but after receiving a call from Martín Torrijos , the President of Panama , he agreed to play for the Panamanian team . Early in the season , he suffered a muscle strain in his right oblique , which lost him playing time while on the disabled list . Also early in the season , there was debate as to who should be the Phillies starting catcher , Ruiz or Chris Coste . Rob Neyer summarized the debate and ultimately endorsed Ruiz when he wrote ,
" It 's Ruiz who has established himself as the superior hitter , almost solely because we expect him to draw more walks than Coste . Yes , Coste does have superior stats as a major leaguer ... But he is 36 , and with a couple of exceptions he 's not fared all that well in the high minors . Meanwhile , Ruis [ sic ] is six years younger and he 's been relatively impressive in the high minors . "
Ultimately , Ruiz was the regular starter . He finished the season on a hot streak ; over the last 24 games , he hit .355 with 9 doubles , 1 home run , 11 RBIs , and .446 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) . In late September , he missed a week of games with inflammation in his left wrist . Despite his missed time , he started 100 games and set career highs in home runs ( 9 ) and base on balls ( 47 ) , as well as posting a .255 batting average and 43 RBIs . Moreover , he walked more times than he struck out , a rare feat among modern major league hitters . In the postseason , he led the team with a .341 batting average , and recorded a .491 OBP , having reached base in each of the Phillies ' 15 games , which perpetuated the usage of his nickname " Señor Octubre " . Marcus Hayes of The Philadelphia Daily News wrote that Ruiz is " ... the Phillies ' Senor Octubre , a No. 8 hitter who hits like John Buck in the regular season , then turns into Johnny Bench come autumn . "
= = = = 2010 = = = =
In 2010 , Ruiz had a season filled with " indelible moments " . He was catcher for Roy Halladay 's perfect game on May 29 , 2010 against the Florida Marlins and Halladay 's no @-@ hitter against the Cincinnati Reds in the first game of the National League Divisional Series on October 6 , 2010 , the first time a catcher had caught two no @-@ hitters in one season since 1972 . On May 4 , he hit a walk @-@ off home run , the second of his career , to lead the Phillies over the St. Louis Cardinals . Ruiz spent time on the DL in late June and early July with a concussion , but according to manager Charlie Manuel returned with a more efficient swing that allowed him to hit better against power pitchers . He led the team with a .302 batting average and a .400 on @-@ base percentage . Both statistics also led National League catchers , and he even received a few votes for NL most valuable player . During the 2010 postseason , he did not perform as well as in past years — in nine games , he hit .192 with two home runs and four RBIs . Fans voted Ruiz the " X @-@ Factor Player of the Year " in MLB 's This Year in Baseball Awards . He also received the Pride of Philadelphia Award from the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame . Halladay called Ruiz a " rock " behind the plate , and presented him with a replica of his Cy Young Award .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Ruiz returned for the Phillies ' 2011 season as their everyday starting catcher , and started 113 games , of which the Phillies won 70 ( .619 winning percentage ) . In May , he spent time on the DL with inflammation in his lower back . Over the Phillies ' final 36 games , he posted a .342 batting average . Overall , he finished with the best catcher 's ERA in the major leagues ( 3 @.@ 06 ) , a .283 batting average , 6 home runs , and 40 RBIs . His batting average was second on the team trailing only Hunter Pence .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
Ruiz began the 2012 season strongly , and throughout the season was a bright spot on an otherwise disappointing team . Through June 27 , he led the Major Leagues with a .364 average . This contributed to a stellar first half of the season earned him his first placement on the National League All @-@ Star team . He was a reserve , though some analysts , including ESPN 's John Kruk , felt his numbers warranted a starting nod , which ultimately went to the San Francisco Giants ' Buster Posey through the fan voting . Shortly after the announcement that he was an all @-@ star , a piece in The Philadelphia Daily News entitled " The evolution of Carlos Ruiz " summarized his career : " Ruiz , though , was never a major prospect . He was a reserve catcher before he was a starting catcher . He was a bottom @-@ of @-@ the @-@ order hitter before he was a middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ order hitter . And now , for the first time in his career , Carlos Ruiz is an All @-@ Star . " After the all @-@ star break , he spent over a month on the disabled list with plantar fasciitis , hindering his statistical totals , which at the time of his injury were among the best in the National League . He led all NL catchers in doubles , en route to posting a .325 batting average with 16 home runs and 68 RBIs , all of which were career highs . He finished 28th in MVP voting , the third consecutive season he had received votes .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
On November 27 , 2012 , Ruiz was suspended for 25 games without pay by the MLB for testing positive for an amphetamine called Adderall . The suspension of Ruiz was effective at the start of the 2013 season . Adderall is a drug prescribed for treating ADHD , described as a " central nervous system stimulant used to increase the attention span and decrease distractibility . " He made his 2013 season debut on April 28 against the New York Mets at Citi Field . On May 20 , he was placed on the DL with a Grade 2 strained hamstring . He came back with a four @-@ hit game , which tied his career high , against the Los Angeles Dodgers on August 18 , and hit .288 over the final two months of the season , commensurate with his past performance .
In the 2013 season , Ruiz compiled a .268 batting average , five home runs , and 37 RBIs in 92 games , his lowest major league total since 2006 . After the season , Ruiz became a free agent . He re @-@ signed on November 21 , 2013 to a three @-@ year contract worth US $ 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 plus a club option for a fourth season , giving the Phillies have an option to bring Ruiz back for a fourth season , at their discretion . Though one writer suggested his 2013 year might just have been an " aberration " , most thought the Phillies overpaid to keep Ruiz , who turned 35 during the subsequent offseason .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
Before the 2014 season , he received an exemption from MLB to use Adderall , an exemption given to nine percent of MLB players despite only four percent of the American population diagnosed with the condition . After a slow start , Ruiz earned NL player of the week accolades in late April after he hit .500 during a Phillies ' road trip . He sustained a concussion on June 26 that forced him to go on the disabled list ; he began a rehabilitation assignment on July 17 with the Clearwater Threshers . On September 1 , Ruiz was behind the plate for the combined no @-@ hitter thrown by Cole Hamels , Jake Diekman , Ken Giles , and Jonathan Papelbon in a 7 @-@ 0 victory over the Atlanta Braves . It was the third no @-@ hitter caught by Ruiz in his career , which ties him for second in Major League history behind Jason Varitek , who caught four . In 2014 , Ruiz played 110 games batting .252 with six home runs and 31 RBI , and overall , had " a fine season ... [ that ] shouldn ’ t get lost amid the many negatives . " On October 1 , 2014 , Ruiz underwent a minor arthroscopic shoulder surgery .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
Cognizant of his increasing age and the wear catching places on one 's body , the Phillies reduced Ruiz 's workload during spring training , hoping to keep him fresh throughout the regular season . Regardless , he insisted upon catching pitchers ' bullpen sessions so he could develop a feel and rapport with each pitcher . On July 25 , Ruiz became the first catcher in the National League , and the second catcher in Major League Baseball history , to catch four no @-@ hitters when teammate Cole Hamels no @-@ hit the Chicago Cubs . Overall , Ruiz lost his starting job to Cameron Rupp , and had significant declines in many aspects of his game , particularly those at which he previously excelled , including framing pitches – in 2015 , Baseball Prospectus ranked him worst in the league at doing so – and the mental aspect of the game , as he made several uncharacteristic errors .
= = Player profile = =
= = = Batting = = =
Offensively , Ruiz developed from a " bottom @-@ of @-@ the @-@ order hitter " , to a patient hitter inclined to work the count , and finally to a hitter with solid gap @-@ to @-@ gap power . Ruiz has strong plate discipline that helps him draw walks and avoid strikeouts ; he has almost as many walks as strikeouts over the course of his career , a rarity in the modern era of baseball . However , as his career progressed and he hit more towards the middle of the lineup , he has taken a more aggressive approach at the plate , and consequently he has struck out more often , but his home run totals have also increased . In 2014 , his versatility and production at the plate encouraged his manager , Ryne Sandberg , to utilize him in various spots ranging from second through seventh in the batting order . At the prime of his career , he was among the best hitting catchers in MLB . Entering 2014 , Ruiz had stolen only 16 bases over his first eight seasons ; he had never been particularly fast , which initially caused his conversion from infielder to catcher , but because of his " hustle " on the basepaths , he won the Major League Baseball Players Alumni Association Heart and Hustle Award in 2012 .
= = = Catching = = =
When catching , Ruiz seeks to become " one " with the day 's pitcher ; he takes their successes and failures personally , refusing to blame pitchers , and accepts equal responsibility . Phillies pitchers trust Ruiz and his ability to call games , and this ability 's improvement has coincided with his increased proficiency in English . Cole Hamels attributes Ruiz 's prowess in calling games to astute preparation , commenting ,
" I think he 's very aware of what the hitter is trying to do in each count . He gives you a good target . It 's almost like he understands what you 're thinking and he 's speaking to you without saying anything . ... If a catcher can help you , it makes your job so much easier and he can do that so well . "
Ruiz realizes the importance of his role with the Phillies , opining , " It 's the catcher 's job to bring energy and happiness to the game . " Ruiz has a good throwing arm that has improved over the years ; over the course of his career he has thrown out 29 % of attempted base stealers , which is exactly the average percentage of hitters thrown out by catchers .
= = = Playing style = = =
A Sports Illustrated piece featuring Ruiz published in July 2011 encapsulated Ruiz 's role as " heart and soul " of the team :
The most silent and timid Phillie might even become — by consensus of teammates and in the words of closer Brad Lidge — " the heart and soul of this team . " The player who was the runaway winner in a team poll asking Phillies whom — if they were Batman — they 'd choose as their Robin , proving that his effect extends far beyond his superhero pitching staff . The player who circulated in the clubhouse asking them how their families were doing , and how their hearts and minds and bodies felt . The man who went to each player in the dugout as each game was about to start to exchange a new touch : knuckles yesterday , low @-@ fives today , fist pounds to their hearts tomorrow , so hard that they 'd yearn for his chest protector . The one who tore into them when they were lax and verbalized what team leaders Chase Utley and Halladay kept tight under wraps . The one taking charge as if he has been here forever and yet still asking questions as if he has just been called up . The most endearing player to the sold @-@ out crowds at Citizens Bank Park every night , even when his average dips to .255 , as it has this season , crossing a cultural moat that Hispanic players often can 't — the Phillie whom bartender Tubby Kushner impersonates every game he attends , from uniform down to the shin guards , chest protector , mask and , yes , even cup — because fans feel like he 's their little secret , their little golden nugget .
He is a favorite among Phillies fans , and crossed " a cultural moat that Hispanic players often can 't " to endear himself to not only the fan base , but also his teammates . Before games , he humorously imitates teammates to help keep the team loose and relaxed , furthering his role as a leader . Overall , Ruiz " is a man who refuses to conceal his emotions " , positive or negative , and serves as a constant source of encouragement and rebuke alike to his teammates .
= Cowboys & Aliens =
Cowboys & Aliens is a 2011 American space western @-@ action film directed by Jon Favreau and starring Daniel Craig , Harrison Ford , and Olivia Wilde . The film is based on the 2006 graphic novel of the same name created by Scott Mitchell Rosenberg . The plot revolves around an amnesiac outlaw ( Craig ) , a wealthy cattleman ( Ford ) , and a mysterious traveler ( Wilde ) who must ally to save a group of townspeople abducted by aliens . The screenplay was written by Roberto Orci , Alex Kurtzman , Damon Lindelof , Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby , based on a screen story by the latter two along with Steve Oedekerk . The film was produced by Brian Grazer , Ron Howard , Kurtzman , Orci and Rosenberg , with Steven Spielberg and Favreau serving as executive producers .
The project began development in April 1997 , when Universal Pictures and DreamWorks Pictures bought film rights to a concept pitched by Rosenberg , former president at Malibu Comics , which he described as a graphic novel in development . After the graphic novel was published in 2006 , development on the film was begun again , and Favreau signed on as director in September 2009 . On a budget of $ 163 million , filming for Cowboys & Aliens began in June 2010 , in New Mexico and California . Despite studio pressure to release the film in 3 @-@ D , Favreau chose to film traditionally and in anamorphic format ( widescreen picture on standard 35 mm film ) to further a " classic movie feel " . Measures were taken to maintain a serious Western element despite the film 's " inherently comic " title and premise . The film 's aliens were designed to be " cool and captivating " , with some details , such as a fungus that grows on their wounds , created to depict the creatures as frontiersmen facing adversity in an unfamiliar place .
Cowboys & Aliens premiered at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con and was released theatrically in the United States and Canada on July 29 , 2011 . The film was considered to be a financial disappointment , taking $ 174 @.@ 8 million in box office receipts on a $ 163 million budget . Cowboys & Aliens received mixed reviews , with critics generally praising its acting and production but criticizing its blend of the Western and science fiction genres .
= = Plot = =
In 1873 New Mexico Territory , an unnamed loner awakens injured in the desert with no memory and with a strange metal object on his wrist . He wanders into the town of Absolution , where preacher Meacham treats his wound . Sheriff Taggart recognizes the stranger as wanted outlaw Jake Lonergan and attempts to arrest him . Jake beats up the posse sent to take him in and nearly escapes , but a woman named Ella Swenson knocks him out . Taggart prepares to transport both Jake and volatile drunk Percy Dolarhyde to Santa Fe for trial .
Percy 's father , Colonel Woodrow Dolarhyde , a ruthless cattle baron , demands Percy be released . He also demands Jake be released to him , since Jake had stolen gold from him . During the standoff , alien spacecraft begin attacking the town . Percy , the sheriff and other townsfolk are abducted by long , whip @-@ like feelers hanging from the bottom of the ships . Jake 's shackle unfolds and becomes a weapon ; he shoots down a ship , ending the attack .
Dolarhyde , Ella , and other townsfolk form a posse to track an injured alien that escaped from the downed ship . Meanwhile , Jake travels to an abandoned cabin and , in a flashback , recalls returning to it with stolen gold and then being abducted , along with a woman named Alice , by the aliens . His memories returning , Jake joins up with the posse . During the evening , the group comes upon a capsized paddle wheel steamboat that the aliens apparently dumped miles from any water . They camp in it , and during the night the alien they were tracking kills Meacham , who sacrifices himself to save Emmett , Taggart 's grandson .
By morning , most of the posse has deserted , and those remaining are attacked by Jake 's former gang . Jake , who had stolen the gang 's loot after their last heist , attempts to retake control but it is foiled . The aliens begin attacking them again and Ella is captured . Jake jumps aboard the ship and attacks the alien pilot , causing the ship to crash fatally wounding Ella .
The remaining posse is captured by Chiricahua Apache Native Americans , who blame them for the alien attacks . After Ella 's corpse is dumped on a fire by a Chiricahua warrior , she is resurrected and emerges from the fire . Ella reveals herself to be from another alien race , who had travelled to Earth to help resist the invaders after they destroyed her home world . The aliens , who are mining gold and abducting people to conduct experiments to find humans ' weaknesses , are far stronger and more durable than humans , and have superior weaponry , but are not invulnerable . They can be stabbed and shot to death , but only Jake 's gauntlet weapon or a well @-@ aimed shot with a rifle can kill them with a single blast . Ella says the aliens that previously attacked them are just scouts .
She also claims Jake holds the secret to the aliens ' whereabouts and argues they must defeat the aliens before the invaders exterminate all life on earth . After taking medicine offered by the Apaches ' medicine man , Jake recalls that Alice was euthanized after she was used in an alien experiment , but he had escaped , inadvertently stealing the gauntlet @-@ like alien weapon encasing his wrist . He then also remembers the location of the aliens ' base of operations .
Armed with this knowledge , the group , now led by Dolarhyde , prepares to attack the aliens ' grounded mother ship . Meanwhile , Jake returns to his old gang and persuades them to join the fight . After the humans maneuver the aliens into a ground battle , Jake and Ella board the ship and free the captives , but Jake is captured . Dolarhyde rescues him and both men escape the ship after killing the alien responsible for Alice 's death . As the remaining aliens are taking off in their damaged craft , Ella sacrifices herself by entering the ship 's core and destroying it by using Jake 's wrist gauntlet as a bomb , obliterating the alien ship .
With the aliens gone the abducted townsfolk begin to remember their pasts . Still a wanted man , Jake decides to leave , though the sheriff and Dolarhyde say they will claim he was killed in the invasion . The citizens intend to reconstruct their town .
= = Cast = =
The cast includes :
Daniel Craig as Jake Lonergan , an amnesiac outlaw .
Harrison Ford as Colonel Woodrow Dolarhyde , a powerful cattleman .
Olivia Wilde as Ella Swenson , a mysterious traveler who aids Lonergan .
Sam Rockwell as Doc , owner of Absolution 's local saloon ( when he isn 't tending to patients ) .
Paul Dano as Percy Dolarhyde , Woodrow 's trouble @-@ making son .
Clancy Brown as Meacham , Absolution 's preacher and doctor ( when the real one is too busy tending bar ) .
Keith Carradine as Sheriff John Taggart , Absolution 's sheriff .
Noah Ringer as Emmett Taggart , John Taggart 's grandson .
Adam Beach as Nat Colorado , Dolarhyde 's Native American right @-@ hand man .
Abigail Spencer as Alice , Jake 's lost love .
Ana de la Reguera as María , Absolution 's saloon maid and Doc 's wife .
Walton Goggins as Hunt , a bandit and friend of Lonergan .
Julio Cedillo as Bronc , a Mexican bandit .
David O 'Hara as Pat Dolan , Lonergan 's former gang @-@ member .
Toby Huss as Roy Murphy
Raoul Trujillo as Black Knife , the Chiricahua Apache chief .
Paul Ortega as Apache Medicine Man
= = Production = =
= = = Development and casting = = =
The project began development in 1997 , when Universal Pictures and DreamWorks bought film rights to a concept pitched by Scott Mitchell Rosenberg , former president at Malibu Comics , which he described as a graphic novel in development . They hired Steve Oedekerk to write and direct the film , which Oedekerk planned to do after completing Nutty Professor II : The Klumps . Rosenberg , who formed Platinum Studios to pursue adapting Cowboys & Aliens and other Malibu Comics properties into film and television , joined as a producer . By 1998 , Oedekerk left the project to pursue a remake of the 1964 film The Incredible Mr. Limpet with Jim Carrey . By 2004 , the film rights were acquired by Columbia Pictures , who did not move the project beyond development .
In 2006 , Rosenberg published Cowboys & Aliens as a graphic novel . In the following year , Universal and DreamWorks partnered again to adapt Cowboys & Aliens into a film . In June 2008 , Robert Downey , Jr. entered negotiations to star in the film as Zeke Jackson , a former Union Army gunslinger . While Downey , Jr. was making Iron Man 2 , he told director Jon Favreau about Cowboys & Aliens . Favreau investigated the project , and in September 2009 , he joined as director . Downey , Jr. left the project in January 2010 , to star in Sherlock Holmes : A Game of Shadows , and later in the month , Daniel Craig was hired to replace him . Favreau said Craig 's portrayal of James Bond " brings a certain virtuosity " . He also described Craig , " On the one hand , he 's like this Jason Bourne type , a leading man who 's also a lethal character , but on the other hand , he 's also got a lot of humanity and vulnerability to him . "
In April 2010 , Harrison Ford was cast alongside Craig . Favreau had cast Craig and Ford in the film because they were actors who suited the action @-@ adventure roles so the characters would be less seen as comedic . The director compared Ford , in particular , with John Wayne in having " a sense of history " with the actor and the role . Before Cowboys & Aliens , Ford had previously acted in the Western films A Time for Killing in 1967 , Journey to Shiloh in 1969 and The Frisco Kid in 1979 . While Ford is well known for playing Indiana Jones , the filmmakers wanted to avoid giving him a cowboy hat that would remind audiences too much of Jones . Writer Alex Kurtzman said , " We needed to make sure that — no pun intended — we tipped a hat to iconography of Harrison Ford and also presented the audience with a very different version . "
Olivia Wilde was cast in one of the lead roles , and Favreau called Wilde 's character the key to the film . Sam Rockwell was cast in a supporting role as Doc . The character was described as a large Mexican in the original script , but when Favreau and the writers learned of Rockwell 's interest in the film , they reconceived and expanded the role . Favreau himself is known for appearing in his films , but for Cowboys & Aliens , he chose not to make a cameo appearance because he thought it would affect the tone of the film . However , his face does appear on a wanted poster as " Todd Kravitz " in the scene establishing Craig as " Lonergan " .
When asked about how the film was developing , Rosenberg stated , " It 's incredible . Sometimes it 's like seeing exactly what was going through my head when I first had that spark in my head as a kid . Jon Favreau 's bringing his own talent and vision with the adaptation , but at the same time it remains true to what I was really trying to get at in the original story . "
Steven Spielberg , one of the film 's executive producers , visited the director and the writers during pre @-@ production to look over the script and the artwork . He provided Favreau with a collection of classic Western films . Spielberg also invited the director and the writers to a private screening of several Western films and provided live commentary on how to make one properly . The films included Stagecoach , My Darling Clementine , and Destry Rides Again . Spielberg made several other suggestions : a main enemy alien , Jake 's final use of the gauntlet being to decapitate an alien , and that Jake and Ella 's first kiss should occur in the climax of the film .
= = = Writing = = =
In the film 's period as a developing project under several studios , different versions of the screenplay were drafted by numerous screenwriters , beginning with Steve Oedekerk . Other screenwriters involved included David Hayter , Thomas Dean Donnelly , Joshua Oppenheimer , Jeffrey Boam , Thompson Evans , and Chris Hauty . When Universal and DreamWorks re @-@ partnered in 2007 , they hired Hawk Ostby and Mark Fergus . In 2009 , Ostby and Fergus were replaced by Alex Kurtzman , Roberto Orci , and Damon Lindelof . Kurtzman and Orci analyzed American Western films including The Searchers . Orci said , " The first draft was very kind of jokey and broad and then it went very serious . You kind of swing back and forth between the two extremes and the tone until you find the exact right point where a Western and a sci @-@ fi movie can really shake hands without it seeming unnatural . " " Imagine you 're watching Unforgiven and then Aliens land , " Orci explained .
Orci also said , " The comic has the themes of enemies uniting to fight a common enemy and has the setting of that specific time period , so we kept the inspiration from all of that . In terms of the specifics of the story and who these characters are , we wanted the audience to be surprised and to not feel like they 've already seen everything if they were fans of the comic . So , while the themes and the setting and many of the elements are a great inspiration , the story is completely adapted and translated for live action . " The aliens were loosely based on the Anunnaki gods of Zecharia Sitchin 's interpretation of the Babylonian religion , who have a distinct interest in gold .
= = = Filming = = =
Cowboys & Aliens was not originally planned to be shown in 3 @-@ D. When approached with the idea by DreamWorks , Favreau was not interested , stating that Westerns should be shot only on film ( as opposed to being shot digitally , which is required for modern 3D technology ) , and didn 't want it to be converted after filming . " That would be like filming in black and white and colorizing it , " he reasoned . Director of photography Matthew Libatique shot Cowboys & Aliens in the anamorphic format on 35 mm film to further a " classic movie feel " .
On a budget of $ 163 million , principal photography for Cowboys & Aliens began at Albuquerque Studios in New Mexico on June 30 , 2010 . One of the filming locations was Plaza Blanca , " The White Place " , where Western films like The Missing , 3 : 10 to Yuma , City Slickers , Young Guns , and The Legend of the Lone Ranger had been filmed . Sound stage work took place in Los Angeles , with additional location shooting at Randsburg , California . Filming finished on September 30 .
A scene in which Craig 's character rides a horse alongside a ravine and jumps down it onto a spacecraft emulated many scenes in American Western films where cowboys rode along a moving train and jumped on it . Favreau said the scene referenced the one in the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark where Indiana Jones chases a truck and noted that a similar scene existed in the 1939 film Stagecoach , saying " We 're constantly referencing back to our roots . " Cowboys & Aliens also make multiple references to Close Encounters of the Third Kind , such as the introduction to the aliens through the bright lights on their aircraft and an upturned paddle steamer in the middle of the desert . The film also " tease [ s ] " monster movies , and the scenes in the paddle steamer were a deliberate homage to Alien .
= = = Design and effects = = =
Scott Chambliss was hired as the production designer based on his work on Star Trek , produced by Orci and Kurtzman . The visual effects were created by Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) , represented by Roger Guyett and Eddie Pasquarello as visual effects supervisors . Under the supervision of Shane Mahan , Legacy Effects created practical puppet aliens and full scale alien speeders . New Deal Studios constructed a miniature of the paddle steamer that is seen upturned in the film . Kerner Optical built a miniature of the alien ship and bluescreen stand @-@ ins . The film also featured visual effects by Fuel VFX , The Embassy , Ghost , and Shade VFX , with previsualization from Halon Entertainment .
Favreau noted that Cowboys & Aliens focuses on a specific aspect of the alien genre which primarily revolves around the films of the 1980s : " And although we have quite a bit of CG — I like the way they told stories before — before you could show everything with CG . And it was a real unveiling of the creature , little by little , and using lighting and camera work and music to make it a very subjective experience . And so we tried to preserve that here . " In designing the film 's aliens , ILM was careful to make the creatures " cool and captivating " . Guyett stated that they adopted a similar approach to that of District 9 :
The trick was to make [ the aliens ] interesting through their behavior and what happens to them , and that was something that District 9 did very well . You were drawn into their world a bit and their idiosyncrasies had an immediate impact : they ate cat food . But those details overwhelm certain design aspects , so I was striving to find some behavior that fit in well with the Western genre , where you have people in very arduous conditions fighting the elements . And I thought that the irony of all this was that the aliens turn up and it could be more exaggerated for them . They 're frontiersmen in a way : traveling to another place and having to deal with all the adversities of the climate . And in our case , we played up the fact that they weren 't comfortable in our world . There are flies all around them ; they don 't like the light ; and when they were wounded and exposed , a strange fungus grows around them .
The use of anamorphic widescreen ( rather than shooting full @-@ frame " flat " and cropping later ) gave ILM no extra room to re @-@ frame shots ; it was a challenge to show both nine @-@ foot @-@ tall aliens and smaller humans in the same space . Instead , Guyett said , they shot more areas in case portions of the shots were lost . In filming the gun battle between the cowboys and aliens , in which the aliens move at twice the speed of the humans , actors were required to ride through the scene on horseback and shoot at men in gray suits and three @-@ foot @-@ tall hats ; they aimed at faces drawn by Jon Favreau on the top of the hats . A big challenge for ILM 's texture artists was to show the aliens in both a dark cave environment and harsh sunlight . The creatures were rendered in high resolution for close @-@ ups ; dirt and wounds were added to the aliens to emphasize the injuries they sustained in battle . After Favreau requested that the aliens experience a very unpleasant biological reaction to being wounded on Earth , the texture team created a yellow fungus @-@ like look on the scars of the aliens . To design the fungus , texture supervisor Martin Murphy searched the Internet for real pictures of mold and growth on trees and eventually designed a " fried egg pattern " . The heads of the aliens were based on those of sea turtles , after Favreau encountered sea turtles during a trip to Hawaii .
At the suggestion of Steven Spielberg , an " über @-@ alien " was also designed . It was unclear if the red scar Jake gives the über @-@ alien after escaping vivisection would be enough of an identifier to distinguish it from other aliens , so the creature was redesigned with translucent , pale skin due to the lack of time spent outside . Favreau described the über @-@ alien as more fleshy and anthropomorphic than the other aliens and Murphy commented , " There are some parts of him like his arm that you can see into . It 's almost like glass or ice or gelatiny surface that blends into a dryer area . The [ sic ] there 's pieces of him that are more like a soft @-@ shell crab or shiny and wet . "
In addition to the aliens , other visual effects were required for the speeders , the alien spaceship , its interior , environment re @-@ creations , and the head @-@ up display for Jake 's arm gauntlet . For the invasion of the town of Absolution , both practical laser lighting and fire effects were utilized , along with practical ships and effects enhancements . ILM artists had to enhance the initial look of the alien " bolos " , the cables used to abduct people , with renderings such as extra lights , after viewers thought the studio had failed to " paint out " the cables in the film ’ s first trailer . For a scene in which Jake and Ella ride on a speeder , the actors were filming on a practical mock @-@ up against bluescreen ; they were digitally replaced in wider shots .
= = Themes = =
In Cowboys & Aliens , Director Jon Favreau sought a plausible approach to how humans from the late 19th century could confront extraterrestrial beings armed with advanced weaponry . He said , " It was very well laid out , well planned , and there were a lot of discussions with a lot of actors who called me to task on things that seemed too convenient , so we made sure we earned each step . " The director also sought to maintain a Western tone as aliens appeared in the film , saying , " It 's very easy to just cut the string and then all of a sudden the action starts and you 're in Independence Day . " Favreau cited the works of John Ford and Sergio Leone as sources of inspiration as well as Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid . Favreau also wanted the science @-@ fiction element to stand on its own , referencing Alien , Predator , and Close Encounters of the Third Kind . He said of both genres , " It 's about finding the intersection of those two genres . . . If you do it right , it honors both , and it becomes interesting and clever and a reinvention of two things that people understand the conventions of , instead of just a retread or remake or sequel or reboot of a film you 've seen before . "
In the Americas , Native American nations were severely damaged by European settlers , specifically because of the Europeans ' advanced military technology . Favreau compared the film to the historical confrontation " in the frustration of not having the technology to allow you to prevail . It 's always the low @-@ tech culture that feels powerless when faced with an enemy that has technology on their side . " In the film , the cowboys are the low @-@ tech culture , and the aliens with advanced technology possess the belief of Manifest Destiny . Favreau also said of the premise , " It allows the cowboys and Native Americans to come together , which would be impossible had there not been a greater common enemy . It sets the Western up in a very classic way and then turns it on its ear . " When the aliens appear , the film becomes a road movie in which the main characters try to track the aliens , team up with different groups , and ultimately confront the aliens . Favreau compared the gathering to The Magnificent Seven in facing seemingly insurmountable odds in their confrontation .
The character of Meacham also presents an unconventional take on Christian principles to support the film 's main theme of redemption . According to Favreau , Meacham 's teaching Doc how to shoot not only references similar scenes in other Westerns but also " teach [ es ] him how to be a person " . Meacham 's dying words to Jake , " God don 't care who you were , Son , only who you are " , speaks of the central theme of redemption . The hummingbird that Jake sees at various points in the film is a " good spirit " that could represent either Alice or Ella ; an alternate theory is that Ella was an angel that helped Jake " get over " Alice . Favreau also suggested a back @-@ story to Cowboys & Aliens : the über @-@ alien is the mastermind of the invasion ; all other aliens are " worker bees " , possibly genetically engineered by another species of aliens that remained on their home planet and sent the worker bees as conquistadors .
= = Marketing = =
Cowboys & Aliens , which crosses genres with the American Western element of cowboys and the science @-@ fiction element of extraterrestrials , has an " inherently comic " title and premise . At the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in July 2010 , director Jon Favreau hosted a presentation and was accompanied by the film 's primary cast members , including Harrison Ford in his first Comic @-@ Con appearance . In the presentation , Favreau explained to audiences that he intended the film as a serious mix of the Western styles of Sergio Leone and John Ford and " really scary " science fiction like Alien and Predator . The first trailer for the film appeared in the following November , and The New York Times reported that film audiences found the premise comedic . Eddie Egan , the president of marketing at Universal Pictures , acknowledged the misconception and said , " The trailer is the first very public step in reconciling the tone of the movie with the more immediate effect of the title on its own . " The studio anticipated a marketing campaign that would demonstrate that the film is " a tough @-@ minded adventure " like Unforgiven by Clint Eastwood .
During Super Bowl XLV on February 6 , 2011 , the studio aired a TV spot for Cowboys & Aliens . Hours before the American football game , Favreau used Twitter to link followers to the spot online . Entertainment Weekly reported , " It . . . roused the geek @-@ hive fan base and stirred new speculation about his hybrid of classic Westerns and extraterrestrial @-@ invasion thrillers . " After the spot aired , Favreau said the first trailer was intended as an introduction to pique people 's curiosity and that the Super Bowl TV spot was " showing more of the sense of adventure as things unfold " .
In April 2011 , Favreau and Roberto Orci appeared at WonderCon in San Francisco , where they presented nine minutes of film footage and answered questions about the film . Favreau explained that marketing would show " only a brief glimpse of the aliens of the title " before the film is released . He explained the withholding of certain elements , " I think there are enough visionary people involved with this film that there is an understanding that there is a personality that the marketing campaign can take on as well as the film itself . . . I want to make sure that if the audience goes to see [ the film ] , there is going to be a lot of surprises in it that they haven 't seen in the marketing materials . "
= = Release = =
Cowboys & Aliens had its world premiere at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego on July 23 , 2011 . It was commercially released in the United States and Canada on July 29 , 2011 , and in other territories in ensuing weekends . Paramount Pictures International also released the film in IMAX theaters around the world , as it did for Favreau 's previous film , Iron Man 2 .
Box Office Mojo forecast that Cowboys & Aliens would gross $ 95 million total in the United States and Canada . For the comparatively low figure , the website cited that the marketing had not contextualized the film effectively and that hybridized Western films like Jonah Hex and Wild Wild West were not successful at the box office . In territories outside the United States and Canada , the website forecast $ 140 million total , citing that American Western films are not historically popular , but that the premise of the alien invasion and the presence of international stars like Daniel Craig and Harrison Ford would generate interest . In contrast , box office tracker Paul Dergarabedian said the film 's combination of cowboy and extraterrestrial themes in particular would attract audiences . Dergarabedian also believed that audiences ' familiarity with Craig as character James Bond would help the film .
= = = Box office = = =
On the opening day of Cowboys & Aliens , estimates showed that its opening day gross was $ 13 @.@ 0 million and it came in second place to The Smurfs ' opening day gross of $ 13 @.@ 3 million . This was considered a surprise since Cowboys & Aliens was expected to be the clear winner for the weekend . Estimates then showed Cowboys & Aliens and The Smurfs tied at the # 1 spot for the weekend with $ 36 @.@ 2 million each . However , when the actual results for the weekend were announced Cowboys & Aliens won the weekend with $ 36 @.@ 4 million just beating out The Smurfs , which grossed $ 35 @.@ 6 million . The film grossed $ 100 @,@ 240 @,@ 551 in the U.S. and Canada ( making it the 500th $ 100 million domestic movie ) as well as $ 74 @,@ 581 @,@ 774 internationally , bringing its worldwide total to $ 174 @,@ 822 @,@ 325 . The film is considered to be a financial disappointment , narrowly grossing its budget back . In 2014 , the LA Times listed the film as one of the most expensive box office flops of all time .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Cowboys & Aliens earned 44 % approval from 235 critics on the review @-@ aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 and garnering a score of 50 out of 100 from 41 critics on Metacritic . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a B on an A plus to F scale , indicating a mixed reaction from paying audiences . In general , the performances , particularly from Craig , Ford and Wilde , were praised whereas the combination of Western and science fiction genres was frequently criticized .
Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film , saying , " It sounds kooky on paper but on the screen cowboys and aliens make beautiful , fun music together . " Honeycutt felt that the success of the film 's blend of aliens and western themes was due to " the determination by everyone involved to play the damn thing straight . Even the slightest goofiness , the tiniest touch of camp , and the whole thing would blow sky high . But it doesn 't . " He criticized the aliens , which he said " don 't rate as characters " , existing as " moving blobs you shoot at in a video game . " Variety 's Peter Debruge echoed Honeycutt 's sentiments that the " potential hamminess " of the premise is offset by the cast , particularly Craig through a " mix of ruthlessness and sensitivity . " He considered however , that Wilde had the opposite effect , stating she " appears out of place among her grizzled co @-@ stars " . Debruge appreciated the attention paid to the roots of the two genres , saying " beneath all the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art special effects beats an old @-@ fashioned heart , one that prizes both of the genres in play " and concluded that " a canny blend of CG and practical effects serve the sci @-@ fi elements well , while location shooting and Mary Zophres ' form @-@ fitting period duds make the West look its best . " Nick Pinkerton of The Village Voice said the Western elements of the film were " lovingly " handled but called felt the science aspects a " gimmick " and " much more standard fare " in comparison . He added that " Ford , enlivened by dude garb , seems to enjoy himself in front of a camera for the first time in decades " .
Roger Ebert wrote that " as preposterous moneymakers go , it 's ambitious and well @-@ made . The acting from the large cast is of a high standard , Craig and Ford were more or less born into their roles , and director Jon Favreau actually develops his characters and gives them things to do , instead of posing them in front of special effects . " He lamented however that the film was not a pure Western , saying of the aliens , " [ T ] here is more genuine suspense when [ Percy Dolarhyde ] starts shooting up the town than when countless aliens appear " . Salon 's Andrew O 'Hehir offered a mixed response , claiming the film to be well made and clever , and singling out Craig and Ford for their performances . O 'Hehir was , however , critical of the combination of western and science @-@ fiction elements , calling it " a mediocre western clumsily welded to a mediocre alien shoot- ' em @-@ up " .
Slant 's Nick Schager reacted negatively , stating " Cowboys & Aliens mashes up genres with a staunch dedication to getting everything wrong , making sure that each scene is more inane than the one that preceded it " ; giving the film one star out of four . Schager continued " Cowboys & Aliens 's western accoutrements are [ ... ] so false as to be stunning , with every steely @-@ eyed glare from Craig 's Man With No Memory , every confrontation between his Jake and Ford 's grizzled Dolarhyde , and every silhouetted horseback ride across a sunset range seeming like a wan approximation of a familiar genre staple . [ ... ] Favreau 's visuals have an inauthentic and bland blockbuster sheen , and his actors are similarly afflicted with a case of poseur @-@ itis ( Craig 's affected silent @-@ type glowering , Ford 's gruff racism , or Wilde 's blank , wide @-@ eyed stares ) , failing to deliver a single believable line @-@ reading or gesture . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Cowboys & Aliens received five nominations . At the 39th Annie Awards , the film was nominated in Animated Effects in a Live Action Production for both Gary Wu and Lee Uren , but lost to Transformers : Dark of the Moon . The ceremony took place on February 4 , 2011 . The film received nominations from the Art Directors Guild for Fantasy Film , honoring production designer Scott Chambliss , and for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture at the 18th Screen Actors Guild Awards , but lost to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 in both ceremonies . Ford received a Saturn Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor .
= = = Home media = = =
Cowboys & Aliens was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on December 6 , 2011 . The release includes three behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , plus feature commentary with director Jon Favreau .
= = = Infringement lawsuit = = =
On November 30 , 2011 , Steven John Busti filed a lawsuit was filed against Universal , DreamWorks , Platinum Studios , and Scott Mitchell Rosenberg , claiming copyright infringement . He stating he wrote a preview for his story Cowboys and Aliens in 1994 , which was published in the April 1995 issue of Bizarre Fantasy # 1 . The story was also previewed in a 1995 issue of " Comic Shop News " , which on the same page that featured coverage of Scott Mitchell Rosenberg . Rosenberg and Platinum produced a one sheet depicting a cowboy being chased by an alien , which eventually led to Universal and DreamWorks buying film rights to their concept .
= G.G. ( Gossip Girl ) =
" G.G. " is the thirteenth episode of the fifth season of the American television teen drama , Gossip Girl and the show 's 100th episode overall . The episode was written by executive producer Joshua Safran and directed by Mark Piznarski . It premiered on The CW Television Network ( The CW ) in the United States on January 30 , 2012 . In the episode , the wedding of Blair Waldorf ( Leighton Meester ) to Prince Louis Grimaldi ( Hugo Becker ) takes place .
The episode opened to favorable reviews , with television critics praising the fact it honored the series ' successful days . Michelle Trachtenberg 's performance as Georgina Sparks was also well received . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 39 million Americans and garnered a 0 @.@ 7 / 2 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were slightly up in comparison to the previous episode " Father and the Bride " .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a musical dream sequence of Serena ( Blake Lively ) , featuring herself as Marilyn Monroe singing " Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend " and Blair ( Leighton Meester ) as Audrey Hepburn . Everyone prepares for the wedding of Blair to Prince Louis Grimaldi of Monaco ( Hugo Becker ) . Father Cavilla ( Marc Menard ) visits Chuck ( Ed Westwick ) to tell him the plan to ruin the wedding – Father Cavilla will replace Father Smythe who will mistakenly have taken sleeping pills , and when he asks during the ceremony if anyone has any objection to the marriage , Chuck will tell that Blair is still in love with him . Though he first agreed on helping him , Chuck changes his mind because he doesn 't want to destroy Blair 's dream and only wants her happiness .
Georgina Sparks ( Michelle Trachtenberg ) , who has just come back in New York , then teams up with the priest in an act of revenge for everything Blair has done to her in the past . In the meantime , Serena continues to show an interest in Dan ( Penn Badgley ) , even though he is still unaware of her love . Nate ( Chace Crawford ) reflects on his past failed relationships , while also taking an interest in Lola , who happens to be the real Charlie Rhodes . Blair ' s mother tries to dissuade her from marrying Louis but she doesn 't want to listen to her so she finds help in Chuck , who agrees to try to convince Blair to stop the wedding . Meanwhile , Georgina tries to seduce Louis and have her husband film it . Unfortunately , it doesn 't work as Rufus and Lily stop her .
Before the ceremony , Chuck talks to Blair who professes her undying love for him -which has been filmed by Georgina- but still refuses to call off the wedding . During the ceremony , someone sends the video of the discussion between Blair and Chuck to everyone 's cell phones . The ceremony is temporarily suspended until Blair comes back to the aisle determined to marry Louis . As a result , she becomes Her Serene Highness , Princess Blair of Monaco . At the reception , Serena tells Dan how she feels about him but quickly leaves before he can answer . During their first dance , Louis reveals to Blair that it will be a loveless , contracted marriage . After hearing that , Blair runs away in a limousine with Dan at the wheel . At the end of the episode , the identity of Gossip Girl is seemingly revealed to be Georgina Sparks .
= = Production = =
" G.G. " was written by Joshua Safran and directed by Mark Piznarski . The wedding scene was filmed at the St. James ' Episcopal Church in New York on November 9 , 2011 . The reception that followed it was shot at The St. Regis Hotel . On November 19 , 2011 , news from the episode , including the title , were reported . Later on , the episode was also reported to feature a dream musical number with Serena as Marilyn Monroe , Blair as Audrey Hepburn , and the men in both their lives . Blair 's wedding dress as well as Serena 's maid of honor dress were designed by Vera Wang . Blair 's dress appeared in InStyle 's top 20 TV fashion moments of the season .
On November 1 , 2011 , it was announced that Michelle Trachtenberg would reprise her role as troublemaker Georgina Sparks . Other cast members included Sparks ' husband Philip ( Nick Cornish ) , Blair 's father Harold ( John Shea ) , Blair 's mother ( Margaret Colin ) , Cyrus Rose ( Wallace Shawn ) , Princess Sophie ( Joanne Whalley ) , and Father Cavalia ( Marc Menard ) . Blair 's minions , Penelope Shafai ( Amanda Setton ) , Kati Farkas ( Nan Zhang ) and Jessica ( Alice Callahan ) were also present as bridesmaids .
Featured music included Peter Bjorn and John 's " Young Folks " performed by The Kooks , Marilyn Monroe 's " Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend " performed by Serena , Jon Hastings ' " Endless Summer " , Grouplove 's " Slow " , Ludwig van Beethoven 's " Rondo in C Major , Op 51 " , INXS ' " Never Tear Us Apart " performed by the Vitamin String Quartet , Pat Benatar 's " We Belong " also performed by the Vitamin String Quartet and Wolf Gang 's " Suego Faults " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" G.G. " was first broadcast on January 30 , 2012 in the United States on The CW . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 39 million Americans and scored a 0 @.@ 7 / 2 Nielsen rating / share in the adults among the 18 – 49 demographic , a season high in viewership . It was also up 25 % and 17 % in viewers and adults 18 – 49 , respectively , from the previous episode " Father and the Bride " , which netted 1 @.@ 11 million American viewers and a 0 @.@ 6 / 2 Nielsen rating / share during its initial airing .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received generally favorable reviews . Zap2it wrote , " Sure , Blair 's ( Leighton Meester ) been dreaming of her fairytale wedding since she was just a little girl . But it 's also true that producers of Gossip Girl have been dreaming of this moment for a long time as well . And the Upper East Side drama didn 't disappoint . In fact , it was easy the best episode this season . " Steve Marsi from TV Fanatic gave the episode a four stars rating out of five writing , " In what has come to be sort of a make @-@ or @-@ break episode , Gossip Girl had a golden opportunity to redeem its recent mediocrity and prove itself worthy of all the passion and loyalty we 've invested over the years . While there were some gaping plot holes and disappointments tonight - especially depending on your couple of choice - you can 't find fault with the pure number of twists , especially during the last five minutes . " Marsi appreciated the references to Gossip Girl 's early days , " The promised homages to the old days were there in spades , and incorporated in ways that actually fit the present @-@ day story . Case in point : A memorable Gossip Girl quote ( " I love you , always have , always will " ) which was spoken to a very different character long ago . Also , the cover of " Young Folks " at the onset was fun . " The Huffington Post 's Laura Prudom also found the episode had honored Gossip Girl 's past , " For the first time in recent memory , this week 's milestone episode of Gossip Girl finally recaptured the confident plotting and razor sharp shocks of its first two seasons . " She also praised the fact Georgina is Gossip Girl which was totally unexpected . The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " In classic Gossip Girl fashion , the 100th episode was full of witty one @-@ liners , many of them from the mouth of Georgina Sparks and one in honor of The Princess Bride ; paid homage to the pilot ; and featured several head @-@ turning moments . " Ology gave the episode a 9 / 10 grade .
Digital Spy writer Catriona Wightman found the episode " completely absurd " but " brillantly entertaining . " Morgan Glennon of BuddyTV wrote , " Despite how ridiculous it was seeing character after character after character try to save Blair from her own stupid decisions , Gossip Girl really knows how to do big events . After 100 episodes , the show understood that it needed to go big to top off the royal wedding storyline . So the wedding , and attendant quest to stop it , was as big , dramatic and heartfelt as Gossip Girl at its best . " Glennon also conceded about the Gossip Girl reveal , the show can still pull out those OMG moments . Glennon found Georgina " amazing " in the episode , " you can 't even take your eyes off her because she 's so great in every scene . " However , The Atlantic Wire thought the writers " should have waited until the last @-@ ever episode to do the unveiling " of Gossip Girl and questioned , " isn 't that indicative of the show 's greater failings over these past four and a half years ? That constant need of this once @-@ promising show to tip its hand too soon ? " and concluded " we think the time has finally come to remove Gossip Girl from our bookmarks . "
= Patrick Star =
Patrick Star is a fictional character in the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . He is voiced by actor Bill Fagerbakke , who also voices numerous other characters on the show . Created and designed by marine biologist and cartoonist Stephen Hillenburg , the series creator , Patrick first appeared on television in the show 's pilot episode " Help Wanted " on May 1 , 1999 .
Depicted as an overweight , dimwitted pink starfish , Patrick lives under a rock in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom next door to Squidward Tentacles ' moai . His most significant character trait is his lack of common sense , which sometimes leads him and his best friend , main character SpongeBob SquarePants , into trouble . Patrick is unemployed and a self @-@ proclaimed expert in the " art of doing nothing " .
The character has received positive reactions from critics and fans alike ; however , he has been involved in a public controversy that centered on speculation over his relationship with SpongeBob . Patrick has been included in various SpongeBob SquarePants @-@ related merchandise , including trading cards , video games , plush toys , and comic books . He appears in the 2004 full @-@ length feature film The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie and in its 2015 sequel .
= = Role in SpongeBob SquarePants = =
Patrick is the ignorant but humorous best friend of main character SpongeBob SquarePants . He is portrayed as being an overweight , dimwitted , pink starfish residing in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . Patrick has been shown to make many ludicrous mistakes ; despite this , he has occasionally been portrayed as a savant , with articulate observance to certain subjects in specific detail . However , he always reverts quickly back to his usual , unintelligent self after displaying a moment of wisdom . He holds no form of occupation except for several very brief stints working at the Krusty Krab and at the Chum Bucket in a variety of positions , and mostly spends his time either clowning around with Sponge
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Bob , catching jellyfish with him , or lounging beneath the rock under which he resides .
At home , Patrick is typically depicted either sleeping , watching TV , or engaged in the " art of doing nothing " , at which he is an expert . All the furnishings in the space under his rock are made of sand , and Patrick can simply opt to quickly build up furniture as needed ; even so , his living space is sparse and contains only the barest essentials . Aside from his best friend SpongeBob , who is often impressed by Patrick 's capacity to come up with naïve yet genius plans or solutions , Patrick frequently irritates those around him and is confounded by the simplest of questions or subjects . The characters of Mr. Krabs and Squidward have no patience for Patrick 's stupidity , and the former does not pay him much regard ; Clancy Brown , who provides Mr. Krabs ' voice , said , " The only person that he [ Mr. Krabs ] doesn 't hire is Patrick because Patrick is just too stupid to work for nothing . " Sandy often gets annoyed by Patrick , but still sees him as a friend .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and design = = =
Stephen Hillenburg first became fascinated with the ocean and began developing his artistic abilities as a child . During college , he majored in marine biology and minored in art . He planned to return to college eventually to pursue a master 's degree in art . After graduating in 1984 , he joined the Ocean Institute , an organization dedicated to educating the public about marine science and maritime history . While he was there , he initially had the idea that would lead to the creation of SpongeBob SquarePants : a comic book titled The Intertidal Zone . In 1987 , Hillenburg left the institute to pursue a career in animation .
A few years after studying experimental animation at the California Institute of the Arts , Hillenburg met Joe Murray , creator of the Nickelodeon series Rocko 's Modern Life , at an animation festival , and was offered a job as a director of the show . Martin Olson , one of the writers for Rocko 's Modern Life , read The Intertidal Zone and encouraged Hillenburg to create a television series with a similar concept . At that point , Hillenburg had not even considered creating his own series . However , he realized that if he ever did , this would be the best approach . Production on Rocko 's Modern Life ended in 1996 . Shortly afterwards , Hillenburg began working on SpongeBob SquarePants .
For the show 's characters , Hillenburg started to draw and used character designs from his comic book — including starfish , crab , and sponge . He described Patrick as " probably the dumbest guy in town " . The character was conceived as a starfish to embody the animal 's nature ; according to Hillenburg , starfish look " dumb and slow " , but they are " very active and aggressive " in reality , like Patrick . Hillenburg incorporated character comedy rather than topical humor on the show to emphasize " things that are more about humorous situations and about characters and their flaws . " He designed Patrick and SpongeBob as such because " they 're whipping themselves up into situations — that 's always where the humor comes from . The rule is : Follow the innocence and avoid topical [ humor ] . "
In spite of being depicted as having a good temperament or state of mind , Patrick has been shown in some episodes to have a tantrum . Patrick 's emotional outbreak was originally written only for the first season episode " Valentine 's Day " , where SpongeBob and Sandy try to give Patrick a Valentine 's Day gift , and " was supposed to be a one @-@ time thing " . However , according to episode writer Jay Lender , " when that show came back it felt so right that his dark side started popping up everywhere . You can plan ahead all you want , but the characters eventually tell you who they are . "
Every main character in the show has its own unique footstep sound . The sound of Patrick 's footsteps is recorded by the show 's Foley crew , with a Foley talent wearing a slip @-@ on shoe . Jeff Hutchins , show 's sound designer said , " [ Going ] barefoot makes it tough to have much presence , so we decided that Patrick would be performed with shoes on . "
= = = Voice = = =
Patrick 's voice is provided by actor Bill Fagerbakke , who also does the voices of numerous other characters on SpongeBob SquarePants . While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997 , Hillenburg and Derek Drymon , the show 's then @-@ creative director , were also conducting auditions to find voices for the show 's characters . Fagerbakke auditioned for the role of Patrick after Tom Kenny , SpongeBob 's voice actor , had been cast . Fagerbakke said , " Steve is such a lovely guy , and I had absolutely no feeling for the material whatsoever . " He described his experience in the audition , saying " I was just going in for another audition , and I had no idea what was in store there in terms of the remarkable visual wit and really the kind of endearing child @-@ like humanity in the show . I couldn 't pick that up from the audition material at all . I was just kind of perfunctorially trying to give the guy what he wanted . "
Steve Hillenburg actually played for me a portion of Tom [ Kenny ] ' s performance as the character , and they were looking for a counterpoint . And I do the big dumb stuff . That 's my deal ... that 's what I do [ sic ] . It was such a neat experience . Typically , when you audition for any kind of voiceover stuff , you 're in a studio , but as I remember it , this was , like , in a weird conference room somewhere , and he had one of those little old cassette decks that ’ s about half the size of a shoebox , and there was something so endearing about it .
Fagerbakke referred Patrick as " AquaDauber " ( a reference to his role as Michael " Dauber " Dybinski on the 1990s sitcom Coach ) in the first few years of working on the show . Patrick is " enormously entertaining to portray " because , according to Fagerbakke , " when I 'm performing Patrick , there are many secrets that I could never divulge " . Fagerbakke 's approach in voicing Patrick is " much the same way I would do [ to ] any kind of character . " " I 'm always looking for opportunities to explore that freewheeling imagination and insanity of children . To be able to plug in to that and let that carry you in to a performance is such a gas , I have so much fun with that . I love kids ; I raised two girls and I love being a parent , " he said . The cast members record as a whole cast . Fagerbakke says that the situation improves his performance as a voice actor because " there is something remarkable that happens when people are working together that is unique to that . " Fagerbakke modeled his performance whenever Patrick is angry after that of American actress Shelley Winters .
Fagerbakke has been compared to Patrick 's character , which he concurs with . Kenny said that " Bill [ Fagerbakke ] is a big guy . The world is almost too small for him . He 's a force of nature , like Patrick . " Writer Jay Lender said , describing Fagerbakke in the recording studio , " Bill Fagerbakke is the most thoughtful performer I 've ever seen in the booth — he was always asking questions and really trying to get into the mindset , such as it is , of Patrick . " Writer Kent Osborne said of Fagerbakke , " He is this big guy , and he plays Patrick so well . He 's just this big guy , and he lumbers around . " Fagerbakke said , " I 'm clumsy . I 'm goofy . I make mistakes all the time " and agreed that " I guess I 'm a lot of Patrick . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reception for the character from both professionals and fans has been positive . In his DVD review for DVD Verdict , Bill Treadway called Patrick " the village idiot , who sometimes gives SpongeBob some really bad advice , but he is a loyal friend and that 's something we don 't see much of these days . " He said , " Patrick is the definition of stupid and his antics will have you laughing out loud . " In a review published in 2007 , Peter Keepnews of The New York Times said , " Patrick is a popular character , and the new episodes illustrate why : He is unfailingly enthusiastic , touchingly loyal and absolutely undeterred by his intellectual limitations . Hilariously voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , he is not just an endearing comic creation but a role model for idiots everywhere . "
Nancy Basile of About.com called Patrick " one of the silliest characters on SpongeBob SquarePants " . In her " SpongeBob and Friends : Patrick SquarePants " , a Patrick @-@ themed SpongeBob SquarePants home video release , DVD review , Basile said , " The episodes included [ ... ] are hilarious . They 're not only some of Patrick 's best episodes , but also some of the show 's classic episodes . " She ranked " That 's No Lady " as Patrick 's best episode and said , " I was remiss not to include this episode in my top ten [ SpongeBob SquarePants episodes ] list . " She cited her favorite scene from the episode , where " Patrick can 't read the number on Mr. Krabs ' table , saying , ' Ford knee . ' Mr. Krabs replies , ' That 's a seven , Patricia . ' " The Kids ' Choice Awards , an annual awards show presented by Nickelodeon , added several new categories , including " Favorite Animated Animal Sidekick " , in its 2014 ceremony . Patrick received the Kids ' Choice Award Blimp for the category , winning to Perry the Platypus ( Phineas and Ferb ) , Sparky ( The Fairly OddParents ) and Waddles ( Gravity Falls ) .
= = = Criticism and controversy = = =
In 2002 , the show 's popularity among the gay community grew , and it was reported that they had embraced the show , according to BBC Online . The Wall Street Journal also raised questions about SpongeBob and Patrick in a recent article that pointed out the show 's popularity in the gay community . Tom Kenny , in response to the article , said " [ I ] felt the insinuation was a stretch . " " I had heard that gay viewers enjoy the show in the same way that lots of people — college students , parents and children — like the show [ ... ] I thought it was rather silly to hang an entire article on that . I don 't think it 's a case of it being a gay @-@ friendly show — It 's a human @-@ being @-@ friendly show . They 're all welcome , " Kenny said .
In 2005 , a promotional video that involves SpongeBob promoting diversity and tolerance was criticized by two U.S. Christian evangelical groups , most notably Focus on the Family , because they saw the character was being used as an advocate for homosexuality though the video contained " no reference to sex , sexual lifestyle or sexual identity . " The incident led to questions as to whether or not SpongeBob , his best friend Patrick , and the rest of the series ' characters are homosexual characters . After this speculation and comments , Hillenburg repeated his assertion that sexual preference was never considered during the creation of the show . He clarified the issue and said " We never intended them to be gay . I consider them to be almost asexual . We 're just trying to be funny and this has got nothing to do with the show . " Tom Kenny and other production members were shocked and surprised that such an issue had arisen . Derek Drymon , show 's creative director , said , " If SpongeBob holds hands with Patrick it 's because he 's his best friend and he loves him . I think the whole thing is a part of a larger agenda to stigmatize gay people . " Focus on the Family founder James Dobson later stated that his comments were taken out of context and that his original complaints were not with SpongeBob or any of the characters in the video but with the organization that sponsored the video , the We Are Family Foundation . Dobson noted that the foundation had posted pro @-@ homosexual material on its website , but later removed it .
Queer theorist Jeffrey P. Dennis , author of the journal article " The Same Thing We Do Every Night : Signifying Same @-@ Sex Desire in Television Cartoons , " argued that SpongeBob and Sandy are not romantically in love , while adding that he believed that SpongeBob and Patrick " are paired with arguably erotic intensity . " Dennis noted the two are " not consistently coded as romantic partners , " since they live in separate residences , and have distinct groups of friends , but claimed that in the series , " the possibility of same @-@ sex desire is never excluded . " Martin Goodman of Animation World Magazine described Dennis 's comments regarding SpongeBob and Patrick as " interesting . "
= = In other media = =
Patrick has appeared in other SpongeBob SquarePants @-@ related media , including board games , comic books , keychains , plush toys , trading cards and video games . Patrick has a major role in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , the first feature @-@ length film adaptation of the show . The film was released on November 19 , 2004 and has been a financial success , grossing over $ 140 million worldwide . He has also appeared in the film 's sequel , which was released in theaters on February 6 , 2015 . In the second film , Patrick ( along with SpongeBob , Squidward , Mr. Krabs , and Plankton ) is rendered in 3D ( using CGI ) in the live action scenes . The group becomes an " Avengers @-@ type team " ; Patrick transforms to Mr. Superawesomeness .
In 2009 , actor John Fricker portrayed Patrick in the musical adaptation of the third season episode " The Sponge Who Could Fly " . Fricker and the musical itself were well received by most critics . Gordon Barr and Roger Domeneghetti of the Evening Chronicle described the musical as " a silly riot of colour [ ... ] as you 'd have to expect from an adaptation of a cartoon TV show " , while Viv Hardwick of The Northern Echo said that Fricker and Martin Johnston ( Mr. Krabs ) " win the biggest costume contest . " A critic from the Chichester Observer wrote , " John Fricker is in his element as the simple but lovable Patrick Star " .
The character of Patrick has become viral in the Internet in the forms of memes or image macros . A still from The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , which displays Patrick in a drop @-@ jawed look , inspired YouTube user to create a presentation of Patrick 's expression using a number of different filters . Following this , a YouTube user uploaded another video featuring Patrick reacting to Canadian singer Justin Bieber 's 2010 single , " Baby " . The meme called " Surprised Patrick " started to disseminate , with one of the first images was posted to Reddit by SeannyOC , and then reblogged onto I Can Has Cheezburger ? ' s Memebase . Comedy websites — including BiteTV , CollegeHumor , Mashable and Smosh — have published their own " Best of " lists and compilations , covering the " Surprised Patrick " meme 's popularity . Mashable 's Nena Prakash said , " For years , Patrick Star helped hold down Bikini Bottom while SpongeBob was flippin ' burgers at [ t ] he Krusty Krab . But now it 's time for Patrick to come out from under that rock and take a seat upon his royal meme throne , because he 's an Internet star ( fish ) . " Another popular meme based on the character is the " Push It Somewhere Else Patrick " image macro , which was taken from the second season episode " Sandy , SpongeBob , and the Worm " .
= Por Amarte Así =
" Por Amarte Así " ( English : " Loving You This Way " ) is a song written by Alejandro Montalbán and Eduardo Reyes and performed by Mexican recording artist Cristian Castro . It was produced by Kike Santander and released in 2000 as the fourth single from his sixth studio album Mi Vida Sin Tu Amor ( 1999 ) . Lyrically , the song is about a man who promises to keep loving his lover even though she is gone . In the United States , it peaked at number three and two on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts and received a Billboard Latin Music nomination for Pop Track of the Year . " Por Amarte Así " was the fifth best @-@ performing Latin single of 2001 in the United States .
The song has been recorded by several artists including Jay Lozada , Xandro y Su Punto , Alacranes Musical , and Ana Isabelle . Lozada recorded the song in salsa for his eponymous debut album which peaked at number two on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . Alacranes Musical 's version peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs as well as number one on the Billboard Regional Mexican Songs and was nominated a Billboard Latin Music Award for Regional Mexican Airplay of the Year by a Male Group . Isabelle 's cover features Castro as a duet artist which was well received by music critics and peaked at number 14 on the Hot Latin Songs chart . Montalbán and Reyes received three American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers Latin Awards for Castro , Lozada , and Alacranes Musical 's recording of " Por Amarte Así " .
= = Background = =
" Por Amarte Así " is a song written by Alejandro Montalbán and Eduardo Reyes and performed by Mexican recording artist Cristian Castro for his sixth studio album Mi Vida Sin Tu Amor ( 1999 ) . Produced by Colombian musician Kike Santander , it was released as the fourth and final single from the album . In the song , the protagonist tells his lover he will keep loving her no matter how long she has been gone . " Por Amarte Así " has been included on his greatest albums Grandes Hits ( 2002 ) and Nunca Voy a Olvidarte ... Los Exitos ( 2005 ) . In addition , a remixed version by DJ Greco was included on Castro 's album Remixes ( 2000 ) . In 2012 , Castro recorded a live version of " Por Amarte Así " with new arrangements by Matt Rolling and produced Aureo Baqueiro . This version was included on his second live album En Primera Fila : Día 2 in 2014 .
= = Reception = =
In the United States , " Por Amarte Así " debuted at number 34 at the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart on the week of August 5 , 2000 . It climbed on the top ten six weeks later and peaked at number three on the week of November 11 , 2000 In the same week , the song peaked at number two on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart with the number one position held off by Chayanne 's song " Yo Te Amo " . " Por Amarte Así " ended 2001 as the fifth best @-@ performing Latin single of the year in the United States as well as the second best @-@ performing Latin pop single in the country after " Abrázame Muy Fuerte " by Juan Gabriel .
At the 2001 Billboard Latin Music Awards , " Por Amarte Así " was nominated Pop Track of the Year but lost to " A Puro Dolor " by Son by Four . Montalbán and Reyes received an American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) Latin Award on the Pop / Ballad category for their compositions of the song . It was recognized by the Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems at the June 2003 SPIN Awards for playing over 50 @,@ 000 spins .
= = Charts = =
= = Ana Isabelle version = =
In 2009 , Puerto Rican singer Ana Isabelle covered " Por Amarte Así " on her second studio album , Mi Sueño ( 2010 ) . It was released on November 29 , 2009 after she won the reality show ¡ Viva el Sueño ! . Isabelle 's version features Cristian Castro as a duet . Isabelle 's version peaked at number fourteen and six on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts respectively . On the review of the album , David Jeffries of Allmusic said that Isabelle performed " Por Amarte Así " " convincingly " . Ayala Ben @-@ Yehuda of Billboard magazine called her rendition of the song a " well @-@ chosen ballad single " .
A music video for the song was filmed in Miami and directed by Pablo Croce which features Isabelle and Castro performing inside a building where the two attempt to visit each other 's room . Isabelle also recorded " Por Amarte Así " in bachata which features American group 24 Horas as well as an urban remix featuring J @-@ King and Maximan . Isabelle and Castro performed the song live during the 22nd Annual Lo Nuestro Award ceremony in 2010 after the latter sang " Ten Valor " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = = Weekly charts = = = =
= = Other cover versions = =
In 2000 , Puerto Rican musician Jay Lozada recorded a cover of " Por Amarte Así " in salsa for his eponymous debut album which was produced by Eddy Marrero . His version peaked at number thirty @-@ five on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and number two on the Tropical Songs charts respectively . A music video for his rendition was filmed which shows scenes of Lozada and woman in various parts of Miami . The success of Lozada 's cover led to him receiving a nomination for Tropical New Artist at the 14th Annual Lo Nuestro Award ceremony in 2002 but lost to Huey Dunbar . Montalbán and Reyes were awarded an ASCAP Latin music award on the Salsa category for Lozada 's cover in 2002 . In 2001 , Dominican music group Xandro y Su Punto covered the song in merengue for their second studio album Exclusivo ( 2001 ) . Their version peaked at number 35 on the Tropical Songs chart .
Six years later , American duranguense band Alacranes Musical recorded a rendition of " Por Amarte Así " on their studio album Ahora y Siempre ( 2007 ) . Their cover peaked at number two at the Hot Latin Songs chart and became their first number @-@ one song on the Billboard Regional Mexican Songs chart . An editor for Allmusic described as one of that songs in the album " the group 's festive sound is showcased on fast @-@ paced songs of romance " . The music video shows the group performing at a stage with various scenes involving a woman shot in gray scale until the end of the video . It received a nomination for Regional Mexican Airplay of the Year by a Male Group at the 2008 Billboard Latin Music Awards which went to La Arrolladora Banda El Limón for their song " De Ti Exclusivo " . Montalbán and Reyes won an ASCAP Latin Music Award on the Regional Mexican field for Alacranes Musical 's version . It was included on their greatest hits album La Historia de Los Exitos ( 2009 ) and Por Siempre Alacranes ( 2010 ) . A live version of the song was recorded on their album Live – En Vivo Desde Mexico ( 2009 ) .
= 1968 Thule Air Base B @-@ 52 crash =
On 21 January 1968 , an aircraft accident ( sometimes known as the Thule affair or Thule accident ( / ˈtuːli / ) ; Danish : Thuleulykken ) involving a United States Air Force ( USAF ) B @-@ 52 bomber occurred near Thule Air Base in the Danish territory of Greenland . The aircraft was carrying four hydrogen bombs on a Cold War " Chrome Dome " alert mission over Baffin Bay when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft before they could carry out an emergency landing at Thule Air Base . Six crew members ejected safely , but one who did not have an ejection seat was killed while trying to bail out . The bomber crashed onto sea ice in North Star Bay , Greenland , causing the conventional explosives aboard to detonate and the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse , which resulted in radioactive contamination .
The United States and Denmark launched an intensive clean @-@ up and recovery operation , but the secondary stage of one of the nuclear weapons could not be accounted for after the operation completed . USAF Strategic Air Command " Chrome Dome " operations were discontinued immediately after the accident , which highlighted the safety and political risks of the missions . Safety procedures were reviewed and more stable explosives were developed for use in nuclear weapons .
In 1995 , a political scandal resulted in Denmark after a report revealed the government had given tacit permission for nuclear weapons to be located in Greenland , in contravention of Denmark 's 1957 nuclear @-@ free zone policy . Workers involved in the clean @-@ up program have been campaigning for compensation for radiation @-@ related illnesses they experienced in the years after the accident .
= = Thule Monitor Mission = =
In 1960 , the USAF Strategic Air Command ( SAC ) began Operation Chrome Dome , a Cold War airborne alert program devised by General Thomas S. Power to fly nuclear @-@ armed B @-@ 52 Stratofortresses to the borders of the Soviet Union . The flights were scheduled to ensure that twelve bombers were aloft at all times . These bombers gave SAC offensive capability in the event of a Soviet first strike , and provided a significant Cold War nuclear deterrent . Beginning in 1961 , B @-@ 52 bombers also flew secret " Hard Head " missions ( or " Thule Monitor Missions " ) over Thule Air Base with the purpose of maintaining visual surveillance of the base 's strategically important Ballistic Missile Early Warning System ( BMEWS ) , which provided early warning of Soviet missile launches . If the communication link between North American Aerospace Defense Command and the base was severed , the aircraft crew could determine if the interruption resulted from an attack or a technical failure . The monitoring mission started when the designated aircraft reached a waypoint at 75 ° 0 ′ N 67 ° 30 ′ W in Baffin Bay and entered a figure @-@ eight holding pattern above the air base at an altitude of 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) .
In 1966 , United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara proposed cutting " Chrome Dome " flights because the BMEWS system was fully operational , the bombers had been made redundant by missiles , and $ 123 million ( $ 897 million as of 2016 ) could be saved . SAC and the Joint Chiefs of Staff opposed the plan , so a compromise was reached whereby a smaller force of four bombers would be on alert each day . Despite the reduced program and the risks highlighted by the 1966 Palomares B @-@ 52 crash , SAC continued to dedicate one of the aircraft to monitoring Thule Air Base . This assignment was without the knowledge of civilian authorities in the United States , who SAC determined did not have the " need to know " about specific operational points .
= = Broken Arrow = =
On 21 January 1968 , a B @-@ 52G Stratofortress , serial number 58 @-@ 0188 , with the callsign " HOBO 28 " from the 380th Strategic Bomb Wing at Plattsburgh Air Force Base , New York was assigned the " Hard Head " mission over Thule and nearby Baffin Bay . The bomber crew consisted of five regular crew members , including Captain John Haug , the aircraft commander . Also aboard were a substitute navigator ( Captain Curtis R. Criss ) and a mandatory third pilot ( Major Alfred D 'Mario ) .
Before take @-@ off , D 'Mario placed three cloth @-@ covered foam cushions on top of a heating vent under the instructor navigator 's seat in the aft section of the lower deck . Shortly after take @-@ off , another cushion was placed under the seat . The flight was uneventful until the scheduled mid @-@ air refueling from a KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker , which had to be conducted manually because of an error with the B @-@ 52G 's autopilot . About one hour after refueling , while the aircraft was circling above its designated area , Captain Haug directed co @-@ pilot Svitenko to take his rest period . His seat was taken by the spare pilot , D 'Mario . The crew was uncomfortable because of the cold , although the heater 's rheostat was turned up , so D 'Mario opened an engine bleed valve to draw additional hot air into the heater from the engine manifold . Because of a heater malfunction , the air barely cooled as it traveled from the engine manifold to the cabin 's heating ducts . During the next half @-@ hour , the cabin 's temperature became uncomfortably hot , and the stowed cushions ignited . After one crew member reported smelling burning rubber , they looked for a fire . The navigator searched the lower compartment twice before discovering the fire behind a metal box . He attempted to fight it with two fire extinguishers , but could not put it out .
At 15 : 22 EST , about six hours into the flight and 90 miles ( 140 km ) south of Thule Air Base , Haug declared an emergency . He told Thule air traffic control that he had a fire on board and requested permission to perform an emergency landing at the air base . Within five minutes , the aircraft 's fire extinguishers were depleted , electrical power was lost and smoke filled the cockpit to the point that the pilots could not read their instruments . As the situation worsened , the captain realized he would not be able to land the aircraft and told the crew to prepare to abandon it . They awaited word from D 'Mario that they were over land , and when he confirmed that the aircraft was directly over the lights of Thule Air Base , the four crewmen ejected , followed shortly thereafter by Haug and D 'Mario . The co @-@ pilot , Leonard Svitenko , who had given up his ejection seat when the spare pilot took over from him , sustained fatal head injuries when he attempted to bail out through one of the lower hatches .
The pilotless aircraft initially continued north , then turned left through 180 ° and crashed onto sea ice in North Star Bay at a relatively shallow angle of 20 degrees — about 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) west of Thule Air Base — at 15 : 39 EST . The conventional high explosive ( HE ) components of four 1 @.@ 1 megaton B28FI model hydrogen bombs detonated on impact , spreading radioactive material over a large area in a manner similar to a dirty bomb . " Weak links " in the weapon design ensured that a nuclear explosion was not triggered . The extreme heat generated by the burning of 225 @,@ 000 pounds ( 102 t ) of jet fuel during the five to six hours after the crash melted the ice sheet , causing wreckage and munitions to sink to the ocean floor .
Haug and D 'Mario parachuted onto the grounds of the air base and made contact with the base commander within ten minutes of each other . They informed him that at least six crew ejected successfully and the aircraft was carrying four nuclear weapons . Off @-@ duty staff were mustered to conduct search and rescue operations for the remaining crew members . Owing to the extreme weather conditions , Arctic darkness , and unnavigable ice , the base relied largely on the Thule representative of the Royal Greenland Trade Department , Ministry of Greenland , Jens Zinglersen , to raise and mount the search using native dog sled teams . Three of the survivors landed within 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the base and were rescued within two hours . For his initial actions and later services , Zinglersen received the Air Force Exceptional Civilian Service Medal on 26 February 1968 at the hands of the U.S. Ambassador , K.E. White . Captain Criss , who was first to eject , landed 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from the base — he remained lost on an ice floe for 21 hours and suffered hypothermia in the − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) temperatures , but he survived by wrapping himself in his parachute .
An aerial survey of the crash site immediately afterwards showed only six engines , a tire and small items of debris on the blackened surface of the ice . The accident was designated a " Broken Arrow " — a United States military term that describes an accident involving a nuclear weapon but which does not present a risk of war .
= = Project Crested Ice = =
The resulting explosion and fire destroyed many of the components that the crash scattered widely in a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) by 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) area . Parts of the bomb bay were found 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the impact area , indicating the aircraft started to break up before impact . The ice was disrupted at the point of impact , temporarily exposing an area of seawater approximately 160 feet ( 50 m ) in diameter ; ice floes in the area were scattered , upturned and displaced . South of the impact area , a 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) by 2 @,@ 200 @-@ foot ( 670 m ) blackened patch was visible where fuel from the aircraft had burned — this area was highly contaminated with JP @-@ 4 aviation fuel and radioactive elements that included plutonium , uranium , americium and tritium . Plutonium levels as high as 380 mg / m2 were registered in the area .
American and Danish officials immediately launched " Project Crested Ice " ( informally known as " Dr. Freezelove " ) , a clean @-@ up operation to remove the debris and contain environmental damage . Despite the cold , dark Arctic winter , there was considerable pressure to complete the clean @-@ up operation before the sea ice melted in the spring and deposited further contaminants into the sea .
Weather conditions at the site were extreme ; the average temperature was − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) , at times dropping to − 76 ° F ( − 60 ° C ) . These temperatures were accompanied by winds of up to 89 miles per hour ( 40 m / s ) . Equipment suffered high failure rates and batteries worked for shorter periods in the cold ; operators modified their scientific instruments to allow the battery packs to be carried under their coats to extend the batteries ' lifespan . The operation was conducted in arctic darkness until 14 February , when sunlight gradually began appearing .
A base camp ( named " Camp Hunziker " after Richard Overton Hunziker , the USAF general in charge of the operation ) was created at the crash site ; it included a heliport , igloos , generators and communications facilities . A " zero line " delineating the 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) by 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) area in which alpha particle contamination could be measured was established by 25 January , four days after the crash . The line was subsequently used to control decontamination of personnel and vehicles . An ice road was constructed to Thule from the site . This was followed by a second , more direct , road so the ice on the first road was not fatigued by overuse . The camp later included a large prefabricated building , two ski @-@ mounted buildings , several huts , a decontamination trailer and a latrine . These facilities allowed for 24 @-@ hour operations at the crash site .
The USAF worked with Danish nuclear scientists to consider the clean @-@ up options . The spilt fuel in the blackened area carried the weapons material very well , raising concerns that when the ice melted in the summer , the radioactive fuel would float on the sea and subsequently contaminate the shore — the Danes thus insisted on the removal of the blackened area to avoid this possibility . The Danes also requested that the nuclear material not be left in Greenland after the cleanup operation was complete , therefore requiring General Hunziker to remove the contaminated ice and wreckage to the United States for disposal . USAF personnel used graders to collect the contaminated snow and ice , which was loaded into wooden boxes at the crash site . The boxes were moved to a holding area near Thule Air Base known as the " Tank Farm " . There , contaminated material was loaded into steel tanks prior to being loaded onto ships . Debris from the weapons was sent to the Pantex plant in Texas for evaluation , and the tanks were shipped to Savannah River in South Carolina . According to General Hunziker , 93 % of the contaminated material was successfully removed from the accident site .
In 1987 – 88 and again in 2000 , reports surfaced in the Danish press that one of the bombs had not been recovered . SAC stated at the time of the accident that all four bombs were destroyed . In 2008 , the BBC published an article that was based on its examination of partly declassified documents obtained some years earlier via the United States Freedom of Information Act . The documents appeared to confirm that within weeks of the accident , investigators realized only three of the weapons could be accounted for . One of the declassified documents — dated to January 1968 — details a blackened section of ice which had refrozen with shroud lines from a weapon parachute : " Speculate something melted through the ice such as burning primary or secondary . " A July 1968 report states , " An analysis by the AEC of the recovered secondary components indicates recovery of 85 % of the uranium and 94 % , by weight , of three secondaries . No parts of the fourth secondary have been identified . "
The BBC tracked down several officials involved in the accident 's aftermath . One was William H. Chambers , a former nuclear weapons designer at the Los Alamos National Laboratory . Chambers headed a team dealing with nuclear accidents , including the Thule crash . He explained the logic behind the decision to abandon the search : " There was disappointment in what you might call a failure to return all of the components ... it would be very difficult for anyone else to recover classified pieces if we couldn 't find them . "
In August 1968 , the United States military sent a Star III mini @-@ submarine to the base to look for weapon debris , especially the uranium @-@ 235 fissile core of a secondary . A much bigger operation at Palomares off the coast of Spain two years earlier led to the successful recovery of a lost nuclear weapon from the Mediterranean Sea ; the B28FI bomb was lost for 80 days after a mid @-@ air collision between a B @-@ 52 on a " Chrome Dome " mission and its refueling KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker . Christensen asserts that the purpose of the underwater search at Thule was obvious to the Danish authorities , contrary to other reports that suggested its true purpose had been hidden from them . At lower levels , however , the dives were surrounded by some confidentiality . One document from July 1968 reads , " Fact that this operation includes search for object or missing weapon part is to be treated as Confidential NOFORN " , meaning it was not to be disclosed to non @-@ US nationals . It continues , " For discussion with Danes , this operation should be referred to as a survey , repeat survey of bottom under impact point . " Further indications of the search are apparent in a September 1968 interim report by the United States Atomic Energy Commission , which stated , " It was further speculated that the missing < redacted > , in view of its ballistic characteristics , may have come to rest beyond the observed concentration of heavy debris . " This discussion was a reference to the unsuccessful search for the uranium cylinder of one of the secondaries .
The underwater search was beset by technical problems and eventually abandoned . Diagrams and notes included in the declassified documents make clear it was not possible to search the entire area where crash debris had spread . Four bomb reservoirs , one nearly intact secondary , and parts equaling two secondaries were recovered on the sea ice ; parts equaling one secondary were not accounted for . The search also revealed a weapon cable fairing , polar cap , and a one @-@ foot by three @-@ foot section of a warhead 's ballistic case .
The United States Air Force monitored airborne contamination through nasal swabs of onsite personnel . Of the 9 @,@ 837 nasal swabs taken , 335 samples had detectable levels of alpha particle activity , although none was above acceptable levels . Urinalysis was also performed , but none of the 756 samples displayed any detectable level of plutonium .
By the time the operation concluded , 700 specialized personnel from both countries and more than 70 United States government agencies had worked for nine months to clean up the site , often without adequate protective clothing or decontamination measures . In total , more than 550 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 2 @,@ 100 m3 ) of contaminated liquid — along with thirty tanks of miscellaneous material , some of it contaminated — was collected at the Tank Farm . Project Crested Ice ended on 13 September 1968 when the last tank was loaded onto a ship bound for the United States . The operation is estimated to have cost $ 9 @.@ 4 million ( $ 64 million as of 2016 ) .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Operation Chrome Dome = = =
The accident caused controversy at the time and in the years since . It highlighted the risks Thule Air Base posed to Greenlanders from nuclear accidents and potential superpower conflicts . The accident , which occurred two years after the Palomares crash , signaled the immediate end of the airborne alert program , which had become untenable because of the political and operational risks involved . Scott Sagan , a political science academic and anti @-@ nuclear writer , postulated that if the HOBO 28 monitoring aircraft had crashed into the BMEWS early warning array instead of Baffin Bay , it would have presented NORAD with a scenario ( radio link to Hard Head aircraft and BMEWS both dead , no nuclear detonation detected ) that also matched that of a surprise conventional missile attack on Thule , leaving the unreliable submarine telecommunications cable between Thule and the US mainland as the only source of information to the contrary . This risk was apparently also recognized by US planners , as the cable was replaced with a more reliable satellite link in 1974 .
According to Greenpeace , the United States and USSR were concerned enough by accidents such as the 1961 Goldsboro B @-@ 52 crash , the 1966 Palomares B @-@ 52 crash and the Thule accident that they agreed to take measures to ensure that a future nuclear accident would not lead the other party to conclude incorrectly that a first strike was under way . Consequently , on 30 September 1971 , the two superpowers signed the " Agreement on Measures to Reduce the Risk of Nuclear War " . Each party agreed to notify the other immediately in the event of an accidental , unauthorized or unexplained incident involving a nuclear weapon that could increase the risk of nuclear war . They agreed to use the Moscow – Washington hotline , which was upgraded at the same time , for any communications .
The decision not to restart on @-@ alert bomber missions was also a reflection of the strategic decline of manned nuclear weapon delivery in favor of unmanned delivery via ICBMs , which had already eclipsed the number of bombers in the United States by April 1964 .
= = = Weapon safety = = =
Following the Palomares and Thule accidents — the only cases where the conventional explosives of U.S. nuclear bombs accidentally detonated and dispersed nuclear materials — investigators concluded the high explosive ( HE ) used in nuclear weapons was not chemically stable enough to withstand the forces involved in an aircraft accident . They also determined that the electrical circuits of the weapons ' safety devices became unreliable in a fire and allowed connections to short circuit . The findings triggered research by scientists in the United States into safer conventional explosives and fireproof casings for nuclear weapons .
The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory developed the " Susan Test " , which uses a special projectile whose design simulates an aircraft accident by squeezing and nipping explosive material between its metal surfaces . The test projectile is fired under controlled conditions at a hard surface to measure the reactions and thresholds of different explosives to an impact . By 1979 , the Los Alamos National Laboratory developed a new , safer type of explosive , called insensitive high explosive ( IHE ) , for use in U.S. nuclear weapons ; the physicist and nuclear weapons designer Ray Kidder speculated that the weapons in the Palomares and Thule accidents would probably not have detonated had IHE been available at the time .
= = = " Thulegate " political scandal = = =
Denmark 's nuclear @-@ free zone policy originated in 1957 , when the coalition government decided in the lead @-@ up to the Paris NATO summit not to stockpile nuclear weapons on its soil in peacetime . The presence of the bomber in Greenland airspace in 1968 therefore triggered public suspicions and accusations that the policy was being violated . The nature of the " Hard Head " missions was suppressed at the time of the accident ; the Danish and American governments instead claimed the bomber was not on a routine mission over Greenland and that it diverted there because of a one @-@ off emergency . United States documents declassified in the 1990s contradicted the Danish government 's position , and therefore resulted in a 1995 political scandal that the press dubbed " Thulegate " .
The Danish parliament commissioned a report from the Danish Institute of International Affairs ( DUPI ) to determine the history of United States nuclear overflights of Greenland and the role of Thule Air Base in this regard . When the two @-@ volume work was published on 17 January 1997 it confirmed that the nuclear @-@ armed flights over Greenland were recurrent , but that the United States had acted in good faith . The report blamed Danish Prime Minister H. C. Hansen for intentionally introducing ambiguity in the Danish – U.S. security agreement : he was not asked about , nor did he mention , the official Danish nuclear policy when meeting with the United States ambassador in 1957 to discuss Thule Air Base . Hansen followed up the discussion with an infamous letter pointing out that the issue of " supplies of munition of a special kind " was not raised during the discussion , but that he had nothing further to add . In doing so , the report concluded , he tacitly gave the United States the go @-@ ahead to store nuclear weapons at Thule .
The report also confirmed that the United States stockpiled nuclear weapons in Greenland until 1965 , contradicting assurances by Danish foreign minister Niels Helveg Petersen that the weapons were in Greenland 's airspace , but never on the ground . The DUPI report also revealed details of Project Iceworm , a hitherto secret United States Army plan to store up to 600 nuclear missiles under the Greenland ice cap .
= = = Workers ' compensation claims = = =
Danish workers involved in the clean @-@ up operation claimed long @-@ term health problems resulted from their exposure to the radiation . Although they did not work at Camp Hunziker , the Danes worked at the Tank Farm where the contaminated ice was collected , in the port where the contaminated debris was shipped from , and they also serviced the vehicles used in the clean @-@ up . It is also possible that they were exposed to radiation in the local atmosphere . Many of the workers surveyed in the years following Project Crested Ice reported health problems . A 1995 survey found 410 deaths by cancers out of a sample of 1 @,@ 500 workers .
In 1986 , Danish Prime Minister Poul Schlüter commissioned a radiological examination of the surviving workers . The Danish Institute for Clinical Epidemiology concluded 11 months later that cancer incidents were 40 percent higher in Project Crested Ice workers than in workers who had visited the base before and after the operation . The Institute of Cancer Epidemiology found a 50 percent higher cancer rate in the workers than in the general population , but could not conclude that radiation exposure was to blame .
In 1987 , almost 200 former cleanup workers took legal action against the United States . The action was unsuccessful , but resulted in the release of hundreds of classified documents . The documents revealed that USAF personnel involved in the clean @-@ up were not subsequently monitored for health problems , despite the likelihood of greater exposure to radiation than the Danes . The United States has since instigated regular examinations of its workers . In 1995 , the Danish government paid 1 @,@ 700 workers compensation of 50 @,@ 000 kroner each .
Danish workers ' health has not been regularly monitored , despite a European Court directive to the Danish government to begin examinations in the year 2000 , and a May 2007 European Parliament resolution instructing the same . In 2008 , the Association of Former Thule Workers took the case to the European courts . The petitioners claimed that Denmark 's failure to comply with the rulings led to delays in detecting their illnesses , resulting in worsened prognoses . The country joined the European Atomic Energy Community in 1973 , and is therefore not legally bound by the European treaty with respect to events in 1968 : " When the accident occurred , Denmark was not a Member State and could not therefore be considered as being bound by the Community legislation applicable at that time . The obligations of Denmark towards the workers and the population likely to be affected by the accident could only flow from national legislation . "
The Danish government rejected a link between the accident and long @-@ term health issues . Dr. Kaare Ulbak of the Danish National Institute of Radiation Protection said , " We have very good registers for cancer incidents and cancer mortality and we have made a very thorough investigation . " The workers said the lack of proof was attributable to the lack of appropriate medical monitoring . As of November 2008 , the case has been unsuccessful . A 2011 report by the Danish National Board of Health found that " the total radiation dose for representative persons in the Thule area for plutonium contamination resulting from the 1968 Thule accident is lower than the recommended reference level , even under extreme conditions and situations . "
= = = Scientific studies = = =
Radioactive contamination occurred particularly in the marine environment . The fissile material in the weapons consisted mostly of uranium @-@ 235 , while the radioactive debris consists of at least two different " source terms " . Scientific monitoring of the site has been carried out periodically , with expeditions in 1968 , 1970 , 1974 , 1979 , 1984 , 1991 , 1997 and 2003 .
A 1997 international expedition of mainly Danish and Finnish scientists carried out a comprehensive sediment sampling program in North Star Bay . The main conclusions were : plutonium has not moved from the contaminated sediments into the surface water in the shelf sea ; the debris has been buried to a great depth in the sediment as a result of biological activity ; transfer of plutonium to benthic biota is low . Other research indicates that uranium is leaching from the contaminated particles faster than plutonium and americium . Research conducted in 2003 concluded , " Plutonium in the marine environment at Thule presents an insignificant risk to man . Most plutonium remains in the seabed under Bylot Sound far from man under relatively stable conditions and concentrations of plutonium in seawater and animals are low . However , the plutonium contamination of surface soil at Narsaarsuk could constitute a small risk to humans visiting the location if radioactive particles are resuspended in the air so that they might be inhaled . " In 2003 , 2007 and 2008 , the first samples were taken on land by the Risø National Laboratory — the findings were published in 2011 .
= = = Literature review of declassified documents = = =
The Danish foreign ministry reviewed the 348 documents that the BBC obtained in 2001 under the Freedom of Information Act . In January 2009 , foreign minister Per Stig Møller commissioned a study by the Danish Institute for International Studies ( DIIS ) to compare the 348 documents with 317 documents released by the Department of Energy in 1994 in order to determine if the 348 documents contained any new information about an intact nuclear weapon at Thule . In August 2009 , DIIS published its report , which contradicted the assertions of the BBC . The report concluded that there was no missing bomb , and that the American underwater operation was a search for the uranium @-@ 235 of the fissile core of a secondary . For the first time , the report was able to present an estimate of the amount of plutonium contained in the pits of the primaries .
= Ace Books =
Ace Books is an American specialty publisher of science fiction and fantasy books . The company was founded in New York City in 1952 by Aaron A. Wyn and began as a genre publisher of mysteries and westerns . It soon branched out into other genres , publishing its first science fiction ( sf ) title in 1953 . This was successful , and science fiction titles outnumbered both mysteries and westerns within a few years . Other genres also made an appearance , including nonfiction , gothic novels , media tie @-@ in novelizations , and romances . Ace became known for the tête @-@ bêche binding format used for many of its early books , although it did not originate the format . Most of the early titles were published in this " Ace Double " format , and Ace continued to issue books in varied genres , bound tête @-@ bêche , until 1973 .
Ace , along with Ballantine Books , was one of the leading science fiction publishers for its first ten years of operation . With the death of owner A. A. Wyn in 1967 , however , the company 's fortunes began to decline . Two prominent editors , Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr , left in 1971 , and in 1972 Ace was sold to Grosset & Dunlap . Despite financial troubles , there were further successes , particularly with the third Ace Science Fiction Specials series , for which Carr was the editor . Further mergers and acquisitions resulted in the company becoming a part of Berkley Books . Ace then became an imprint of Penguin Group ( USA ) .
= = History = =
= = = 1952 : Ace Doubles concept = = =
Editor Donald A. Wollheim was working at Avon Books in 1952 , but disliked his job . While looking for other work , he tried to persuade A. A. Wyn to begin a new paperback publishing company . Wyn was already a well @-@ established publisher of books and pulp magazines under the name A. A. Wyn 's Magazine Publishers . His magazines included Ace Mystery and Ace Sports , and it is perhaps from these titles that Ace Books got its name . Wyn liked Wollheim 's idea but delayed for several months ; meanwhile , Wollheim was applying for other jobs , including assistant editor at Pyramid Books . Pyramid mistakenly called Wyn 's wife Rose for a reference , thinking Wollheim had worked for her . When Rose told her husband that Wollheim was applying for another job , Wyn made up his mind : he hired Wollheim immediately as an editor .
The first book published by Ace was a pair of mysteries bound tête @-@ bêche : Keith Vining 's Too Hot for Hell , backed with Samuel W. Taylor 's The Grinning Gismo , priced at 35 cents , with serial number D @-@ 01 . A tête @-@ bêche book has the two titles bound upside @-@ down with respect to each other , so that there are two front covers and the two texts meet in the middle ( sometimes with advertising pages in between ) . This format is generally regarded as an innovation of Ace 's ; it was not , but Ace published hundreds of titles bound this way over the next twenty @-@ one years . Books by established authors were often bound with those by lesser @-@ known writers , on the premise that this would help new writers gain readers . The main drawback of the " Ace Double " format was that the two books had to fit a fixed page length ( usually totalling between 256 and 320 low @-@ height pages ) ; thus one or both novels might be cut or revised to fit . Despite the tag " Complete and Unabridged " on the cover , books so labeled were sometimes still abridged .
Some important titles in the early D @-@ series novels are D @-@ 15 , which features William S. Burroughs 's first novel , Junkie ( written under the pseudonym " William Lee " ) , and many novels by Philip K. Dick , Robert Bloch , Harlan Ellison , Harry Whittington , and Louis L 'Amour , including those written under his pseudonym " Jim Mayo " .
The last Ace Double in the first series was John T. Phillifent 's Life with Lancelot , backed with William Barton 's Hunting on Kunderer , issued August 1973 ( serial # 48245 ) . Although Ace resumed using the " Ace Double " name in 1974 , the books were arranged conventionally rather than tête @-@ bêche .
= = = 1953 – 63 : Genre specialization = = =
Ace 's second title was a western ( also tête @-@ bêche ) : William Colt MacDonald 's Bad Man 's Return , bound with J. Edward Leithead 's Bloody Hoofs . Mysteries and westerns alternated regularly for the first thirty titles , with a few books not in either genre , such as P. G. Wodehouse 's Quick Service , bound with his The Code of the Woosters . In 1953 , A.E. van Vogt 's The World of Null @-@ A , bound with his The Universe Maker , appeared ; this was Ace 's first foray into science fiction . ( Earlier in 1953 , Ace had released Theodore S. Drachman 's Cry Plague ! , with a plot that could be regarded as sf , but the book it was bound with — Leslie Edgley 's The Judas Goat — was not sf . ) Another sf double followed later in 1953 , and sf rapidly established itself , alongside westerns and mysteries , as an important part of Ace 's business . By 1955 , the company released more sf titles each year than in either of the other two genres , and from 1961 onward , sf titles outnumbered mysteries and westerns combined . Ace also published a number of lurid juvenile delinquent novels in the 1950s that are now very collectible , such as D @-@ 343 , The Young Wolves by Edward De Roo and D @-@ 378 , Out For Kicks by Wilene Shaw .
By the late 1950s , Ace 's output was approaching one hundred titles a year , still heavily dominated by the primary genres . Almost all the books were 35 cents , though some slim single volumes were 25 cents , and a handful were half a dollar . In the early ' 60s , rising costs finally forced an increase in the price of the books , and more books appeared at 40 cents , 45 cents and higher . A few thick volumes , such as the 1967 paperback of Frank Herbert 's Dune , were priced at 95 cents . With Ballantine Books , Ace was the dominant American science fiction paperback publisher in the 1950s and 1960s . Other publishers followed their lead , catering to the increasing audience for sf , but none matched the influence of either company .
Market dominance was not only reflected in numbers of books published — Ace published , during this period , the first novels of authors such as Philip K. Dick ( Solar Lottery , 1955 , D @-@ 103 , bound with Leigh Brackett 's The Big Jump ) ; Gordon R. Dickson ( Alien from Arcturus , 1956 , D @-@ 139 , bound with Nick Boddie Williams ' The Atom Curtain ) , Samuel R. Delany ( The Jewels of Aptor , 1962 , F @-@ 173 , bound with James White 's Second Ending ) , Ursula K. Le Guin ( Rocannon 's World , 1966 , G @-@ 574 , bound with Avram Davidson 's The Kar @-@ Chee Reign ) , Roger Zelazny ( This Immortal , 1966 , F @-@ 393 ) , and R. A. Lafferty 's Past Master ( 1968 , H @-@ 54 ) .
= = = 1964 – 70 : Financial struggles = = =
In 1964 , science fiction author Terry Carr joined the company , and in 1967 , he initiated the Ace Science Fiction Specials line , publishing critically acclaimed original novels by such authors as R. A. Lafferty , Joanna Russ and Ursula K. Le Guin . Carr and Wollheim also co @-@ edited an annual Year 's Best Science Fiction anthology series ; and Carr also edited Universe , a well @-@ received original anthology series . Universe was initially published by Ace , although when Carr left in 1971 the series moved elsewhere .
In 1965 , Wollheim argued that there was a copyright loophole in the American edition of The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien . The Houghton Mifflin edition had been bound using pages printed in the United Kingdom for the George Allen & Unwin edition , and as a result , U.S. copyright law might not protect the text . Based on this view , Ace Books published the first @-@ ever paperback edition of Tolkien 's work , featuring cover art and hand @-@ drawn title pages by Jack Gaughan . After considerable controversy and the release of a competitive authorized ( and revised ) edition by Ballantine Books ( the back covers of which included a message from Tolkien urging consumers to buy the Ballantine edition and boycott any " unauthorized " versions – referring directly to the Ace editions ) , Ace agreed to pay royalties to Tolkien and let its still @-@ popular edition go out of print .
Wyn died in 1967 , and the company grew financially overextended , failing to pay its authors reliably . Without money to pay the signing bonus , Wollheim was unwilling to send signed contracts to authors . On at least one occasion , a book without a valid contract went to the printer , and Wollheim later found out that the author , who was owed $ 3 @,@ 000 by Ace , was reduced to picking fruit for a living .
= = = 1971 – 2015 : Ace becomes a subsidiary = = =
Both Wollheim and Carr left Ace in 1971 . Wollheim had made plans to launch a separate paperback house , and in cooperation with New American Library , he proceeded to set up DAW Books . Carr became a freelance editor ; both Carr and Wollheim went on to edit competing Year 's Best Science Fiction anthology series .
By the early 1970s , Ace Books became a major division of the old publisher , Charter Communications Inc . , which was based out of the Hippodrome Building , 1120 Avenue of the Americas , in New York City . In 1972 , Ace was acquired by Grosset & Dunlap , and in 1982 , Grosset & Dunlap was in turn acquired by G.P. Putnam 's Sons . Ace was reputedly the only profitable element of the Grosset & Dunlap empire by this time . Ace soon became the science fiction imprint of its parent company .
Carr returned to Ace Books in 1984 as a freelance editor , launching a new series of Ace Specials devoted entirely to first novels . This series was even more successful than the first : it included , in 1984 alone , William Gibson 's Neuromancer , Kim Stanley Robinson 's The Wild Shore , Lucius Shepard 's Green Eyes , and Michael Swanwick 's In the Drift . All were first novels by authors now regarded as major figures in the sf genre . Other prominent sf publishing figures who have worked at Ace include Tom Doherty , who left to start Tor Books , and Jim Baen , who left to work at Tor and who eventually founded Baen Books . Writers who have worked at Ace include Frederik Pohl and Ellen Kushner .
In 1996 , Penguin Group ( USA ) acquired the Putnam Berkley Group , and has retained Ace as its sf imprint . As of December 2012 , recently published authors included Joe Haldeman , Charles Stross , Laurell K. Hamilton , Alastair Reynolds , and Jack McDevitt . As of 2015 , Penguin Group ( USA ) still owns and successfully operates Ace as its science fiction and fantasy division . Ace 's editorial team is also responsible for the Roc Books imprint , although the two imprints maintain a separate identity .
= = People = =
The following people have worked at Ace Books in various editorial roles . The list is sorted in order of the date they started working at Ace , where known . It includes editors who are notable for some reason , as well as the most recent editors at the imprint .
A. A. Wyn , owner ( 1952 – 67 )
Donald A. Wollheim , editor ( 1952 – 71 )
Terry Carr , editor ( 1964 – 71 ) ; freelance editor ( 1983 – 87 )
Pat LoBrutto , mail room ( 1969 – 72 ) ; science fiction editor ( 1974 – 77 )
Frederik Pohl , executive editor ( December 1971 – July 1972 )
Tom Doherty , publisher ( 1975 – 80 )
Jim Baen , complaints department ( c . 1973 – 74 ) ; gothics editor ( c . 1974 ) ; sf editor ( c . 1977 – 80 )
Ellen Kushner
Terri Windling , editor ( 1979 – 87 )
Harriet McDougal , editorial director
Susan Allison , editor ( 1980 – 82 ) ; editor @-@ in @-@ chief ( 1982 – 2006 ) ; vice president ( 1985 – July 2015 )
Beth Meacham , editorial assistant ( 1981 – 82 ) ; editor ( 1982 – 83 )
Ginjer Buchanan , editor ( 1984 – 87 ) ; senior editor ( 1987 – 94 ) ; executive editor , sf and fantasy ( 1994 – January 1996 ) ; senior executive editor and marketing director ( January 1996 – 2006 ) ; editor @-@ in @-@ chief ( 2006 – 2014 ) .
Peter Heck ( c . 1991 – 92 )
Laura Anne Gilman ( c . 1991 )
Lou Stathis , editor ( ? – c . 1994 )
Anne Sowards , editorial assistant / associate editor ( 1996 – 2003 ) ; editor ( 2003 – February 2007 ) , senior editor ( from February 2007 ) , executive editor ( by September 2010 )
= = Ace nomenclature = =
Until the late 1980s , Ace titles had two main types of serial numbers : letter series , such as " D @-@ 31 " and " H @-@ 77 " , and numeric , such as " 10293 " and " 15697 " . The letters were used to indicate a price . The following is a list of letter series with their date ranges and prices .
D @-@ series — 35 ¢ , 1952 to 1962 .
S @-@ series — 25 ¢ , 1952 to 1956 .
T @-@ series — 40 ¢ . This series is listed in Tuck 's Encyclopedia , but he gives no examples in his index and there are none cited in other bibliographic sources . This series may therefore not exist .
F @-@ series — 40 ¢ , 1961 to 1967 .
M @-@ series — 45 ¢ , 1964 to 1967 .
G @-@ series — 50 ¢ , 1958 to 1960 ( D / S / G series ) ; 1964 to 1968 ( later series ) .
K @-@ series — various prices , 1959 to 1966 .
H @-@ series — 60 ¢ , 1966 to 1968 .
A @-@ series — 75 ¢ , 1963 to 1968 .
N @-@ series — 95 ¢ , 1968 .
The first series of Ace books began in 1952 with D @-@ 01 , a western in tête @-@ bêche format : Keith Vining 's Too Hot for Hell backed with Samuel W. Taylor 's The Grinning Gismo . That series continued until D @-@ 599 , Patricia Libby 's Winged Victory for Nurse Kerry , but the series also included several G and S serial numbers , depending on the price . The D and S did not indicate " Double " ( i.e. , tête @-@ bêche ) or " Single " ; there are D @-@ series titles that are not tête @-@ bêche , although none of the tête @-@ bêche titles have an S serial number . Towards the end of this initial series , the F series began ( at a new price ) , and thereafter there were always several different letter series in publication simultaneously . The D and S prefixes did not appear again after the first series , but the G prefix acquired its own series starting with G @-@ 501 . Hence the eight earlier G @-@ series titles can be considered part of a different series to the G @-@ series proper . All later series after the first kept independent numbering systems , starting at 1 or 101 . The tête @-@ bêche format proved attractive to book collectors , and some rare titles in mint condition command prices over $ 1 @,@ 000 .
= Billy Sunday =
William Ashley " Billy " Sunday ( November 19 , 1862 – November 6 , 1935 ) was an American athlete who , after being a popular outfielder in baseball 's National League during the 1880s , became the most celebrated and influential American evangelist during the first two decades of the 20th century .
Born into poverty in Iowa , Sunday spent some years at the Iowa Soldiers ' Orphans ' Home before working at odd jobs and playing for local running and baseball teams . His speed and agility provided him the opportunity to play baseball in the major leagues for eight years , where he was an average hitter and a good fielder known for his base @-@ running .
Converting to evangelical Christianity in the 1880s , Sunday left baseball for the Christian ministry . He gradually developed his skills as a pulpit evangelist in the Midwest and then , during the early 20th century , he became the nation 's most famous evangelist with his colloquial sermons and frenetic delivery . Sunday held widely reported campaigns in America 's largest cities , and he attracted the largest crowds of any evangelist before the advent of electronic sound systems . He also made a great deal of money and was welcomed into the homes of the wealthy and influential . Sunday was a strong supporter of Prohibition , and his preaching likely played a significant role in the adoption of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1919 .
Despite questions about his income , no scandal ever touched Sunday . He was sincerely devoted to his wife , who also managed his campaigns , but his three sons disappointed him . His audiences grew smaller during the 1920s as Sunday grew older , religious revivals became less popular , and alternative sources of entertainment appeared . Nevertheless , Sunday continued to preach and remained a stalwart defender of conservative Christianity until his death .
= = Early life = =
Billy Sunday was born near Ames , Iowa . His father was the son of German immigrants named Sonntag , who anglicized their name to " Sunday " when they settled in Chambersburg , Pennsylvania . William Sunday was a bricklayer who worked his way to Iowa , where he married Mary Jane Corey , daughter of " Squire " Martin Corey , a local farmer , miller , blacksmith , and wheelwright . William Sunday enlisted in the Iowa Twenty @-@ Third Volunteer Infantry on August 14 , 1862 . He died four months later of pneumonia at an army camp in Patterson , Missouri , five weeks after the birth of his youngest son , William Ashley . Mary Jane Sunday and her children moved in with her parents for a few years , and young Billy became close to his grandparents and especially his grandmother . Mary Jane Sunday later remarried , but her second husband soon deserted the family .
When Billy Sunday was ten years old , his impoverished mother sent him and an older brother to the Soldiers ' Orphans Home in Glenwood , Iowa , and later to the Iowa Soldiers ' Orphans ' Home in Davenport , Iowa . At the orphanage , Sunday gained orderly habits , a decent primary education , and the realization that he was a good athlete .
By fourteen , Sunday was shifting for himself . In Nevada , Iowa , he worked for Colonel John Scott , a former lieutenant governor , tending Shetland ponies and doing other farm chores . The Scotts provided Sunday a good home and the opportunity to attend Nevada High School . Although Sunday never received a high school diploma , by 1880 he was better educated than many of his contemporaries .
In 1880 , Sunday relocated to Marshalltown , Iowa , where , because of his athleticism , he had been recruited for a fire brigade team . In Marshalltown , Sunday worked at odd jobs , competed in fire brigade tournaments , and played for the town baseball team . In 1882 , with Sunday in left field , the Marshalltown team defeated the state champion Des Moines team 13 – 4 .
= = Professional baseball player = =
Sunday 's professional baseball career was launched by Adrian " Cap " Anson , a Marshalltown native and future Hall of Famer , after his aunt , an avid fan of the Marshalltown team , gave him an enthusiastic account of Sunday 's prowess . In 1883 , on Anson 's recommendation , A.G. Spalding , president of the Chicago White Stockings , signed Sunday to the defending National League champions .
Sunday struck out four times in his first game , and there were seven more strikeouts and three more games before he got a hit . During his first four seasons with Chicago , he was a part @-@ time player , taking Mike " King " Kelly 's place in right field when Kelly served as catcher .
Sunday 's speed was his greatest asset , and he displayed it on the basepaths and in the outfield . In 1885 , the White Stockings arranged a race between Sunday and Arlie Latham , the fastest runner in the American Association . Sunday won the hundred @-@ yard dash by about ten feet .
Sunday 's personality , demeanor , and athleticism made him popular with the fans , as well as with his teammates . Manager Cap Anson considered Sunday reliable enough to make him the team 's business manager , which included such duties as handling the ticket receipts and paying the team 's travel expenses .
In 1887 , when Kelly was sold to another team , Sunday became Chicago 's regular right fielder , but an injury limited his playing time to fifty games . During the following winter Sunday was sold to the Pittsburgh Alleghenys for the 1888 season . He was their starting center fielder , playing a full season for the first time in his career . The crowds in Pittsburgh took to Sunday immediately ; one reporter wrote that " the whole town is wild over Sunday . " Although Pittsburgh had a losing team during the 1888 and 1889 seasons , Sunday performed well in center field and was among the league leaders in stolen bases .
In 1890 , a labor dispute led to the formation of a new league , composed of most of the better players from the National League . Although he was invited to join the competing league , Sunday 's conscience would not allow him to break his contract with Pittsburgh . Sunday was named team captain , and he was their star player , but the team suffered one of the worst seasons in baseball history . By August the team had no money to meet its payroll , and Sunday was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies for two players and $ 1 @,@ 000 in cash .
The Philadelphia team had an opportunity to win the National League pennant , and the owners hoped that adding Sunday to the roster would improve their chances . Although Sunday played well in his thirty @-@ one games with Philadelphia , the team finished in third place .
In March 1891 , Sunday requested and was granted a release from his contract with the Philadelphia ball club . Over his career , Sunday was never much of a hitter : his batting average was .248 over 499 games , about the median for the 1880s . In his best season , in 1887 , Sunday hit .291 , ranking 17th in the league . He was an exciting but inconsistent fielder . In the days before outfielders wore gloves , Sunday was noted for thrilling catches featuring long sprints and athletic dives , but he also committed a great many errors . Sunday was best known as an exciting base @-@ runner , regarded by his peers as one of the fastest in the game , even though he never placed better than third in the National League in stolen bases .
Sunday remained a prominent baseball fan throughout his life . He gave interviews and opinions about baseball to the popular press ; he frequently umpired minor league and amateur games in the cities where he held revivals ; and he attended baseball games whenever he could , including a 1935 World Series game two months before he died .
= = Conversion = =
On a Sunday afternoon in Chicago , during either the 1886 or 1887 baseball season , Sunday and several of his teammates were out on the town on their day off . At one street corner , they stopped to listen to a gospel preaching team from the Pacific Garden Mission . Attracted by the hymns he had heard his mother sing , Sunday began attending services at the mission . After talking with a former society matron who worked there , Sunday – after some struggle on his part – decided to be a Christian . He began attending the fashionable Jefferson Park Presbyterian Church , a congregation handy to both the ball park and his rented room .
Although he socialized with his teammates and sometimes gambled , Sunday was never a heavy drinker . In his autobiography , he said , " I never drank much . I was never drunk but four times in my life . ... I used to go to the saloons with the baseball players , and while they would drink highballs and gin fizzes and beer , I would take lemonade . " Following his conversion , Sunday denounced drinking , swearing , and gambling , and he changed his behavior , which was recognized by both teammates and fans . Shortly thereafter , Sunday began speaking in churches and at YMCAs .
= = Marriage = =
In 1886 , Sunday was introduced at Jefferson Park Presbyterian Church to Helen Amelia " Nell " Thompson , daughter of the owner of one of Chicago 's largest dairy products businesses . Although Sunday was immediately smitten with her , both had serious on @-@ going relationships that bordered on engagements . Furthermore , Nell Thompson had grown to maturity in a much more privileged environment than had Sunday , and her father strongly discouraged the courtship , viewing all professional baseball players as " transient ne 'er @-@ do @-@ wells who were unstable and destined to be misfits once they were too old to play . " Nevertheless , Sunday pursued and eventually married her . On several occasions , Sunday said , " She was a Presbyterian , so I am a Presbyterian . Had she been a Catholic , I would have been a Catholic — because I was hot on the trail of Nell . " Mrs. Thompson had liked Sunday from the start and weighed in on his side , and Mr. Thompson finally relented . The couple was married on September 5 , 1888 .
= = Apprenticeship for evangelism = =
In the spring of 1891 , Sunday turned down a baseball contract for $ 3 @,@ 500 a year to accept a position with the Chicago YMCA at $ 83 per month . Sunday 's job title at the YMCA was Assistant Secretary , yet the position involved a great deal of ministerial work . It proved to be good preparation for his later evangelistic career . For three years Sunday visited the sick , prayed with the troubled , counseled the suicidal , and visited saloons to invite patrons to evangelistic meetings .
In 1893 , Sunday became the full @-@ time assistant to J. Wilbur Chapman , one of the best known evangelists in the United States at the time . Chapman was well educated and was a meticulous dresser , " suave and urbane . " Personally shy , like Sunday , Chapman commanded respect in the pulpit both because of his strong voice and his sophisticated demeanor . Sunday 's job as Chapman 's advance man was to precede the evangelist to cities in which he was scheduled to preach , organize prayer meetings and choirs , and in general take care of necessary details . When tents were used , Sunday would often help erect them .
By listening to Chapman preach night after night , Sunday received a valuable course in homiletics . Chapman also critiqued Sunday 's own attempts at evangelistic preaching and showed him how to put a good sermon together . Further , Chapman encouraged Sunday 's theological development , especially by emphasizing the importance of prayer and by helping to " reinforce Billy 's commitment to conservative biblical Christianity . "
= = Popular evangelist = =
= = = Kerosene circuit = = =
When Chapman unexpectedly returned to the pastorate in 1896 , Sunday struck out on his own , beginning with meetings in tiny Garner , Iowa . For the next twelve years Sunday preached in approximately seventy communities , most of them in Iowa and Illinois . Sunday referred to these towns as the " kerosene circuit " because , unlike Chicago , most were not yet electrified . Towns often booked Sunday meetings informally , sometimes by sending a delegation to hear him preach and then telegraphing him while he was holding services somewhere else .
Sunday also took advantage of his reputation as a baseball player to generate advertising for his meetings . In 1907 in Fairfield , Iowa , Sunday organized local businesses into two baseball teams and scheduled a game between them . Sunday came dressed in his professional uniform and played on both sides . Although baseball was his primary means of publicity , Sunday also once hired a circus giant to serve as an usher .
When Sunday began to attract crowds larger than could be accommodated in rural churches or town halls , he pitched rented canvas tents . Again , Sunday did much of the physical work of putting them up , manipulating ropes during storms , and seeing to their security by sleeping in them at night . Not until 1905 was he well @-@ off enough to hire his own advance man .
In 1906 , an October snowstorm in Salida , Colorado , destroyed Sunday 's tent — a special disaster because revivalists were typically paid with a freewill offering at the end of their meetings . Thereafter he insisted that towns build him temporary wooden tabernacles at their expense . The tabernacles were comparatively costly to build ( although most of the lumber could be salvaged and resold at the end of the meetings ) , and locals had to put up the money for them in advance . This change in Sunday 's operation began to push the finances of the campaign to the fore . At least at first , raising tabernacles provided good public relations for the coming meetings as townspeople joined together in what was effectively a giant barnraising . Sunday built rapport by participating in the process , and the tabernacles were also a status symbol , because they had previously been built only for major evangelists such as Chapman .
= = = Under the administration of Nell = = =
Eleven years into Sunday 's evangelistic career , both he and his wife had been pushed to their emotional limits . Long separations had exacerbated his natural feelings of inadequacy and insecurity . As a product of a childhood that could well be described as a series of losses , he was extremely dependent on his wife 's love and encouragement . For her part , Nell found it increasingly difficult to handle household responsibilities , the needs of four children ( including a newborn ) , and the long @-@ distance emotional welfare of her husband . His ministry was also expanding , and he needed an administrator , a job for which his wife was ideally suited . In 1908 , the Sundays decided to entrust their children to a nanny so that Nell could manage the revival campaigns .
Nell Sunday transformed her husband 's out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ back @-@ pocket organization into a " nationally renowned phenomenon . " New personnel were hired , and by the New York campaign of 1917 , the Sundays had a paid staff of twenty @-@ six . There were musicians , custodians , and advance men ; but the Sundays also hired Bible teachers of both sexes , who among other responsibilities , held daytime meetings at schools and shops and encouraged their audiences to attend the main tabernacle services in the evenings . The most significant of these new staff members were Homer Rodeheaver , an exceptional song leader and music director who worked with the Sundays for almost twenty years , and Virginia Healey Asher , who ( besides regularly singing duets with Rodeheaver ) directed the women 's ministries , especially the evangelization of young working women .
= = = Campaign platform = = =
With his wife administering the campaign organization , Sunday was free to do what he did best : compose and deliver colloquial sermons . Typically , Homer Rodeheaver would first warm up the crowd with congregational singing that alternated with numbers from gigantic choirs and music performed by the staff . When Sunday felt the moment right , he would launch into his message . Sunday gyrated , stood on the pulpit , ran from one end of the platform to the other , and dove across the stage , pretending to slide into home plate . Sometimes he even smashed chairs to emphasize his points . His sermon notes had to be printed in large letters so that he could catch a glimpse of them as he raced by the pulpit . In messages attacking sexual sin to groups of men only , Sunday could be graphic for the era . A theological opponent , Universalist minister Frederick William Betts , wrote , " Many of the things said and done bordered upon things prohibited in decent society . The sermon on amusements was preached three times , to mixed audience of men and women , boys and girls . If the sermons to women had been preached to married women , if the sermons to men had been preached to mature men , if the sermon on amusements had been preached to grown folks , there might have been an excuse for them , and perhaps good from them . But an experienced newspaper reporter told me that the sermon on amusements was ' the rawest thing ever put over in Syracuse . ' I can not , must not , quote from this sermon ... " , " fainted under that awful definition ; " , " if you do not ' hit the trail ' then watch out for the fireworks " ... [ a friend ] says that Mr. Sunday 's sermon on the sex question was raw and disgusting . He also heard the famous sermons on amusements and booze . [ He ] says that all in all they were the ugliest , nastiest , most disgusting addresses he ever listened to from a religious platform or a preacher of religion . He saw people carried out who had fainted under that awful definition of sensuality and depravity . Homer Rodeheaver said that " One of these sermons , until he tempered it down a little , had one ten @-@ minute period in it where from two to twelve men fainted and had to be carried out every time I heard him preach it . " Some religious and social leaders criticized Sunday 's exaggerated gestures as well as the slang and colloquialisms that filled his sermons , but audiences clearly enjoyed them .
In 1907 , journalist Lindsay Denison complained that Sunday preached " the old , old doctrine of damnation " , getting results by " inspiring fear and gloom in the hearts of sinners . " In spite of his conviction that the truly religious man should take his religion joyfully , he gets his results by inspiring fear and gloom in the hearts of sinners . The fear of death , with torment beyond it — intensified by examples of the frightful deathbeds of those who have carelessly or obdurately put off salvation until it is too late — it is with this mighty menace that he drives sinners into the fold . But Sunday himself told reporters " with ill @-@ concealed annoyance " , that his revivals had " no emotionalism . " Certainly contemporary comparisons to the extravagances of mid @-@ nineteenth @-@ century camp meetings — as in the famous drawing by George Bellows — were overdrawn . Sunday told one reporter that he believed that people could " be converted without any fuss , " and , at Sunday 's meetings , " instances of spasm , shakes , or fainting fits caused by hysteria were few and far between . "
Crowd noise , especially coughing and crying babies , was a significant impediment to Sunday 's preaching because the wooden tabernacles were so acoustically live . During his preliminaries , Rodeheaver often instructed audiences about how to muffle their coughs . Nurseries were always provided , infants forbidden , and Sunday sometimes appeared rude in his haste to rid the hall of noisy children who had slipped through the ushers . Tabernacle floors were covered with sawdust to dampen the noise of shuffling feet ( as well as for its pleasant smell and its ability to hold down the dust of dirt floors ) , and coming forward during the invitation became known as " hitting the sawdust trail . " The term was first used in a Sunday campaign in Bellingham , Washington , in 1910 . Apparently , " hitting the sawdust trail " had first been used by loggers in the Pacific Northwest to describe following home a trail of previously dropped sawdust through an uncut forest — a metaphor for coming from , in Nell Sunday 's words , " a lost condition to a saved condition . "
By 1910 , Sunday began to conduct meetings ( usually longer than a month ) in small cities like Youngstown , Wilkes @-@ Barre , South Bend , and Denver , and then finally , between 1915 and 1917 , the major cities of Philadelphia , Syracuse , Kansas City , Detroit , Boston , Buffalo , and New York City . During the 1910s , Sunday was front page news in the cities where he held campaigns . Newspapers often printed his sermons in full , and during World War I , local coverage of his campaigns often surpassed that of the war . Sunday was the subject of over sixty articles in major periodicals , and he was a staple of the religious press regardless of denomination .
Over the course of his career , Sunday probably preached to more than one hundred million people face @-@ to @-@ face — and , to the great majority , without electronic amplification . Vast numbers " hit the sawdust trail . " Although the usual total given for those who came forward at invitations is an even million , one modern historian estimates the true figure to be closer to 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 . Sunday did not preach to a hundred million different individuals but to many of the same people repeatedly over the course of a campaign . Before his death , Sunday estimated that he had preached nearly 20 @,@ 000 sermons , an average of 42 per month from 1896 to 1935 . During his heyday , when he was preaching more than twenty times each week , his crowds were often huge . Even in 1923 , well into the period of his decline , 479 @,@ 300 people attended the 79 meetings of the six @-@ week 1923 Columbia , South Carolina , campaign – 23 times the white population of Columbia . Nevertheless , " trail hitters " were not necessarily conversions ( or even " reconsecrations " ) to Christianity . Sometimes whole groups of club members came forward en masse at Sunday 's prodding . By 1927 , Rodeheaver was complaining that Sunday 's invitations had become so general that they were meaningless .
= = = Wages of success = = =
Large crowds and an efficient organization meant that Sunday , the former resident of an orphan home , was soon netting hefty offerings . The first questions about Sunday 's income were apparently raised during the Columbus , Ohio , campaign at the turn of 1912 – 13 . During the Pittsburgh campaign a year later , Sunday spoke four times per day and effectively made $ 217 per sermon or $ 870 a day at a time when the average gainfully employed worker made $ 836 per year . The major cities of Chicago , Philadelphia , Baltimore , Boston , and New York City gave Sunday even larger offerings . Sunday donated Chicago 's offering of $ 58 @,@ 000 to Pacific Garden Mission and the $ 120 @,@ 500 New York offering to war charities . Nevertheless , between 1908 and 1920 , the Sundays earned over a million dollars ; an average worker during the same period earned less than $ 14 @,@ 000 .
Sunday was welcomed into the circle of the social , economic , and political elite . He counted among his neighbors and acquaintances several prominent businessmen . Sunday dined with numerous politicians , including Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson , and counted both Herbert Hoover and John D. Rockefeller , Jr. as friends . During and after the 1917 Los Angeles campaign , the Sundays visited with Hollywood stars , and members of Sunday 's organization played a charity baseball game against a team of show business personalities that included Douglas Fairbanks , Sr.
The Sundays enjoyed dressing well and dressing their children well ; the family sported expensive but tasteful coats , boots , and jewelry . Nell Sunday also bought land as an investment . In 1909 , the Sundays bought an apple orchard in Hood River , Oregon , where they vacationed for several years . Although the property sported only a rustic cabin , reporters called it a " ranch . " Sunday was a soft touch with money and gave away much of his earnings . Neither of the Sundays were extravagant spenders . Although Sunday enjoyed driving , the couple never owned a car . In 1911 , the Sundays moved to Winona Lake , Indiana , and built an American Craftsman @-@ style bungalow , which they called " Mount Hood " , probably as a reminder of their Oregon vacation cabin . The bungalow , furnished in the popular Arts and Crafts style , had two porches and a terraced garden but only nine rooms , 2 @,@ 500 square feet ( 230 m2 ) of living space , and no garage .
= = Religious views = =
Sunday was a conservative evangelical who accepted fundamentalist doctrines . He affirmed and preached the inerrancy of the Bible , the virgin birth of Christ , the doctrine of substitutionary atonement , the bodily resurrection of Christ , a literal devil and hell , and the imminent return of Jesus Christ . At the turn of the 20th century , most Protestant church members , regardless of denomination , gave assent to these doctrines . Sunday refused to hold meetings in cities where he was not welcomed by the vast majority of the Protestant churches and their clergy .
Sunday was not a separationist as were many Protestants of his era . He went out of his way to avoid criticizing the Roman Catholic Church and even met with Cardinal Gibbons during his 1916 Baltimore campaign . Also , cards filled out by " trail hitters " were faithfully returned to the church or denomination that the writers had indicated as their choice , including Catholic and Unitarian .
Although Sunday was ordained by the Presbyterian Church in 1903 , his ministry was nondenominational and he was not a strict Calvinist . He preached that individuals were , at least in part , responsible for their own salvation . " Trail hitters " were given a four @-@ page tract that stated , " if you have done your part ( i.e. believe that Christ died in your place , and receive Him as your Saviour and Master ) God has done HIS part and imparted to you His own nature . "
Sunday never attended seminary and made no pretense of being a theologian or an intellectual , but he had a thorough knowledge of the Bible and was well read on religious and social issues of his day . His surviving Winona Lake library of six hundred books gives evidence of heavy use , including underscoring and reader 's notes in his characteristic all @-@ caps printing . Some of Sunday 's books were even those of religious opponents . He was later charged with plagiarizing a Decoration Day speech given by the noted agnostic Robert Ingersoll .
Sunday 's homespun preaching had a wide appeal to his audiences , who were " entertained , reproached , exhorted , and astonished . " Sunday claimed to be " an old @-@ fashioned preacher of the old @-@ time religion " and his uncomplicated sermons spoke of a personal God , salvation through Jesus Christ , and following the moral lessons of the Bible . Sunday 's theology , although sometimes denigrated as simplistic , was situated within the mainstream Protestantism of his time .
= = Social and political views = =
Sunday was a lifelong Republican , and he espoused the mainstream political and social views of his native Midwest : individualism , competitiveness , personal discipline , and opposition to government regulation . Writers such as Sinclair Lewis , Henry M. Tichenor , and John Reed attacked Sunday as a tool of big business , and poet Carl Sandburg called him a " four @-@ flusher " and a " bunkshooter . " Nevertheless , Sunday sided with Progressives on some issues . For example , he denounced child labor and supported urban reform and women 's suffrage . Sunday condemned capitalists " whose private lives are good , but whose public lives are very bad " , as well as those " who would not pick the pockets of one man with the fingers of their hand " but who would " without hesitation pick the pockets of eighty million people with fingers of their monopoly or commercial advantage . " He never lost his sympathy for the poor , and he sincerely tried to bridge the gulf between the races during the zenith of the Jim Crow era , although on at least two occasions in the mid @-@ 1920s Sunday received contributions from the Ku Klux Klan .
Sunday was a passionate supporter of World War I. In 1918 he said , " I tell you it is [ Kaiser ] Bill against Woodrow , Germany against America , Hell against Heaven . " Sunday raised large amounts of money for the troops , sold war bonds , and stumped for recruitment .
Sunday had been an ardent champion of temperance from his earliest days as an evangelist , and his ministry at the Chicago YMCA had given him first @-@ hand experience with the destructive potential of alcohol . Sunday 's most famous sermon was " Get on the Water Wagon " , which he preached on countless occasions with both histrionic emotion and a " mountain of economic and moral evidence . " Sunday said , " I am the sworn , eternal and uncompromising enemy of the Liquor Traffic . I have been , and will go on , fighting that damnable , dirty , rotten business with all the power at my command . " Sunday played a significant role in arousing public interest in Prohibition and in the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1919 . When the tide of public opinion turned against Prohibition , he continued to support it . After its repeal in 1933 , Sunday called for its reintroduction .
Sunday also opposed eugenics , recent immigration from southern and eastern Europe , and the teaching of evolution . Further , he criticized such popular middle @-@ class amusements as dancing , playing cards , attending the theater , and reading novels . However , he believed baseball was a healthy and even patriotic form of recreation , so long as it was not played on Sundays .
= = Decline and death = =
Sunday 's popularity waned after World War I , when many people in his revival audiences were attracted to radio broadcasts and moving pictures instead . The Sundays ' health also declined even as they continued to drive themselves through rounds of revivals — smaller but also with fewer staff members to assist them .
Tragedy marred Sunday 's final years . His three sons engaged in many of the activities he preached against , and the Sundays paid blackmail to several women to keep the scandals relatively quiet . In 1930 , their housekeeper and nanny , who had become a virtual member of the family , died . Then the Sundays ' daughter , the only child actually raised by Nell , died in 1932 of what seems to have been multiple sclerosis . Their oldest son George , rescued from financial ruin by the Sundays , committed suicide in 1933 .
Nevertheless , even as the crowds declined during the last 15 years of his life , Sunday soldiered on , accepting preaching invitations and speaking with effect . In early 1935 , he had a mild heart attack , and his doctor advised him to stay out of the pulpit . Sunday ignored the advice . He died on November 6 , a week after preaching his last sermon on the text " What must I do to be saved ? "
= Chick Cancer =
" Chick Cancer " is the seventh episode of season five of Family Guy . The episode originally broadcast on November 26 , 2006 . In the episode , Stewie 's old friend and child actress , Olivia Fuller ( voiced by Rachael MacFarlane ) returns to Quahog . Stewie intends to sabotage what little is left of her career , but ends up falling in love with her , only for the relationship to end in ruins due to his personality . Meanwhile , Peter decides to make a chick flick after enjoying one he saw in the cinema with Lois .
The episode was written by Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild and directed by Pete Michels . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 49 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Drew Barrymore , Jeff Bergman , Dave Boat , Lizzy Caplan , Rachael MacFarlane and Stacey Scowley , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
Stewie discovers that his old friend , Olivia , a child actress , is coming to the end of her Hollywood career because her " Tasty Juice : Drink it then Convert it to Pee " advertisement campaign has been dropped . Olivia is now making an appearance at the Quahog mall to open a new store . Stewie decides to go the mall where he intends to ridicule her , but falls in love with her after seeing her again . Olivia , however , does not return the same feelings , so Stewie seeks advice from Brian on how to make Olivia like him . Brian and Stewie observe next @-@ door neighbor Glenn Quagmire get his way by being mean to a woman , and Stewie comes to the conclusion that women respond to men who mistreat them .
Stewie and Olivia begin to bond shortly afterward , and the two spend their time bonding by sitting in a park while eating ice cream . As they sit and eat their ice cream , they observe various people , such as a man smelling his own hand , a Jewish cowboy , a man who cuts his own hair , and an uptight and hardworking Asian man who is looking at his watch . They also go to a birthday party for one of Olivia 's friends . Olivia introduces Stewie to her old friend , a child actor named Victor , and she obliges Stewie to get both of them punch , but a jealous Stewie only wishes Victor to go away . The couple begin to argue constantly , and their latest argument ends with them getting married . After the marriage , which Rupert officiates , their relationship does not get any better . Later , the couple decide to accompany Brian on a double @-@ date with his girlfriend , Jillian . During the date , the pair continue to bicker throughout , leading to Stewie starting an argument with a person in the restaurant who asks him to be quiet . He feels the relationship is failing , but Brian encourages him to reconsider and Stewie agrees to return to Olivia . Returning to his playhouse , Stewie discovers Olivia is " cheating " on him with her friend Victor ( although the two are just playing with silly putty ) . With the relationship over , a seemingly distraught Stewie leaves the playhouse , which he then sets on fire with both Olivia and Victor inside .
Meanwhile , Peter watches a chick flick with Lois , and is deeply moved by it . After renting several other chick flicks , Peter decides to make one of his own with his friends , entitled " Steel Vaginas " . The plot stars Peter as a man who claims he does not care much for women until he meets " Vageena Hertz " , played by Lois , who is also his own daughter in the film . After Vageena almost drowns , she is rushed to the hospital , but dies of an angry hymen . The film ends and is received badly by Peter 's friends due to its poor plot outline , structure and not making any sense . This leaves Peter crushed and , of course , he realizes that he 's not cut out for making movies .
During the closing credits of the episode , Stewie talks with Brian about how he does not like women and relationships , he talks about how he wishes that he could do the same thing with the same sex so Brian says , " They do ; it 's called being gay . " to which Stewie replies , " Oh , that 's what gay is ? Oh , yeah , I could totally get into that . "
= = Production = =
Many of the jokes used in the storyline of this episode were originally pitched for a subplot of this episode , which saw Stewie building a robot suit to make him look like an adult to woo Jillian 's best friend Ana , but this particular subplot was never used . The scene showing a mayor advertising a 1980s @-@ related CD was included in the original draft for the episode , and , as MacFarlane states , is one of the rare occasions that an act break that is unrelated entirely to the storyline can be included in an episode . Originally , the gag of Stewie using some of Brian 's fur to pass it off as his pubic hair was going to be the only area of his body where he would tell Jillian about his hair , but MacFarlane states that the show was not allowed to mention only pubic hair , and had to steer to a different area on the body that would have hair too , if they wanted to include it . Broadcasting standards allowed the sketch where Peter says " before , women only made me cry through my penis , " as he states they " gave in . " Additionally , while on the version broadcast Lois dies of an angry hymen , on the DVD version she dies of a rotten vagina .
In addition to the regular cast , actress Drew Barrymore , voice actor Jeff Bergman , voice actor Dave Boat , actress Lizzy Caplan , voice actress Rachael MacFarlane and actress Stacey Scowley guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , actress Alex Breckenridge , voice actor John G. Brennan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
This episode references three Woody Allen films . Stewie and Olivia watching people in the park is a reference to a scene from Annie Hall .
While referencing Star Wars , the theme from Curb Your Enthusiasm is played .
Stewie and Olivia sitting under a bridge while on a date is a reference to Manhattan , and the music playing in the background is " Someone to Watch over Me " , a song composed by George Gershwin .
Victor , the person with whom Olivia is revealed to be having an affair , is based on a character portrayed by Alan Alda in 1989 film Crimes and Misdemeanors .
Brian repeatedly telling Stewie that it is not his fault after his break @-@ up with Olivia is a reference to Good Will Hunting .
Stewie reflects on how it was easier being Q * bert 's room mate and an animation of him on the game board is shown .
The song " Ain 't No Mountain High Enough " , by Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell , is played during a scene in the chick flick Peter and Lois go watch at the beginning of the episode .
After asking out Olivia , Stewie claims he 's as cool as that cheetah from the commercials . Then a scene shows Chester Cheetah the Cheetos ' mascot sitting in a rundown apartment inhaling crushed Cheetos like cocaine . At the same time he is listening to " Tom Sawyer " by Canadian rock band Rush . He then smashes his hands into a coffee table and says " It ain 't easy , being Cheesy . " in the uncensored version ( released on DVD ) this follows the line " there is no fucking drummer better than Neil Peart "
= = Reception = =
In a slight improvement over the previous week , the episode was viewed in 9 @.@ 49 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 3 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , slightly being edged out by The Simpsons , while still winning over American Dad ! .
Dan Iverson of IGN wrote " this week was confirmation of the show 's quality , as ' Chick Cancer ' proved that the program could create hilarious flashbacks , while presenting a story that added a lick of satire to improve on the overall quality of the show . " In a review of the episode , Brett Love of TV Squad wrote " I 'm still calling this an up and down season overall , but this episode was one of the upswings , " adding that " There were some truly great moments . " Later in the review , Love comments " If there was anything I didn 't like about the story it was that bad boy Stewie was so short lived . "
= Garrett Rivas =
Garrett Rivas ( born June 1 , 1985 ) is a former American football kicker who played in af2 and the Arena Football League ( AFL ) . He played college football at Michigan ; he set the current school records for career scoring , field goals and point after touchdowns and was a three @-@ time All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection during his time there . As a professional he played for the Florida Firecats of af2 and the Tampa Bay Storm of the AFL .
= = High school career = =
Rivas attended Jesuit High School in Tampa , Florida where he played wide receiver and kicker . He played kicker because it increased his chance to make the team . Among his high school honors was selection to the Tampa Chapter of the Hall of Fame for Scholar Athletes . Rivas also played in the U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl in San Antonio and played in the Florida @-@ Georgia All @-@ Star Game . In high school , Rivals.com ranked him as the 24th best kicker in the nation . Jesuit is fellow kicking Michigan alumn Jay Feely 's alma mater . Professional kicker Xavier Beitia is also an alumnus of the school .
= = College career = =
As a freshman for the 2003 Wolverines , he was the regular kicker for the team from the start , making four point after touchdowns ( PATs ) in the first game of the season . Beginning his streak of many game @-@ winning kicks for the Wolverines , he made the game @-@ winner in the largest comeback in Michigan history , capping a 21 @-@ point 38 – 35 comeback victory against Minnesota with a 33 @-@ yard field goal with 50 seconds left in the Battle for the Little Brown Jug . Rivas was involved in a controversial national story in the October 4 , 2003 when Michigan head coach Lloyd Carr changed the punting gameplan in the middle of the game by asking Rivas to line up as a punter and carry the ball or kick while rolling to his right behind a wall of blockers . After it worked twice , the Iowa Hawkeyes blocked the third attempt ; the resulting great field position led to Iowa taking the lead , breaking a 20 – 20 tie en route to a 30 – 27 win .
As a sophomore for the 2004 Michigan team , his season @-@ best 4 – 4 field goal performance came in a September 11 , 2004 28 – 20 loss to Notre Dame in the Michigan – Notre Dame football rivalry game . He posted a 4th @-@ quarter field goal to bring the Wolverines to within 24 – 20 in their October 9 27 – 24 win against Minnesota . He made the go @-@ ahead 35 @-@ yard field goal with 2 : 45 remaining against Purdue in an October 23 , 2004 , 16 – 14 win . He also went 3 – 3 on field goals and 4 – 4 on extra points in the October 30 , 2004 , overtime 45 – 37 win against Michigan State in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game . In the season @-@ ending 38 – 37 loss to Texas in the 2005 Rose Bowl , Rivas was 3 – 3 on field goals and 4 – 4 on extra points . Following the season he was recognized as an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten selection .
As a junior for the 2005 Wolverines , he was involved in many close games . The team 's first five conference games were all decided in the final 24 seconds of regulation or in overtime . After missing a 27 @-@ yard potential game @-@ winner in the final minute , he made the winning field goal in overtime against Michigan State . In the October 8 , 2005 23 – 20 loss to Minnesota , Rivas missed two late chances to break a 20 – 20 tie : a 42 @-@ yard field goal late in the third quarter and a 34 @-@ yard kick with 8 : 27 left in the game . In the October 15 , 27 – 25 last @-@ play win against Penn State , he gave the team a 21 – 18 lead on a 47 @-@ yard field goal with 3 : 45 remaining . Rivas posted 15 points in an October 29 , 2005 , 33 – 17 win against Northwestern . At the end of the season , Rivas was named an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten selection for the second @-@ straight year .
As a senior for the 2006 Wolverines , he never made more than two field goals in a game yet still managed to score a total of 93 points , one shy of his career @-@ high set back in 2004 . That year Michigan won all eleven its victories by at least seven points . At the conclusion of the Big Ten schedule , he was selected as a 2006 first team All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection .
Rivas set a new Michigan Wolverines football record for career scoring ( 354 ) , surpassing Anthony Thomas ' record of 336 set back in 2000 . He also broke Remy Hamilton 's field goal record of 63 , set back in 1996 , with 64 career field goals , and J. D. Carlson 's PAT record of 137 , set back in 1991 , with 162 . He additionally tied Mike Gillette 's record from 1998 of 13 career 40 @-@ yard field goals .
= = Pro career = =
He signed with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on May 3 , 2007 as an undrafted free agent , but was released on June 2
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2009 review of experiments in mice concluded that almost all manipulations of antioxidant systems had no effect on aging .
Diets high in fruit and vegetables , and so possibly being rich in antioxidant vitamins , have no established effect on status of health or aging , yet may have more subtle physiological effects , such as modifying cell @-@ to @-@ cell communication .
= = Uses in technology = =
= = = Food preservatives = = =
Antioxidants are used as food additives to help guard against food deterioration . Exposure to oxygen and sunlight are the two main factors in the oxidation of food , so food is preserved by keeping in the dark and sealing it in containers or even coating it in wax , as with cucumbers . However , as oxygen is also important for plant respiration , storing plant materials in anaerobic conditions produces unpleasant flavors and unappealing colors . Consequently , packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables contains an ~ 8 % oxygen atmosphere . Antioxidants are an especially important class of preservatives as , unlike bacterial or fungal spoilage , oxidation reactions still occur relatively rapidly in frozen or refrigerated food . These preservatives include natural antioxidants such as ascorbic acid ( AA , E300 ) and tocopherols ( E306 ) , as well as synthetic antioxidants such as propyl gallate ( PG , E310 ) , tertiary butylhydroquinone ( TBHQ ) , butylated hydroxyanisole ( BHA , E320 ) and butylated hydroxytoluene ( BHT , E321 ) .
The most common molecules attacked by oxidation are unsaturated fats ; oxidation causes them to turn rancid . Since oxidized lipids are often discolored and usually have unpleasant tastes such as metallic or sulfurous flavors , it is important to avoid oxidation in fat @-@ rich foods . Thus , these foods are rarely preserved by drying ; instead , they are preserved by smoking , salting or fermenting . Even less fatty foods such as fruits are sprayed with sulfurous antioxidants prior to air drying . Oxidation is often catalyzed by metals , which is why fats such as butter should never be wrapped in aluminium foil or kept in metal containers . Some fatty foods such as olive oil are partially protected from oxidation by their natural content of antioxidants , but remain sensitive to photooxidation . Antioxidant preservatives are also added to fat based cosmetics such as lipstick and moisturizers to prevent rancidity .
= = = Industrial uses = = =
Antioxidants are frequently added to industrial products . A common use is as stabilizers in fuels and lubricants to prevent oxidation , and in gasolines to prevent the polymerization that leads to the formation of engine @-@ fouling residues . In 2007 , the worldwide market for industrial antioxidants had a total volume of around 0 @.@ 88 million tons . This created a revenue of circa 3 @.@ 7 billion US @-@ dollars ( 2 @.@ 4 billion Euros ) .
They are widely used to prevent the oxidative degradation of polymers such as rubbers , plastics and adhesives that causes a loss of strength and flexibility in these materials . Polymers containing double bonds in their main chains , such as natural rubber and polybutadiene , are especially susceptible to oxidation and ozonolysis . They can be protected by antiozonants . Solid polymer products start to crack on exposed surfaces as the material degrades and the chains break . The mode of cracking varies between oxygen and ozone attack , the former causing a " crazy paving " effect , while ozone attack produces deeper cracks aligned at right angles to the tensile strain in the product . Oxidation and UV degradation are also frequently linked , mainly because UV radiation creates free radicals by bond breakage . The free radicals then react with oxygen to produce peroxy radicals which cause yet further damage , often in a chain reaction . Other polymers susceptible to oxidation include polypropylene and polyethylene . The former is more sensitive owing to the presence of secondary carbon atoms present in every repeat unit . Attack occurs at this point because the free radical formed is more stable than one formed on a primary carbon atom . Oxidation of polyethylene tends to occur at weak links in the chain , such as branch points in low @-@ density polyethylene .
= = Measurement and levels in food = =
Antioxidant vitamins are found in vegetables , fruits , eggs , legumes and nuts . Vitamins A , C , and E can be destroyed by long @-@ term storage or prolonged cooking . The effects of cooking and food processing are complex , as these processes can also increase the bioavailability of antioxidants , such as some carotenoids in vegetables . Processed food contains fewer antioxidant vitamins than fresh and uncooked foods , as preparation exposes food to heat and oxygen .
Other antioxidants are not vitamins and are instead made in the body . For example , ubiquinol ( coenzyme Q ) is poorly absorbed from the gut and is made in humans through the mevalonate pathway . Another example is glutathione , which is made from amino acids . As any glutathione in the gut is broken down to free cysteine , glycine and glutamic acid before being absorbed , even large oral doses have little effect on the concentration of glutathione in the body . Although large amounts of sulfur @-@ containing amino acids such as acetylcysteine can increase glutathione , no evidence exists that eating high levels of these glutathione precursors is beneficial for healthy adults . Supplying more of these precursors may be useful as part of the treatment of some diseases , such as acute respiratory distress syndrome , protein @-@ energy malnutrition , or preventing the liver damage produced by paracetamol overdose .
Other compounds in the diet can alter the levels of antioxidants by acting as pro @-@ oxidants whereby consuming the compound may cause oxidative stress , possibly resulting in higher levels of antioxidant enzymes .
= = = Invalidation of ORAC = = =
Measurement of antioxidant content in food is not a straightforward process , as this is a diverse group of compounds with different reactivities to various reactive oxygen species . In food science , the oxygen radical absorbance capacity ( ORAC ) used to be the industry standard for antioxidant strength of whole foods , juices and food additives . However , the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) withdrew these ratings in 2012 as biologically invalid , stating that no physiological proof in vivo existed to support the free @-@ radical theory , especially for polyphenols . Consequently , the ORAC method , derived only from in vitro experiments , is no longer considered relevant to human diets or biology .
Alternative in vitro measurements include the Folin @-@ Ciocalteu reagent , and the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assay .
= = History = =
As part of their adaptation from marine life , terrestrial plants began producing non @-@ marine antioxidants such as ascorbic acid ( vitamin C ) , polyphenols and tocopherols . The evolution of angiosperm plants between 50 and 200 million years ago resulted in the development of many antioxidant pigments – particularly during the Jurassic period – as chemical defences against reactive oxygen species that are byproducts of photosynthesis . Originally , the term antioxidant specifically referred to a chemical that prevented the consumption of oxygen . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , extensive study concentrated on the use of antioxidants in important industrial processes , such as the prevention of metal corrosion , the vulcanization of rubber , and the polymerization of fuels in the fouling of internal combustion engines .
Early research on the role of antioxidants in biology focused on their use in preventing the oxidation of unsaturated fats , which is the cause of rancidity . Antioxidant activity could be measured simply by placing the fat in a closed container with oxygen and measuring the rate of oxygen consumption . However , it was the identification of vitamins A , C , and E as antioxidants that revolutionized the field and led to the realization of the importance of antioxidants in the biochemistry of living organisms . The possible mechanisms of action of antioxidants were first explored when it was recognized that a substance with anti @-@ oxidative activity is likely to be one that is itself readily oxidized . Research into how vitamin E prevents the process of lipid peroxidation led to the identification of antioxidants as reducing agents that prevent oxidative reactions , often by scavenging reactive oxygen species before they can damage cells .
= The Power of Nightmares =
The Power of Nightmares : The Rise of the Politics of Fear is a BBC television documentary series by Adam Curtis . It mainly consists of archive footage , with Curtis narrating . The series was originally broadcast in the United Kingdom in 2004 . It has subsequently been aired in multiple countries and shown at various film festivals , including the 2005 Cannes Film Festival .
The film compares the rise of the neoconservative movement in the United States and the radical Islamist movement , drawing comparisons between their origins , and remarking on similarities between the two groups . More controversially , it argues that radical Islamism as a massive , sinister organisation , specifically in the form of al @-@ Qaeda , is a myth , or noble lie , perpetuated by leaders of many countries — and particularly neoconservatives in the U.S. — in a renewed attempt to unite and inspire their people after the ultimate failure of utopian ideas .
The Power of Nightmares was praised by film critics in Britain and the United States . Its message and content have also been the subject of various critiques and criticisms from conservatives and progressives .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Part 1 . ' Baby It 's Cold Outside ' = = =
The first part of the series explains the origins of Islamism and neoconservatism . It shows Egyptian civil servant Sayyid Qutb , depicted as the founder of modern Islamist thinking , visiting the U.S. to learn about its education system , then becoming disgusted at what he judged as the corruption of morals and virtues in western society through individualism . When he returns to Egypt , he is disturbed by westernisation under Gamal Abdel Nasser and becomes convinced that in order to save his own society , it must be completely restructured along the lines of Islamic law while still using western technology . He then becomes convinced that his vision can only be accomplished through use of an elite " vanguard " to lead a revolution against the established order . Qutb becomes a leader of the Muslim Brotherhood and , after being tortured in one of Nasser 's jails , comes to believe that western @-@ influenced leaders can be justifiably killed to remove their corruption . Qutb is executed in 1966 , but he influences Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri , the future mentor of Osama bin Laden , to start his own secret Islamist group . Inspired by the 1979 Iranian revolution , Zawahiri and his allies assassinate Egyptian president Anwar Al @-@ Sadat in 1981 in the hopes of starting their own revolution . However , the revolution does not materialise , and Zawahiri comes to believe that a majority of Muslims have been corrupted , not only by their western @-@ inspired leaders , but Muslims themselves have been affected by jahilliyah and thus may be legitimate targets of violence if they refuse to join his cause . They continued to believe that a vanguard was necessary to rise up and overthrow the corrupt regime and replace it with a ' pure ' Islamist state .
At the same time in the United States , a group of disillusioned liberals , including Irving Kristol and Paul Wolfowitz , look to the political thinking of Leo Strauss after the perceived failure of President Johnson 's " Great Society " . They conclude that an emphasis on individual liberty was the undoing of Johnson 's plans . They envisioned restructuring America by uniting the American people against a common evil , and set about creating a mythical enemy . These factions , the neoconservatives , came to power during the 1980s under the Reagan administration , with their allies Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld . They alleged that the Soviet Union was not following the terms of a disarmament treaty between the two countries , and together with the outcomes of " Team B " , they built a case using dubious evidence and methods to prove it to Ronald Reagan .
= = = Part 2 . ' The Phantom Victory ' = = =
In the second part , Islamist factions , rapidly falling under the more radical influence of Zawahiri and his rich Saudi acolyte Osama bin Laden , join the neoconservative @-@ influenced Reagan administration to combat the Soviet Union 's invasion of Afghanistan . When the Soviets eventually pull out of Afghanistan , and when the Eastern Bloc begins to collapse in 1989 , both the Islamists and the neoconservatives believe they are the primary architects of the " Evil Empire 's " defeat . Curtis argues that the Soviet Union was on the verge of collapsing anyway . However , the Islamists see it quite differently . In their triumph , they believe they have the power to create ' pure ' Islamic states in Egypt and Algeria . Attempts to create such Islamic states are blocked by force . The Islamists then try to foment revolutions in Egypt and Algeria by using terrorism to scare the people into rising up against their leaders . But the people are terrified by the violence , and the Algerian government exploits that fear as a way to hang on to power . In the end , the Islamists declare the entire populations of the countries to be thoroughly contaminated by western values . Finally , in Algeria , they begin to turn on each other , each believing that members of other terrorist groups are not true Muslims .
In America , neoconservative aspirations to use the United States ' military power to further destroy evildoers are thrown off track by the election of George H. W. Bush to the presidency , followed by the election in 1992 of Bill Clinton which left them totally out of power . The neoconservatives , along with their conservative Christian allies , attempt to demonize Clinton throughout his presidency with various real and fabricated stories of corruption and immorality . To their disappointment , the American people do not turn against Clinton . Meanwhile , Islamist attempts at revolution end in massive bloodshed , leaving the Islamists without popular support . Zawahiri and bin Laden flee to the relative safety of Afghanistan and declare a new strategy . To fight Western @-@ inspired moral decay , they must deal a blow to its source : the United States .
= = = Part 3 . ' The Shadows in the Cave ' = = =
The final part addresses the actual rise of al @-@ Qaeda . Curtis argues that , after their failed revolutions , bin Laden and Zawahiri had little or no popular support , let alone a serious complex organisation of terrorists , and were dependent on independent operatives to carry out their new call for jihad . However , the film argues that in order to prosecute bin Laden in absentia for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings , U.S. prosecutors had to prove that he is the head of a criminal organisation responsible for the bombings . They find a former associate of bin Laden , Jamal al @-@ Fadl , and pay him to testify that bin Laden is the head of a massive terrorist organisation called " al @-@ Qaeda " . With the September 11 attacks , neoconservatives in the new Republican administration of George W. Bush use this invented concept of an organisation to justify another crusade against a new enemy , culminating in the launch of the War on Terror .
After the American invasion of Afghanistan fails to uproot the alleged terrorist organisation , the Bush administration focuses inwards , searching unsuccessfully for terrorist sleeper cells in America . In 2003 , they extend the War on Terror to a war on general perceived evils with the invasion of Iraq . The ideas and tactics also spread to the United Kingdom , where Tony Blair uses the threat of terrorism to give him a new moral authority . The repercussions of the neoconservative strategy are also explored , with an investigation of indefinitely @-@ detained terrorist suspects in Guantanamo Bay , many allegedly taken on the word of the anti @-@ Taliban Northern Alliance without actual investigation on the part of the United States military , and other forms of " preemption " against non @-@ existent and unlikely threats made simply on the grounds that the parties involved had the potential to become a threat . Curtis specifically attempts to allay fears of a dirty bomb attack , and concludes by reassuring viewers that politicians will eventually have to concede that some threats are exaggerated and others have no foundation in reality . He says , " In an age when all the grand ideas have lost credibility , fear of a phantom enemy is all the politicians have left to maintain their power . "
= = Contributors = =
= = Content = =
Adam Curtis originally intended to make a film about conflict within the conservative movement between the ideologies of neoconservative " elitism " and the more individualist libertarian factions . During his research into the conservative movement , Curtis discovered what he saw as similarities in the origins of the neoconservative and Islamist ideologies . The topic of the planned documentary shifted to these other two ideologies , with the libertarian element eventually being phased out . Curtis first pitched the idea of a documentary on conservative ideology in 2003 and spent half a year researching the film . Final recordings were made on 10 October , 19 October and 1 November 2004 .
As with many of Curtis 's films , The Power of Nightmares uses a montage of stock footage taken from the BBC archives which Curtis narrates . Curtis has credited James Mossman as the inspiration for his montage technique , which he first employed for the 1992 series Pandora 's Box , while his use of humour has been credited to his first work with television as a talent @-@ scout for the magazine programme That 's Life ! Curtis has also compared the entertainment aspect of his films to the Fox News channel in America , claiming that the network is successful because of " [ their viewers ] really enjoying what they 're doing . "
To help drive his points , Curtis uses interviews with various political and intellectual figures . In the first two parts , former Arms Control and Disarmament Agency member Anne Cahn and former American Spectator writer David Brock accuse the neoconservatives of knowingly using false evidence of wrongdoing in their campaigns against the Soviet Union and President Bill Clinton . Jason Burke , author of Al @-@ Qaeda : Casting a Shadow of Terror , comments in The Shadows in the Cave on the failure to expose a massive terrorist network in Afghanistan . Additional interviews with major figures are added to drive the film 's narrative . Neoconservatives William and Irving Kristol , Richard Pipes , Richard Perle and Michael Ledeen are invited to provide a neoconservative view of the film 's subject . The history of Islamism is discussed by the Institute of Islamic Political Thought 's Azzam Tamimi , political scientist Roxanne Euben , and Islamist Abdullah Anas .
The film 's soundtrack includes at least two pieces of music from the films of John Carpenter , who Curtis credited as inspiration for his soundtrack arrangement techniques , as well as tracks from Brian Eno 's Another Green World . There is also music by composers Charles Ives and Ennio Morricone , while Curtis has credited the industrial band Skinny Puppy for the " best " music in the films .
= = Airings and distribution = =
The Power of Nightmares was first broadcast in three parts on BBC Two in 2004 in the United Kingdom , beginning with ' Baby it 's Cold Outside ' on 20 October , ' The Phantom Victory ' on 27 October , and ' The Shadows in the Cave ' on 3 November . The murder of Kenneth Bigley led the BBC to cease publicising the final episode prior to its airing . It was broadcast again over three days in January 2005 , with the third part updated to note the Law Lords ruling from the previous December that detaining foreign terrorist suspects without trial was illegal .
In May 2005 , the film was screened in a 2 ½ hour edit at the Cannes Film Festival . Pathé purchased distribution rights for this cut of the film .
By 2008 , the film had yet to be aired in the United States . Curtis has remarked on this failure ,
Although the series has never been shown on U.S. television , its three parts were shown on 26 February 2005 as part of the True / False Film Festival in Columbia , Missouri , with a personal appearance made by Curtis . It has also been featured at the 2006 Seattle International Film Festival and the San Francisco International Film Festival , the latter awarding Curtis their Persistence of Vision Award . The film was also screened at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York , and there was a brief theatrical run in New York City in 2005 .
The film was first aired by CBC in Canada in April 2005 , and again in July 2006 . The Australian channel SBS had originally planned to air the series in July 2005 , but it was cancelled , reportedly in light of the London bombings of 7 July . It was ultimately aired in December , followed by Peter Taylor 's The New Al @-@ Qaeda under the billing of a counter @-@ argument to Curtis .
In April 2005 , Curtis expressed interest in releasing an official DVD because of popular demand , but noted that his montage technique created serious legal problems with getting such a release approved . An unofficial DVD release was made in the quarterly DVD magazine Wholphin over three issues .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Critical reaction = = =
The Power of Nightmares received generally favourable reviews from critics . Rotten Tomatoes reported that 86 % of critics gave the film positive write @-@ ups , with an average score of 8 @.@ 1 / 10 , based upon a sample of seven reviews . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 78 , based on six reviews . Entertainment Weekly described the film as " a fluid cinematic essay , rooted in painstakingly assembled evidence , that heightens and cleanses your perceptions " while Variety called it " a superb , eye @-@ opening and often absurdly funny deconstruction of the myths and realities of global terrorism . " The San Francisco Chronicle had an equally enthusiastic view of the film and likened it to " a brilliant piece in the Atlantic Monthly that 's ( thankfully ) come to cinematic life . " The New York Times had a more skeptical review , unimpressed by efforts to compare attacks on Bill Clinton by American conservatives with Islamist revolutionary activities , claiming ( in a review by literary and film critic A. O. Scott ) that , " its understanding of politics , geo- and national , can seem curiously thin . " In May 2005 , Adam Curtis was quoted as saying that 94 % of e @-@ mails to the BBC in response to the film were supportive .
The film won a BAFTA Award in the category of Best Factual Series in 2005 . Other awards were given by the Director 's Guild of Great Britain and the Royal Television Society .
= = = Political reaction = = =
Progressive observers were particularly pleased with the film . Common Dreams had a highly positive response to the film , comparing it to the " red pill " of the Matrix series , a comparison Curtis appreciated . Commentary in The Village Voice was also mostly favorable , noting , " As partisan filmmaking , it is often brilliant and sometimes hilarious – a superior version of Syriana . " The Nation , while offering a detailed critique on the film 's content , said of the film itself " [ it ] is arguably the most important film about the ' war on terrorism ' since the events of September 11 . "
Among conservative and neoconservative critics in the United States , The Power of Nightmares has been described as " conspiracy theory " , anti @-@ American or both . David Asman of FoxNews.com said , " We wish we didn 't have to keep presenting examples of how the European media have become obsessively anti @-@ American . But they keep pushing the barrier , now to the point of absurdity . " His views were shared by commentator Clive Davis , ending his commentary on the film for National Review by saying , " British producers , hooked on Chomskyite visions of ' Amerika ' as the fount of all evil , are clearly not interested in even beginning to dig for the truth . " Other commentators have variously described the film as pushing a conspiracy theory . Davis and British commentator David Aaronovitch both explicitly labelled the film 's message as a conspiracy theory , with the latter saying of Curtis " his argument is as subtle as a house @-@ brick . " Attacks in this vein continued after the 7 July 2005 London bombings , with the Christian Broadcasting Network referencing the film as a source for claims by the " British left " that " the U.S. War on Terror was a fraud " , and the Australia Israel & Jewish Affairs Council calling it " the loopiest , most extreme anti @-@ war documentary series ever sponsored by the BBC . " In The Shadows in the Cave , Curtis emphasises that he does not discount the possibility of any terrorist activity taking place , but that the threat of terrorism had been greatly exaggerated . He responded to accusations of creating a conspiracy theory by saying he believes the alleged use of fear as a force in politics is not the result of a conspiracy but rather the subjects of the film " have stumbled on it . "
Peter Bergen , writing for The Nation , offered a detailed critique of the film . Bergen wrote that even if al @-@ Qaeda is not as organised as the Bush administration stressed , it is still a very dangerous force due to the fanaticism of its followers and the resources available to bin Laden . On Curtis 's claim that al @-@ Qaeda was a creation of neoconservative politicians , Bergen said , " This is nonsense . There is substantial evidence that Al Qaeda was founded in 1988 by bin Laden and a small group of like @-@ minded militants , and that the group would mushroom into the secretive , disciplined organisation that implemented the 9 / 11 attacks . " Bergen further claimed that Curtis 's arguments serve as a defence of Bush 's failure to capture bin Laden in the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and his ignoring warnings of a terrorist attack prior to September 11 .
Additional issues have been raised over Curtis 's depiction of the neoconservatives . Davis 's article in National Review showed his displeasure with Curtis 's depiction of Leo Strauss , claiming , " In Curtis 's world , it is Strauss , not Osama bin Laden , who is the real evil genius . " Peter Bergen claimed the film exaggerated the influence of Strauss over neoconservatism , crediting the political philosophy more to Albert Wohlstetter . A 2005 review on Christopher Null 's Filmcritic.com took issue with Curtis 's retelling of the attacks on Bill Clinton in ' The Phantom Victory ' , crediting these more to the American Religious Right than the " bookish university types " of the neoconservative movement .
Daniel Pipes , a conservative American political commentator and son of Richard Pipes who was interviewed in the film , wrote that the film dismisses the threat posed by Communism to the United States as , in Pipes words , " only a scattering of countries that had harmless Communist parties , who could in no way threaten America . " Pipes noted that the film adopts this conclusion without mentioning the Comintern , Julius and Ethel Rosenberg , Klaus Fuchs or Igor Gouzenko .
Allegations have been made of omissions in the history described by the film . The absence of discussion of the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict was noticed by some viewers . Davis claimed that Leo Strauss 's ideas had been formed by his experiences in Germany during the Weimar Republic , and alleged that the film 's failure to mention this was motivated by a wish to portray Strauss as concerned with American suburban culture , like Qutb .
= = = Comparisons to Fahrenheit 9 / 11 = = =
After its release , The Power of Nightmares received multiple comparisons to Fahrenheit 9 / 11 , American filmmaker Michael Moore 's 2004 critique of the first four years of George W. Bush 's presidency of the United States . The Village Voice directly named The Power of Nightmares as , " the most widely discussed docu agitprop since Fahrenheit 9 / 11 . " The Nation and Variety both gave comments lauding Curtis 's film as superior to Fahrenheit and other political documentaries in various fields ; the former cited Curtis 's work as being more " intellectually engaging " and " historically probing " , while the latter cited " balance , broad @-@ mindedness and sense of historical perspective . " Moore 's work has also been used as a point of comparison by conservative critics of Curtis .
Curtis has attempted to distinguish his work from Moore 's film , describing Moore as " a political agitprop film @-@ maker , " arguing that , " you 'd be hard pushed to tell my politics from watching [ The Power of Nightmares ] . "
= Hydro @-@ Québec 's electricity transmission system =
Hydro @-@ Québec 's electricity transmission system is an international power transmission system centred in Quebec , Canada . The system pioneered the use of very high voltage 735 kV alternating current ( AC ) power lines that link the population centers of Montreal and Quebec City to distant hydroelectric power stations like the Daniel @-@ Johnson Dam and the James Bay Project in northwestern Quebec and the Churchill Falls Generating Station in Labrador .
The system contains more than 34 @,@ 187 kilometres ( 21 @,@ 243 mi ) of lines and 530 electrical substations . It is managed by Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie , a division of the crown corporation Hydro @-@ Québec and is part of the Northeast Power Coordinating Council . It has 15 interconnections with the systems in Ontario , New Brunswick and the Northeastern United States and 6 @,@ 025 MW of interconnection import capacity and 7 @,@ 974 MW of interconnection export capacity .
Major expansion of the network began with the commissioning of the 735 kV AC power line in November 1965 , as there was a need for electricity transmission over vast distances from the north to southern Quebec .
Much of Quebec 's population is served by a few 735 kV power lines . This contributed to the severity of the power outage following the North American ice storm of 1998 . The extent and duration of this blackout has generated criticism of the transmission system , and there is controversy concerning the use of hydroelectric dams .
= = History = =
The first hydroelectric stations in Québec were built by private entrepreneurs in the late 1800s . In 1903 the first long distance high @-@ voltage transmission line in North America was built , a 50 kV line connecting a Shawinigan powerstation to Montréal , 135 km away . In the first half of the 1900s , the market was dominated by regional monopolies , whose service was publicly criticised . In response , in 1944 the provincial government created Hydro Quebec from the expropriated Montreal Light , Heat & Power
In 1963 Hydro @-@ Québec purchased the shares of nearly all remaining privately owned electrical utilities then operating in Québec and undertook construction of the Manicouagan @-@ Outardes hydroelectric complex . To transmit the complex 's annual production of about 30 billion kWh over a distance of nearly 700 km , Hydro @-@ Québec had to innovate . Led by Jean @-@ Jacques Archambault , it became the first utility in the world to transmit electricity at 735 kV , rather than 300 – 400 kV which was the world standard at that time . In 1962 , Hydro @-@ Québec proceeded with the construction of the first 735 kV power line in the world . The line , stretching from the Manic @-@ Outardes dam to the Levis substation , was brought into service on 29 November 1965 .
Over the next twenty years , from 1965 to 1985 , Quebec underwent a massive expansion of its 735 kV power grid and its hydroelectric generating capacity . Hydro @-@ Québec Équipement , another division of Hydro @-@ Québec , and Société d ’ énergie de la Baie James built these transmission lines , electrical substations , and generating stations . Constructing the transmission system for the La Grande Phase One , part of the James Bay Project , took 12 @,@ 500 towers , 13 electrical substations , 10 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 000 mi ) of ground wire , and 60 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 40 @,@ 000 mi ) of electrical conductor at a cost of C $ 3 @.@ 1 billion alone . In less than four decades , Hydro @-@ Québec 's generating capacity went from 3 @,@ 000 MW in 1963 to nearly 33 @,@ 000 MW in 2002 , with 25 @,@ 000 MW of that power sent to population centers on 735 kV power lines .
= = Source of the electricity = =
Much of the electricity generated by Hydro @-@ Québec Generation comes from hydroelectric dams located far from load centres such as Montreal . Of the 33 @,@ 000 MW of electrical power generated , over 93 % of that comes from hydroelectric dams and 85 % of that generation capacity comes from three hydroelectric generation centers : James Bay , Manic @-@ Outardes , and Churchill Falls .
James Bay
The James Bay Project encompasses the La Grande project , which is located on the La Grande River and on its tributaries , such as the Eastmain River , in northwestern Quebec . The La Grande project was built in two phases ; the first phase lasted twelve years from 1973 to 1985 and the second phase lasted from 1985 to present time . In all , the nine hydroelectric dams there produce over 16 @,@ 500 MW of electric power , with the Robert @-@ Bourassa or La Grande @-@ 2 station generating over 5 @,@ 600 MW alone . In total , the project cost over C $ 20 billion to construct .
Manic @-@ Outardes power stations
The Manic @-@ Outardes river area in the Côte @-@ Nord or North Shore region consists of several hydroelectric facilities located on three principal rivers , from west to east : Betsiamites River , Rivière aux Outardes , and the Manicouagan River . A single plant named Sainte @-@ Marguerite @-@ 3 is located to the east on the Sainte @-@ Marguerite River . The facilities located in the region were constructed over a period of five decades , from 1956 to 2005 . The total generation capacity from these power stations is 10 @,@ 500 MW . A 21 @-@ MW hydroelectric power station , the Lac @-@ Robertson generating station on the Lower North Shore , is not connected to the main Quebec grid .
Churchill Falls
Churchill Falls is a single underground generation station located on the Churchill River near the town of Churchill Falls and the Smallwood Reservoir in Labrador . It was constructed over a period of five to six years from 1966 to 1971 – 72 by the Churchill Falls ( Labrador ) Corporation ( CFLCo ) , though generators were installed after major construction was completed . The single generation facility cost C $ 946 million to construct and produced 5 @,@ 225 MW of power initially after all eleven generating units were installed . A station upgrade in 1985 raised the generating capacity to over 5 @,@ 400 MW . Hydro @-@ Québec Generation owns a 34 @.@ 2 % interest in CFLCo , which is the same company that constructed the generating plant . However , Hydro @-@ Québec has rights to most of the 5 @,@ 400 MW of power the station produces under a 65 @-@ year power purchase agreement , expiring in 2041 .
= = Electricity transmission system features = =
The system contains more than 34 @,@ 187 kilometres ( 21 @,@ 243 mi ) of lines and 530 electrical substations . It is managed by Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie , a division of the crown corporation Hydro @-@ Québec and is part of the Northeast Power Coordinating Council . It has 15 interconnections with the systems in Ontario , New Brunswick and the Northeastern United States and 6 @,@ 025 MW of interconnection import capacity and 7 @,@ 974 MW of interconnection export capacity . The system has transmission lines reaching to power generation facilities located more than 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 600 mi ) away from population centers . For this reason , TransÉnergie uses a voltage of AC 735 kV to transmit and distribute electrical power produced from Hydro @-@ Québec 's dams , although 315 kV is used as well . The total value of TransÉnergie 's entire electricity transmission system is C $ 15 @.@ 9 billion . For these reasons , Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie is considered to be a world leader in power transmission .
= = = AC 735 / 765 kV power lines = = =
From 1965 onwards , the 735 kV power line became an integral part of Québec 's power transmission backbone . More than one @-@ third of Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie 's system consists of high voltage AC 735 / 765 kV power lines , totaling 11 @,@ 422 kilometres ( 7 @,@ 097 mi ) strung between 38 substations with equipment of that voltage . The first transmission system from 1965 is an IEEE Milestone .
The physical size of the Hydro @-@ Québec 's 735 kV transmission lines is unmatched in North America . Only two other utility companies in the same region , the New York Power Authority ( NYPA ) and American Electric Power ( AEP ) contain at least one 765 kV line in their power system . However , only AEP has a significant mileage of 765 kV power lines , with over 3 @,@ 400 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 100 mi ) of 765 kV line traversing its broad transmission system ; this system contains the most mileage in the United States under one electrical company . NYPA has only 219 kilometres ( 136 mi ) of 765 kV line , all of it contained in a single direct interconnection with Hydro @-@ Québec .
The 735 kV power line is said to lessen the environmental impact of power lines , as one single power line operating at this voltage carries the same amount of electric power as four 315 kV power lines , which would require a right @-@ of @-@ way wider than the 80 @.@ 0 metres ( 262 @.@ 5 ft ) – 91 @.@ 5 metres ( 300 @.@ 2 ft ) width required for a single 735 kV line . Each 735 kV line is capable of transmitting 2 @,@ 000 MW of electric power at a distance of over 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 600 mi ) and the entire 735 kV grid can carry 25 @,@ 000 MW of power . Power transmission losses over the 735 kV grid range from 4 @.@ 5 to 8 % , varying due to temperature and operating situations . The Ordre des ingénieurs du Québec named the 735 kV power line system as the technological innovation of the 20th century for Quebec .
In the wake of the 1998 ice storm the Levis De @-@ Icer was installed and began testing in 2007 and 2008 .
= = = = Routes = = = =
Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie 's 735 kV system consists of a set of six lines running from James Bay to Montreal and a set of four lines from Churchill Falls and the Manic @-@ Outardes power stations to Quebec City . The South Shore region of Montreal and the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City contain 735 kV power line loops or rings .
James Bay
The James Bay hydroelectric dam complex contains several relatively short 735 kV power lines that send electricity to three principal substations , ordered from west to east : Radisson , Chissibi , and Lemoyne . From these substations , six 735 kV power lines traverse the vast expanses of taiga and boreal forest in clear @-@ cut stretches of land ; this shows up clearly in aerial photos . The terrain that the power lines cross is for the most part not mountainous , but smooth and replete with lakes . Generally , four of the lines runs together in two pairs and the other two run solo , although the two single lines sometimes do run in a pair . Two intermediate 735 kV power lines , one in the north and one in the south , connect all six power lines along their path to southern Quebec .
As the lines continue south , they diverge into two sets of three 735 kV transmission lines . The eastern set heads to Quebec City , where it connects with power lines from Churchill Falls and the 735 kV power line loops in the Saint Lawrence River region . The western set heads to Montreal , where it too forms a ring of 735 kV power lines around the city , linking to other power loops in the region . This section of Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie 's power grid contains 7 @,@ 400 km ( 4 @,@ 600 mi ) of 735 kV AC and 450 kV DC power line .
Manic @-@ Outardes power stations / Churchill Falls
Electrical power generated from the Churchill Falls power station is sent to Montreal and the population centers of the Northeastern United States , more than 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 700 mi ) away . Starting from the generation station in Labrador , the power lines span a distance of 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 6 @,@ 000 ft ) over the Churchill River gorge and run generally south @-@ southwest for 203 kilometres ( 126 mi ) as three side @-@ by @-@ side power lines in a cleared right @-@ of @-@ way with a width of 216 metres ( 710 ft ) . As they head southwest through boreal forest , the lines generally traverse flat , smooth rolling hills .
After the lines cross the Quebec @-@ Labrador border , also known as the Hydro @-@ Québec point of delivery , the direction of the lines becomes due south , and they head to the Montagnais Substation , a substation accessible only by an airport adjacent to it . A lone 735 kV line stems off from the substation , heading to an open pit mine 142 kilometres ( 88 mi ) the northwest . The terrain crossed by the power lines becomes hilly and mountainous south of the border . The lines reach over 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) in elevation before descending . The three lines continue heading south until they reach a substation on the North Shore of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence . From there on , the three lines parallel the North Shore as the Gulf narrows to the southwest toward the Saint Lawrence River discharge mouth . The northernmost power line then diverges from the other two to connect with Manic @-@ Outardes power stations located on and around the Rivière aux Outardes and the Manicouagan River .
As the lines near Quebec City , the northern power line rejoins the other two 735 kV power lines . The three lines , paralleled by another 735 kV power line some distance to the north , span over the Saint Lawrence River to the South Shore region , where the lines form loops encompassing part of the Saint Lawrence River and the south shore . The loops are also connected to the ring of 735 kV power lines around Montreal and power lines running south from James Bay .
= = = Electricity pylons = = =
Quebec 's transmission system contains a variety of electrical pylons depending on era and voltage level . Older pylon designs tend to consume more material than the newer pylons and the higher the voltage level , the larger the tower .
735 kV pylons
Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie uses several different types of electricity pylons to support their 735 kV power lines . All of them are single @-@ circuit , meaning that each pylon carries one power line with three bundles of four electrical subconductors separated by spacers , with each bundle transmitting one phase of current .
The earliest type of tower used was a massive self @-@ supporting delta pylon , or waist pylon , which consumed 21 tonnes of steel per kilometre of line . This type of pylon was used for the first 735 kV power line from the Manic @-@ Outardes power stations to the load centre of Montreal . There are two significant variations of the delta pylon ; one has longer side crossbars such that all three bundles of conductors are suspended on V @-@ shaped insulators . The other has shorter side crossbars , such that the two outside bundles are hung on a vertical insulator string and only the middle bundle is hung with a V @-@ shaped insulator .
Over the years , Hydro @-@ Québec researchers engineered a new type of pylon , the V @-@ guyed tower , which reduced materials consumption to 11 @.@ 8 tonnes of steel per kilometre of power line . This type of tower also includes a variation with longer side crossbars , where all conductors are hung with a V @-@ shaped insulator and one with shorter side crossbar , where only the middle bundle hangs from the insulator and the side bundles are strung on vertical insulator strings .
During the construction of the James Bay transmission system , the cross @-@ rope suspension tower was invented . This type of tower features two guyed @-@ tower legs similar to the V @-@ guyed tower , but the two legs don 't converge at the tower base . In the case of the cross @-@ rope suspension tower , the tower legs are spread apart on two different foundations . In addition , the crossbar is replaced by a series of suspension cables with three vertical insulator strings to support the three bundles , which allows this design to consume only 6 @.@ 3 tonnes of steel per kilometre of line . The design is also known as the Chainette ( little necklace ) .
TransÉnergie uses two @-@ level pylons for angle towers or structures on 735 kV power lines to change the direction of the line or switch the position of the conductor bundles . Delta pylons and three @-@ leg guyed towers are also used as angle towers ; they are referred to as " penguins " by Hydro @-@ Québec linemen .
Pylons for other voltage levels
Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie uses a combination of double @-@ circuit three @-@ level pylons and single @-@ circuit delta pylons to suspend electrical conductors of other voltages , such as 315 kV . The ± 450 kV high @-@ voltage direct current line in Hydro @-@ Québec 's power grid uses a T @-@ shaped tower , lattice or pole , to support two bundles of three conductors on each side . The direct current power line sometimes uses two poles or a wider , pyramidal , self @-@ supporting lattice structure for angle towers .
Other pylons
Hydro @-@ Québec usually uses tall , large pylons to cross large bodies of water , like lakes and rivers . These towers are said to be prominent and the tallest pylon in Hydro @-@ Québec 's power grid is of this function . The tallest of these is located near the Tracy power station on the shore of the Saint Lawrence River , carrying a 735kV circuit between Lanoraie and Tracy . The pylon , the largest of its kind in Canada , is 174 @.@ 6 metres ( 572 @.@ 8 ft ) tall , the same height as the Montreal Olympic Stadium , and slightly larger than the Washington Monument in the United States ( 555 feet ( 169 @.@ 2 m ) ) .
Pylon strength
The pylons and conductors are designed to handle 45 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) of ice accumulation without failure , since Hydro @-@ Québec raised the standards in response to ice storms in Ottawa in December 1986 and Montreal in February 1961 , which left 30 to 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) of ice . This has led to the belief that Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie 's electrical pylons are " indestructible " . Despite being more than three times higher than the Canadian standard of only 13 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of ice tolerance , an ice storm in the late @-@ 1990s deposited up to 70 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 75 in ) of ice .
= = = Interconnections = = =
Across North America , electricity transmission systems are interconnected into wide area synchronous grids , or interconnections . Suppliers are legally required to follow reliability standards . In 2006 , Québec 's transmission system was recognized by the North American Electric Reliability Corporation ( NERC ) as a full interconnection because it is asynchronous with neighboring systems . Québec will consequently be able to develop its own reliability standards , as needed , and these will apply in addition to the relevant North American standards . Besides the The Québec Interconnection , there are three other interconnections in North America : the Eastern Interconnection , the Western Interconnection , and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas .
Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie has the following interconnections with systems in neighboring provinces and states :
New York : two connections . Capacity is 1 @,@ 100 MW import , 1 @,@ 999 MW export .
Ontario : eight connections . 1 @,@ 970 MW import , 2 @,@ 705 MW export .
New England : three connections . 2 @,@ 170 MW import , 2 @,@ 275 MW export .
New Brunswick : three connections . 785 MW import , 1 @,@ 029 MW export .
The maximum simultaneous delivery ( export ) for the interconnection common to New York and Ontario is 325 MW .
= = = High voltage direct current ( HVDC ) 450 kV = = =
In addition to the six 735 kV power lines that stem from the James Bay Project , a seventh power line was constructed as an 1 @,@ 100 kilometres ( 680 mi ) northward extension of an existing high @-@ voltage direct current ( HVDC ) line connecting Quebec and New England . This power line expansion was completed in 1990 . As a result , the direct current power line is unique because there are multiple static converter and inverter stations along the 1 @,@ 480 kilometres ( 920 mi ) long power line . It is also the first multiterminal HVDC line in the world . The ± 450 kV power line can transmit about 2 @,@ 000 MW of hydroelectric power to Montreal and the Northeastern United States .
= = = = Route = = = =
Beginning in the converter station next to the Radisson substation , the HVDC line heads south and roughly parallels the six 735 kV power lines some distance to the west . It traverses the same type of terrain as the other six lines ; the land is replete with lakes , wetlands , and forested rolling hills . Gradually , the power line turns to the southeast , as it crosses under several 735 kV power lines .
After the six 735 kV wires split up into two groups of three power lines each , the HVDC line follows the eastern group , and the western set diverges away . The line remains overhead until it reaches the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River near Grondines , where the 450 kV HVDC line descends into an underwater tunnel traversing the river . The power line surfaces on the south shore near Lotbinière substation . After the river crossing , the line enters into the Nicolet terminal near Sainte @-@ Eulalie , northeast of Drummondville . South of the terminal , the line heads south and after a relatively short distance , it enters the Des Cantons close to Sherbrooke .
Leaving the Des Cantons station , the power line crosses the Canada – US border and passes through the hilly Appalachian Mountains in the U.S. state of Vermont , reaching an elevation of about 650 metres ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) . The line then continues heading south @-@ southeast and enters the state of New Hampshire , where it reaches the Comerford terminal near Monroe . Continuing southward into Massachusetts , the line reaches the Sandy Pond terminal outside of Boston in Ayer . The terminal is the southernmost extent of the HVDC line .
In December 2008 , Hydro @-@ Québec , along with American utilities Northeast Utilities and NSTAR , created a joint venture to build a new HVDC line from Windsor , Quebec to Deerfield , New Hampshire . Hydro @-@ Québec will own the segment within Quebec , while the segment within the US will be owned by Northern Pass Transmission LLC , a partnership between Northeast Utilities ( 75 % ) and NSTAR ( 25 % ) . Estimated to cost US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion to build , it is projected that the line will either run in existing right @-@ of @-@ way adjacent to the HVDC line that runs through New Hampshire , or it will connect to a right @-@ of @-@ way in northern New Hampshire that will run through the White Mountains . This 180 @-@ to @-@ 190 @-@ mile ( 290 to 310 km ) line , projected to carry 1 @,@ 200 megawatts , will bring electricity to approximately one million homes .
= = = Other features = = =
TransÉnergie uses series compensation to alter the way electricity behaves in power transmission lines , which improves the electricity transmission efficiency . This reduces the need to construct new power lines and increases the amount of electric power sent to population centres . Series compensation is based on capacitor technology . To maintain its transmission system performance , TransÉnergie sets aside funds for research and application of new technologies . In addition to power transmission technology , Hydro @-@ Québec plans to offer high @-@ speed internet over its transmission lines within a few years ; the utility started testing internet over its lines in January 2004 .
= = Major disruptions = =
In spite of the transmission system 's reputation and the fact Quebec escaped unscathed from the Northeast Blackout of 2003 , the system has experienced damage and service interruptions from severe storms in the past . Examples include the 1982 and 1988 Quebec blackouts prior to the large 1989 and 1998 power interruptions .
= = = 1989 Geomagnetic storm = = =
At 2 : 44 am on March 13 , 1989 , a severe geomagnetic storm , due to a coronal mass ejection from the Sun , struck Earth . Fluctuations within the magnetic field of the storm caused geomagnetically induced currents ( GICs ) to flow through Quebec 's power lines , which are direct current , instead of the alternating current carried by the power lines . The insulating nature of the Canadian Shield igneous rock directed the GICs to the power lines . The conductors then forwarded this current to sensitive electrical transformers , which require a certain voltage amplitude and frequency to function properly . Although most GICs are relatively feeble , the nature of those currents destabilized the voltage of the power grid and current spikes erupted everywhere .
Accordingly , protective measures were taken in response . To save the transformers and other electrical equipment , the power grid was taken out of commission , as circuit breakers tripped all over Quebec and shut off the power . Within less than 90 seconds , this wave of breaking circuits left the entire transmission grid out of service . The collapsed power grid left six million people and the rest of Quebec without electricity for hours on a very cold night . Even though the blackout lasted around nine hours for most places , some locations were in the dark for days . This geomagnetic storm caused about C $ 10 million in damage to Hydro @-@ Québec and tens of millions to the customers of the utility .
= = = 1998 ice storm = = =
From January 4 / 5 to January 10 , 1998 , warm moist air from the south overriding cold air from the north produced an ice storm , leading to over 80 hours of freezing rain and drizzle . For days , a continuous shower of mostly freezing rain amounted to 70 – 110 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) of water equivalent of precipitation . Places like Montreal and the South Shore were especially hard hit , with 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of largely freezing rain falling . These heavy precipitation totals wreaked havoc on the regional power transmission system .
Physical damage
Five to six days of freezing rain and precipitation crippled the Hydro @-@ Québec power grid in the Montreal and South Shore regions . In an area 100 by 250 kilometres ( 60 by 150 mi ) , some 116 transmission lines were out of commission , including several major 735 kV power lines and the Quebec – New England HVDC ± 450 kV line .
Through successive waves of freezing precipitation , more than 75 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of radial ice accumulated on the electrical conductors and the pylons themselves . This ice coating adds an additional weight of 15 to 20 kilograms per metre of conductor ( 10 to 20 lb / ft ) . Even though the electrical wires can withstand this extra weight , when combined with the effects of wind and precipitation , these conductors may break and fall . The pylons , designed to withstand only 45 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) of ice accretion , buckled and collapsed into twisted heaps of mangled steel . Cascading failures occurred on several transmission lines , where the collapse of one or more towers left a row of fallen pylons .
Of all the pylons damaged , some 150 were pylons supporting 735 kV lines , and 200 towers carrying 315 kV , 230 kV , or 120 kV power lines collapsed as well . In a region bounded by Montreal between Saint @-@ Hyacinthe , Saint @-@ Jean @-@ sur @-@ Richelieu and Granby , dubbed the " triangle of darkness " , half of the overhead power grid was out of service . Quebec ordered myriad conductors , crossarms , and wire connections to repair the ones disabled by the storm in the electrical transmission and electric power distribution system . In all of Quebec , 24 @,@ 000 poles , 4 @,@ 000 transformers , and 1 @,@ 000 electrical pylons were damaged or destroyed , more than 3 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 000 mi ) of downed electrical wires ; this cost a total of C $ 800 million to repair .
Power outage
With over 100 transmission lines paralyzed by the ice , Quebec fell into a massive power outage in the cold Canadian winter . Even though power restoration initiated after the first blackouts , large numbers of Quebecers were in the dark . At the height of the blackout , some 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 5 million homes and customers , housing three to more than four million people , were in the dark . Private companies and other utilities from other parts of Canada and the United States were sent in to help Hydro @-@ Québec undertake this massive restoration task , but these efforts were complicated by the widespread damage of the power grid . Blackouts in some areas lasted for 33 days , and 90 % of those affected by the blackout had no power for more than seven days . Although power was fully restored to all locations in Quebec by February 8 , 1998 , it wasn 't until mid @-@ March that the power facilities were back in service . By then , much social and economic damage had occurred , such as ruined food and deaths resulting from lack of electric heating .
After the power outage was over , Hydro @-@ Québec made numerous upgrades to its system in order to improve the power grid . Examples include the strengthening of electrical pylons and power poles , and increasing the power supply . This was done to enable the utility to restore power more rapidly in the case of a massive ice striking Quebec again . Hydro @-@ Québec has stated that it is better @-@ prepared to handle an ice storm with the same magnitude as the one of 1998 .
= = = 2004 hydro tower bombing = = =
In 2004 , shortly before U.S. President George W. Bush 's visit to Canada , a tower along the Quebec – New England Transmission HVDC circuit in the Eastern Townships near the Canada – US border was damaged by explosive charges detonated at its base . The CBC reported that a message , purportedly from the Résistance internationaliste and issued to the La Presse and Le Journal de Montréal newspapers and the CKAC radio station , stated that the attack had been carried out to " denounce the ' pillaging ' of Quebec 's resources by the United States . "
= = Criticism = =
The performance of Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie 's power grid during 1998 Ice Storm raised questions about the fundamental concept , vulnerability , and reliability of the grid . Critics noted that the power generation facilities were located approximately 1 @,@ 000 km ( 600 mi ) away from population centres and that there was a lack of local power stations around Montreal , which is served by only six 735 kV feeder lines . In addition , the 735 kV transmission system received scorn from the public and the media . The power transmission grid was said to concentrate power transmission on only a few 735 kV lines , such as those that run from James Bay to Montreal . Out of the six 735 feeder lines in Montreal , five of them form a loop called the " ring of power " around the city . When the ring failed on January 7 , 1998 , roughly 60 % of Greater Montreal 's power supply was offline . Hydro @-@ Québec 's large above @-@ ground transmission and distribution system was considered to be exposed to natural disasters , although the cost of undergrounding the grid was prohibitive .
The technology utilized on Hydro @-@ Québec TransÉnergie grid also came under fire from critics . It is claimed that this technology , used to improve performance , safety , and reliability , made people in Quebec over @-@ dependent on the power grid for their energy needs , since electricity , especially hydroelectric power , makes up over 40 % of Quebec 's energy supply . This dependence , evidenced by the fact Ontario farmers had more backup generators than farmers in Quebec , can increase the severity of the consequences when the grid fails , as it did in January 1998 .
= Cyclone Tam ( 2006 ) =
Tropical Cyclone Tam ( RSMC Nadi designation : 04F , JTWC designation : 06P ) was the first named storm of the 2005 – 06 South Pacific cyclone season . Forming out of a tropical depression on January 6 , the storm gradually intensified , becoming a tropical cyclone on January 12 and receiving the name Tam . Although it was traveling at a quick pace , the storm gained organization and reached its peak intensity with winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) the following day . However , the increasing forward motion of the storm , combined with strengthening wind shear , caused Tam to rapidly weaken on January 14 . Around that time , it entered the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in Wellington , New Zealand 's area of responsibility . Shortly thereafter , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and dissipated early the next day . Cyclone Tam produced heavy rainfall and strong winds over American Samoa upon being named . The precipitation caused several mudslides and flooding , which inflicted $ 26 @,@ 000 in damage . The storm also had minor effects on Niue , Tonga , and Futuna .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Cyclone Tam originated out of tropical depression while located about 370 km ( 230 mi ) to the north @-@ northeast of Fiji on January 6 . The system , designated 04F by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre ( RSMC ) in Nadi , Fiji tracked slowly towards the west . Although the depression was located within an area of low wind shear , little intensification occurred , as a lack of low @-@ level moisture hindered the development of deep convection . By January 9 , shower and thunderstorm activity associated with the disturbance increased as it began to interact with the South Pacific Convergence Zone . Another tropical depression , 05F , also became increasingly organized and at one point was forecast to absorb 04F . Following the weakening of Tropical Depression 05F , 04F intensified . Around 2000 UTC on January 11 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as deep convection persisted around the center of circulation for several hours .
The following day , the RSMC Nadi upgraded Tropical Depression 04F to a tropical cyclone and gave it the name Tam , making it the first named storm of the 2005 – 06 season . Several hours later , the storm passed close to Niuafo 'ou with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . By 0000 UTC on January 13 , the JTWC classified Tam as Tropical Cyclone 06P . Although the storm was tracking towards an area with stronger winds aloft , it was forecast to intensify . Due to the relatively fast movement of the storm , the increasing winds aloft had little effect on the storm , allowing it to intensify and attain winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) around 0600 UTC . However , with both wind shear and the forward motion of the storm continuing to increase , convection rapidly became dislocated from the center . Around 0000 UTC on January 14 , Tam entered the area of responsibility of the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in Wellington , New Zealand . With forward movement estimated at 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) almost due south , the cyclone reached an unusually high latitude as a tropical cyclone . Coinciding with the time when Tam reached 33 ° S , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants of the storm persisted for several hours before dissipating early on January 15 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Tam was developing , residents attempted to evacuate the island by plane , with the primary target of Fiji . Only a few flights took off before officials closed the airport , stranding numerous passengers . Late on January 11 , RSMC Nadi placed Tonga and Futuna under a tropical cyclone alert and also placed Tonga and Wallis under a strong wind warning . Early the next day RSMC Nadi placed northern Tonga under a tropical cyclone gale warning . Later that morning they canceled the tropical cyclone alert for Wallis and Futuna as Tam was not expected to directly affect Futuna anymore . During that afternoon RSMC Nadi placed Niue under a Tropical cyclone alert , as they predicted that Niue would be affected by Tam within 24 hours . Early on January 13 RSMC Nadi cancelled the tropical cyclone warnings and alerts for Tonga , whilst at the same time placing Niue under a tropical cyclone gale warning , however this gale warning was canceled later that day as Tam moved into the southern ocean .
On January 11 , Tropical Depression 04F produced a record 293 @.@ 2 mm ( 11 @.@ 5 in ) of rain in a 24 ‑ hour span on Rotuma . However , little damage resulted from the heavy precipitation . Cyclone Tam produced heavy rainfall in American Samoa which triggered damaging floods . Several buildings were flooded , and an estimated 70 % of the island 's crops were destroyed . Sustained winds of up to 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , with gusts reaching 95 km / h ( 59 mph ) , tore a few roofs off unsecured homes . Scattered power outages were reported throughout the island . A few landslides were also reported as a result of the storm . Damage from the storm totaled $ 26 @,@ 000 on the island . Relatively little damage was recorded in Futuna ; there , the storm downed several trees and stranded a yacht on a reef . On Niuafo 'ou , a weather station recorded sustained winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) with gusts of up to 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) , along with a minimum pressure of 991 hPa ( mbar ) . Minor damage , consisting of fallen branches and isolated power outages also occurred on Niue .
= Alfred Lennon =
Alfred " Alf / Freddie " Lennon ( 14 December 1912 – 1 April 1976 ) was the father of English musician John Lennon . He spent many years in an orphanage — with his sister , Edith — after his father died . He was known as being very witty and musical throughout his life — he sang and played the banjo — but not as being very dependable . Although always known informally as Alf by his family , he later released a record as Freddie Lennon , and was referenced and quoted in newspapers and media under that name .
He married Julia Stanley in 1938 . John was their only child together , but as Alf was often away at sea during World War II , he did not see much of his child during his infancy . During this period , Julia became pregnant with another man 's child . He offered to look after his wife , their child and the expected baby , but Julia rejected the idea . He had very little contact with his son until Beatlemania , when they met again , but later had only intermittent contact with each other . He died in Brighton , where he had gone to live after marrying 19 @-@ year @-@ old Pauline Jones , with whom he had two further children .
= = The Lennon family = =
James Lennon ( b . 1829 ) and Jane McConville ( 1831 – 1869 ) , Alf 's grandparents , moved with their respective families to Liverpool in the 1840s . James and Jane were both from County Down , Ireland , and were married in St. Anthony 's Chapel , Scotland Road , Liverpool , on 29 April 1849 . James was a warehouseman and a cooper at the time . They had seven children together : Elizabeth ( b . 1850 ) , James , John " Jack " , William George , Richard Francis , Joseph ( b . 1865 ) and Edward . Jack Lennon ( b . 1855 ) , a shipping clerk / bookkeeper , the father of Alf Lennon and grandfather to John Winston Lennon .
In 1888 , Jack married Margaret Cowley ( from Liverpool ) and they had two children : Mary Elizabeth Lennon , and Michael Lennon . Margaret died giving birth to Michael ( who also died 15 days later ) on 19 August 1892 . Shortly after , Jack began living with Mary " Polly " Maguire in a common @-@ law marriage . In total they had fifteen children , eight of whom died young . In 1901 , Jack , Polly and his daughter , Mary , were living at 3 Lockhart Street , Liverpool . They lived in the Toxteth Park area of Liverpool , and at least five of their children were born there : George Lennon ( 1905 , in Denton Street ) , Herbert Lennon ( 1908 ) , Sydney Lennon ( 1909 ) , Harold Lennon ( 1911 ) and Alfred Lennon ( 1912 ) were born at 27 Copperfield Street .
Jack eventually married Polly in 1915 , after they had moved to Elmore Street , Everton . One of the witnesses at the wedding was Polly 's sister , Catherine Seddon . Daughter Edith Lennon was born that year and then Charles ( 21 November 1918 – 26 May 2002 ) . The Lennons moved back to Toxteth Park , and Jack died in 1921 , at 57 Copperfield Street . He is buried in a common and unmarked grave ( along with five unknown adults and three children ) in the Anfield Cemetery , Liverpool . Polly could not read or write , but was reported to be very humorous and supposedly had psychic abilities . After Jack died , Polly did not have enough money to keep the whole Lennon family together , so she placed two of her children , Alf and Edith , in the Blue Coat School Orphanage . It was situated just around the corner from Newcastle Road ( where Julia Stanley lived ) . Polly died on 30 January 1949 .
= = = The urban legend = = =
It has often been claimed that his grandfather was a professional singer , a ship 's cook , and that he emigrated to the United States , and that his father , Jack Lennon , became a " refined " British minstrel , who toured America with ' Roberton 's Kentucky Minstrels ' Vaudeville troupe in the late 19th century . It is also claimed that Jack 's first wife was an American who died during childbirth after they had both moved back to Liverpool . This has been proven to be false by checking birth certificates and the 1861 , 1871 and 1901 censuses .
Alfred Lennon ( always called ' Alf ' by his family ) , was known as being happy @-@ go @-@ lucky , and " couldn 't resist having a good time " . He had rickets as a child and wore leg braces , which led to his growth being stunted at 5 ' 4 " . In 1927 , he auditioned for a children 's music hall act , Will Murray 's Gang , at the Empire Theatre in Liverpool . Having passed the audition he ran away from the orphanage and joined the show . He travelled with the troupe for a time before being discovered in Glasgow and returned to the orphanage , where he was severely punished . He was known as being always quick with a joke or a witty line , but never held a job for any length of time . When he was 15 years old he left the Bluecoat orphanage and found a job as an office @-@ boy , but preferred to visit Liverpool 's many vaudeville theatres and cinemas , where he knew the usherettes by name . His brother Sydney often lent money to him , after Sydney got a job in a tailor 's shop .
= = Julia Stanley = =
Alf first saw Julia Stanley at the ' Trocadero ' club , a converted cinema on Camden Road , Liverpool . Although he did not speak to her at the time , he later saw Julia again in Sefton Park , where he had gone with a friend to meet girls . Alf , who was dressed in a bowler hat and holding a cigarette holder , saw " this little waif " sitting on a wrought @-@ iron bench . The 14 @-@ year @-@ old Julia said that his hat looked " silly " , to which the 15 @-@ year @-@ old replied that Julia looked " lovely " , and sat down next to her . Julia asked him to take off his hat , so he promptly took it off and threw it straight into the lake .
Alf was a talented musician , and specialised in impersonating Louis Armstrong and Al Jolson . He played the banjo , as did Julia , though neither pursued music professionally ( Julia would later teach her son how to play the banjo ) . They spent their days together walking around Liverpool and dreaming of what they would do in the future — like opening a shop , a pub , a cafe , or a club . In March 1930 , he took a job as bellboy on board the Cunard passenger liner SS Montrose . He kept in touch with Julia , writing to her and meeting her whenever he docked in Liverpool . He was later offered a job on a whaling ship for two years — which could have earned him enough money to buy a house — but turned it down when he found out that Julia 's father had arranged the job , so as to keep him as far away from Julia as possible .
On 3 December 1938 , 11 years after they had first met , Julia married Alf after proposing to him . They were married in the Bolton Street Register Office , and Julia wrote ' cinema usherette ' on the marriage certificate as her occupation , even though she had never been one . None of Julia 's family were there , but Alf 's brother Sydney acted as a witness . They spent their honeymoon eating at ' Reece 's ' restaurant in Clayton Square ( which is where his son would later celebrate after his marriage to Cynthia Powell ) , and then went to a cinema . On their wedding night , Julia stayed at the Stanleys ' house and he went back to his rooming house .
Julia 's family did not like Alfred at all : Julia 's father said he was " certainly not middle class , " and Julia 's sister Mimi was particularly opposed to him . Julia 's father demanded that he present something concrete to show that he could financially support Julia , but his only idea was to sign on as a Merchant Navy bellboy on a ship bound for the Mediterranean . He later worked on ocean liners that travelled between the Greek islands , North Africa and the West Indies . He graduated from bellboy to steward during the months he was away , but when he arrived back in Liverpool he moved into the Stanley home in Newcastle Road . He auditioned for local theatre managers as a ' ship 's entertainer ' , but had no success , and went back to sea .
= = = John Lennon = = =
Julia found out that she was pregnant in January 1940 . John Winston Lennon was born on 9 October 1940 , on the second @-@ floor ward of the Oxford Street Maternity Hospital in Liverpool , supposedly during a German air raid in World War II , although it has been confirmed there was no air raid on this date . Alf first saw his son that November when he returned from working as a merchant seaman on troop transports during World War II . He sent regular pay cheques to Julia , who lived with her son at 9 Newcastle Road ( the Stanley family 's home ) . He occasionally went back to Liverpool , but did not stay long before he was sent off on another ship . The cheques to Julia stopped when he went absent without leave in 1943 . Neither Julia nor the Merchant Navy knew of his whereabouts . Julia only found out because she stopped receiving her allowance money , and the Navy wrote to her to inform her that they were looking for him .
Julia had started going out to dance halls in 1942 , and met a Welsh soldier named ' Taffy ' Williams who was stationed in the barracks at Mossley Hill . Alf blamed himself for this , as he had written letters telling Julia that because there was a war on , she should go out and enjoy herself . Julia took his advice , and often gave her young son a piece of chocolate or sugar pastry the next morning for breakfast that she had been given the night before . She became pregnant by Williams in late 1944 , though first claiming that she had been raped by an unknown soldier .
When Alf eventually returned to Liverpool on 13 January 1945 , he offered to look after Julia , their son and the expected baby , but Julia rejected the idea . Alf took John to his brother Sydney 's house , in the Liverpool suburb of Maghull , a few months before the birth . The baby girl , Victoria , was subsequently given up for adoption ( after intense pressure from Julia 's father and family ) to a Norwegian Salvation Army Captain . Julia later met Bobby Dykins and lived with him , but after considerable pressure from Mimi — who twice contacted Liverpool 's Social Services and complained about the infant sleeping in the same bed as Julia and Dykins — Julia reluctantly handed the care of her son over to Mimi . According to his brother Charlie , people used to visit the Lennon house in Copperfield Street while Alf was away at sea , offering large sums of money ( up to £ 300 ) if Alf would divorce Julia , but Charlie told them to " get lost " .
In June 1946 , Alf visited Mimi 's house at 251 Menlove Avenue and took his son to Blackpool for a long ' holiday ' — but secretly intending to emigrate to New Zealand with him . Julia and Dykins found out and followed them to Blackpool , and after a heated argument Alf made the five @-@ year @-@ old boy choose between Julia or him . John chose Alf ( twice ) and then Julia walked away , but in the end John , crying , followed her . Alf lost contact with the family until Beatlemania , when he and John met again . In 1968 , John Lennon told Hunter Davies that he soon forgot his father , saying , " It was like he was dead . "
= = Later life = =
Alf later told his version of what happened while he was AWOL in 1943 . He claimed that he had sailed from America to Bône , North Africa , but was arrested for stealing one bottle of beer from the ship , consequently serving nine days in a military prison . After his release he became involved in various " shady deals " , and was supposedly rescued from a criminal gang of Arabs . He eventually served on a troopship from North Africa to Italy before finally boarding a ship that was making its way to England , in 1944 . In 1949 , Alf 's career at sea ended when he was sentenced to six months ' imprisonment . He had been drinking when , late at night , he saw a mannequin in a wedding dress in a shop window . He broke the window , picked up the mannequin , and danced with it in the street until he was arrested .
In 1958 , when Alf was working with Charlie Lennon in the Barn Restaurant in Solihull , their brother Sydney sent a newspaper clipping from the Liverpool Echo reporting that Julia had died . A saddened Alf left Solihull for London , but kept in touch with Charlie by phone .
Alf made no real attempt to contact John again until the height of Beatlemania ( claiming he did not know who the Beatles were ) . He was working as a kitchen porter at the Greyhound Hotel in Hampton , South London , when someone pointed out a photograph of John Lennon in a newspaper and asked whether he was related to John . Alfred and Charlie visited one of the Beatles ' Christmas shows at the Finsbury Park Empire in London . When the Beatles were filming a scene for A Hard Day 's Night in the Scala Theatre in Soho in April 1964 , Alf walked into Brian Epstein 's NEMS office in Argyle Street with a journalist . " I 'm John Lennon 's father " , he explained to the receptionist . When Epstein was informed , he " went into a panic " , and immediately sent a car to bring John to NEMS office . Alf was shabbily dressed , with his unkempt , thinning grey hair greased back . He stuck out his hand , but John did not take it , saying " What do you want ? " . Alf placated John somewhat by saying , " You can 't turn your back on your family , no matter what they 've done . " Their conversation did not last long , as John soon ordered Alf and the journalist out of the NEMS office . The Beatles ' personal stories were kept out of the newspapers — by agreement with journalists who were offered exclusive stories in return — but one day John opened a copy of the Daily Express and saw a photo of his father .
A few weeks later , John 's wife Cynthia opened the door of Kenwood ( their home in Weybridge ) to see a man who " looked like a tramp " but , alarmingly , with John 's face . Cynthia invited Alf in , and gave him tea and cheese on toast until John came home , which he was expected to do in an hour or so . While waiting , Cynthia offered to cut Alf 's " long , stringy locks " of hair , which he allowed her to do . After waiting for a couple of hours , Alf left . John was annoyed when he came home , and told Cynthia ( for the first time ) about Alf 's visit to the NEMS office a few weeks earlier . Later he relented slightly and contacted Alf over the next few months , telling Cynthia " Alright , Cyn . He 's a bit ' wacky ' , like me . " After Christmas , in 1965 , John was embarrassed to hear that Alf had made a record : " That 's My Life ( My Love and My Home ) " , released on 31 December 1965 . John asked Epstein to do anything he could to stop it being released or becoming a hit . The record never made it into the charts . In 1966 " Freddie Lennon " ( the name under which Alf recorded ) tried again , and issued three singles with the group Loving Kind . These records did not sell well , either . Though the public at large quickly forgot these attempts to cash in on his son 's success with the Beatles , the records do command fairly high prices among collectors of rare records , with " That 's My Life " being worth over £ 50 .
= = = Pauline Jones = = =
Three years after meeting John in the NEMS office , Alf ( who was then 56 years old ) turned up at Kenwood again , with his fiancee Pauline Jones . Pauline had been an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Exeter University student and a Rolling Stones fan when she met the 54 @-@ year @-@ old Alf in 1966 . Alf and Pauline grew tired of trying to convince Pauline 's mother to allow them to marry , so they eloped and were married in Gretna Green , Scotland . In 1966 , Alf asked John if he could give Pauline a job , so she was hired to help , looking after Julian Lennon and also the piles of fan mail . Pauline spent a few months living at Kenwood in the attic bedroom . Alf and Pauline moved to a flat in Bourne Court , London Road , Patcham ( a suburb of Brighton ) before moving to Ladies Mile Road , Brighton , in November 1969 . Alf had two sons with Pauline : David Henry Lennon ( February 26 , 1969 ) and Robin Francis Lennon ( October 22 , 1973 ) .
= = Death = =
Late in his life , Alf wrote a manuscript detailing his life story which he bequeathed to John . It was Alf 's attempt to fill in the lost years when he had not been in contact with his son , and to explain that it was Julia , and not Alf , who had broken up their marriage . John later commented : " You know , all he wanted was for me to hear his side of the story , which I hadn 't heard . " By 1976 , Alfred was diagnosed with terminal stomach cancer and Pauline contacted John via Apple Corps to make sure that he was aware that his father was dying . John sent a large bouquet of flowers to the hospital and phoned Alf on his deathbed , apologising for his ( John 's ) past behaviour . In 1990 , Pauline published a book called Daddy , Come Home , detailing her life with Alf and his meetings with John . Pauline later remarried , and is now known as Pauline Stone .
= = Song sample = =
" In My Life " is John 's song about his youth in Liverpool . Alf replied to this song by releasing the single , " That 's My Life " , b / w “ The Next Time You Feel Important ” , in 1965 .
" That 's My Life " ( 1965 )
" The Next Time You Feel Important "
= Music Box ( Mariah Carey album ) =
Music Box is the third studio album by American singer Mariah Carey . It was released by Columbia Records on August 31 , 1993 , in North America . The album comprises ballads primarily co @-@ written by Carey and Walter Afanasieff , with whom she had previously worked on Emotions ( 1991 ) , and a few urban dance tracks . During the course of the album 's development , Carey wanted to broaden her audience , choosing a more pop / R & B oriented sound . During this time frame , they experimented with different organs and other musical instruments , leading the album 's sound away from her more contemporary previous efforts . Two unused tracks from the album sessions were released as B @-@ sides : " Do You Think of Me " and " Everything Fades Away " .
In order to successfully take the album in a new direction , Carey and Afanasieff sought out new and innovative producers , as well as some from Carey 's previous releases . Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds first began working with Carey on Music Box , where he helped produce some of the album 's softer and more melodious tracks , as well as being part of the songwriting process . Additional writers and producers were Robert Clivillés and David Cole ( a pair also known as C + C Music Factory ) and Daryl Simmons . While the album featured a range of different talented music producers , the bulk of the songwriting was done by Carey and her writing partner , Walter Afanasieff . In future projects , they would continue writing material for Carey 's albums , until her 1999 release Rainbow , where he is absent from the writing credits .
Four singles were released from the album . The first three , " Dreamlover " , " Hero " and " Without You " , became worldwide chart @-@ topping singles , the latter becoming Carey 's highest charting international single of her career . " Without You " became Carey 's first number @-@ one single in most European markets and reached the top three in the United States . To promote Music Box , Carey embarked on the short but successful Music Box Tour which traveled to select cities in North America . Carey was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " Dreamlover " at the 1994 Grammy Awards and received the same nomination for " Hero " at the 1995 Grammy Awards .
After its release , Music Box received generally mixed reviews from music critics . The album faced criticism regarding Carey 's more mellow and lazy tone in comparison to her previous work . Despite some unfavorable reviews , the album became a commercial success , topping the Billboard 200 and becoming Carey 's first number @-@ one album in Australia , France , Germany , the Netherlands , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified it diamond , for shipments of ten million copies across the United States . Music Box remains Carey 's highest seller with 32 million copies sold worldwide and is one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time .
= = Background = =
In 1988 , Carey was discovered by Tommy Mottola , CEO of Columbia Records , and was promptly signed to the label . Carey 's self @-@ titled debut studio album , released the following year , focused on re @-@ recording and mastering several songs she had already written in high school alongside classmate , Ben Margulies . Aside from the seven songs taken from Carey 's demo tape , four other tracks were written and produced by the former and an array of famed record producers . The album was complimented by critics , who called it a mature debut , full of various genre influences ranging from pop , R & B and soul . The album became a commercial success , selling fifteen million units globally . While making a strong impact on pop music , Carey became interested in altering her sound , and deviating from pop music for her second studio effort , Emotions ( 1991 ) . Following the success of her debut , Columbia allowed her to take more control over her musical departure , enabling her to change her genre infusions , melodies and production .
= = Writing and development = =
With Carey in the captain 's chair , having more control than she had on any other album , she took the album in a new direction , alongside Afanasieff . For Carey 's third studio effort , she enrolled the help of a range of songwriters , as well as record producers . Aside from Afanasieff , Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , a man who would collaborate with Carey often in the near future , also took part in the project . Babyface , who helped produce much of the album , also co @-@ wrote a track with Carey titled " Never Forget You " , a song that was released as a B @-@ side to " Without You " exclusively in the United States . The album , which consisted mostly of slower ballads ( with the exception of " Dreamlover " , " Now That I Know " , and " I 've Been Thinking about You " ) , contained collaborations with some carry @-@ on producers and writers from Emotions . Of these were Clivillés & Cole ( of C + C Music Factory ) , who co @-@ wrote the track " Now That I Know " , a danceable pop ballad , which used similar formulas and synthesizers from tracks on Emotions . Another writer – producer that worked on the album was David Hall , who with Carey wrote the U.S. single " Dreamlover " .
During the album 's recording , Carey worked with several different musicians and producers , aside from Walter Afanasieff , the only hold over from her debut . On the album 's first track " Dreamlover " , Carey worked with Dave Hall throughout the song 's entire production . In order to help with some of the song 's arrangements , Mottola enrolled the help of Walter Afanasieff , who took on the completed track and transformed it into a more commercial hit .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Emotions contains influences from mostly 1950s , 1960s and 1970s balladry and gospel , as well as her continued work of R & B and soul . The album , while praised by some as more mature and raw , failed to reach the critical or commercial heights of her debut effort , while selling far less and failed to introduce Carey into a different market . Following these events , Columbia decided to try to market Carey in a similar fashion to her debut , only having her produce a more commercial and radio @-@ friendly album . Their plans were to tone down Carey 's vocals , and soften the album 's production , leaving a more contemporary pop / R & B record . Agreeing to the change , Carey and Afanasieff began writing and recording material for her third studio effort , Music Box .
One of the noticeable differences from Music Box and Carey 's previous albums is its sound . The album was described by Afanasieff as a softer and more pop @-@ oriented album , " filling the songs with air " , and allowing far more space in the overall sound . Another noticeable change is in the album 's production . When Mariah Carey was released , critics took notice of its " overly produced " and " studio perfect " quality , where in comparison , Emotions maintains a " raw , live sound . " Music Box however , falls in between the two , a decision made by Carey during the album 's production . She would layer each track with live backing vocals , so not to sound too overly produced , but still kept the inclusion of musical synthesizers .
According to Marc Shapiro , Music Box reflects signs of Carey 's vocal maturity , as well as representing an album she was truly proud of . The album 's first single " Dreamlover " was described as a " slight piece of pop fluff , " representing a more commercial side to Carey than the " more ambitious , " " Vision of Love " . Critics believed the song 's chart performance was due to its summer release , as people were still looking for a " not @-@ too @-@ heavy " and more diverse sound . The song 's composition was described as " mid tempo and mildly dance @-@ able , " with Carey 's voice being called " perpetually happy , " like a " little @-@ girl voice . "
= = Songs = =
" Hero " , the album 's second single , was one of Carey 's most inspirational ballads at the time . The song is described as " a lush ballad " , with Carey making use of her impressive , " lower alto register . " As one of the more emotional tracks on the album , " Hero " builds emotion , verse through verse , where the lyrics and melody finally " broke through . " " Anytime You Need a Friend " is another pop ballad in which Carey would , " let her voice roam free " , a feature critics felt lacked on the album . The song featured " rough and low vocals " , as well as some glimpses of Carey 's upper registers . As with most of the songs on Music Box , the lyrics boast a positive message , and it is the only song on the album to feature traces of gospel @-@ inspired vocals throughout the chorus .
The album 's title track , " Music Box " , is another ballad Carey wrote with Afanasieff . The song is described as one of Carey 's more difficult compositions , due to its " softness " . The song requires a great deal of legato to keep " the tunes softness and sweetness , without resorting to volume . " Carey 's vocals on the track are defined as " soft and controlled , " managing to maintain the delicate balance in a manner that seems effortless , floating easily over the keyboard and the shimmer of the guitar . Lyrically , due to the song 's message of " commitment and promise , " and the " tinkling music @-@ box line played on the synthesizer , " the track gives the sensation of a wedding vow recital . " Never Forget You " is a slow song , further connecting it to the song 's message of " lamenting the loss of love , in a very tender way . " The song contains keyboard notes that hover over the verses and allow Carey to indulge in her backing vocals . It was described by Nickson as a " stand out track , " one that could have easily become a hit single , " with an appeal that would have easily transcended generational barriers . "
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , the album received mixed reviews from critics . Ron Wynn from Allmusic gave the album 4 out of 5 stars , Roc Wynn of Allmusic said that Carey 's " octave @-@ leaping " voice was downplayed in favor of the demonstration of " her ability to sing softly and coolly . " Although favorably stating that Carey lowered the volume on her vocals , he said that the energy had declined , with the exception of personality @-@ injected songs like " Hero " and " Dreamlover . " Overall , however , he claimed the album 's " different " approach was wise . Ashley S. Battel from Billboard gave the album a positive review , writing , " While Carey tones down the predominance of her tremendous vocal range throughout much of this release , there is no question that she remains the driving force behind yet anoth [ e ] r collection of heavy @-@ rotation Top @-@ 40 successes . "
David Browne from Entertainment Weekly gave the album a mixed review . He said that due to Carey 's lower energy level , her voice no longer soars above the backup chorus , instead it only " drip [ s ] over them like syrup instead of overpowering them ; she lets the melodies speak for themselves . " . Browne awarded the album an unenthusiastic score of C + . Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone complimented Carey 's vocals , but found her lyrics " made up entirely of pop and soul clichés " and stated " Music Box is so precisely calculated to be a blockbuster that its impact is ultimately a little unnerving " . However , in his review for The New York Times , Holden wrote that the album " takes aim at the commercial pop mainstream with an even sharper focus " than Carey 's previous albums , while noting " If huge ballads like ' Hero , ' ' Anytime You Need a Friend ' and a gospel @-@ flavored remake of Harry Nilsson 's 1971 hit , ' Without You , ' traffic in pop cliches , they are the top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line in generic 90 's pop " . In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau gave the album a " dud " rating , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought " . In a retrospective review , The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) noted a " soft @-@ rock slump " and stated " While there 's nothing wrong with Carey singing relatively straight for 10 songs , there is a sore lack of power here : baleful soaring ballads , pop optimism along the lines of smiling through the tears and believing in yourself ( or him , or Him ) , and hardly a decent tune in the lot " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Music Box entered the US Billboard 200 at number two , with 174 @,@ 000 copies sold . In its fifteenth week after release , the album topped the chart and enjoyed its highest sales week in December , selling 295 @,@ 000 copies in its first week atop , 395 @,@ 000 the following week and peaking with 505 @,@ 000 copies sold in year 's final week . It stayed at the top for eight non @-@ consecutive weeks . It remained in the top ten for thirty @-@ one weeks and on the Billboard 200 for 128 weeks ( more than two years , longer than any other of her albums ) , re @-@ entering the chart three times . The album also reached number one on Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . Music Box was the second @-@ best selling album in the United States in 1994 , only behind Ace of Base 's The Sign . In the United States , Music Box became Carey 's best @-@ selling album at the time , being certified diamond by the RIAA , denoting shipments of ten million copies
The album became a success in Canada , peaking at number two on the charts and being certified seven @-@ times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . Music Box became Carey 's best @-@ seller in Europe , topping the charts in Australia , Germany , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . In Germany , it became her highest @-@ charting album , spending eighty weeks on the German Albums Chart , eleven of which were spent at number one . Germany 's sales of the album were also very impressive , with a certification of double @-@ platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , for shipments of one million copies . In Australia , the album was certified fourteen @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . The album finished at number one on the ( ARIA ) 1994 End of Year Chart . In the United Kingdom , Music Box remains Carey 's highest seller , topping the UK Albums Chart and being certified seven @-@ times platinum . It became a million @-@ selling album in France , receiving a diamond certification and topping the French Album Charts . Sales in France have been estimated at 1 @,@ 418 @,@ 100 . In Brazil , Music Box remains one of the best @-@ selling albums by an international artist , selling 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 copies . Music Box finished number twenty @-@ three on the all time album chart in the Netherlands , where it was certified six @-@ times platinum .
In Asia , Music Box became one of the best @-@ selling albums of 1994 , selling 2 @.@ 2 million copies in Japan alone . The album 's sales continued to skyrocket in Asia , topping sales of 600 @,@ 000 in South Korea and 150 @,@ 000 copies in Taiwan as of 1994 . In Singapore and Hong Kong , sales reached 110 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 copies respectively . Music Box has sold 32 million copies worldwide , and is one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time .
= = Singles = =
" Dreamlover " was released as the album 's first single on July 27 , 1993 . The single debuted at number thirteen on the Billboard Hot 100 , and due to its massive airplay , the song reached the top of the Hot 100 , staying there for eight weeks . Dreamlover topped the charts in Canada , and reached the top @-@ ten in many other countries . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of one million copies , as well as receiving a gold certification in Australia and New Zealand . The music video for " Dreamlover " featured " summer scenery , " with scenes of Carey swimming in a pool by a waterfall , lying in a bed of sunflowers , as well as singing in front of hip @-@ hop dancers . The video tried to capture , a " home video " feel , adding to the song 's subtle and airy nature , something that only helped the song dominate the charts " Hero " served as the album 's second single , and was released on October 19 , 1993 . Music critics praised the song , calling it her most directly inspirational song since " Make It Happen " . The song topped the charts in the United States and the top @-@ five in many other major music markets . The music video for " Hero , " featured footage from Carey 's concert at Proctor 's Theatre , as was done for Carey 's following music video for " Without You . "
" Without You " , the album 's third single , became the biggest international hit of Carey 's career . " Without You " reached number three in the United States , but experienced its real success throughout Europe . The song became Carey 's first number one chart topper in France , Germany , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom , propelling the sales of Music Box throughout the world . Carey brought the song renewed popularity , through her highly successful adaptation . It became one of the " fifty most @-@ played songs of the year " and even outsold Harry Nilsson 's version , receiving many awards and recognition . " Anytime You Need a Friend " , the album 's final single , experienced success on the charts , reaching the top @-@ ten in many countries , as well as peaking at number twelve in the United States . It became the second single in Music Box to perform better throughout Europe than in the U.S.
= = Promotion = =
To promote the album , Carey embarked on her first headlining concert tour , the Music Box Tour . Due to stage fright , Carey had not toured to promote her previous albums and did not originally plan a tour to support Music Box . However , after the continued success of the album and persuasion from Tommy Mottola , Carey agreed . Because Carey did not feel physically or emotionally ready for an extensive tour , six concerts were scheduled , each with many days in between , in order to give her voice time to rest . An extra performance at Proctor 's Theatre was planned ; there , Carey filmed the one @-@ hour special Here Is Mariah Carey for release during the Christmas season .
When tickets went on sale , the concerts did not sell out instantly but sold at a healthy pace . On the opening night , she sang at the Miami Arena . Approximately two @-@ thirds of the venue 's capacity was filled , which worried Carey 's management . However , Carey did not seem to mind and began the show with high spirits . The first show in Miami received scathing reviews ; subsequent shows sold out of tickets and attracted rave reviews .
Aside from touring for the first time in her career , Carey visited various American and European television programs , performing different singles from the album . In late 1993 , Carey appeared on The Arsenio Hall Show , performing both " Dreamlover " and " Hero . " Other 1993 performances included " Hero " on The Jay Leno Show and " Dreamlover " on her first visit to Top of the Pops . Carey continued promoting the album in 1994 , performing " Without You " on a second visit to Top of the Pops , as well as visiting France , Germany , Japan , Spain and Sweden . In the midst of the Music Box Tour , Carey had already begun working with Walter Afanasieff on her holiday album Merry Christmas , which was to be released during the Christmas season of 1994 . Additionally , Carey and Affanasieff reportedly began experimenting with ideas and music for Carey 's 1995 album Daydream .
= = Track listing = =
International edition
Latin American edition
= = Album credits = =
Credits adapted from Music Box album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= Wings ( 1927 film ) =
Wings is a 1927 American silent war film set during the First World War produced by Lucien Hubbard , directed by William A. Wellman and released by Paramount Pictures . It stars Clara Bow , Charles " Buddy " Rogers , and Richard Arlen , and Gary Cooper appears in a role which helped launch his career in Hollywood .
The film , a romantic action @-@ war picture , was rewritten by scriptwriters Hope Loring and Louis D. Lighton from a story by John Monk Saunders to accommodate Bow , Paramount 's biggest star at the time . Wellman was hired as he was the only director in Hollywood at the time who had World War I combat pilot experience , although Richard Arlen and John Monk Saunders had also served in the war as military aviators . The film was shot on location on a budget of $ 2 million at Kelly Field in San Antonio , Texas between September 7 , 1926 and April 7 , 1927 . Hundreds of extras and some 300 pilots were involved in the filming , including pilots and planes of the United States Army Air Corps which were brought in for the filming and to provide assistance and supervision . Wellman extensively rehearsed the scenes for the Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel over ten days with some 3500 infantrymen on a battlefield made for the production on location . Although the cast and crew had much spare time during the filming because of weather delays , shooting conditions were intense , and Wellman frequently conflicted with the military officers brought in to supervise the picture .
Acclaimed for its technical prowess and realism upon release , the film became the yardstick against which future aviation films were measured , mainly because of its realistic air @-@ combat sequences . It went on to win the first Academy Award for Best Picture at the first annual Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences award ceremony in 1929 , the only fully silent film to do so . It also won the Academy Award for Best Engineering Effects ( Roy Pomeroy ) . Wings was one of the first to show two men kissing ( in a fraternal moment between Rogers and Arlen during the deathbed finale ) , and also one of the first widely released films to show nudity . In 1997 , Wings was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " , and the film was re @-@ released to Cinemark theaters to coincide with the 85th Anniversary for a limited run in May 2012 .
= = Plot = =
Jack Powell and David Armstrong are rivals in the same small American town , both vying for the attentions of pretty Sylvia Lewis . Jack fails to realize that " the girl next door " , Mary Preston , is desperately in love with him . The two young men both enlist to become combat pilots in the Air Service . When they leave for training camp , Jack mistakenly believes Sylvia prefers him . She actually prefers David and lets him know about her feelings , but is too kindhearted to turn down Jack 's affection .
Jack and David are billeted together . Their tent mate is Cadet White , but their acquaintance is all too brief ; White is killed in an air crash the same day . Undaunted , the two men endure a rigorous training period , where they go from being enemies to best friends . Upon graduating , they are shipped off to France to fight the Germans .
Mary joins the war effort by becoming an ambulance driver . She later learns of Jack 's reputation as the ace known as " The Shooting Star " and encounters him while on leave in Paris . She finds him , but he is too drunk to recognize her . She puts him to bed , but when two military police barge in while she is innocently changing from a borrowed dress back into her uniform in the same room , she is forced to resign and return to America .
The climax of the story comes with the epic Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel . David is shot down and presumed dead . However , he survives the crash landing , steals a German biplane , and heads for the Allied lines . By a tragic stroke of bad luck , Jack spots the enemy aircraft and , bent on avenging his friend , begins an attack . He is successful in downing the aircraft and lands to retrieve a souvenir of his victory . The owner of the land where David 's aircraft crashed urges Jack to come to the dying man 's side . He agrees and becomes distraught when he realizes what he has done . David consoles him and before he dies , forgives his comrade .
At the war 's end , Jack returns home to a hero 's welcome . He visits David 's grieving parents to return his friend 's effects . During the visit he begs their forgiveness for causing David 's death . Mrs. Armstrong says it is not Jack who is responsible for her son 's death , but the war . Then , Jack is reunited with Mary and realizes he loves her .
= = Cast = =
Clara Bow as Mary Preston
Charles " Buddy " Rogers as Jack Powell
Richard Arlen as David Armstrong
Gary Cooper as Cadet White
Jobyna Ralston as Sylvia Lewis
El Brendel as Herman Schwimpf
Richard Tucker as Air Commander
Gunboat Smith as Sergeant
Roscoe Karns as Lieutenant Cameron
Henry B. Walthall as Mr. Armstrong
Julia Swayne Gordon as Mrs. Armstrong
Arlette Marchal as Celeste
Hedda Hopper as Mrs. Powell ( uncredited )
George Irving as Mr. Powell ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
= = = Script and experience = = =
The film was written by Byron Morgan ( original story , uncredited ) , Louis D. Lighton and Hope Loring ( screenplay ) , edited and produced by Lucien Hubbard , directed by William A. Wellman , with an original orchestral score by John Stepan Zamecnik , which was uncredited . It was rewritten to accommodate Clara Bow , as she was Paramount 's biggest star , but wasn 't happy about her part : " Wings is … a man 's picture and I 'm just the whipped cream on top of the pie " .
Producers Lucien Hubbard and Jesse L. Lasky hired director Wellman as he was the only director in Hollywood at the time who had World War I combat pilot experience . Actor Richard Arlen and writer John Monk Saunders had also served in World War I as military aviators . Arlen was able to do his own flying in the film and Rogers , a non @-@ pilot , underwent flight training during the course of the production , so that , like Arlen , Rogers could also be filmed in closeup in the air . Lucien Hubbard offered flying lessons to all , and despite the number of aircraft in the air , only two incidents occurred — one involved stunt pilot Dick Grace , while the other was the fatal crash of a United States Army Air Corps pilot . Wellman was able to attract War Department support and involvement in the project , and displayed considerable prowess and confidence in dealing with planes and pilots onscreen , knowing " exactly what he wanted " , bringing with it a " no @-@ nonsense attitude " according to military film historian Lawrence H. Suid .
= = = Filming = = =
= = = = Aerial and battle sequences = = = =
Wings was shot and completed on a budget of $ 2 million at Kelly Field , San Antonio , Texas between September 7 , 1926 and April 7 , 1927 . Primary scout aircraft flown in the film were Thomas @-@ Morse MB @-@ 3s standing in for American @-@ flown SPADs and Curtiss P @-@ 1 Hawks painted in German livery . Developing the techniques needed for filming closeups of the pilots in the air and capturing the speed and motion of the planes onscreen took time , and little usable footage was produced in the first two months . Wellman soon realized that Kelly Field didn 't have adequate numbers of planes or skilled pilots which were needed to perform the aerial maneuvers and had to request technical assistance and a supply of planes and pilots from Washington . The Air Corps sent six planes and pilots from the 1st Pursuit Group stationed at Selfridge Field near Detroit , including 2d Lt. Clarence S. " Bill " Irvine who became Wellman 's adviser . Irvine was responsible for engineering an airborne camera system to provide close @-@ ups and for the planning of the dogfights , and when one of the pilots broke his neck , performed in one of the battle scenes himself .
Hundreds of extras were brought in to shoot the picture , and some 300 pilots were involved in the filming . Because the aerial battles required ideal weather to shoot , the production team had to wait on one occasion for 18 consecutive days for proper conditions in San Antonio . If possible , Wellman attempted to capture footage in the air in contrast to clouds in the background , above or in front of cloud banks to generate a sense of velocity and danger . Wellman later explained , " motion on the screen is a relative thing . A horse runs on the ground or leaps over fencers or streams . We know he is going rapidly because of his relation to the immobile ground " . Against the clouds , Wellman enabled the planes to " dart at each other " , and to " swoop down and disappear in the clouds " , and to give the audience the sense of the disabled planes plummeting . During the delay in the aerial shooting , Wellman extensively rehearsed the scenes for the Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel over ten days with some 3500 infantrymen . A large battlefield with trenches and barbed wire was created on location for the filming . Wellman took responsibility for the meticulously @-@ planned explosions himself , detonating them at the right time from his control panel . According to Peter Hopkinson , at least 20 young men , including cameraman William Clothier , were given hand @-@ held cameras to film " anything and everything " during the filming .
Wellman frequently conflicted with the military officers brought in to supervise the picture , especially the infantry commander who he considered to have " two monumental hatreds : fliers and movie people " . After one argument Wellman retorted to the commander , " You 're just a goddamn fool because the government has told me you have to give me all your men and do just exactly what I want you to do . " Although Wellman paid much attention to technical details in shooting , he used cars and clothing of the year during the filming , forgetting to use those of World War I. He took six weeks to fully edit the film and prepare it for release .
= = = = Cast exploits = = = =
Whereas most Hollywood productions of the day took little more than a month to shoot , Wings took approximately nine months to complete in total . Although Wellman was generating spectacular aerial footage and making Hollywood film history , Paramount expressed concerns with the cost of production and expanding budget . They sent an executive to San Antonio to complain to Wellman who swiftly told him that he had two options , " a trip home or a trip to the hospital " . According to biographer Frank T. Thompson , Wellman approached producer David O. Selznick regarding a contract predicament asking him what he should do to which Selznick replied , " Just keep your mouth shut . You 've got ' em where it hurts . " The cast and crew had a lot of time on their hands between shooting sequences , and according to director Wellman , " San Antonio became the Armageddon of a magnificent sexual Donnybrook " . He recalled that they stayed at the Saint Anthony Hotel for nine months and by the time they left the elevator girls were all pregnant . He stated that Clara Bow openly flirted with the male cast members and several of the pilots which was reciprocated , despite having become engaged to Victor Fleming the day after arriving in San Antonio on September 16 , 1926 . Gary Cooper , appearing in a role which helped launch his career in Hollywood , began a tumultuous affair during the production with Bow . Cooper reportedly showed Howard Hughes the script to the film and he wasn 't impressed , considering the drama in it to be " sudsy " , although he informed Cooper that he looked forward to seeing how Wellman would accomplish the technical aerial sequences . Bow strongly detested the costumes which were made for the film by Paramount designer Travis Banton , and slit the necklines and cut off the sleeves of his clothing , much to the chagrin of Banton .
= = = = Memorable scenes = = = =
Wings was one of the first to show two men kissing : when several aviators are presented medals by a French general and are ceremonially pecked on their necks , and a fraternal moment between Rogers and Arlen during the deathbed finale . Marcel Danesi remarks that the Rogers @-@ Arlen kiss was " really not a romantic kiss , reverberating more with the desperate love between two dear friends who are about to be separated by death " , but speculates that the " lingering " aspect of the kiss may have " unconsciously started the process of opening up America 's rigid moral attitudes at the time . "
Wings is also one of the first widely released films to show nudity . In the enlistment office are nude men undergoing physical exams , who can be seen from behind through a door which is opened and closed . Bow 's breasts are revealed for a second during the Paris bedroom scene when military police barge in as she is changing her clothes . In the scene in which Rogers becomes drunk , the intoxication displayed on screen was genuine , as although 22 years of age , he had never tasted liquor before , and quickly became inebriated from drinking champagne . A boom was built with the camera mounted on an extension to shoot the Café de Paris scene .
= = Release and reception = =
Wellman dedicated the film " to those young warriors of the sky whose wings are folded about them forever " . A sneak preview was shown May 19 , 1927 , at the Texas Theater on Houston Street in San Antonio . The premiere was held at the Criterion Theater , in New York City , on August 12 , 1927 , and was screened for 63 weeks before being moved to second @-@ run theaters . The original Paramount release of Wings was color tinted and had some sequences in an early widescreen process known as Magnascope , also used in the 1926 Paramount film Old Ironsides . The original release also had the aerial scenes use the Handschiegl color process for flames and explosions . Some prints had synchronized sound effects and music , using the General Electric Kinegraphone ( later RCA Photophone ) sound @-@ on @-@ film process .
Wings was an immediate success upon release and became the yardstick for which aviation films were measured against , in terms of " authenticity of combat and scope of production " . One of the reasons for its resounding popularity was the public infatuation with aviation in the wake of Charles Lindbergh 's transatlantic flight . The Air Corps who had supervised production expressed satisfaction with the end product . The critical response was equally enthusiastic and the film was widely praised for its realism and technical prowess , despite a superficial plot , " an aviation picnic " as Gene Brown called it . The combat scenes of the film were so realistic that one writer studying the film in the early 1970s was wondering if Wellman had used actual imagery of planes crashing to earth during World War I. One critic observed : " The exceptional quality of Wings lies in its appeal as a spectacle and as a picture of at least some of the actualities of flying under wartime conditions . " Another wrote : " Nothing in the line of war pictures ever has packed a greater proportion of real thrills into an equal footage . As a spectacle , Wings is a technical triumph . It piles punch upon punch until the spectator is almost nervously exhausted " . Mordaunt Hall of The New York Times praised the cinematography of the flying scenes and the direction and acting of the entire cast in his review dated August 13 , 1927 . Hall notes only two criticisms , one slight on Richard Arlen 's performance and of the ending , which he described as " like so many screen stories , much too sentimental , and there is far more of it than one wants . "
= = = Accolades = = =
On May 16 , 1929 , the first Academy Award ceremony was held at the Hotel Roosevelt in Hollywood to honor outstanding film achievements of 1927 – 1928 . Wings was entered in a number of categories and was the first film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture ( then called " Best Picture , Production " ) and Best Engineering Effects for Roy Pomeroy for the year . Sunrise : A Song of Two Humans , which won Unique and Artistic Production , was considered an equal top winner of the night but the following year , the Academy dropped the Unique and Artistic Production award and decided retroactively that the award won by Wings was the highest honor that could be awarded . The statuette , not yet known as the " Oscar " , was presented by Douglas Fairbanks to Clara Bow on behalf of the producers , Adolph Zukor and B.P. Schulberg .
= = Legacy = =
For many years , Wings was considered a lost film until a print was found in the Cinémathèque Française film archive in Paris and quickly copied from nitrate film to safety film stock . It was again shown in theaters , including some theaters where the film was accompanied by Wurlitzer pipe organs .
In retrospect , film scholar Scott Eyman in his 1997 book The Speed of Sound : Hollywood and the Talkie Revolution 1926 – 1930 says : " Ironically , a mass @-@ market silent spectacular like William Wellman 's Wings effortlessly showcases far more visual variety than mainstream American films have offered since : it displays shifts from brutal realism to nonrealistic techniques associated with Soviet avant @-@ garde or impressionistic French cinema - double exposures , subjective point @-@ of @-@ view shots , trick effects , symbolic illustrations on the titles , and so on . " In 1997 , Wings was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . In 2006 , director Wellman 's son , William Wellman Jr . , authored a book about the film and his father 's participation in the making of it , titled The Man and His Wings : William A. Wellman and the Making of the First Best Picture .
The film was the focus of an episode of the television series Petticoat Junction that originally aired November 9 , 1968 . Arlen and Rogers were scheduled to appear during the film 's opening at one of the local cinemas in 1928 . They opted , instead to attend the New York screening that was held the same night . Uncle Joe writes a letter chiding the pair for forsaking the town . To atone and generate publicity , they agreed to attend a second opening , 40 years later . Arlen and Rogers also appeared together as themselves on a December 18 , 1967 , episode of The Lucy Show titled " Lucy and Carol Burnett : Part 2 " . They are introduced as the stars of Wings at a ceremony to mark the graduation of Lucille Ball and Carol Burnett from stewardess training . They appear on stage beneath stills taken from the film and later in the ceremony , star in a musical with Ball and Burnett , as two World War I pilots .
= = Restoration = =
As the original negatives are lost , the closest to an original print is a spare negative stored in Paramount 's vaults . Suffering from decay and defects , the negative was fully restored with modern technology . For the restored version of Wings , the original music score was re @-@ orchestrated . The sound effects were recreated at Skywalker Sound using archived audio tracks . The scenes using the Handschiegl color process were also recreated for the restored version .
In 1996 , Paramount issued a VHS release . In 2012 , the company issued a " meticulously restored " version for DVD and Blu @-@ ray . The remastered version in high @-@ definition coincided with the centennial anniversary of Paramount . On May 2 and 16 , 2012 , a limited re @-@ release was seen exclusively in select Cinemark theaters twice daily to coincide with the 85th Anniversary .
= Cortinarius violaceus =
Cortinarius violaceus , commonly known as the violet webcap or violet cort , is a mushroom in the genus Cortinarius native across the Northern Hemisphere . The fruit bodies are dark purple with caps up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) in diameter , sporting gills with an adnate connection to the stem . The stem measures 6 to 12 centimetres ( 2 1 ⁄ 4 to 4 3 ⁄ 4 in ) by 1 to 2 centimetres ( 3 ⁄ 8 to 3 ⁄ 4 in ) , sometimes with a thicker base . The dark flesh has a smell reminiscent of cedar wood . Forming mycorrhizal relationships with various tree species , C. violaceus is found predominantly in conifer forests in North America and deciduous forests in Europe .
Though they are edible , the primary appeal of the fruit bodies to mushroom hunters are their appearance . The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 , and subsequently went through a number of name changes . It is the type species of the genus Cortinarius , but is readily distinguished from other species in the genus by its dark colouration and distinct cystidia . There are some populations that seem to prefer deciduous trees and others that prefer pines , but no genetic divergence between the two has been found . When identified as taxonomically separate from the deciduous @-@ preferring populations , the pine @-@ preferring populations have been referred to either as a separate species , C. hercynicus , or as a subspecies , C. violaceus ssp. hercynicus . Other populations once identified as C. violaceus or close to that species have now been described variously as C. palatinus , C. neotropicus , C. altissimus , C. kioloensis and C. hallowellensis .
= = Taxonomy = =
Agaricus violaceus was one of the few fungal species named by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum . The specific epithet violaceus refers to the deep violet colour of its cap . In English , it commonly known as the violet webcap , or violet cort . Subsequently , Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck viewed it as a variety ( violaceus ) of a variable species he described as Amanita araneosa in 1783 , and Christiaan Hendrik Persoon placed it in the Section Cortinaria of Agaricus in his 1801 work Synopsis Methodica Fungorum . Cortinarius was established as a genus by Samuel Frederick Gray in the first volume of his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants , where the species was recorded as Cortinaria violacea , " the violet curtain @-@ stool " . The starting date of fungal taxonomy had been set as 1 January 1821 , to coincide with the date of the works of the " father of mycology " , the Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries , which meant the name required sanction by Fries ( indicated in the name by a colon ) to be considered valid . Thus the species was written as Cortinarius violaceus ( L. : Fr . ) Gray . A 1987 revision of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature set the starting date at 1 May 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus 's Species Plantarum . Hence , the name no longer requires the ratification of Fries 's authority , and is thus written as Cortinarius violaceus ( L. ) Gray .
Friedrich Otto Wünsche described the species as Inoloma violaceum in 1877 . In 1891 , the German botanist Otto Kuntze published Revisio Generum Plantarum , his response to what he perceived as poor method in existing nomenclatural practice . He called the violet webcap Gomphos violaceus in 1898 . However , Kuntze 's revisionary programme was not accepted by the majority of biologists .
Cortinarius violaceus was designated as the type species for the genus Cortinarius by Frederic Clements and Cornelius Lott Shear in their 1931 work The Genera of Fungi . David Arora considers this odd , due to the mushroom 's unusual colour and cystidia . However , if it were to be split from the genus , then , according to the rules of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature , it would retain the name Cortinarius , while the other species would have to be reclassified . The species was one of only two placed in the Cortinarius subgenus Cortinarius by the Austrian mycologist Meinhard Moser . Molecular investigation of webcaps worldwide has increased this number to at least twelve .
A 2015 genetic study by Emma Harrower and colleagues of C. violaceus and its closest relatives suggests that the group ( section Cortinarius ) originated in Australasia and began diverging around 12 million years ago in the Miocene , with C. violaceus itself diverging from its closest relative around 3 @.@ 9 million years ago . The fact that these species diverged relatively recently indicates that some form of dispersal must have taken place across large bodies of water . The original plant hosts were flowering plants ( angiosperms ) , and C. violaceus — or its direct ancestor — developed a symbiotic relationship with pines , as well as multiple flowering plants ; this may have facilitated its expansion across the Northern Hemisphere .
Some mycologists classify C. violaceus as two distinct species — Cortinarius violaceus and Cortinarius hercynicus , with hercynicus meaning " of the Hercynian Forest region " . These species are differentiated due to the latter population 's rounder spores . Persoon had described C. & nbps ; hercynicus as a separate species in 1794 , though Elias Magnus Fries regarded it as conspecific with C. & nbps ; violaceus . Moser separated them once again as species in 1967 , and Tor Erik Brandrud classified C. & nbps ; hercynicus as a subspecies of C. & nbps ; violaceus in 1983 . However , Emma Harrower and colleagues , on limited molecular testing , found no genetic or ecological difference between the two taxa .
Some fungal populations around the world that have been classified as C. violaceus have been found to belong to separate lineages and hence reclassified as new species . Two separate lineages discovered in populations from Costa Rica have been renamed Cortinarius palatinus and C. neotropicus , one from Guyana — described as sp. aff. violaceus — has become C. altissimus , and another from Western Australia and Tasmania described as both C. violaceus and sp. aff. violaceus has become C. hallowellensis . The poorly @-@ known species Cortinarius subcalyptrosporus and Cortinarius atroviolaceus from Borneo are almost indistinguishable from C. violaceus , though the former has smaller spores with a detached perisporium ( outer layer ) and the latter has smaller spores and mushrooms . Another population , this one known from Borneo , New Guinea and New Zealand , was described as C. violaceus by Moser . It was noted as very similar to the original species concept of C. violaceus , and awaits description as a new species .
= = Description = =
Cortinarius violaceus has a convex ( becoming broadly convex , umbonate or flat ) cap of 3 @.@ 5 to 15 centimetres ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 to 6 in ) across with an incurved margin . In colour , it is a dark violet to blue @-@ black , and is covered in fine , downy scales . This layer on the cap is known as the pileipellis , which is either classified as a trichoderm — parallel hyphae running perpendicular to the surface and forming a layer 6 – 22 µm wide — or rarely an ixocutis , a layer of gelatinized hyphae 2 – 11 µm wide . The cap surface , unlike that of many other Cortinarius species , is neither sticky nor slimy , though it is occasionally greasy . The stipe is 6 to 12 centimetres ( 2 1 ⁄ 4 to 4 3 ⁄ 4 in ) tall , and 1 to 2 centimetres ( 3 ⁄ 8 to 3 ⁄ 4 in ) thick . Due to its swollen , bulbous nature , the base of the stipe can sometimes be as wide as 4 centimetres ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) . The stem is a similar colour to the cap , and covered in wool @-@ like fibrils , and purple mycelium can be present at the base . Younger specimens feature a veil , but this vanishes quickly . The flesh is violet , but darker below the pileipellis and in the stem . The flesh has a mild taste , indistinctly reminiscent of cedar wood , with a slight , pleasant smell , also reminiscent of cedar wood . The gills are dark violet , changing to a purplish @-@ brown with age . They have an adnate connection to the stem , and can be very dark in older specimens . The mushroom stains red when in contact with potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) . Fruit bodies of C. v. hercynicus are less robust than those of the nominate subspecies .
The spore print is rust @-@ coloured , while the spores themselves measure 12 to 15 µm by 7 to 8 @.@ 5 µm . They are rough , from elliptical to almond @-@ shaped , and covered in medium @-@ sized warts . The spores are wider in C. v. hercynicus . The species is the only one in the genus to have cystidia on both the faces and the edges of the gills . A large amount of cystidia are present , and , individually , they measure between 60 and 100 µm by between 12 and 25 µm . They are flask @-@ shaped , with somewhat purple contents .
Although there are many Cortinarius species with some degree of violet colour , C. violaceus is easily distinguished by its much darker purple colour . Cortinarius iodes of the southeastern United States has a slimy purple cap and paler violet stipe . The other species in the section Cortinarius are dark purple and superficially similar , but can be differentiated based on host and geography as they do not occur in the same locations as C. violaceus . Certain Leptonia species in northwestern North America , including L. carnea and L. nigroviolacea , have a similar color . The Leptonia species are easily differentiated due to their pink spore print .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Cortinarius violaceus is found across North America , Europe and Asia . Although widespread , it is not common anywhere in Europe , and it is listed as endangered in the British Isles . Cortinarius violaceus is a rare component of subarctic areas of western Greenland .
In Europe , it grows in deciduous woodland during autumn , especially among oak , birch and beech , but is also found on occasion with conifers . It is also occasionally known from treeless heathland , where it is associated with bracken . The species favours acidic soil . Cortinarius violaceus forms mycorrhizal associations with several species of tree . In Nordic countries , its hosts include white birch ( Betula pubescens ) , silver birch ( B. pendula ) , European aspen ( Populus tremula ) and rarely European beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) . No records of association with oak ( Quercus ) are known from this region . Brandrud reported that what he described as spp. hercynicus grew with Picea abies , generally in more alkaline soils and along with mosses of the genera Hylocomium and Pleurozium , and , in moister areas , big shaggy @-@ moss ( Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus ) , as well as the buttercup @-@ like shrub Hepatica nobilis . It grows with Betula pubescens in Greenland . It is also associated with hazelnut ( Corylus avellana ) in Central and Southern Europe .
In North America , it favours conifers , and , though rare over much of the continent , is relatively common in certain areas including Mount Rainier National Park and Olympic National Park . It is more common in old growth forest in the Pacific Northwest , though has sprung up in regrowth areas populated with fir , pine , aspen and alder in the Great Lakes region . Fruit bodies occur solitarily or in small groups , often near rotting wood , and can grow in fairy rings . Closely related species that look like C. violaceus can be found in Central and South America , Australia , New Zealand , Papua New Guinea , and Malaysia .
= = Edibility and biochemistry = =
Cortinarius violaceus mushrooms are considered edible , but they are not choice ; instead , the primary appeal of the species to mushroom hunters , according to Arora , is its beauty . Its similarity to some other ( inedible or toxic ) webcaps renders it risky to eat . The taste after cooking is reportedly bitter .
The colour of C. violaceus cannot be converted to a dye , unlike that of some other Cortinarius species , such as C. sanguineus and C. semisanguineus . The colour is caused by an elusive pigment that has been difficult to isolate ; its identity was not known until 1998 . It is an iron ( III ) complex of ( R ) -3 ′ , 4 ′ -dihydroxy @-@ β @-@ phenylalanine [ ( R ) -β @-@ dopa ] . It dissolves in water , turning the liquid dark purple before fading to blackish @-@ grey . C. violaceus mushrooms contain around 100 times more iron than those of most other fungi . Cortinarius violaceus extract demonstrate an inhibitory activity against cysteine protease .
= 1982 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1982 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1982 and lasted until November 30 , 1982 , and was a below average season . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . Only six storms formed during this hurricane season : five named storms ( this was the record for the smallest number of named cyclones in the Atlantic basin since naming began in 1950 , until the following year ( 1983 ) when only 4 named storms formed ) and an unnamed subtropical storm ( no subtropical storms were named between 1974 and 2001 ) . The season only produced two hurricanes ( record low since 1944 ) one of which reached major hurricane status . The season started early with Hurricane Alberto forming on the first day of the season . Alberto threatened the Southwestern Florida coast as a tropical storm , causing twenty @-@ three fatalities in Cuba . The next storm , a subtropical storm , formed in June and affected the same area as Alberto , causing $ 10 million in damage .
Tropical Storm Beryl formed on August 28 , after a quiet July in the open Atlantic Ocean . Beryl grazed Cape Verde , killing 3 people . Tropical Depression Three formed just behind Beryl , tracking east and north of the Caribbean sea in early September . Soon after the dissipation of Beryl , Tropical Storm
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Chris formed in the Gulf of Mexico on September 9 . Chris stayed as a weak storm , making landfall near Sabine Pass , Texas and dissipated over land on September 13 . Hurricane Debby was the next storm and the strongest of the season . The formative stage of Debby produced rainfall in Puerto Rico and soon strengthened into a Category 4 Major Hurricane . Debby passed by Newfoundland on September 18 and merged with a non @-@ tropical low on September 20 . In mid @-@ September , Tropical Depression Six formed west of Africa , and tracked west @-@ northwest , dissipating before reaching the Leeward Islands on September 20 . Its remnant thunderstorm activity continued moving west @-@ northwest , forming Tropical Depression Seven which moved near Bermuda on September 25 before dissipating offshore Nova Scotia . The final storm of the season , Tropical Storm Ernesto , was the shortest lasting storm of the season and stayed out to sea , dissipating on October 2 .
= = Season summary = =
The season was very inactive because of strong vertical wind shear due to stronger than normal westerly winds aloft . The wind shear was contributed by a variety of factors including a strong El Niño . Vertical wind shear was strong enough to disrupt convection in areas of disturbed weather so they could not develop further . The El Niño which affected this hurricane season extended into the 1983 Atlantic hurricane season . Higher than average values of African mineral dust during the most active portion of the hurricane season could have also suppressed tropical cyclone activity .
The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 32 , which is classified as " below normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Alberto = = =
On June 1 , a tropical depression formed off western Cuba from an organized cloud system . It moved slowly northeastward through the Gulf of Mexico , and strengthened into Tropical Storm Alberto on June 3 . Alberto traveled generally northeast on an erratic course , and briefly intensified to a Category 1 hurricane , one of the earliest hurricanes of June , and the earliest date for a hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean since Hurricane Alma in May 1970 . Due to strengthening vertical wind shear , Alberto then quickly weakened into a tropical storm , doubled back to the west , and dissipated near the Florida Keys on June 6 . Alberto is an example of a storm to enter the Gulf of Mexico and dissipating while never make landfall , which is an unusual event .
Though the storm never made landfall , 23 deaths were reported in Cuba from significant flooding , the worst in 32 years . Southern Florida experienced moderate rainfall , with a peak of 16 @.@ 47 inches ( 418 mm ) occurring in Tavernier .
= = = Subtropical Storm One = = =
The first subtropical storm of the season formed in the east @-@ central Gulf of Mexico on June 18 , and moved northeast for its entire life cycle . It crossed the Florida peninsula that night , causing the issuance of numerous severe thunderstorm and tornado warnings . The cyclone also dropped heavy rainfall , peaking at 10 @.@ 72 inches ( 272 mm ) eight miles ( 13 km ) southwest of DeSoto City , Florida . The storm continued , crossing the Outer Banks of North Carolina , and retained its strength until June 20 when it became extratropical near Newfoundland . The cyclone caused three deaths in Florida , sank a fishing trawler off the coast of North Carolina , and caused $ 10 million in damage ( 1982 USD ) . This was the only subtropical or tropical cyclone to impact the Eastern seaboard this season .
= = = Tropical Storm Beryl = = =
A well @-@ developed tropical wave exited Africa on August 27 . The next day , it developed into a tropical depression , and shortly thereafter it intensified into Tropical Storm Beryl . On August 29 , it passed just south of Cape Verde as it continued intensifying on its west @-@ northwest track . An eye feature appeared in the convection on August 31 , suggesting winds of near hurricane status ; since the feature was located on the western side of the deep convection and the storm was slightly asymmetric , the intensity was held just below hurricane status . Shortly after , strong wind shear caused the storm to deteriorate , leaving the low @-@ level circulation exposed on the western side . Beryl weakened to a tropical depression the next day due to the lack of convection , and it continued westward without redevelopment . On September 5 , a reconnaissance flight into the depression found winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) ; this was deemed unrepresentative of the actual intensity as it was recorded in a squall line . The depression became disorganized once more and by September 6 , it was no longer identifiable on satellites .
Early in its duration , Tropical Storm Beryl produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds on the Cape Verde island of Sal . The storm caused moderate damage across the archipelago , totaling $ 3 million ( 1982 USD ) . The passage of Beryl resulted in three casualties in Brava Island , as well as 122 injuries . In the period after the storm 's passage , the United States provided humanitarian aid and economic assistance to the country , helping the archipelago to reverse the effects of Beryl .
= = = Tropical Depression Three = = =
This system formed east of the Lesser Antilles on September 6 to the southeast of Tropical Storm Beryl in the tropical North Atlantic ocean . The depression moved northeast of the Leeward Islands during the afternoon of September 7 while experiencing southwest vertical wind shear , and moved into the southwest North Atlantic before dissipating east of the Bahamas on September 9 .
= = = Tropical Storm Chris = = =
A surface low pressure area developed on September 8 in the Gulf of Mexico . It drifted westward , and the next day it organized into a subtropical depression . Under the influence of a trough of low pressure , the depression turned northward , and after steadily becoming better organized it transitioned into Tropical Storm Chris by late on September 10 . The storm attained peak winds of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) before moving ashore near Sabine Pass in Texas . Chris continued inland until it dissipated over central Arkansas on September 13 . Prior to making landfall , as many as 6 @,@ 500 people evacuated from southern Louisiana , while offshore many oil workers were evacuated inland .
Chris produced moderate rainfall along its path , peaking at 16 inches ( 410 mm ) in Delhi , Louisiana , with totals of over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in Mississippi and Tennessee . The rainfall caused locally severe flooding as far inland as Tennessee and Kentucky , with flooding of some rivers reported . The storm spawned nine tornadoes , of which four were F2 or stronger on the Fujita scale . Upon moving ashore , the hurricane produced a 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) storm tide , resulting in severe damage to several boats in the Gulf of Mexico . Throughout its path , damage totaled $ 2 million ( 1982 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Debby = = =
A tropical wave moved westward offshore the coast of Africa . The wave traveled across the Atlantic , and organized into a tropical depression off the northern coast of Haiti on September 13 . The depression turned north and strengthened into a tropical storm and then a hurricane . Hurricane Debby moved north @-@ northeast , brushing Bermuda with tropical storm @-@ force winds . It continued strengthening as it moved north , peaking at 130 miles per hour ( 210 km / h ) . Hurricane Debby was the only known hurricane on record to reach category 4 north of 38 ° N latitude , at 38 ° 8 North . Debby was also the second northernmost known category 4 hurricane Atlantic hurricane , behind Hurricane Ella of 1978 . Tropical storm @-@ force winds were also recorded at Cape Race in Newfoundland when Debby passed on September 18 . The storm accelerated and began weakening over the colder waters of the north Atlantic . Debby merged with a strong non @-@ tropical system over the British Isles on September 20 .
The precursor disturbance to Debby dropped heavy rainfall across Puerto Rico , peaking at 12 @.@ 86 inches ( 327 mm ) in the southwestern portion of the island . Debby had little effect on Atlantic Canada , outside of heavy rainfall .
= = = Tropical Depression Six = = =
This tropical depression formed 900 miles ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) west of the Cape Verde Islands on September 16 , and moved west @-@ northwest across the tropical Atlantic ocean . The system moved within 750 miles ( 1 @,@ 210 km ) east of the Leeward Islands before dissipating on September 20 .
= = = Tropical Depression Seven = = =
The remnant area of disturbed weather from Tropical Depression Six continued moving west @-@ northwest into the southwest north Atlantic . A tropical depression formed from this area 275 miles ( 443 km ) west of Bermuda on September 25 . The system recurved off the north and northeast , dissipating in north Atlantic shipping lanes southeast of Nova Scotia on September 27 .
= = = Tropical Storm Ernesto = = =
A tropical wave formed off the coast of Africa on September 23 . The west side of the wave expanded and was declared as Tropical Depression Six on September 30 . The depression intensified , making a sharp turn on October 1 . An Air Force plane found 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) winds with a pressure of 1 @,@ 003 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) and the depression was given the name Ernesto . A second Air Force plane on October 2 found 71 miles per hour ( 114 km / h ) winds with a pressure of 997 millibars ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . By October 3 , Ernesto was not identifiable after merging with an extratropical low . Ernesto never approached land and caused no reported damage .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1982 . These names were used again in the 1988 season . This is the first time this name set was used since the post @-@ 1978 naming change , except for Florence and Helene which had been previously used in 1954 , 1958 , 1960 , and 1964 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
The World Meteorological Organization retired no names used in the 1982 season .
= Stereolab =
Stereolab are a music band formed in 1990 in London , England . The band originally comprised songwriting team Tim Gane ( guitar / keyboards ) and Lætitia Sadier ( vocals / keyboards / guitar ) , both of whom remained at the helm across many lineup changes . Other long @-@ time members include Mary Hansen ( backing vocals / keyboards / guitar ) , who played with the group from 1992 until her accidental death in 2002 , and Andy Ramsay ( drums ) , who joined in 1993 , and who is still in the official line @-@ up .
Called " one of the most fiercely independent and original groups of the Nineties , " Stereolab were one of the first bands to be termed " post @-@ rock " . Their primary musical influence was 1970s krautrock , which they combined with lounge , 1960s pop , and experimental pop music . They were noted for their heavy use of vintage electronic keyboards , and their sound often overlays a repetitive " motorik " beat with female vocals sung in English or French . Stereolab often incorporates socio @-@ political themes into their lyrics . Some critics say the group 's lyrics carry a strong Marxist message , and both Gane and Sadier admit to being influenced by the Surrealist and Situationist cultural and political movements . Gane is skeptical of labels such as " Marxist pop " , and defends the band against accusations of " sloganeering " .
Although many of the band 's albums have been underground hits , they never found larger commercial success . The band were released from their recording contract with Warner Bros. Records when Warner 's imprint Elektra Records folded . The release was reportedly due to poor record sales , and since then Stereolab 's self @-@ owned label , Duophonic Records , has signed a distribution deal with Too Pure . Duophonic holds the copyrights to the band 's recordings , and on this label the band has released many limited @-@ edition records . In 2009 , Stereolab announced via their website that they were going on indefinite hiatus .
= = History = =
= = = 1990 – 1993 = = =
In 1985 , Tim Gane formed McCarthy , a band from Essex , England known for their left @-@ wing politics . Gane met the French @-@ born Lætitia Sadier at a McCarthy concert in Paris and the two quickly fell in love . The musically @-@ inclined Sadier was disillusioned with the rock scene in France and soon moved to London to be with Gane and pursue her career . In 1990 , after three albums , McCarthy broke up and Gane immediately formed Stereolab with Sadier ( who had also contributed vocals to McCarthy 's final album ) and ex @-@ Chills bassist Martin Kean . The group 's name was taken from a division of Vanguard Records demonstrating hi @-@ fi effects .
Gane and Sadier , along with future Stereolab manager Martin Pike , created a record label called Duophonic Super 45s which , along with later offshoot Duophonic Ultra High Frequency Disks , would become commonly known as " Duophonic " . The 10 inch vinyl EP Super 45 was the first release for both band and label , and was sold through mail order and the Rough Trade Shop in London . Super 45 's band @-@ designed album art and packaging was the first of many customized and limited @-@ edition Duophonic records . In a 1996 interview in The Wire Gane calls the " do @-@ it @-@ yourself " aesthetic behind Duophonic " empowering " , and says that by releasing one 's own music " you learn ; it creates more music , more ideas " . Other independent bands such as Tortoise , Broadcast , and Labradford would also release material on Duophonic .
Stereolab followed up with another EP , Super @-@ Electric , and a single , " Stunning Debut Album " ( which was neither debut nor album ) . The band 's early material was rock and guitar @-@ oriented ; of Super @-@ Electric , Jason Ankeny wrote in AllMusic that " Droning guitars , skeletal rhythms , and pop hooks — not vintage synths and pointillist melodies — were their calling cards ... " In 1992 , Stereolab 's first full @-@ length album , Peng ! , and first compilation , Switched On , were released on independent label Too Pure . Around this time , the lineup consisted of Gane and Sadier plus vocalist Mary Hansen , drummer Andy Ramsay , bassist Duncan Brown , keyboardist Katharine Gifford , and guitarist Sean O 'Hagan of the 1980s famed Microdisney duo . Hansen , an Australian , had been in touch with Gane since his McCarthy days . After joining , she and Sadier developed a style of vocal counterpoint that distinguished Stereolab 's sound until Hansen 's death ten years later in 2002 . O 'Hagan would later leave to form The High Llamas , but would frequently return to contribute to Stereolab 's records .
Beginning with their 1993 EP Space Age Bachelor Pad Music , the band began to incorporate easy @-@ listening elements into their sound . This release raised Stereolab 's profile and landed them a major @-@ label American record deal with Elektra Records . Their next album , 1993 's Transient Random @-@ Noise Bursts with Announcements , was their first American release under Elektra , and became an underground hit in both the U.S. and the U.K. Mark Jenkins commented in The Washington Post that with this album , Stereolab " continues the glorious drones of [ their ] indie work , giving celestial sweep to [ their ] garage @-@ rock organ pumping and rhythm @-@ guitar strumming " . In the U.K. it was released on Duophonic Ultra High Frequency Disks , which is responsible for domestic releases of Stereolab 's major albums . The year would also see a collaboration with industrial stalwarts Nurse With Wound , in the form of the Crumb Duck EP .
= = = 1994 – 2001 = = =
On 8 January 1994 , Stereolab achieved their first chart entry when 1993 EP Jenny Ondioline entered at number 75 on the UK Singles Chart . ( Over the next three years , four more releases by the band would appear on this chart , ending with the EP Miss Modular in 1997 . ) With their 1994 album , Mars Audiac Quintet , Stereolab focused more on pop and less on rock , resulting in what AllMusic described as " what may be the group 's most accessible , tightly @-@ written album " . Mars Audiac Quintet makes heavy use of vintage electronic instruments , and also contains the single " Ping Pong " , which gained press coverage for its allegedly explicitly Marxist lyrics . After releasing a 1995 collection of singles and B @-@ sides called Refried Ectoplasm : Switched On , Vol . 2 , Stereolab followed with an EP titled Music for the Amorphous Body Study Center . This EP was their musical contribution to an interactive art exhibit put on in collaboration with New York City artist Charles Long .
Stereolab 's 1996 album , Emperor Tomato Ketchup , was a critical success and was played heavily on college radio . A record that " captivated alternative rock " , it represented Stereolab 's " high @-@ water mark " according to music journalists Tom Moon and Joshua Klein , respectively . Krautrock techniques were still present , but the band stirred the pot with hip @-@ hop sounds and complex instrumental arrangements . Stephan Davet of French newspaper Le Monde claimed to see musical influences as diverse as The Velvet Underground , Burt Bacharach , and Françoise Hardy on the album . John McEntire of the band Tortoise assisted with production and played on Emperor Tomato Ketchup . Katharine Gifford was replaced by Morgane Lhote before recording , and bassist Duncan Brown by Richard Harrison after .
Also in 1996 , Stereolab collaborated with Herbie Mann on the song " One Note Samba / Surfboard " for the AIDS @-@ Benefit album Red Hot + Rio produced by the Red Hot Organization .
Dots and Loops was released in 1997 , and was Stereolab 's first album to enter the Billboard 200 charts , peaking at number 111 . Barney Hoskyns wrote in Rolling Stone that with it the group moved " ever further away from the one @-@ chord Velvets drone @-@ mesh of its early days " toward easy listening and Europop . A review in German newspaper Die Zeit echoed this observation , claiming that in Dots and Loops Stereolab transformed the harder Velvet Underground @-@ like riffs of previous releases into " softer sounds and noisy playfulness " . Contributors to the album once again included John McEntire , along with Sean O 'Hagan of The High Llamas and Jan St. Werner of German electropop duo Mouse on Mars . A second Nurse With Wound collaboration , Simple Headphone Mind , appeared in 1997 , and the third installment of the " Switched On " series , Aluminum Tunes , followed in 1998 . In 1998 , Stereolab collaborated with French avant @-@ garde singer and poet Brigitte Fontaine in single " Calimero " .
The band took a break from touring while Gane and Sadier had a child . In 1999 , Stereolab 's next album appeared , titled Cobra and Phases Group Play Voltage in the Milky Night . Co @-@ produced by McEntire and American producer Jim O 'Rourke , the album earned mixed reviews for its lighter sound , and peaked at number 154 on the Billboard 200 . An unsigned NME review said that " this record has far more in common with bad jazz and progressive rock than any experimental art @-@ rock tradition . " In a 1999 The Washington Post article , Mark Jenkins asked Gane about the album 's apparent lack of guitars ; Gane responded , " There 's a lot less upfront , distorted guitar ... But it 's still quite guitar @-@ based music . Every single track has a guitar on it . " Stereolab added a new bassist , Simon Johns , for the Cobra and Phases Group ... tour .
The album Sound @-@ Dust followed in 2001 , and rose to number 178 on the Billboard 200 . Again featuring producers McEntire and O 'Rourke , it was more warmly received than Cobra and Phases Group .... Critic Joshua Klein said that " the emphasis this time sounds less on unfocused experimentation and more on melody ... a breezy and welcome return to form for the British band . " Klein also commented that " never has it been harder to discern just what [ Sadier ] is singing , but rarely has her gibberish sounded so pleasant . "
= = = 2002 – 2008 = = =
In 2002 , as they were planning their next album , the band started building a studio north of Bordeaux , France . October saw the release of ABC Music : The Radio 1 Sessions ; a compilation of BBC Radio 1 sessions . That year also marked an end to Gane and Sadier 's romantic relationship . As the year was coming to a close , tragedy struck .
On 9 December , longstanding band member Mary Hansen was killed when hit by a truck while riding her bicycle . Born in Maryborough , Queensland , Australia , Hansen earned the most attention for her vocal work with Stereolab , although she also played the guitar and keyboards . The music journalist Pierre Perrone said that Hansen 's " playful nature and mischievous sense of humour came through in the way she approached the backing vocals she contributed to Stereolab and the distinctive harmonies she created with Sadier . " For the next few months , Stereolab lay dormant as the members grieved . They eventually decided to continue ; as Sadier explained in a 2004 interview : " Losing Mary is still incredibly painful ... But it 's also an opportunity to transform and move on . It 's a new version . We 've always had new versions , people coming in and out . That 's life . " ( Future album and concert reviews would mention the effects of Hansen 's absence . ) In a 2004 interview , Sadier said that " Our dedication to her on the album [ 2004 's Margerine Eclipse ] says , ' We will love you till the end ' , meaning of our lives . I 'm not religious , but I feel Mary 's energy is still around somewhere . It didn 't just disappear . "
The 2003 EP Instant 0 in the Universe was recorded in France , and was Stereolab 's first release following Hansen 's death . According to music journalist Jim DeRogatis , the EP marked a return to their earlier , harder sound — " free from the pseudo @-@ funk moves and avant @-@ garde tinkering that had been inspired by Chicago producer Jim O 'Rourke " . That year , Sadier 's side @-@ project , Monade , released its debut album Socialisme Ou Barbarie : The Bedroom Recordings . Both the name of the group and the title of the album are references to the work of Greek @-@ French intellectual Cornelius Castoriadis .
The album Margerine Eclipse followed in 2004 with generally positive reviews , and peaked at number 174 on the US Billboard 200 . The track " Feel and Triple " was written in tribute to Hansen ; according to Sadier " I was reflecting on my years with her ... reflecting on how we sometimes found it hard to express the love we had for one another . " The Observer 's Molloy Woodcraft awarded the album four out of five stars , and described Sadier 's vocal performance as " life- and love @-@ affirming " , and the record as a whole as " Complex and catchy , bold and beatific . " Kelefa Sanneh argued in Rolling Stone that Margerine Eclipse was " full of familiar noises and aimless melodies " . Margerine Eclipse was Stereolab 's last record to be released on American label Elektra Records , which shut down that same year . Future material would be released on Too Pure , the same label which had released some of the band 's earliest material .
Margerine Eclipse was followed by Oscillons from the Anti @-@ Sun ; a 2005 three @-@ CD and one @-@ DVD retrospective of the group 's rarer material . Monade 's second album , A Few Steps More , also appeared that year . In 2005 and 2006 , Stereolab released six limited @-@ edition singles which were later released as a collection in Fab Four Suture , and contained material which Mark Jenkins thought continued the brisker sound of the band 's post @-@ Hansen work . Serene Velocity , a " best @-@ of " compilation focusing on the band 's Elektra years , was released in late 2006 . By June 2007 , Stereolab 's lineup comprised Tim Gane , Lætitia Sadier , Andy Ramsay , Simon Johns , Dominic Jeffrey , Joseph Watson , and Joseph Walters . The band had finished the production of their next album , entitled Chemical Chords , which was released in August 2008 on the 4AD label . The release of the album was followed by an autumn tour of Europe and the United States .
= = = 2009 – present = = =
They toured Australia in February 2009 as part of the St Jerome 's Laneway Festival . In April the same year , manager Martin Pike announced a pause in the band 's career together for the time being . After 19 years , he said that they felt it was time to take a rest and move on to new projects .
In November 2010 , the band released Not Music , a collection of unreleased material recorded at the same time as Chemical Chords .
At a performance on 21 June 2013 at the All Tomorrow 's Parties festival held at Pontins in Camber Sands , Cavern Of Anti @-@ Matter ( a trio featuring former Stereolab members Tim Gane and Joe Dilworth ) were joined onstage by Lætitia Sadier for a performance of " Blue Milk " ( from Cobra and Phases Group Play Voltage in the Milky Night ) , thus effecting a partial Stereolab reunion . The song is mentioned repeatedly in the festival programme as being highly influential on the work of festival curators Deerhunter , and band member Bradford Cox also joined the group onstage for this performance .
= = Musical style = =
Stereolab 's music combines a droning rock sound with lounge instrumentals , overlaid with sing @-@ song female vocals and pop melodies . Their records are heavily influenced by the " motorik " technique of 1970s krautrock groups such as Neu ! and Faust . Tim Gane has supported the comparison : " Neu ! did minimalism and drones , but in a very pop way . " Stereolab 's style also incorporates easy @-@ listening music of the 1950s and ' 60s . Said Joshua Klein in The Washington Post , " Years before everyone else caught on , Stereolab was referencing the 1970s German bands Can and Neu ! , the Mexican lounge music master Esquivel and the decidedly unhip Burt Bacharach . " The band 's music is also associated with genres such as art pop , indie pop , indie rock , post @-@ rock and experimental rock .
The band make use of vintage analog electronic instruments such as the Farfisa and Vox organs , and the Moog synthesizer , which was featured prominently on 1994 's Mars Audiac Quintet . Gane has praised these older instruments for their superior controllability : " We use the older effects because they 're more direct , more extreme , and they 're more like plasticine : you can shape them into loads of things . " Funk , jazz , and Brazilian music were inspirations , and the sounds of minimalist composers Philip Glass and Steve Reich can be found on 1999 's Cobra and Phases Group .... Several critics have commented that the band 's later work , like Instant 0 in the Universe ( 2003 ) and Margerine Eclipse ( 2004 ) , sound similar to their guitar @-@ driven earlier style .
Lætitia Sadier 's French and English vocals have been a part of Stereolab 's sound since the beginning . She writes the group 's lyrics , which tend to lean towards Marxist social commentary rather than " affairs of the heart " ( in the opinion of music journalist Simon Reynolds ) . In reference to Sadier 's laid @-@ back delivery , Peter Shapiro wrote facetiously in The Wire that she " display [ ed ] all the emotional histrionics of Nico " . Sometimes Sadier will just sing wordlessly along with the music . Before Mary Hansen 's death in 2002 , she and Sadier would often trade vocals back @-@ and @-@ forth in a singsong manner that has been described as " eerie " and " hypnotic " . Critic Jim Harrington commented that Hansen 's absence is noticeable on live performances of Stereolab 's older tracks , and that their newer songs could have benefited from her backing vocals .
In interviews , Gane and Sadier have discussed their musical philosophy . According to Gane " to be unique was more important than to be good . " On the subject of being too obscure , he said in a 1996 interview that " maybe the area where we 're on dodgy ground , is this idea that you need great knowledge [ of ] esoteric music to understand what we 're doing . " Sadier responded to Gane , saying that she " think [ s ] we have achieved a music that will make sense to a lot of people whether they know about Steve Reich or not . " The duo were up @-@ front about their desire to grow the group 's sound : for Gane , " otherwise it just sounds like what other people are doing , " and for Sadier , " you trust that there is more and that it can be done more interesting . "
= = = On stage = = =
Stereolab toured regularly to support their album releases . In a 1996 The Washington Post gig review , Mark Jenkins wrote that Stereolab started out favoring an " easy @-@ listening syncopation " , but eventually reverted to a " messier , more urgent sound " characteristic of their earlier performances . In another review Jenkins said that the band 's live songs " frequently veer [ ed ] into more cacophonous , guitar @-@ dominated territory " , in contrast to lighter albums like Cobra and Phases Group .... In the Minneapolis Star Tribune Jon Bream compared the band 's live sound to feedback @-@ driven rock bands like The Velvet Underground , Sonic Youth and My Bloody Valentine . Several critics have said that Stereolab lacked stage presence , arguing that Sadier 's vocal delivery was too subdued and that the band tended to play instead of perform its music . Regarding being onstage , Gane has said that " I don 't like to be the center of attention ... I just get into the music and am not really aware of the people there . That 's my way of getting through it . "
= = Lyrics and titles = =
Stereolab 's music is politically and philosophically charged . Lætitia Sadier , who writes the group 's lyrics , has reportedly been inspired by her anger at the Iraq War . The Surrealist and Situationist cultural and political movements were also influences , as noted by Sadier and Gane in a 1999 Salon.com interview . Stewart Mason commented in an AllMusic review that the lyrics from the 1997 song " Miss Modular " " sound influenced by the Situationist theory of the ' spectacle ' . " When asked to explain her intentions in a 1991 Melody Maker interview , Sadier responded that " Basically I want to change the world . I want to make people think about how they live every day , shake them a bit . "
Critics have seen Marxist allusions in the band 's lyrics , and several have gone so far as to call the band members themselves Marxist . " Ping Pong " , a single included on Mars Audiac Quintet ( 1994 ) , has been put forward as evidence . In the song , Sadier sings " about capitalism 's cruel cycles of slump and recovery " with lyrics that constitute " a plainspoken explanation of one of the central tenets of Marxian economic analysis " ( said critics Simon Reynolds and Stewart Mason , respectively ) . The song opens with the lines :
It 's alright ' cause the historical pattern has shown ,
How the economical cycle tends to revolve ,
In a round of decades three stages stand out in a loop ,
A slump and war then peel back to square one and back for more .
Band members have resisted attempts to link the group and its music to Marxism . In a 1999 interview , Gane stated that " none of us are Marxists ... I 've never even read Marx . " Although Gane admitted that his partner 's lyrics touch on political topics , he argued that they do not cross the line into " sloganeering " . Sadier herself has mentioned that she has read very little Marx . In contrast , Cornelius Castoriadis , a radical political philosopher but strong critic of Marxism , has been mentioned as a marking influence in her thinking . Her side project 's name ( Monade ) and its first album 's title ( Socialisme ou Barbarie ) are also references to the work of Castoriadis .
Stereolab 's album and song titles occasionally reference avant @-@ garde political groups and artists . Gane said that the title of their 1999 album Cobra and Phases Group Play Voltage in the Milky Night contains the names of two Surrealist organizations , " CoBrA " and " Phases Group " . The title of the first song on Dots and Loops , " Brakhage " , is a nod to experimental filmmaker Stan Brakhage . Other examples are the 1992 compilation Switched On , named after a 1969 Wendy Carlos album , and the 1992 single " John Cage Bubblegum " , named after experimental composer John Cage .
= = Legacy = =
Stereolab have been called " one of the most influential alternative bands of the ' 90s " , and one of " the decade 's most innovative British bands . " Simon Reynolds commented in Rolling Stone that the group 's earlier records form " an endlessly seductive body of work that sounds always the same , always different . " In The Wire , Peter Shapiro compared the band favorably to Britpop bands Oasis and Blur , and defended their music against the charge that it is " nothing but the sum total of its arcane reference points . " Stereolab were one of the first groups to be called post @-@ rock — in a 1996 article , journalist Angela Lewis applied the " new term " to Stereolab and three other bands who have connections to the group . The band 's 1996 album Emperor Tomato Ketchup , their " high @-@ water mark " according to critic Joshua Klein , was a critical success and underground hit . Stereolab have also received negative press . Barney Hoskyns questioned the longevity of their music in a 1996 Mojo review , saying that their records " sound more like arid experiments than music born of emotional need . " In The Guardian , Dave Simpson stated : " With their borrowings from early , obscure Kraftwerk and hip obtuse sources , [ Stereolab ] sound like a band of rock critics rather than musicians . " Lætitia Sadier 's vocals were cited by author Stuart Shea as often being " indecipherable . "
A variety of artists , musical and otherwise , have collaborated with Stereolab . In 1995 the group teamed up with sculptor Charles Long for an interactive art show in New York City , for which Long provided the exhibits and Stereolab the music . They have released tracks by and toured with post @-@ rock band Tortoise , while John McEntire of Tortoise has in turn worked on several Stereolab albums . In the 1990s Stereolab and veteran industrial band Nurse With Wound released two limited @-@ edition records together ; both contained Nurse With Wound remixes of original tracks provided by Stereolab .
Stylistically , music journalist J. D. Considine credits the band for anticipating and driving the late 1990s revival of vintage analog instruments among indie rock bands . Indie rock band Pavement ( who also toured with Stereolab ) acknowledged the group 's sound on their song " Half A Canyon . " Stereolab alumni have also founded bands of their own . Guitarist Sean O 'Hagan went on to form The High Llamas , while keyboardist Katharine Gifford created Snowpony with a former member of My Bloody Valentine . Sadier herself has released three albums with her four @-@ piece side @-@ project Monade , whose sound Mark Jenkins called a " little more Parisian " than Stereolab 's . Australian band Turnstyle sampled " OLV 26 " from Emperor Tomato Ketchup on their debut album and going as far as using Andy Ramsay to mix and master their reunion album " Time equals Function " .
Despite earning critical acclaim and a sizable fanbase , commercial success eluded the group . Early in their career , their 1993 EP Jenny Ondioline entered the UK Singles Chart , but financial issues prevented the band from printing enough records to satisfy demand . When Elektra Records was closed down by Warner Bros. Records in 2004 , Stereolab was dropped along with many other artists , reportedly because of poor sales . Since then , Stereolab 's self @-@ owned label Duophonic has inked a worldwide distribution deal with independent label Too Pure . Through Duophonic the band both licenses their music and releases it directly ( depending on geographic market ) . According to Tim Gane , " ... we license our recordings and just give them to people , then we don 't have to ask for permission if we want to use it . We just want to be in control of our own music . "
Members of US band ! ! ! have formed Stereolad , their tribute to the group . Stereolad are supporting ! ! ! on their current European tour ( February 2016 ) .
Artists covering Stereolab 's songs have included Iron & Wine ( " Peng ! 33 " ) , Editors ( " French Disko " ) , The Raveonettes ( " French Disko " ) , and The Flowers of Hell ( " Super @-@ Electric " )
= = Selected discography = =
Stereolab released dozens of studio albums , EPs , and singles over the years . They made it a practice to make almost all of their more obscure material widely available through compilations .
= = = Studio albums = = =
Peng ! ( 1992 ) , Too Pure / American
Transient Random @-@ Noise Bursts with Announcements ( 1993 ) , Duophonic / Elektra
Mars Audiac Quintet ( 1994 ) , Duophonic / Elektra
Emperor Tomato Ketchup ( 1996 ) , Duophonic / Elektra
Dots and Loops ( 1997 ) , Duophonic / Elektra
Cobra and Phases Group Play Voltage in the Milky Night ( 1999 ) , Duophonic / Elektra
Sound @-@ Dust ( 2001 ) , Duophonic / Elektra
Margerine Eclipse ( 2004 ) , Duophonic / Elektra
Chemical Chords ( 2008 ) , Duophonic / 4AD
Not Music ( 2010 ) , Duophonic / Drag City
= = = Compilations = = =
Switched On ( 1992 ) , Too Pure / Slumberland
Refried Ectoplasm : Switched On , Vol . 2 ( 1995 ) , Duophonic / Drag City
Aluminum Tunes : Switched On , Vol . 3 ( 1998 ) , Duophonic / Drag City
ABC Music : The Radio 1 Sessions ( 2002 ) , Strange Fruit / Koch
Oscillons from the Anti @-@ Sun ( 2005 ) , Duophonic / Too Pure
Fab Four Suture ( 2006 ) , Duophonic / Too Pure
Serene Velocity : A Stereolab Anthology ( 2006 ) , Duophonic / Elektra / Rhino
= Alien Rage =
Alien Rage is a science fiction first @-@ person shooter video game for Microsoft Windows , Xbox 360 ( through Xbox Live Arcade ) , and PlayStation 3 ( through PlayStation Network ) . Alien Rage was developed by the Bydgoszcz studio of Polish developer CI Games , then known as City Interactive , using Unreal Engine 3 . The game has single player and competitive multiplayer modes . In its single player campaign , players are put in control of an elite soldier named Jack . Jack is sent to destroy a mining facility and the aliens within it after the aliens turned against and killed the humans that they had shared the facility with .
Announced as Alien Fear in April 2012 , the game was renamed to Alien Rage in May of the following year . The game was released on 24 September 2013 for Windows , 18 October 2013 for the Xbox 360 , and 21 October 2013 for the PlayStation 3 . Alien Rage was met with mixed to negative reviews upon release , with critics viewing the game as generic and prone to major glitches .
= = Development = =
Alien Rage was first announced in early April 2012 , under the name Alien Fear . The game was to be developed using Unreal Engine 3 by City Interactive 's Bydgoszcz Studio , and would have a cooperative gameplay ( co @-@ op ) mode . The first screenshots from the game were released two months later , in June 2012 . In May 2013 the game 's name was changed to Alien Rage , and two months later it was announced that the game would be released on the personal computer , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 on 24 September 2013 . The game was eventually released on 24 September 2013 for Windows , 18 October 2013 for the Xbox 360 , and 21 October 2013 for the PlayStation 3 , with and ESRB rating of Mature .
= = Gameplay = =
Alien Rage is a first @-@ person shooter , in which players fight through several linear levels , killing a variety of aliens . At the end of every few levels , players fight a larger alien in a boss fight . Players score points by killing a large number of aliens in a short period of time , or by killing them in special ways , such as by using explosions or shooting them in the head . These points can be used to upgrade the player character , for example by boosting his resistance to damage or by increasing the amount of ammunition that he is able to carry . Players are able to carry two weapons at a time , and also have a pistol with unlimited ammunition . The player character can use both human- and alien @-@ manufactured weapons in the game , and alien weapons use a cool @-@ down period instead of having to reload . Weapons in the game include assault rifles , sniper rifles , shotguns , rocket launchers , and miniguns . The game is intentionally difficult ; its easiest difficulty level is called " challenging " , and the next easiest difficulty level is called " hard " .
The game also offers competitive multiplayer . There are two modes – deathmatch and team deathmatch – and a small number of maps . Cooperative gameplay , which was mentioned in the game 's initial announcement , did not make it into the final game .
= = = Plot = = =
Alien Rage takes place on an asteroid which humans and an alien species known as Vorus were jointly mining for Promethium , a highly efficient source of energy . After the Vorus turn on the humans and wipe the miners out , Jack , the player character , is sent to the mining facility to kill the aliens and destroy the facility .
= = Reception = =
Alien Rage received average to poor reviews upon release . At Metacritic , a video game review aggregator , the Windows version of the game received an average score of 52 out of 100 , based on 27 reviews , while the Xbox 360 version revived a score of 46 , based on 10 reviews .
The game was heavily criticized for its lack of originality . Daniel Shannon of GameSpot remarked that " If you have played a first @-@ person shooter made in the last 10 years , then you have already experienced most of what Alien Rage has to offer . " , and continued that " You 've seen these weapons before , and you 've shot these enemies before " . Reviewers especially took issue with the lack of creativity in level design , which Destructoid 's Jim Sterling called " tedious corridors full of identical , monotonous , brainless combat encounters " . Hardcore Gamer 's Nikola Suprak commented that several of the levels he played through were visually indistinct from one another , before saying that " level after level of redundant action and repetitive encounters ultimately drag the game down " . Critics also noted that the game had a number of technical issues . Jim Sterling of Destructoid ran into two situations where glitches would not allow him to progress without restarting the level , while Sam Turner of The Digital Fix experienced dramatic drops in frame rate during gameplay , and crashed to desktop several times .
The game 's multiplayer experience was received better than its single player campaign . Writing for Gaming Nexus , Jeff Kintner said that the " multiplayer is fun , if a bit repetitive " . While Kintner expressed a desire for additional , objective @-@ based , types of multiplayer , he praised the team deathmatch mode 's intensity . GameSpot 's Daniel Shannon also commented on the limited number of multiplayer options , but went on to say that " For what it 's worth , the action is fast @-@ paced , and the maps are well designed for a balanced multiplayer experience . "
= Immune system =
The immune system is a host defense system comprising many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease . To function properly , an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents , known as pathogens , from viruses to parasitic worms , and distinguish them from the organism 's own healthy tissue . In many species , the immune system can be classified into subsystems , such as the innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system , or humoral immunity versus cell @-@ mediated immunity . In humans , the blood – brain barrier , blood – cerebrospinal fluid barrier , and similar fluid – brain barriers separate the peripheral immune system from the neuroimmune system which protects the brain .
Pathogens can rapidly evolve and adapt , and thereby avoid detection and neutralization by the immune system ; however , multiple defense mechanisms have also evolved to recognize and neutralize pathogens . Even simple unicellular organisms such as bacteria possess a rudimentary immune system , in the form of enzymes that protect against bacteriophage infections . Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient eukaryotes and remain in their modern descendants , such as plants and invertebrates . These mechanisms include phagocytosis , antimicrobial peptides called defensins , and the complement system . Jawed vertebrates , including humans , have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms , including the ability to adapt over time to recognize specific pathogens more efficiently . Adaptive ( or acquired ) immunity creates immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen , leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen . This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination .
Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases , inflammatory diseases and cancer . Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal , resulting in recurring and life @-@ threatening infections . In humans , immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency , acquired conditions such as HIV / AIDS , or the use of immunosuppressive medication . In contrast , autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms . Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto 's thyroiditis , rheumatoid arthritis , diabetes mellitus type 1 , and systemic lupus erythematosus . Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system .
= = History of immunology = =
Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system . It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease . The earliest known reference to immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC . Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time . In the 18th century , Pierre @-@ Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom . This and other observations of acquired immunity were later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease . Pasteur 's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease , such as the miasma theory . It was not until Robert Koch 's 1891 proofs , for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905 , that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease . Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901 , with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed .
Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century , through rapid developments , in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity . Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich , who proposed the side @-@ chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen @-@ antibody reaction ; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908 , which was jointly awarded to the founder of cellular immunology , Elie Metchnikoff .
= = Layered defense = =
The immune system protects organisms from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity . In simple terms , physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism . If a pathogen breaches these barriers , the innate immune system provides an immediate , but non @-@ specific response . Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals . If pathogens successfully evade the innate response , vertebrates possess a second layer of protection , the adaptive immune system , which is activated by the innate response . Here , the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen . This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated , in the form of an immunological memory , and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered .
Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non @-@ self molecules . In immunology , self molecules are those components of an organism 's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system . Conversely , non @-@ self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules . One class of non @-@ self molecules are called antigens ( short for antibody generators ) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response .
= = Innate immune system = =
Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system . The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by pattern recognition receptors , which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms , or when damaged , injured or stressed cells send out alarm signals , many of which ( but not all ) are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize pathogens . Innate immune defenses are non @-@ specific , meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way . This system does not confer long @-@ lasting immunity against a pathogen . The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms .
= = = Surface barriers = = =
Several barriers protect organisms from infection , including mechanical , chemical , and biological barriers . The waxy cuticle of many leaves , the exoskeleton of insects , the shells and membranes of externally deposited eggs , and skin are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection . However , as organisms cannot be completely sealed from their environments , other systems act to protect body openings such as the lungs , intestines , and the genitourinary tract . In the lungs , coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract . The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens , while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms .
Chemical barriers also protect against infection . The skin and respiratory tract secrete antimicrobial peptides such as the β @-@ defensins . Enzymes such as lysozyme and phospholipase A2 in saliva , tears , and breast milk are also antibacterials . Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche , when they become slightly acidic , while semen contains defensins and zinc to kill pathogens . In the stomach , gastric acid and proteases serve as powerful chemical defenses against ingested pathogens .
Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts , commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and , in some cases , by changing the conditions in their environment , such as pH or available iron . This reduces the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness . However , since most antibiotics non @-@ specifically target bacteria and do not affect fungi , oral antibiotics can lead to an " overgrowth " of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal candidiasis ( a yeast infection ) . There is good evidence that re @-@ introduction of probiotic flora , such as pure cultures of the lactobacilli normally found in unpasteurized yogurt , helps restore a healthy balance of microbial populations in intestinal infections in children and encouraging preliminary data in studies on bacterial gastroenteritis , inflammatory bowel diseases , urinary tract infection and post @-@ surgical infections .
= = = Inflammation = = =
Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection . The symptoms of inflammation are redness , swelling , heat , and pain , which are caused by increased blood flow into tissue . Inflammation is produced by eicosanoids and cytokines , which are released by injured or infected cells . Eicosanoids include prostaglandins that produce fever and the dilation of blood vessels associated with inflammation , and leukotrienes that attract certain white blood cells ( leukocytes ) . Common cytokines include interleukins that are responsible for communication between white blood cells ; chemokines that promote chemotaxis ; and interferons that have anti @-@ viral effects , such as shutting down protein synthesis in the host cell . Growth factors and cytotoxic factors may also be released . These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens .
= = = Complement system = = =
The complement system is a biochemical cascade that attacks the surfaces of foreign cells . It contains over 20 different proteins and is named for its ability to " complement " the killing of pathogens by antibodies . Complement is the major humoral component of the innate immune response . Many species have complement systems , including non @-@ mammals like plants , fish , and some invertebrates .
In humans , this response is activated by complement binding to antibodies that have attached to these microbes or the binding of complement proteins to carbohydrates on the surfaces of microbes . This recognition signal triggers a rapid killing response . The speed of the response is a result of signal amplification that occurs following sequential proteolytic activation of complement molecules , which are also proteases . After complement proteins initially bind to the microbe , they activate their protease activity , which in turn activates other complement proteases , and so on . This produces a catalytic cascade that amplifies the initial signal by controlled positive feedback . The cascade results in the production of peptides that attract immune cells , increase vascular permeability , and opsonize ( coat ) the surface of a pathogen , marking it for destruction . This deposition of complement can also kill cells directly by disrupting their plasma membrane .
= = = Cellular barriers = = =
Leukocytes ( white blood cells ) act like independent , single @-@ celled organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system . The innate leukocytes include the phagocytes ( macrophages , neutrophils , and dendritic cells ) , innate lymphoid cells , mast cells , eosinophils , basophils , and natural killer cells . These cells identify and eliminate pathogens , either by attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing microorganisms . Innate cells are also important mediators in lymphoid organ development and the activation of the adaptive immune system .
Phagocytosis is an important feature of cellular innate immunity performed by cells called ' phagocytes ' that engulf , or eat , pathogens or particles . Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for pathogens , but can be called to specific locations by cytokines . Once a pathogen has been engulfed by a phagocyte , it becomes trapped in an intracellular vesicle called a phagosome , which subsequently fuses with another vesicle called a lysosome to form a phagolysosome . The pathogen is killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or following a respiratory burst that releases free radicals into the phagolysosome . Phagocytosis evolved as a means of acquiring nutrients , but this role was extended in phagocytes to include engulfment of pathogens as a defense mechanism . Phagocytosis probably represents the oldest form of host defense , as phagocytes have been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals .
Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body in pursuit of invading pathogens . Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte , normally representing 50 % to 60 % of the total circulating leukocytes . During the acute phase of inflammation , particularly as a result of bacterial infection , neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemotaxis , and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection . Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and : ( i ) produce a wide array of chemicals including enzymes , complement proteins , and cytokines , while they can also ( ii ) act as scavengers that rid the body of worn @-@ out cells and other debris , and as antigen @-@ presenting cells that activate the adaptive immune system .
Dendritic cells ( DC ) are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the external environment ; therefore , they are located mainly in the skin , nose , lungs , stomach , and intestines . They are named for their resemblance to neuronal dendrites , as both have many spine @-@ like projections , but dendritic cells are in no way connected to the nervous system . Dendritic cells serve as a link between the bodily tissues and the innate and adaptive immune systems , as they present antigens to T cells , one of the key cell types of the adaptive immune system .
Mast cells reside in connective tissues and mucous membranes , and regulate the inflammatory response . They are most often associated with allergy and anaphylaxis . Basophils and eosinophils are related to neutrophils . They secrete chemical mediators that are involved in defending against parasites and play a role in allergic reactions , such as asthma . Natural killer ( NK cells ) cells are leukocytes that attack and destroy tumor cells , or cells that have been infected by viruses .
= = = Natural killer cells = = =
Natural killer cells , or NK cells , are a component of the innate immune system which does not directly attack invading microbes . Rather , NK cells destroy compromised host cells , such as tumor cells or virus @-@ infected cells , recognizing such cells by a condition known as " missing self . " This term describes cells with low levels of a cell @-@ surface marker called MHC I ( major histocompatibility complex ) – a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells . They were named " natural killer " because of the initial notion that they do not require activation in order to kill cells that are " missing self . " For many years it was unclear how NK cells recognize tumor cells and infected cells . It is now known that the MHC makeup on the surface of those cells is altered and the NK cells become activated through recognition of " missing self " . Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens . Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors ( KIR ) which essentially put the brakes on NK cells .
= = Adaptive immune system = =
The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory , where each pathogen is " remembered " by a signature antigen . The adaptive immune response is antigen @-@ specific and requires the recognition of specific " non @-@ self " antigens during a process called antigen presentation . Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen @-@ infected cells . The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by " memory cells " . Should a pathogen infect the body more than once , these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it .
= = = Lymphocytes = = =
The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes , called lymphocytes . B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow . B cells are involved in the humoral immune response , whereas T cells are involved in cell @-@ mediated immune response .
Both B cells and T cells carry receptor molecules that recognize specific targets . T cells recognize a " non @-@ self " target , such as a pathogen , only after antigens ( small fragments of the pathogen ) have been processed and presented in combination with a " self " receptor called a major histocompatibility complex ( MHC ) molecule . There are two major subtypes of T cells : the killer T cell and the helper T cell . In addition there are regulatory T cells which have a role in modulating immune response . Killer T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class I MHC molecules , while helper T cells and regulatory T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class II MHC molecules . These two mechanisms of antigen presentation reflect the different roles of the two types of T cell . A third , minor subtype are the γδ T cells that recognize intact antigens that are not bound to MHC receptors .
In contrast , the B cell antigen @-@ specific receptor is an antibody molecule on the B cell surface , and recognizes whole pathogens without any need for antigen processing . Each lineage of B cell expresses a different antibody , so the complete set of B cell antigen receptors represent all the antibodies that the body can manufacture .
= = = = Killer T cells = = = =
Killer T cells are a sub @-@ group of T cells that kill cells that are infected with viruses ( and other pathogens ) , or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional . As with B cells , each type of T cell recognizes a different antigen . Killer T cells are activated when their T cell receptor ( TCR ) binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell . Recognition of this MHC : antigen complex is aided by a co @-@ receptor on the T cell , called CD8 . The T cell then travels throughout the body in search of cells where the MHC I receptors bear this antigen . When an activated T cell contacts such cells , it releases cytotoxins , such as perforin , which form pores in the target cell 's plasma membrane , allowing ions , water and toxins to enter . The entry of another toxin called granulysin ( a protease ) induces the target cell to undergo apoptosis . T cell killing of host cells is particularly important in preventing the replication of viruses . T cell activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC / antigen activation signal , or additional activation signals provided by " helper " T cells ( see below ) .
= = = = Helper T cells = = = =
Helper T cells regulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses and help determine which immune responses the body makes to a particular pathogen . These cells have no cytotoxic activity and do not kill infected cells or clear pathogens directly . They instead control the immune response by directing other cells to perform these tasks .
Helper T cells express T cell receptors ( TCR ) that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules . The MHC : antigen complex is also recognized by the helper cell 's CD4 co @-@ receptor , which recruits molecules inside the T cell ( e.g. , Lck ) that are responsible for the T cell 's activation . Helper T cells have a weaker association with the MHC : antigen complex than observed for killer T cells , meaning many receptors ( around 200 – 300 ) on the helper T cell must be bound by an MHC : antigen in order to activate the helper cell , while killer T cells can be activated by engagement of a single MHC : antigen molecule . Helper T cell activation also requires longer duration of engagement with an antigen @-@ presenting cell . The activation of a resting helper T cell causes it to release cytokines that influence the activity of many cell types . Cytokine signals produced by helper T cells enhance the microbicidal function of macrophages and the activity of killer T cells . In addition , helper T cell activation causes an upregulation of molecules expressed on the T cell 's surface , such as CD40 ligand ( also called CD154 ) , which provide extra stimulatory signals typically required to activate antibody @-@ producing B cells .
= = = = Gamma delta T cells = = = =
Gamma delta T cells ( γδ T cells ) possess an alternative T cell receptor ( TCR ) as opposed to CD4 + and CD8 + ( αβ ) T cells and share the characteristics of helper T cells , cytotoxic T cells and NK cells . The conditions that produce responses from γδ T cells are not fully understood . Like other ' unconventional ' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs , such as CD1d @-@ restricted Natural Killer T cells , γδ T cells straddle the border between innate and adaptive immunity . On one hand , γδ T cells are a component of adaptive immunity as they rearrange TCR genes to produce receptor diversity and can also develop a memory phenotype . On the other hand , the various subsets are also part of the innate immune system , as restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as pattern recognition receptors . For example , large numbers of human Vγ9 / Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes , and highly restricted Vδ1 + T cells in epithelia respond to stressed epithelial cells .
= = = = B lymphocytes and antibodies = = = =
A B cell identifies pathogens when antibodies on its surface bind to a specific foreign antigen . This antigen / antibody complex is taken up by the B cell and processed by proteolysis into peptides . The B cell then displays these antigenic peptides on its surface MHC class II molecules . This combination of MHC and antigen attracts a matching helper T cell , which releases lymphokines and activates the B cell . As the activated B cell then begins to divide , its offspring ( plasma cells ) secrete millions of copies of the antibody that recognizes this antigen . These antibodies circulate in blood plasma and lymph , bind to pathogens expressing the antigen and mark them for destruction by complement activation or for uptake and destruction by phagocytes . Antibodies can also neutralize challenges directly , by binding to bacterial toxins or by interfering with the receptors that viruses and bacteria use to infect cells .
= = = = Alternative adaptive immune system = = = =
Evolution of the adaptive immune system occurred in an ancestor of the jawed vertebrates . Many of the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system ( e.g. , immunoglobulins and T cell receptors ) exist only in jawed vertebrates . However , a distinct lymphocyte @-@ derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates , such as the lamprey and hagfish . These animals possess a large array of molecules called Variable lymphocyte receptors ( VLRs ) that , like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates , are produced from only a small number ( one or two ) of genes . These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigens in a similar way to antibodies , and with the same degree of specificity .
= = = Immunological memory = = =
When B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate , some of their offspring become long @-@ lived memory cells . Throughout the lifetime of an animal , these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again . This is " adaptive " because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges . Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short @-@ term memory or active long @-@ term memory .
= = = = Passive memory = = = =
Newborn infants have no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection . Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother . During pregnancy , a particular type of antibody , called IgG , is transported from mother to baby directly across the placenta , so human babies have high levels of antibodies even at birth , with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother . Breast milk or colostrum also contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant and protect against bacterial infections until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies . This is passive immunity because the fetus does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies — it only borrows them . This passive immunity is usually short @-@ term , lasting from a few days up to several months . In medicine , protective passive immunity can also be transferred artificially from one individual to another via antibody @-@ rich serum .
= = = = Active memory and immunization = = = =
Long @-@ term active memory is acquired following infection by activation of B and T cells . Active immunity can also be generated artificially , through vaccination . The principle behind vaccination ( also called immunization ) is to introduce an antigen from a pathogen in order to stimulate the immune system and develop specific immunity against that particular pathogen without causing disease associated with that organism . This deliberate induction of an immune response is successful because it exploits the natural specificity of the immune system , as well as its inducibility . With infectious disease remaining one of the leading causes of death in the human population , vaccination represents the most effective manipulation of the immune system mankind has developed .
Most viral vaccines are based on live attenuated viruses , while many bacterial vaccines are based on acellular components of micro @-@ organisms , including harmless toxin components . Since many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce the adaptive response , most bacterial vaccines are provided with additional adjuvants that activate the antigen @-@ presenting cells of the innate immune system and maximize immunogenicity .
= = Disorders of human immunity = =
The immune system is a remarkably effective structure that incorporates specificity , inducibility and adaptation . Failures of host defense do occur , however , and fall into three broad categories : immunodeficiencies , autoimmunity , and hypersensitivities .
= = = Immunodeficiencies = = =
Immunodeficiencies occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive . The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens is diminished in both the young and the elderly , with immune responses beginning to decline at around 50 years of age due to immunosenescence . In developed countries , obesity , alcoholism , and drug use are common causes of poor immune function . However , malnutrition is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in developing countries . Diets lacking sufficient protein are associated with impaired cell @-@ mediated immunity , complement activity , phagocyte function , IgA antibody concentrations , and cytokine production . Additionally , the loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection .
Immunodeficiencies can also be inherited or ' acquired ' . Chronic granulomatous disease , where phagocytes have a reduced ability to destroy pathogens , is an example of an inherited , or congenital , immunodeficiency . AIDS and some types of cancer cause acquired immunodeficiency .
= = = Autoimmunity = = =
Overactive immune responses comprise the other end of immune dysfunction , particularly the autoimmune disorders . Here , the immune system fails to properly distinguish between self and non @-@ self , and attacks part of the body . Under normal circumstances , many T cells and antibodies react with " self " peptides . One of the functions of specialized cells ( located in the thymus and bone marrow ) is to present young lymphocytes with self antigens produced throughout the body and to eliminate those cells that recognize self @-@ antigens , preventing autoimmunity .
= = = Hypersensitivity = = =
Hypersensitivity is an immune response that damages the body 's own tissues . They are divided into four classes ( Type I – IV ) based on the mechanisms involved and the time course of the hypersensitive reaction . Type I hypersensitivity is an immediate or anaphylactic reaction , often associated with allergy . Symptoms can range from mild discomfort to death . Type I hypersensitivity is mediated by IgE , which triggers degranulation of mast cells and basophils when cross @-@ linked by antigen . Type II hypersensitivity occurs when antibodies bind to antigens on the patient 's own cells , marking them for destruction . This is also called antibody @-@ dependent ( or cytotoxic ) hypersensitivity , and is mediated by IgG and IgM antibodies . Immune complexes ( aggregations of antigens , complement proteins , and IgG and IgM antibodies ) deposited in various tissues trigger Type III hypersensitivity reactions . Type IV hypersensitivity ( also known as cell @-@ mediated or delayed type hypersensitivity ) usually takes between two and three days to develop . Type IV reactions are involved in many autoimmune and infectious diseases , but may also involve contact dermatitis ( poison ivy ) . These reactions are mediated by T cells , monocytes , and macrophages .
= = Other mechanisms and evolution = =
It is likely that a multicomponent , adaptive immune system arose with the first vertebrates , as invertebrates do not generate lymphocytes or an antibody @-@ based humoral response . Many species , however , utilize mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity . Immune systems appear even in the structurally most simple forms of life , with bacteria using a unique defense mechanism , called the restriction modification system to protect themselves from viral pathogens , called bacteriophages . Prokaryotes also possess acquired immunity , through a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that they have come into contact with in the past , which allows them to block virus replication through a form of RNA interference . Offensive elements of the immune systems are also present in unicellular eukaryotes , but studies of their roles in defense are few .
Pattern recognition receptors are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with pathogens . Antimicrobial peptides called defensins are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found in all animals and plants , and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity . The complement system and phagocytic cells are also used by most forms of invertebrate life . Ribonucleases and the RNA interference pathway are conserved across all eukaryotes , and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses .
Unlike animals , plants lack phagocytic cells , but many plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant . Individual plant cells respond to molecules associated with pathogens known as Pathogen @-@ associated molecular patterns or PAMPs . When a part of a plant becomes infected , the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response , whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid apoptosis to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant . Systemic acquired resistance ( SAR ) is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant resistant to a particular infectious agent . RNA silencing mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block virus replication .
= = Tumor immunology = =
Another important role of the immune system is to identify and eliminate tumors . This is called immune surveillance . The transformed cells of tumors express antigens that are not found on normal cells . To the immune system , these antigens appear foreign , and their presence causes immune cells to attack the transformed tumor cells . The antigens expressed by tumors have several sources ; some are derived from oncogenic viruses like human papillomavirus , which causes cervical cancer , while others are the organism 's own proteins that occur at low levels in normal cells but reach high levels in tumor cells . One example is an enzyme called tyrosinase that , when expressed at high levels , transforms certain skin cells ( e.g. melanocytes ) into tumors called melanomas . A third possible source of tumor antigens are proteins normally important for regulating cell growth and survival , that commonly mutate into cancer inducing molecules called oncogenes .
The main response of the immune system to tumors is to destroy the abnormal cells using killer T cells , sometimes with the assistance of helper T cells . Tumor antigens are presented on MHC class I molecules in a similar way to viral antigens . This allows killer T cells to recognize the tumor cell as abnormal . NK cells also kill tumorous cells in a similar way , especially if the tumor cells have fewer MHC class I molecules on their surface than normal ; this is a common phenomenon with tumors . Sometimes antibodies are generated against tumor cells allowing for their destruction by the complement system .
Clearly , some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers . Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface , thus avoiding detection by killer T cells . Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response ; for example by secreting the cytokine TGF @-@ β , which suppresses the activity of macrophages and lymphocytes . In addition , immunological tolerance may develop against tumor antigens , so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells .
Paradoxically , macrophages can promote tumor growth when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages , which then generate cytokines and growth factors that nurture tumor development . In addition , a combination of hypoxia in the tumor and a cytokine produced by macrophages induces tumor cells to decrease production of a protein that blocks metastasis and thereby assists spread of cancer cells .
= = Physiological regulation = =
Hormones can act as immunomodulators , altering the sensitivity of the immune system . For example , female sex hormones are known immunostimulators of both adaptive and innate immune responses . Some autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus strike women preferentially , and their onset often coincides with puberty . By contrast , male sex hormones such as testosterone seem to be immunosuppressive . Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well , most notably prolactin , growth hormone and vitamin D.
When a T @-@ cell encounters a foreign pathogen , it extends a vitamin D receptor . This is essentially a signaling device that allows the T @-@ cell to bind to the active form of vitamin D , the steroid hormone calcitriol . T @-@ cells have a symbiotic relationship with vitamin D. Not only does the T @-@ cell extend a vitamin D receptor , in essence asking to bind to the steroid hormone version of vitamin D , calcitriol , but the T @-@ cell expresses the gene CYP27B1 , which is the gene responsible for converting the pre @-@ hormone version of vitamin D , calcidiol into the steroid hormone version , calcitriol . Only after binding to calcitriol can T @-@ cells perform their intended function . Other immune system cells that are known to express CYP27B1 and thus activate vitamin D calcidiol , are dendritic cells , keratinocytes and macrophages .
It is conjectured that a progressive decline in hormone levels with age is partially responsible for weakened immune responses in aging individuals . Conversely , some hormones are regulated by the immune system , notably thyroid hormone activity . The age @-@ related decline in immune function is also related to decreasing vitamin D levels in the elderly . As people age , two things happen that negatively affect their vitamin D levels . First , they stay indoors more due to decreased activity levels . This means that they get less sun and therefore produce less cholecalciferol via UVB radiation . Second , as a person ages the skin becomes less adept at producing vitamin D.
= = = Sleep and rest = = =
The immune system is affected by sleep and rest , and sleep deprivation is detrimental to immune function . Complex feedback loops involving cytokines , such as interleukin @-@ 1 and tumor necrosis factor @-@ α produced in response to infection , appear to also play a role in the regulation of non @-@ rapid eye movement ( REM ) sleep . Thus the immune response to infection may result in changes to the sleep cycle , including an increase in slow @-@ wave sleep relative to REM sleep .
When suffering from sleep deprivation , active immunizations may have a diminished effect and may result in lower antibody production , and a lower immune response , than would be noted in a well @-@ rested individual . Additionally , proteins such as NFIL3 , which have been shown to be closely intertwined with both T @-@ cell differentiation and our circadian rhythms , can be affected through the disturbance of natural light and dark cycles through instances of sleep deprivation , shift work , etc . As a result , these disruptions can lead to an increase in chronic conditions such as heart disease , chronic pain , and asthma .
In addition to the negative consequences of sleep deprivation , sleep and the intertwined circadian system have been shown to have strong regulatory effects on immunological functions affecting both the innate and the adaptive immunity . First , during the early slow @-@ wave @-@ sleep stage , a sudden drop in blood levels of cortisol , epinephrine , and norepinephrine induce increased blood levels of the hormones leptin , pituitary growth hormone , and prolactin . These signals induce a pro @-@ inflammatory state through the production of the pro @-@ inflammatory cytokines interleukin @-@ 1 , interleukin @-@ 12 , TNF @-@ alpha and IFN @-@ gamma . These cytokines then stimulate immune functions such as immune cells activation , proliferation , and differentiation . It is during this time that undifferentiated , or less differentiated , like naïve and central memory T cells , peak ( i.e. during a time of a slowly evolving adaptive immune response ) . In addition to these effects , the milieu of hormones produced at this time ( leptin , pituitary growth hormone , and prolactin ) support the interactions between APCs and T @-@ cells , a shift of the Th1 / Th2 cytokine balance towards one that supports Th1 , an increase in overall Th cell proliferation , and naïve T cell migration to lymph nodes . This milieu is also thought to support the formation of long @-@ lasting immune memory through the initiation of Th1 immune responses .
In contrast , during wake periods differentiated effector cells , such as cytotoxic natural killer cells and CTLs ( cytotoxic T lymphocytes ) , peak in order to elicit an effective response against any intruding pathogens . As well during awake active times , anti @-@ inflammatory molecules , such as cortisol and catecholamines , peak . There are two theories as to why the pro @-@ inflammatory state is reserved for sleep time . First , inflammation would cause serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times . Second , inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of melatonin . Inflammation causes a great deal of oxidative stress and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time .
= = = Nutrition and diet = = =
Overnutrition is associated with diseases such as diabetes and obesity , which are known to affect immune function . More moderate malnutrition , as well as certain specific trace mineral and nutrient deficiencies , can also compromise the immune response .
Foods rich in certain fatty acids may foster a healthy immune system . Likewise , fetal undernourishment can cause a lifelong impairment of the immune system .
= = Manipulation in medicine = =
The immune response can be manipulated to suppress unwanted responses resulting from autoimmunity , allergy , and transplant rejection , and to stimulate protective responses against pathogens that largely elude the immune system ( see immunization ) or cancer .
= = = Immunosuppression = = =
Immunosuppressive drugs are used to control autoimmune disorders or inflammation when excessive tissue damage occurs , and to prevent transplant rejection after an organ transplant .
Anti @-@ inflammatory drugs are often used to control the effects of inflammation . Glucocorticoids are the most powerful of these drugs ; however , these drugs can have many undesirable side effects , such as central obesity , hyperglycemia , osteoporosis , and their use must be tightly controlled . Lower doses of anti @-@ inflammatory drugs are often used in conjunction with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs such as methotrexate or azathioprine . Cytotoxic drugs inhibit the immune response by killing dividing cells such as activated T cells . However , the killing is indiscriminate and other constantly dividing cells and their organs are affected , which causes toxic side effects . Immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporin prevent T cells from responding to signals correctly by inhibiting signal transduction pathways .
= = = Immunostimulation = = =
Cancer immunotherapy covers the medical ways to stimulate the immune system to attack cancer tumours .
= = Theoretical approaches to the immune system = =
Immunology is strongly experimental in everyday practice but is also characterized by an ongoing theoretical attitude . Many theories have been suggested in immunology from the end of the nineteenth century up to the present time . The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw a battle between " cellular " and " humoral " theories of immunity . According to the cellular theory of immunity , represented in particular by Elie Metchnikoff , it was cells – more precisely , phagocytes – that were responsible for immune responses . In contrast , the humoral theory of immunity , held , among others , by Robert Koch and Emil von Behring , stated that the active immune agents were soluble components ( molecules ) found in the organism ’ s “ humors ” rather than its cells .
In the mid @-@ 1950s , Frank Burnet , inspired by a suggestion made by Niels Jerne , formulated the clonal selection theory ( CST ) of immunity . On the basis of
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, which led to confusion within the media and the public . As a result , during the next tropical cyclone ( Fox ) , Grady Norton decided to start using the names in public statements and in the seasonal summary . This practice continued throughout the season , until the system was made official before the start of the next season . During 1952 , a new International Phonetic Alphabet was introduced , as the old phonetic alphabet was seen as too Anglocentric . This led to some confusion with what names were being used , as some observers referred to Hurricane Charlie as " Cocoa . " Ahead of the following season no agreement could be reached over which phonetic alphabet to use , before it was decided to start using a list of female names to name tropical cyclones . During the season the names were used in the press with only a few objections recorded , and as a result public reception to the idea seemed favourable . The same names were reused during 1954 with only one change : Gilda for Gail . However , as Hurricanes Carol , Edna , and Hazel affected the populated Northeastern United States , controversy raged with several protests over the use of women ’ s names as it was felt to be ungentlemanly and or insulting to womenhood . Letters were subsequently received that overwhelmingly supported the practise , with forecasters claiming that 99 % of correspondence received in the Miami Weather Bureau supported the use of women ’ s names for hurricanes .
Forecasters subsequently decided to continue with the current practice of naming hurricanes after women , but developed a new set of names ahead of the 1955 season with the names Carol , Edna and Hazel retired for the next ten years . However , before the names could be written , a tropical storm was discovered on January 2 , 1955 and named Alice . The Representative T. James Tumulty subsequently announced that he intended to introduce legislation that would call on the USWB to abandon its practice of naming hurricanes after women , and suggested that they be named using descriptive terms instead . Until 1960 , forecasters decided to develop a new set of names each year . By 1958 , the Guam Weather Center had become the Fleet Weather Central / Typhoon Tracking Center on Guam , and had started to name systems as they became tropical storms rather than typhoons . Later that year during the 1958 – 59 cyclone season , the New Caledonia Meteorological Office started to name tropical cyclones within the Southern Pacific . During 1959 the US Pacific Command Commander in Chief and the Joint Chiefs of Staff decided that the various US Navy and Air Force weather units would become one unit based on Guam entitled the Fleet Weather Central / Joint Typhoon Warning Center , which continued naming the systems for the Pacific basin .
= = 1960 – 1990s = =
In January 1960 , a formal naming scheme was introduced for the South @-@ West Indian Ocean by the Mauritius and Madagascan Weather Services. with the first cyclone being named Alix . Later that year , as meteorology entered a new era with the launching of the world 's first meteorological satellite TIROS @-@ 1 , eight lists of tropical cyclone names were prepared for use in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific basins . In the Atlantic it was decided to rotate these lists every four years , while in the Eastern Pacific the names were designed to be used consecutively before being repeated . During 1963 , the Philippine Weather Bureau adopted four sets of female Filipino nicknames ending in " ng " from A to Y for use in its self @-@ defined area of responsibility . Following the international practise of naming tropical cyclones , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology decided at a conference in October 1963 that they would start naming tropical cyclones after women at the start of the 1963 – 64 cyclone season . The first Western Australian cyclone was subsequently named Bessie on January 6 , 1964 . In 1965 , after two of the Eastern Pacific lists of names had been used , it was decided to start recycling the sets of names on an annual basis like in the Atlantic .
At its 1969 national conference , the National Organization for Women passed a motion that called for the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) not to name tropical cyclones using only female names . Later that year , during the 1969 – 70 cyclone season , the New Zealand Meteorological Service ( NZMS ) office in Fiji started to name tropical cyclones that developed within the South Pacific basin , with the first named Alice on January 4 , 1970 . Within the Atlantic basin the four lists of names were used until 1971 , when the newly established United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration decided to inaugurate a ten @-@ year list of names for the basin . Roxcy Bolton subsequently petitioned the 1971 , 1972 and 1973 interdepartmental hurricane conferences to stop the female naming ; however , the National Hurricane Center responded by stating that there was a 20 : 1 positive response to the usage of female names . In February 1975 , the NZMS decided to incorporate male names into the naming lists for the South Pacific , from the following season after a request from the Fiji National Council of Women who considered the practice discriminatory . At around the same time the Australian Science Minister ordered that tropical cyclones within the Australian region should carry both men 's and women 's names , as the minister thought " that both sexes should bear the odium of the devastation caused by cyclones . " Male names were subsequently added to the lists for the Southern Pacific and each of the three Australian tropical cyclone warning centres ahead of the 1975 – 76 season .
During 1977 the World Meteorological Organization decided to form a hurricane committee , which held its first meeting during May 1978 and took control of the Atlantic hurricane naming lists . During 1978 the Secretary of Commerce Juanita Kreps ordered NOAA administrator Robert White to cease the sole usage of female names for hurricanes . Robert White subsequently passed the order on to the Director of NHC Neil Frank , who attended the first meeting of the hurricane committee and requested that both men ’ s and women ’ s names be used for the Atlantic . The committee subsequently decided to accept the proposal and adopted five new lists of male and female names to be used the following year . The lists also contained several Spanish and French names , so that they could reflect the cultures and languages used within the Atlantic Ocean . After an agreement was reached between Mexico and the United States , six new sets of male / female names were implemented for the Eastern Pacific basin during 1978 . A new list was also drawn up during the year for the Western Pacific and was implemented after Typhoon Bess and the 1979 tropical cyclone conference .
As the dual sex naming of tropical cyclones started in the Northern Hemisphere , the NZMS considered adding ethnic Pacific names to the naming lists rather than the European names that were currently used . As a result of the many languages and cultures in the Pacific there was a lot of discussion surrounding this matter , with one name , " Oni , " being dropped as it meant " the end of the world " in one language . One proposal suggested that cyclones be named from the country nearest to which they formed ; however , this was dropped when it was realized that a cyclone might be less destructive in its formative stage than later in its development . Eventually it was decided to combine names from all over the South Pacific into a single list at a training course , where each course member provided a list of names that were short , easily pronounced , culturally acceptable throughout the Pacific and did not contain any idiosyncrasies . These names were then collated , edited for suitability , and cross @-@ checked with the group for acceptability . It was intended that the four lists of names should be alphabetical with alternating male and female names while using only ethnic names . However , it was not possible to complete the lists using only ethnic names . As a result , there was a scattering of European names in the final lists , which have been used by the Fiji Meteorological Service and NZMS since the 1980 – 81 season . During October 1985 the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center had to request an additional list , after the names preselected for that season was used up . As a result , the names Xina , York , Zelda , Xavier , Yolanda , Zeke were subsequently added to the naming lists , while a contingency plan of using the Greek alphabet if all of the names were used up was introduced .
= = New millennium = =
During the 30th session of the ESCAP / WMO Typhoon Committee in November 1997 , a proposal was put forward by Hong Kong to give Asian typhoons local names and to stop using the European and American names that had been used since 1945 . The committee 's Training and Research Coordination Group was subsequently tasked to consult with members and work out the details of the scheme in order to present a list of names for approval at the 31st session . During August 1998 , the group met and decided that each member of the committee would be invited to contribute ten names to the list and that five principles would be followed for the selection of names . It was also agreed that each name would have to be approved by each member and that a single objection would be enough to veto a name . A list of 140 names was subsequently drawn up and submitted to the Typhoon Committee 's 32nd session , who after a lengthy discussion approved the list and decided to implement it on January 1 , 2000 . It was also decided that the Japan Meteorological Agency would name the systems rather than the Joint Typhoon Warning Center .
During its annual session in 2000 , the WMO / ESCAP Panel on North Indian Tropical Cyclones agreed in principle to start assigning names to cyclonic storms that developed within the North Indian Ocean . As a result of this , the panel requested that each member country submit a list of ten names to a rapporteur by the end of 2000 . At the 2001 session , the rapporteur reported that of the eight countries involved , only India had refused to submit a list of names , as it had some reservations about assigning names to tropical cyclones . The panel then studied the names and felt that some of the names would not be appealing to the public or the media and thus requested that members submit new lists of names . During 2002 the rapporteur reported that there had been a poor response by member countries in resubmitting their lists of names . Over the next year , each country except India submitted a fresh list . By the 2004 session , India had still not submitted its list despite promising to do so . However , the rapporteur presented the lists of names that would be used with a gap left for India 's names . The rapporteur also recommended that the naming lists be used on an experimental basis during the season , starting in May or June 2004 . The naming lists were then completed in May 2004 , after India submitted their names . However , the lists were not used until September 2004 , when the first tropical cyclone was named Onil by the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) .
At the 22nd hurricane committee in 2000 it was decided that tropical cyclones that moved from the Atlantic to the Eastern Pacific basin and vice versa would no longer be renamed . Ahead of the 2000 – 01 season it was decided to start using male names , as well as female names for tropical cyclones developing in the South @-@ West Indian Ocean . RSMC La Reunion subsequently proposed to the fifteenth session of the RA I Tropical Cyclone Committee for the South @-@ West Indian Ocean during September 2001 , that the basin adopt a single circular list of names . Along with the RA V Tropical Cyclone Committee , RSMC La Reunion also proposed to the session that a tropical cyclone have only one name during its lifetime . However , both of these proposals were rejected in favour of continuing an annual list of names and to rename systems when they moved across 90 ° E into the South @-@ West Indian Ocean . During the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season the naming of subtropical cyclones restarted , with names assigned to systems from the main list of names drawn up for that year .
During March 2004 , a rare tropical cyclone developed within the Southern Atlantic , about 1 @,@ 010 km ( 630 mi ) to the east @-@ southeast of Florianópolis in southern Brazil . As the system was threatening the Brazilian state of Santa Catarina , a newspaper used the headline " Furacão Catarina , " which was presumed to mean " furacão ( hurricane ) threatening ( Santa ) Catarina ( the state ) " . However , when the international press started monitoring the system , it was assumed that " Furacão Catarina " meant " Cyclone Catarina " and that it had been formally named in the usual way . During the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season the names pre @-@ assigned for the North Atlantic basin were exhausted and as a result names from the Greek alphabet were used . There were subsequently a couple of attempts to get rid of the Greek names , as they are seen to be inconsistent with the standard naming convention used for tropical cyclones , and are generally unknown and confusing to the public . However , none of the attempts have succeeded and thus the Greek alphabet will be used should the lists ever be used up again . Ahead of the 2007 hurricane season , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) and the Hawaii State Civil Defense requested that the hurricane committee retire eleven names from the Eastern Pacific naming lists . However , the committee declined the request and noted that its criteria for the retirement of names was " well defined and very strict . " It was felt that while the systems may have had a significant impact on the Hawaiian Islands , none of the impacts were major enough to warrant the retirement of the names . It was also noted that the committee had previously not retired names for systems that had a greater impact than those that had been submitted . The CPHC also introduced a revised set of Hawaiian names for the Central Pacific , after they had worked with the University of Hawaii Hawaiian Studies Department to ensure the correct meaning and appropriate historical and cultural use of the names .
On April 22 , 2008 the newly established tropical cyclone warning centre in Jakarta , Indonesia named its first system : Durga , before two sets of Indonesian names were established for their area of responsibility ahead of the 2008 – 09 season . At the same time the Australian Bureau of Meteorology , merged their three lists into one national list of names . The issue of tropical cyclones being renamed when they moved across 90 ° E into the South @-@ West Indian Ocean , was subsequently brought up during October 2008 at the 18th session of the RA I Tropical Cyclone Committee . However , it was decided to postpone the matter until the following committee meeting so that various consultations could take place . During the 2009 Tropical Cyclone RSMCs / TCWCs Technical Coordination Meeting , it was reaffirmed that a tropical cyclone name should be retained throughout a system 's lifetime , including when moving from one basin to another , to avoid confusion . As a result , it was proposed at the following year 's RA I tropical cyclone committee , that systems stopped being renamed when they moved into the South @-@ West Indian Ocean from the Australian region . It was subsequently agreed that during an interim period , cyclones that moved into the basin would have a name attached to their existing name , before it was stopped at the start of the 2012 – 13 season . Tropical Cyclone Bruce was subsequently the first tropical cyclone not to be renamed , when it moved into the South @-@ West Indian Ocean during 2013 @-@ 14 . During March 12 , 2010 , public and private weather services in Southern Brazil , decided to name a tropical storm Anita in order to avoid confusion in future references . A naming list was subsequently set up by the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center with the names Arani , Bapo and Cari subsequently taken from that list during 2011 and 2015 .
At its twenty @-@ first session in 2015 , the RA I Tropical Cyclone Committee reviewed the arrangements for naming tropical storms and decided that the procedure was in need of a " very urgent change " . In particular it was noted that the procedure did not take into account , any of the significant improvements in the science surrounding tropical cyclones and that it was biased due to inappropriate links with some national warning systems . As a result the committee decided to keep the current naming procedure , for the next few years and form a task force , in order to develop an alternative cyclone naming procedure .
= = Modern day = =
At present tropical cyclones are officially named by one of eleven warning centres and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts , watches , and warnings . Due to the potential for longevity and multiple concurrent storms , the names are thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being described . Names are assigned in order from predetermined lists once storms have one , three , or ten @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) depending on which basin it originates in . However , standards vary from basin to basin , with some tropical depressions named in the Western Pacific , while tropical cyclones have to gale @-@ force winds occurring near the center before they are named within the Southern Hemisphere .
Any member of the World Meteorological Organisation 's hurricane , typhoon and tropical cyclone committees can request that the name of a tropical cyclone be retired or withdrawn from the various tropical cyclone naming lists . A name is retired or withdrawn if a consensus or majority of members agree that the tropical cyclone has acquired a special notoriety , such as causing a large amount of deaths , damages , impacts or for other special reasons . Any tropical cyclone names assigned by the Papua New Guinea National weather Service are automatically retired regardless of any damage caused . A replacement name is then submitted to the committee concerned and voted upon , but these names can be rejected and replaced for various reasons . These reasons include the spelling and pronunciation of the name , its similarity to the name of a recent tropical cyclone or on another list of names , and the length of the name for modern communication channels such as social media . PAGASA also retires the names of significant tropical cyclones , when they have caused at least ₱ 1 billion in damage and / or have caused at least 300 deaths . There are no names retired within the South @-@ West Indian Ocean , as names that are used are automatically removed from the three naming lists used in that basin .
= 1868 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1868 Atlantic hurricane season was among the quietest on record , with only four tropical cyclones recorded . Only three seasons had fewer storms than in 1868 , and seven had the same number of storms . Initially , there were no known storms during the season , although a re @-@ analysis confirmed the activity . All tropical activity occurred within a 45 day span . There may have been other unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season . Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates up to six storms were missed from the official database , due to small tropical cyclone size , sparse ship reports , and relatively unpopulated coastlines .
Only one of the storms , the second , made landfall , doing so near Apalachicola , Florida . It produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds across the southeastern United States , although there was no severe damage associated with the storm . The first hurricane killed two people when a ship passed through its winds for 14 hours . The third hurricane , located in the western Caribbean Sea , did not affect land , although two ships experienced its strong winds . The final hurricane lasted three days across the western Atlantic , forcing one ship to halt its voyage due to storm damage .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
The first known tropical cyclone of the season was observed on September 3 , about halfway between the Bahamas and Bermuda . A nearby ship estimated winds of 80 mph ( 130 km ) , indicating the presence of the hurricane . It moved northward initially , passing about 220 mi ( 355 km ) west of Bermuda on September 4 . Thereafter , the hurricane turned toward the northeast , and the ship " John Richardson " encountered gale force winds on September 5 , resulting in a wreck of its cargo . On September 6 , it was estimated to have reached peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , based on observations from the ship with the call sign " Greenock " . The hurricane lashed the ship with strong winds for 14 hours , killing the captain and one crewman . At the time , it was about 400 mi ( 640 km ) southeast of Halifax , Nova Scotia . Turning to the northeast , the hurricane passed south of Newfoundland before last being observed on September 7 .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
A ship sunk in the western Gulf of Mexico on October 1 , which was the first indication of the second tropical cyclone of the season . The storm moved slowly northeastward toward the southeastern Louisiana coastline , intensifying to its estimated peak winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) . On October 4 , it passed near or over southeastern Louisiana , producing heavy rain and gusty winds in New Orleans . Flooding was observed in portions of the city , and the West Rigolets Lighthouse on Lake Pontchartrain suffered $ 5 @,@ 000 in damage due to the storm ( 1868 USD , $ 81 @,@ 000 2010 USD ) . The storm accelerated northeastward and struck near Apalachicola , Florida late on October 4 .
As the storm crossed over the Florida panhandle and southeastern Georgia , the winds weakened to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , although it still produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds in Savannah , Georgia . No severe damage was reported in the city . The tropical storm continued northeastward , emerging into the western Atlantic and paralleling the coastlines of the Carolinas just offshore . Several ships reported strong winds and rough seas . On October 6 , the storm restrengthened to its peak intensity before becoming an extratropical cyclone about 200 mi ( 320 km ) southeast of Cape Cod ; however , one meteorologist assessed it as acquiring extratropical characteristics after it exited Georgia into the western Atlantic . As an extratropical storm , it reached winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , based on a ship report south of Atlantic Canada . Late on October 7 , the storm was last observed to the south of Newfoundland . The storm was the only one in the season not to attain hurricane status .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
As the previous storm was moving along the coastline of the southeastern United States , a new hurricane was observed in the western Caribbean Sea , about halfway between Honduras and Jamaica . Its intensity , based on a ship report , was estimated at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The hurricane moved slowly west @-@ northwestward , and another ship experienced its strong winds on October 7 . There were no further observations , so its complete track is unknown .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The final known hurricane of the season was observed on October 15 , to the northeast of the central Bahamas . The ship " Jim Cow " , en route from New York to Panama , suffered heavy damage from the storm , so much that it could not complete its voyage . Moving generally northeastward , the hurricane was estimated to have reached peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , based on ship reports . On October 17 the cyclone was absorbed by a rapidly intensifying extratropical cyclone off the coast of New England . It never affected land .
= Psycho @-@ Pass =
Psycho @-@ Pass ( Japanese : サイコパス , Hepburn : Saiko Pasu , stylized as PSYCHO @-@ PASS ) is an anime television series that was produced by Production I.G , directed by Naoyoshi Shiotani & Katsuyuki Motohiro and written by Gen Urobuchi . The series was aired on Fuji TV 's Noitamina programming block between October 2012 and March 2013 . The story takes place in an authoritarian future dystopia , where omnipresent public sensors continuously scan the Psycho @-@ Pass of every citizen in range . The sensors measure mental state , personality , and the probability that the citizen will commit crimes , alerting authorities when someone exceeds accepted norms . To enforce order , the officers of the Public Safety Bureau carry hand weapons called Dominators . The story follows Akane Tsunemori , Shinya Kogami , and other members of Unit One of the Public Safety Bureau 's Criminal Investigation Division , and the crimes they investigate using Dominators .
Psycho @-@ Pass originated from Production I.G. ' s interest in making a successor to Mamoru Oshii 's achievements . The series was inspired by several live @-@ action films . Chief director Katsuyuki Motohiro aimed to explore psychological themes in society 's youth using dystopian storylines . Several rules were used to focus on making the dystopia that the characters live in .
The series was licensed by Funimation in North America . A second season began airing in October 2014 , with an animated film released in January 2015 . A manga adaptation has been in serialization in Shueisha 's Jump Square magazine and several novels , including an adaptation and prequels to the original story , have been published . An episodic video game adaptation called Chimi Chara Psycho @-@ Pass was developed by Nitroplus Staffers in collaboration with Production I.G. New novels and another manga were serialized in 2014 .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Psycho @-@ Pass is set in 2112 . The Sibyl System ( シビュラシステム , Shibyura Shisutemu ) is actively measuring the populace 's mental states , personalities , and the probability that individuals will commit crimes , using a " cymatic scan " of the brain . The resulting assessment is called a Psycho @-@ Pass ( サイコパス , Saikopasu ) . When the probability of a person engaging in crimes measured by the Crime Coefficient ( 犯罪係数 , Hanzaikeisū ) index exceeds a certain level in an individual , he or she is pursued , apprehended , and killed if necessary .
= = = Story = = =
The plot focuses on Akane Tsunemori , a new Inspector of Unit One — a police unit from the Public Safety Bureau 's Criminal Investigation Division . Tsunemori hunts criminals alongside a special team of so @-@ called latent criminals called Enforcers . Inspectors and Enforcers use large handguns called " Dominators " — special weapons designed to fire only at those with a higher @-@ than @-@ acceptable Crime Coefficient . Akane is ashamed of shooting the Enforcer Shinya Kogami during her first mission to protect a latent criminal . Kogami thanks her for stopping him from becoming a murderer , which persuades Akane to stay . She is accompanied by veteran Inspector Nobuchika Ginoza , a strict man who looks down on Enforcers , Tomomi Masaoka , a middle @-@ aged man who used to be a detective , Shusei Kagari , a carefree young man who has been a latent criminal ever since he was a child , and Yayoi Kunizuka , a former musician turned into a latent criminal after interacting with a terrorist . During Akane 's first investigations , the group learns about the existence of Shogo Makishima , a mastermind who is responsible for multiple crimes . Being Criminally Asymptomatic ( 免罪体質 , Menzai Taishitsu ) , Makishima 's criminal psychology yields a low Crime Coefficient , making him safe from the Sibyl System and the Dominator .
The Enforcers and Inspectors start hunting Makishima , who aims to destroy the society created by the Sibyl System . To do this he causes riots in the city to draw the police away from the Health and Welfare Ministry 's Nona Tower facility , where Sibyl is located . Akane and Kogami stop Makishima 's forces while Enforcer Shūsei Kagari follows one of Makishima 's allies to the tower where Bureau Chief Joshu Kasei kills Makishima 's ally and Kagari to keep the true form of Sibyl a secret . Kasei tells Makishima that Sibyl is a hivemind of similarly asymptomatic individuals and wishes him to join the system but Makishima escapes . Realizing the truth behind Makishima 's escape , Kogami leaves the group to kill him . Akane is later directly contacted by the Sibyl system , which orders her to capture Makishima alive . She agrees to do this on the condition that they withdraw the execution order for Kogami . Learning that Makishima plans to commit bioterrorism to weaken Japan 's economy and bring the system down , the Criminal Investigation Division searches for both Makishima and Kogami . There , Makishima tries killing Ginoza but Masaoka sacrifices his life to save him . Despite Akane 's efforts , Kogami kills Makishima and the former 's erstwhile comrades never see him again .
In season two , Akane , now the leader of a restored Unit One including rookie inspector Mika Shimotsuki , Ginoza , who is demoted to an enforcer , Yayoi and two new enforcers , Sakuya Togane and Sho Hinakawa , face a new threat in the form of Kirito Kamui , another criminal mastermind who , just like Shogo , intends to bring down the Sybil System by exploiting its flaws instead of just wreaking havoc . Skilled in avoiding all forms of detection and capable of helping his supporters to keep their Crime Coefficients low , only a very few believe that he actually exists , including Akane .
= = Production = =
The series was directed by Naoyoshi Shiotani , written by Gen Urobuchi and features character designs by Reborn ! manga artist Akira Amano . It stars Kana Hanazawa as Akane Tsunemori , Tomokazu Seki as Shinya Kogami and Takahiro Sakurai as Shogo Makishima . Psycho @-@ Pass originated from Production I.G. ' s interest in making a successor to Mamoru Oshii 's Ghost in the Shell and Patlabor ; the company hired Katsuyuki Motohiro — who became the series ' chief director — and veteran I.G. animator Naoyoshi Shiotani to supervise direction .
Motohiro wanted to return to making anime after a long hiatus but he needed a charismatic script writer . Motohiro and his staff were surprised with Gen Urobuchi 's contribution to the anime series Puella Magi Madoka Magica . Motohiro was fascinated by Madoka Magica ; he read other works from Urobuchi , which persuaded him to talk to Urobuchi . In early 2011 , Motohiro proposed to Urobuchi that the pair should work together . Early in the making of the series , Motohiro told Naoyoshi Shiotani not to make anything that could not be adapted into a live @-@ action film .
Before work on Psycho @-@ Pass started , Shiotani was busy working on the film Blood @-@ C : The Last Dark . As soon as his work with the film ended , Shiotani focused on the series ' quality . After episode 16 , which proved to be the most challenging and popular of the series , the team found themselves " out of stamina " . The next two episodes were made by an outside team , which is reflected in several problems with the animation . In response to this , the producer of the episode said that while he expected problems , he worked to make it the best he could . Shiotani also apologized for the episode 's quality . The original team continued working from episode 19 on until the finale ; they decided to remake episodes 17 and 18 for their retail release .
The series was first announced in late March 2012 by Fuji TV at its Noitamina press conference . In March 2013 , Shiotani stated there could be a second season if the show received enough support . Once development of the second season started , Shiotani said the new episodes are more difficult to make than those in the first season . He said , " it 's more about the show 's inflexibility " because the staff have to maintain consistency . For the second season Tow Ubukata replaced Urobuchi as main writer . Ubukata mentions he was given the idea of expanding the setting in the form of a sequel . As a result of being given the scenario of the TV series and the film , Ubukata had to write the characters ' personalities . Although time of the production was short , he had the time to discuss with the first series ' staff . Shiotani aided the team for the final episode which Ubukata was satisfied with .
= = = Design = = =
When hearing the comments from Atsuko Ishizuka , director of The Pet Girl of Sakurasou , about the way the characters were designed first , Shiotani realized it was the opposite for his team , who had to create the setting first and then the characters because they " are almost being played by the world " . As a result , the characters were designed by manga artist Akira Amano to balance them with the dark atmosphere by having them " palatable and very relate @-@ able " . The staff avoided using bright colors that would stand out . Akane Tsunemori was created as the most relatable character , who would question the setting from the audience 's point of view and as the heroine who would come between the main character , Shinya Kogami , and his main rival , and enemy , Shogo Makishima . Akane 's progression from an innocent newcomer to a mature and haunted person was one of the staff 's main objectives .
Motohiro allowed his team to use very graphic elements , even though they could reduce female viewership . He acknowledges that the series may be too violent for a younger demographic and said that he would not want his son to watch it because of its psychological brutality . He added that the team did not want to make a violent series but an " artistic series that just happened to have some violence included in it " . About the amount of violence , Shiotani told Urobuchi , " just let us deal with it " . Some of these violent scenes occur off @-@ camera , but whenever a protagonist was involved the moment was developed to be memorable . The team twice had to remake scenes because the television station complained that they went " overboard . "
Motohiro wanted the series to counter concurrent anime trends . The use of moe ( slang ) was banned at staff meetings because they appreciated dramas like Mobile Suit Gundam and Patlabor that focus on conflicts between male characters . As the series was " anti @-@ moe " , the team decided to avoid having the female lead character Akane remove her clothes and instead had Kogami do it . Nevertheless , the show attracted a female viewership because the conflict between the male characters appeared to attract the shonen ai genre fans . Although Shiotani also wanted the series to avoid romance between male characters , he believed the fight scenes between male characters unintentionally attracted female fans . The staff decided to focus on friendships rather than romantic relationships .
= = = Influences = = =
The series was inspired by several Western films , most notably L.A. Confidential . Director Naoyoshi Shiotani cited several other influences , including Minority Report , Gattaca , Brazil and Blade Runner ; the latter of which he compared very closely to Psycho @-@ Pass . Before the making of the series , Urobuchi insisted on using a Philip K. Dick @-@ inspired , dystopian narrative . The psychological themes were based on the time Shiotani watched Lupin III during his childhood because he thought about adding " today 's youth trauma " to the series . The rivalry between the main characters was based on the several dramas the staff liked . Other voice actors have been credited in the making of the series because of the ways they added traits to the characters .
= = = Music = = =
The staff had problems composing an opening theme for the series until someone provided some music by Ling Tosite Sigure , who was engaged to compose the opening theme . Egoist , who composed the ending theme , had debuted on Noitamina with Guilty Crown . Shiotani said they asked Egoist to record three versions of the ending theme so they could alternate them to match the episode 's ending . Across the series , time limits resulted in the ending songs being removed or replaced with instrumental versions to avoid cutting scenes from the episode . When there were concerns from the producers of the songs , Tomohiro and Shiotani discussed this with them .
Two Psycho @-@ Pass CDs were included in the second and fifth Japanese home media release of the series . The Psycho Pass original soundtrack was released by Sony Music Entertainment on May 29 , 2013 . It features fifty @-@ five tracks composed by Yugo Kanno . The second original soundtrack was released on March 18 , 2015 . A two @-@ volume drama CD called Namae no nai kaibutsu ( 名前のない怪物 , lit . " The Monster with no Name " ) based on the prequel novel was released between September 25 and November 27 , 2013 .
= = Themes = =
As some critics have noted , Psycho @-@ Pass explores societal and psychological themes , such as the price of living without stress , and without fear of crime . Indeed , the Sibyl System targets individuals who are considering performing actions that might cause stress to others . But this raises the question of whether it is morally and socially acceptable to charge individuals with crimes they have not yet committed . For example , in the first episode , a woman is raped , and the resultant trauma causes her Psycho @-@ Pass to become clouded . According to Sibyl 's instructions , the police are therefore prepared to kill her . But Akane steps in , refusing to accept Sibyl 's verdict , and manages to bring the woman 's Psycho @-@ Pass level back to the acceptable range by speaking gently to her . Consequently , this challenges the notion that the potential to commit a crime necessarily correlates with actually committing the crime . According to Anime News Network , " We are all capable of doing bad things at times — should we be punished because we thought of hurting someone before we act on it ? Or because we were victims ? It really all comes back to that first episode and Akane 's reaction to the victim who presented as a violent criminal " .
Psycho @-@ Pass further suggests that the price of living without stress includes overriding the individual 's needs in favor of general social value . It is morally and socially acceptable to kill individuals who may potentially commit crimes , so long as we accept that the harm that a criminal causes to society outweighs the harm we cause to an individual who is falsely charged . In other words , the Sibyl System operates on the principles of opportunity cost and acceptable risk . But relying on the Sibyl System paradoxically creates a society which fears no crime as a whole , but individuals who personally fear the consequences of the Sibyl System 's verdicts . As such , Urobuchi himself has said that one of the series ' central thematic ideas is " fear " as seen through Shogo Makishima 's feeling of being out of place - because the Sibyl System cannot recognize him for what he actually is , he feels displaced and deviant within the structure of society itself .
Emotional repression is also explored in Psycho @-@ Pass . The identification of latent criminals is partially based around the avoidance of emotions that society judges to be negative , such as sadness or anger . To avoid being identified as a latent criminal , one must not feel these emotions heavily outside , where their Psycho @-@ Pass can be scanned . Kotaku states , " because of these scans , Psycho @-@ Pass shows an interesting future where ' mental beauty ' is as sought after as physical beauty . It is also a future where the police 's job is little more than to watch the latent criminals they control — because if they did any real detective work , they might start to think like the criminals they are trying to catch and thus become latent criminals themselves . " Many of the main characters feel nostalgia throughout the series . The many references to older literature , philosophy , music and theatre create a " nostalgic world building for a time before psycho @-@ passes " .
= = Release = =
The anime series produced by Production I.G. was broadcast in Japan on Fuji TV 's Noitamina programming block between October 12 , 2012 and March 22 , 2013 . Toho started releasing the series on DVD and Blu @-@ ray formats on December 21 , 2012 and the eighth and final volume was released on July 26 , 2013 . Funimation has licensed the series in North America and simulcast it on its website , first in Japanese , and later weekly in English . Psycho @-@ Pass was one of three initial shows aired as a Funimation " broadcast dub . " A home media release was planned for March 2014 . In the United Kingdom , the series is licensed by Manga Entertainment and in Australia by Madman Entertainment .
On July 6 , 2013 , Production I.G. president Mitsuhisa Ishikawa said at Anime Expo that production on a second season had begun . The second season , titled Psycho @-@ Pass 2 , began airing in October 2014 ; the film was released in January 2015 . Before the debut broadcast of the second season , the first season — condensed into 11 one @-@ hour episodes — began airing in July 2014 . The fourth episode was cancelled due to similarities with a real life murder . Director Naoyoshi Shiotani apologized for this in his Twitter account . Nevertheless , Funimation streamed the episode . A Blu @-@ ray box set was announced with a scheduled release on October 15 , 2014 . This set contains both the original first season broadcast and the edited one @-@ hour rerun episodes .
The second series aired on Fuji TV 's Noitamina programming block between October 9 , 2014 and December 18 , 2014 . The series was collected in a total of five DVD and Blu @-@ ray volumes between December 17 , 2014 and April 15 , 2015 .
A new animated film was announced on September 6 , 2013 . It was released in Japanese cinemas on January 9 , 2015 . Urobuchi and Makoto Fukami are contributing together as the film 's writers .
= = Related media = =
= = = Manga = = =
A manga adaptation illustrated by Hikaru Miyoshi , titled Inspector Akane Tsunemori ( 監視官 常守朱 , Kanshikan Tsunemori Akane ) , began serialization in Shueisha 's Jump Square magazine from November 2 , 2012 . Its first tankōbon volume was released by Shueisha on February 4 , 2013 . In November 2013 , it was announced that 380 @,@ 000 copies of the manga were shipped in Japan with three volumes .
Another manga titled Psycho @-@ Pass : Inspector Shinya Kogami ( 監視官 狡噛 慎也 , Kanshikan Kōgami Shinya ) premiered in the August issue of Mag Garden 's Monthly Comic Blade magazine on June 30 , 2014 . Natsuo Sai is illustrating the series and the story is written by Midori Gotou and Production I.G.
= = = Novels = = =
A novelization of the series by Makoto Fukami has been published by Mag Garden in two volumes released on February 4 and April 4 , 2013 . Shiotani said the novels were more violent than the television series . A prequel titled Namae no Nai Kaibutsu ( 名前のない怪物 , lit . " The Monster with no Name " ) was written by Aya Takaba , who worked on the television series . Before the novel was released , it was first published on the " Noitamina Novel " page on Noitamina 's official website . The novel was released on February 4 , 2013 .
A new series of novels focusing on four characters by Ryō Yoshigami began publication in the August issue of Hayakawa Publishing 's S @-@ F Magazine on June 25 , 2014 . After the serialization ends , Hayakawa Bunko JA revised the novels and published them in October 2014 . Other stories will focus on Choe Gu @-@ sung , Shusei Kagari , Yayoi Kunizuka and Shion Karanomori . Hayakawa Bunko JA also published the Psycho Pass Genesis book in December 2014 , which revealed the origins of Sybil and Tonomi Masaoka 's involvement .
= = = Video games = = =
Interactive visual novels titled Chimi Chara Psycho @-@ Pass , which feature chibi versions of the series ' characters in original stories , were included with Blu @-@ ray Disc volumes of the anime and are playable on any Blu @-@ ray playing device . In May 2014 , it was announced by Anime News Network that a video game based on the series , named Psycho @-@ Pass : Mandatory Happiness , was being developed by 5pb. for the Xbox One ; with a PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 4 port announced in December 2015 . The game features an original story written by Urobuchi , which takes place during the time period of the anime 's first six episodes and focuses on a new set of protagonists confronting a new enemy on a remote island.NIS America is localizing Psycho @-@ Pass : Mandatory Happiness for the PlayStation 4 , Vita and an exclusive PC version via Steam for Fall 2016 . The Xbox One version of the game will not be localized .
= = Reception = =
Fuji TV producer Akitoshi Mori said Psycho @-@ Pass was the first work under his control . Early screenings of the series at the Noitamina Shop & Café attracted few viewers , which bothered Mori . However , as the series continued , the quantity of viewers increased . By the final episode , over 1 @,@ 000 people had queued to watch the finale even though the venue could only accommodate seventy people . This made Mori happy because he realized how many fans were following and supporting the show ; he wanted to see a bigger audience at future screenings . DVDs and Blu @-@ ray discs of the series achieved good sales . In April 2014 , the series was nominated for the Seiun Award . In the Newtype anime awards from 2013 , it was voted as fourth best title of the year . Episode 11 of the series was awarded " Best Episode " in the Noitamina 10th anniversary fan vote . Shinya Kogami , Akane Tsunemori and Shogo Makishima also appeared in such polls as winners of their own categories . Anime News Network also listed as the fifth most accessible anime series for people who have not watched Japanese animation .
The series was well received by publications for anime , manga and other media . Rebecca Silverman from Anime News Network praised the show for its " high level of interest " in depicting its dystopian world . However , she said that its violent scenes were so gruesome they might scare viewers . Kotaku 's Richard Eisenbeis called it a " compelling cyberpunk mystery " , praising the society depicted and the series of murders orchestrated by Shogo Makishima . However , he criticized the use of advanced technology and compared it with other science fiction films despite saying that it handled the themes better whereas Makishima 's immunity to it was left unexplained . DVD Talk gave high praise to Makishima because of his achievements across the story and his personality . Certain episodes have been referred as " filler " because they are used as a build @-@ up to the climactic ones . Bamboo Dong of Anime News Network gave high praise stating that from episode 12 , the series was " a real blast to watch " and that she was glad with the development of the protagonist , Akane Tsunemori . However , she severely criticized the plot twist regarding the Sybil System 's true identity calling it " one of the stupidest revelations in the history of anime " .
Thomas Zoth from The Fandom Post praised the show 's focus on the relationships between the protagonists and the development from these . Akane 's growth across the series earned major praise by multiple reviewers . Zoth enjoyed the series ' climactic action scenes between Kogami and Makishima , and the scenes portraying the status quo . He said the sixteenth episode is " Urobuchi 's masterpiece . " Silverman commented on the parallelism between Akane 's and Kogami 's development , which resulted in an ambiguous ending that should be decided by the viewers . The supporting cast received similar praise by DVD Talk but the reviewer said some were underwhelming and Shion is the least @-@ explored character .
During the streaming of the series , Silverman criticized the animation because of the low lighting levels that might make it hard to understand . Hiroko Yamamura from Japanator noted the series ' high budget and praised the animation style and the focus on details and technology . She was attracted by its premise and expected the quality to remain consistent across the entire series . Similarly , Jacob Hope Chapman from ANN praised the animation for its high quality . Episode 18 , which is known for its flawed animation , was improved for the home media release of the series .
= The Edukators =
The Edukators ( German : Die fetten Jahre sind vorbei ) is a 2004 German @-@ Austrian crime drama film directed by Hans Weingartner . It stars Daniel Brühl , Stipe Erceg and Julia Jentsch as three young , anti @-@ capitalist Berlin activists involved in a love triangle . The friends , calling themselves " the Edukators " , invade upper @-@ class houses , rearrange the furniture , and leave notes identifying themselves .
Weingartner , a former activist , wrote the film based on his experiences and chose to use nonviolent characters . The film , shot in Berlin and Austria with digital hand @-@ held cameras , was made on a low budget which Weingartner said kept the focus on the acting . First shown at the Cannes Film Festival on 17 May 2004 and released in its home countries later that year , The Edukators was praised by critics and audiences . It grossed more than $ 8 million worldwide and received a number of awards and nominations . It did , however , receive criticism mainly for its political statements and also for its long running time .
= = Plot = =
Set in 2004 , the film revolves around three young anti @-@ capitalist activists in Berlin 's city centre : Jule ( Julia Jentsch ) , her boyfriend Peter ( Stipe Erceg ) and his best friend Jan ( Daniel Brühl ) . Jule is a waitress struggling to pay off a € 100 @,@ 000 debt she incurred a year ago when she crashed into a Mercedes @-@ Benz S @-@ Class belonging to a wealthy businessman named Hardenberg ( Burghart Klaußner ) . After her eviction for non @-@ payment of rent she moves in with Peter and Jan , who are often out all night . While Peter is in Barcelona , Jan tells Jule that he and Peter spend their nights " educating " upper @-@ class people by breaking into their houses , moving furniture around and leaving notes saying " die fetten Jahre sind vorbei " ( " the days of plenty are over " ) or " Sie haben zu viel Geld " ( " you have too much money " ) .
After hearing this , Jule convinces the reluctant Jan to break into Hardenberg 's home in the affluent Berlin suburb of Zehlendorf while he is away on business . During the break @-@ in , the thrill of the moment entices them to kiss before Jan leaves Jule alone for a few minutes ; he does not want to destroy his friendship with Peter . As she wanders around outside Jule accidentally sets off the house 's floodlights , and they quickly leave .
When Peter returns the next day , Jan and Jule do not tell him about their activities the night before . Jule realises that her mobile phone is gone , and she and Jan leave later that night to look for it in the house . After she finds it , Hardenberg walks in the door and struggles with Jule when he recognises her . Hearing them , Jan comes downstairs and knocks Hardenberg unconscious with a flashlight . Not knowing what to do , they call Peter and he comes to their aid .
The three cannot decide what to do with Hardenberg and take him to a remote , rarely used cabin belonging to Jule 's uncle in the Tyrolean Austrian Alps near Jenbach , overlooking Achensee . As they try to decide how to deal with their hostage , they learn that Hardenberg was a radical himself during the 1960s . A leader of the Socialist German Student Union , he was a good friend of Rudi Dutschke before marrying , getting a good job and abandoning his ideals .
As the story progresses , political ideology and the characters ' relationships become the main issues . Peter and Jan temporarily fall out over Jan 's developing romance with Jule , and Hardenberg seems to regain some of his former self .
The trio finally decide that kidnapping Hardenberg was wrong and take him back to his house to let him go . As they prepare to leave , Hardenberg gives Jule a letter forgiving her debt and promising not to involve the police . The film ends with Peter , Jan and Jule asleep in the same bed as a group of heavily armed police ( Spezialeinsatzkommando ) gather outside their flat and knock on the door . Jule wakes up when she hears a knock , and the police force their way into the almost @-@ empty flat . Apparently in Barcelona , Jule opens the door to a hotel maid who wishes to clean their room . In the Berlin apartment , the police find a note : " Manche Menschen ändern sich nie " ( " some people never change " ) . In the original German version , the Edukators set off in Hardenberg 's boat in the Mediterranean , presumably to disrupt the island signal towers supplying most television programming to Western Europe .
= = Production = =
= = = Development and characters = = =
According to Weingartner , The Edukators was influenced by his past as a political activist : " There 's some of me in the film " . It describes the last 10 years of his life , an attempt to find a political movement satisfying his ideals . He considers it an autobiographical film , with Brühl playing Weingartner . The director opted for nonviolence because violence " only makes the system stronger " , citing the Baader @-@ Meinhof gang which " practically killed the Left movement in Germany ... because they gave the police an excuse to really arm up and create a more totalitarian system . " Instead , Weingartner gave his characters " poetic resistance . "
Although Brühl thought the film " very realistic " , he was dissatisfied with his character 's authenticity . The actor felt " attached " to Jan , admiring his " courage to want to change the way things are going , to act to defend his beliefs " , but thought it was " very utopian and naive , that they take so much risk to break into some rich man 's house to move things around . "
The authenticity of the love triangle was " very important " to Weingartner , who was once part of such a relationship . Although the actors were uncertain at first that Peter could forgive Jan and Jule 's betrayal , Weingartner uses the situation to explore his concept of friendship : " Friendship means more to him than bourgeois moral values . Peter loves Jule – he doesn 't own her . He can tell that when she falls in love with Jan , their love is a wonderful thing , coloured by a joint rebellion – a shared rejection of social constraint . "
= = = Production and filming = = =
Weingartner said he received an offer large enough that " I would not have to work for the rest of my life " from an American studio but refused it , opting to produce the film with his own studio , y3film , and coop99 , an Austrian studio . A low @-@ budget film , it was funded by a € 250 @,@ 000 loan Weingartner obtained with his parents ' house as collateral . His second feature film , The Edukators was shot with hand @-@ held digital cameras , allowing the director " to explore the space and give actors license to go wherever they wanted . " Weingartner wanted a technically simple film focused on the actors . His decision to have a low budget was measured : " More money means more pressure . This way , I used a limited crew and was able to set the shooting schedule the way I wanted it - usually . The huge advantage of this kind of film @-@ making is that it 's rapid . " Most of the film was shot in Berlin , except for scenes in the Austrian Alps .
= = = Casting = = =
The character of Peter was written for Erceg , after Weingartner saw him " in a friend 's film . " Brühl , already a popular actor in Germany , was known to the director , who saw him as a " perfect match " for Erceg . Klaußner was cast because , according to Weingartner , " I knew the energy and vibe between us was right . " The most difficult role to cast was Jule ; Weingartner searched for eight months , and when he found Jentsch she was committed to another film . Since he was certain that the actress was " the perfect cast " , he rescheduled filming .
= = Themes = =
Weingartner commented that the film is " about economic revolution , about poor vs. rich . " He also tried to explore in the film the fact that , in his opinion , " Today , we live in a society in which revolution is on sale . " However , it deals with " lots of themes , " and " the theme of revolution , of rebellion , " and of " how a person can change the course of his life " are the main ones . Similarly , Brühl commented that " there are different things you can take out of it " as the film also deals with generational conflict and stories of love and friendship .
Hardenberg 's " psycho @-@ sexual powerplay " against the main characters while in the Alps stands for what Weingartner considers " a betrayal of European Left by hippie @-@ era survivors including Joschka Fischer , Gerhard Schroder — and Tony Blair . "
Even if the subject of the film is political , Weingartner said , " the whole idea of ' Edukating ' is playful . The movie is full of jokes . And happiness . I read somewhere that kids laugh out loud more than 150 times a day . Adults laugh only 10 times a day . Well , I want people to laugh . I want people to go see the film and have fun . "
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Accolades and public reception = = =
The Edukators premiered on 17 May at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival , where it received a standing ovation , and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or . Cinematographers Daniela Knapp and Matthias Schellenberg were nominated for the 2004 Camerimage . The film won the Giraldillo de Plata ( second place ) at the 2004 Seville European Film Festival , and that year Brühl was nominated for a European Film Award for Best Actor . Of the German Cinema New Talent Awards at the 2004 Munich Film Festival , Weingartner was Best Director , Erceg Best Actor , and writers Weingartner and Held received a jury award .
Erceg and Jentsch were nominated for the 2005 New Faces Award . At the 2005 German Film Awards The Edukators shared the Best Feature Film Silver Award with Sophie Scholl – The Final Days , Klaußner was Best Supporting Actor and Weingartner was nominated for the Best Director Award . It was the Best Film and Jentsch the Best Actress at the 2005 German Film Critics Association Awards . At the 2005 Bavarian Film Awards , Jentsch won Best New Actress . The film shared the Audience Award for Best Dramatic Feature at the 2005 Miami International Film Festival with The Overture and Red Dust .
The Edukators debuted in German theaters on 25 November 2004 , and the following day in Austria . According to the European Audiovisual Observatory , the film was seen by over 1 @.@ 4 million people in Europe : almost 890 @,@ 000 in Germany , 71 @,@ 000 in Austria and 67 @,@ 000 in Switzerland . The highest attendance in non @-@ German @-@ speaking countries was in France ( over 72 @,@ 000 ) and Turkey ( almost 69 @,@ 000 ) . Box Office Mojo reported gross earnings of $ 8 @,@ 152 @,@ 859 in Argentina , Austria , the Czech Republic , Germany , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway , Portugal , Slovakia , Taiwan , the United Kingdom and the United States . In Germany and Austria , the film 's home countries , it grossed $ 4 @,@ 540 @,@ 541 and $ 479 @,@ 678 respectively . Since its release The Edukators has become a cult film , according to CBS News , and The Epoch Times called it " a landmark film and international cultural phenomenon " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film was generally well received by critics . Based on 75 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , it has an overall approval rating of 69 percent from critics and an average score of 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . According to the website 's consensus , " The Edukators engagingly plays out the clash between youthful idealism and older pragmaticism . " Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating from 100 top reviews by mainstream critics , calculated a score of 68 based on 28 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Stephanie Bunbury of The Age wrote that in Germany it was a " huge hit ... Abroad , however , it has been the butt of plenty of criticism . It is too earnest , too naive , too Teutonic and sincere . "
Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal called The Edukators " an uncommonly smart and interesting " film , and the Austin Chronicle 's Marc Savlov said the film was a " smart , kicky little gem that owes as much to Guy Debord and the Situationists . " According to Sean Axmaker of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , it was " a rare film that gets smarter as it goes along ... inject [ ing ] a satisfying dash of pragmatism every time it seems ready to slip into either unearned idealism or cynical fatalism . " Ray Bennett wrote for The Hollywood Reporter , " The Edukators is that rare beast , a terrific movie that boasts intelligent wit , expert storytelling , delightful characters and grown @-@ up dialogue plus suspense and a wicked surprise ending . "
A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that despite " its shortcomings " on political subjects , it " succeeds brilliantly in telling the story of a man who falls in love with his best buddy 's girlfriend and doesn 't know what to do about it . " Tim Appelo of Seattle Weekly praised " the marvelous acting , the sensitive , utterly realistic treatment of the young @-@ love triangle , " adding : " The Edukators is educational — not intellectually , but emotionally . " Washington Post critic Stephen Hunter praised the film 's realism : " The whole thing feels messy , painful , funny and believable , just like that hideous circus known as real life . " The Times ' Howard Swains wrote that it " manages to combine political discourse , a love @-@ triangle and a hostage plot , all without sacrificing its graceful humour . " Los Angeles Times critic Carina Chocano described it as a " sweet , funny and gripping romantic adventure , " and " The only accurate , ironic and poignant depiction of what it 's like to be young and socially committed in the WTO era " . Chocano choose it as one of the 13 best films released in 2005 .
Not all reviews were positive . The Orlando Sentinel 's Roger Moore called The Edukators " a surprisingly generic German ' Stockholm Syndrome ' romantic triangle thriller , " adding : " It ends interestingly , but it would 've ended better , and played better , had it been half an hour shorter . " In Slant Magazine , Jason Clark wrote that the film needed " a touch of the perverse " , but " Weingartner plays out the drama far too earnestly , and the story barely sustains the length of a movie half of its running time . " According to Jack Mathews of the New York Daily News , " The dialogue between the captive and the captors gets a little didactic , and the ending is as contrived as it is cynical . " Similar criticism of the film 's didacticism was made by Brett Michel of Boston Phoenix , Kriss Allison of Stylus Magazine and Glenn Whipp of the Los Angeles Daily News .
Andre Wright wrote for The Stranger , " [ It ] starts strong , with an ingratiatingly anarchic vibe , but quickly devolves into a dust @-@ dry , hectoring socialist lecture : a cinematic version of Kenner 's My First Revolution playset . " Jonathan Romney of The Independent said that Weingartner " presents his indictment of the System in crudely stacked terms that make The Edukators very much a teen movie rather than a plausible political statement . " In The Times , Wendy Ide wrote : " What could have been an effective piece of drama , a dialogue to cause both sides to question the very foundations of their belief systems , is just a two @-@ hour rant from a wispy bearded idealist whose idea of brotherhood is to sleep with his best friend 's girlfriend . "
= = = Cultural impact = = =
In 2006 a group of left @-@ wing activists calling itself " Hamburg for Free " dressed as superheroes , robbing food from upper @-@ class stores to distribute to the underclass . The media considered the crimes inspired by the film , and some protesters had T @-@ shirts and banners reading " Die fetten Jahre sind vorbei " ( The Edukators ' original title ) . In 2009 , a statue stolen from Bernard Madoff was returned with a note ( " Bernie the Swindler , Lesson : Return stolen property to rightful owners " ) signed by " The Educators " .
It gained international attention and in 2006 it was announced that Brad Anderson would adapt and direct a version of the film set in the United States .
= King 's College London =
King 's College London ( informally King 's or KCL ) is a public research university located in London , United Kingdom , and a founding constituent college of the federal University of London . King 's was founded in 1829 by King George IV and the Duke of Wellington and received its royal charter in the same year . In 1836 , King 's became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London . In the late 20th century , it grew through a series of mergers , including with Queen Elizabeth College and Chelsea College of Science and Technology ( in 1985 ) , the Institute of Psychiatry ( in 1997 ) , the United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy 's and St Thomas ' Hospitals and the Florence Nightingale School of Nursing and Midwifery ( in 1998 ) .
King 's is regarded as a leading multidisciplinary research university , ranked 19th in the world by the 2015 / 16 QS World University Rankings , and 27th in the world by the 2015 / 16 Times Higher Education . It is usually considered part of the " golden triangle " along with the University of Oxford , the University of Cambridge , University College London , Imperial College London , and the London School of Economics . It is a member of academic organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities , the European University Association , and the Russell Group .
King 's has five campuses : its historic main campus on the Strand in central London , three other Thames @-@ side campuses ( Guy 's , St Thomas ' and Waterloo ) and one in Denmark Hill in south London . As of 2014 / 15 , King 's had 28 @,@ 730 students and 5 @,@ 948 staff and a total income of £ 684 @.@ 2 million , of which £ 210 @.@ 8 million was from research grants and contracts . It has the fifth largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom , and the largest of any in London . Its academic activities are organised into nine faculties which are subdivided into numerous departments , centres and research divisions . King 's is home to six Medical Research Council centres and is a founding member of the King 's Health Partners academic health sciences centre , Francis Crick Institute and MedCity . It is the largest European centre for graduate and post @-@ graduate medical teaching and biomedical research , by number of students , including the world 's first nursing school , the Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery .
King 's alumni and staff include 12 Nobel laureates ; contributors to the discovery of DNA structure , Hepatitis C , and the Higgs boson ; and key researchers advancing radar , radio , television and mobile phones . Alumni also include heads of states , governments and intergovernmental organisations ; nineteen members of the current House of Commons and sixteen members of the current House of Lords ; and the recipients of two Oscars , three Grammys and an Emmy .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
King 's College London , so named to indicate the patronage of King George IV , was founded in 1829 in response to the theological controversy surrounding the founding of " London University " ( which later became University College London ) in 1826 . London University was founded , with the backing of Utilitarians , Jews and non @-@ Anglican Christians , as a secular institution , intended to educate " the youth of our middling rich people between the ages of 15 or 16 and 20 or later " giving its nickname , " the godless college in Gower Street " .
The need for such an institution was a result of the religious and social nature of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge , which then educated solely the sons of wealthy Anglicans . The secular nature of London University was disapproved by The Establishment , indeed , " the storms of opposition which raged around it threatened to crush every spark of vital energy which remained " . Thus , the creation of a rival institution represented a Tory response to reassert the educational values of The Establishment . More widely , King 's was one of the first of a series of institutions which came about in the early nineteenth century as a result of the Industrial Revolution and great social changes in England following the Napoleonic Wars . By virtue of its foundation King 's has enjoyed the patronage of the monarch , the Archbishop of Canterbury as its visitor and during the nineteenth century counted among its official governors the Lord Chancellor , Speaker of the House of Commons and the Lord Mayor of London .
= = = = Duel in Battersea Fields , 21 March 1829 = = = =
The simultaneous support of the Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington ( who was also UK 's Prime Minister then ) , for an Anglican King 's College London and the Roman Catholic Relief Act , which was to lead to the granting of almost full civil rights to Catholics , was challenged by George Finch @-@ Hatton , 10th Earl of Winchilsea , in early 1829 . Winchilsea and his supporters wished for King 's to be subject to the Test Acts , like the universities of Oxford , where only members of the Church of England could matriculate , and Cambridge , where non @-@ Anglicans could matriculate but not graduate , but this was not Wellington 's intent .
Winchilsea and about 150 other contributors withdrew their support of King 's College London in response to Wellington 's support of Catholic emancipation . In a letter to Wellington he accused the Duke to have in mind " insidious designs for the infringement of our liberty and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State " . The letter provoked a furious exchange of correspondence and Wellington accused Winchilsea of imputing him with " disgraceful and criminal motives " in setting up King 's College London . When Winchilsea refused to retract the remarks , Wellington – by his own admission , " no advocate of duelling " and a virgin duellist – demanded satisfaction in a contest of arms : " I now call upon your lordship to give me that satisfaction for your conduct which a gentleman has a right to require , and which a gentleman never refuses to give . "
The result was a duel in Battersea Fields on 21 March 1829 . Winchilsea did not fire , a plan he and his second almost certainly decided upon before the duel ; Wellington took aim and fired wide to the right . Accounts differ as to whether Wellington missed on purpose . Wellington , noted for his poor aim , claimed he did , other reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill . Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology . " Duel Day " is still celebrated on the first Thursday after 21 March every year , marked by various events throughout King 's , including reenactments .
= = = 19th century = = =
King 's opened in October 1831 with the cleric William Otter appointed as first principal and lecturer in divinity . The Archbishop of Canterbury presided over the opening ceremony , in which a sermon was given in the chapel by Charles Blomfield , the Bishop of London , on the subject of combining religious instruction with intellectual culture . Despite the attempts to make King 's Anglican @-@ only , the initial prospectus permitted , " nonconformists of all sorts to enter the college freely " . William Howley : the governors and the professors , except the linguists , had to be members of the Church of England but the students did not , though attendance at chapel was compulsory .
King 's was divided into a senior department and a junior department , also known as King 's College School , which was originally situated in the basement of the Strand Campus . The Junior department started with 85 pupils and only three teachers , but quickly grew to 500 by 1841 , outgrowing its facilities and leading it to relocate to Wimbledon in 1897 where it remains today , though it is no longer associated with King 's College London . Within the Senior department teaching was divided into three courses : a general course comprised divinity , classical languages , mathematics , English literature and history ; a medical course ; and miscellaneous subjects , such as law , political economy and modern languages , which were not related to any systematic course of study at the time and depended for their continuance on the supply of occasional students . In 1833 the general course was reorganised leading to the award of the Associate of King 's College ( AKC ) , the first qualification issued by King 's . The course , which concerns questions of ethics and theology , is still awarded today to students and staff who take an optional three @-@ year course alongside their studies .
The river frontage was completed in April 1835 at a cost of £ 7 @,@ 100 , its completion a condition of King 's College London securing the site from the Crown . Unlike those in the school , student numbers in the Senior department remained almost stationary during King 's first five years of existence . During this time the medical school was blighted by inefficiency and the divided loyalties of the staff leading to a steady decline in attendance . One of the most important appointments was that of Charles Wheatstone as professor of Experimental Philosophy .
At this time neither King 's , " London University " , nor the medical schools at the London hospitals could confer degrees . In 1835 the government announced that it would establish an examining board to grant degrees , with " London University " and King 's both becoming affiliated colleges . This became the University of London in 1836 , the former " London University " becoming University College , London ( UCL ) . The first University of London degrees were awarded to King 's College London students in 1839 .
In 1840 , King 's opened its own hospital on Portugal Street near Lincoln 's Inn Fields , an area composed of overcrowded rookeries characterised by poverty and disease . The governance of King 's College Hospital was later transferred to the corporation of the hospital established by the King 's College Hospital Act 1851 . The hospital moved to new premises in Denmark Hill , Camberwell in 1913 . The appointment in 1877 of Joseph Lister as professor of clinical surgery greatly benefited the medical school , and the introduction of Lister 's antiseptic surgical methods gained the hospital an international reputation .
In 1845 King 's established a Military Department to train officers for the Army and the British East India Company , and in 1846 a Theological Department to train Anglican priests . In 1855 , King 's pioneered evening classes in London ; that King 's granted students at the evening classes certificates of college attendance to enable them to sit University of London degree exams was cited as an example of the worthlessness of these certificates in the decision by the University of London to end the affiliated colleges system in 1858 and open their examinations to everyone .
In 1882 the King 's College London Act amended the constitution . The act removed the proprietorial nature of King 's , changing the name of the corporation from " The Governors and Proprietors of King 's College , London " to " King 's College London " and annulling the 1829 charter ( although King 's remained incorporated under that charter ) . The act also changing King 's College London from a ( technically ) for @-@ profit corporation to a non @-@ profit one ( no dividends had ever been paid in over 50 years of operation ) and extended the objects of King 's to include the education of women . The Ladies ' Department of King 's College London was opened in Kensington Square in 1885 , which later in 1902 became King 's College Women 's Department .
= = = 20th century = = =
See also Contribution of King 's College London to the discovery of the structure of DNA and Photo 51
The King 's College London Act 1903 , abolished all remaining religious tests for staff , except within the Theological department . In 1910 , King 's was ( with the exception of the Theological department ) merged into the University of London under the King 's College London ( Transfer ) Act 1908 , losing its legal independence .
During World War I the medical school was opened to women for the first time . The end of the war saw an influx of students , which strained existing facilities to the point where some classes were held in the Principal 's house .
In World War II , the buildings of King 's College London were used by the Auxiliary Fire Service with a number of King 's staff , mainly those then known as college servants , serving as firewatchers . Parts of the Strand building , the quadrangle , and the roof of apse and stained glass windows of the chapel suffered bomb damage in the Blitz . During the post @-@ war reconstruction , the vaults beneath the quadrangle were replaced by a two @-@ storey laboratory , which opened in 1952 , for the departments of Physics and Civil and Electrical Engineering .
One of the most famous pieces of scientific research performed at King 's were the crucial contributions to the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA in 1953 by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin , together with Raymond Gosling , Alex Stokes , Herbert Wilson and other colleagues at the Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics at King 's .
Major reconstruction of King 's began in 1966 following the publication of the Robbins Report on Higher Education . A new block facing the Strand designed by E. D. Jefferiss Mathews was opened in 1972 . In 1980 King 's regained its legal independence under a new Royal Charter . In 1993 King 's , along with other large University of London colleges , gained direct access to government funding ( which had previously been through the university ) and the right to confer University of London degrees itself . This contributed to King 's and the other large colleges being regarded as de facto universities in their own right .
King 's College London underwent several mergers with other institutions in the late 20th century . These including the reincorporation in 1983 of the King 's College School of Medicine and Dentistry , which had become independent of King 's College Hospital at the foundation of the National Health Service in 1948 , mergers with Queen Elizabeth College and Chelsea College of Science and Technology in 1985 , and the Institute of Psychiatry in 1997 . In 1998 the United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy 's and St Thomas ' Hospitals merged with King 's to form the King 's College London GKT School of Medical Education . Also in 1998 Florence Nightingale 's original training school for nurses merged with the King 's Department of Nursing Studies as the Florence Nightingale School of Nursing and Midwifery . The same year King 's acquired the former Public Record Office building on Chancery Lane and converted it at a cost of £ 35 million into the Maughan Library , which opened in 2002 .
= = = 2001 to present = = =
In July 2006 , King 's College London was granted degree @-@ awarding powers in its own right , as opposed to through the University of London , by the Privy Council . This power remained unexercised until 2007 , when King 's announced that all students starting courses from September 2007 onwards would be awarded degrees conferred by King 's itself , rather than by the University of London . The new certificates however still make reference to the fact that King 's is a constituent college of the University of London . All current students with at least one year of study remaining were in August 2007 offered the option of choosing to be awarded a University of London degree or a King 's degree . The first King 's degrees were awarded in summer 2008 .
In April 2011 King 's became a founding partner in the UK Centre for Medical Research and Innovation , subsequently renamed the Francis Crick Institute , committing £ 40 million to the project . The Chemistry department was reopened in 2011 following its closure in 2003 .
In September 2014 King 's College London opened King 's College London Mathematics School , a free school sixth form located in Lambeth that specialises in mathemeatics . In October 2014 , Ed Byrne replaced Rick Trainor as Principal of King 's College London , the latter having served for 10 years . In December 2014 , King 's announced its plans to rebrand its name to ' King 's London ' . It was emphasised that there were no plans to change the legal name of King 's , and that the name ' King 's London ' was designed to promote King 's and to highlight the fact that King 's is a university in its own right . King 's announced that the rebranding plans had been dropped in January 2015 .
On 10 March 2015 , King 's acquired a 50 @-@ year lease for the Aldwych Quarter which includes the historic grand Bush House building . King ’ s will occupy Bush House and Strand House on a phased basis from September 2016 , and adjacent buildings King House and Melbourne House from 2025 . Once King ’ s takes full occupation of the four main buildings , the Aldwych Quarter will provide approximately 300 @,@ 000 square feet of additional space for student study and social space , new teaching facilities and academic accommodation
= = Campus = =
= = = Strand Campus = = =
The Strand Campus is the founding campus of King 's . It is located on the Strand in the City of Westminster , sharing its frontage along the River Thames . Most of the Schools of Arts & Humanities , Law , Social Science & Public Policy and Natural & Mathematical Sciences ( formerly Physical Sciences & Engineering ) are housed here . The campus combines the Grade I listed King 's Building of 1831 designed by Sir Robert Smirke , and the Byzantine Gothic college chapel , redesigned in 1864 by Sir George Gilbert Scott with the more modern Strand Building , completed in 1972 . The Chesham Building in Surrey Street was purchased after the Second World War . The Macadam Building of 1975 houses the Strand Campus Students ' Union centre and is named after King 's alumnus Sir Ivison Macadam , first President of the National Union of Students .
The nearest Underground stations are Temple , Charing Cross and Covent Garden .
= = = = King 's Building = = = =
The Grade I listed King ’ s Building was designed by Sir Robert Smirke in 1831 . It is the founding building of King 's , located alongside Somerset House . Sir John Nash ( the architect of Buckingham Palace ) offered free services for the building , yet this was declined by King 's since the same was in favour of the services of Sir Robert Smirke ( the architect of the British Museum and King 's neighbour , Somerset House ) .
Marble statues of Sappho and Sophocles were bequeathed by Frida Mond in 1923 , a friend of Israel Gollancz , Professor of English Language and Literature at King 's . They were placed in the foyer ( old entrance hall ) of the King 's Building , where they have remained ever since . The two statues symbolise King ’ s motto of ‘ sancte et sapienter ’ ( ‘ with holiness and with wisdom ’ ) . The Great Hall is one of the central congregation spaces within the King 's Building . Many original features and styles of the Hall , such as the oak paneling and the King 's College crest , was repaired , and Grade I listed windows , ceiling and column capital were refurbished in the 21st century .
= = = = Chapel = = = =
The original King 's College London Chapel was designed by Sir Robert Smirke and was completed in 1831 as part of the King 's building . Given the foundation of the university in the tradition of the Church of England the chapel was intended to be an integral part of the campus . This is reflected in its central location within the King 's Building on the first floor above the Great Hall , accessible via a grand double staircase from the foyer . The original chapel was described as a low and broad room " fitted to the ecclesiological notions of George IV 's reign . " However , by the mid nineteenth century its style had fallen out of fashion and in 1859 a proposal by King 's chaplain , the Reverend E. H. Plumptre , that the original chapel should be reconstructed was approved by King 's College London council , who agreed that its " meagreness and poverty " made it unworthy of King 's .
King 's approached Sir George Gilbert Scott to make proposals . In his proposal of 22 December 1859 he suggested that , " There can be no doubt that , in a classic building , the best mode of giving ecclesiastical character is the adoption of the form and , in some degree , the character of an ancient basilica . " His proposals for a chapel modelled on the lines of an classical basilica were accepted and the reconstruction was completed in 1864 at a cost of just over £ 7 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Somerset House East Wing = = = =
In December 2009 , King 's signed a 78 @-@ year lease to the East Wing of Somerset House . It has been described as one of the longest @-@ ever property negotiations , taking over 180 years to complete . Since King 's was built it has been in various discussions to expand into one of the wings of Somerset House itself , however , the relationship between King 's and HM Revenue and Customs that occupied the East Wing were sometimes difficult . Sir Robert Smirke 's design of King 's was sympathetic to that of Somerset House which is situated adjacent to the Strand Campus . A condition of King 's acquiring the site in the 1820s was that it should be erected " on a plan which would complete the river front of Somerset House at its eastern extremity in accordance with the original design of Sir William Chambers " which had for so long offended " every eye of taste for its incomplete appearance " .
In 1875 , a dispute arose when new windows were added to the façade overlooking King 's . Following a complaint by King 's College London council at the loss of privacy , the response of the Metropolitan Board of Works was that " the terms under which the college is held are not such as to enable the council to restrict Her Majesty from opening windows in Somerset House whenever she may think proper " . By the end of World War I , King 's began to outgrow its premises which led to rekindled efforts to acquire the East Wing . There was even a suggestion that King 's should be relocated to new premises in Bloomsbury to alleviate space concerns , however , these plans never came to fruition . Instead , a new top floor was added to the King 's Building to house the Anatomy Department and other buildings along Surrey Street were purchased .
Following the publication of the Robbins Report on Higher Education in 1963 a further attempt was made to acquire the East Wing . The report recommended a large expansion in student numbers accommodated by a new building programme . The King 's " quadrilateral plan " was to create a campus stretching from Norfolk Street in the east to Waterloo Bridge Road in the west . Plans were also drawn up for modern high @-@ rise buildings along the Strand and Surrey Street to house a new library and laboratories . A contemporary report stated that the redevelopment would provide " London with a university precinct on the Strand of which the capital could be proud " . The plans were revisited in the early 1970s by the then Principal , Sir John Hackett , however , progress was prevented by funding problems and the unwillingness of the Government to re @-@ house its civil servants . In 1971 the Evening Standard led a public campaign for Somerset House to be transformed into a new public arts venue for London . Proposals were also aired for the relocation of the Tate Gallery to the site . In the 1990s the eventual vacation by government departments and a comprehensive restoration programme saw the opening of the Courtauld Gallery , the Gilbert and Hermitage collections and the Edmond J. Safra Fountain Court .
In early 2010 a £ 25 million renovation of the East Wing was undertaken and took 18 months to complete . On 29 February 2012 , Queen Elizabeth II officially opened the building . It is home to the School of Law , a public exhibition space called the Inigo Rooms curated by the King 's Cultural Institute as well as adding a further entrance to the Strand Campus .
= = = = Strand Lane ' Roman bath ' = = = =
A Stuart cistern and later eighteenth century public bath protected by the National Trust and popularly known as the ' Roman bath ' is situated on the site of the Strand Campus beneath the Norfolk Building and can be accessed via the Surrey Street entrance . Hidden by surrounding King 's buildings , the bath was widely thought to be of Roman origin giving its popular name , however it is more likely that it was originally a cistern for a fountain built in the gardens of Somerset House for Queen Anne of Denmark in 1612 . Evidence of its first use as a public bath was in the late eighteenth century . The ' Roman bath ' is mentioned by Charles Dickens in chapters thirty @-@ five and thirty @-@ six of the novel David Copperfield .
There was an old Roman bath in those days at the bottom of one of the streets out of the Strand — it may be there still — in which I have had many a cold plunge . Dressing myself as quietly as I could , and leaving Peggotty to look after my aunt , I tumbled head foremost into it , and then went for a walk to Hampstead .
Moreover , Aldwych tube station , a well @-@ preserved but disused London Underground station , is integrated as part of the campus . A rifle range used by King 's is located on the site of one of the platforms since the closure of the station in 1994 .
= = = Guy 's Campus = = =
Guy 's Campus is situated close to London Bridge and the Shard on the South Bank of the Thames and is home to the School of Biomedical Sciences ( also at the Waterloo Campus ) , the Dental Institute and the School of Medicine .
Thomas Guy , the founder and benefactor of Guy 's Hospital established in 1726 in the London Borough of Southwark , was a wealthy bookseller and also a governor of the nearby St Thomas ' Hospital . He lies buried in the vault beneath the eighteenth @-@ century chapel at Guy 's . Silk @-@ merchant William Hunt was a later benefactor who gave money in the early nineteenth century to build Hunt 's House . The original Hunt ’ s House was closed due to war damage , and was eventually demolished as part of campus development . Today this is the site of New Hunt 's House , which was opened in September 1999 following the merger of UMDS and King ’ s . The Henriette Raphael building , constructed in 1902 , and the Gordon Museum are also located here . In addition , the Hodgkin building , Shepherd 's House and Guy 's chapel are prominent buildings within the campus . The Students ' Union centre at Guy 's is situated in Boland House . Guy 's Campus is located opposite the Old Operating Theatre Museum , which was part of old St Thomas Hospital in Southwark .
The nearest Underground stations are London Bridge and Borough .
= = = = Guy 's Chapel = = = =
The Grade II * listed Guy 's Chapel is one of the oldest parts of the original hospital . It was finished in 1780 and features Victorian stained glass windows and mosaic murals . The chapel is in the centre block of the west wing of the original Guy 's Hospital . There is a white marble monument to Thomas Guy by John Bacon inside the main door of the chapel . The monument was erected in 1779 , and is set in a semicircular @-@ arched surround made of green marble . The chapel houses the tomb of Thomas Guy , and is the resting place of English surgeon and anatomist Sir Astley Cooper . The coffin @-@ shaped stone tomb of Guy where his remains rest is located in the crypt beneath the chapel . The chapel also contains memorials to hospital 's benefactors and members of the hospital staff .
= = = = The Colonnade = = = =
The Colonnade is also part of the original Guy 's Hospital . It was built with two courtyards on either side . A round @-@ hooded Portland stone alcove with a figure sitting inside is located at the eastern courtyard of the Colonnade . The alcove was originally part of , and is one of the surviving fragments of the old London Bridge that was demolished in 1831 . The alcove was brought to the hospital in 1861 , and was re @-@ erected within the eastern internal court in 1926 . The alcove now houses the statue of John Keats , an English Romantic poet who studied at Guy 's Hospital from 1815 to 1816 to become an apothecary . The statue displayed at the western courtyard on the other side of the Colonnade is that of William Morris , 1st Viscount Nuffield , another benefactor of Guy 's Hospital . The front courtyard , named the General Court , was later built in 1738 , and the part of the Georgian complex was completed in 1780 . A brass statue of Thomas Guy by Peter Scheemakers stands in the centre of the General Court , upon a pedestal with bas @-@ reliefs of " Christ Healing the Sick " and the " Good Samaritan " .
= = = = Henriette Raphael House = = = =
Henriette Raphael House was opened in 1902 . It is the first purpose built nurses ' home in London . The house was named after Henriette Raphael , and was funded by donations from her merchant banker husband Henry Louis Raphael , and her sons Walter Raphael and barrister Herbert Raphael .
= = = = Hodgkin Building = = = =
The Hodgkin Building was named after Thomas Hodgkin , the demonstrator of morbid anatomy ( anatomical pathology as it is now called ) , the former curator of the museum at Guy ’ s Hospital Medical School and best known for the first account of Hodgkin 's disease . The building is the original medical school building of Guy ’ s Hospital .
The entrance hall and corridor of the Hodgkin Building displays busts of King ’ s alumni and benefactors , including Thomas Addison , William Babington , Golding Bird , Richard Bright , Astley Cooper and Richard Mead . The Hodgkin Building currently houses lecture theatres , teaching laboratories , dissecting rooms , museums ( Gordon Museum of Pathology and Museum of Life Sciences ) and research centres . The original medical school library , Wills Library , is also located on the ground floor of the building .
= = = Waterloo Campus = = =
The Waterloo Campus is located across Waterloo Bridge from the Strand Campus , near the South Bank Centre in the London Borough of Lambeth and consists of the James Clerk Maxwell Building and the Franklin – Wilkins Building .
Cornwall House , now the Franklin @-@ Wilkins Building , constructed between 1912 and 1915 was originally the His Majesty 's Stationery Office ( responsible for Crown copyright and National Archives ) , but was requisitioned for use as a military hospital in 1915 during World War I. It became the King George Military Hospital , and accommodated about 1 @,@ 800 patients on 63 wards . King 's acquired the building in the 1980s and today it is home to the School of Biomedical Sciences ( also at the Guy 's Campus ) , parts of the School of Social Science & Public Policy ( also at the Strand Campus ) , Diabetes and Nutritional Sciences Division ( part of the School of Medicine ) and LonDEC ( London Dental Education Centre ) , part of the Dental Institute ( also at Guy 's and Denmark Hill ) . The building , one of London 's largest university buildings , underwent refurbishment and was reopened in 2000 . The building is named after Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins for their major contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA .
The James Clerk Maxwell Building houses the Principal 's Office , most of the central administrative offices of King 's and part of the Florence Nightingale School of Nursing & Midwifery . The Building was named after Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell , who was the Professor of Natural Philosophy at King 's from 1860 to 1865 .
The nearest Underground station is Waterloo .
= = = St Thomas ' Campus = = =
The St Thomas ' Campus in the London Borough of Lambeth , facing the Houses of Parliament across the Thames , houses parts of the
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medical student at Guy 's Hospital .
New Hunt 's House Library : Situated at Guy 's Campus , the library covers all aspects of biomedical science , including anatomy , biochemistry , cell biology , genetics , neuroscience , pharmacology and physiology . There are also extensive resources for medicine , dentistry , physiotherapy and health services .
St Thomas ' House Library : Situated at St Thomas ' Campus , its holdings cover all aspects of basic medical sciences , clinical medicine and health services research , and particularly focus on dermatology and paediatrics .
Institute of Psychiatry Library : The library is largest psychiatric library in Western Europe , holding 3 @,@ 000 print journal titles , 550 of which are current subscriptions , as well as access to over 3 @,@ 500 electronic journals , 42 @,@ 000 books , and training materials . The collections focus on psychiatry , psychology , neuroscience , neurology , genetics and psychotherapy .
Weston Education Centre Library : Situated at the Denmark Hill Campus , the library has particular strengths in the areas of gastroenterology , liver disease , diabetes , obstetrics , gynaecology , paediatrics and the history of medicine . The collection supports the teaching and research of the GKT School of Medicine and the Dental Institute , and also the clinical work of the King 's College Hospital and the South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust .
Additionally , King 's students and staff have full access to Senate House Library , the central library for the University of London and the School of Advanced Study . Undergraduate and postgraduate students also have reference access to libraries of other University of London institutions under the University of London Libraries Access Agreement .
= = = Museums , galleries and collections = = =
King 's currently operates two museums : Gordon Museum of Pathology and Museum of Life Sciences . Opened in 1905 at Guy 's Campus , the Gordon Museum is the largest medical museum in the United Kingdom , and houses a collection of approximately 8000 pathological specimens , artefacts , models and paintings , including Astley Cooper 's specimens and Sir Joseph Lister 's antiseptic spray . The Museum of Life Sciences was founded in 2009 adjacent to the Gordon Museum , and it houses historic biological and pharmaceutical collections from the constituent colleges of the modern King 's College London .
Between 1843 and 1927 , the King George III Museum was a museum within King 's College London which housed the collections of scientific instruments of George III and eminent nineteenth @-@ century scientists ( including Sir Charles Wheatstone and Charles Babbage ) . Due to space constraints within King 's , much of the museum 's collections were transferred on loan to the Science Museum in London or kept in King 's College London Archives .
The Anatomy Museum was a museum situated on the 6th floor of the King 's Building at the Strand Campus . The Anatomy Theatre was built next door to the museum in 1927 , where anatomical dissections and demonstrations took place . The Anatomy Museum 's collection includes casts of injuries , leather models , skins of various animals from Western Australia donated to the museum in 1846 , and casts of heads of John Bishop and Thomas Williams , the murderers in the Italian Boy 's murder in 1831 . The last dissection in the Anatomy Theatre was performed in 1997 . The Anatomy Theatre and Museum was renovated and refurbished in 2009 , and is now a facility for teaching , research and performance at King 's .
The Foyle Special Collections Library also houses a number of special collections , range in date from the 15th century to present , and in subject from human anatomy to Modern Greek poetry . The Foreign and Commonwealth Office ( FCO ) Historical Collection is the largest collection contains material from the former FCO Library . The collection was a working tool used by the British government to inform and influence foreign and colonial policy . Transferred to King ’ s in 2007 , the FCO Historical Collection contains over 80 @,@ 000 items including books , pamphlets , manuscript , and photographic material . The Medical Collection include the historical library collections of the constituent medical schools and institutes of King 's . The Rare Books Collection holds 12 @,@ 000 printed books , including a 1483 Venice printing of Silius Italicus ’ s Punica , first editions of Charles Dickens ' novels , and the 1937 ( first ) edition of George Orwell 's The Road to Wigan Pier .
King ’ s College London Archives holds the institution 's records , which are among the richest higher education records in London . King 's archives collections include institutional archives of King 's since 1828 , archives of institutions and schools that were created by or have merged with King 's , and records relating to the history of medicine . Founded in 1964 , the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives holds the private papers of over 800 senior British defence personnel who held office since 1900 .
Science Gallery London is set to open in 2016 on King 's Guy 's Campus . It is a public science centre where ' art and science collide ' , and is a part of Global Science Gallery Network . A flagship project for ' Culture at King ’ s College London ' , Science Gallery will include 2 @,@ 000 m2 ( 21 @,@ 528 sq ft ) of public space and a newly landscaped Georgian courtyard . There will be exhibition galleries , theatres , meeting spaces and a café ; while unlike other science centre , it will have no permanent collection . Daniel Glaser , the former Head of Engaging Science at Wellcome Trust , is Director of Science Gallery London .
= = = Rankings and reputation = = =
Internationally , King 's is consistently ranked among the top universities in the world by all major global university rankings compilers , having been placed between 19th by the 2015 QS World University Rankings , 27th by the world university rankings of the Times Higher Education and 55th worldwide by the Academic Ranking of World Universities .
As of 2015 , King 's is ranked in the top seven UK universities in all the six major academic rankings of global universities : QS , Times Higher Education , ARWU , University Ranking by Academic Performance , U.S. News & World Report ( Best Global Universities Rankings ) and Center for World University Rankings .
King 's was ranked joint 14th overall in The Sunday Times 10 @-@ year ( 1998 – 2007 ) average ranking of British universities based on consistent league table performance . In recent years , however , the university has performed less well in domestic league tables , being placed outside of the top 20 in all three major tables for 2016 . It should be noted that the methodologies of these tables include student satisfaction scores with teaching and feedback as a significant input . In common with most other London institutions , King 's performs less well on the National Student Survey ( NSS ) , ranking 133rd for student satisfaction ( out of 160 institutes ) in the 2015 survey .
According to the 2015 Times and Sunday Times University Guide , their inclusion of student satisfaction scores , along with international guides including reputation scores from academics and employers , explains the disparity between King 's ranking on their ( domestic ) table and global tables . They add that when the university is ranked according to student satisfaction scores from undergraduates on factors such as academic support , teaching , assessment and feedback , " King ’ s ranks 106 out of 123 institutions " , although " despite the iffy student satisfaction scores , students continue to apply here in their droves " with an average of 8 @.@ 1 applicants per place available for 2014 entry . However , although the Complete University Guide has used the results of the NSS since at least 2011 , King 's retained a position in their top 20 until the 2015 tables ( published 2014 ) , managing 19th on the 2014 tables despite ranking joint 102nd ( out of 124 ) for student satisfaction .
According to the 2017 Complete University Guide , 8 out of the 30 subjects offered by King 's rank within the top 10 nationally , including Education ( 4th ) , Food Science ( 4th ) , Dentistry ( 5th ) , Law ( 5th ) , Music ( 5th ) , Business & Management Studies ( 6th ) , History ( 9th ) , and Classics & Ancient History ( 10th ) . The Guardian University Guide 2017 ranks King 's in the top ten in 8 subjects , including Law ( 4th ) , Economics ( 6th ) , Media & film studies ( 6th ) , Anatomy & physiology ( 8th ) , Dentistry ( 8th ) , Politics ( 9th ) , Classics & ancient history ( 10th ) , and History ( 10th ) . King 's College London has had 24 of its subject @-@ areas awarded the highest rating of 5 or 5 * for research quality , and in 2007 it received a good result in its audit by the Quality Assurance Agency . It is in the top tier for research earnings . The Times Higher Education listed King 's College London as eighth in the list of the top 10 universities in clinical , pre @-@ clinical and health subjects in its 2016 world rankings .
In September 2010 , the Sunday Times selected King 's as the " University of the Year 2010 – 11 " . King 's was ranked as the 5th best university in the UK for the quality of graduates according to recruiters from the UK 's major companies .
In a survey by The New York Times assessing the most valued graduates by business leaders , King 's College London graduates ranked 22nd in the world and 5th in the UK . In the 2015 Global Employability University Survey of international recruiters , King 's is ranked 43rd in the world and 7th in the UK . King 's was chosen as the 5th best UK university by major British employers in 2015 .
In 2014 , King 's ranked 5th amongst multidisciplinary UK universities for highest graduate starting salaries ( i.e. graduates ' average annual salary six months after graduation ) . In a big data research by the Institute for Fiscal Studies , University of Cambridge and Harvard University , it was revealed the top 10 % of King 's male graduates working in England were the 7th highest earning students 10 years after graduation in comparison to graduates of all Higher Education providers ( both multi and uni @-@ disciplinary universities ) in the UK and the top 10 % of its female graduates were the 9th highest earning students 10 years after graduation in the same study . The Guardian University Guide 2017 named King 's as the 6th best university in the country for graduate career prospects , with 84 @.@ 3 % of students finding graduate @-@ level jobs within six months of graduation .
= = = Associateship of King 's College = = =
The Associateship of King 's College ( AKC ) is the original award of King 's College , dating back to its foundation in 1829 and first awarded in 1835 . It was designed to reflect the twin objectives of King 's College 's 1829 royal charter to maintain the connection between " sound religion and useful learning " and to teach the " doctrines and duties of Christianity " .
Today , the AKC is a modern tradition that offers an inclusive , research @-@ led programme of lectures that gives students the opportunities to engage with religious , philosophical and ethical issues alongside their main degree course . Graduates of King ’ s College London may be eligible to be elected as ' Associates ' of King 's College by the authority of King 's College London council , delegated to the academic board . After election , they are entitled to use the post @-@ nominal letters " AKC " .
= = = Fellowship of King 's College = = =
The Fellowship of King 's College ( FKC ) is the highest award that can be bestowed upon an individual by King 's College London . The award of the fellowship is governed by a statute of King 's College London and reflects distinguished service to King 's by a member of staff , conspicuous service to King 's , or the achievement of distinction by those who were at one time closely associated with King 's College London .
The proposal to establish a fellowship of King 's was first considered in 1847 . John Allen , a former chaplain of King 's , was the first FKC . Each fellow have to pay two guineas for the fellowship privilege initially , but the fee was ceased from 1850 . A wide variety of people were elected as fellows of King 's , including former principal Alfred Barry , former King ’ s student then professor Thorold Rogers , architect William Burges and ornithologist Robert Swinhoe . The first women fellows were elected in 1904 . Lilian Faithfull , vice @-@ principal of the King ’ s Ladies ’ Department from 1894 to 1906 , was one of the first women fellows .
= = Student life = =
= = = Students ' union = = =
Founded in 1873 , King 's College , London Union Society which later , in 1908 , reorganised into King 's College London Students ' Union , better known by its acronym KCLSU , is the oldest Students ' Union in London ( University College London Union being founded in 1893 ) and has a claim to being the oldest Students ' Union in England . Athletic Club was one of the nineteenth @-@ century student societies at King 's formed in 1884 . The Students ' Union provides a wide range of activities and services , including over 50 sports clubs ( which includes the Boat Club which rows on the River Thames and the Rifle Club which uses King 's College London 's shooting range located at the disused Aldwych tube station beneath the Strand Campus ) , over 200 activity groups , a wide range of volunteering opportunities , two bars / eateries ( The Waterfront and Guy 's Bar ) , a shop ( King 's Shop ) and a gym ( Kinetic Fitness Club ) . Between 1992 and 2013 the Students ' Union operated a nightclub , Tutu 's , named after alumnus Desmond Tutu .
The former President of KCLSU , Sir Ivison Macadam , after whom the Students ' Union building on the Strand Campus ( Macadam Building ) has since been named , went on to be elected as the first President of the National Union of Students .
" Reggie the Lion " ( informally " Reggie " ) is the official mascot of the Students ' Union . In total there are four Reggies in existence . The original can be found on display in the Macadam Building in the Students ' Union student centre at the Strand Campus . A papier @-@ mâché Reggie lives outside the Great Hall at the Strand Campus . The third Reggie , given as a gift by alumnus Willie Kwan , guards the entrance of Willies Common Room in Somerset House East Wing . A small sterling silver incarnation is displayed during graduation ceremonies , which was presented to King ’ s by former Halliburton Professor of Physiology , Robert John Stewart McDowall , in 1959 .
= = = Student media = = =
KCLSU Student Media won Student Media of the Year 2014 at the Ents Forum awards and came in the top three student media outlets in the country at the NUS Awards 2014 .
Roar News is a tabloid newspaper for students at King 's which is owned and funded by KCLSU . It is editorially independent of both the university and the students ' union and its award winning website is read by tens of thousands of people per month in over 100 countries . In 2014 it had a successful awards season , scooping several national awards and commendations , including a Mind Media Award and Student Media of the Year .
The radio station of KCLSU , KCL Radio , was founded in 2009 as a podcast producer . The first live broadcast of KCL Radio was in 2011 at the London Varsity . In 2013 , KCL Radio relaunched as a live station with more than 45 hours of live programming a week . The schedule of the radio station includes news , music , entertainment , debate , sport and live performance .
Other King 's student media groups include the student television station KingsTV , and the photographic society KCLSU PhotoSoc .
= = = Sports = = =
There are over 50 sports clubs , many of which compete in the University of London and British Universities & Colleges ( BUCS ) leagues across the South East . The annual Macadam Cup is a varsity match played between the sports teams of King 's College London proper ( KCL ) and King 's College London Medical School ( KCLMS ) . King 's students and staff have played an important part in the formation of the London Universities and Colleges Athletics .
Created in January 2013 , King ’ s Sport , a partnership between King 's College London and KCLSU , manages all the sports activities and facilities of King 's . King ’ s Sport runs the King ’ s Sport Health and Fitness Centre situated at the Waterloo Campus , which has been refurbished in 2014 and features an indoor cycling studio , fixed resistance and free weights and cardiovascular areas . King ’ s Sport also operates 3 sports grounds in New Malden , Honor Oak Park and Dulwich . There are also on @-@ campus sports facilities at Guy ’ s , St Thomas 's and Denmark Hill campuses . King 's students and staff can utilize Guy 's and St Thomas ' NHS Foundation Trust 's fitness centre and swimming pool based within the Guy 's and St Thomas ' hospitals .
= = = Student @-@ led think tank = = =
In February 2011 , King 's College London students founded London 's first student @-@ led think tank , the King ’ s Think Tank ( formerly known as KCL Think Tank ) . With a membership of more than 2000 , it is the largest organisation of its kind in Europe . This student initiative organises lectures and discussions in seven different policy areas , and assists students in lobbying politicians , non @-@ governmental organisations ( NGOs ) and other policymakers with their ideas . Every September , it produces a peer @-@ reviewed journal of policy recommendations called The Spectrum .
= = = Music = = =
There are many music societies at King 's including a cappella groups , orchestras , choir , musical theatre and jazz society . King 's has three orchestras : King 's College London Symphony Orchestra ( KCLSO ) , King 's College London Chamber Orchestra and KCL Concert Orchestra .
Founded in 1945 , the Choir of King 's College London , one of the most acclaimed university choirs in England , consists of around 30 choral scholars . The choir regularly broadcasts on BBC Radio 3 and Radio 4 and has made recordings mainly focus on 16th @-@ century English and Spanish repertoire .
All the King 's Men ( AtKM ) is an all @-@ male a cappella ensemble from King 's College London . Founded in 2009 , it has since risen to prominence in the university , becoming the first group outside of Oxford and Cambridge to win The Voice Festival UK .
= = = Rivalry with University College London = = =
Competition within the University of London is most intense between King 's and University College London , the two oldest institutions . Indeed , the University of London when it was established has been described as " an umbrella organisation designed to disguise the rivalry between UCL and KCL . " In the early twentieth century , King 's College London and UCL rivalry was centred on their respective mascots . University College 's was Phineas Maclino , a wooden tobacconist 's sign of a kilted Jacobite Highlander purloined from outside a shop in Tottenham Court Road during the celebrations of the relief of Ladysmith in 1900 . King 's later addition was a giant beer bottle representing " bottled youth " . In 1923 it was replaced by a new mascot to rival Phineas – Reggie the Lion , who made his debut at a King 's @-@ UCL sporting rag in December 1923 , protected by a lifeguard of engineering students armed with T @-@ squares . Thereafter , Reggie formed the centrepiece of annual freshers ' processions by King 's students around Aldwych in which new students were typically flour bombed .
Although riots between respective college students occurred in central London well into the 1950s , rivalry is now limited to the rugby union pitch and skulduggery over mascots , with the annual London Varsity series culminating in the historic match between King 's College London RFC and University College London RFC .
= = = Rivalry with the London School of Economics = = =
On 2 December 2005 , tensions between King 's and the London School of Economics ( LSE ) were ignited when at least 200 students from LSE ( located in Aldwych near the Strand Campus ) diverted off from the annual " barrel run " and caused an estimated £ 32 @,@ 000 of damage to the English department at King 's . The Times reported that LSE director Howard Davies attended the fun run event , while LSE claimed that Davies only attended for a short time . King 's principal , Sir Rick Trainor , deplored the behaviour , appealed to King 's students to remain calm and called for no retaliation . The LSE Students ' Union later on 6 December issued a formal apology , condemned the actions , as well as promising to foot the bill for the damage repair .
= = = Student residences = = =
= = = = Halls of residence = = = =
King 's has a total of nine halls of residence located throughout London . Priority is given to students whose home address is outside the M25 motorway . Great Dover Street Apartments , Wolfson House and Iris Brook and Orchard Lisle are located on Guy 's Campus in London Bridge . Brian Creamer House , which was named after Dean of St Thomas 's Hospital Medical School Brian Creamer , and the Rectory are situated in the grounds of Lambeth Palace near St Thomas ' Campus . Stamford Street Apartments is located opposite Waterloo Campus and within walking distance of Strand Campus , and Champion Hill Residence is close to Denmark Hill Campus in south London . Urbanest Tower Bridge is located within a walking distance from the Tower of London and Tower Bridge . Angel Lane in Stratford , Ewen Henderson Court , Julian Markham House in Elephant and Castle , Moonraker Point in Southwark and Stratford One are nominated residences run by the Unite Group . Hampstead Residence was a residence near the former King 's Hampstead Campus , but was sold by King 's College London and is no longer a King 's venue .
= = = = Intercollegiate halls of residence = = = =
In addition to halls of residence run by King 's , full @-@ time students are eligible to stay at one of the Intercollegiate Halls of Residence offered by the University of London . King 's has the largest number of bedspaces in the University of London Intercollegiate Halls . There are a total of eight intercollegiate halls of the University of London . Canterbury Hall , College Hall , Commonwealth Hall , Connaught Hall , Hughes Parry Hall and International Hall are located near Russell Square in Bloomsbury . Lillian Penson Hall is situated in Paddington , and Nutford House is situated in Marble Arch . Additionally , students can apply to live in International Students House .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Notable alumni = = =
King 's has educated numerous foreign Heads of State and Government including two former Presidents of Cyprus , Tassos Papadopoulos , and Glafcos Clerides , Prime Minister of Jordan Marouf al @-@ Bakhit , President of the Seychelles France @-@ Albert René , Prime Minister of the Bahamas Sir Lynden Pindling , President of Uganda Godfrey Binaisa , Prime Minister of Iraq Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Bazzaz , Prime Minister of Grenada Maurice Bishop ; Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis Sir Lee Moore , Governor General of Ghana William Hare , 5th Earl of Listowel , Governor General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Sir Sydney Gun @-@ Munro , Governor of the Turks and Caicos Islands Martin Bourke , and Acting Prime Minister of Moldova Natalia Gherman . At ministerial level King 's alumni include Deputy Prime Ministers of Canada ( Anne McLellan ) , Singapore ( S. Rajaratnam ) and Egypt ( Ziad Bahaa @-@ Eldin ) ; Vice Presidents of Kenya ( Michael Kijana Wamalwa ) and Sierra Leone ( Francis Minah and Abdulai Conteh ) ; Foreign Ministers of Bulgaria ( Nikolay Mladenov , now UN Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process ) , Japan ( Hayashi Tadasu ) , Malaysia ( Rais Yatim ) , Pakistan ( Sir Muhammad Zafarullah Khan , later President of the UN General Assembly and the International Court of Justice ) , Ghana ( Obed Asamoah ) , Kenya ( James Nyamweya ) , Sierra Leone ( J. B. Dauda ) and Guyana ( Sir Shridath Ramphal , later Secretary @-@ General of the Commonwealth , and Frederick Wills ) ; and Irish Finance Minister Michael Collins .
Notable King 's alumni to have held senior positions in British politics include two Speakers of the House of Commons ( Lord Maybray @-@ King and Lord Ullswater ) and the former Cabinet ministers Lord Watkinson , Lord Passfield and Lord Wilmot . As of the current Parliament there are 19 King 's graduates in the House of Commons , namely Douglas Carswell , Nic Dakin , Natascha Engel , Mark Francois , John Glen , Dan Jarvis , Phillip Lee , Brandon Lewis , Fiona Mactaggart , Sarah Newton , Matthew Offord , Daniel Poulter , Lucy Powell , Tulip Siddiq , Keith Simpson , Gary Streeter , Gareth Thomas , David Warburton , and Sarah Wollaston . As of the current Parliament there are 16 King 's graduates in the House of Lords including Lord Carlile , Lord Clinton @-@ Davis , Lord Dunlop , Lord Kakkar , Lord MacGregor , Baroness Morgan , Baroness O 'Loan , Lord Owen , Lord Plant , Lord Rowlands , Baroness Watkins , and the Lords Spiritual Tim Dakin , Nick Holtam , and Tim Thornton .
Notable alumni in the sciences include Nobel laureates Peter Higgs , Michael Levitt , Max Theiler and Sir Frederick Hopkins ; polymath Sir Francis Galton ; pathologist Thomas Hodgkin ; pioneer of IVF Patrick Steptoe ; discoverers of Hepatitis C Michael Houghton and Qui @-@ Lim Choo ; DNA researchers Raymond Gosling and Herbert Wilson ; founder of modern hospice philosophy Dame Cicely Saunders ; botanist David Bellamy ; the Wolf Prize laureates Michael Fisher and Anthony Pawson , and at least 111 Fellows of the Royal Society .
King 's alumni in religion include the Nobel Peace Prize laureate and Archbishop Emeritus of Cape Town , Desmond Tutu , former Archbishop of Canterbury , Lord Carey , former Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth , Lord Sacks , Primate of All Ireland , Richard Clarke , Archbishops of Cape Town , Njongonkulu Ndungane and Joost de Blank , Archbishop of the West Indies John Holder , Archbishop of New Zealand Churchill Julius , and the Ethiopian cardinal Berhaneyesus Demerew Souraphiel .
Notable King 's alumni in poetry and literature include the poet John Keats and the writers Thomas Hardy , Sir Arthur C. Clarke , Virginia Woolf , Alain de Botton , Michael Morpurgo , W. Somerset Maugham , Charles Kingsley , C. S. Forester , John Ruskin , Radclyffe Hall , Susan Hill , Hanif Kureishi , Maureen Duffy , Khushwant Singh , Sir Leslie Stephen and the Booker Prize winner Anita Brookner . In addition , the dramatist Sir W. S. Gilbert of Gilbert and Sullivan graduated from King 's in 1856 .
King 's alumni in the arts include the impressionist Rory Bremner ; Queen bassist John Deacon ; Chief Executive of the Royal Opera House Alex Beard ; Oscar winners Greer Garson and Edmund Gwenn ; Grammy Award winners Boris Karloff , Sir John Eliot Gardiner and Peter Asher ; Emmy Award winning director Sacha Gervasi , and the Golden Globe winning composer Michael Nyman .
In law , King 's alumni include the current High Court judges Sir David Foskett , Dame Geraldine Andrews and Dame Bobbie Cheema @-@ Grubb ; Judge of the International Court of Justice , Patrick Lipton Robinson ; Chief Justice of Western Australia , Wayne Martin and the current Attorneys General of Trinidad and Tobago ( Faris Al @-@ Rawi ) and Bermuda ( Trevor Moniz ) .
King 's alumni in the military include the current Chairman of the NATO Military Committee Petr Pavel , Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe Sir Adrian Bradshaw , the former head of the British Army Lord Harding , head of the Singapore Armed Forces Neo Kian Hong , head of the Nigerian Armed Forces Ola Ibrahim , head of the Maltese Armed Forces Martin Xuereb , head of the Malaysian Army Md Hashim bin Hussein , head of the Pakistan Air Force Sohail Aman , head of the Sri Lankan Air Force Harsha Abeywickrama and two heads of the Indian Air Force , Pratap Chandra Lal and Sir Richard Peirse ; three Commandant General 's of the Royal Marines , Ed Davis , Andy Salmon , and Sir Robert Fry , and two recipients of the Victoria Cross , Ferdinand Le Quesne and Mark Sever Bell .
King 's is also the alma mater of the founder of Bentley Motors , Walter Bentley ; oil magnate and philanthropist Calouste Gulbenkian ; journalists Martin Bashir , Sophie Long , Marc Wadsworth , Jane Corbin , David Bond , Sean Fletcher and Anita Anand ; and the Olympic gold medalists Katherine Grainger , and Kieran West .
= = = Nobel laureates = = =
There are 12 Nobel laureates who were either students or academics at King 's .
= = = Notable academics and staff = = =
King 's has benefited from the services of academics and staff at the top of their fields , including Sir Charles Lyell ( lawyer and geologist ) , Sir Charles Wheatstone ( best known for the Wheatstone bridge ) , Robert Bentley Todd ( best known for describing Todd 's paresis ) , James Clerk Maxwell ( mathematical physicist ) , Florence Nightingale ( the founder of modern nursing ) , Joseph Lister ( pioneer of antiseptic surgery ) , Charles Barkla ( best known for the study of X @-@ rays ) , Sir Charles Sherrington ( known for his work on the functions of neurons ) , Sir Edward Appleton ( physicist ) , Sir Owen Richardson ( physicist ) , Maurice Wilkins ( best known for contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA ) , Rosalind Franklin ( best known for contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA ) , Mario Vargas Llosa ( writer ) , Sir Roger Penrose ( mathematical physicist ) and John Ellis ( theoretical physicist ) .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Fictional alumni = = =
In the Sherlock episode " The Blind Banker " , King 's College London can be seen listed in Watson 's curriculum vitae .
In Philip Roth 's novel The Professor of Desire , the main character David Kepesh spent a certain period of time studying comparative literature at King 's on a Fulbright Scholarship .
In some of the paintings of Henry Hudson , Young Sen – a Chinese scientific prodigy who has been offered an unconditional place at King 's to read medicine – is depicted in his biographical painting series , showing the rise and fall of the protagonist .
= = = Fictional staff = = =
In the Sherlock Holmes story " The Adventure of the Resident Patient " , Dr Percy Trevelyan describes himself as a " London University man " who joined King 's College Hospital after graduating .
= = = Non @-@ fictional staff = = =
Nicole Kidman has been playing the life of Rosalind Franklin in a play called Photograph 51 at the Noël Coward Theatre in the City of Westminster which started at the beginning of September 2015 . Franklin 's colleague at King ’ s , Maurice Wilkins , was played by Stephen Campbell Moore . The title refers to Photo 51 , an x @-@ ray crystallography image of the DNA double helix structure produced by Franklin and a PhD student in 1952 at King ’ s College , London .
= = = Fictional settings = = =
Part of Dan Brown 's novel The Da Vinci Code was set in the Round Reading Room of the Maughan Library , although no part of the film adaption was filmed there .
= = = Film settings = = =
The neoclassical façade of King 's , with the passage which connects the Strand to the Somerset House terrace has been utilised to reproduce the late Victorian Strand in the opening scenes of Oliver Parker 's 2002 film The Importance of Being Earnest . The East Wing of King 's appears , as a part of Somerset House , in a number of other productions , such as Wilde , Flyboys , and The Duchess .
The Maughan Library has also been the location of some film shoots of popular movies , most notably The Da Vinci Code , Johnny English ( see Maughan Library description ) , The Imitation Game and V for Vendetta .
= Magnus Olafsson =
Magnús Óláfsson ( died 1265 ) was a mid 13th century Manx @-@ Hebridean king , the son of Óláfr Guðrøðarson , King of the Isles . Magnús and Óláfr descended from a long line of Norse @-@ Gaelic kings who ruled the Isle of Man ( Mann ) and parts of the Hebrides . Some leading members of the Crovan dynasty , such as Óláfr , styled themselves " King of the Isles " ; other members , such as Magnús and his brothers , styled themselves " King of Mann and the Isles " . Although kings in their own right , leading members of the Crovan dynasty paid tribute to the Kings of Norway and generally recognised a nominal Norse overlordship of Mann and the Hebrides .
In 1237 , Óláfr died and was succeeded by his elder son , Haraldr , who later drowned in 1248 . The kingship was then taken up by his brother , Rögnvaldr Óláfsson . After a reign of only weeks , Rögnvaldr was slain and the kingship was taken up by Haraldr Guðrøðarson , a descendant of Óláfr 's half @-@ brother and deadly rival , Rögnvaldr Guðrøðarson , King of the Isles . After a short reign , this Haraldr was removed from power by his overlord , Hákon Hákonarson , King of Norway . In Haraldr 's absence , Magnús and a relation of his , Eógan mac Donnchada , King in the Isles , unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Mann . A few years later , Magnús successfully made his return to the island and was proclaimed king .
In the 1240s , following attempts to purchase the Isles from Hákon , Alexander II , King of Scots resorted to warfare to win the region . His death in 1249 brought an abrupt end to his westward invasion , and it was not until the 1260s that a Scottish king again attempted to impose his authority into the Isles . In 1261 , Alexander II 's son and successor , Alexander III , attempted to purchase the Isles without success , before Scottish forces raided into the Hebrides . Hákon 's response to Scottish aggression was to organise a massive fleet to re @-@ assert Norwegian authority . In the summer of 1263 , the fleet sailed down through the Hebrides . Although his forces gained strength as they sailed southwards , the Norwegian king received only lukewarm support from many of his Norse @-@ Gaelic vassals — in fact , Magnús was one of the few who came out whole @-@ heartedly for Hákon . At one point during the campaign , Hákon sent Magnús and some other vassals raiding deep into Lennox . Meanwhile , the main Norwegian force was occupied with the Battle of Largs — a famous , but inconclusive series of skirmishes against the Scots . Following this action , Hákon 's demoralised fleet returned home having accomplished little . Not long after Hákon 's departure and death , Alexander launched a punitive expedition into the Hebrides , and threatened Mann with the same . Magnús ' subsequent submission to the Scottish king , and the homage rendered for his lands , symbolises the failure of Hákon 's campaign , and marks the complete collapse of Norwegian influence in the Isles .
Magnús , the last reigning king of his dynasty , died at Rushen Castle in 1265 , and was buried at the Abbey of St Mary , Rushen . At the time of his death , he was married to Eógan 's daughter Máire . In the year after his death , the Hebrides and Mann were formally ceded by King of Norway to the King of Scots . Ten years after Magnús ' death , Guðrøðr , a bastard son of his attempted to establish himself as king on Mann . Guðrøðr 's revolt was quickly and brutally crushed by Scottish forces , and the island remained part of the Kingdom of Scotland . By the 1290s , the Hebridean portion of Magnús ' former island @-@ kingdom had been incorporated into a newly created Scottish sheriffdom .
= = Background = =
Magnús was a member of the Crovan dynasty — a line of Norse @-@ Gaelic sea @-@ kings whose kingdom encompassed the Isle of Man ( Mann ) and the northern parts of the Hebrides , from the late 11th century to the mid 13th century . Although the kingdom originally encompassed the entirety of the Hebrides , much of the Inner Hebrides was permanently lost in the mid 12th century , but the dynasty retained control of the largest Hebridean islands of Lewis and Harris and Skye . Magnús was the son of Óláfr Guðrøðarson , King of the Isles ( d . 1237 ) . Although Óláfr is known to have had two wives , and no contemporaneous source names the mother of his children , Magnus ' mother may have been Óláfr 's second wife — Christina , daughter of Fearchar , Earl of Ross , ( d. circa 1251 ) .
Óláfr was a younger son of Guðrøðr Óláfsson , King of the Isles ( d . 1187 ) . Before his death in 1187 , Guðrøðr instructed that Óláfr should succeed to the kingship . However , Guðrøðr was instead succeeded by his elder son , Rögnvaldr ( d . 1229 ) , who had popular support . Rögnvaldr and Óláfr , who are thought to have had different mothers , subsequently warred over the dynasty 's kingdom in the early 13th century , until Rögnvaldr was slain battling Óláfr in 1229 . Rögnvaldr 's son , Guðrøðr ( d . 1231 ) , who was also in conflict with Óláfr , took up his father 's claim to the throne , and at his height co @-@ ruled the kingdom with Óláfr in 1231 . Guðrøðr was slain in 1231 , and Óláfr ruled the entire kingdom without internal opposition until his own death in 1237 . Óláfr was succeeded by his son , Haraldr , who later travelled to Norway and married a daughter of Hákon Hákonarson , King of Norway ( d . 1263 ) , but lost his life at sea on his return voyage in 1248 . In May 1249 , Haraldr 's brother , Rögnvaldr ( d . 1249 ) , formally succeeded to the kingship of the Crovan dynasty 's kingdom .
Rögnvaldr Óláfsson 's reign was an extremely short one ; only weeks after his accession , he was slain on Mann . His killer is identified by a contemporary source as a knight named Ívarr who may have been an ally of Rögnvaldr Óláfsson 's second cousin once removed , Haraldr Guðrøðarson ( fl . 1249 ) , who seized the kingship immediately following the killing . Although at first Haraldr was recognised as a legitimate ruler of the kingdom by Henry III , King of England ( d . 1272 ) , Haraldr was later regarded as a usurper by his Norwegian overlord , Hákon . In 1250 , Hákon summoned Haraldr to Norway to answer for his seizure of the kingship , and Haraldr was kept from returning to the Isles .
= = = Relations and rivals = = =
The pedigree below outlines the patrilineal descendants of Óláfr Guðrøðarson ( d . 1153 ) . Illustrated is the degree of relationship between Magnús and his rival , Haraldr Guðrøðarson , his second cousin once removed . Also shown is the degree of relationship between Magnús and his ally , Eógan mac Donnchada , who was not only his father @-@ in @-@ law , but also his second cousin once removed . The names of females are italicised . Several of the leading members of the Crovan dynasty styled themselves in Latin rex insularum ( " King of the Isles " ) . The sons of Óláfr Guðrøðarson ( d . 1237 ) — Magnús and his brothers — styled themselves in Latin rex mannie et insularum ( " King of Mann and the Isles " ) .
= = Eógan of Argyll and the invasion of Mann = =
Eógan mac Donnchada , Lord of Argyll ( d. in or after 1268 ) was a prominent member of the meic Somairle , the descendants of Somairle mac Gilla Brigte , King of the Isles , Lord of Argyll and Kintyre ( d . 1164 ) . Through Somairle 's wife , Ragnhildr , daughter of Óláfr Guðrøðarson , King of the Isles ( d . 1153 ) , several leading members of the meic Somairle claimed kingship in the Hebrides . In 1248 , Eógan and his second cousin , Dubgall mac Ruaidrí , Lord of Garmoran ( d . 1268 ) , travelled to Hákon in Norway and requested the title of king in the Hebrides . Hákon subsequently bestowed the title upon Eógan , and the following year , upon learning of Haraldr Óláfsson 's death , Hákon sent Eógan westward to take control of the Isles ( at least temporarily ) on his behalf . Up until this point Eógan had two overlords : the King of Norway , who claimed the Hebrides ; and the King of Scots , who claimed Argyll and coveted the Hebrides . Unfortunately for Eógan , soon after his return from Norway , Alexander II , King of Scots ( d . 1249 ) led an expedition deep into Argyll and demanded that Eógan renounce his allegiance to Hákon . Eógan refused to do so and was subsequently driven from his Scottish lordship .
In 1250 , following Haraldr Guðrøðarson 's summons to Norway , the Chronicle of Mann records that Magnús and Eógan arrived on Mann with a force of Norwegians . The exact intentions of the invaders are unknown ; it is possible that they may have intended to install Magnús as king . At the very least , Eógan was likely looking for some form of compensation for his dispossession from his mainland Scottish lordship . The chronicle states that the invaders made landfall at Ronaldsway , and entered into negotiations with the Manx people ; although , when it was learned that Eógan styled himself " King of the Isles " , the Manxmen took offence and broke off all dialogue .
The chronicle indicates that Eógan had his men form @-@ up on St Michael 's Isle , an island that was attached to Mann by a tidal causeway . As evening drew near , the chronicle records that an accomplice of the knight Ívarr led a Manx assault on the island and routed the invading forces . The next day , the chronicle states that the invading forces left the shores of Mann . Ívarr 's connection to the Manx attack on the invading forces of Eógan and Magnús suggests that there was still considerable opposition on Mann by adherents of Haraldr to the prospect of Magnús ' kingship there .
The following year , Henry III commanded the Justiciar of Ireland , John fitz Geoffrey ( d . 1258 ) , to prohibit Magnús from raising military forces in Ireland for an invasion of Mann . A year later Magnús succeeded to the kingship , as the chronicle records that he returned to Mann and , with the consent of the people , began his reign . There are indications that opposition to Magnús , and thus possibly support of Haraldr , continued into the mid 1250s . For example , the chronicle records that when Hákon bestowed upon Magnús the title of king in 1254 , it further notes that when Magnús ' opponents heard of this , they became dismayed and that their hopes of overthrowing him gradually faded away . Furthermore , a letter of protection , written on behalf of Henry to Magnús in 1256 , orders Henry 's men not to receive Haraldr and Ívarr , which may thus indicate that these two men were still alive and active . Although Magnús ' eldest brother , Haraldr Óláfsson , appears to have ruled over the entirety of the dynasty 's 13th century sea @-@ realm , as did Magnús from 1252 onwards , the situation during the years between Haraldr Óláfsson 's death and Magnús ' accession is uncertain , and it is possible that the kingdom was partitioned between feuding dynasts , as it had been during the bitter inter @-@ dynastic strife of the early 13th- and 12th centuries . Clearly the situation in the Isles was unsettled in the 1250s . For example , Henry is known to have written letters to Alexander , Hákon , and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd ( d . 1282 ) , the co @-@ ruler of Gwynedd , ordering them not allow their men invade Mann in Magnús ' absence there in 1254 .
= = Scottish aggression = =
In 1244 , Alexander made the first of several attempts by Scottish monarchs to purchase the Hebrides from the Kingdom of Norway . It was following this unsuccessful bid that Hákon sent Eógan into the Isles in 1249 , which in turn led to Eógan 's expulsion from the Scottish @-@ mainland when Alexander launched a full @-@ scale summer invasion into Argyll . Alexander 's sudden death in the Hebrides brought an abrupt end to his westward invasion , and it was not until the 1260s that a Scottish king again attempted to impose his authority into the Isles .
In 1261 , Alexander III , King of Scots ( d . 1286 ) sent an emissary to Norway to discuss the Isles . Negotiations proved fruitless , and the following year Uilleam , Earl of Ross ( d . 1274 ) is recorded to have launched a vicious attack on Skye . The assault was likely carried out on behalf of Alexander , in response to the failure of Scottish mission to Norway the year previous . In response , Hákon organised a massive military force to re @-@ assert Norwegian control along the western seaboard of Scotland . At this time , the Norwegian king was at the height of his power , and his only son had just recently been recognised as heir to the throne .
= = Norwegian retaliation = =
Late in the summer of 1263 , Hákon 's fleet reached the northern seaboard of Scotland . Although the precise size of the fleet is unknown , the Icelandic Annals remark that " so great a host that an equally great army is not known ever to have gone from Norway " . Upon reaching the Scottish @-@ mainland , the late 13th century Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar ( " The Saga of Hákon Hákonarson " ) , states that Hákon levied a tax upon Caithness and considered plundering into the Moray Firth . It is possible that he intended these acts as a form of retribution for the Earl of Ross ' savage attack on Skye . The fleet then made its way south along the western seaboard to Skye , where the saga records that Hákon was met by Magnús . The saga states that Hákon 's fleet then sailed south to Kerrera , where Dubgall mac Ruaidrí , King in the Isles ( d . 1268 ) and Magnús amongst others , were sent to lead fifty ships towards Kintyre , while a smaller group was sent to Bute . The fleet sent to Kintyre was likely tasked with obtaining the allegiance of Áengus mac Domnaill , Lord of Islay ( d. circa 1293 ) and a certain Murchad , both who are stated by the saga to have afterwards submitted to Hákon . The saga records that several castles were secured by Hákon 's forces : Rothesay Castle on Bute ; and an unnamed castle in southern Kintyre , which was more than likely Dunaverty Castle . At Gigha , the saga relates that Eógan surrendered himself to Hákon , and informed the Norwegian king that he had decided to side with the Scots from whom he held a larger grant of lands . At about the time when Hákon let Eógan go free , the saga records that the first messengers from the King of Scots arrived to parley .
The saga indicates that negotiations started peacefully enough , although as time drew on , and the weather grew worse , a time @-@ pressed Hákon broke off all dialogue . He sent a detachment of ships deep into Lennox , through Loch Long — different versions of the saga number the force at forty and sixty ships — led by Magnús , Dubgall , Ailín mac Ruaidrí ( Dubgall 's brother ) , Áengus , and Murchad . The saga states that the ships were dragged across land to Loch Lomond — which indicates that the invaders would have beached their ships and made portage across the isthmus between the two lochs ( between what are today the settlements of Arrochar and Tarbet ) . The saga vividly describes how the invaders wasted the well @-@ inhabited islands of the loch and the dwellings surrounding the loch . The fact that Hákon tasked his Norse @-@ Gaelic magnates with leading this foray likely indicates that their boats were lighter than those of the Norwegians , and thus easier to portage from one loch to another ; it could also indicate that the undertaking was meant to test their faithfulness to the Norwegian cause .
While Lennox was being plundered , Hákon and his main force , stationed between the Cumbraes and the Scottish mainland , were occupied with the events surrounding the Battle of Largs , between 30 September and 3 October . Although claimed by later Scottish chroniclers as a great victory , in reality the so @-@ called battle was nothing more than " a series of disorderly skirmishes " , with relatively few casualties that achieved little for either side . Following the encounter , Hákon led his fleet northward up through the Hebrides . At Mull , he parted with his Norse @-@ Gaelic lords : Dubgall was rewarded with Eógan 's former island @-@ domain ; Murchad was given Arran , and a certain Ruaidrí was given Bute . The Norwegian fleet left the Hebrides and reached Orkney by the end of October , where an ill Hákon died in mid December . Despite the saga 's claim that Hákon had been triumphant , in reality the campaign was a failure . Alexander 's kingdom had successfully defended itself from Norwegian might , and many of Hákon 's Norse @-@ Gaelic supporters had been reluctant to support his cause .
= = Hebridean @-@ Manx subjugation = =
Within months of Hákon 's abortive campaign , embassies were sent forth from Norway to discuss terms of peace . Meanwhile , Alexander seized the initiative and made ready to punish the magnates who had supported Hákon . In 1264 , Alexander assembled a fleet and made ready to invade Mann . Without any protection from his Norwegian overlord , or from Henry III ( who was held captive at the time ) , Magnús had no choice but to submit to the demands of the powerful King of Scots . The two monarchs met at Dumfries , where Magnús swore oaths to Alexander , rendered homage , and surrendered hostages . In return for Alexander 's promise of protection against Norwegian retribution , Magnús was forced to provide Alexander 's navy with several " pirate type galleys " — five of twenty oars and five of twelve oars . Alexander then ordered an invasion of the Western Isles , led by Uilleam , Earl of Mar ( d. in or before 1281 ) , Alexander Comyn , Earl of Buchan ( d . 1289 ) , and Alan Durward ( d . 1275 ) . According to Scottish chronicler John of Fordun ( d. in or after 1363 ) , the Scots invaders plundered and killed throughout the islands ; the expedition itself is corroborated by the late 13th century Magnúss saga lagabœtis ( " The Saga of Magnús the Lawmender " ) , which indicates that Scottish forces went into the Hebrides and secured the submission of Áengus amongst others . Another punitive expedition , possibly led by the Earl of Ross , was launched into Caithness and Ross . The submission forced upon the island @-@ magnates , particularly that of Magnús , marked the complete collapse of Norwegian influence in the Isles .
= = Acta and honours = =
Only twenty originals , copies , or abstract versions of royal charters of the kings of the Crovan dynasty are known . Of these , only three date to the reign of Magnús — one of which , a grant to Conishead Priory in 1256 , is the only original royal charter of the dynasty in existence . Important devices attached to royal charters were double @-@ sided waxen seals , used to authentic such instruments . Although no seals of the dynasty now survive , there exists several 17th- and 18th century descriptions and depictions of ones believed to have belonged to Magnús ' uncle Rögnvaldr , and brother Haraldr . This limited evidence suggests that , in the 12th- and 13th centuries , the kings of the dynasty bore a sailing ship upon their seals , which would have likely represented the clinker @-@ built galley utilised in the Isles at the time . Borne by men whose strength lay in the power of armed galley @-@ fleets , such a symbol would have represented their authority in the Isles .
The Chronicle of Mann , the only narrative source for the dynasty 's realm , was compiled on Mann during Magnús ' reign . Analysis of the document reveals that the main scribe 's last entry dates to 1257 , in an account which records the dedication of the Abbey of St Mary , Rushen in the presence of Magnús and Richard , Bishop of the Isles . The chronicle thus appears to have been commissioned by , or on behalf of , Magnús himself . The chronicle is somewhat biased in favour of one line of the dynasty over another — the line of Magnús 's father , Óláfr , over that of Óláfr 's rival half @-@ brother Rögnvaldr . For example , Haraldr Guðrøðarson is depicted as a usurper and tyrant , in contrast to the legitimate kingship of his cousin , Magnús . In fact , one reason for the chronicle 's composition may have been to legitimise the line of Óláfr which , at the time of the chronicle 's compilation , was then represented by Magnús himself .
Like his father and his brother Haraldr , Magnús is recorded within the Chronicle of Mann as having been knighted by Henry III . The knighthoods of Haraldr ( in 1247 ) and Magnús ( in 1256 ) appear to be confirmed by independent English sources . For example , within Henry 's letter to Magnús in 1256 , Magnús is described to have been invested with a military belt by the English king .
= = Death = =
Following his submission to Alexander , Magnús , the last reigning king of the Crovan dynasty , ruled peacefully until his death in 1265 . According to the Chronicle of Mann , the king died at Rushen Castle on 24 November , and was buried at the Abbey of St Mary , Rushen . There is a possibility that a coffin @-@ lid found at Rushen , may be associated with the tomb of one of the three kings of the dynasty known to have been buried there . At the time of his death , Magnús is known to have been married to Eógan 's daughter , Máire ( d . 1302 ) . As the last of a long line of Norse @-@ Gaelic rulers of Mann , his death ended the island 's so @-@ called " golden @-@ age " of Scandinavian sea @-@ kings . The Annals of Furness record simply , that on his death , " kings ceased to reign on Mann " .
= = Dismantled kingdom = =
Three years after the inconclusive skirmish at Largs , terms of peace were finally agreed upon between the kingdoms of Norway and Scotland . On 2 July 1266 , with the conclusion of the Treaty of Perth , the centuries @-@ old territorial dispute over Scotland 's western seaboard was at last settled . Within the treaty , Magnús Hákonarson , King of Norway ( d . 1280 ) ceded the Hebrides and Mann to Alexander , who in turn agreed to pay 4 @,@ 000 merks sterling over four years , and in addition to pay 100 merks sterling in perpetuity . Other conditions stipulated that the inhabitants of the islands would be subject to laws of Scotland ; that they were not to be punished for their actions previous to the treaty ; and that they were free to remain or leave their possessions peacefully . In 1266 , the Chronicle of Lanercost records that Alexander ruled Mann through appointed bailiffs ; Scottish exchequer accounts record that the Sheriff of Dumfries was given allowance for maintaining seven Manx hostages .
In 1275 , Magnús Óláfsson 's illegitimate son , Guðrøðr , led a revolt on Mann and attempted to establish himself as king . According to the Chronicle of Mann and the Chronicle of Lanercost , a Scottish fleet landed on Mann on 7 October , and early the next morning the revolt was crushed as the Scots routed the rebels at the Battle of Ronaldsway . Guðrøðr may very well have been slain in the defeat , although one source , the Annals of Furness , state that he , his wife and his followers escaped the carnage to Wales .
By the end of the 13th century , the islands once ruled by Magnús and his fellow members of the Crovan dynasty before him , were incorporated into the Scottish realm . In 1293 , the parliament of John , King of Scots ( d . 1314 ) established three new sheriffdoms within his kingdom . One of these three , the Sheriffdom of Skye , was granted to Uilleam , Earl of Ross ( d . 1323 ) . This sheriffdom included the seaboard north of Ardnamurchan ( Wester Ross and Kintail ) , and the islands of Skye , Lewis , Uist , Barra , Eigg , and Rum . It is possible that parts of the sheriffdom may have been taken over earlier , sometime after the dismantling of the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles .
= = Ancestry = =
= Coffin birth =
Coffin birth , known in academia by the more accurate term postmortem fetal extrusion , is the expulsion of a nonviable fetus through the vaginal opening of the decomposing body of a deceased pregnant woman as a result of the increasing pressure of intra @-@ abdominal gases . This kind of postmortem delivery occurs very rarely during the decomposition of a body . The practice of chemical preservation , whereby chemical preservatives and disinfectant solutions are pumped into a body to replace natural body fluids ( and the bacteria that reside therein ) , have made the occurrence of " coffin birth " so rare that the topic is rarely mentioned in international medical discourse .
Typically during the decomposition of a human body , naturally occurring bacteria in the organs of the abdominal cavity ( such as the stomach and intestines ) generate gases as by @-@ products of metabolism , which causes the body to swell . In some cases , the confined pressure of the gases can squeeze the uterus ( the womb ) , even forcing it downward , and it may turn inside @-@ out and be forced out of the body through the vaginal opening ( a process called prolapse ) . If a fetus is contained within the uterus , it could therefore be expelled from the mother 's body through the vaginal opening when the uterus turns inside @-@ out , in a process that , to outward appearances , mimics childbirth . The main differences lie in the state of the mother and fetus and the mechanism of delivery : in the event of natural , live childbirth , the mother 's contractions encourage the infant to emerge from the womb ; in a case of coffin birth , built @-@ up gas pressure within the putrefied body of a pregnant woman pushes the dead fetus from the body of the mother .
Cases have been recorded by medical authorities since the 16th century , though some archaeological cases provide evidence for its occurrence in many periods of human history . While cases of postmortem fetal expulsion have always been rare , the phenomenon has been recorded under disparate circumstances and is occasionally seen in a modern forensic context when the body of a pregnant woman lies undisturbed and undiscovered for some time following death . There are numerous examples that have demonstrated that the term coffin birth is a misnomer under many circumstances . There are also cases whereby a fetus may become separated from the body of the pregnant woman about the time of death or during decomposition , though because those cases are not consistent with the processes described here , they are not considered true cases of postmortem fetal extrusion .
= = Causes = =
The etiologyNote a of postmortem fetal extrusion is not completely understood , as the event is neither predictable nor replicable under experimental conditions . Evidence has accumulated opportunistically and direct observation is serendipitous . While it is possible that more than one etiology can produce the same result , there is an accepted hypothesis , based on established research in the fields of biochemistry and forensic taphonomy , Note b and further supported by observational research , that accounts for the taphonomic mechanisms that would result in the most often encountered cases of postmortem extrusion of a nonviable fetus .
Typically , as a dead body decomposes , body tissues become depleted of oxygen and the body begins to putrefy ; anaerobic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract proliferate and as a result of increased metabolic activity , release gases such as carbon dioxide , methane , and hydrogen sulfide . These bacteria secrete exoenzymesNote c to break down body cells and proteins for ingestion which thus weakens organ tissues . Increasing pressure forces the diffusion of excessive gases into the weakened tissues where they enter the circulatory system and spread to other parts of the body , causing both torso and limbs to become bloated . These decompositional processes weaken the structural integrity of organs by separating necrotizing tissue layers . Bloating usually begins from two to five days after death , depending on external temperature , humidity , and other environmental conditions . As the volume of gas increases , the pressure begins to force various body fluids to exude from all natural orifices . It is at this point during the decomposition of a pregnant body that amniotic membranes become stretched and separated , and intraabdominal gas pressure may force the eversion and prolapse of the uterus , Note d which would result in the expulsion of the fetus through the vaginal canal . It has been observed that the bodies of multiparous womenNote e are more likely to spontaneously expel the fetus during decomposition than those who died during their first pregnancy , because of the more elastic nature of the cervix .
= = History = =
Numerous documented cases of postmortem fetal extrusion were described in the medical compendium Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine , first published in 1896 . The earliest presented case occurred in 1551 when a pregnant woman was tried and hanged by the courts of the Spanish Inquisition . Four hours after her death , and while the body still hung by the neck , two dead infants were seen to fall free of the body . This is unusual for the short amount of time elapsed between death and the postmortem delivery . As no information is given regarding other ambient circumstances , it is unclear whether the onset of putrefaction was accelerated , or if other causal factors were at work . In the city of Brussels , in 1633 , a woman died in convulsions and three days later the fetus was spontaneously expelled . In Weissenfels , in 1861 , postmortem fetal extrusion was observed sixty hours after the death of a pregnant woman . Other cases are described , though only a few describe the unexpected discovery of fetal remains following exhumation . Most cases occurred prior to burial ; in some of these , the body was in the casket while in other cases the body was still on its deathbed or on a bier .
During the late 19th century , modern embalming techniques were developed , whereby preservative and disinfectant chemical compounds ( such as formaldehyde ) are pumped into a body , flushing out the body 's natural fluids , and with them the bacteria that flourish during putrefaction and generate the gases that comprise the active force behind the expulsion of the fetus . However , the phenomenon was still recognized by medical science and in 1904 , John Whitridge Williams wrote a textbook on obstetric medicine that included a section on " coffin birth " . Although the text has remained an important reference in obstetrics , the subject , whether called " coffin birth " or " postmortem fetal extrusion " , was excluded by its 13th edition in 1966 , and was not mentioned in the edition published in 2009 . The subject was discussed in German medical literature during the 20th century , though more detailed case reports in the forensic literature have been published recently .
In 2005 , the body of a 34 @-@ year @-@ old woman , eight months pregnant , was discovered in her apartment in Hamburg , Germany . The body was bloated and discolored , and upon initial examination , it was found that the head of the fetus had made its appearance in the vaginal opening . At autopsy , medical examiners found that both the head and shoulders of the fetus had emerged , and concluded that it was a case of postmortem fetal extrusion in progress . The woman , who had given birth twice before , had died of a heroin overdose . The case was unusual and serendipitous , as few medical practitioners have been able to observe and document the progress of postmortem fetal extrusion .
In 2008 , the body of a 38 @-@ year @-@ old woman , seven months pregnant , was discovered in an open field four days after she had disappeared from her residence in Panama . A plastic bag had been left over her head , and she had been gagged ; the case was ruled a homicide . The body had suffered from the tropical heat and high humidity , and was bloated and highly discolored . At autopsy , the remains of the fetus were discovered in the woman 's undergarments.Note f Although the fetus was in a similar state of decomposition , the umbilical cord was intact and still attached to the placenta inside the uterus .
= = = Bioarchaeology = = =
Postmortem fetal extrusion can be very difficult to recognize once a body has undergone complete skeletonization , and bioarchaeologists are often very cautious about asserting the presence of this phenomenon . There are numerous cultural reasons why a mother and an infant might be interred together , so the joint presence of neonatal remains and an adult female is not taken as conclusive evidence of postmortem fetal extrusion ; however , there have been excavated burials where the position of a set of fetal remains relative to those of an adult female supported this hypothesis . There are a few general guidelines when an archaeologist is assessing the placement of the fetus and the adult :
If the fetal remains are found in a fetal position and are wholly within the pelvic cavity of the adult , the fetus died and was interred prior to delivery . The pregnant woman may therefore have died due to labor complications .
If the infant is found alongside the adult , with the head oriented in the same direction as the adult , then the infant was delivered , whether naturally or by caesarian incision , at about the time of death , and thereafter interred .
Delivered infants have also been interred between or alongside the tibiae ( shins ) , but the infant is still oriented in the same direction as the adult .
If the majority of the fetal remains are in the pelvic cavity of the adult , yet the legs are extended and / or the cranium lies among the ribs , then the infant may have been delivered and then placed on top of the mother 's torso prior to burial . As both bodies skeletonized , the infant 's bones would have settled among the mother 's ribs and vertebrae .
If the fetal remains are complete and in a position inferior to and in @-@ line with the pelvic outlet , with the head oriented opposite to that of the mother ( toward the foot of the coffin or grave ) , then there is the possibility of coffin birth.Evidence for postmortem fetal extrusion may be less ambiguous when the fetal remains are found to lie within the pelvic outlet of the adult , thus indicating that partial extrusion had occurred during decomposition .
In 1975 , it was reported that during the excavation of a medieval cemetery in Kings Worthy , England , fetal remains appeared to lie within the birth canal of the skeleton of a young woman , with the fetal cranium external to the pelvic outlet and between the two femora ( thigh bones ) and the fetal leg bones clearly within the pelvic cavity . Other cases of coffin birth at archaeological sites have been described , such as in 1978 at a Neolithic site in Germany , at a medieval site in Denmark in 1982 , and in 2009 at an Early Christian period site at Fingal , Ireland . A coffin birth was also described in a 2011 episode of the BBC show History Cold Case , featuring the Roman era remains of a woman and three neonates discovered near Baldock , Hertfordshire .
= = Applicability of diagnosis = =
Because postmortem fetal extrusion is so rare , and occurs under highly idiosyncratic conditions regarding the individual and the ambient environment , this phenomenon has not been studied for possible applications to forensic investigation . Even if the study of postmortem fetal extrusion could lead to improved investigative methods , experimental research would be highly problematic . At present , forensic scientists have at their disposal an array of established techniques and procedures for a death investigation at the stages of decomposition when postmortem fetal extrusion typically occurs .
In archaeology , the study of mortuary context , that is , the interpretation of the postmortem treatment of the dead , whether an individual or as pertains to patterns within a group , has led to the development of hypotheses on social status and / or hierarchy regarding many cultures , ancient and extant . In addition , the determination of whether or not delivery actually occurred prior to death has a bearing on analyses of the mother 's population , as the concentration of trace elements differ markedly between the skeletons of prepartum adult women ( before giving birth ) and women who are lactating ; the identification of coffin birth would lead to more accurate analyses of the number of lactating women in a population or the rate of maternal mortality . It is therefore necessary for investigators to be able to recognize postmortem fetal extrusion when encountered in an excavated burial .
= = Comparable phenomena = =
There are also many cases where the remains of the fetus are found separate from the body of the mother , but expulsion was not through the birth canal , and separation of the two bodies may have been influenced by external environmental factors . The process of separation is so unusual that a specific term for the phenomenon may not have been proposed to the scientific community . These cases may have comparable results , but they are not cases of postmortem fetal extrusion .
In April 2003 , the body of Laci Peterson washed up on a shore near San Francisco Bay ; she had been pregnant when she disappeared four months earlier , and the fetus she had been carrying was discovered on a separate beach . When questioned by the media , medical authorities initially speculated that a " coffin birth " might have occurred . However , at autopsy the cervix was found to be in a prepartum condition . Medical examiners later concluded that while Peterson 's body was in the bay , the skin over the abdominal cavity had ruptured due to natural decompositional processes . Seawater entered the abdominal cavity and washed out most of the internal organs , along with the fetus .
In 2007 , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old woman in India , over eight months pregnant , hanged herself after contractions had begun . A viable infant was spontaneously delivered unassisted from the woman 's body , which was suspended by the neck . The healthy infant was found on the floor , still tethered to the body of the mother by the umbilical cord . The primary cause of the delivery was the otherwise normal contractions , which had begun prior to death , and was therefore not related to processes of decomposition . While this is not postmortem fetal extrusion , it may be referred to as a case of postmortem delivery , a term which is applied to a broad range of techniques and phenomena with a resultant delivery of a live infant .
In 2008 , it was reported from Germany that a 23 @-@ year @-@ old woman in her third trimester was involved in a motor vehicle accident and died ; the nonviable fetus was found between her feet . Following initial impact the vehicle she was in caught fire . The woman was unable to escape due to internal injuries and burned to death . Investigators came to the conclusion that the extreme heat of the fire burned away epidermal and subcutaneous tissue around the abdominal cavity , after which the anterior aspect of the uterus ruptured , causing the fetus to spill out of the uterine cavity and land on the floor between the woman 's feet . The umbilical cord was still intact and connected the fetus to the placenta through the ruptured wall of the uterus . Unlike the woman , who suffered fourth @-@ degree burns over her entire body , the body of the fetus was relatively undamaged . Because the primary cause of separation from the mother 's body was thermally induced traumatic rupture of the abdominal and uterine cavities ; traumatic separation was not related to normal decompositional processes ; and expulsion of the fetus did not involve passage through the birth canal , this is not considered a case of postmortem fetal extrusion .
= Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze =
Friedrich Freiherr ( Baron ) von Hotze ( 20 April 1739 – 25 September 1799 ) , was a Swiss @-@ born field marshal in the Austrian army during the French Revolutionary Wars , campaigned in the Rhineland during the War of the First Coalition and in Switzerland in the War of the Second Coalition , notably at Battle of Winterthur in late May 1799 , and the First Battle of Zürich in early June 1799 . He was killed at the Second Battle of Zürich .
Hotze was born on 20 April 1739 in Richterswil in the Canton of Zürich , in the Old Swiss Confederacy ( present @-@ day Switzerland ) . As a boy , he graduated at the Carolinum in Zürich and pursued studies at the University of Tübingen . In 1758 , he entered the military service of the Duke of Württemberg , and was promoted to captain of cavalry ; he campaigned in the Seven Years ' War , but saw no combat . Later , he served in the Russian army in Russia 's War with Turkey , ( 1768 – 74 ) .
His persistent attentiveness to Joseph II garnered for him a commission in the Austrian imperial army , and he served in the brief War of Bavarian Succession ( 1778 – 79 ) . A diligent and creative commander , he rose quickly through the ranks . His campaigning in the War of the First Coalition , particularly at the Battle of Würzburg , earned him the Knight 's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa and , in 1798 , the Commander 's Cross . Archduke Charles placed him in full command of the center of the Austrian line at the First Battle of Zürich in 1799 . He was killed by French musket fire in the morning mist near Schänis , in Canton of St. Gallen on 25 September 1799 .
= = Childhood and early career = =
Friedrich Hotze was the second son of Johannes Hotze , a doctor and surgeon in Hessian military service and his Zürich @-@ born wife , Juditha Gessner . Hotze came from an old Swiss family , and was a cousin of Heinrich Pestalozzi , the pedagogue and education reformer . As a young man , Hotze studied at the renowned Gymnasium Carolinum ( Zürich ) . Later he attended the University of Tübingen . In October 1758 , Hotze entered the military service of the Duke of Württemberg , in a Hussar regiment as an officer cadet ( ensign ) . By 1759 , he had been promoted to lieutenant , and in 1761 , to cavalry captain ( or Rittmeister ) . He left the Duke 's service during the disagreement between the Duke and the Württemberg Estates over financial matters involved in maintaining a standing army , and entered the service of the King of Prussia , where he remained until the end of the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 – 1763 ) . After service in Prussia , he took a brief vacation in Switzerland .
In May 1768 , Hotze entered the service of Catherine II , the Tsarina of Russia , but only as lieutenant of a regiment of dragoons , the so @-@ called Ingermannland , named for the territory between Lake Peipus , the Narova River , and Lake Ladoga , in the old Grand Duchy of Novgorod . He participated in several battles in Russia 's on @-@ going conflict with the Ottoman Empire , attracting the attention of Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov during the battle at Giurgiu , on the lower Danube , during which he was wounded . Suvarov praised him for his bravery and promoted him to major .
= = Habsburg service = =
The war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire ended with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , signed on 21 July 1775 . In 1776 , Hotze returned to his home near Zürich . On the return journey , he stopped in Vienna , to present himself to the Emperor , Joseph II , and to seek an appointment as a major in the imperial Austrian army . When Joseph traveled to Hüningen near Basel , in the upper Rhine in 1777 , Hotze once again presented himself , after which he finally secured a major 's commission in the Cuirassiers Regiment 26 , known as the Baron of Berlichingen ( Freiherr von Berlichingen ) regiment . His regiment served in the field during the brief War of Bavarian Succession ( 1778 – 79 ) . He served for a short time with the cuirassiers regiment Marquis de Voghera in Hungary , and returned with this regiment to Vienna in 1783 . In 1784 , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel ( Oberstleutnant ) and given command of the 1 . Galican Lancers , which , in 1795 , became the foundation of the 1 . Lancers Regiment .
Hotze 's experience with military preparedness and organization gave him an advantage in establishing the lancers as a new combat arm . Recognizing the importance of lancers as part of the Austrian armed force , he embarked on an organizational and training program . The Emperor named him as commander of these corps , with the rank of a full colonel . In 1787 , he returned temporarily to Russia , this time to establish a similar force in Catherine the Great 's army . At the outbreak of the border war between the Ottoman Empire and Austria , he returned to Austria and took command of his regiment .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
Initially , the rulers of Europe viewed the revolution in France as an event between the French king and his subjects , and not something in which they should interfere . In 1790 , Leopold succeeded his brother Joseph as emperor and by 1791 , he considered the situation surrounding his sister , Marie Antoinette , and her children , with greater alarm . In August 1791 , in consultation with French émigré nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia , he issued the Declaration of Pilnitz , in which they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis and his family . They threatened ambiguous , but quite serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family .
The French Republican position became increasingly difficult . Compounding problems in international relations , French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter @-@ revolution abroad . Chief among them were the Prince Condé , his son , the Duke de Bourbon , and his grandson , the Duke d 'Enghien . From their base in Koblenz , adjacent to the French @-@ German border , they sought direct support for military intervention from the royal houses of Europe , and raised an army . On 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria . In this War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 1798 ) , France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her , plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire .
= = = War of First Coalition = = =
In April 1792 , Hotze and his regiment joined the autonomous Austrian Corps under Paul Anton II , Count von Esterházy in the Breisgau although they took no part in any military clashes . Early in 1793 , Hotze and his regiment were assigned to the Upper Rhine Army , commanded by General of Cavalry Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser , at which time Hotze was promoted to major general . As commander of the third column , he played an essential role the storming of the line at Wissembourg and Lauterburg , for which he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Maria Theresia Order . In the following year , 1794 , he was assigned to the Army Corps of the Prince von Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg , on the left bank of the Rhine , and later , from May – September at Heiligenstein on the Rhine , Schweigenheim , Westheim , and Landau in der Pfalz , against the French army commanded by the general of division Louis Desaix .
In each of these assignments , Hotze proved himself as a confident and courageous general against the stronger French Army of the Moselle . In recognition , he was promoted to lieutenant field marshal , a rank unusual for a man from a non @-@ aristocratic family . He was also raised to the rank of baron ( Freiherr ) by Emperor Francis II . In the campaign of 1795 , he served again under the command of Wurmser ; his troops secured Rhineland positions near Mannheim , and later took part in engagements at Edighofen and Kaiserslautern .
In the Battle of Neresheim ( 11 August 1796 ) , Hotze commanded 13 battalions and 28 cavalry squadrons , a total of 13 @,@ 300 men , and formed the center of Archduke Charles ' line . Although Hotze 's force managed to push the French out of several villages , his force was not strong enough to follow up on his advantage . Following the action at Neresheim , his force participated in the joint battles of Neumarkt and Lauf , followed by the Battle of Würzburg on 3 September 1796 . During these consecutive actions , Hotze 's organization and initiative led to the overwhelming of the French lines . For his actions in this campaign , he was awarded a promotion on 29 April 1797 , and received the Commander 's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa .
= = = Peace and the Congress of Rastatt = = =
The Coalition forces — Austria , Russia , Prussia , Great Britain , Sardinia , among others — achieved several victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg . While experiencing greater success in the north , in Italy , the Coalition 's achievements were more limited . Despite the presence of the most experienced of the Austrian generals — Dagobert Wurmser — the Austrians could not lift the siege at Mantua , and the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces to the border of Habsburg lands . Napoleon dictated a cease @-@ fire at Leoben on 17 April 1797 , which led to the formal peace treaty , the Treaty of Campo Formio , which went into effect on 17 October 1797 .
The treaty called for meetings between the involved parties , to work out the exact territorial and remunerative details . These were to be convened at a small town in the mid @-@ Rhineland , Rastatt , close to the French border . The primary combatants of the First Coalition , France and Austria , were highly suspicious of each other 's motives , and the Congress quickly derailed in a mire of intrigue and diplomatic posturing . The French demanded more territory than originally agreed . The Austrians were reluctant to cede the designated territories . The Rastatt delegates could not , or would not , orchestrate the transfer of agreed upon territories to compensate the German princes for their losses . Compounding the Congress 's problems , tensions grew between France and most of the First Coalition allies , either separately or jointly . Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay agreed @-@ upon tribute to France , and his subjects followed this refusal with a rebellion . The French invaded Naples and established the Parthenopaean Republic . A republican uprising in the Swiss cantons , encouraged by the French Republic which offered military support , led to the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic .
Other factors contributed to the rising tensions . On his way to Egypt in 1798 , Napoleon had stopped on the Island of Malta and forcibly removed the Hospitallers from their possessions . This angered Paul , Tsar of Russia , who was the honorary head of the Order . Furthermore , the French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war . Indeed , the weaker the French Republic seemed , the more seriously the Austrians , the Neapolitans , the Russians , and the English actually discussed this possibility .
= = = Outbreak of war in 1799 = = =
With the signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio on 17 October 1797 , Hotze left Austrian service and returned to his home in Switzerland . Hardly had he arrived there when the government of the Swiss Confederation in Bern was overthrown , with the assistance of the French Directory . He returned to Austria , received a new commission and a new command . He was already in the border regions between Switzerland , Austria , and Liechtenstein when the war broke out again in 1799 . Archduke Charles of Austria , arguably among the best commanders of the House of Habsburg , had taken command of the Austrian army in late January . Although Charles was unhappy with the strategy set forward by his brother , the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II , he had acquiesced to the less ambitious plan to which Francis and his advisers , the Aulic council , had agreed : Austria would fight a defensive war and would maintain a continuous defensive line from the southern bank of the Danube , across the Swiss Cantons and into northern Italy . The archduke had stationed himself at Friedberg for the winter , 4 @.@ 7 miles ( 8 km ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Augsburg . His army settled into cantonments in the environs of Augsburg , extending south along the Lech River .
As winter broke in 1799 , on 1 March , General Jean Baptiste Jourdan and his army of 25 @,@ 000 , the Army of the Danube , crossed the Rhine at Kehl . Instructed to block the Austrians from access to the Swiss alpine passes , Jourdan planned to isolate the armies of the Coalition in Germany from allies in northern Italy , and prevent them from assisting one another . His was a preemptive strike . By crossing the Rhine in early March , Jourdan acted before the Charles ' army could be reinforced by Austria 's Russian allies , who had agreed to send 60 @,@ 000 seasoned soldiers and their more @-@ seasoned commander , Generalissimo Alexander Suvorov . Furthermore , if the French held the interior passes in Switzerland , they could not only prevent the Austrians from transferring troops between northern Italy and southwestern Germany , but could use the routes to move their own forces between the two theaters .
The Army of the Danube , meeting little resistance , advanced through the Black Forest in three columns , through the Höllental ( Hölle valley ) , via Oberkirch , and Freudenstadt ; a fourth column advanced along the north shore of the Rhine , and eventually took a flanking position on the north shore of Lake Constance . Jourdan pushed across the Danube plain and took up position between Rottweil and Tuttlingen and eventually pushing toward the imperial city of Pfullendorf in Upper Swabia . At the same time , the Army of Switzerland , under command of Andre Massena , pushed toward the Grisons , intending to cut the Austrian lines of communication and relief at the mountain passes by Luziensteig and Feldkirch . A third Army of Italy , commanded by Louis Joseph Schérer , had already advanced into northern Italy , to deal with Ferdinand and the recalcitrant Neapolitans .
= = = War of the Second Coalition = = =
When Hotze took up arms against the French in Switzerland , the revolutionary Swiss government in Bern revoked his Swiss citizenship . For the Coalition allies , though , his Swiss roots made him an ideal emissary between Vienna and Confederation sympathizers in Switzerland . He worked with William Wickham , and a Colonel Williams , an Englishman in Austrian service , to establish the Bodensee ( Lake Constance ) Flotilla . A Lieutenant Field Marshal , he commanded 15 @,@ 000 troops in the Vorarlberg against France 's Army of Switzerland , commanded by André Masséna . After fortifying Feldkirch , he overwhelmed the fortress at St. Luzisteig , an important pass ( elevation : 713 metres ( 2 @,@ 339 ft ) ) in the Canton of Graubünden that links Swiss Confederation and Liechtenstein . Then , realizing that the main French army had crossed the Rhine and moved north of Lake Constance , he reorganized the defenses of Feldkirch , and deputed command to Franjo Jelačić , an able officer and commander . Hotze took 10 @,@ 000 of the 15 @,@ 500 troops designated for the defense of the Vorarlberg toward Lake Constance , intending to support Archduke Charles ' left wing at the battles of Ostrach and , a few days later Stockach . Although his forces did not arrive in time to participate in the battles , the threat of their pending arrival influenced French planning . In his absence , Jellacic 's 5 @,@ 500 men faced 12 @,@ 000 under the command of generals of division Jean Joseph Dessolles and Claude Lecourbe , inflicting enormous casualties ( 3000 ) on the French while suffering minimal losses ( 900 ) of their own .
= = = First Battle of Zürich = = =
By mid @-@ May 1799 , the Austrians had wrested control of Switzerland from the French as the forces of Hotze and Count Heinrich von Bellegarde pushed them out of the Grisons ; after pushing Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan 's force , the Army of the Danube , back to the Rhine , Archduke Charles ' own sizable force — about 110 @,@ 000 strong — crossed the Rhine , and prepared to join with the armies of Hotze and Bellegarde on the plains by Zürich . The French Army of Switzerland and the Army of the Danube , now both under the command of Masséna , tried to prevent this merger of the Austrian forces ; in a preliminary action at Winterthur , the Austrians succeeded in pushing the French forces out of Winterthur , although they took high casualties .
Once the union took place in the first two days of June , Archduke Charles , supported by Hotze 's command , attacked French positions at Zürich . In first Battle of Zürich , on 4 – 7 June 1799 , Hotze commanded the entire left wing of Archduke Charles ' army , which included 20 battalions of infantry , plus support artillery , and 27 squadrons of cavalry , in total , 19 @,@ 000 men . Despite being wounded , he remained on the field . His troops not only pushed the French back , but harassed their retreat , forcing them across the Limmat river , where they took up defensive positions .
= = = Death at Second Battle of Zürich = = =
In August 1799 , Archduke Charles received orders from his brother , the Emperor , to withdraw the Austrian army across the Rhine . While Charles could see this to be unreasonable — Alexander Suvorov had not yet reached central Switzerland , and it was folly to think that Alexander Korsakov 's force of 30 @,@ 000 and Hotze 's 20 @,@ 000 could hold all of the region until the arrival of the rest of the Russian force — the order was emphatic . Charles delayed as long as he could , but in late August he withdrew his force across the Rhine and headed toward Phillipsburg . When Suvorov heard of this breach of military common @-@ sense , he wondered " the owl [ referring to the Emperor ] has either gone out of his mind , or he never had one . " The order was eventually reversed too late for the Archduke to stop his withdrawal .
Unlike Korsakov , Hotze knew his military business , and he had organized a competent defense of the St. Gallen border , on Korsakov 's left flank , reasoning , correctly , that Suvorov was on his way and needed St. Gallen as a safe haven after he passed through the Canton Schwyz . On the morning of 25 September , Hotze and his chief of staff , Colonel Count von Plunkelt , conducted a reconnaissance ride near the village of Schänis , on the Linth river , only 32 kilometers ( 20 mi ) from Richterswil , the village in which he had been born . In the heavy morning mist , they encountered a party French scouts from the 25th demi @-@ brigade concealed behind a hedge . Summoned to surrender , Hotze wheeled around and spurred his horse , where both he and Colonel Plumkelt were killed by a volley of musketry . Initially , Hotze was taken from the battlefield to the church in Schänis , where he was buried . In 1851 , his body was moved to Bregenz and established in a monument there .
= = Consequences of Hotze 's death = =
Hotze was sorely missed . Despite mis @-@ communication between and among the British , the Austrians and the Russians , the British miscalculation of the size of troops ( consistently 10 – 25 percent higher than they actually were ) , the lack of Swiss volunteers , and failed promises of transport mules , Suvorov organized his impressive march across the Alps from northern Italy , counting on Korsakov and his Austrian allies to hold Zürich . His soldiers took the pass at St. Gotthard in a bayonet charge , and endured incredible hardships navigating the narrow trails of the Alps . By the time the Russian army reached Schwyz , preparing to descend from the mountains into the Zürich plain , Masséna 's army already had crushed the incompetent Korsakov 's force at Zürich , and , in Hotze 's absence , Jean @-@ de @-@ Dieu Soult 's French division overwhelmed the Austrian flank at Schänis and crossed the Linth unhindered . When Suvorov cleared the mountains , he had nowhere to go ; he was forced to withdraw in another arduous march into the Vorarlberg , where his starving and ragged army arrived in late October . Between Korsakov 's inability to hold the French at Zürich , and Hotze 's death at Schänis , the Swiss campaign degenerated to an utter shambles .
= Colin Farrell =
Colin James Farrell ( born 31 May 1976 ) is an Irish actor . He first appeared on the BBC 's TV drama Ballykissangel in 1998 , made his film debut in the Tim Roth @-@ directed drama The War Zone a year later and was discovered by Hollywood when Joel Schumacher cast him in the lead in his war drama Tigerland ( 2000 ) . He then starred in Schumacher 's psychological thriller Phone Booth ( 2002 ) and the American thrillers S.W.A.T. and The Recruit ( both 2003 ) , establishing his international box @-@ office appeal . During that time , he also appeared in Steven Spielberg ’ s science fiction thriller Minority Report ( 2002 ) and as the villain Bullseye in the superhero film Daredevil ( 2003 ) . After starring in the independent films Intermission ( 2003 ) and A Home at the End of the World ( 2004 ) , he headed Oliver Stone ’ s biopic Alexander ( 2004 ) and Terrence Malick 's The New World ( 2005 ) .
Work in Michael Mann ’ s Miami Vice , the adaptation of John Fante 's Ask the Dust ( both 2006 ) and Woody Allen ’ s Cassandra 's Dream ( 2007 ) followed , underscoring Farrell 's popularity among Hollywood writers and directors ; however , it was for his role in Martin McDonagh ’ s In Bruges ( 2008 ) that he received a Golden Globe Award . In recent years , he co @-@ starred in the comedy @-@ horror film Fright Night ( 2011 ) and the sci @-@ fi action film Total Recall ( 2012 ) , both remakes , and McDonagh 's second feature , the black comedy crime film Seven Psychopaths ( 2012 ) . Farrell also starred with Noomi Rapace in the Niels Arden Oplev @-@ directed action film Dead Man Down , and as Travers Goff in the period drama Saving Mr. Banks ( both in 2013 ) about the author of Mary Poppins . In 2014 , Farrell starred as Peter Lake in the supernatural fable Winter 's Tale , an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Mark Helprin . In 2015 , he starred as Detective Ray Velcoro in the second season of HBO 's True Detective , alongside Vince Vaughn and Rachel McAdams .
A favourite with film critics like Peter Bradshaw , Manohla Dargis and Roger Ebert in the 2000s , Farrell developed a reputation as a lothario and dated numerous famous women for a time .
= = Early life = =
Farrell was born in Dublin , Ireland , the son of Rita ( née Monaghan ) and Eamon Farrell . His father played football for Shamrock Rovers and ran a health @-@ food shop . His uncle , Tommy Farrell , also played for Shamrock Rovers .
The actor has an openly gay older brother , Eamon , Jr . , who is married to artist Stephen Mannion , and two sisters , Claudine and Catherine ; Claudine , his older sister , is his personal assistant . When Farrell was ten , his family moved to Castleknock , a Dublin suburb . He was educated at St. Brigid 's National School , followed by secondary school at Castleknock College and then Gormanston College in County Meath . Farrell unsuccessfully auditioned for the Irish musical group Boyzone around this time .
He was inspired to try acting when Harry Butlers performance in E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial moved him to tears . With his brother 's encouragement he attended the Gaiety School of Acting , dropping out when he was cast as Danny Byrne on Ballykissangel , a BBC television drama about a young English priest who becomes part of an Irish rural community .
As an 18 @-@ year @-@ old travelling in Sydney , Australia he was at one time suspected for attempted murder . The police sketch admittedly looked remarkably like him and he had even described blacking out the night in question . His only alibi was apparently a journal kept by his friend that explained the two had been across town that night ingesting MDMA .
Colin Farrell 's dad Eamon , was married at age of 73 to partner Eileen Pollard , who is of Greek Cypriot heritage , on 5th July 2016 . Eamon was married in Limassol , Cyprus with Colin flying in for the event .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Farrell had roles in television shows and films , including Ballykissangel and Falling for a Dancer in 1998 and 1999 . He made his feature film debut in English actor Tim Roth 's directorial debut The War Zone , a drama about an incident of child abuse , starring Ray Winstone and Tilda Swinton as parents of a girl Farrell 's character ( Nick ) dates . The actor also appeared in Ordinary Decent Criminal with Kevin Spacey and Linda Fiorentino , a film loosely based on the life of Martin Cahill . In 2000 , Farrell was cast in the lead role of Private Roland Bozz in Tigerland , an under @-@ released film directed by American Joel Schumacher . He reportedly got the part on the basis of his charm . Emanuel Levy of Variety said that the actor " shines as the subversive yet basically decent lad whose cynicism may be the only sane reaction to a situation " . Michael Holden of The Guardian wrote that the actor was " too much the hero " to fit the classic rebel archetype properly , but he did not mind . Tigerland earned $ 139 @,@ 500 .
= = = First box office successes ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = =
Farrell 's next American films , American Outlaws ( 2001 ) and Hart 's War ( 2002 ) , were not commercially successful . His 2002 – 2003 films , including Phone Booth , The Recruit and S.W.A.T. ( all thrillers , with the former two his first starring roles ) , were well received by critics and successful at the box office . Of Phone Booth , Ebert wrote that it is " Farrell 's to win or lose , since he 's onscreen most of the time , and he shows energy and intensity " . Philip French of The Observer praised Farrell 's performance . In S.W.A.T. , the actor starred in an ensemble cast including Samuel L. Jackson , Michelle Rodriguez , Olivier Martinez and Jeremy Renner ; Renner became a friend . Alan Morrison of Empire wrote , " Farrell can usually be relied upon to bring a spark to the bonfire . That 's also true of [ this movie ] . " Elvis Mitchell of the New York Times criticised Farrell 's accent , writing that he " employ [ ed ] a wobbly American accent that makes him sound like an international criminal a step ahead of the authorities " . Ebert and the New York Times 's A.O. Scott disagreed on the actor 's effectiveness in The Recruit ; Ebert noted the actor 's likability , but Scott felt that Farrell " spends his time in a caffeinated frenzy , trying to maintain his leading @-@ man sang @-@ froid while registering panic , stress and confusion " . Phone Booth earned $ 46 @.@ 6 million , S.W.A.T. $ 116 @.@ 9 million and The Recruit $ 52 @.@ 8 million at the box office .
Farrell 's supporting roles include an ambitious Justice Department agent opposite Tom Cruise , a potential criminal in Minority Report ( 2002 ) , and the villain Bullseye in Daredevil ( 2003 ) . Matt Damon was originally offered the Minority Report role , turning it down to appear in Ocean 's Eleven . Farrell said " he had no problem " being the producer 's fallback after Damon declined . Bullseye is an assassin , proud of his accuracy . Farrell was signed to the role in December 2001 , although he was considered for the lead role of Matt Murdock ( Daredevil ) until Ben Affleck signed . Farrell was encouraged to keep his Irish accent , since this version of Bullseye is from Ireland . He read Frank Miller 's Daredevil comics to understand Bullseye " because the expression on the character 's faces in the comic books , and just the way they move sometimes , and the exaggerations of the character I 'm playing ... he 's so over @-@ the @-@ top that you do draw from that . But it 's not exactly a character you can do method acting for ... you know , running around New York killing people with paper clips " . That year , he was voted sixth World 's " Sexiest Man " by Company magazine .
= = = From independents to epics ( 2003 – 2008 ) = = =
In late 2003 Farrell starred as a criminal who plots a bank robbery with Cillian Murphy in the dark comedy Intermission , which held the record for highest @-@ grossing Irish independent film in Irish box @-@ office history for three years and remains a cult classic there . In 2004 he appeared in several other independent films receiving limited theatrical release in most countries , including A Home at the End of the World ( adapted from Michael Cunningham 's 1990 novel ) . Roger Ebert praised Farrell , saying that he was " astonishing in the movie , not least because the character is such a departure from everything he has done before " . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle differed , saying that the actor " is keen on making good .... The effort is there , but it 's a performance you end up rooting for rather than enjoying , because there 's no way to just relax and watch " .
Farrell played the title role of Alexander the Great in Oliver Stone 's 2004 biographical film Alexander , which , while receiving some favourable reviews internationally , was poorly received in the United States . Its portrayal of the conqueror as bisexual was controversial ; the film was criticised by some historians for its treatment of the ancient Persians , although others praised it for its accuracy . An ancient @-@ history scholar at the University of Nebraska wrote :
I would compare [ Alexander ] to Lawrence of Arabia , in terms of sheer scope , pacing , and its unrelenting focus on a single individual .... In many ways , this is a movie for Greek and Alexander " geeks . " The more one knows , the more one will recognise — the historical accuracy of sets is better than I 've seen in some documentaries .
The film grossed $ 167 million worldwide , just exceeding its budget of $ 155 million .
Farrell 's next film was 2005 's Academy Award @-@ nominated The New World , his second historical epic . He played the lead role of Captain John Smith , the founder of 17th @-@ century colonial Jamestown , Virginia who falls in love with the Native American princess Pocahontas ( Q 'Orianka Kilcher ) . Director Terrence Malick went out of his way to keep Farrell and Kilcher apart until they were filmed together . Although it was released in only 811 theatres worldwide and had a relatively low box @-@ office gross , the film received a large number of positive reviews . In one of four reviews in The Guardian , John Patterson described it as a " bottomless movie , almost unspeakably beautiful and formally harmonious " . The New World was followed by Ask the Dust , a period romance set in Los Angeles based on a John Fante novel and co @-@ starring Salma Hayek . Reviews were mixed ; Manohla Dargis of the New York Times favourably described Farrell 's work , but Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian found " something a little forced in both lead performances " . With a limited theatrical release , it was not a financial success .
The actor was more successful in 2006 with his role opposite Jamie Foxx in Michael Mann 's action crime drama , Miami Vice . The film grossed $ 164 million worldwide on a budget of $ 135 million , and TimeOut New York ranked it among the top 50 movies of the decade . ( The DVD , released the same year , also managed to sell over a million copies ( equivalent to $ 7 @.@ 91 million in pirated versions ) in its first week alone . , and , as of 11 February 2007 , had grossed over $ 36 @.@ 45 million in rentals . A. O. Scott criticised Farrell 's work : " When he 's not on screen , you don 't miss him , and when he is , you find yourself , before long , looking at someone or something else . " Conversely , Peter Travers of Rolling Stone was enthusiastic . The actor also reportedly took a slight pay cut to make friend and recent Oscar winner Jamie Foxx happy : His salary was initially larger than Foxx 's .
Farrell next appeared in Woody Allen 's Cassandra 's Dream , which premiered in 2007 and was distributed in the US in early 2008 . Reviews were mixed , with Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide writing that Allen 's work was " shallow and unconvincing from beginning to end " and Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle saying that although " it 's not as good as Match Point or Crimes and Misdemeanors ... taken on its own , it 's a fairly impressive piece , a directorially vigorous , well @-@ acted , tightly constructed movie " . LaSalle praised Farrell : " Allen is notorious for not giving his actors explicit instructions , and yet somehow this worked wonders for Farrell , who has never seemed so naked , so clear and so unencumbered as he does here . " Manohla Dargis concurred in the New York Times , adding that he thought Farrell was well @-@ matched with co @-@ star Ewan McGregor .
Farrell 's next film , Martin McDonagh 's first full @-@ length feature In Bruges , opened the 2008 Sundance Film Festival . While the New Yorker and TimeOut London 's film critics found co @-@ star Brendan Gleeson 's performance the stronger of the two , Bradshaw of The Guardian found Farrell ( as hitman Ray ) " absolutely superb : moody and funny , lethally sexy , sometimes heartbreakingly sad and vulnerable like a little boy " . Time called the film " the prettiest bloodbath of 2008 " , and Farrell received his first Golden Globe .
Shortly thereafter he appeared in Kicking It , a documentary following six homeless men from Kenya , Russia , Afghanistan , Ireland , Spain and the US as they attempt to qualify for the Homeless World Cup . Farrell appeared on screen and provided the narration , donating his earnings to a homeless shelter in Ireland . The film was released simultaneously in theatres and on television , airing on ESPN2 in a very short window before its DVD release . Farrell received positive reviews for his involvement in the true story .
Later in 2008 Farrell was brother @-@ in @-@ law to Edward Norton 's character in Pride and Glory , a police drama directed by American Gavin O 'Connor . Roger Ebert disliked the film and A. O. Scott said that the actor " once again indulges his blustery mixture of menace and charm , overdoing both , " but Gregory Kirschling of Entertainment Weekly liked Farrell 's work .
= = = Recent work ( 2009 – present ) = = =
On 11 January 2009 , Farrell won the Golden Globe award for Best Actor : Musical or Comedy for In Bruges , in which he co @-@ starred with Brendan Gleeson . That year he also appeared in Terry Gilliam 's film The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus , starring Christopher Plummer and Andrew Garfield . Farrell was one of three actors ( with Johnny Depp and Jude Law ) , who helped complete Heath Ledger 's role when Ledger died before filming ended . They played " Imaginarium " versions of Ledger 's character Tony , donating their earnings to Ledger 's daughter Matilda .
Farrell also starred that year in Triage , directed by Oscar @-@ winning Bosnian screenwriter and director Danis Tanović , about the life of a war correspondent . He lost 30 pounds for the role . The actor 's work was described as " dedicated " by Variety 's Todd McCarthy , and Julian Sancton of Vanity Fair wrote that the film was " a hell of a lot more insightful than other movies that deal with a similar topic " . However , Triage was not widely distributed due to the marketing challenges posed by its difficult topics ( including PTSD ) . That year , Farrell played a supporting role ( as Tommy Sweet ) in Crazy Heart with Jeff Bridges .
Another 2009 release was Ondine , a fantasy @-@ drama directed by Neil Jordan starring Farrell as a fisherman with a handicapped daughter . Shot in the village of Castletownbere on Ireland 's southwest coast , it featured cinematography by longtime Wong Kar @-@ wai collaborator Christopher Doyle . Mary Pols of Time magazine called the role " tailor @-@ made for Farrell " , saying that the actor gave a " beautifully confident performance " . Todd McCarthy of Variety singled Farrell out , noting that he worked well as an ensemble actor " graciously allowing [ child star Alison Barry ] to steal every scene she 's in " .
The next year , Farrell starred with Keira Knightley in the crime romance London Boulevard . The film , American William Monahan 's debut as director after writing screenplays for The Departed and Body of Lies , was panned by critics . Peter Bradshaw of the Guardian wrote that the film " uses up all its energy , wit and ideas in the first 20 or so minutes , before collapsing into a flurry of boring violence " . Leslie Felperin of Variety described it as " like a fancy , retro @-@ styled pocket watch that someone accidentally broke and tried to reassemble with only a vague idea of clockwork " . Felperin thought the stars ' work was frail , with Farrell " mostly taciturn and vacuous . "
The actor starred in the 2011 comedy Horrible Bosses , directed by Seth Gordon , with Jennifer Aniston , Jason Bateman , Charlie Day , and Jason Sudeikis . The film focuses on a trio of employees who plot to murder their tyrannical superiors . The London Observer 's Mark Kermode wrote that although the film would have benefited from a tighter script , Farrell and Jamie Foxx had juicy roles which they " riff with panache " . Michael Phillips of the Los Angeles Times wrote that Farrell brought " massive , slobby relish " to his role as Sudeikis 's cocaine @-@ fiend boss .
Later that year , Farrell played the main antagonist in the Fright Night remake , joining Anton Yelchin , David Tennant and Toni Collette in the story of a charismatic vampire who moves next door to a high @-@ school student and his single mother . The film was released by DreamWorks , with Craig Gillespie ( of Lars and the Real Girl ) directing a script by Buffy the Vampire Slayer writer Marti Noxon . Sukhdev Sandhu of the Telegraph wrote that Farrell " proves his comedy credentials once more .... utterly seductive as the plushly eyebrowed carpenter @-@ cum @-@ bloodsucker " , while the New York Times 's A.O. Scott thought that Farrell played his role with " a wink and a snarl and a feline purr " . Logan Hill of New York magazine , on the other hand , was confused by the actor 's performance : " Sure , [ it ] may not make much sense , but neither do centuries @-@ old vampires living in Nevadan subdivisions . So he goes for it . "
Farrell starred with Kate Beckinsale in Columbia Pictures ' Total Recall , a 2012 remake of the 1990 film with Arnold Schwarzenegger . Filmed from May to September 2011 in Toronto and directed by Len Wiseman , the film was a new sci @-@ fi take about a sleeper agent . Costar Jessica Biel appreciated Farrell 's skills , calling the actor " surprising and exciting . He just has the ability to be trying different things all the time . " Roger Ebert and the New York Times said that although they believed Farrell the better actor , Schwarzenegger in the original was " more of a movie presence and better suited for the role " .
After premiering at the Toronto Film Festival , Seven Psychopaths ( Farrell 's second film with McDonagh ) was released in October 2012 . The actor starred as creatively blocked writer Marty in a black comedy with Sam Rockwell , Woody Harrelson and Christopher Walken . It broke even at the box office and reviews were generally good , with David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter writing that Farrell " serves as an excellent foil for Rockwell " and the actor " is in subdued mode ... his performance largely defined by the endless expressivity of his eyebrows " . That month , Farrell appeared on the cover of the magazine Details .
March 2013 saw the release of Dead Man Down , a thriller directed by Niels Arden Oplev reuniting Farrell with Terrence Howard for the first time since Hart 's War ten years earlier . Noomi Rapace , star of Oplev 's The Girl with a Dragon Tattoo , starred as a facially scarred woman who blackmails Farrell 's character into killing the man who disfigured her in a car crash . Reviews were mixed , with Empire calling the film " a pleasingly intricate double ( or is it triple ? ) revenge plot anchored by excellent acting " and the Hollywood Reporter saying that " [ J.H. ] Wyman 's script and the measured pace don 't lend themselves to the necessary escalating tension that would have resulted in a more rewarding climax . " The New York Times ' Manola Dargis called the film a failure , but said of the actor : " Farrell and his sensitive , hardworking eyebrows help keep it from becoming a full @-@ bore lampoon . " Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News also disliked the film ; it contained " a lot to roll your eyes over " and , while Farrell was commendable , he was " as stoic as a statue " .
In 2014 , Farrell starred in a film adaptation of Mark Helprin 's Winter 's Tale . The film was written and directed by Akiva Goldsman and based on Helprin 's 1983 novel , and co @-@ starred Jessica Brown Findlay , Russell Crowe , and Will Smith . Farrell won the lead role over younger actors Garrett Hedlund , Tom Hiddleston and Aaron Taylor @-@ Johnson . Although the film generally received negative reviews due to the overly romantic nature of the film , writers such as The Village Voice 's Stephanie Zacharek had nothing but praise for Farrell . She described him as " an extraordinary appealing actor " who " has always made a terrific bad boy , but ... seems to be settling into some very serious , responsible @-@ adult roles . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle agreed , writing that the actor " holds the movie together " and is part of " the most beautiful [ love scene ] so far of 2014 . "
His work as the alcoholic father that P.L. Travers adores in Saving Mr. Banks got contrasting reviews with Variety 's Scott Foundras calling it " excellent " and Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter " his best work in some time " but The Guardian 's Peter Bradshaw describing it as " bland " and " uninspired " and The Telegraph 's Robbie Collin expressing that the actor was wrong for the role .
Liv Ullmann 's adaptation of August Strindberg 's Miss Julie with Jessica Chastain and Samantha Morton . His turn as John , the serving man to Chastain 's character 's father , was described by Stephen Holden of the New York Times as the " strongest " of the three performances and Ullmann 's direction too flat by most reviewers . He starred in the second season of HBO 's True Detective as Ray Velcoro , alongside Vince Vaughn , Taylor Kitsch , and Rachel McAdams . The first two episodes were directed by Justin Lin . He worked with a dialect coach to get the nonstandard California accent for his character , which he found challenging .
The actor is also starring in the The Lobster , a romantic science fiction thriller due to be released in 2015 and directed by Greek director Yorgos Lanthimos in his English @-@ language debut . Its script was awarded the ARTE International Prize for Best CineMart 2013 Project at the 42nd Rotterdam International Film Festival . Set in a dystopian near @-@ future in which finding a partner is a matter of life and death , the film tells an unconventional love story . The film also stars Rachel Weisz , Ben Whishaw , Olivia Colman , Léa Seydoux and John C. Reilly .
Farrell will also appear in the upcoming Harry Potter spin @-@ off film Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them .
= = Charity work and causes = =
In 2007 , Farrell joined other celebrities as a spokesman for the Special Olympics World Games in Shanghai , China . He has also lent his support to the anti @-@ bullying campaign Stand Up ! organised by the Irish LGBT youth organisation BeLonG To in March 2012 . The actor appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show two years earlier to increase awareness of the subject . In 2015 Farrell became an official Ambassador of the Homeless World Cup which uses street football to inspire homeless people to change their lives .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships and children = = =
Colin met English actress and singer Amelia Warner at the premiere of Quills in 2000 . They dated from July to November 2001 . There was speculation that they married ; of the experience , the actor said " Too fast , too young . " However , in December 2011 Warner told The Sun that the marriage was never legal : " We had a ceremony on a beach in Tahiti that was by no means legal and we knew it wasn 't ... It was just a thing we did on holiday . We went shark feeding and then we did that . We booked them both on the activities desk at the hotel . " Colin has a tattoo of Amelia`s name around his ring finger .
By the end of 2003 he was linked to singer Britney Spears , Playboy cover girl Nicole Narain , model Josie Maran and actresses Angelina Jolie , Maeve Quinlan and Demi Moore .
Colin and Kim Bordenave became parents of James Padraig Farrell , born in 2003 , in Cedars @-@ Sinai Medical Center , Los Angeles . In October 2007 he said his son has Angelman syndrome , a rare genetic disorder characterised by intellectual and developmental delay , lack of speech and a happy , excitable demeanor .
From 2007 to 2008 the actor dated Muireann McDonnell , an Irish medical student .
Farrell and British @-@ American writer Emma Forrest dated for over a year , an experience she discusses in depth in her memoir Your Voice in My Head ( focusing on her relationship with her therapist , who died unexpectedly ) ; it is a planned film starring either Emily Blunt or Emma Watson , and Stanley Tucci , and directed by Francesca Gregorini . According to Forrest , she and Farrell planned to have a child together before he ended the relationship .
Farrell fathered his second child , Henry Tadeusz Farrell ( 2009 ) , with Ondine co @-@ star Alicja Bachleda @-@ Curuś . Their relationship ended in mid @-@ 2010 .
= = = Drug addiction = = =
In December 2005 , Farrell checked into a rehabilitation treatment centre for addictions to recreational drugs and painkillers . He spoke about it on the Late Show with David Letterman after coming out of rehab and continued to do so in the years following . " There was an energy that was created , " he says of the time when he was addicted , " a character that was created , that no doubt benefited me . And then there was a stage where it all began to crumble around me . "
= = = Stalker = = =
On 20 July 2006 , as Farrell was being interviewed by Jay Leno on The Tonight Show , telephone sex worker Dessarae Bradford evaded security , walked on stage , confronted Farrell and threw a book on Leno 's desk . Farrell escorted her off the stage as she shouted " I 'll see you in court " , handing her over to NBC security . After being held by the Burbank police , Bradford was released . The next day , Farrell obtained a restraining order against her and the incident was edited out of the broadcast .
Bradford had twice attempted to sue Farrell for abusive messages , but the lawsuits were dismissed due to a lack of evidence . She failed a lie @-@ detector test on an Ion Television program when attempting to prove her claims .
= = = Sex tape = = =
In July 2006 , Farrell filed a lawsuit against his former girlfriend , Playboy model Nicole Narain , and the Internet Commerce Group ( ICG ) for the unauthorised public distribution of a 13 @-@ minute sex tape which they made in 2003 . ( He was offered $ 5 million for its rights . ) While ICG tried to release it , Narain said that she would work with Farrell to ensure that the tape remained private ; Farrell said she tried to release it to damage his acting career and " make money out of it " , a claim Narain denies . On 16 April 2006 they reached a confidential settlement ; Farrell 's lawsuit against ICG continued , with a trial date of 21 July 2006 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Selected awards = =
= Sakakibara Kenkichi =
Sakakibara Kenkichi ( Japanese : 榊原鍵吉 , 19 December 1830 – 11 September 1894 ) , was a Japanese samurai and martial artist . He was the fourteenth headmaster of the Jikishinkage school of sword fighting . Through his Jikishinkage contacts he rose to a position of some political influence ; he taught swordsmanship at a government military academy and also served in the personal guard of Japan 's last two shoguns .
After the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate Sakakibara was instrumental in preserving traditional Japanese sword techniques in the early Meiji Era . Despite his eventual opposition to the practice of sword fighting for sport , his work during this period laid the foundations for the modern sport of kendo . In his later years he taught a number of noted martial artists , and was honoured by the All Japan Kendo Federation after his death .
= = Early life = =
Sakakibara was born on the fifth day of the eleventh month of Bunsei ( 19 December 1830 ) into the Sakakibara clan ; his given name at birth was Tomoyoshi ( 友善 ) . His family lived in the village of Otsuwa near modern @-@ day Tokyo . He started studying Kashima Shinden Jikishinkage @-@ ryū with Otani Nobutomo in 1843 . He proved proficient in that style , and was granted a menkyo kaiden ( licence of mastery ) by Otani in 1856 , despite his family being too poor to pay for it . He was later to become the fourteenth headmaster of the school . As a talented swordsman , he once duelled with Yamaoka Tesshū ; the two men faced off for over forty minutes without moving , before sheathing their swords with neither striking a blow .
= = Edo period = =
In 1856 Sakakibara was appointed as a professor at the Kōbusho ( 講武所 ) , a shogunate @-@ sponsored military academy . He received this post through the auspices of his teacher Otani , who had himself been granted a teaching position there . In this role , Sakakibara was noticed by the shogun Tokugawa Iemochi , who appointed Sakakibara as his bodyguard and fencing instructor . He also married Taka , the daughter of the shogun 's personal retainer Iwajiro Mihashi . In order that his headmastery of the Jikishinkage ryu would not interfere with his duties to the shogun , his student Matsuoka Katsunosuke was temporarily placed in charge of the school .
By 1863 , Sakakibara was a head keeper at Edo Castle and received a stipend of 300 ryō per year . He resigned from this post in 1866 , after Iemochi 's death and started a dojo in Kurumazaka ( a neighbourhood of Edo , now part of modern Ueno ) .
= = Meiji period = =
Despite his connections to the shogunate , at the Battle of Ueno in 1868 Sakakibara did not participate in the fighting between the pro @-@ shogunate and Imperial forces , considering it to be his duty to guard the Kan 'ei @-@ ji temple . He did , in fact , rescue the Imperial Prince Kitashirakawa Yoshihisa ( who was at the time the abbot of Kan 'ei @-@ ji ) from the Shōgitai , physically carrying him away from the combat . Sakakibara subsequently returned to the service of the Tokugawa family as Captain of the Guard under Tokugawa Iesato , whom he served until 1870 . After the Meiji Restoration Sakakibara was offered a position with the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department , which he refused out of loyalty to Iemochi . He was , however , part of the group of fencers who created the forms for the Keishichō @-@ ryū ( 警視庁流 ) , the style of sword fighting created in 1868 for use by the police , and he worked briefly as a prison guard at the police headquarters .
The new Meiji Government had banned the carrying of swords and in 1876 banned the practice of duelling , and so traditional swordsmanship was no longer popular . Sakakibara tried to find new ways of promoting kenjutsu . His motives may have been financial , as without a sponsor he , like many other martial artists of the era , was suffering from penury – his poverty was such that he had to accept help from his wife 's uncle Katsu Kaishū in constructing a residence . He began organising gekiken kogyo ( 撃剣興行 , " sword combat performances " ) , feeling that such public competitions would instil an appreciation for the art of the swordsman in their audiences . He started an organisation called the Gekken Kaisha ( 撃剣会社 , " Fencing Society " ) , which , inspired by the popularity of sumo wrestling , organised these contests . The first public kogyo organised by Sakakibara 's group took place in April 1873 , and lasted for over a week . Other martial artists , witnessing the success of the Gekken Kaisha , followed suit .
As part of his public performances Sakakibara occasionally demonstrated a tameshigiri technique called kabuto wari ( 兜割り , " helmet breaking " ) , which involved slicing through a steel helmet with a single stroke of the sword . In 1887 he performed this before the Emperor Meiji , as part of a demonstration organised by one of the Emperor 's relatives . Of the three sword masters present who attempted this cut , Sakakibara was the only one to succeed in cutting the helmet , despite the fact that he had been unable to make the cut in practice attempts .
Despite the success of the gekiken kogyo performances , in his later years Sakakibara regretted their development . In his view , the rules and strictures of gekiken were perverting kenjutsu into new forms that were no longer relevant to battlefield combat . He disdained the point @-@ scoring swordsmanship of other kendoka of his era , ignoring light touches by his opponents in order to deliver his own powerful strikes . Nonetheless , the gekiken kogyo practices which he began created an interest in fencing which led ultimately to the development of modern kendo .
In his later years Sakakibara returned to coach and train in his dojo in Kurumazaka , after trying his hand unsuccessfully at running a kōdan ( 講談 , " storytelling " ) theatre and an izakaya ( 居酒屋 ) ( bar ) . Those who trained at the Kurumazaka dojo included Naitō Takaharu , who was to become head of the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai , and foreigners such as Austrian ambassador and fencing expert Heinrich von Siebold , and German Erwin Bälz , physician to the Japanese Imperial Family . Takeda Sōkaku , the founder of Daitō @-@ ryū Aiki @-@ jūjutsu , also studied with Sakakibara at Kurumazaka .
On New Year 's Day of 1894 , Sakakibara passed on the Jikishinkage headmastership to his disciple Jirōkichi Yamada . Sakakibara died of heart failure due to beriberi on 11 September the same year , at the age of 63 . He was entombed at Saiō @-@ ji temple Yotsuya , Tokyo and given the posthumous Buddhist name Gikōin Jōzan Yamatoō Koji ( 義光院杖山倭翁居士 ) . In 2003 he was inducted into the All Japan Kendo Federation 's Kendo Hall of Fame ( 剣道殿堂 ) .
= Kingdom of Sicily =
The Kingdom of Sicily ( Sicilian : Regnu di Sicilia , Italian : Regno di Sicilia , Latin : Regnum Siciliae , Catalan : Regne de Sicília , Spanish : Reino de Sicilia ) was a state that existed in the south of the Apennine peninsula from its founding by Roger II in 1130 until 1816 , much prior to the existence of a nation of ' Italy ' . It was a successor state of the County of Sicily , which had been founded in 1071 during the Norman conquest of the southern peninsula . Until 1282 the Kingdom ( sometimes called the regnum Apuliae et Siciliae , " Kingdom of Apulia and Sicily " ) covered not only the island of Sicily , but also the whole Mezzogiorno region of the southern Appenines and the Maltese archipelago . The island was divided into three regions : Val di Mazara , Val Demone and Val di Noto ; ' val ' being the Arabic word meaning ' district ' .
In 1282 , a revolt
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against Angevin rule , known as the Sicilian Vespers , threw off Charles of Anjou 's rule of the island of Sicily . The Angevins managed to maintain control in the mainland part of the kingdom , which became a separate entity also styled Kingdom of Sicily , although it is commonly referred to as the Kingdom of Naples , after its capital . The island became a separate kingdom under the Crown of Aragon . After 1302 the island kingdom was sometimes called the Kingdom of Trinacria . Often the kingship was vested in another monarch such as the King of Aragon , the King of Spain or the Holy Roman Emperor . In 1816 the island Kingdom of Sicily merged with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . In 1861 its areas were subsumed with Sardinia and several northern city @-@ states and duchies to form the Kingdom of Sardinia which renamed itself the Kingdom of Italy .
= = History = =
= = = Norman conquest = = =
By the 11th century mainland southern Apennine powers were hiring Norman mercenaries , who were descendants of the Vikings ; it was the Normans under Roger I who conquered Sicily , taking it away from the Arab Muslims . After taking Apulia and Calabria , Roger occupied Messina with an army of 700 knights . In 1068 , Roger I of Sicily and his men defeated the Muslims at Misilmeri but the most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo , which led to Sicily being completely under Norman control by 1091 .
= = = Norman kingdom = = =
The Norman Kingdom was created on Christmas Day , 1130 , by Roger II of Sicily , with the agreement of Pope Innocent II , who united the lands Roger had inherited from his father Roger I of Sicily . These areas included the Maltese Archipelago , which was conquered from the Arabs of the Emirates of Sicily ; the Duchy of Apulia and the County of Sicily , which had belonged to his cousin William II , Duke of Apulia , until William 's death in 1127 ; and the other Norman vassals . Roger threw his support behind the Antipope Anacletus II , who enthroned him as King of Sicily on Christmas Day 1130 .
In 1136 , the rival of Anacletus , Pope Innocent II , convinced Lothair III , Holy Roman Emperor to attack the Kingdom of Sicily with help from the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus . Two main armies , one led by Lothair , the other by Duke of Bavaria Henry the Proud , invaded Sicily . On the river Tronto , William of Loritello surrendered to Lothair and opened the gates of Termoli to him . This was followed by Count Hugh II of Molise . The two armies were united at Bari , from where in 1137 they continued their campaign . Roger offered to give Apulia as a fief to the Empire , which Lothair refused after being pressured by Innocent . At the same period the army of Lothair revolted .
Then Lothair , who had hoped for the complete conquest of Sicily , gave Capua and Apulia from the Kingdom of Sicily to Roger 's enemies . Innocent protested , claiming that Apulia fell under papal claims . Lothair turned north , but died while crossing the Alps on December 4 , 1137 . At the Second Council of the Lateran in April 1139 , Innocent excommunicated Roger for maintaining a schismatic attitude . On March 22 , 1139 , at Galluccio , Roger 's son Roger III , Duke of Apulia ambushed the papal troops with a thousand knights and captured the pope . On March 25 , 1139 , Innocent was forced to acknowledge the kingship and possessions of Roger with the Treaty of Mignano .
Roger spent most of the decade , beginning with his coronation and ending with the Assizes of Ariano , enacting a series of laws with which Roger intended to centralise the government , fending off multiple invasions and quelling rebellions by his premier vassals : Grimoald of Bari , Robert II of Capua , Ranulf of Alife , Sergius VII of Naples and others .
It was through his admiral George of Antioch that Roger then proceeded to conquer the Mahdia in Africa ( Ifriqiya ) , taking the unofficial title " King of Africa " . At the same time Roger 's fleet attacked the Byzantine Empire , making Sicily the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean Sea for almost a century .
Roger 's son and successor was William I of Sicily , known as " William the Bad " , though his nickname derived primarily from his lack of popularity with the chroniclers , who supported the baronial revolts which William suppressed . His reign ended in peace ( 1166 ) , but his son , William II , was a minor . Until the end of the boy 's regency in 1172 , the kingdom saw turmoil which almost brought the ruling family down . The reign of William II is remembered as two decades of almost continual peace and prosperity . For this more than anything , he is nicknamed " the Good " . He died in 1189 without having heirs , which led the kingdom to decline .
Tancred of Lecce seized the throne but had to contend with the revolt of his distant cousin Roger of Andria and the invasion of Henry VI , Holy Roman Emperor on behalf of his wife , Constance , the daughter of Roger II . Constance and Henry eventually prevailed and the kingdom fell in 1194 to the House of Hohenstaufen . Through Constance , the Hauteville blood was passed to Frederick II , Holy Roman Emperor .
= = = Hohenstaufen kingdom = = =
The accession of Frederick , a child who would then become also the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in 1197 , greatly affected the immediate future of Sicily . For a land so used to centralised royal authority , the king 's young age caused a serious power vacuum . His uncle Philip of Swabia moved to secure Frederick 's inheritance by appointing Markward von Anweiler , margrave of Ancona , regent in 1198 . Meanwhile , Pope Innocent III had reasserted papal authority in Sicily , but recognised Frederick 's rights . The pope was to see papal power decrease steadily over the next decade and was unsure about which side to back at many junctures .
The Hohenstaufen 's grip on power , however , was not secure . Walter III of Brienne had married the daughter of Tancred of Sicily . She was sister and heiress of the deposed King William III of Sicily . In 1201 William decided to claim the kingdom . In 1202 , an army led by the chancellor Walter of Palearia and Dipold of Vohburg was defeated by Walter III of Brienne . Markward was killed , and Frederick fell under the control of William of Capparone , an ally of the Pisans . Dipold continued the war against Walter on the mainland until the claimant 's death in 1205 . Dipold finally wrested Frederick from Capparone in 1206 and gave him over to the guardianship of the chancellor , Walter of Palearia . Walter and Dipold then had a falling out , and the latter captured the royal palace , where he was besieged and captured by Walter in 1207 . After a decade , the wars over the regency and the throne itself had ceased .
The reform of the laws began with the Assizes of Ariano in 1140 by Roger II . Frederick continued the reformation with the Assizes of Capua ( 1220 ) and the promulgation of the Constitutions of Melfi ( 1231 , also known as Liber Augustalis ) , a collection of laws for his realm that was remarkable for its time . The Constitutions of Melfi were created in order to establish a centralized state . For example , citizens were not allowed to carry weapons or wear armour in public unless they were under royal command . As a result , rebellions were reduced . The Constitutions made the Kingdom of Sicily an absolute monarchy , the first centralized state in Europe to emerge from feudalism ; it also set a precedent for the primacy of written law . With relatively small modifications , the Liber Augustalis remained the basis of Sicilian law until 1819 . During this period , he also built the Castel del Monte , and in 1224 , he founded the University of Naples , now called Università Federico II . It remained the sole athenaeum of southern Italy for centuries .
After the death of Frederick , the Kingdom was ruled by Henry VII of Germany and Conrad IV of Germany . The next legitimate heir was Conrad II , who was too young at the period to rule . Manfred of Sicily , the illegitimate son of Frederick , took the power and ruled the kingdom for fifteen years while other Hohenstaufen heirs were ruling various areas in Germany . After long wars against the Papal States , the Kingdom managed to defend its possessions , but the Papacy declared the Kingdom escheated because of disloyalty of the Hohenstaufen . Under this pretext he came to an agreement with Louis IX , King of France . Louis 's brother , Charles of Anjou , would become king of Sicily . In exchange , Charles recognized the overlordship of the Pope in the Kingdom , paid a portion of the papal debt , and agreed to pay annual tribute to the Papal States . The Hohenstaufen rule in Sicily ended after the 1266 Angevin invasion and the death of Conradin , the last male heir of Hohenstaufen , in 1268 .
= = = Angevin Sicily = = =
In 1266 , conflict between the Hohenstaufen house and the Papacy led to Sicily 's conquest by Charles I , Duke of Anjou . With the usurpation of the Sicilian throne from Conradin by Manfred of Sicily in 1258 , the relationship between the Papacy and the Hohenstaufen had changed again . Instead of the boy Conradin , safely sequestered across the Alps , the Papacy now faced an able military leader who had greatly supported the Ghibelline cause at the battle of Montaperti in 1260 . Accordingly , when negotiations broke down with Manfred in 1262 , Pope Urban IV again took up the scheme of disseising the Hohenstaufen from the kingdom , and offered the crown to Charles of Anjou again . With Papal and Guelph support Charles descended into Italy and defeated Manfred at the battle of Benevento in 1266 and in 1268 Conradin at the battle of Taglicozzo .
Opposition to French officialdom and taxation combined with incitement of rebellion by agents from the Crown of Aragon and the Byzantine Empire led to the successful insurrection of the Sicilian Vespers followed by the invitation and intervention by king Peter III of Aragon in 1282 . The resulting War of the Sicilian Vespers lasted until the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302 , dividing the old Kingdom of Sicily in two . The island of Sicily , called the " Kingdom of Sicily beyond the Lighthouse " or the Kingdom of Trinacria , went to Frederick III of the house of Aragon , who had been ruling it . The peninsular territories ( the Mezzogiorno ) , contemporaneously called Kingdom of Sicily but called Kingdom of Naples by modern scholarship , went to Charles II of the house of Anjou , who had likewise been ruling it . Thus , the peace was formal recognition of an uneasy status quo . The division in the kingdom became permanent in 1372 , with the Treaty of Villeneuve . Though the king of Spain was able to seize both crowns in the 16th century , the administrations of the two halves of the Kingdom of Sicily remained separated until 1816 , when they were reunited in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies .
= = = The insular kingdom of Sicily under the Crown of Aragon and Spain = = =
Sicily was ruled as an independent kingdom by relatives or cadet branch of the house of Aragon until 1409 and thence as part of the Crown of Aragon . The Kingdom of Naples was ruled by the Angevin ruler René of Anjou until the two thrones were reunited by Alfonso V of Aragon , after the successful siege of Naples and the defeat of René on June 6 , 1443 . Eventually , Alfonso of Aragon divided the two kingdoms during his rule . He gave the rule of Naples to his illegitimate son Ferdinand I of Naples , who ruled from 1458 to 1494 , and the rest of the Crown of Aragon and Sicily to Alfonso 's brother John II of Aragon . From 1494 to 1503 successive kings of France Charles VIII and Louis XII , who were heirs of Angevins , tried to conquer Naples ( see Italian Wars ) but failed . Eventually the Kingdom of Naples was reunited with the Crown of Aragon . The titles were held by the Aragonese kings of the Crown of Aragon until the end of the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg in 1700 .
= = = Malta under the Knights = = =
In 1530 , in an effort to protect Rome from Ottoman invasion from the south , Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor , as Charles I of Spain , gave the Islands of Malta and Gozo to the Knights Hospitaller in perpetual fiefdom , in exchange for an annual fee of two Maltese falcons , which they were to send on All Souls ' Day to the Viceroy of Sicily . The Maltese Islands had formed part of the County , and later the Kingdom of Sicily , since 1091 . The feudal relationship between Malta and the Kingdom of Sicily was continued throughout the rule of the Knights , until the French occupation of Malta in 1798 .
The occupation was not recognized , and Malta was de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily from 1798 to 1814 . After the Maltese rebellion against the French , Malta was under British protection until it became a British crown colony in 1813 . This was officially recognized by the Treaty of Paris of 1814 , which marked the end of Malta 's 700 @-@ year relationship with Sicily .
= = = The War of the Spanish Succession = = =
From 1713 until 1720 the Kingdom of Sicily was ruled briefly by the House of Savoy , which had received it by the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht , which brought an end to the War of the Spanish Succession . The kingdom was a reward to the Savoyards , who were thus elevated to royal rank . The new king , Victor Amadeus II , travelled to Sicily in 1713 and remained a year before returning to his mainland capital , Turin , where his son the Prince of Piedmont had been acting as regent . In Spain the results of the war had not been truly accepted , and the War of the Quadruple Alliance was the result . Sicily was occupied by Spain in 1718 . When it became evident that Savoy had not the strength to defend as remote a country as Sicily , Austria stepped in and exchanged its Kingdom of Sardinia for Sicily . Victor Amadeus protested this exchange , Sicily being a rich country of over one million inhabitants and Sardinia a poor country of a few hundred thousand , but he was unable to resist his " allies " . Spain was finally defeated in 1720 , and the Treaty of the Hague ratified the changeover . Sicily belonged to the Austrian Habsburgs , who already ruled Naples . Victor Amadeus , for his part , continued to protest for three years , and only in 1723 decided to recognize the exchange and desist from using the Sicilian royal title and its subsidiary titles ( such as King of Cyprus and Jerusalem ) .
= = = The Tunisian @-@ Sicilian War = = =
The Tunisian @-@ Sicilian War occurred between June 1801 and April 1804 , when Tunisian pirates with Tunisian and Algerian military support attacked and captured several Sicilian ships . The main purpose of their attacks was to capture Christian @-@ European slaves for the Muslim @-@ Arab slave market in North Africa . The Sicilians defeated the forces of Tunis and then occupied Bizerte and La Goulette until 1808 .
= = = The two kingdoms under the house of Bourbon of Spain = = =
In 1735 , Naples and Sicily were reconquered by King Philip V of Spain , a Bourbon , who installed his younger son , Duke Charles of Parma , as King Charles VII of Naples and Sicily , starting a cadet branch of the house of Bourbon . In 1799 Napoleon conquered Naples , governed by Ferdinand IV of Naples ( later Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies ) at the time . It was formed into the Parthenopaean Republic with French support . Under British pressure , especially from Lord William Bentinck , who was commander of British troops in Sicily , Naples was then handed back to Ferdinand , being forced to create a constitution for the Kingdom of Sicily .
A two @-@ chamber parliament in Palermo and in Naples was formed . The formation of the parliament brought the end of feudalism in the Kingdom . After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 Ferdinand repealed all reforms . The people of Sicily rebelled but were defeated by Spanish and Austrian forces . In 1848 another Sicilian revolution of independence occurred , which was put down by Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies , who was surnamed Re Bomba after his 5 @-@ day bombardment of Messina . From 1816 to 1861 the kingdoms were united under the name Kingdom of the Two Sicilies .
= = = Unification with the Kingdom of Italy = = =
On April 4 , 1860 a revolt against the Bourbon regime broke out . Giuseppe Garibaldi assisted the revolt with his forces , launching the so @-@ called Expedition of the Thousand . He arrived at Marsala on May 11 , 1860 with 1 @,@ 000 Redshirts . Garibaldi announced that he was assuming dictatorship over Sicily in the name of King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia . On May 15 , the Redshirts fought the Battle of Calatafimi and within weeks Palermo was freed . Francis II of the Two Sicilies tried to regain control of the Kingdom . On June 25 , 1860 he restored the constitution of the Kingdom , adopted the Italian tricolour as the national flag , and promised special institutions for the Kingdom .
On October 21 , 1860 a plebiscite regarding the unification with Italy was conducted . An overwhelming majority of the Kingdom 's voters ( 99 % ) favored unification : most Sicilians viewed the unification as acceptance of the House of Savoy , in which belonged Victor Emmanuel II , the first king of Italy .
= = Society = =
During the Norman Kingdom of Sicily , the local communities maintained their privileges . The rulers of the Hohenstaufen Kingdom replaced the local nobility with lords from northern Italy , leading to clashes and rebellions against the new nobility in many cities and rural communities . These revolts resulted in the destruction of many agrarian areas and the rise of middle class nationalism , which eventually led to urban dwellers becoming allies of the Aragonese . This situation was continued during the short rule of the Angevin until their overthrowing during the Sicilian Vespers . The Angevin began feudalising the country , increasing the power of the nobility by granting them jurisdiction over high justice . During the 15th century due to the isolation of the Kingdom , the Renaissance had no impact on it .
At the same period the feudalisation of the Kingdom of Sicily was intensified , through the enforcement of feudal bonds and relations among its subjects . In 1669 the eruption of Mount Etna destroyed Catania . In 1693 , 5 % of the Kingdom 's population was killed because of earthquakes . In that period there were also plague outbreaks . The 17th and 18th century were an era of decline of the Kingdom . Corruption was prevalent among the upper and middle classes of the society . Widespread corruption and maltreatment of the lower classes by the feudal lords led to the creation of groups of brigands , attacking the nobility and destroying their fiefs . These groups which were self @-@ named " Mafia " , were the foundation of the modern Mafia . The escalation of revolts against the monarchy eventually led to the unification with Italy .
= = Demographics = =
During the reign of Frederick II the kingdom had a population of about 2 @.@ 5 million . During the Hohenstaufen era , the Kingdom had 3 towns with a population of over 20 @,@ 000 each . After the loss of the northern provinces in 1282 during the Sicilian Vespers and several natural disasters like the eruption of Mount Etna in 1669 , the population of the Kingdom of Sicily was reduced . In 1803 the population of the Kingdom was 1 @,@ 656 @,@ 000 . The main cities of the Kingdom at that period were Palermo , Catania , Messina , Modica , Syracuse .
= = Economy = =
The high fertility of the land led the Norman kings to bring settlers from neighbouring regions or to resettle farmers to areas where cultivation of land was needed . This led to increase of agrarian production . The main sources of wealth for the Kingdom of Sicily at that period were its maritime cities , most important of which were Naples and Amalfi , from which local products were exported . The main export was hard grain , with other products exported including nuts , timber , oil , bacon , cheese , skins , hides , hemp and cloth . Grain and other dry products were measured in salme , which was equivalent to 275 @.@ 08 litres in the western part of the Kingdom , and 3 @.@ 3 litres in the eastern part . The salma was divided in 16 tumoli . One tumolo was equivalent to 17 @,@ 193 litres . Weight was measured in cantari . One cantaro was equivalent to 79 @.@ 35 kilograms ( 174 @.@ 9 lb ) and was divided in one hundred rottoli . Cloth was measured in canne . One canna was 2 @.@ 06 meters long . By the end of the 12th century Messina had become one of the leading commercial cities of the kingdom .
Under the Kingdom , Sicily 's products went to many different lands . Among these were Genoa , Pisa , the Byzantine Empire , and Egypt . Over the course of the 12th century , Sicily became an important source of raw materials for north Italian cities such as Genoa . As the centuries went on , however , this economic relationship became less advantageous to Sicily , and some modern scholars see the relationship as frankly exploitative . Furthermore , many scholars believe that Sicily went into decline in the late Middle Ages , though they are not agreed on when this decline occurred . Clifford Backman argues that it is a mistake to see the economic history of Sicily in terms of victimization , and contends that the decline really began in the second part of the reign of Frederick III , in contrast to earlier scholars who believed that Sicilian decline had set in earlier . Where earlier scholars saw late medieval Sicily in continuous decline , Stephen Epstein argued that Sicilian society experienced something of a revival in the 15th century .
Various treaties with Genoa secured and strengthened the commercial power of Sicily .
The feudalising of the society during the Angevin rule reduced royal wealth and treasury . The dependence of the Angevin on north Italian commerce and financing by Florentine bankers were the main factors which led to the decline of the Kingdom 's economy . The continuation of the economic decline combined with the increased population and urbanization led to decrease of agrarian production .
In 1800 one @-@ third of the available crops was cultivated , with obsolete cultivation methods escalating the problem . In the later period of Spanish rule the trading system was also inefficient in comparison with previous periods because of high taxes on exports and monopolising corporations which had total control of prices .
= = Coinage = =
The Norman kings in the 12th century used the tari , which had been used in Sicily from 913 as the basic coin . One tari weighed about one gram and was 16 1 ⁄ 3 carats of gold . The Arab dinar was worth four tari , and the Byzantine solidus six tari . In the kingdom one onza was equivalent to thirty tari or five florins . One tari was worth twenty grani . One grana was equivalent to six denari . After 1140 the circulation of the copper coin romesina stopped and it was replaced by the follaris . Twenty four follari were equivalent to one Byzantine miliaresion .
After defeating the Tunisians in 1231 Frederick II , Holy Roman Emperor minted the augustalis . It was minted in 21 1 ⁄ 2 carats and weighed 5 @.@ 28 grams . In 1490 the triumphi were minted in Sicily . They were equivalent to the Venetian ducat . One triumpho was worth 11 1 ⁄ 2 aquilae . One aquila was worth twenty grani . In transactions tari and pichuli were mainly used .
= = Religion = =
During the Norman reign , several different religious communities coexisted in the Kingdom of Sicily . They were : Latin Christians ( Roman Catholics ) , Greek @-@ speaking Christians ( Eastern Orthodox ) , Muslims and Jews . Although local religious practices were not interrupted , the fact that Latin Christians were in power tended to favor Latin Christianity ( Roman Catholicism ) . Bishops of the Eastern Orthodox rite were obliged to recognize the claims of the Latin Church in Sicily , while Muslim communities were no longer ruled by local emirs . Greek @-@ speaking Christians , Latin Christians , and Muslims interacted on a regular basis , and were involved in each other 's lives , economically , linguistically , and culturally . Some intermarried . Christians living in an Arabic @-@ speaking area might adopt Arabic or even Muslim names . In many cities , each religious community had its own administrative and judicial order . In Palermo , Muslims were allowed to publicly call for prayer in mosques , and their legal issues were settled by qadis , judges who ruled in accordance with Islamic law .
After the establishment of Hohenstaufen authority Latin- and Greek @-@ speaking Christians maintained their privileges , but the Muslim population was increasingly oppressed . The settlements of Italians brought from northern Italy ( who wanted Muslim property for their own ) led many Muslim communities to revolt or resettle in mountainous areas of Sicily . These revolts resulted in some acts of violence , and the eventual deportation of Muslims , which began under Frederick II . Eventually , the government removed the entire Muslim population to Lucera in Apulia and Girifalco in Calabria , where they paid taxes and served as agricultural laborers , craftsmen , and crossbowmen for the benefit of the king . The colony at Lucera was finally disbanded in 1300 under Charles II of Naples , and many of its inhabitants sold into slavery . The Jewish community was expelled after the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition from 1493 to 1513 in Sicily . The remaining Jews were gradually assimilated , and most of them converted to Roman Catholicism .
= Stan Walters =
Stanley Peter Walters , Jr . ( born May 27 , 1948 ) is a former professional American football offensive tackle . After playing college football for Syracuse , he was drafted by the Cincinnati Bengals in the ninth round of the 1972 NFL Draft . He spent three years with the Bengals , starting at left tackle for the majority of his tenure , before he was traded to the Philadelphia Eagles in 1975 . A two @-@ time Pro Bowl selection with the Eagles , Walters started in 122 consecutive games at left tackle in his nine years with the team . Following his retirement , he was a radio color commentator for the Eagles from 1984 through 1997 .
= = Early years = =
Walters grew up a New York Giants fan in Rutherford , New Jersey . His father worked as a machinist in Jersey City , New Jersey . Walters attended St. Mary High School in Rutherford , where he lettered in football and basketball .
= = College career = =
Walters was a two @-@ year letterman in football for Syracuse University , and started at left guard in his senior season in 1971 . He participated in the Senior Bowl in 1971 . He majored in history at Syracuse . He was selected to the Syracuse All @-@ Century team in 1999 .
= = Professional career = =
Walters was selected by the Cincinnati Bengals in the ninth round ( 210th overall ) of the 1972 NFL Draft . He began the 1972 season on the team 's taxi squad , and he was promoted to the starting roster midway through the season owing to an injury to starter Rufus Mayes . Walters started the remaining eight games of the season at left offensive tackle . An unknown illness in 1973 resulted in his losing 14 pounds in a ten @-@ day span and missing a game against the Cleveland Browns on October 6 . He played in only four games that season . He returned as a starter in 1974 and played in all fourteen games .
The Bengals traded Walters and quarterback Wayne Clark to the Philadelphia Eagles in exchange for quarterback John Reaves and a 1976 second @-@ round draft pick ( which was used on guard Glenn Bujnoch ) on July 3 , 1975 . Walters considered a meeting with head coach Dick Vermeil before the 1976 season as the critical moment in his playing career . Vermeil , who had just been hired by the Eagles , told Walters that if he did not start playing better he would be released . Walters said , " It shook me up . It definitely made a difference . " He started in every game from 1975 through 1982 at left tackle . Harvey Martin , a defensive end who played for the Dallas Cowboys and frequently played against Walters , called Walters the smartest offensive tackle in the league during his career .
Walters earned two consecutive Pro Bowl selections , in 1978 and 1979 . In 1979 , Walters blocked for running back Wilbert Montgomery , who rushed for a team @-@ record 1 @,@ 512 yards . In 1980 he did not allow any sacks as the team 's largest player at 275 pounds ( 125 kg ) . He injured his back in the first half of the 1981 NFC Championship Game against the Dallas Cowboys , but took a painkiller shot to go back into the game to help the team rush for 263 yards and advance to the Super Bowl . Walters played in Super Bowl XV against the Oakland Raiders . The Eagles lost the game , 27 – 10 . Walters was limited by a strained knee in the beginning of the 1981 season .
Walters re @-@ signed with the Eagles before training camp in 1983 . He played in the first preseason game against the Detroit Lions , but had to leave the game due to an injury . Three days later , on August 8 , he announced his retirement from football , saying " After 12 years of playing in the NFL , I earned the right to go to my head coach and just say I 've fought my battle . It 's over . " However , when his replacement , Dean Miraldi , suffered a sprained knee in the next preseason game , Walters ended his week @-@ long retirement to re @-@ join the Eagles on August 15 . The contract offered to him included a clause that the organization would put up a barn next to his house . He re @-@ injured his knee against the St. Louis Cardinals on September 25 and had to leave the game . Before the November 20 game against the New York Giants , Walters was benched , along with four other starters , by head coach Marion Campbell in an attempt to rejuvenate the team with younger players after five straight losses . He finished the season with ten starts in twelve games . He ended a streak of 122 consecutive starts at left tackle for the Eagles during the 1983 season .
In 1991 , Walters was inducted in the Philadelphia Eagles Ring of Honor with fellow offensive tackle Jerry Sisemore .
= = After football = =
After retiring from football again after the 1983 season , Walters worked alongside Merrill Reese as a radio color commentator for the Eagles from 1984 to 1997 before he moved to Cobham , England when his wife , Kathy , got transferred in her job in the paper industry . The couple had previously lived in Alpharetta , Georgia . He and his wife lived in England for five years while Walters raised their two children . As of November 2010 , Walters resides in Atlanta , Georgia .
= 2nd Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2nd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . It was initially raised for service during the First World War as part the Australian Imperial Force and saw action at Gallipoli before being sent to the Western Front in mid @-@ 1916 , where it spent the next two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years taking part in the fighting in the trenches of France and Belgium . Following the conclusion of hostilities , the battalion was disbanded in early 1919 as part of the demobilisation process .
In 1921 , the battalion was re @-@ raised as a part @-@ time unit of the Citizens Forces based in Newcastle , New South Wales , drawing lineage from a number of previously existing infantry units . They remained in existence until 1929 when , due to austerity measures during the Great Depression and manpower shortages , the battalion was amalgamated with two other infantry battalions over the course of a number of re @-@ organisations . It was re @-@ formed in 1939 and undertook garrison duty in Australia during the Second World War until 1943 when it was merged once again .
Following the end of the war , the 2nd Battalion was re @-@ raised as part of the Citizens Military Force in 1948 . In 1960 , it was reduced to a company @-@ level formation but was re @-@ formed as a battalion of the Royal New South Wales Regiment in 1965 . It remained on the Australian order of battle until 1987 when it was amalgamated with the 17th Battalion , to form the 2nd / 17th Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment , a unit which remains part of the Australian Army Reserve today .
= = History = =
= = = First World War = = =
= = = = Formation and training = = = =
The 2nd Battalion was raised at Randwick , New South Wales , in August 1914 as part of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , which was formed from volunteers for overseas service shortly after the outbreak of the First World War . Drawing the majority of its personnel from the Maitland , Newcastle and Hunter Valley regions of the state of New South Wales , the battalion formed part of the 1st Brigade and , along with the 1st , 3rd and 4th Battalions , it was one of the first infantry units raised by Australia following its entry into the war . Upon formation , the battalion was established with a complement of over 1 @,@ 000 men organised into a headquarters , a machine @-@ gun section of two heavy Maxim medium machine @-@ guns , and eight rifle companies , each consisting of three officers and 117 other ranks . The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel George Braund , a citizen soldier and Member of Parliament in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly , who held the seat of Armidale .
The physical standards under which the first contingent of the AIF was recruited were very strict , nevertheless by the end of August over 20 @,@ 000 men had been recruited into one infantry division — the 1st Division — and one light horse brigade , the 1st Light Horse Brigade . Following a brief period of training in Australia , the force set sail for the Middle East , assembling off Albany , Western Australia , in early November 1914 before leaving Australian waters , with the 2nd Battalion embarked upon the HMAT Suffolk .
Initially it had been planned that the Australians would be sent to the United Kingdom , where they would undertake further training prior to being sent to the Western Front in France and Belgium . However , the Ottoman Empire 's entry into the war on Germany 's side on 29 October meant that the strategically vital Suez Canal was threatened , and as a result of this and overcrowding in training grounds in the United Kingdom , upon the convoy reaching the Suez at the end of November , plans for the use of the Australian force were changed and they were disembarked in Egypt instead .
The 2nd Battalion arrived in Egypt on 2 December . The following month , it undertook further training along with the rest of the 1st Division . The battalion was also re @-@ organised into four companies , as the Australian Army converted to the new battalion structure that had been developed by the British Army . Although the battalion 's authorised strength remained the same , the eight companies were merged into four , each consisting of six officers and 221 other ranks .
In February 1915 , Ottoman Empire forces attacked the Suez Canal , and although some units of the 1st Division were put into the line , the 2nd Battalion was not required , and in the end the attack was turned back mainly by Indian units . Later , in an effort to open shipping lanes to the Russians and also knock the Turks out of the war , the British high command decided to land a force on the Gallipoli peninsula near the Dardanelles using mainly British , French and Indian troops along with the Australians and New Zealanders .
= = = = Gallipoli = = = =
During the Landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915 , the 2nd Battalion , under Braund 's command , came ashore in the second and third waves , landing a total of 31 officers and 937 other ranks . Upon landing , the 2nd Battalion dispatched two companies , ' A ' and ' D ' to assist the 3rd Brigade who were pushing inland towards a high feature known as " Baby 700 " , which overlooked the beachhead . One of the 2nd Battalion 's platoons , under Lieutenant Leslie Morshead , advanced further than any other Australian unit , making it to the slopes of Baby 700 , before a determined counter @-@ attack by Ottoman forces drove them back in the afternoon .
Meanwhile , the battalion 's other two companies , ' B ' and ' C ' , had been held back in reserve . In the early afternoon , Braund led them up the steep terrain under fire to the vital junction between two positions known as " Walker 's Ridge " and " Russell 's Top " . The battalion proceeded to hold this position until reinforcements arrived from the Wellington Battalion two days later , at which time the 2nd Battalion undertook a bayonet charge which cleared the crest of Russell 's Top . A determined enemy counter @-@ attack forced them back to the junction where they remained until 28 April when they were ordered into reserve on the beach .
In early May , part of the battalion was sent to reinforce the 3rd Battalion . At around midnight on the night of 3 / 4 May , the 2nd Battalion 's commanding officer , Braund , who was partially deaf , was accidentally killed as he attempted to visit 1st Brigade headquarters after failing to hear a challenge from a sentry , who shot him believing that he was an enemy soldier . Following his burial , the battalion second @-@ in @-@ command , Robert Scobie , was promoted to lieutenant colonel and took over as commanding officer .
Following the initial establishment of the beachhead , the campaign moved into a second phase as the Australians began work to consolidate and slowly expand their position around the lodgement . During this time , the fighting at Anzac evolved into largely static trench warfare . In mid @-@ May , however , the Turks decided to launch an attack on Anzac . This began late on 18 May with the heaviest artillery bombardment of the campaign to that point , during which the 2nd Battalion 's orderly room , located on " MacLaurin 's Hill " , was hit . The assault began the following day , during which the 2nd Battalion , established around a position known as the " Pimple " , was attacked by elements of the Ottoman 48th Regiment who poured into their forward positions through " Owen 's Gulley " , which rose as a re @-@ entrant between the 2nd Battalion 's position and that of 3rd Battalion which was on their left at the " Jolly " . At risk of having the line split in two and enduring heavy attack in their sap head , the 2nd called for reinforcements which came in the shape of artillerymen from the 8th Battery , who were pressed into the line as infantrymen . With only limited machine @-@ guns and with bad light hindering the supporting artillery , the job of turning back the Turkish assault fell to the riflemen and by maintaining strict fire discipline , great effect was achieved . By 24 May , the attack had been decisively defeated and a brief truce was called for both sides to bury the dead . Following this , the Ottoman forces around Anzac adopted a defensive posture . It was during this time , that one of the 2nd Battalion 's soldiers , Lance Corporal ( later Sergeant ) William Beech , invented the periscope rifle .
In early August , in order to create a diversion to draw Ottoman reserves away from a major attack at Hill 971 , which had been conceived as part of an attempt to break the stalemate that had developed around the beachhead , the 1st Brigade conducted an attack at Lone Pine . The 2nd Battalion was chosen to take part in the initial assault . After gaining possession of the main enemy line , the Australians were subjected to a series of determined counter @-@ attacks which would last the next three days , which , although successfully repulsed , proved very costly for the Australians . The 2nd Battalion suffered considerably . Having started the action with 22 officers and 560 other ranks , they lost 21 officers and 409 other ranks killed or wounded . Among those killed was its commanding officer , Scobie , who was shot dead while attempting to repulse a counter @-@ attack on 7 August . In Scobie 's place , the battalion second @-@ in @-@ command , Major Arthur Stevens , who had been a second lieutenant less than 12 months before , took over as temporary commander .
Elsewhere , the main offensive which had been launched at Hill 971 and Sari Bair , and the fresh landings that had taken place at Suvla Bay , also faltered . Ultimately , the August Offensive , of which the fighting at Lone Pine had been a part , failed to deliver the Sari Bair heights to the British Empire forces and their allies , nor did it break the deadlock . Following this , stalemate returned to the peninsula during September and October , and although small skirmishes continued , the Australians were mainly involved in defensive actions . As a result of the setback , many of the strategic goals that had been the basis of the campaign were abandoned and as a bitter winter set @-@ in in November , there was much debate among the British high command about the utility of continuing the campaign . In the intervening months , some personnel had been shifted away from Gallipoli as other the situation in other theatres became more relevant , and in late November , Lord Kitchener toured the peninsula . Finally , on 8 December , the order to begin the evacuation was given . The evacuation , which has been described as " more brilliantly conducted ... than any other phase of the campaign " , took place in stages , and with the maintenance of secrecy a key consideration , a series of " ruses " were used to conceal the withdrawal . Each unit left in drafts , maintaining a presence along the line until the very end . Finally , just before dawn on 20 December , the evacuation was complete . A small element from the 2nd Battalion was among the last Australian troops to leave , with a group of 64 men remaining in possession of the " Black Hand " position until 2 : 50 am on the final morning .
= = = = Egypt = = = =
Following the withdrawal from Gallipoli , the AIF returned to Egypt where they underwent a period of re @-@ organisation . Part of this saw the influx of large numbers of reinforcements and the expansion of the AIF . The 2nd Division had been formed in July 1915 , and part of this had been dispatched to Gallipoli in the later stages of the campaign , but the large increase in volunteers in Australia meant that further plans for expansion could take place . The 3rd Division was raised in Australia , while two new divisions , the 4th and 5th Divisions , were raised in Egypt from reinforcements in holding depots and experienced cadre personnel which were drawn from the infantry battalions of the 1st Division . In this regard , the 1st Brigade helped raise the 14th Brigade , with personnel from the 2nd Battalion being transferred to the 54th Battalion ; the split occurring while the battalion was at Tel el Kebir on 14 February . They were quickly brought up to full strength and training began shortly afterwards .
Earlier in the month , Stevens was promoted to lieutenant colonel and placed in substantive command of the battalion ; he would subsequently lead them through to November 1916 . Around this time , the units of the 1st Division , of which the 2nd Battalion was a part , became part of the larger I Anzac Corps , and in early March , this corps embarked for France – the 2nd Battalion leaving from Alexandria on the SS Ivernia – where they were to take part in the fighting on the European battlefield .
= = = = Western Front = = = =
After being landed in Marseilles , they proceeded north by railway to staging areas near Hazebrouck . Shortly afterwards , on 7 April , the units of I Anzac Corps were assigned to a " quiet " sector of the line near Armentières to gain experience of trench warfare . Due to concerns about a German attack , almost immediately the Australians set to work to improve the defences around their position . It had been hoped by the high command to initially keep the Australian presence a secret in order to gain some advantage from it , however , on 23 April it became apparent that the Germans had become aware of their arrival when a signal lamp flashed a message in Morse code from the trench opposite the 2nd Battalion 's position stating , " Australians go home " . To this , the Australians , despite orders against responding , replied matter @-@ of @-@ factly , " Why ? "
In June , during a brief period away from the line in billets , the battalion , along with the rest of the 1st Brigade , was reviewed by the Australian prime minister , Billy Hughes near Fleurbaix . Following this , although several units from I Anzac Corps took part in a number of raids against the German line during late June and early July , the 2nd Battalion was not involved and as such , apart from experiencing some enemy shelling , the 2nd Battalion 's first significant action came at Pozières in July 1916 . The battalion entered the line on the night of 19 / 20 July as the 1st was sent forward to relieve the British 68th Brigade along with the 3rd Brigade ; just after midnight the 2nd Battalion , after an approach march over which they had endured gas attack , arrived at its position opposite the south @-@ western side of the village .
On 23 July , following an intense artillery barrage , the attack began . Leaving their form @-@ up point near the " Chalk Pit " , the 2nd Battalion , which had been allocated the position of the left forward battalion in the assault with the 1st Battalion on their right and the 4th Battalion following them up , moved out into no man 's land just after midnight . A short time afterwards a flare was fired from the German lines followed by sporadic rifle and machine @-@ gun fire , which was directed somewhere away from the battalion 's axis @-@ of @-@ advance . As they advanced over the broken ground , suddenly a sentry called out a challenge and the entire battalion froze , but when firing broke out it became clear that it was directed away to their right towards the 3rd Brigade who were advancing over open ground . Advancing beneath the supporting barrage , under the direction of their officers whose job it was to ensure that they did not get ahead of the creeping artillery , the battalion probed forward trying to locate the enemy defences , finally finding an abandoned trench located amongst a group of tree stumps . After striking the railway , they began to dig @-@ in just beyond it to secure the left flank , as the 3rd and 4th Battalions passed between them and advanced to secure the brigade 's front along the line of the main Bapaume road . Following this , the 2nd Battalion maintained the left @-@ most position on the brigade line , with its pits curling around the left flank and folding in behind the 4th Battalion 's position .
The Germans put in a determined counter @-@ attack at dawn with a whole battalion , which was turned back after a stiff fight . That night , reinforcements were brought up from the 2nd Brigade , and early in the morning on 24 July the Germans opened up with a devastating artillery barrage . On 25 July , the men of the 2nd Battalion , having suffered terribly in the open trenches , were relieved by the 7th Battalion . During the operations around Pozières , the battalion lost 10 officers and 500 men killed or wounded .
After this , they were sent to Pernois for rest and re @-@ organisation , and after being brought back up to about two @-@ thirds strength , the 2nd Battalion 's next involvement in the fighting came around Mouquet Farm when they were briefly put into the line on 18 / 19 August to provide reinforcement , before being quickly relieved a few days later . In early September , I Anzac Corps was transferred from the Somme region to Ypres , in Belgium , swapping with the Canadians for a rest . Taking up a position north of the Ypres – Commines canal , the battalions of the 1st Division were placed in the centre of the line between those of the 4th , on the right to the south , and the 2nd on the left , to the north . The sector was a relatively quiet one , although not without its dangers due to constant mortar attacks , sniping , and the need to maintain patrols in no man 's land . Nevertheless , duties in this time were focused mainly upon maintaining a defensive presence in the line and rebuilding the defences . In addition , a number of small @-@ scale raids were also undertaken in an effort to draw some attention away from the fighting that was occurring on the Somme .
On 6 October , in concert with three parties from the 1st Battalion , the 2nd carried out a minor raid on a German position to the north @-@ east of a position known as " The Bluff " in order to gain intelligence . After encountering a German patrol , they were forced to abandon their attempt , however , a short time later , one of their own patrols captured a German soldier from the 414th Infantry Regiment in no man 's land . The next week , on 12 October , just after 6 : 00 pm a small party moved out into no man 's land to raid another German position near The Bluff . After being spotted , they were subjected to several grenade attacks , forcing them to retire . Their covering force was already in position , however , and so a number of the attacking force joined them and together , at 6 : 30 pm , after a box barrage by the artillery had cut the wire in front of the German position , they entered it . Killing seven Germans , they overcame the enemy resistance and brought back two defenders as prisoners . On the way back , several of their own wounded became lost , although all except one of these men were later recovered . The other man , one of the officers , was later found to have died of his wounds . In total the raid had cost the battalion two killed and seven wounded .
After this , the units of I Anzac Corps returned to the Somme , to relieve units of the Fourth Army , which had managed to push their lines to a position just below the Bapaume heights throughout September . The 2nd Battalion was not involved in any major actions during this time , although elements from the 1st Brigade — specifically the 1st Battalion with support from the 3rd — put in an attack on a salient that had developed in the front line north of Gueudecourt , which failed amid exceptionally muddy conditions .
Winter began to set in at this point , and even though combat operations all but ceased during this time , the battalion endured considerable hardships amid snow and rain , in a sector that has been described as " the worst ... of the sodden front " . For a brief period during December , Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Blamey commanded the battalion before taking over as acting commander of the 1st Brigade . During this time , the battalion was reorganised as part of a wider @-@ Army restructure that resulted in an attempt to increase the firepower of the each platoon . Earlier in the year , the battalion machine @-@ gun section had been deleted and replaced by a single Lewis gun held within each company ; by end of the year this had been increased to one Lewis per platoon .
As 1917 began with the Allies making fresh plans , the Germans , finding themselves outnumbered and needing to shorten their lines , began a skilful staged withdrawal beginning in February and ending in April . Falling back up to 31 miles ( 50 km ) in some places , they took up positions along a series of heavily fortified , purpose @-@ built strong @-@ points which the Allies subsequently named the " Hindenburg Line " , which , due to the reduced frontage , enabled them to free up some 13 divisions of reserves . Following up the Germans , the Allies advanced towards this line , finding that the Germans had adopted a scorched earth policy as they had moved back ; the result of this was that in order to establish their own lines , the Allies had to undertake significant construction work .
Due to the shifting front line , the 2nd Battalion 's first major engagement of 1917 did not come until 9 April when , on the periphery of the Arras offensive , they took part in an attack on Hermies , one of the outpost villages of the Hindenburg Line . Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Milligan , who had taken over on 17 March , the battalion had departed Haplincourt at 7 : 30 pm the previous evening and marched to their form @-@ up point . The plan was to attack with the battalion 's four companies advancing side @-@ by @-@ side from the north @-@ east to attack from behind the German defences , sweeping down on the village like a fan with the left @-@ most company providing flank protection and establishing a series of posts to stop the garrison from escaping while the two centre and the right @-@ most companies took the village . At the same time , two companies from the 3rd Battalion would attack the German main defensive position from the south @-@ west .
In the end , the Australians were detected while waiting to step off and , after being illuminated by flares and taking fire from a German picquet , hastily launched the attack . After overcoming this , the left @-@ centre company , having lost all of their officers , lost their formation and had to be re @-@ organised before the attack on the eastern side of the village could continue . The two companies passed through hedges and the ruined buildings , clearing the outskirts of the village with little resistance . The left @-@ most company then began its task of establishing outposts to the east . At the same time , on the right , the right @-@ most company had advanced to the Doignes – Hermies road when they had begun to take fire . Overcoming this and skirting a wire obstacle , they began moving towards the rear of the German main defence line . At this point , they came under fire from a low hill on the western outskirts of the village , which took them in the flank and pinned them on its slope . In the darkness , the location of the enemy machine @-@ gun could not be ascertained initially . The Australians remained fixed there for almost an hour @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half before members of the right centre company , who had avoided most of the German resistance , were able to locate it and destroy it from the rear just before dawn . The two centre companies were then able to enter the village proper , forcing large numbers of the garrison to try to escape to the north @-@ east , where they were taken prisoner in large numbers . Here the left @-@ most company had been establishing a number of posts in the open fields . Most of these were established with minimal resistance , however , one platoon became heavily engaged by a machine @-@ gun positioned near a sandpit on the other side of a road . A small group of men crossed the road and attempted to provide covering fire for the platoon . Amongst this group was Private Bede Kenny who , under heavy fire , rushed the enemy position and destroyed it with grenades , taking the surviving Germans prisoner . For his actions , he was later awarded the Victoria Cross . Minor skirmishing continued after this , but by 6 : 00 am the village had been captured and 200 prisoners taken , for a loss to the 2nd Battalion of eight officers and 173 other ranks killed or wounded .
The battalion played only a limited , supporting role during the 1st Division 's repulse of the German counter @-@ attack at Lagnicourt in mid @-@ April , and following this the battalion 's next major action came in early May when it was involved in the Second Battle of Bullecourt . The day before the attack , the battalions of the 1st Brigade , despite being due for rest , had been attached to the 2nd Division , and they were subsequently employed to provide work parties to release reserves among the 2nd Division units to take part directly in the fighting . Having not yet recovered its losses from the fighting around Hermies , and being subjected to artillery bombardment during their approach to the front , the 2nd Battalion entered the line on 4 May with just 16 officers and 446 other ranks , subsequently relieving the 24th Battalion . As the Germans attempted to force the Australians back , the 2nd Battalion was moved around a number of times to shore up the line , until units of the 5th Division came up to relieve those of the 1st Brigade on 8 May .
The battalion 's next major action came in mid @-@ September when they were committed to the fighting around Menin Road , which formed part of the wider Third Battle of Ypres , in a supporting role . On 16 September , the battalions of the 1st Brigade relieved the 47th ( London ) Division around Glencourse Ridge , located about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) east of Ypres , holding the line until relieved on 18 September by the 2nd and 3rd Brigades who were to undertake the assault within the 1st Division 's sector of the line . Following the assault , the 1st Brigade , including the 2nd Battalion , went forward on 21 September and secured the ground that had been gained . They were subsequently relieved shortly afterwards on the night of 22 / 23 September by troops from the 14th Brigade , as fresh divisions were brought up to continue the attack at Polygon Wood . The battalion 's casualties during this time amounted to 11 officers and 188 other ranks killed or wounded .
After a brief period of rest , they returned to the line near Broodseinde on 1 October , taking up a position near Molenaarelsthoek , on the right of I Anzac 's position for the upcoming battle . The attack went in on 4 October , and after overcoming an encounter with a German infantry regiment , the 212th , in no man 's land , the Australians successfully managed to capture their objectives . During the battle , the 2nd Battalion lost 10 officers and 144 other ranks killed or wounded , some of which were suffered after an intense German mortar barrage had fallen upon the troops in their form @-@ up point prior to the attack , killing or wounding up to one seventh of the assault force .
On 19 December 1917 , after the battalion had moved to the relatively quiet Messines sector in Flanders along with the other Australian divisions following their involvement in the Passchendaele operations , Stevens resumed command ; Milligan having been elevated to the general staff . Stevens would subsequently lead them through until September 1918 when he was granted " Anzac leave " which allowed personnel who had enlisted in 1914 to return Australia for an extended period of leave .
Throughout the winter , the Australian divisions remained around Messines , where they had been formed into the Australian Corps . During this time , the brigades rotated through the line , taking their turn to man the divisional sector . The 2nd Battalion had spent Christmas at Kemmel before moving on to Wytschaete Ridge on 26 December . They stayed there until late January when they moved on to Méteren . In early 1918 , the collapse of the Russian resistance on the Eastern Front enabled the Germans to transfer a large number of troops to the west . As a result , on 21 March , they launched an offensive along the Western Front . On the opening day of the offensive , the 2nd Battalion 's lines near Belgian Wood were raided by the 72nd Infantry Regiment and although the attack was beaten off , four men from the battalion were forcibly taken back to the German lines as prisoners . The initial attack , coming along a 44 @-@ mile ( 71 km ) front between La Bassée and La Fère , was quite successful and with the Germans making rapid gains , the Australians were transferred to the Somme Valley where they were put into the line around Amiens to blunt the attack in early April .
Shortly thereafter , during the Battle of the Lys , the 2nd Battalion , along with the rest of the 1st Division , were sent to Hazebrouck . Upon arriving there on 12 April , they took up defensive positions around Strazelle to await the German advance . On 17 April , while defending the village of Sec Bois , the battalion helped turn back a determined German attack .
Following this , between late April and July , a period of lull followed . During this time , the Australians undertook a series of small @-@ scale operations that became known as " peaceful penetrations " . After relieving the 3rd Brigade around Méteren on 27 April , the battalions of the 1st Brigade began patrols on 30 April to capture German soldiers to gain intelligence and harass the enemy . These were generally met with considerable success , although they were not without mishap . Two separate patrols were undertaken by the 2nd Battalion on 2 May . The first resulted in one officer being shot while attempting to enter a German trench , while the second resulted in another being shot by an Australian sentry who had not been warned that a patrol had gone out . Later in May , they took up a position opposite Merris , remaining there until the end of the month . Throughout June and July they alternated between Meteren and Merris during which time they continued to raiding operations , which advanced the line about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) without significant loss .
In August , having gained the initiative , the Allies launched their own offensive commencing at Amiens on 8 August 1918 , where the battalions of the 1st Brigade were attached temporarily to the 4th Division , to act as its reserve , guarding the river crossing at Cerisy . Following this they were involved in the advance through Chipilly and Lihons , remaining in reserve until 11 August . Throughout the period of the first week of the offensive , the battalion suffered three officers and 45 other ranks killed or wounded .
After this , the battalion continued operations throughout August and into September . On the night of 10 / 11 September , while around Hesbécourt , the 2nd Battalion carried out peaceful penetration raids against German reserve positions around Jeancourt . Finding the village empty , they encountered a German patrol from the 81st Infantry Regiment , which was attacked and quickly overwhelmed . At noon the following day , they launched a larger attack with artillery and mortar support , destroying two German outposts to the south of the village , killing eight Germans and capturing 22 others . In their last action , against the Hindenburg Outpost Line on 18 / 19 September , the battalion suffered a further 77 casualties .
On 23 September the battalion was relieved by American forces . At this time they were withdrawn from the line along with the rest of the 1st Division . They would take no further part in the fighting . In early October , the rest of the Australian Corps , severely depleted due to heavy casualties and falling enlistments in Australia , was also withdrawn upon a request made by Prime Minister Billy Hughes , to re @-@ organise in preparation for further operations . On 11 November , an armistice came into effect , and as hostilities came to an end , the battalion 's personnel were slowly repatriated back to Australia for demobilisation and discharge . This was completed in May 1919 .
Throughout the war , the 2nd Battalion lost 1 @,@ 199 men killed and 2 @,@ 252 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Victoria Cross , four Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George , 20 Military Crosses , 21 Distinguished Conduct Medals , 58 Military Medals with two Bars , four Meritorious Service Medals , 55 Mentioned in Despatches and five foreign awards .
= = = Inter war years and the Second World War = = =
The battalion was re @-@ raised in Newcastle , New South Wales , in May 1921 as part the re @-@ organisation of the Australian military that took place at that time , with the battalion becoming a part @-@ time unit of the Citizens Forces , assigned to the 8th Brigade of the 2nd Military District . Upon formation , the battalion drew its personnel from three previously existing Citizens Forces units : the 2nd and 5th Battalions of the 2nd Infantry Regiment and the 2nd Battalion of the 13th Infantry Regiment , and perpetuated the battle honours and traditions of its associated AIF battalion . As a result of this re @-@ organisation , the battalion adopted the complex lineage of the 2nd Infantry Regiment , which could trace its history through a series of re @-@ organisations back to the 1st Regiment , New South Wales Rifle Volunteers ( Newcastle Volunteer Rifle Corps ) , which had been raised in 1860 .
In 1927 , territorial unit titles were introduced into the Australian Army , and the battalion adopted the title of the " City of Newcastle Regiment " . At the same time , the battalion was afforded the motto Nulli Secundus . In 1929 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory training scheme was suspended altogether as it was decided to maintain the part @-@ time military force on a volunteer @-@ only basis . In order to reflect the change , the Citizen Forces was renamed the " Militia " at this time . The end of compulsory training and the fiscal austerity that followed due to the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower available to many Militia units at this time was limited and as a result their frontage dropped well below their authorised establishments . Because of this , the decision was eventually made to amalgamate a number of units . Subsequently the 2nd Battalion was amalgamated with the 41st in 1929 , forming the 2nd / 41st Battalion , although they were later split in 1933 at which time the 2nd was merged with the 35th , becoming the 2nd / 35th Battalion .
Together these two units remained linked until 4 September 1939 when , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Jeater , the 2nd Battalion was once again raised as a separate unit as part of an effort by the Australian government to hastily expand the Militia following the outbreak of the Second World War . During the war , although mobilised and assigned to the 1st Brigade , the battalion did not see active service overseas and was instead used as a garrison force in Australia until 2 December 1943 when it was merged once again with the 41st Battalion , forming the 41st / 2nd Battalion . They remained linked until 17 December 1945 , when they were disbanded as part of the demobilisation process .
= = = Post Second World War = = =
In 1948 , Australia 's part @-@ time military force , under the guise of the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , was re @-@ raised . At this time , only two divisions were formed along with other supporting units . The 2nd Battalion was one of those units that was re @-@ established , returning to the order of battle in April 1948 , as part of the 2nd Division .
Between 1951 and 1960 a national service scheme had operated and during this time the CMF 's numbers remained reasonably steady . However , in 1960 the scheme was suspended and the Australian Army was reorganised with the introduction of the Pentropic divisional structure . As a result of this the CMF was greatly reduced and 14 infantry battalions were disbanded altogether , while many others were amalgamated into the battalions of the six sequentially numbered multi @-@ battalion State @-@ based regiments . As a result of this , on 1 July 1960 , the 2nd Battalion became part of the Royal New South Wales Regiment , and was reduced to a company @-@ sized element of the Pentropic 2nd Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment ( 2 RNSWR ) , forming ' C ' Company ( City of Newcastle Company ) . Just prior to this , on 30 April 1960 , the battalion had been afforded the Freedom of the City of Newcastle .
In 1961 , the Pentropic 2 RNSWR was entrusted with the battle honours that had been awarded to the 2 / 2nd Battalion , which had been raised as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force and which had served in North Africa , Greece , Crete and New Guinea . These honours would be retained by the 2nd Battalion throughout the rest of its existence .
The Australian Army abandoned the Pentropic divisional structure in 1965 , and in an attempt to restore some of the regional ties of the State @-@ based regiments , a number of the regional companies of the State @-@ based regiments were split and used to form new battalions with their traditional numerical designations . As a result , on 1 July 1965 , ' C ' Company , 2 RNSWR was used to re @-@ raise the 2nd Battalion in its own right . This unit remained in existence until 1987 , when further reforms to the Army Reserve led to a reduction in the number of infantry units across Australia and , at a ceremony held at Newcastle on 5 December 1987 , the 2nd Battalion was amalgamated with the 17th to form the 2nd / 17th Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment , within the 8th Brigade . Before amalgamation , the battalion 's regimental march was Braganza , which was confirmed in 1953 .
= = Alliances = =
The 2nd Battalion held the following alliances :
United Kingdom – The Queen 's Royal Regiment ( West Surrey ) : 1929 – 59 ;
United Kingdom – The Queen 's Royal Surrey Regiment : 1959 – 60 ;
Canada – The Queen 's Rangers ( 1st American Regiment ) : 1934 – 36 ;
Canada – The Queen 's York Rangers ( 1st American Regiment ) : 1936 – 60 .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2nd Battalion received the following battle honours :
First World War : Somme 1916 – 18 , Pozières , Bullecourt , Ypres 1917 , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Lys , Hazebrouck , Amiens , Albert 1918 ( Chuignes ) , Hindenburg Line , Epehy , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 , ANZAC , Landing at ANZAC , Defence at ANZAC , Suvla , Sari Bair – Lone Pine , Egypt 1915 – 16 , and Herbertshohe .
Second World War : But – Dagua , North Africa , Bardia 1941 , Capture of Tobruk , Greece 1941 , Mount Olympus , Tempe Gorge , South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 45 , Kokoda Trail , Eora Creek – Templeton 's Crossing II , Oivi – Gorari , Buna – Gona , Sanananda Road , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , and Nambut Ridge .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers served as commanding officer of the 2nd Battalion during the First World War :
Lieutenant Colonel George Braund ;
Lieutenant Colonel Robert Scobie ;
Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Stevens ;
Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Blamey ;
Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Milligan .
= = Lineage = =
The following represents the 2nd Battalion 's lineage :
1860 – 70 : 1st Regiment , NSW Rifle Volunteers ( Newcastle Volunteer Rifle Corps ) ;
1870 – 76 : The Northern Battalion Volunteer Rifles ;
1876 – 78 : The Northern Rifle Regiment ;
1878 – 84 : New South Wales Volunteer Infantry , Northern District ;
1884 – 1901 : 4th Admin Regiment , NSW Volunteer Infantry Northern Districts ;
1901 – 03 : 4th Infantry Regiment ;
1903 – 08 : 4th Australian Infantry Regiment ;
1908 – 12 : 1st Battalion , 4th Australian Infantry Regiment ;
1912 – 14 : 16th Infantry ( Newcastle Battalion ) ;
1914 : 2nd Battalion ( AIF ) raised ;
1915 – 18 : 15th Infantry ;
1918 – 19 : 2nd Battalion , 2nd Infantry Regiment ;
1919 : 2nd Battalion ( AIF ) disbanded ;
1921 – 27 : 2nd Battalion ;
1927 – 29 : 2nd Battalion ( The City of Newcastle Regiment ) ;
1929 – 33 : 2nd / 41st Battalion ;
1933 – 39 : 2nd / 35th Battalion ;
1939 – 43 : 2nd ( The City of Newcastle ) Battalion ;
1939 : 2 / 2nd Battalion ( 2nd AIF ) raised ;
1943 – 45 : 41st / 2nd Australian Infantry Battalion ( AIF ) ;
1945 – 46 : 41st / 2nd Australian Infantry Battalion ( AIF ) and 2 / 2nd Battalion ( 2nd AIF ) disbanded ;
1948 – 60 : 2nd Infantry Battalion ( The City of Newcastle Regiment ) ;
1960 – 65 : ' C ' Company ( City of Newcastle Company ) , 2nd Battalion , The Royal New South Wales Regiment ;
1965 – 87 : 2nd Battalion , The Royal New South Wales Regiment ;
1987 – present : 2nd / 17th Battalion , The Royal New South Wales Regiment .
= Arthur S. Carpender =
Arthur Schuyler Carpender ( 24 October 1884 – 10 January 1960 ) was an American admiral who commanded the Allied Naval Forces in the Southwest Pacific Area during World War II .
A 1908 graduate of the United States Naval Academy , Carpender sailed around the world with the Great White Fleet . He commanded a landing force that went ashore at Puerto Cortes , Honduras in 1911 , and participated in the United States occupation of Veracruz as adjutant of the First Regiment of Bluejackets in 1914 . As commander of the destroyer USS Fanning in the action of 17 November 1917 during World War I , he engaged the U @-@ boat U @-@ 58 , and forced it to surrender .
At the start of World War II Carpender was Commander Destroyers , Atlantic Fleet . In July 1942 , he arrived in the Southwest Pacific Area , where he became commander of Task Force 51 , the naval forces based in Western Australia . On September 1942 , he was appointed commander of the Southwest Pacific Force , later renamed the Seventh Fleet , and Allied Naval Forces , Southwest Pacific Area , which he led through the Battle of Buna – Gona and the Battle of the Bismarck Sea . The following year he oversaw the fleet 's operations during Operation Cartwheel . He commanded the Ninth Naval District from January 1944 until August 1945 , retiring in November 1946 with a tombstone promotion to the rank of admiral .
= = Early life = =
A direct descendant of Wolphert Gerretse Van Kouwenhoven , one of the early settlers the New Netherland colony , Arthur Schuyler Carpender was born in New Brunswick , New Jersey , the sixth of seven children of John Neilson Carpender and his wife Anna Neilson née Kemp on 24 October 1884 . He was educated at St. Paul 's School in Concord , New Hampshire , and Rutgers Preparatory School in New Brunswick .
Carpender was appointed to the United States Naval Academy by Senator John Kean in 1904 . He graduated in 1908 . At the time midshipmen had to serve two years service at sea before being commissioned , so he reported for duty with the crew of the new battleship USS Minnesota . This was one of the battleships of the Great White Fleet sent by President Theodore Roosevelt on an epic voyage around the world in 1907 . In 1909 , Carpender was transferred to the USS Marietta . He was commissioned as an ensign in the United States Navy on 6 June 1910 . Amidst the backdrop of the Banana Wars , he commanded a 16 @-@ man landing force from the Marietta that was put ashore at Puerto Cortes , Honduras , on 14 January 1911 to help protect American citizens during a period of unrest ; after four days ashore Carpender 's force returned to the ship .
Leaving the Marietta in March 1911 , Carpender was involved with the fitting out of the new battleship USS Utah . Like other naval officers of the day , he acquired a nickname , " Chips " ( a traditional nickname for a ship 's carpenter in the days of wooden ships ) . He married Helena Bleecker Neilson , who was also from New Brunswick , on 30 April 1912 . Their marriage produced no children .
= = World War I = =
Carpender participated in the United States occupation of Veracruz in April 1914 during the Mexican Revolution as adjutant of the First Regiment of Bluejackets , which was formed from sailors from Florida , Utah and Arkansas . Landing mid @-@ morning on 21 April , the sailors remained under fire on the beachhead until early the next morning when they began their advance through Veracruz . After a series of street fights , they captured the town shortly before noon on 22 April . The town was cleared and defense lines established before it was handed over to United States Army troops on 30 April . On returning to the United States , Carpender was assigned to the Office of Naval Militia Affairs in Washington , D.C.
In June 1916 , Carpender helped fit out and commission the new destroyer USS Davis at the Bath Iron Works in Bath , Maine . He served as a member of its crew until March 1917 , when he assumed command of the destroyer USS Fanning . During the action of 17 November 1917 , he engaged the U @-@ boat U @-@ 58 , which was forced to the surface and compelled to surrender . For his part in the engagement , Carpender was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal .
In December 1917 , Carpender became an aide to the Commander , Destroyer Flotillas Operating in European Waters . In August 1918 he reported to the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company to help fit out the new destroyer USS Radford , and assumed command of the ship when it was commissioned on 30 September 1918 . The ship sailed for Europe in October 1918 , escorting a convoy .
= = Between the wars = =
Carpender returned to the United States in April 1919 , and became a Member of the Naval Examining Board , and Judge Advocate General of the General Court Martial at the Naval Training Station Great Lakes . In August 1921 he assumed command of the USS Maddox . He reported to the Naval Submarine Base New London for training in June 1922 , after which he was posted to the United States Asiatic Fleet as commander of Submarine Division 14 .
In August 1923 Carpender returned to Washington , D.C. , where he served ashore for the next two years in the Bureau of Navigation , before becoming executive officer of the USS Pittsburgh in December 1925 . He was assigned to the Receiving Ship , New York , from October 1926 until March 1927 , when he assumed command of the destroyer USS Macdonough .
Following the familiar pattern of shore duty alternating with sea duty , Carpender served in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations in Washington , D.C. from 1928 until 1931 . This was followed by two years as executive officer of the light cruiser USS Omaha . He then attended the Naval War College at Newport , Rhode Island , after which he returned to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations . In June 1936 , he became Chief of Staff of Destroyers , Scouting Force . He assumed command of the cruiser USS Northampton in August 1937 . In February 1938 he became Professor of Naval Science and Tactics of the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps at Northwestern University at Evanston , Illinois .
= = World War II = =
Carpender returned to sea duty in September 1939 , when he helped fit out a new destroyer squadron , Destroyer Squadron 32 . He commanded it until September 1940 , when he became Director of Officer Personnel at the Bureau of Navigation . In this capacity , he helped foster the careers of many other officers . In December 1941 he was promoted to rear admiral , as Commander Destroyers , Atlantic Fleet .
In July 1942 , Carpender arrived in the Southwest Pacific Area , where he reported to Vice Admiral Herbert F. Leary , the commander of the Southwest Pacific Force and Allied Naval Forces , Southwest Pacific Area . Leary assigned Carpender to replace Captain Charles A. Lockwood in command of the naval forces based in Western Australia , known as Task Force 51 . The main U.S. naval forces based in the west were the submarines , which remained under Lockwood . As a submariner himself , Carpender took a great interest in submarine operations , and did not like what he saw . Carpender and Lockwood did not get along well , and soon came to detest one another . " I 've heard about how they run things in the Atlantic Fleet " , Lockwood wrote , " so often that I 'm ready to shoot any Atlantic Fleet sailor on sight — and they , after all , haven 't done so much to write home about . "
On 11 September 1942 , Carpender succeeded Leary as commander of both the Southwest Pacific Force and the Allied Naval Forces , Southwest Pacific Area . In the former role , he reported to the Commander in Chief , United States Fleet , Admiral Ernest J. King ; in the latter he was answerable directly to the Commander in Chief , Southwest Pacific Area , General Douglas MacArthur . The new post came with a promotion to the rank of vice admiral , but Carpender was not the most senior naval officer in the theater , as the Royal Australian Navy ′ s Admiral Sir Guy Royle and the Royal Netherlands Navy ′ s Vice Admiral Conrad Helfrich were both senior to him . The Southwest Pacific Force was small ; when Carpender assumed command , it consisted of just five cruisers , eight destroyers and 20 submarines .
Leary 's reluctance to risk his ships , and his habit of communicating directly with King without going through MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) in Brisbane , had aroused the ire of MacArthur . Carpender would soon find himself involved in similar conflicts . In October , Carpender rebuffed a request for the Allied Naval Forces to transport troops to Cape Nelson . Carpender refused as there was no adequate hydrographic survey of that part of the Papuan coast , making it dangerous to sail at night , and movements in the area by day were subject to attack from Japanese aircraft . A survey was conducted in October and lighters and luggers began making their way up the coast to Cape Nelson , escorted on occasion by Royal Australian Navy corvettes .
In November 1942 , Carpender turned down a similar request from the Commander of Allied Land Forces , General Sir Thomas Blamey , for the Allied Naval Forces to escort some small transports to Oro Bay , as the Imperial Japanese Navy was doing during the Battle of Buna – Gona . However , Carpender subsequently relented somewhat and , starting in December , small ships escorted by corvettes carried out Operation Lilliput to deliver vital supplies to Oro Bay . During the Pacific Military Conference in March 1943 , MacArthur 's chief of staff , Major General Richard K. Sutherland , spoke to Admiral King and expressed his dissatisfaction with Carpender .
On 15 March 1943 , the Southwest Pacific Force , known colloquially as " MacArthur ’ s Navy " , became the Seventh Fleet . It remained very small . The Seventh Fleet acquired an amphibious force under the command of Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey . This eventually became the VII Amphibious Force , but for some time most of its strength was only on paper , or en route to Australia from the United States . Observing the capabilities of PT boats during his evacuation from the Philippines , MacArthur encouraged their use , although initial results were disappointing . Carpender made effective use of them during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea on 25 March 1943 .
Carpender oversaw the Seventh Fleet 's operations during the early stages of Operation Cartwheel , MacArthur 's advance towards the main Japanese base at Rabaul . A crisis arose during the Battle of Finschhafen , when Carpender became reluctant to reinforce the Australian position . As the situation at Finschhafen became increasingly precarious , Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring grew frustrated with Carpender 's
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platform .
The outworks were surrounded by an advanced ditch , but only a part of it remains since most of it was filled in with rubble .
= = = Marsamxett enceinte = = =
The enceinte along the side facing Marsamxett Harbour starts from St. Michael 's Bastion of the Valletta Land Front , and ends at St. Gregory 's Bastion of Fort St. Elmo . It consists of the following :
St. Andrew Tenaille – a small tenaille beneath St. Michael 's Bastion .
St. Andrew 's Bastion – an asymmetrical pentagonal bastion . It is two @-@ tiered , with its lower part originally containing the Marsamxett Gate , which was demolished in the early 20th century . A small faussebraye is located beneath the bastion . Ponsonby 's Column was built on the bastion in 1838 , but it was destroyed by lightning in 1864 .
Manderaggio Curtain – the curtain wall linking St. Andrew 's and San Salvatore Bastions . It was originally divided into two parts , to allow ships to enter the Manderaggio , but the breach was walled up when work on the Manderaggio was abandoned .
San Salvatore Bastion – a flat @-@ faced artillery platform . Various World War II air raid shelters were dug within the bastion .
German Curtain – a small curtain wall north of San Salvatore Bastion . Air raid shelters were also dug within its walls . It is sometimes referred to as a bastion .
St. Sebastian Curtain – a small curtain wall north of the Germain Curtain . Air raid shelters were also dug within its walls . It is sometimes referred to as a bastion .
English Curtain – a long curtain wall near St. Elmo Bay , overlooked by Auberge de Bavière . It contains the Jews ' Sally Port and a number of air raid shelters . A reconstructed echaugette is located between the English and French Curtains .
French Curtain – a long curtain wall near St. Elmo Bay , linked to Fort Saint Elmo .
= = = Grand Harbour enceinte = = =
The enceinte along the side facing the Grand Harbour starts from St. Peter and St. Paul Bastion of the Valletta Land Front , and ends at St. Ubaldesca Curtain of Fort St. Elmo . It consists of the following :
Fort Lascaris , also known as Lascaris Battery or Lascaris Bastion – a casemated battery near St. Peter & St. Paul Bastion , built by the British between 1854 and 1856 . The Lascaris War Rooms are located nearby .
Marina Curtain , also known as Liesse Curtain – curtain wall linking St. Peter & St. Paul and St. Barbara Bastions . It originally contained Del Monte Gate , which was demolished and replaced by Victoria Gate in the 19th century .
St. Barbara Bastion – a flat @-@ faced bastion with a low parapet . An echaugette is located at the bastion 's south corner .
St. Lucia Curtain – curtain wall linking St. Barbara and St. Christopher Bastions .
St. Christopher Bastion – a two @-@ tiered pentagonal bastion , today breached to make way for the Valletta ring road . The upper part contains the Lower Barrakka Gardens , while the lower part contains the Siege Bell War Memorial and the Monument to the Unknown Soldier . A low battery was built near the bastion in the 1680s , but most of it was dismantled to make way for the ring road .
St. Lazarus Curtain – curtain wall linking St. Christopher and St. Lazarus Bastions .
St. Lazarus Bastion – a flat @-@ faced bastion containing several British gun emplacements and a magazine .
= = = Fort Saint Elmo = = =
Fort Saint Elmo is the oldest part of the city walls , and it commands the entrance to both the Grand Harbour and Marsamxett . The fort and the surrounding area consists of the following :
Upper St. Elmo – the original star fort , consisting of two demi @-@ bastions , two flanks and two faces , a parade ground , barracks and a large cavalier .
Vendôme Bastion – a bastion built in 1614 linking the French Curtain to Fort St. Elmo , containing an echaugette . After being surrounded by the Carafa Enceinte , it was converted into a magazine , and later an armoury . The bastion is now part of the National War Museum .
Carafa Enceinte – the bastioned enceinte built around the fort after 1687 . It consists of the following bastions :
St. Gregory Bastion – an asymmetrical bastion with a long left face . It was altered by the British to house QF 6 pounder 10 cwt guns .
St. Gregory Curtain – a curtain wall linking St. Gregory and Conception Bastions . It contains various British gun emplacements .
Conception Bastion , also known as Ball 's Bastion – a small pentagonal bastion , containing a number of gun emplacements , magazines , and gun crew accommodation . Sir Alexander Ball was buried in the salient of the bastion .
Sta . Scholastica Curtain – curtain wall linking Conception and St. John Bastions . It contains a gun emplacement for a RML 12 @.@ 5 inch 38 ton gun , as well as other British modifications .
St. John Bastion , also known as Abercrombie 's Bastion – a large asymmetrical bastion at St. Elmo Point , the tip of the Sciberras Peninsula . The bastion contains several British gun emplacements and magazines .
St. Ubaldesca Curtain , also known as Abercrombie 's Curtain – a long curtain wall linking St. John and St. Lazarus Bastions . It contains a number of British gun emplacements .
Some barrack blocks are located in the area between Upper St. Elmo and the Carafa Enceinte .
= Cyclone Osea =
Cyclone Osea was the second of seven cyclones to affect French Polynesia during the 1997 – 98 South Pacific cyclone season . Forming on November 22 , the storm initially remained weak . Moving south and later east , it was named Osea on November 24 after achieving windspeeds equal to a Category 1 cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . Continuing to intensify , Osea soon reached its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Afterwords , Osea began to weaken because of increased wind shear , and the cyclone started moving southeast . By November 28 , Osea was no longer a tropical cyclone .
The cyclone brought major damage to some islands in French Polynesia . Around 95 % of the infrastructure in Maupiti was destroyed , including 77 homes , an airport , and a town hall . About 30 % of the infrastructure in Bora @-@ Bora was destroyed , as well as 309 homes and many yachts . Many roads were also damaged . Almost everything on the north side of the island was destroyed . However , no deaths were reported . The name Osea was retired after this usage of the name .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 22 , 1997 , the Fiji Meteorological Service 's Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Nadi , Fiji ( RSMC Nadi ) and the Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center ( NPMOC ) started to monitor a tropical depression that had developed about 465 km ( 290 mi ) to the northeast of the Northern Cook Island : Manihiki . Over the next two days the depression gradually developed further , as it slowly moved southwards due to a weakness in the subtropical ridge of high pressure . At 1200 UTC on November 23 , the NPMOC reported that the depression had become equivalent to a tropical storm and assigned it the designation 06P . Twelve hours later RSMC Nadi named the system Osea after it had developed into a Category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . Thereafter , Osea started moving towards the southeast , as an area of high pressure started to develop to the south of the system .
During November 25 , RSMC Nadi estimated that Osea had become a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone , while the NPMOC announced that the system had become equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale as it moved through French Polynesia . The next day both agency 's reported that Severe Tropical Cyclone Osea had reached its peak intensity . RSMC Nadi reported 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) ; the NPMOC reported peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) which made it equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the SSHS . After attaining peak intensity , Osea gradually weakened . By November 27 , the NPMOC had issued their final warning on the system because the convection had become dislocated over 185 km ( 115 mi ) from the low level circulation center due to increased wind shear . RSMC Nadi subsequently monitored Osea for another 24 hours before it was last noted by the agency on November 28 , around the time it degenerated into a tropical depression .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Prior the arrival of Cyclone Osea on November 24 , various cyclone alerts and warnings were issued for the whole of French Polynesia , while authorities strengthened security measures and advised people not to drive . Throughout the archipelago schools were closed . Furthermore , people on the atoll of Scilly were evacuated by helicopter to other islands .
Cyclone Osea was extremely destructive to some of the islands in French Polynesia . Over 700 homes were destroyed or severely damaged on Maupiti , Bora @-@ Bora , and Raiatea . Several roofs were blown off of buildings across the archipelago . On Maupiti , an island with a population of 1 @,@ 100 , about 95 % of the infrastructure was destroyed . The town hall , two schools , and an airfield were destroyed . The town hall was originally being used as an emergency shelter , but was later evacuated due to strong winds and was later destroyed . Furthermore , many roadways and highways were blocked due to flooding . In addition , 77 homes on the island were destroyed . All but three homes that belonged to Mormons on the island were destroyed .
On Bora @-@ Bora , an island which had a population of 4 @,@ 500 at the time , roughly 30 % of the infrastructure was destroyed , including 309 houses . Hotels were also impacted during the storm . On the north side of Bora Bora , nearly everything was destroyed , including the village of Vaitape and a local yacht club . Across Vaitape , roads were blocked by fallen trees and telecommunication lines were severed due to high winds . Seven people on the island were reportedly slightly injured . In addition , the islands of Tahaa , Raiatea , and Moorea all sustained damage , though yachts in Raiatea managed to survive unscathed . In another archipelago , 700 homes and various public infrastructures were at least somewhat destroyed by Osea . In addition to the impact on infrastructure , banana trees were knocked down due to the winds , especially in mountain gardens . Throughout the impacted region , no deaths were reported .
Osea was the second tropical cyclone to impact French Polynesia during the season ; Cyclone Martin had impacted the islands a few weeks earlier . In the aftermath of the storm , disaster aid was delivered to the victims of Osea . President Gaston Flosse , accompanied by technicians , arrived in Maupiti to help repair the island 's electrical and hydraulic systems . A Latter @-@ Day Saint meeting house was used as an emergency shelter , though the house itself sustained minor damage from the storm . The name Osea was later retired from the South Pacific list of tropical cyclone names .
= Crash Team Racing =
Crash Team Racing is a kart racing video game developed by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation . The game was released in North America on September 30 , 1999 and in Europe on October 20 , 1999 and Australia on January 9 , 2000 . It was re @-@ released for the Sony Greatest Hits line @-@ up in 2000 and for the Platinum Range on January 12 , 2001 . It was later added to the European PlayStation Store on October 18 , 2007 , then on the Japanese store on June 11 , 2008 and then finally to the North American store on August 10 , 2010 .
Crash Team Racing is the fourth installment in the Crash Bandicoot series . It is the first Crash Bandicoot game in the racing genre and the final game in the series to be developed by Naughty Dog . The game 's story focuses on the efforts of a ragtag team of characters in the Crash Bandicoot series , who must race against the egomaniacal Nitros Oxide to save their planet from destruction . In the game , players can take control of one of fifteen Crash Bandicoot series characters , though only eight are available at first . During the races , offensive and speed boosting power ups can be used to gain an advantage .
Crash Team Racing was praised by critics for its gameplay and graphics , though the audio was met with mixed opinions . An indirect sequel , Crash Nitro Kart , was released in 2003 for the PlayStation 2 , GameCube , Xbox , Game Boy Advance and N @-@ Gage .
= = Gameplay = =
Crash Team Racing is a racing game in which the player controls characters from the Crash Bandicoot universe , most of whom compete in karts . While racing , the player can accelerate , steer , reverse , brake , hop or use weapons and power @-@ ups with the game controller 's analog stick and buttons . Two distinct forms of crates are scattered throughout the tracks and arenas of Crash Team Racing . Crates with question marks ( ? ) on them hold power @-@ ups and weapons , which can be obtained by driving through and breaking apart the said crates . When the player collects a weapon or power @-@ up , it will appear in a box at the top of the screen . The player can activate the weapon or power @-@ up to wreak havoc on the other racers or supplement the player 's own performance . " Fruit Crates " carry " Wumpa Fruit " that increase the speed of the player 's kart and strengthen the player 's weapons and power @-@ ups if ten of them are obtained .
A crucial maneuver in Crash Team Racing is the power slide ; the player executes the slide by holding down one of the shoulder buttons to perform a hop , and steering before the kart lands . While sliding , the " Turbo Boost Meter " on the lower @-@ right corner of the screen fills up and goes from green to red . At the same time , the exhaust gas from the player 's kart turns black . To get a speed boost , the player quickly presses the opposite shoulder button while the Turbo Boost Meter is red . The player can execute three speed boosts in a row during a power slide , with the third speed boost being more powerful than the previous two . If the player waits too long into the power slide for a boost , the kart back @-@ fires and the chance for a speed boost is lost ; power sliding for too long causes a spin @-@ out . Aside from power slides , speed boosts can be obtained by gathering hang time when leaping over gaps in the track . The longer the player is in the air , the bigger the speed boost will be when the kart lands .
= = = Modes = = =
Crash Team Racing features five racing modes : Adventure , Time Trial , Arcade , Versus and Battle . In each mode , the player selects one from eight characters to control . A PlayStation multitap can be installed to allow three or four @-@ player games . The " Adventure Mode " is a one @-@ player game where the player must race through all of the tracks and arenas in the game and collect as many trophies , Relics , Boss Keys , CTR Tokens and Gems as possible . The objective of the Adventure Mode is to save the world from the story 's antagonist , Nitros Oxide , by winning races on 16 different tracks . In the beginning of the game , the player only has access to two levels . As the player wins more races , more tracks on multiple worlds become available . In each level , the player must win a trophy by coming in first place . When the player receives all four trophies in a world , the " Boss Garage " of that world can be accessed . In the Boss Garage , the player competes in a one @-@ on @-@ one race against a boss character . If the boss character is defeated , the character will relinquish a Boss Key , which the player uses to access new worlds and ultimately to face Oxide inside his spaceship .
After beating levels , new modes become available , such as the Relic Race , in which the player races through the track alone and completes three laps in the fastest time possible . " Time Crates " scattered throughout the level freeze the game timer when a player drives through them . If all of the Time Crates are destroyed , the player 's final time is reduced by ten seconds . The player wins a Relic by beating the time indicated on the screen . Another mode , the CTR Challenge , is played like a normal race , except that the player must also collect the letters C , T and R scattered throughout the track . If the player manages to collect all three letters and come in first place , a " CTR Token " is awarded . These tokens come in five different colors : Red , Green , Blue , Yellow and Purple . The Purple CTR tokens are awarded for beating the Crystal Bonus Round by collecting 20 Crystal under a certain time limit . If the player collects four tokens of the same color , the player will be able to access the Gem Cup of the corresponding color . Gem Cups are racing tournaments held against computer @-@ controlled opponents and are accessible in a secret area in the " Gemstone Valley " world . A Gem Cup consists of four tracks in a row , in which the player must race for points . If one of these cups is won , a Gem is awarded . To win the game , the player must collect all trophies , Boss Keys , Relics , CTR Tokens and Gems before defeating Nitros Oxide in a one @-@ on @-@ one race .
The " Time Trial " mode is a single @-@ player mode where the player attempts to set the best time on any of the tracks in the game . There are no other racers to hinder the player and no power @-@ ups . When the Time Trial is finished , the player has the option to save a " ghost " , a replay of that race ; the next time that track is accessed in this mode , the player can race against the ghost . In the " Arcade " mode , the player can quickly scroll through and race on a selection of tracks . The player can choose to select a Single Race or enter a Cup , in which the player races on four tracks in a row for points . In the Single Race and the Cup Race , one or two players race with the remaining computer @-@ controlled drivers . The difficulty of the race and number of laps can be customized . The " Versus " mode is similar to that of the Arcade mode , with the exception that two or more human players must be involved .
In the " Battle " mode , up to four players can fight customized battles , launching weapons during combat in one of seven special battle arenas . The type and length ( the latter modifies how many hit points or minutes the battle will have ) of the battle can be adjusted beforehand , allowing for three types of battles . In a " Point Limit Mode " battle , the first player to achieve 5 , 10 or 15 points wins . In the " Time Limit Mode " battle , the player with the highest points after 3 , 6 or 9 minutes wins . In the " Life Limit Mode " , each player has a set number of lives ( 3 , 6 or 9 ) and the battle has a time limit ( 3 , 6 minutes or forever ) . The player with the most lives at the end of the time limit wins . If " forever " is chosen as the length , the battle lasts until only one player is standing . Three and four players can team up for two @-@ against @-@ one , two @-@ against @-@ two , three @-@ against @-@ one or one @-@ against @-@ one @-@ against @-@ two battles .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Fifteen characters are playable in Crash Team Racing , although only eight of them are playable from the start . Crash Bandicoot , the main protagonist of the series , is an all @-@ round racer with balanced acceleration , top speed and handling . Doctor Neo Cortex , Crash 's archenemy , is a mad scientist who wants to stop Nitros Oxide so that he may conquer the world himself . Like Crash , his kart is an all @-@ round performer . Coco Bandicoot , Crash 's younger sister , is a computer genius who installed computer chips into her kart to increase its acceleration prowess . Doctor N. Gin is a rocket scientist who , like Coco , added custom parts to his kart to improve its acceleration . Pura and Polar pilot karts with low speed but improved handling , allowing them to navigate tight corners . Tiny Tiger and Dingodile control karts built for top speed at the cost of turning prowess .
The main antagonist of the story , Nitros Oxide , is the self @-@ proclaimed fastest racer in the galaxy who threatens to turn Earth into a concrete parking lot . Preceding Oxide are four boss characters : Ripper Roo , a deranged straitjacket @-@ wearing kangaroo ; Papu Papu , the morbidly obese leader of the island 's native tribe ; Komodo Joe , a Komodo dragon with a speech sound disorder ; and Pinstripe Potoroo , a greedy pinstripe @-@ clad potoroo . The four boss characters , along with an imperfect and morally ambiguous clone of Crash Bandicoot named Fake Crash , become accessible as playable characters if the Adventure Mode is fully completed . Also appearing as secret characters are Doctor Nefarious Tropy , the self @-@ proclaimed Master of Time and who is unlocked by beating his records in the Time Trial Mode ; and Penta Penguin , a neutral penguin who can only be unlocked via a cheat code at the main menu . Contrary to popular belief , Nitros Oxide is not a playable character in the game .
Appearing as the player 's tutors in the game are the sentient twin witch doctor masks Aku Aku and Uka Uka , both of whom give hints that help the player develop their racing skills . They double as obtainable power @-@ ups during the races , temporarily protecting the player from all attacks and obstacles while increasing the kart 's speed . However , their power does not protect the player from chasms or deep water .
= = = Story = = =
The inhabitants of Earth are visited by an extraterrestrial named Nitros Oxide , who claims to be the fastest racer in the galaxy . Challenging Earth to a game called " Survival of the Fastest " , he beckons Earth 's best driver to race him . If Earth 's driver wins , he promises to leave Earth alone , but if Oxide wins , he will turn Earth into a concrete parking lot and enslave the Earthlings . In response , the player character gathers all four Boss Keys needed to access Oxide 's spaceship and races him in a one @-@ on @-@ one match . Upon Oxide 's defeat at the hands of the player character , he temporarily leaves Earth , but promises that he will return when all of the Time Relics have been gathered . Oxide faces the player again after all the Time Relics are gathered . After losing once more , Oxide keeps his word and angrily leaves Earth forever . An epilogue is relayed during the end credits , explaining what the characters of the game did after the events of the story . Nitros Oxide himself returns to his home planet of Gasmoxia and secludes himself from society . After undergoing years of therapy to cope with his loss , he takes up unicycle @-@ racing , only to get into a gruesome accident .
= = Development = =
Naughty Dog began production on Crash Team Racing after the completion of Crash Bandicoot 2 : Cortex Strikes Back ; the game engine for Crash Team Racing was created at the same time Crash Bandicoot 3 : Warped was produced . Development took place over the course of eight months on a budget of $ 2 @.@ 4 million . During the game 's prototypical stage , the team built a replica of the " Crescent Island " course from Diddy Kong Racing to test whether a racetrack of the same scope and scale was possible on the PlayStation . The turbo system that gives the player boosts of speed during power slides and by gathering hang time was added to make Crash Team Racing feel more interactive and involving than older kart @-@ racing games . The characters of the game were designed by Charles Zembillas and Joe Pearson , who designed the characters of the last three installments of the series . Nitros Oxide was originally a mad scientist obsessed with speed who plotted to speed up the entire world until the end of time . However , having exhausted human , animal , machine , and various combinations for Crash Bandicoot bosses in the past , it was decided to have Nitros Oxide be an otherworldly character . The original " speed up the world " plot is referenced in a promotional comic ( written by Glenn Herdling and drawn by Neal Sternecky ) featured in the Winter 2000 issue of Disney Adventures . Crash Team Racing went into the alpha stage of development on August 1999 , and the beta stage on September . In an interview with GameTrailers , Naughty Dog 's co @-@ president Evan Wells , who was a designer on the game , revealed that Oxide was never intended to be a playable character in the game due to the memory limitations of the PlayStation . The said limitations further affected the game 's roster of playable characters ; Polar and Pura were originally to ride in the same kart and be played as a single character , but were ultimately split into separate characters , and both Komodo Brothers were to appear in the game before Komodo Moe was omitted .
David Baggett produced the game 's soundtrack , with Josh Mancell of Mutato Muzika composing the music . Sound effects were created by Mike Gollum , Ron Horwitz and Kevin Spears of Universal Sound Studios . The voices of Doctor Neo Cortex and Uka Uka were provided by Clancy Brown , while the voices of Doctor N. Gin , Tiny Tiger and Pinstripe Potoroo were provided by voice actor Brendan O 'Brien . Additional voices were provided by David A. Pizzuto , Mel Winkler , Michael Ensign , Hynden Walch , Billy Pope , sound effects artist Mike Gollom , Michael Connor and Chip Chinery .
= = Reception = =
Crash Team Racing received critical acclaim . Official PlayStation Magazine described Crash Team Racing as " the game that made kart racing cool " and proclaimed that " nothing has ever matched its quality . " Electronic Gaming Monthly noted that the game was " heavily inspired by Mario Kart , but still an amazing multiplayer racer . " Doug Perry of IGN stated that the game was " rock solid " in playability and graphics , but was critical of " the insanely capitalistic smile of Crash . " Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot called the game " a great Mario Kart clone " , and that it succeeded where similar games like Mega Man Battle & Chase , Bomberman Fantasy Race , Diddy Kong Racing , Chocobo Racing and Mario Kart had failed . Johnny Liu of Game Revolution concluded that despite the fact that the game " doesn 't add much to the tired genre , it manages to do everything well . "
The game 's controls were well received . The D @-@ Pad Destroyer of GamePro praised the controls as " nearly @-@ perfect " and explained that " the transparent controls allow you to concentrate on racing and blasting your opponents , and so the races are faster , more fluid and more fun . " Johnny Liu of Game Revolution concluded that the controls " feel very natural , with an emphasis on maintaining speed rather than fighting lousy controls . " However , Joe Ottoson of Allgame ( " All Game Guide " at the time ) said that the inability to reconfigure the controls was " the only real drawback to Crash 's presentation . "
The graphics of the game were positively received . The D @-@ Pad Destroyer of GamePro , while noting that the graphics were not too complex , cited the " cartoony look and the ingenious use of textures and colors " as high points in the graphics department . Doug Perry of IGN commended the " sharp looking " environments as " clean and fully formed " and the characters are " full of funny animations and cleanly designed " . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot said that the environments " are reasonably large , and they convey the cartoon @-@ like attitude of the game very nicely . " Johnny Liu of Game Revolution stated that the graphics were " smooth and seem to push the Playstation 's limits . "
Critics expressed mixed opinions of the game 's audio . The D @-@ Pad Destroyer of GamePro said that the " whimsical " background music is " quite enjoyable " and the character sound bites are " varied enough to avoid becoming annoying . " Doug Perry of IGN had a more mixed take , saying that the " classic bouncy , xylophone @-@ heavy beat " is " not necessarily great " , and that after a few courses , " you either stop hearing it , or the incessant simplicity of it makes you want to cry or pull your hair out " . On the subject of the voice acting , he concluded that there is " nothing really that cute , clever or memorable " in the game , and noted that Crash 's voice in the game is extremely similar to that of Luigi from the Mario Kart series . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot wrote that while the music and sound effects " push the game 's cartoon theme , " the themes were not too " over the top " or incessant . Johnny Liu of Game Revolution passed the music off as " standard kitschy fare " and added that while the sound effects " add to the cartoon quality of the game " , some of the character voices were unsatisfactory . Joe Ottoson of Allgame noted that the characters " are all quite vocal " , and the music " sets off the whimsical mood nicely " .
Crash Team Racing has sold over 1 @.@ 71 million units in Europe , 2 @.@ 64 million units in the United States and just under 500 @,@ 000 units in Japan . As a result of its success , the game was re @-@ released for the Sony Greatest Hits line @-@ up in 2000 and for the Platinum Range on January 12 , 2001 . An indirect sequel titled Crash Nitro Kart was released in 2003 for the PlayStation 2 , Xbox , Nintendo GameCube , Game Boy Advance and N @-@ Gage and was the first game in the Crash Bandicoot series to feature full motion video .
= Portal ( video game ) =
Portal is a 2007 first @-@ person puzzle @-@ platform video game developed by Valve Corporation , released in a bundle package called The Orange Box for Microsoft Windows via its digital distribution service Steam and Xbox 360 on October 9 , 2007 , the PlayStation 3 on December 11 , 2007 , OS X on the Mac @-@ compatible Steam platform on May 12 , 2010 , a Linux version on Steam as a beta on May 2 , 2013 and released on June 24 , 2013 , and for Android as a port for the Nvidia Shield on May 12 , 2014 .
The game consists primarily of a series of puzzles that must be solved by teleporting the player 's character and simple objects using " the Aperture Science Handheld Portal Device " , a device that can create inter @-@ spatial portals between two flat planes . The player @-@ character , Chell , is challenged and taunted by an artificial intelligence named GLaDOS ( Genetic Lifeform and Disk Operating System ) to complete each puzzle in the Aperture Science Enrichment Center using the portal gun with the promise of receiving cake when all the puzzles are completed . The game 's unique physics allows momentum to be retained through portals , requiring creative use of portals to maneuver through the test chambers . This gameplay element is based on a similar concept from the game Narbacular Drop ; many of the team members from the DigiPen Institute of Technology who worked on Narbacular Drop were hired by Valve for the creation of Portal , making it a spiritual successor to the game .
Portal was acclaimed as one of the most original games of 2007 , despite being considered for its short duration and limited story . The game received praise for its originality , unique gameplay and dark story with a humorous series of dialogue . GLaDOS , voiced by Ellen McLain in the English @-@ language version , received acclaim for her unique characterization , and the end credits song " Still Alive " , written by Jonathan Coulton for the game , was acclaimed for its original composition and humorous twist . Excluding Steam download sales , over four million copies of the game have been sold since its release , spawning official merchandise from Valve including plush Companion Cubes , as well as fan recreations of the cake and portal gun , a standalone version , Portal : Still Alive , on the Xbox Live Arcade service on October 22 , 2008 , which added an additional 14 puzzles to the gameplay , and a sequel , Portal 2 , which was released in 2011 , adding several new gameplay mechanics and a cooperative multiplayer mode .
= = Gameplay = =
In Portal , the player controls the protagonist , Chell , from a first @-@ person perspective as she is challenged to navigate through a series of rooms using the Aperture Science Handheld Portal Device , or portal gun , under the watchful supervision of the artificial intelligence GLaDOS . The portal gun can create two distinct portal ends , orange and blue . The portals create a visual and physical connection between two different locations in three @-@ dimensional space . Neither end is specifically an entrance or exit ; all objects that travel through one portal will exit through the other . An important aspect of the game 's physics is momentum redirection . As moving objects pass through portals , they come through the exit portal at the same direction that the exit portal is facing and with the same speed with which they passed through the entrance portal . For example , a common maneuver is to jump down to a portal on the floor and emerge through a wall , flying over a gap or another obstacle . This allows the player to launch objects or Chell over great distances , both vertically and horizontally , referred to as ' flinging ' by Valve . As GLaDOS puts it , " In layman 's terms : speedy thing goes in , speedy thing comes out . " If portal ends are not on parallel planes , the character passing through is reoriented to be upright with respect to gravity after leaving a portal end .
Chell and all other objects in the game that can fit into the portal ends will pass through the portal . However , a portal shot cannot pass through an open portal ; it will simply deactivate or create a new portal in an offset position . Creating a portal end instantly deactivates an existing portal end of the same color . Moving objects , glass , special wall surfaces , liquids , or areas that are too small will not be able to anchor portals . Chell is sometimes provided with cubes that she can pick up and use to climb on or to hold down large buttons that open doors or activate mechanisms . Particle fields known as emancipation grills , occasionally called " fizzlers " in the developer commentary , exist at the end of all and within some test chambers ; when passed through , they will deactivate any active portals and disintegrate any object carried through . The fields also block attempts to fire portals through them .
Although Chell is equipped with mechanized heel springs to prevent damage from falling , she can be killed by various other hazards in the test chambers , such as turret guns , bouncing balls of energy , and toxic liquid . She can also be killed by objects falling through portals , and by a series of crushers that appear in certain levels . Unlike most action games at the time , there is no health indicator ; Chell dies if she is dealt a certain amount of damage in a short time period , but returns to full health fairly quickly . Some obstacles , such as the energy balls and crushing pistons , deal fatal damage with a single blow .
GameSpot noted , in its initial review of Portal , that many solutions exist for completing each puzzle , and that the gameplay " gets even crazier , and the diagrams shown in the trailer showed some incredibly crazy things that you can attempt . " Two additional modes are unlocked upon the completion of the game that challenge the player to work out alternative methods of solving each test chamber . Challenge maps are unlocked near the halfway point and Advanced Chambers are unlocked when the game is completed . In Challenge mode , levels are revisited with the added goal of completing the test chamber either with as little time , with the least number of portals , or with the fewest footsteps possible . In Advanced mode , certain levels are made more complex with the addition of more obstacles and hazards .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Characters = = =
The game features two characters : the player @-@ controlled silent protagonist named Chell , and GLaDOS ( Genetic Lifeform and Disk Operating System ) , a computer artificial intelligence that monitors and directs the player . In the English @-@ language version , GLaDOS is voiced by Ellen McLain , though her voice has been altered to sound more artificial . The only background information presented about Chell is given by GLaDOS ; the credibility of these facts , such as Chell being adopted , an orphan , and having no friends , is questionable at best , as GLaDOS is a liar by her own admission . In the " Lab Rat " comic created by Valve to bridge the gap between Portal and Portal 2 , Chell 's records reveal she was ultimately rejected as a test subject for having " too much tenacity " — the main reason Doug Rattman , a former employee of Aperture Science , moved Chell to the top of the test queue .
= = = Setting = = =
Portal takes place in the Aperture Science Laboratories Computer @-@ Aided Enrichment Center — Aperture Science for short — which is a research facility responsible for the creation of the portal gun . According to information presented in Portal 2 , the location of the complex is in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . Information about the company , developed by Valve for creating the setting of the game , is revealed during the game and via the real @-@ world promotional website . According to the Aperture Science website , Cave Johnson founded the company in 1943 for the sole purpose of making shower curtains for the U.S. military . However , after becoming mentally unstable from " moon rock poisoning " in 1978 , Johnson created a three @-@ tier research and development plan to make his organization successful . The first two tiers , the Counter @-@ Heimlich Maneuver ( a maneuver designed to ensure choking ) and the Take @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation ( a program to give the wishes of terminally ill children 's parents to adults who are in need of dreams ) , were commercial failures and led to an investigation of the company by the U.S. Senate . However , when the investigative committee heard of the success of the third tier , a man @-@ sized ad @-@ hoc quantum tunnel through physical space with possible applications as a shower curtain , it recessed permanently and gave Aperture Science an open @-@ ended contract to continue its research . The development of GLaDOS , an artificially intelligent research assistant and disk @-@ operating system , began in 1986 in response to Black Mesa 's work on similar portal technology . A presentation seen during gameplay reveals that GLaDOS was also included in a proposed bid for de @-@ icing fuel lines , incorporated as a fully functional disk @-@ operation system that is arguably alive , unlike Black Mesa 's proposal , which inhibits ice , nothing more . Roughly thirteen years later , work on GLaDOS was completed and the untested AI was activated during the company 's first ever bring @-@ your @-@ daughter @-@ to @-@ work day in May 2000 . Immediately after activation , the facility was flooded with deadly neurotoxin by the AI . Events of the first Half @-@ Life game occur shortly thereafter , presumably leaving the facility forgotten by the outside world due to apocalyptic happenings . Wolpaw , in describing the ending of Portal 2 , affirmed that the Combine invasion , chronologically taking place between Half @-@ Life and Half @-@ Life 2 , occurred during Portal 's events .
The areas of the Enrichment Center that Chell explores suggest that it is part of a massive research installation . At the time of events depicted in Portal , the facility seems to be long @-@ deserted , although most of its equipment remains operational without human control . Aperture Science exists in the Half @-@ Life universe . During its development , Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two featured a chapter set on Aperture Science 's icebreaker ship Borealis , but this was abandoned and removed before release .
= = = Plot = = =
Portal 's plot is revealed to the player via audio messages or " announcements " from GLaDOS and visual elements inside rooms found in later levels . According to The Final Hours of Portal 2 , the year is established to be " somewhere in 2010 " — twelve years after Aperture Science 's abandonment .
The game begins with protagonist Chell waking up from a stasis bed and hearing instructions and warnings from GLaDOS , an artificial intelligence , about the upcoming test experience . Chell then enters into distinct test chambers that introduce players to the game 's mechanics , sequentially . GLaDOS 's announcements serve as instructions to Chell and help the player progress through the game , but also develops the atmosphere and characterizes the AI as a person . Chell is promised cake and grief counseling as her reward if she manages to complete all the test chambers .
Chell proceeds through the empty Enrichment Center , with GLaDOS as her only interaction . As the player nears completion , GLaDOS 's motives turn more sinister than her helpful demeanor suggests ; although she is designed to appear helpful and encouraging , GLaDOS 's actions and speech suggest insincerity and callous disregard for the safety and well @-@ being of the test subjects . The test chambers become increasingly dangerous as Chell proceeds , and GLaDOS even directs Chell through a live @-@ fire course designed for military androids as a result of " mandatory scheduled maintenance " in the regular test chamber , as well as having test chambers flooded with a bio @-@ hazardous liquid . In another chamber , GLaDOS boasts about the fidelity and importance of the Weighted Companion Cube , a waist @-@ high crate with a single large pink heart centered on each face , for helping Chell to complete the chamber . However , GLaDOS then declares that it " unfortunately must be euthanized " in an " emergency intelligence incinerator " before Chell can continue . Some of the later chambers include automated turrets with childlike voices ( also voiced by McLain ) that fire at Chell , only to sympathize with her after being destroyed or disabled , such as " I don 't blame you " and " No hard feelings " .
After Chell completes the final test chamber , GLaDOS congratulates her and prepares her " victory candescence " , maneuvering Chell into an apparent incinerator . As GLaDOS assures her that " all Aperture technologies remain safely operational up to 4 @,@ 000 degrees [ sic ] Kelvin " , Chell escapes with the use of the portal gun and makes her way through the maintenance areas within the Enrichment Center . GLaDOS becomes panicked and insists that she was only pretending to kill Chell , as part of testing . GLaDOS then asks Chell to assume the " party escort submission position " , lying face @-@ first on the ground , so that a " party associate " can take her to her reward , but Chell continues anyway . Throughout this section , GLaDOS still sends messages to Chell and it becomes clear that she became corrupt and had killed everyone else in the center , something revealed in a later comic . Chell makes her way through the maintenance areas and empty office spaces behind the chambers , sometimes following graffiti messages which point in the right direction . These backstage areas , which are in an extremely dilapidated state , stand in stark contrast to the pristine test chambers . The graffiti includes statements such as " the cake is a lie " , and pastiches of Emily Dickinson 's poem " The Chariot " , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's " The Reaper and the Flowers " , and Emily Brontë 's " No Coward Soul Is Mine " , referring to and mourning the death of the Companion Cube .
GLaDOS attempts to dissuade Chell with threats of physical harm and misleading statements claiming that she is going the wrong way as Chell makes her way deeper into the maintenance areas . Eventually , Chell reaches a large chamber where GLaDOS 's hardware hangs overhead . GLaDOS continues to plead with and threaten Chell , but during the exchange a sphere falls off ; Chell drops it in an incinerator . GLaDOS reveals that Chell has just destroyed the morality core or her conscience , one of the multiple " personality cores " which the Aperture Science employees allegedly installed after GLaDOS flooded the enrichment center with a deadly neurotoxin gas , and goes on to state that now there is nothing to prevent her from doing so once again . A six @-@ minute countdown starts as Chell dislodges and incinerates more pieces of GLaDOS , while GLaDOS attempts to discourage her both verbally , with a series of taunts and increasingly juvenile insults , and physically by firing rockets at her . After she has destroyed the final personality core , a portal malfunction tears the room apart and transports everything to the surface . Chell is then seen lying outside the facility 's gates amid the remains of GLaDOS . One of the final scenes is changed through a patch of the PC version that was made available a few days before Portal 2 's announcement ; in this retroactive continuity , Chell is dragged away from the scene by an unseen entity speaking in a robotic voice , thanking her for assuming the " party escort submission position " , revealing the entity to be a " party associate " .
The final scene , after a long and speedy zoom through the bowels of the facility , shows a Black Forest cake , and the Weighted Companion Cube , surrounded by a mix of shelves containing dozens of apparently inactive personality cores . One by one a number of the cores begin to light up , before a robotic arm descends and extinguishes the candle on the cake , causing the room to blackout . As the credits roll , GLaDOS delivers a concluding report : the song " Still Alive " , which declares the experiment to be a huge success , as well as serving to indicate to the player that GLaDOS is still alive , that her " happy " core wasn 't disabled .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept = = =
Portal is Valve 's spiritual successor to the freeware game Narbacular Drop , the 2005 independent game released by students of the DigiPen Institute of Technology ; the original Narbacular Drop team is now employed at Valve . Valve became interested in Narbacular Drop after seeing the game at DigiPen 's annual career fair ; Robin Walker , one of Valve 's developers , saw the game at the fair and later contacted the team providing them with advice and offering to show their game at Valve 's offices . After their presentation , Valve 's president Gabe Newell quickly offered the entire team jobs at Valve to develop the game further . Newell later commented that he was impressed with the DigiPen team as " they had actually carried the concept through " , already having included the interaction between portals and physics , completing most of the work that Valve would have had to commit on their own . Certain elements have been retained from Narbacular Drop , such as the system of identifying the two unique portal endpoints with the colors orange and blue . A key difference in the signature portal mechanic between the two games however is that Portal 's portal gun cannot create a portal through an existing portal unlike in Narbacular Drop . The game 's original setting , of a princess trying to escape a dungeon , was dropped in favor of the Aperture Science approach . Portal took approximately two years and four months to complete after the DigiPen team was brought into Valve , and no more than ten people were involved with its development . Portal writer Erik Wolpaw , who , along with fellow writer Chet Faliszek , was hired by Valve for the game , claimed that " Without the constraints , Portal would not be as good a game " .
The Portal team worked with Half @-@ Life series writer Marc Laidlaw on fitting the game into the series ' plot . This was done , in part , due to the limited art capabilities of the small team ; instead of creating new assets for Portal , they decided to tie the game to an existing franchise — Half @-@ Life — to allow them to reuse the Half @-@ Life 2 art assets . Wolpaw and Faliszek were put to work on the dialogue for Portal . The concept of a computer AI guiding the player through experimental facilities to test the portal gun was arrived at early in the writing process . They drafted early lines for the yet @-@ named " polite " AI with humorous situations , such as requesting the player 's character to " assume the party escort submission position " , and found this style of approach to be well @-@ suited to the game they wanted to create , ultimately leading to the creation of the GLaDOS character . GLaDOS was central to the plot , as Wolpaw notes " We designed the game to have a very clear beginning , middle , and end , and we wanted GLaDOS to go through a personality shift at each of these points . " Wolpaw further describes the idea of using cake as the reward came about as " at the beginning of the Portal development process , we sat down as a group to decide what philosopher or school of philosophy our game would be based on . That was followed by about 15 minutes of silence and then someone mentioned that a lot of people like cake . " The cake element along with additional messages given to the player in the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes areas were written and drawn by Kim Swift .
= = = Design = = =
The austere settings in the game came about because testers spent too much time trying to complete the puzzles using decorative but non @-@ functional elements . As a result , the setting was minimized to make the usable aspects of the puzzle easier to spot , using the clinical feel of the setting in the film The Island as reference . While there were plans for a third area , an office space , to be included after the test chambers and the maintenance areas , the team ran out of time to include it . They also dropped the introduction of the Rat Man , a character who left the messages in the maintenance areas , to avoid creating too much narrative for the game , though the character was developed further in a tie @-@ in comic " Lab Rat " , that ties Portal and Portal 2 's story together . According to project lead Kim Swift , the final battle with GLaDOS went through many iterations , including having the player chased by James Bond lasers , which was partially applied to the turrets , Portal Kombat where the player would have needed to redirect rockets while avoiding turret fire , and a chase sequence following a fleeing GLaDOS . Eventually , they found that playtesters enjoyed a rather simple puzzle with a countdown timer near the end ; Swift noted , " Time pressure makes people think something is a lot more complicated than it really is " , and Wolpaw admitted , " It was really cheap to make [ the neurotoxin gas ] " in order to simplify the dialogue during the battle .
Chell 's face and body are modeled after Alésia Glidewell , an American freelance actress and voice @-@ over artist , selected by Valve from a local modeling agency for her face and body structure . Ellen McLain provided the voice of the antagonist GLaDOS . Erik Wolpaw noted , " When we were still fishing around for the turret voice , Ellen did a sultry version . It didn 't work for the turrets , but we liked it a lot , and so a slightly modified version of that became the model for GLaDOS 's final incarnation . " Mike Patton performed the growling and snarling voice of GLaDOS 's final personality core , named the Anger Sphere .
The Weighted Companion Cube inspiration was from project lead Kim Swift with additional input from Wolpaw from reading some " declassified government interrogation thing " whereby " isolation leads subjects to begin to attach to inanimate objects " ; Swift commented , " We had a long level called Box Marathon ; we wanted players to bring this box with them from the beginning to the end . But people would forget about the box , so we added dialogue , applied the heart to the cube , and continued to up the ante until people became attached to the box . Later on , we added the incineration idea . The artistic expression grew from the gameplay . " Wolpaw further noted that the need to incinerate the Weighted Companion Cube came as a result of the final boss battle design ; they recognized they had not introduced the idea of incineration necessary to complete the boss battle , and by training the player to do it with the Weighted Companion Cube , found the narrative " way stronger " with its " death " . Swift noted that any similarities to psychological situations in the Milgram experiment or 2001 : A Space Odyssey are happenstance .
The portal gun 's full name , Aperture Science Handheld Portal Device , can be abbreviated as ASHPD , which resembles a shortening of the name Adrian Shephard , the protagonist of Half @-@ Life : Opposing Force . This similarity was noticed by fans before the game 's release ; as a result , the team placed a red herring in the game by having the letters of Adrian Shephard highlighted on keyboards found within the game . According to Kim Swift , the cake is a Black Forest cake that she thought looked the best at the nearby Regent Bakery and Café in Redmond , Washington , and , as an Easter egg within the game , its recipe is scattered among various screens showing lines of binary code . The Regent Bakery has stated that since the release of the game , its Black Forest cake has been one of its more popular items .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Most of the game 's soundtrack is non @-@ lyrical ambient music composed by Kelly Bailey and Mike Morasky , somewhat dark and mysterious to match the mood of the environments . The closing credits song , " Still Alive " , was written by Jonathan Coulton and sung by Ellen McLain ( a classically trained operatic soprano ) as the GLaDOS character . A brief instrumental version of Still Alive is played in an uptempo Latin style over radios in @-@ game . Wolpaw notes that Coulton was invited to Valve a year before the release of Portal , though it was not yet clear where Coulton would contribute . " Once Kim [ Swift ] and I met with him , it quickly became apparent that he had the perfect sensibility to write a song for GLaDOS . " The use of the song over the closing credits was based on a similar concept from the game God Hand , one of Wolpaw 's favorite titles . The song was released as a free downloadable song for the music video game Rock Band on April 1 , 2008 . The soundtrack for Portal was released as a part of The Orange Box Original Soundtrack and includes both GLaDOS 's in @-@ game rendition and Coulton 's vocal mix of " Still Alive " .
Portal 's soundtrack was released as part of a four @-@ disc retail release , Portal 2 : Songs To Test By ( Collector 's Edition ) , on October 30 , 2012 , featuring music from both games . The game 's soundtrack became available via Steam Music on September 24 , 2014 .
= = = Merchandise = = =
The popularity of the game and of its characters has led Valve to develop merchandise for Portal made available through its online Steam store . Some of the more popular items were the Weighted Companion Cube plush toys and fuzzy dice . When first released , both were sold out in under 24 hours . Other products available through the Valve store include T @-@ shirts and Aperture Science coffee mugs and parking stickers , and merchandise relating to the phrase the cake is a lie , which has become an internet meme . Wolpaw noted they did not expect certain elements of the game to be as popular as they were , while other elements they had expected to become fads were ignored , such as a giant hoop that rolls on @-@ screen during the final scene of the game that the team had named Hoopy .
= = = Distribution = = =
= = = = Demo = = = =
In January 2008 , Valve released a special demo version titled Portal : The First Slice , free for any Steam user using Nvidia graphics hardware as part of a collaboration between the two companies . It also comes packaged with Half @-@ Life 2 : Deathmatch , Peggle Extreme , and Half @-@ Life 2 : Lost Coast . The demo includes test chambers 00 to 10 ( eleven in total ) . Valve has since made the demo available to all Steam users .
= = = = Portal = = = =
Portal was first released as part of The Orange Box for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 on October 9 , 2007 , and for the PlayStation 3 on December 11 , 2007 . The Windows version of the game is also available for download separately through Valve 's content delivery system , Steam , and was released as a standalone retail product on April 9 , 2008 . In addition to Portal , the Box also included Half @-@ Life 2 and its two add @-@ on episodes , as well as Team Fortress 2 . Portal 's inclusion within the Box was considered an experiment by Valve ; having no idea of the success of Portal , the Box provided it a " safety net " via means of these other games . Portal was kept to a modest length in case the game did not go over well with players . Since then , a standalone version of the game was released for Microsoft Windows users .
Portal was the first Valve @-@ developed game to be added to the OS X @-@ compatible list of games available on the launch of the Steam client for Mac on May 12 , 2010 , supporting Steam Play , in which players that had bought the game either on a Macintosh or Windows computer could also play it on the alternate system . As part of the promotion , Portal was offered as a free title for any Steam user during the two weeks following the Mac client 's launch . Within the first week of this offer , over 1 @.@ 5 million copies of the game were downloaded through Steam . A similar promotion was held in September 2011 , near the start of a traditional school year , encouraging the use of the game as an educational tool for science and mathematics . Valve wrote that they felt that Portal " makes physics , math , logic , spatial reasoning , probability , and problem @-@ solving interesting , cool , and fun " , a necessary feature to draw children into learning . This was tied to Digital Promise , a United States Department of Education initiative to help develop new digital tools for education , and which Valve is part of .
During 2014 GPU Technology Conference on March 25 , 2014 , Nvidia announced that they are porting Portal to their Android handheld , the Nvidia Shield . The version was released on May 12 , 2014 .
= = = = Portal : Still Alive = = = =
Portal : Still Alive was announced as an exclusive Xbox Live Arcade game at the 2008 E3 convention , and was released on October 22 , 2008 . It features the original game , 14 new challenges , and new achievements . The additional content was based on levels from the map pack Portal : The Flash Version created by We Create Stuff and contains no additional story @-@ related levels . According to Valve spokesman Doug Lombardi , Microsoft had previously rejected Portal on the platform due to its large size . Portal : Still Alive was well received by reviewers . 1UP.com 's Andrew Hayward stated that , with the easier access and lower cost than paying for The Orange Box , Portal is now " stronger than ever " . IGN editor Cam Shea ranked it fifth on his top 10 list of Xbox Live Arcade games . He stated that it was debatable whether an owner of The Orange Box should purchase this , as its added levels do not add to the plot . However , he praised the quality of the new maps included in the game . The game ranked 7th in a later list of top Xbox Box Live titles compiled by IGN 's staff in September 2010 .
= = = = Mods = = = =
A modding community has developed around Portal , with users creating their own test chambers and other in @-@ game modifications . The group " We Create Stuff " created an Adobe Flash version of Portal , titled Portal : The Flash Version , just prior to release of The Orange Box . This flash version was well received by the community and the group have since converted it to a map pack for the published game . Another mod , Portal : Prelude , is an unofficial prequel developed by an independent team of three that focuses on the pre @-@ GLaDOS era of Aperture Science , and contains nineteen additional " crafty and challenging " test chambers . An ASCII version of Portal was created by Joe Larson . An unofficial port of Portal to the iPhone using the Unity game engine was created but only consisted of a single room from the game . Mari0 is a fan @-@ made four @-@ player coop mashup of the original Super Mario Bros. and Portal .
= = = Sequel = = =
Swift stated that future Portal developments would depend on the community 's reactions , saying , " We 're still playing it by ear at this point , figuring out if we want to do multiplayer next , or Portal 2 , or release map packs . " Some rumors regarding a sequel arose due to casting calls for voice actors . On March 10 , 2010 , Portal 2 was officially announced for a release late in that year ; the announcement was preceded by an alternate reality game based on unexpected patches made to Portal that contained cryptic messages in relation to Portal 2 's announcement , including an update to the game , creating a different ending for the fate of Chell . The original game left her in a deserted car park after destroying GLaDOS , but the update involved Chell being dragged back into the facility by a " Party Escort Bot " . Though Portal 2 was originally announced for a Q4 2010 release , the game was released on April 19 , 2011 .
= = = Film adaptation = = =
In February 2013 , it was reported that J. J. Abrams is in talks with Valve to develop a movie based upon Portal , alongside an adaptation of Half @-@ Life . Both projects are currently in the early states of development with no production date yet confirmed . In early 2016 , Abrams was asked if the movies were still in development and he confirmed that the project had writers attached but there was no progress to comment on .
= = Critical reception = =
Portal received critical acclaim , often earning more praise than either Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two or Team Fortress 2 , two titles also included in The Orange Box . It was praised for its unique gameplay and dark , deadpan humor . Eurogamer cited that " the way the game progresses from being a simple set of perfunctory tasks to a full @-@ on part of the Half @-@ Life story is absolute genius " , while GameSpy noted that " What Portal lacks in length , it more than makes up for in exhilaration . " The game was criticized for sparse environments , and both criticized and praised for its short length . Aggregate reviews for the stand @-@ alone PC version of Portal gave the game an average rating of 89 % based on 27 reviews through Game Rankings , and 90 % through 28 reviews on Metacritic . Upon release of Portal 2 , Valve stated that Portal has sold more than four million copies through the retail versions , including the standalone game and The Orange Box , and from the Xbox Live Arcade version . This figure does not include sales figures for Valve 's own Steam digital download service .
The game generated a fan following for the Weighted Companion Cube — even though the cube itself does not talk or act in the game . Fans have created plush and papercraft versions of the cube and the various turrets , as well as PC case mods and models of the Portal cake and portal gun . Jeep Barnett , a programmer for Portal , noted that players have told Valve that they had found it more emotional to incinerate the Weighted Companion Cube than to harm one of the " Little Sisters " from BioShock . Both GLaDOS and the Weighted Companion Cube were nominated for the Best New Character Award on G4 , with GLaDOS winning the award for " having lines that will be quoted by gamers for years to come . "
The usually acerbic Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw of Zero Punctuation gave the game the only entirely positive review in the show 's history , calling it " the most fun you 'll have with your PC until they invent a force @-@ feedback codpiece " . Croshaw went on to say : " I went in expecting a slew of interesting portal @-@ based puzzles and that 's exactly what I got , but what I wasn 't expecting was some of the funniest pitch black humor I 've ever heard in a game " . He states that , while the game was short , the two- to three @-@ hour length of the game was perfect as the game did not outstay its welcome , and called the ending " balls @-@ tighteningly fantastic " , while praising the game as " absolutely sublime from start to finish " ( adding that he would jam forks in his eyes if he ever praised a game so highly ever again ) .
Portal 's story has been stated to be well @-@ established in the context of Erving Goffman 's dissemination on dramaturgy , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life , which equates one 's persona to the front and back stage areas of a theater . In the case of Portal , the story carefully establishes the front stage , the pretense of the Enrichment Center , and hints at problems in the back stage through various technical faults , and then slowly reveals more and more of the back stage to the player throughout the game . Due to this , the video game was made part of the required course material among other classical and contemporary works , including Goffman 's work , for a freshman course " devoted to engaging students with fundamental questions of humanity from multiple perspectives and fostering a sense of community " for Wabash College in 2010 . Portal has also been cited as a strong example of instructional scaffolding that can be adapted for more academic learning situations , as the player , through careful design of levels by Valve , is first hand @-@ held in solving simple puzzles with many hints at the correct solution , but this support is slowly removed as the player progresses in the game , and completely removed when the player reaches the second half of the game . Rock , Paper , Shotgun 's Hamish Todd considered Portal as an exemplary means of game design by demonstrating a series of chambers after the player has obtained the portal gun that gently introduce the concept of flinging without any explicit instructions . Portal was exhibited at the Smithsonian Art Exhibition in America from February 14 through September 30 , 2012 . Portal won the " Action " section for the platform " Modern Windows " .
= = = Awards = = =
Portal has won several awards :
At the 2008 Game Developers Choice Awards , Portal won Game of the Year award , along with the Innovation Award and Best Game Design award .
IGN honored Portal with several awards , for Best Puzzle Game for PC and Xbox 360 , Most Innovative Design for PC , and Best End Credit Song ( for " Still Alive " ) for Xbox 360 , along with overall honors for Best Puzzle Game and Most Innovative Design .
In its Best of 2007 , GameSpot honored The Orange Box with 4 awards in recognition of Portal , giving out honors for Best Puzzle Game , Best New Character ( s ) ( for GLaDOS ) , Funniest Game , and Best Original Game Mechanic ( for the portal gun ) .
Portal was awarded Game of the Year ( PC ) , Best Narrative ( PC ) , and Best Innovation ( PC and console ) honors by 1UP.com in its 2007 editorial awards .
GamePro honored the game for Most Memorable Villain ( for GLaDOS ) in its Editors ' Choice 2007 Awards .
Portal was awarded the Game of the Year award in 2007 by Joystiq , Good Game , and Shacknews .
The Most Original Game award by X @-@ Play .
In Official Xbox Magazine 's 2007 Game of the Year Awards , Portal won Best New Character ( for GLaDOS ) , Best Original Song ( for " Still Alive " ) , and Innovation of the Year .
In GameSpy 's 2007 Game of the Year awards , Portal was recognized as Best Puzzle Game , Best Character ( for GLaDOS ) , and Best Sidekick ( for the Weighted Companion Cube ) .
The A.V. Club called it the Best Game of 2007 .
The webcomic Penny Arcade awarded Portal Best Soundtrack , Best Writing , and Best New Game Mechanic in its satirical 2007 We 're Right Awards .
Eurogamer gave Portal first place in its Top 50 Games of 2007 rankings .
IGN also placed GLaDOS , ( from Portal ) as the # 1 Video Game Villain on its Top @-@ 100 Villains List .
GamesRadar named it the best game of all time .
In November 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time .
Wired considered Portal to be one of the most influential games of the first decade of the 21st century , believing it to be the prime example of quality over quantity for video games .
= Television in Croatia =
Television in Croatia was first introduced in 1956 . As of 2012 there are 10 nationwide and 21 regional DVB @-@ T ( Digital Video Broadcasting – Terrestrial ) television channels , and more than 30 other channels either produced in the Republic of Croatia or produced for the Croatian market and broadcast via IPTV ( Internet Protocol television ) , cable or satellite television . The electronic communications market in Croatia is regulated by the Croatian Regulatory Authority for Network Industries ( HAKOM ) , which issues broadcast licenses and monitors the market . The DVB @-@ T and satellite transmission infrastructure is developed and maintained by the state @-@ owned company Odašiljači i veze ( OiV ) .
The first television signal broadcast in Croatia occurred in 1939 during the Zagreb Fair , where Philips showcased its television system . The first regular broadcasts started in 1956 , when Television Zagreb was established as the first TV station in the Yugoslav Radio Television system . Color broadcasts began in 1975 . Coverage and number of channels grew steadily , and by the 2000s there were four channels with nationwide coverage in Croatia . DVB @-@ T signal broadcasts began in 2002 , and in 2010 a full digital switchover was completed . During that period the IPTV , cable and satellite television markets grew considerably , and by 2011 only 60 @.@ 7 percent of households received DVB @-@ T television only ; the remainder were subscribed to IPTV , cable and satellite TV in addition , or as the sole source of TV reception . As of January 2012 DVB @-@ T is broadcast in three multiplexes , while the territory of Croatia is divided into nine main allotment regions and smaller local allotments corresponding to major cities . High @-@ definition television ( HDTV ) is broadcast only through IPTV , although HDTV DVB @-@ T test programming was broadcast from 2007 to 2011 . A DVB @-@ T2 test broadcast was conducted in 2011 .
Television in Croatia , as all other media in the country are criticised for lack of balance of global issues and trends on one hand and national topics covered on the other . All major television networks in Croatia are generally thought to be under excessive influence of commercialism . State owned Croatian Radiotelevision is required to produce and broadcast educational programmes , documentaries , and programmes aimed at the diaspora and national minorities in Croatia . The television in Croatia is considered to be important in avenue for non @-@ governmental organizations communicating their concerns to the public and to criticising the authorities . Television is the primary source of information for 57 % of the population of Croatia .
= = Analog television = =
= = = Introduction of television = = =
Zagreb was one of the first European cities where television pictures were broadcast . Beginning on 26 August 1939 the Zagreb Fair featured a Philips television system , operated for short periods each day of the exhibition ( until 4 September ) . The Philips television , consisting of a transmitter and several receivers , was operated by Eric Klaas de Vries in the Dutch pavilion at the fair . The fair newspaper announced the event as the first , after television broadcasts in London and Berlin . The programming consisted of comedy , opera , music performances and the first TV news broadcast in Croatia .
The first TV broadcast after the 1939 Zagreb Fair was in 1956 . A transmitter was set up on Sljeme in the Tomislavov Dom Hotel and during the evening of 15 May 1956 , Austrian and Italian channels were transmitted ( including Rai 1 ) . The first live broadcast produced locally was the transmission of the opening of the Zagreb Fair on 7 September 1956 , and Television Zagreb began regular broadcasting on 29 November .
= = = Development = = =
The Zagreb TV centre became a member of the Yugoslav Radio Television ( JRT ) ( an umbrella organization of television stations in Yugoslavia ) , acting as Eurovision Technical Centre for the JRT . In 1972 Television Zagreb began broadcasting of its second channel , and switched to airing its programming in color in 1975 . The third Television Zagreb channel was introduced in 1988 , and teletext service was launched in 1990 . Following the breakup of Yugoslavia , Television Zagreb was renamed Croatian Radiotelevision ( HRT ) and it became a member of the European Broadcasting Union ; however , HRT suffered significant war damage to its infrastructure as 80 percent of its transmitters and 30 relay stations were damaged , destroyed or occupied . In October 1999 all three nationwide HRT channels started broadcasting around the clock , but in 2002 the third HRT channel ceased operation . Nova TV , the first privately owned television station in Croatia , began operating in 2000 . It was followed by another privately owned broadcaster , RTL Televizija , on 30 April 2004 . Both Nova TV and RTL Televizija aired a single analog TV channel each .
In 2002 , Odašiljači i veze d.o.o. was set up as an independent company ; it was previously a part of HRT and tasked with maintaining the television @-@ transmission infrastructure in Croatia . In 2014 there were 26 TV stations in Croatia , including the four nationwide channels .
= = = End of analog broadcasting = = =
The Government of Croatia decided that multicast ( simultaneous analog and digital DVB @-@ T broadcasting of the main channels ) was to cease in 2010 . The territory of Croatia was split into nine digital @-@ TV allotment regions . The analog broadcast network was switched off gradually ( by the digital @-@ TV allotment regions ) beginning on 26 January 2010 . The process was completed , achieving digital switchover on 5 October 2010 , but geographically isolated areas were left with analog broadcasts . The last analog TV transmitter in Croatia was shut down on 30 September 2011 , as DVB @-@ T coverage was extended to 98 @.@ 5 percent of households in Croatia and no less than 95 percent of households in each of the allotment regions . Approximately 6 @,@ 000 households were left with no reception of DVB @-@ T or analog TV broadcasts .
= = DVB @-@ T television = =
The first trial broadcasts of DVB @-@ T signals began in May 2002 in Zagreb , and in 2008 the government developed an Analogue to Digital Television Broadcasting Switchover Strategy for the Republic of Croatia . In July 2008 , this Government of Croatia announced that 106 million kuna ( c . 14 @.@ 1 million euros ) were earmarked for the purpose . The government @-@ subsidized purchase of DVB @-@ T receivers , distributing discount coupons worth 75 kuna ( c . 10 euros ) to subscribers of the Croatian Radiotelevision ( HRT ) . The first two multiplexes ( MUX A and MUX B ) were introduced in April 2009 , with the third ( MUX D ) introduced in July 2010 . On 5 October 2010 the switch to DVB @-@ T was virtually complete , as all major analog TV transmitters were phased out . The DVB @-@ T transmissions in Croatia are all standard @-@ definition , MPEG @-@ 2 . MUX A is available to more than 98 @.@ 5 percent of the population of Croatia , and both MUX A and MUX B are available to more than 95 percent of population in each multiplex @-@ allotment region . MUX D is available to approximately 90 percent of the population of Croatia , and at least 70 percent of the population in each of the allotment regions . There are 897 @,@ 496 households ( 60 @.@ 7 percent ) in Croatia receiving DVB @-@ T television only . The terrestrial television infrastructure in Croatia is operated by Odašiljači i veze d.o.o. ( OIV ) . The company was established as an independent entity in 2002 , when a division developing and maintaining electronic communications infrastructure was removed from the HRT corporate system . As of January 2012 , OIV operates and maintains 222 television transmitters and broadcast relay stations .
There are nine main regions of digital TV allotments ( encompassing larger portions of Croatia ) and additional , geographically small allotment areas designed for local broadcasters ( typically covering a single city ) . The main DVB @-@ T television allotment regions are assigned markings D1 – D9 . The D1 region encompasses Osijek @-@ Baranja and Vukovar @-@ Syrmia counties , as well as parts of Brod @-@ Posavina County east of Oprisavci . The D2 region covers the rest of Brod @-@ Posavina County , Požega @-@ Slavonia and Virovitica @-@ Podravina counties and nearly all of Bjelovar @-@ Bilogora County , except for an area north of the city of Bjelovar and part of Sisak @-@ Moslavina County around the town of Novska . The D3 region includes a part of Bjelovar @-@ Bilogora County not encompassed by the D2 region , as well as the territories of Koprivnica @-@ Križevci , Varaždin and Međimurje counties . The D4 region includes Sisak @-@ Moslavina County ( except the area around Novska ) , Krapina @-@ Zagorje and Zagreb counties , the city of Zagreb and the northern part of Karlovac County ( including Karlovac and Duga Resa ) .
The D5 region covers Istria County and Primorje @-@ Gorski Kotar County ( except parts of the county east of Ravna Gora and the area around Novalja on the island of Pag ) , but it includes the coastal areas of Lika @-@ Senj County opposite the islands of Krk and Rab . The D6 region encompasses parts of Primorje @-@ Gorski Kotar and Lika @-@ Senj counties outside the D4 and D5 regions , except for parts of the latter ( south of Lovinac ) and coastal parts of the same county opposite the island of Pag . Those two areas are a part of the D7 region , along with Zadar and Šibenik @-@ Knin counties . The D8 region includes the entire Split @-@ Dalmatia County as well as parts of Dubrovnik @-@ Neretva County around Ploče and Metković , a part of Pelješac peninsula west of Dubrava and the islands of Korčula and Lastovo . The D9 region encompasses the rest of Dubrovnik @-@ Neretva County .
There are also 12 local DVB @-@ T television allotment regions , covering specific cities and their immediate surroundings . Those are d11 in Osijek , d21 in Slavonski Brod , d31 covering Varaždin and Čakovec , d44 encompassing Zagreb and Velika Gorica , d45 in Jastrebarsko , d46 covering Karlovac and Duga Resa , d53 encompassing Rijeka , Crikvenica , Novi Vinodolski and most of the island of Krk , d54 in Pula and Rovinj , d71 in Zadar , d72 in Šibenik , d82 covering Split , Trogir , Omiš , the island of Šolta and a large part of the island of Brač , and d91 in Dubrovnik . A local multiplex named " L @-@ ZA " started in 2015 on UHF 41 in the town of Sveta Nedelja , transmitting local channel TV Zapad .
When Italian DVB @-@ T broadcasting started in December 2010 interference was observed in northwest parts of Istria , and later in areas around Zadar and Šibenik . The interference was caused by the use of frequencies assigned to Croatia by Italian transmitters and excessive transmitter power . A complaint was filed by the Croatian regulator of the DVB @-@ T market , the Croatian Regulatory Authority for Network Industries ( HAKOM ) , with the Italian authorities . OIV installed additional transmitters in the affected areas to strengthen its signal coverage and reduce interference by February 2011 at a cost of 1 million kuna ( c . 133 @,@ 000 euros ) . Although Italian Minister of Economic Development Paolo Romani announced in August 2011 that the problems should be resolved shortly ( a transmitter causing interference was shut down and the power of several others was reduced ) , the situation was not completely resolved throughout 2011 and the International Telecommunication Union 's Radio Regulations Board became involved in the process . In the meantime , other technical solutions were devised and implemented ( in addition to the emergency transmitters ) in order to improve digital @-@ television @-@ signal reception .
= = = Nationwide channels = = =
As of May 2014 , there are eleven nationwide free @-@ to @-@ air DVB @-@ T television channels , with HRT 's four channels , RTL Televizija operating three , Nova TV operating two and the remaining two operated by the Croatian Olympic Committee and Author d.o.o. companies and the government 's Central State Administrative Office for e @-@ Croatia . All ten DVB @-@ T television channels are free @-@ to @-@ air and privately owned , except for HRT 's channels and the Moja uprava channel ( which are publicly owned broadcasters ) . Doma TV is part of the Nova TV group . Since 2007 television audience measurement is conducted by the Nielsen Company using 1 @,@ 086 peoplemeters , and it is applied to terrestrial , cable and satellite TV . As of January 2012 HRT , RTL Televizija and Nova TV are using the service .
HRT 1 , Nova TV and RTL Televizija channels ' programmes are not specialized and comprise news , a variety of scripted and unscripted entertainment , as well as documentaries . HRT2 , Doma TV and RTL 2 channels , carry similar type of programmes , except for absence of news . In addition , Croatian Radiotelevision is legally required to produce and broadcast programmes covering education of youths , aimed at the Croatian diaspora , national minorities in Croatia , preservation of cultural and natural heritage , protection of the environment , promotion of democracy and civil society , and support national production of films , television programme and music . Other nationwide channels are specialized providing informational programmes , covering sports or music .
= = = Regional and local channels = = =
There are 21 regional ( or local ) DVB @-@ T television channels operating in Croatia in MUX D. The number of channels broadcasting in individual regions varies from one to four , while some local DVB @-@ T television local @-@ allotment regions are vacant as of December 2011 . Four regional ( or local ) television channels are broadcast in more than one allotment region . All regional and local channels are free @-@ to @-@ air . As of January 2012 Z1 televizija is measuring its audience with the Nielsen Company 's peoplemeters for terrestrial , cable and satellite TV .
= = = HDTV and DVB @-@ T2 = = =
Experimental high @-@ definition television ( HDTV ) broadcasting began in Zagreb in March 2007 ; it was expanded to Split , Rijeka and Osijek in 2008 . Experimental HDTV broadcasting ended in February 2011 . There were two experimental HDTV channels , operated by Croatian Radiotelevision and Nova TV . Pursuant to the digital television switchover developed by the Government of Croatia , broadcasting of DVB @-@ T HDTV channels was conducted in MPEG @-@ 4 . On 11 October 2011 experimental DVB @-@ T2 broadcasting began in Zagreb , using H.264 / MPEG @-@ 4 AVC coding and a conditional access system .
= = = Multiplexes = = =
There are three active multiplexes ( MUX ) in Croatia . MUX A and MUX B are reserved for nationwide channels , and MUX D is used for channels broadcast locally and nationwide . MUX A broadcasts HRT 1 , HRT 2 , RTL and Nova TV channels . MUX B broadcasts HRT 3 , HRT 4 , RTL 2 and Doma TV . MUX D broadcasts three nationwide channels Sportska televizija ( SPTV ) , RTL Kockica and Croatian Music Channel ( CMC ) in addition to local TV channels .
A competition for two channels in MUX B was announced in July 2010 , and HAKOM received offers for the following channels : RTL 2 , Doma TV , OBN and KN . Finally , licenses were given to RTL 2 and Doma TV . RTL2 and Doma TV began broadcasting on 2 January 2011 . Licences for broadcasting in the national segment of Mux D were given to Croatian Music Channel ( CMC ) , Sportska Televizija ( owned by the Croatian Olympic Committee ) and KN in December 2010 . They started broadcasting in late March and early April 2011 . KN was originally broadcast in MUX B ; as holder of a license for a testing period , they won an experimental 6 @-@ month period license ( and later switched to MUX D , which carries both local and nationwide services simultaneously ) . MUX B also carries two new channels — HRT 3 and HRT 4 . The two are expected to begin broadcasting by the end of 2012 .
= = IPTV , cable and satellite television = =
IPTV is recording rapid market growth ; between 2009 and 2010 , the number of households subscribed to an IPTV service grew by 23 percent to nearly 300 @,@ 000 . In terms of IPTV density Croatia is the fifth @-@ ranked market in the world , trailing only Singapore , Hong Kong , Cyprus and Estonia . The number rose further by the third quarter of 2011 to a total of 349 @,@ 138 households , representing 23 @.@ 6 percent of Croatian households . At the same time there were 144 @,@ 439 households with cable television connections and 104 @,@ 635 households with satellite television reception ( representing 9 @.@ 8 and 7 @.@ 1 percent of households in Croatia , respectively ) . The leading IPTV provider in Croatia is T @-@ Hrvatski Telekom with its MaxTV service , while Vipnet @-@ owned B.net is the leading cable @-@ television provider in the country . Since 2009 , some providers offer HDTV reception of IPTV channels . The IPTV and satellite @-@ TV providers normally carry all channels otherwise available in DVB @-@ T , with additional channels ( produced in Croatia and abroad ) available through various subscription plans . A significant proportion of the foreign channels are localized through dubbing or subtitles . The two largest IPTV and cable TV providers offer 31 channels produced in Croatia ( or specifically for Croatia ) , in addition to those broadcasting in DVB @-@ T. Viewership of cable and satellite TV channels broadcast by HRT , RTL Televizija , Nova TV and Z1 Televizija is measured by Nielsen Company peoplemeters .
= = = Dedicated satellite channels = = =
HRT broadcasts dedicated satellite channels for Europe and the Middle East , North and South America , Australia and New Zealand ; viewing the channels requires a subscription . Channels broadcast to Europe and the Middle East via the Eutelsat 16A satellite ( using Viaccess conditional access ) are HRT 1 , HRT 2 , HRT 3 and HRT 4 . The satellite channels are also used to transmit three free @-@ to @-@ air radio channels produced by HRT .
= = Market regulation = =
The television industry in Croatia is regulated by the Croatian Regulatory Authority for Network Industries ( HAKOM ) . HAKOM was established by the Electronic Communications Act of 26 June 2008 ; pursuant to Article 5 of the act , HAKOM is tasked with promoting and safeguarding market competition and the interests of service users in the field of electronic communication services and infrastructure , while contributing to the development of the internal market of the European Union . HAKOM 's goals include ensuring sustainable development of the electronic communications market at affordable prices for consumers , providing fair conditions for return on investment in the market and contributing to the quality of life in Croatia . Further regulation of the television is performed by the Electronic Media Council , which enacts mandatory regulation applying to both state @-@ run and privately owned broadcasters based in Croatia . One such regulation , aimed at protection of minors , restricts depictions of violence , sexual intercourse , profanity , use of intoxicating substances and tobacco and other scenes which may be harmful to development of minors between seven in the morning and nine , ten or eleven in the evening , depending on rating of specific programme — advising that the programme is not suitable for persons under 12 , 15 or 18 years of age respectively . The restriction does not apply to educational , documentary , science or news programming .
HAKOM grants , evaluates and revokes broadcast licenses for all forms of electronic communications in Croatia , approves mergers of communications @-@ industry companies , imposes fines on those who are found to be in breach of applicable regulation and conducts constant supervision of the industry .
= = Language localisation = =
National legislation requires that all television programmes broadcasts in Croatia are made in Croatian language or with appropriate translations either using dubbing or subtitling . In general , all foreign programming is subtitled , except for cartoons and narrated parts of documentaries and similar programmes . An attempt to change this was made by Nova TV in 2006 , when a soap opera was dubbed , but the move provoked negative response from viewers and critics , causing the experiment to be abandoned . The legislation does not provide for mutually intelligible languages . That led to formal requests made by the Electronic Media Council demanding language localisation of television programmes made in Serbian language . Ultimately , that issue was resolved through subtitling using teletext service normally used for closed captioning .
= = Social impact = =
Television in Croatia , as all other media in the country are criticized for lack of balance of global issues and trends on one hand and national topics covered on the other . All major television networks in Croatia are generally thought to be under excessive influence of commercialism . This is viewed through international ownership structures of the privately owned television broadcasters having little regard for promotion of national culture and social issues , as well as through efforts of the state @-@ run HRT to attract advertisers through programming that is thought to appeal to the viewers the best in spite of regulation of programming content and restricted advertising at the HRT . The HRT is limited by a special legislation regulating that broadcaster to four minutes of advertising in prime time period between 6 and 10 in the evening . On the other hand , the HRT receives income from a fee charged to owners of television sets in Croatia in the amount of 1 @.@ 5 % of average monthly net wage in Croatia . In 2012 , the fee charged is 80 kunas ( c . 10 @.@ 60 Euros ) . In 2010 , annual income of the HRT generated by the fee amounted to 1 @.@ 2 billion kunas ( c . 160 million Euros ) .
Even though social impact of television in Croatia is considered to be imperfect and that of variable quality , television is important in the society because it offers a way for non @-@ governmental organizations to communicate their concerns to the public and to criticize the government and other aspects of politics of Croatia . Television is the most widespread source of information in Croatia — on average 57 % of the population of Croatia uses television as their primary source of information . That percentage varies significantly by geographic region — from 43 % in Zagreb and areas surrounding the capital to 79 % in Slavonia — but in every region it surpasses all other sources of information , the second most widely used source of information being the Internet averaging at 19 % . In 2014 there were 1 @.@ 755 million registered television sets in the country .
= History of biology =
The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times . Although the concept of biology as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century , the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to ayurveda , ancient Egyptian medicine and the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco @-@ Roman world . This ancient work was further developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians and scholars such as Avicenna . During the European Renaissance and early modern period , biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms . Prominent in this movement were Vesalius and Harvey , who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology , and naturalists such as Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil record , as well as the development and behavior of organisms . Microscopy revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms , laying the groundwork for cell theory . The growing importance of natural theology , partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy , encouraged the growth of natural history ( although it entrenched the argument from design ) .
Over the 18th and 19th centuries , biological sciences such as botany and zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines . Lavoisier and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry . Explorer @-@ naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment , and the ways this relationship depends on geography — laying the foundations for biogeography , ecology and ethology . Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species . Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life . These developments , as well as the results from embryology and paleontology , were synthesized in Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection . The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease , though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery .
In the early 20th century , the rediscovery of Mendel 's work led to the rapid development of genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students , and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the " neo @-@ Darwinian synthesis " . New disciplines developed rapidly , especially after Watson and Crick proposed the structure of DNA . Following the establishment of the Central Dogma and the cracking of the genetic code , biology was largely split between organismal biology — the fields that deal with whole organisms and groups of organisms — and the fields related to cellular and molecular biology . By the late 20th century , new fields like genomics and proteomics were reversing this trend , with organismal biologists using molecular techniques , and molecular and cell biologists investigating the interplay between genes and the environment , as well as the genetics of natural populations of organisms .
= = Etymology of " biology " = =
The word biology is formed by combining the Greek βίος ( bios ) , meaning " life " , and the suffix ' -logy ' , meaning " science of " , " knowledge of " , " study of " , based on the Greek verb λέγειν , ' legein ' " to select " , " to gather " ( cf. the noun λόγος , ' logos ' " word " ) . The term biology in its modern sense appears to have been introduced independently by Thomas Beddoes ( in 1799 ) , Karl Friedrich Burdach ( in 1800 ) , Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus ( Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur , 1802 ) and Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck ( Hydrogéologie , 1802 ) . The word itself appears in the title of Volume 3 of Michael Christoph Hanow 's Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae : Geologia , biologia , phytologia generalis et dendrologia , published in 1766 .
Before biology , there were several terms used for the study of animals and plants . Natural history referred to the descriptive aspects of biology , though it also included mineralogy and other non @-@ biological fields ; from the Middle Ages through the Renaissance , the unifying framework of natural history was the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being . Natural philosophy and natural theology encompassed the conceptual and metaphysical basis of plant and animal life , dealing with problems of why organisms exist and behave the way they do , though these subjects also included what is now geology , physics , chemistry , and astronomy . Physiology and ( botanical ) pharmacology were the province of medicine . Botany , zoology , and ( in the case of fossils ) geology replaced natural history and natural philosophy in the 18th and 19th centuries before biology was widely adopted . To this day , " botany " and " zoology " are widely used , although they have been joined by other sub @-@ disciplines of biology , such as mycology and molecular biology .
= = Ancient and medieval knowledge = =
= = = Early cultures = = =
The earliest humans must have had and passed on knowledge about plants and animals to increase their chances of survival . This may have included knowledge of human and animal anatomy and aspects of animal behavior ( such as migration patterns ) . However , the first major turning point in biological knowledge came with the Neolithic Revolution about 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Humans first domesticated plants for farming , then livestock animals to accompany the resulting sedentary societies .
The ancient cultures of Mesopotamia , Egypt , the Indian subcontinent , and China , among others , produced renowned surgeons and students of the natural sciences such as Susruta and Zhang Zhongjing , reflecting independent sophisticated systems of natural philosophy . However , the roots of modern biology are usually traced back to the secular tradition of ancient Greek philosophy .
= = = = Ancient Chinese traditions = = = =
In ancient China , biological topics can be found dispersed across several different disciplines , including the work of herbologists , physicians , alchemists , and philosophers . The Taoist tradition of Chinese alchemy , for example , can be considered part of the life sciences due to its emphasis on health ( with the ultimate goal being the elixir of life ) . The system of classical Chinese medicine usually revolved around the theory of yin and yang , and the five phases . Taoist philosophers , such as Zhuangzi in the 4th century BCE , also expressed ideas related to evolution , such as denying the fixity of biological species and speculating that species had developed differing attributes in response to differing environments .
= = = = Ancient Indian traditions = = = =
One of the oldest organised systems of medicine is known from the Indian subcontinent in the form of Ayurveda which originated around 1500 BCE from Atharvaveda ( one of the four most ancient books of Indian knowledge , wisdom and culture ) .
The ancient Indian Ayurveda tradition independently developed the concept of three humours , resembling that of the four humours of ancient Greek medicine , though the Ayurvedic system included further complications , such as the body being composed of five elements and seven basic tissues . Ayurvedic writers also classified living things into four categories based on the method of birth ( from the womb , eggs , heat & moisture , and seeds ) and explained the conception of a fetus in detail . They also made considerable advances in the field of surgery , often without the use of human dissection or animal vivisection . One of the earliest Ayurvedic treatises was the Sushruta Samhita , attributed to Sushruta in the 6th century BCE . It was also an early materia medica , describing 700 medicinal plants , 64 preparations from mineral sources , and 57 preparations based on animal sources .
= = = = Ancient Mesopotamian traditions = = = =
Ancient Mesopotamian medicine may be represented by Esagil @-@ kin @-@ apli , a prominent scholar of the 11th century BCE , who made a compilation of medical prescriptions and procedures , which he presented as exorcisms .
= = = = Ancient Egyptian traditions = = = =
Over a dozen medical papyri have been preserved , most notably the Edwin Smith Papyrus ( the oldest
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are to recruit workers , smell nestmates , and facilitate oral exchanges of food and pheromones . Most importantly , however , is the fact that distress noises made by the queen causes workers to raise their guard and bolster her protection .
Researchers speculate that acoustical mimicry is related to the level of interaction between the host and parasite . In the Phengaris genus , there are two different strategies : the cuckoo strategy used by P. rebeli and the predatory strategy used by Phengaris arion . In P. rebeli , the Phengaris larvae become integrated into the colony and are attended by worker ants . However , larvae in predatory species prey on the ants ’ brood and consequently spend much of their life hiding in pockets of the brood nest .
= = = Integration into host ’ s life = = =
There are two phases for P. rebeli ’ s complete integration into the Myrmica schencki ant colony : initial integration and full integration . In both stages of integration , the P. rebeli caterpillar is brought into the brood nest ; however , in full integration , the P. rebeli also achieves its high social status within the host society . That status is crucial for surviving periods of host colony stress such as food shortage .
Studies have shown that the P. rebeli caterpillars benefit most when they parasitize off of the Myrmica schencki ant colony than any other ant colony . When Myrmica ant colonies encounter a period of food shortage , more P. rebeli caterpillars survive than if this food shortage were to occur in any other species of ant colony . This is because the P. rebeli caterpillars have a lower social rank in other ant species compared to their social rank in the M. schencki ant colony . This phenomenon is seen during times of stress , when some of the hungry P. reblei caterpillars secrete compounds to attract attention from the ant colony it has parasitized . While the M. schencki ants are still fooled into believing that the P. rebeli are of their own brood , these compounds do not mimic those of non @-@ host species ' societies in other ant species , and thus , results in the P. rebeli being identified as intruders and killed .
On the other hand , the M. schencki prefers to feeds the P. rebeli during times of food shortage . Thus , in periods of starvation , P. rebeli caterpillars overall exhibit a higher survival rate than those of the M. schencki larvae .
= = = Polymorphism of growth in larvae = = =
Polymorphism in Lepidoptera is a common occurrence and the P. rebeli caterpillar is no exception as it displays polymorphism in its larval form . The P. rebeli caterpillars have two strategies for living and growing underground : to exist as fast @-@ developing larvae ( FDL ) or slow @-@ developing larvae ( SDL ) . After the ant brood adopts the FDL , which comprise approximately 25 % of the total P. rebeli larvae , the FDL complete growth the following spring and eclose ( emerge as an adult from the pupa ) in early summer to complete their life cycle . The SDL , which comprise 75 % of P. rebeli larvae , do not grow much during the first year , but grow rapidly during the early part of the second summer and remain a second winter within the ant colonies . While both larva types ultimately form similar @-@ sized pupae , their polymorphic growth rates could indicate alternative fitness strategies and different ways to exploit the M. schencki ’ s food resources .
Other researchers hypothesize that another alternative growth strategy will evolve in the P. rebeli , in which the P. rebeli will parasitize the M. schencki ants for an even longer period of time than the slow developing larvae . Most researchers , however , find this hypothesis highly unlikely because it is not an evolutionarily stable strategy . At the rate the P. rebeli parasitizes the M. schencki ants , the host colony is unlikely to last as a viable food source for more than two years ( the average lifespan of the longer polymorph of P. rebeli ) . Once the host colony reaches its lifespan of two years and dies , the P. rebeli loses its food source and dies as well .
The P. rebeli ’ s developmental rate shows great phenotypic plasticity ( changing its developmental rate in response to changes in the environment ) , as it develops very quickly in the lab and in the Pyrenees and Southern Alps . Scientists hypothesize that this plasticity is due to warm conditions and more light exposure , which affects larval development . Abundant food resources are also thought to play a part in quickened development .
Studies have shown that smaller @-@ sized P. rebeli from Hungary normally eclose at the end of June or mid @-@ July ; however , when these populations are studied in laboratories , they do not eclose until late August . This has led researchers to speculate that P. rebeli larvae that do not receive adequate food can still fully develop in one year and act as a functioning adult . However , they are unlikely to be bivoltine ( producing two broods in one season ) . This hypothesis is supported by the fact that certain researchers claim that P. rebeli larvae can have continuous development .
= = = Vestigial mutualism = = =
P. rebeli pupae prey upon their broodmates , while producing sugar @-@ rich secretions which worker ants imbibe . In one experiment , P. rebeli specimens which consumed ant larvae developed more quickly than those who did not . However , despite their nourishing offering to the community , they invariably imposed a net loss in the survival rates of workers and broodmates , demonstrating that the species is parasitic ( rather than mutualistic ) at all stages in its host colony .
= = Relationship with host plant Gentiana cruciata = =
Besides parasitizing the host ant , P. rebeli also parasitizes the grassland plant Gentiana cruciata as a source of nutrition and feed off of its flowers and developing fruits .
The larger the population size of the G. cruciata , the more flowers and seeds the plant produces ; however , there is also a positive link between the population size of the G. cruciata and the frequency of P. rebeli parasitizing the plant . Researchers are particularly interested in the G. cruciata plant because both the P. rebeli and G. cruciata are endangered . As a result , lepidopterists believe that conserving the P. rebeli requires focusing conservation efforts on preserving G. cruciata as well .
Researchers discovered that where the P. rebeli lay their eggs is based on the size of the G. cruciata leaves and not upon the location of the closest Myrmica ant colony . Evidence for P. rebeli ’ s oviposition depending upon the range of the food plant rather than the range of the ants is supported by the timing of its oviposition . P. rebeli lays their eggs during the warm summer season , when Myrmica ants are most likely to be underground . Researchers also observed females did not base their oviposition on where they found Myrmica nests .
= = Relationship with the parasitic wasp , Ichneumon eumerus = =
Though P. rebeli parasitizes the Myrmica schencki ants and Gentiana cruciata foodplant , it also acts as a host to the parasitoid Ichneumon wasp ( Ichneumon eumerus ) . The I. eumerus is a wasp that attempts to parasitize the P. rebeli after it has been introduced to the Myrmica ants ’ nests . The adult wasp searches for Myrmica ant nests by responding strongly to the scent of Myrmica schencki ants , the species that P. rebeli most commonly and successfully parasitizes .
After locating the M. schnecki nest , the wasp enters only the nests that contain P. rebeli caterpillars . It is able to enter the nest without being swarmed because it releases a chemical that causes the worker ants to attack one another instead of concentrating all their efforts on the wasp . Once the wasp reaches the caterpillars , it marks the individuals most likely to survive by ovipositing in them . Once the wasp ’ s eggs hatch from the caterpillar ’ s body , the newborn offspring feast on the caterpillar ’ s carcass .
= = Conflicts over classification = =
Several researchers argue that the P. rebeli has not evolved into a separate species from the Phengaris alcon . Researchers have determined that both species share a similar adult morphology , DNA and allozymes . They found that any variation between the two species is due to intraspecific variation , meaning that they are not distinct species . Furthermore , they both have similar methods of parasitizing the host ant : they act as parasitic " cuckoos " within the ant nest and feed upon the ants ' regurgitation . This is compared to the alternative method of predation that other butterflies , such as the Maculinea arion utilize to parasitize the host ant .
To test this hypothesis , researchers examined how each species utilized the host ants . The M. schencki , M. sabuleti are parasitized by P. rebeli while the M. salina and M. vandeli are parasitized by the P. alcon . The M. scabrinodis is parasitized by both the P. rebeli and the P. alcon ; however , the P. alcon is far more likely to parasitize M. scabrinodis than the P. rebeli . Researchers found that in general , P. alcon was far more likely to parasitize the host ant than P. rebeli ; however , ant nests that supported the P. alcon were much smaller and supported lower populations than ant nests that supported P. rebeli .
= = Conservation status = =
The P. rebeli has been rigorously studied in Europe because it has priority conservation status and was classified as “ vulnerable ” in 2000 by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , which is described to be “ the world ’ s most comprehensive inventory ” that lists the conservation status of plants and animals . It was first brought to the IUCN ’ s attention and listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 1986 . The reason for being categorized as “ vulnerable ” is that despite its wide distribution , it has decreased by 20 @-@ 50 % over the last 25 years and has reached extinction in at least one country .
The reasons for this drastic population reduction are thought to be due to agricultural improvements , abandonment of extensive management , and deforestation . As the area of the Gentiana cruciata , the foodplant that the P. rebeli depends on , decreases , the P. rebeli population also decreases .
= = Gallery = =
= Isaac Shelby =
Isaac Shelby ( December 11 , 1750 – July 18 , 1826 ) was the first and fifth Governor of the U.S. state of Kentucky and served in the state legislatures of Virginia and North Carolina . He was also a soldier in Lord Dunmore 's War , the Revolutionary War , and the War of 1812 . While governor , he personally led the Kentucky militia in the Battle of the Thames , an action that was rewarded with a Congressional Gold Medal . Counties in nine states , and several cities and military bases , have been named in his honor . His fondness for John Dickinson 's The Liberty Song is believed to be the reason Kentucky adopted the state motto " United we stand , divided we fall " .
Shelby 's military service began when he served as second @-@ in @-@ command to his father at the Battle of Point Pleasant , the only major battle of Lord Dunmore 's War . He gained the reputation of an expert woodsman and surveyor , and spent the early part of the Revolutionary War gathering supplies for the Continental Army . Later in the war , he and John Sevier led expeditions over the Appalachian Mountains against the British forces in North Carolina . He played a pivotal role in the British defeat at the Battle of King 's Mountain . For his service , he was presented with a ceremonial sword and a pair of pistols by the North Carolina legislature , and the nickname " Old King 's Mountain " followed him the rest of his life .
Following the war , Shelby relocated to Kentucky on lands awarded to him for his military service and became involved in Kentucky 's transition from a county of Virginia to an independent state . His heroism made him popular with the citizens of the state , and the state electoral college unanimously elected him governor in 1792 . He secured the state from Indian attacks and organized its first government . He leveraged the Citizen Genet affair to convince the Washington administration to make an agreement with the Spanish for free trade on the Mississippi River .
At the end of his gubernatorial term , Shelby retired from public life , but he was called back into politics by the impending War of 1812 . Kentuckians urged Shelby to run for governor again and lead them through the anticipated conflict . He was elected easily , and at the request of General William Henry Harrison , commanded troops from Kentucky at the Battle of the Thames . At the conclusion of the war , he declined President James Monroe 's offer to become Secretary of War . In his last act of public service , he and Andrew Jackson acted as commissioners to negotiate the Jackson Purchase from the Chickasaw Indian tribe . Shelby died at his estate in Lincoln County , Kentucky , on July 18 , 1826 .
= = Early life = =
Isaac Shelby was born in the Province of Maryland on December 11 , 1750 , near Hagerstown in Frederick ( now Washington ) County . He was the third child and second son of Evan and Letitia ( Cox ) Shelby , who immigrated from Tregaron , Wales , in 1735 . Though the family had historically been loyal to the Church of England , they became Presbyterians after coming to British America ; this was the denomination Isaac Shelby embraced during his life .
Shelby was educated at the local schools in his native colony . He worked on his father 's plantation , and occasionally found work as a surveyor . At age eighteen , he was appointed deputy sheriff of Frederick County . Shelby 's father lost a great deal of money when Pontiac 's Rebellion disrupted his lucrative fur trade business , and two years later , the business ' records were destroyed in a house fire . Consequently in December 1770 , the family moved to the area near Bristol , Tennessee , where they built a fort and a trading post . Here , Shelby and his father worked for three years herding cattle .
During Lord Dunmore 's War , a border conflict between colonists and American Indians , Shelby was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Virginia militia by Colonel William Preston . As second @-@ in @-@ command of his father 's Fincastle County company , he participated in the decisive Battle of Point Pleasant on October 10 , 1774 . The younger Shelby earned commendation for his skill and gallantry in this battle . The victorious militiamen erected Fort Blair on the site of the battle . They remained stationed there , with Shelby as second @-@ in @-@ command , until July 1775 when Lord Dunmore ordered the fort destroyed , fearing it might become useful to colonial rebels in the growing American Revolution .
= = Revolutionary War = =
After his unit was disbanded , Shelby surveyed for the Transylvania Company , a land company that had purchased much of present @-@ day Kentucky from the Cherokees in a deal that was later invalidated by the government of Virginia . After fulfilling his duties with the Transylvania Company , he rejoined his family in Virginia , but returned to Kentucky the following year to claim and improve land there for himself . While there , he fell ill , and went home to recover in July 1776 . Back in Virginia , fighting in the American Revolutionary War was underway , and Shelby found a commission from the Virginia Committee of Safety appointing him captain of a company of Minutemen . In 1777 , Virginia governor Patrick Henry appointed Shelby to a position securing provisions for the army on the frontier . He served a similar role for units in the Continental Army in 1778 and 1779 . With his own money , Shelby purchased provisions for John Sevier 's 1779 expedition against the Chickamauga , a band of Cherokees who were resisting colonial expansion .
Shelby was elected to represent Washington County in the Virginia House of Delegates in 1779 . Later that year , he was commissioned a major by Governor Thomas Jefferson and charged with escorting a group of commissioners to establish a frontier boundary line between Virginia and North Carolina . Shortly after his arrival in the region , North Carolina Governor Richard Caswell elevated him to the rank of colonel and made him magistrate of newly formed Sullivan County .
Shelby was surveying lands in Kentucky in 1780 when he heard of the colonists ' defeat at Charleston . He hurried to North Carolina , where he found a request for aid from General Charles McDowell to defend the borders of North Carolina from the British . Shelby assembled three hundred militiamen and joined McDowell at Cherokee Ford in South Carolina . On the morning of July 31 , 1780 , he surrounded the British stronghold at Thickety Fort on the Pacolet River with 600 men . He immediately demanded a surrender , but the British refused . Shelby brought his men within musket range and again demanded surrender . Though the fort likely would have withstood the attack , the British commander lost his nerve and capitulated . Without firing a shot , Shelby 's men captured 94 prisoners .
Following the surrender of Thickety Fort , Shelby joined a band of partisans under Lieutenant Elijah Clarke . This unit was pursued by British Major Patrick Ferguson . On the morning of August 8 , 1780 , some of Shelby 's men were gathering peaches from an orchard when they were surprised by some of Ferguson 's men on a reconnaissance mission . Shelby 's men quickly readied their arms and drove back the British patrol . Soon , however , the British were reinforced and the colonists fell back . The pattern continued , with one side being reinforced and gaining an advantage , followed by the other . Shelby 's men were winning the battle when Ferguson 's main force of 1 @,@ 000 men arrived . Outmanned , they retreated to a nearby hill where British musket fire could not reach them . Now safe , they taunted the British , and Ferguson 's force withdrew from the area . Thus ended the Battle of Cedar Springs .
General McDowell then ordered Shelby and Clarke to take Musgrove 's Mill , a British encampment on the Enoree River . They rode all night with two hundred men , reaching their location about dawn on August 18 , 1780 . The colonists had estimated that the enemy force was of comparable size , but an advance scout brought word that there were approximately 500 British soldiers in the camp who were preparing for battle . Shelby 's men and horses were too tired for a retreat and they had lost the element of surprise . He ordered his men to construct a breastwork from nearby logs and brush . In half an hour the makeshift fortifications were complete , and twenty @-@ five colonial riders charged the British camp to provoke the attack . The British pursued them back to the main colonial force . Despite being outnumbered , the colonists killed several British officers and put their army to flight .
= = = Battle of King 's Mountain = = =
Shelby and Clarke elected not to pursue the British fleeing the Battle of Musgrove Mill . Instead , they set their sights on a British fort at Ninety Six , South Carolina , where they were sure they would find Ferguson . However , while en route , Shelby and his men were met with news of General Horatio Gates ' defeat at the Battle of Camden . With the backing of General Cornwallis , Ferguson could ride to meet Shelby with his entire force , so Shelby retreated over the Appalachian Mountains into North Carolina .
Following the colonists ' retreat , an emboldened Ferguson dispatched a paroled prisoner across the mountains to warn the colonists to cease their opposition or Ferguson would lay waste to the countryside . Angered by this act , Shelby and John Sevier began to plan another raid on the British . Shelby and Sevier raised 240 men each , and were joined by William Campbell with 400 from Washington County , Virginia and Charles McDowell with 160 men from Burke and Rutherford counties in North Carolina . The forces mustered at Sycamore Shoals on September 25 , 1780 . The troops crossed the difficult terrain of the Blue Ridge Mountains and arrived at McDowell 's estate near Morganton , North Carolina , on September 30 , 1780 . Here , they were joined by Colonel Benjamin Cleveland and Major Joseph Winston with 350 men from Surry and Wilkes counties .
The combined force pursued Ferguson to King 's Mountain , where he had fortified himself , declaring that " God Almighty and all the rebels out of hell " could not move him from it . The Battle of Kings Mountain commenced October 7 , 1780 . Shelby had ordered his men to advance from tree to tree , firing from behind each one ; he called this technique " Indian play " because he had seen the Indians use it in his previous battles with them . Ferguson ordered bayonet charges that forced Shelby 's men to fall back on three separate occasions , but eventually the colonists dislodged Ferguson 's men from their position . Seeing the battle was lost , Ferguson and his key officers attempted a retreat . The colonists were instructed to kill Ferguson . Simultaneous shots by Sevier 's men broke both Ferguson 's arms , fatally pierced his skull , and knocked him from his mount . Seeing their commander dead , the remaining British soldiers waved white flags of surrender .
King 's Mountain was the high point of Shelby 's military service , and from that point forward his men dubbed him " Old King 's Mountain " . The North Carolina legislature passed a vote of thanks to Shelby and Sevier for their service and ordered that each be presented a pair of pistols and a ceremonial sword . ( Shelby did not receive these items until he requested them from the legislature in 1813 . )
As the colonists and their prisoners began the march from King 's Mountain , they learned that nine colonial prisoners had been hanged by the British at Fort Ninety @-@ Six . This was not the first such incident in the region , and the enraged colonists vowed that they would now put a stop to the hangings in the Carolinas . Summoning a jury from their number – which was legal because two North Carolina magistrates were present – the colonists selected random prisoners and charged them with crimes ranging from theft to arson to murder . By evening , the jury had convicted thirty @-@ six prisoners and sentenced them to hang . After the first nine hangings , however , Shelby ordered them stopped . He never gave a reason for this action , but his order was obeyed nonetheless , and the remaining " convicts " rejoined their fellow prisoners .
The King 's Mountain victors and their prisoners returned to McDowell 's estate early on the morning of October 10 , 1780 . From there , the various commanders and their men went their separate ways . Shelby and his men joined General Daniel Morgan at New Providence , South Carolina . While there , Shelby advised Morgan to take Fort Ninety @-@ Six and Augusta because he believed the British forces there were supplying the Cherokee with weapons for their raids against colonial settlers . Morgan agreed to the plan , as did General Horatio Gates , the supreme commander of colonial forces in the region . Assured that his plan would be carried out , Shelby returned home and promised to return the following spring with 300 men . On his way to Fort Ninety @-@ Six , Morgan was attacked by Banastre Tarleton and gained a decisive victory over him at the Battle of Cowpens . Shelby later lamented the fact that General Nathanael Greene , who relieved Gates only days after Shelby departed for home , claimed the lion 's share of the credit for Cowpens when it was Shelby 's plan that had put Morgan in the position to begin with .
= = = Later wartime service and settlement in Kentucky = = =
Upon his return home , Shelby and his father were named commissioners to negotiate a treaty between colonial settlers and the Chickamauga . This service delayed his return to Greene , but in October 1781 he and Sevier led 600 riflemen to join Greene in South Carolina . Greene had thought to use Shelby 's and Sevier 's men to prevent Cornwallis from returning to Charleston . However , Cornwallis was defeated at the Siege of Yorktown shortly after Shelby and Sevier arrived , and Greene sent them on to join General Francis Marion on the Pee Dee River . On Marion 's orders , Shelby and Colonel Hezekiah Maham captured a British fort at Fair Lawn near Moncks Corner on November 27 , 1781 .
While still in the field , Shelby was elected to the North Carolina General Assembly . He requested and was granted a leave of absence from the Army to attend the legislative session of December 1781 . He was re @-@ elected in 1782 and attended the April session of the legislature that year . In early 1783 he was chosen as a commissioner to survey preemption claims of soldiers along the Cumberland River .
Shelby returned to Kentucky in April 1783 , settling at Boonesborough . He married Susannah Hart on April 19 , 1783 ; the couple had eleven children . Their eldest daughter , Sarah , married Dr. Ephraim McDowell , and the youngest daughter , Letitia , married future Kentucky secretary of state Charles Stewart Todd . On November 1 , 1783 , the family moved to Lincoln County , near Knob Lick , and occupied land awarded to Shelby for his military service . Shelby was named one of the first trustees of Transylvania Seminary ( later Transylvania University ) in 1783 , and on December 1 , 1787 , founded the Kentucky Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge .
Shelby began working to secure Kentucky 's separation from Virginia as early as 1784 . That year , he attended a convention to consider leading an expedition against the Indians and separating Kentucky from Virginia . He was a delegate to subsequent conventions in 1787 , 1788 , and 1789 that worked toward a constitution for Kentucky . During these conventions he helped thwart James Wilkinson 's scheme to align Kentucky with the Spanish . In 1791 Shelby , Charles Scott and Benjamin Logan were among those chosen by the Virginia legislature to serve on the Board of War for the district of Kentucky . Shelby was also made High Sheriff on Lincoln County . In 1792 he was a delegate to the final convention that framed the first Kentucky Constitution .
= = First term as governor = =
Under the new constitution , the voters chose electors who then elected the governor and members of the Kentucky Senate . Though there is no indication that Shelby actively sought the office of governor , he was elected unanimously to that post by the electors on May 17 , 1791 . He took office on June 4 , 1792 , the day the state was admitted to the Union . Though not actively partisan , he identified with the Democratic @-@ Republicans . Much of his term was devoted to establishing basic laws , military divisions and a tax structure .
One of Shelby 's chief concerns was securing federal aid to defend the frontier . Although Kentuckians were engaged in an undeclared war with American Indians north of the Ohio River , Shelby had been ordered by Secretary of War Henry Knox not to conduct offensive military actions against the Indians . Furthermore , he was limited by federal regulations that restricted the service of state militiamen to thirty days , which was too short to be effective . With the meager resources of his fledgling state he was only able to defend the most vulnerable areas from Indian attack . Meanwhile , Kentuckians suspected that the Indians were being stirred up and supplied by the British .
Shelby appealed to President Washington for help ; Washington responded by appointing General " Mad " Anthony Wayne to the area with orders to push the Indians out of the Northwest Territory . Wayne arrived at Fort Washington ( present @-@ day Cincinnati , Ohio ) in May 1793 , but was prevented from taking any immediate action because federal commissioners were still attempting to negotiate a treaty with the Indians . He called for 1 @,@ 000 volunteer troops from Kentucky , but few heeded the call and Shelby resorted to conscription . By the time the soldiers arrived , winter had set in . He ordered the men to go home and return in the spring .
After a winter filled with Indian attacks , including one which claimed the life of Shelby 's younger brother Evan Shelby III , Kentucky militia units won some minor victories over the Indians in early 1794 . In spring the response to Wayne 's call for troops was more enthusiastic ; 1 @,@ 600 volunteers mustered at Fort Greenville and were hastily trained . By August , 1794 , Wayne was on the offensive against the Indians and dealt them a decisive blow at the August 20 , 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers . This victory , and the ensuing Treaty of Greenville , secured the territory , and although Shelby did not agree with some of the restrictions placed upon western settlers by this treaty , he abided by its terms and enforced those that were under his jurisdiction .
Another major concern of the Shelby administration was free navigation on the Mississippi River , which was vital to the state 's economic interests . For political reasons the Spanish had closed the port at New Orleans to the Americans . This would have been the natural market for the tobacco , flour and hemp grown by Kentucky farmers ; overland routes were too expensive to be profitable . This made it difficult for land speculators to entice immigration to the area to turn a profit on their investments . Many Kentuckians felt the federal government was not acting decisively or quickly enough to remedy this situation .
= = = Citizen Genêt affair = = =
While Kentuckians despised the British and Spanish , they had a strong affinity for the French . They admired the republican government that had arisen from the French Revolution , and they had not forgotten France 's aid during the Revolutionary War . When French Ambassador Edmond @-@ Charles Genêt , popularly known as Citizen Genêt , arrived in the United States in April 1793 , George Rogers Clark was already considering an expedition to capture Spanish lands in the west . Genêt 's agent , André Michaux , was dispatched to Kentucky to assess the support of Kentuckians toward Clark 's expedition . When he gained an audience with Governor Shelby , he did so with letters of introduction from Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Kentucky Senator John Brown .
Jefferson had written a separate letter to Shelby warning him against aiding the French schemes and informing him that negotiations were under way with the Spanish regarding trade on the Mississippi . When the letter was sent on August 29 , 1793 , it was Jefferson 's intent that it reach Shelby before Michaux did , but Shelby did not receive it until October 1793 . On September 13 , 1793 , Michaux met with Shelby , but there is no evidence that Shelby agreed to help him . In his response to Jefferson 's delayed letter , Shelby assured Jefferson that Kentuckians " possess too just a sense of the obligation they owe the General Government , to embark in any enterprise that would be so injurious to the United States " .
In November 1793 , Shelby received a letter from another of Genêt 's agents , Charles Delpeau . He confided to Shelby that he had been sent to secure supplies for an expedition against Spanish holdings , and inquired whether Shelby had been instructed to arrest individuals associated with such a scheme . Three days later Shelby responded by letter , relating Jefferson 's warning against aiding the French . Despite having no evidence that Shelby was party to Genêt 's scheme , both Jefferson and Knox felt compelled to warn him a second time . Jefferson provided names and descriptions of the French agents believed to be in Kentucky and encouraged their arrest . Knox went a step further by suggesting Kentucky would be reimbursed for any costs incurred resisting the French by force , should such action become necessary . General Anthony Wayne informed him that his cavalry was at the state 's disposal . Arthur St. Clair , governor of the American Northwest Territory , also admonished Shelby against cooperation with Genêt .
In his response to Jefferson , Shelby questioned whether he had the legal authority to intervene with force against his constituency and expressed his personal aversion to doing so .
I shall upon all occasions be averse to the exercise of any power which I do not consider myself as being clearly and explicitly invested with , much less would I assume power to exercise it against men whom I consider as friends and brethren , in favor of a man whom I view as an enemy and a tyrant [ the king of Spain ] . I shall also feel but little inclination to take an active part in punishing or restraining any of my fellow @-@ citizens for a supposed intention only to gratify or remove the fears of the ministers of a foreign prince , who openly withholds from us an invaluable right [ navigation of the Mississippi ] and who secretly instigates against us a most savage and cruel enemy .
Shelby tempered this lukewarm commitment by assuring Jefferson that " I shall , at all times , hold it my duty to perform whatever may be constitutionally required of me , as Governor of Kentucky , by the President of the United States . "
In March 1794 , perhaps in response to Shelby 's concerns , Congress passed a measure granting the government additional powers in the event of an invasion or insurrection . Jefferson 's successor Edmund Randolph , who actually received Shelby 's letter , wrote Shelby to inform him of the new powers at his disposal , and informing him that the new regime in France had recalled Genêt . Two months later Genêt 's agents ceased their operations in Kentucky and the potential crisis was averted . In 1795 , President Washington negotiated an agreement with the Spanish that secured the right of Americans to trade on the river .
Having successfully dealt with the major challenges and issues involved in forming a new state government , Shelby left the state safe and financially sound . Kentucky 's constitution prevented a governor from serving consecutive terms , so Shelby retired to Traveler 's Rest , his Lincoln County estate , at the conclusion of his term in 1796 . For the next 15 years he tended to affairs on his farm . He was selected as a presidential elector in six consecutive elections , but these were his only appearances in public life during this period .
= = Second term as governor = =
Gabriel Slaughter was the favorite choice for governor of Kentucky in 1812 . Only one impediment to his potential candidacy existed . Growing tensions between the United States , France , and Great Britain threatened to break into open war . With this prospect looming , Isaac Shelby 's name began circulating as a possible candidate for governor . Slaughter , who lived near Shelby , visited him and asked whether he would run . Shelby assured him that he had no desire to do so unless a national emergency that required his leadership emerged . Satisfied with this answer , Slaughter began his campaign .
The situation with the European powers grew worse , and on June 18 , 1812 the United States declared war on Great Britain , beginning the War of 1812 . Cries grew louder for Shelby to return as Kentucky 's chief executive . On July 18 , 1812 , less than a month before the election , Shelby acquiesced and announced his candidacy .
During the campaign Shelby 's political enemies , notably Humphrey Marshall , criticized his response to Jefferson 's second letter regarding the Genêt affair and questioned his loyalty to the United States . Shelby contended that his noncommittal response to the letter was meant to draw the federal government 's attention to the situation in the west . He cited the agreement between Washington and the Spanish as evidence that his ploy had worked . He also claimed to have known at the time he wrote the letter that the French scheme was destined to fail .
Slaughter 's supporters mocked Shelby 's advanced age ( he was almost 62 ) , calling him " Old Daddy Shelby " . One Kentucky paper even printed an anonymous charge that Shelby had run from the Battle of King 's Mountain . Though few even among Shelby 's enemies believed the story , his supporters and Shelby himself responded through missives in the state 's newspapers . One supporter typified these responses , writing " It is reported that Colonel Shelby ' run [ sic ] at King 's Mountain . ' True he did . He first run [ sic ] up to the enemy ... then after an action of about forty @-@ seven minutes , he run [ sic ] again with 900 prisoners . "
As the canvass stretched into August , Shelby grew more confident of victory and began preparations to return to the state house . He predicted a victory of 10 @,@ 000 votes ; the final margin was more than 17 @,@ 000 . When he took the oath of office , Shelby became the first Kentucky governor to serve non @-@ consecutive terms . ( James Garrard had been permitted to serve consecutive terms in 1796 and 1800 by special legislative exemption . )
Preparations for the war dominated Shelby 's second term . Two days before his inauguration , he and outgoing governor Charles Scott met at the state house to appoint William Henry Harrison commander of the Kentucky militia . This was done in violation of a constitutional mandate that the post be held by a native Kentuckian . Already commander of the militias of Indiana and Illinois , Harrison picked up Kentucky volunteers at Newport before hurrying to the defense of Fort Wayne .
Shelby pressured President James Madison to give Harrison command of all military forces in the Northwest . Madison acceded , rescinding his earlier appointment of James Winchester . On the state level , Shelby revised militia laws to make every male between the ages of 18 and 45 eligible for military service ; ministers were excluded from the provision . Seven thousand volunteers enlisted , and many more had to be turned away . Shelby encouraged the state 's women to sew and knit items for Kentucky 's troops .
Shelby 's confidence in the federal government 's war planning was shaken by the disastrous Battle of Frenchtown in which a number of Kentucky soldiers died . He vowed to personally act to aid the war effort should the opportunity arise , and was authorized by the legislature to do so . In March 1813 , Harrison requested another 1 @,@ 200 Kentuckians to join him at Fort Meigs . Shelby dispatched the requested number , among whom was his oldest son James , under General Green Clay . The reinforcements arrived to find Fort Meigs under siege by a combined force of British and Indians . Clay 's force was able to stop the siege , but a large number of them were captured and massacred by Indians . Initial reports put James Shelby among the dead , but he was later discovered to have been captured and released in a prisoner exchange .
On July 30 , 1813 , General Harrison again wrote Shelby requesting volunteers , and this time he asked that Shelby lead them personally . Shelby raised a force of 3 @,@ 500 volunteers , double the number Harrison requested . Future governor John J. Crittenden served as Shelby 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Now a Major General , Shelby led the volunteers to join Harrison in a campaign that culminated in the American victory at the Battle of the Thames .
In Harrison 's report of the battle to Secretary of War John Armstrong , Jr . , he said of Shelby , " I am at a loss to how to mention [ the service ] of Governor Shelby , being convinced that no eulogism of mine can reach his merit . " In 1817 , Shelby received the thanks of Congress and was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal for his service in the war . Friends of Shelby suggested he run for Vice President , but Shelby quickly and emphatically declined .
= = Later life and death = =
Upon Shelby 's leaving office in 1816 , President Monroe offered him the post of Secretary of War , but he declined because of his age . Already a founding member of the Kentucky Bible Society , Shelby consented to serve as vice @-@ president of the New American Bible Society in 1816 . He was a faithful member of Danville Presbyterian church , but in 1816 , built a small nondenominational church on his property . In 1818 , he accompanied Andrew Jackson in negotiating the Jackson Purchase with the Chickasaw . He also served as the first president of the Kentucky Agricultural Society in 1818 and was chairman of the first board of trustees of Centre College in 1819 .
In 1820 Shelby was stricken with paralysis in his right arm and leg . He died of a stroke on July 18 , 1826 , at his home in Lincoln County . He was buried on the grounds of his estate , Traveller 's Rest . The state erected a monument over his grave in 1827 . In 1952 the Shelby family cemetery was given to the state government and became the Isaac Shelby Cemetery State Historic Site .
= = Legacy = =
Shelby 's patriotism is believed to have inspired the Kentucky state motto : " United we stand , divided we fall " . He was fond of The Liberty Song , a 1768 composition by John Dickinson , which contains the line " They join in hand , brave Americans all , By uniting we stand , by dividing we fall . " Though he is sometimes credited with designing the state seal , his public papers show that the design was suggested by James Wilkinson .
Centre College began awarding the Isaac Shelby Medallion in 1972 , and since then , it has become the College 's most prestigious honor . Those awarded the Medallion exemplify the ideals of service to Centre and dedication to the public good that were embraced by Shelby during his time at Centre and in Kentucky .
= = = Places named for Isaac Shelby = = =
Nine states have a county named after Shelby , as do numerous cities and military installations .
= Grammy Award for Best Hawaiian Music Album =
The Grammy Award for Best Hawaiian Music Album was an honor presented to recording artists from 2005 to 2011 for quality Hawaiian music albums . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency , and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .
Campaigning resulted in the Hawaiian category 's establishment in 2005 . Prior to its creation , Hawaiian music recordings were eligible for the Best World Music Album category but no Hawaiian musician or group had ever won a Grammy Award . During its seven @-@ year history , awards were presented to Charles M. Brotman for Slack Key Guitar : Volume 2 , producers Daniel Ho , Paul Konwiser and Wayne Wong for Masters of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar : Volume One , the same production team plus George Kahumoku , Jr. for Legends of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar : Live from Maui in 2007 followed by Treasures of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar in 2008 , and Masters of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar : Volume 2 in 2010 , Tia Carrere and Ho for Ikena , and Carrere for Huana Ke Aloha in 2011 . Eligible recordings had to feature the Hawaiian language on " more than half of its vocal tracks " , though instrumental albums were also acceptable . Awards were presented to the engineers , mixers , and / or producers in addition to the performing artists .
Daniel Ho holds the record for the most wins , with five . Four @-@ time recipients include Paul Konwiser and Wayne Wong as producers . George Kahumoku , Jr. earned three awards as a producer , and Tia Carrere earned two as a performing artist . Ho also holds the record for the most nominations , with seven . Amy Hanaiali 'i Gilliom holds the record for the most nominations without a win , with five . Six of the seven Grammy @-@ winning albums were released through the record label Daniel Ho Creations . In 2011 , the Recording Academy announced the retirement of the award category . Beginning in 2012 , Hawaiian music recordings were eligible for the Best Regional Roots Music Album category .
= = Background = =
For decades prior to the creation of the Best Hawaiian Music Album category , advocates for Hawaiian music took issue with recordings only being eligible for the Best World Music Album category . Advocates included musicians , record labels , government officials , and the Seattle @-@ based Pacific Northwest Chapter of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences . No Hawaiian musician or group had been awarded a Grammy prior to the establishment of the Hawaiian Music category . One obstacle to the category 's creation was defining Hawaiian music , and the eligibility requirements , in terms of music stylings and language restrictions . There has been conflict between traditional and Western @-@ influenced Hawaiian music , mostly pertaining to the use of the slack @-@ key guitar , an instrument invented in Hawaii but commercialized by " mainlanders " . According to Academy representative Bill Freimuth , the category was designed " for recordings of a more traditional nature " . Requiring the use of Hawaiian language on more than half of its vocal tracks encouraged the recognition of traditional music , but instrumental albums ( such as the compilation album honored at the 47th Grammy Awards ) circumvented this requirement .
= = Recipients = =
Nominees for the 47th Grammy Awards ( 2005 ) included : The Brothers Cazimero for Some Call It Aloha ... Don 't Tell , producer Charles M. Brotman for Slack Key Guitar : Volume 2 , Ho 'okena for Cool Elevation , Amy Hanaialiʻi Gilliom , and arranger and multi @-@ instrumentalist Willie K. ( born William Kahaialiʻi ) for Amy & Willie Live , and Kealiʻi Reichel for Keʻalaokamaile . Hanaialiʻi and Reichel both expressed happiness at being nominated , the latter stating , " This is the culmination of the work of chanters , singers and poetry writers that dates back over a thousand years . " One NPR contributor wrote that the nominees illustrated the range of Hawaiian music at the time , " from traditional songs for guitar and ukulele to more modernized approaches " . Some Call It Aloha ... Don 't Tell contained traditional Hawaiian folk songs and chants and the use of traditional instruments such as the acoustic bass and 12 @-@ string guitar . Hoʻokena members Many Boyd , Horache K. Dudoit III , Chris Kamaka and Glen H.K. Smith created music for Cool Elevation using the ukulele , acoustic bass , and guitar . Scott Iwasaki of the Deseret News described Amy & Willie Live as a " playful array of Hawaiian jazz " . Ke 'alaokamaile , a concept album about Reichel 's immediate ancestors , combines traditional Hawaiian chants with original songs . The album also included contemporary covers of Babyface 's " You Were There " , Karla Bonoff 's " Goodbye My Friend " , and Sting 's " Fields of Gold " . The award went to Brotman for the slack key guitar compilation album recorded in Hawaii and described by journalist Nate Chinen as " an easy @-@ listening instrumental compilation seemingly tailored to mainland tastes " . According to Jon de Mello , founder of Hawaiian record label Mountain Apple Company , other nominees ' " jaws dropped on the ground " at the ceremony in reaction to their works being overlooked . Chinen claimed the Academy 's " safe , bland " choice set a precedent for compilations and slack key use ( five nominees the following year were slack key albums ) .
For the 48th Grammy Awards ( 2006 ) , nominees included : Kapono Beamer for Slack Key Dreams of the Ponomoe , Raiatea Helm for Sweet & Lovely , Ledward Kaapana for Kiho 'alu : Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar , Sonny Lim for Slack Key Guitar : The Artistry of Sonny Lim , and Daniel Ho , Paul Konwiser and Wayne Wong for Masters of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar : Volume One . Allmusic 's Adam Greenberg described Slack Key Dreams of the Ponomoe as an ambient album with an " easy listening " sound accented with slack key motives . Songs about Beamer 's family and childhood were sung in Hawaiian but also English . Sweet & Lovely featured " classic , early tourist @-@ era " Hawaiian music and guest performances by Kealiʻi Reichel and Auntie Genoa Keawefor . Greenberg complimented Helm for her ukulele playing and " stunning " falsetto . Lim 's first solo album contained slack key compositions fused with " touches of folk and possibly even adult contemporary stylings " . Masters of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar , which peaked at number fifteen on Billboard 's Top World Music Albums chart , featured twelve live tracks recorded from the weekly slack key guitar concerts that took place in Maui . Awards were presented to Ho , Konwiser and Wong as producers of the compilation album . Peter deAquino , George and Keoki Kahumoku , and Garrett Probst joined producers Ho and Wong on stage at the podium during the pre @-@ telecast ceremony to accept the award .
2007 nominees included : Amy Hanaiali 'i for Generation Hawai 'i , producers Daniel Ho , George Kahumoku , Jr . , Paul Konwiser and Wayne Wong for the compilation album Legends of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar : Live from Maui , Ledward Kaapana for Grandmaster Slack Key Guitar , Henry Kapono for The Wild Hawaiian , and producers Chris and Milton Lau for the compilation album Hawaiian Slack Key Kings . Generation Hawai 'i and The Wild Hawaiian were the two vocal @-@ driven albums nominated , while the three remaining nominees were slack @-@ key driven . The Wild Hawaiian consisted of rock songs in Hawaiian which drew sound comparisons to Jimi Hendrix and Carlos Santana . Awards were presented to Ho , Kahumoku , Konwiser and Wong . Ho , Konwiser and Wong became the first multiple recipients in the category as well as the first consecutive award recipients . Musicians Peter deAquino , Richard Ho 'opi 'i , Kaapana , and Garrett Probst of Da Ukulele Boys , all of whom contributed live tracks to the album , joined the producers on stage to perform " Hawaii Aloha " a cappella for the audience and to accept the award . Kahumoku 's acceptance speech stressed the importance of funding public arts and music education , earning him a standing ovation from the audience .
Nominees for the 50th Grammy Awards ( 2008 ) included : Keola Beamer for Ka Hikina O Ka Hau ( The Coming of the Snow ) , Tia Carrere for Hawaiiana , Raiatea Helm for Hawaiian Blossom , Cyril Pahinui for He ‘ eia , and previous award recipients Ho , Kahumoku , Konwiser and Wong for Treasures of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar . For Ka Hikina O Ka Hau , Beamer layers multiple guitars in different tunings to works by John Dowland , Ástor Piazzolla , Erik Satie , Igor Stravinsky , and other composers . Carrere 's nomination resulted in People magazine including her on their list of " Strange Grammy Nominees " for her past associations with the Wayne 's World films and television show Dancing with the Stars . Hawaiian Blossom , Helm 's third studio album , included guest artists Robert Cazimero and Led Kaapana . Greenberg again complimented Helm 's falsetto vocals and recommended the album for fans of traditional Hawaiian music with a " contemporary twist " . Awards were presented to Ho , Kahumoku , Konwiser and Wong ; Daniel Ho also received an award as the engineer of the compilation album , which reached number twelve on Billboard 's Top World Music Albums chart . This marked the third consecutive win for the production team 's live recording of Maui 's long @-@ running " Masters of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar " concert series . 2008 was also the first year in which the presentation of the award for Hawaiian Music Album was broadcast live on the Academy 's official website .
2009 nominees included : Tia Carrere and Daniel Ho for Ikena , Amy Hanaiali 'i for Aumakua , Led Kaapana and Mike Kaawa for Forces of Nature , producers Chris and Milton Lau for Hawaiian Slack Key Kings Masters Series : Volume II , and Ho , Kahumoku , Dennis Kamakahi , Konwiser and Wong for the compilation album The Spirit of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar . This year marked the first time in the category 's history that all nominees were previous Best Hawaiian Music Album nominees — Hanaiali 'i and Kaapana both received nominations in 2004 and 2006 , Carrere was nominated in 2008 , and Chris and Milton Lau were also nominated in 2006 . Awards were presented to Carrere and Ho as performing artists , Amy Ku 'uleialoha Stillman as a producer , and Ho as both a producer and engineer . Carrere and Ho became the first nominees to win awards as recording artists following four consecutive years of producers and engineers receiving awards for compilation albums .
For the 52nd Grammy Awards ( 2010 ) , nominees included : Tia Carrere and Daniel Ho for He Nani , Amy Hanaiali 'i for Friends & Family of Hawai 'i , Ho 'okena for Nani Mau Loa : Everlasting Beauty , and producers Ho , Kahumoku , Konwiser and Wong for Masters of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar : Volume 2 . A tied vote for the fifth nominee resulted in only four nominated works . Family & Friends of Hawai 'i contained vocal pop duets set to Matt Catingub 's orchestral arrangements and reached a peak position of number three on Billboard 's Top World Albums chart . The album featured guests Dennis Kamakahi , Willie Nelson , and Keali 'i Reichel , among others . The second volume of Masters of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar contained performances by falsetto vocalist Richard Ho 'opi 'i , steel guitarist Bobby Ingano , and slack @-@ key players Kawika Kahiapo , Dennis Kamakahi , Sonny Lim , and co @-@ producer Kahumoku . Hanaiali 'i and her brother Eric Gilliom performed during the awards ceremony , providing a " mock opera lead @-@ in " for Jamie Foxx on the song " Blame It " . In addition to Ho , Kahumoku , Konwiser and Wong , awards were given to Peter deAquino , Ho and Sterling Seaton as the engineers / mixers . Guitarist Jeff Peterson joined the award winners on stage during the presentation . The win marked the fifth for a compilation album and the fourth to be co @-@ produced by Ho . Konwiser and Wong became four @-@ time award recipients , while Kahumoku ( who was not credited as a producer of the 2006 award @-@ winning compilation album ) became a three @-@ time recipient .
Nominees for the 53rd Grammy Awards included : Tia Carrere for Huana Ke Aloha , Amy Hanaiali 'i and Slack Key Masters of Hawaii for Amy Hanaiali 'i and Slack Key Masters of Hawaii , Daniel Ho for Polani , Ledward Kaapana for The Legend , and Jeff Peterson for Maui on My Mind : Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar . Neither of Ho 's nominated compilation albums featured the slack @-@ key guitar . In addition to Carrere , awards were presented to Amy Ku 'uleialoha Stillman as a producer and Daniel Ho as a producer and engineer / mixer . Related to the controversy surrounding Ho 's multiple wins and supposed connections to the music industry , New York magazine called Carrere 's win the " Best Grammy That 'll Piss People Off " . Carrere reportedly gave much of the credit to Ho , her long @-@ time friend and producer . Huana Ke Aloha became the sixth consecutive Grammy @-@ winning album released through the record label Daniel Ho Creations , causing some musicians and journalists to question whether or not the " playing field " was level . Carrere , Ho and Stillman claimed to have faced " serious consequences for the reception of [ their ] work and success " by being nominated , since all three lived and worked outside of Hawaii . Ho had been specifically targeted for residing in Los Angeles and participating in various Grammy @-@ related events throughout the year , providing an unfair advantage . Voting members of the Academy had also been criticized for not being qualified to judge Hawaiian music .
= = Category retirement = =
In 2011 , the category Best Hawaiian Music Album , along with thirty others , was eliminated due to a major category overhaul by the Recording Academy . Four additional categories in the American Roots Music field were eliminated ( Best Contemporary Folk Album , Best Native American Music Album , Best Traditional Folk Album , Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album ) . These were all replaced by one American Roots Music award , the Grammy for Best Regional Roots Music Album .
Daniel Ho was disappointed by the category 's retirement , but considered the seven years the award was presented a " gift from the Recording Academy " . Ho hoped that the category 's elimination would eliminate the " craziness " surrounding the Hawaiian music controversy ( he and Carrere were accused of lacking appreciation for Hawaiian music and for having inside connections to the music industry by residing in Los Angeles ) . Four @-@ time award winner George Kahumoku , Jr. expressed similar disappointment , but was partly consoled by the fact that Hawaiian music recordings would still be included in the Regional Roots Music Album category . The record label Mountain Apple Company issued a statement claiming : " Hawaiian music deserves to be acknowledged as a category in its own right , not only for reasons of language but for cultural and historical reasons as well ... The loss of the Grammy for Best Hawaiian Music Album is not only a major loss to the Hawaiian , but to music lovers across the globe " . Michael Cord of HanaOla Records was also saddened by the elimination , but considered it " a long time coming " . Hawaiian music works will now be eligible for the Best Regional Roots Music Album category .
= The Juice Is Loose =
" The Juice Is Loose " is the ninth episode of the seventh season of the animated television series Family Guy . It originally aired on March 15 , 2009 on Fox . In the episode , Peter cashes in an old raffle ticket from 1989 and wins a golf outing with O. J. Simpson . When he befriends Simpson and brings him home to meet the family , the residents of Quahog are not as welcoming of the infamous running back and try to force him out of town .
The episode was written by Andrew Goldberg and directed by Cyndi Tang . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 21 million homes in its original airing . The episode received negative reviews for its use of a three @-@ minute long live @-@ action segment of Conway Twitty . Series regular Mike Henry provided the voice of O.J. Simpson , Cathy Cahlin Ryan guest starred as Fred Goldman 's wife in a cutaway , and Jeff Bergman guest starred as a parody of Homer Simpson .
= = Plot = =
According to an opening title card , this is one of several recently discovered " lost episodes " found in the Griffin family basement ; it takes place in March 2007 , prior to O. J. Simpson 's September 2007 arrest for armed robbery .
Lois goes to her book club and forces Peter to babysit Stewie . Instead , he invites Cleveland , Quagmire and Joe and they all play Truth or Dare , which results in a make out session between Cleveland and Joe . After a fiasco involving Stewie attempting to fix their satellite TV , Stewie ends up getting stuck on the roof , due to Peter 's lack of supervision . Brian tries to tell Peter but he does not listen and instead reads a magazine featuring Nick Jonas . After Peter starts a pillow fight that turns violent , Lois comes in , furious at Peter for leaving Stewie on the roof . Peter attempts to go fix the satellite himself , at which point he comes across a raffle ticket from 1989 that he had forgotten to cash in , winning him a chance to play golf with O. J. Simpson .
Unaware of Simpson 's accusation for the murders of his wife and his wife 's friend Ron , he grows fearful after Joe convinces him to walk around town with the song Dust in the Wind while thinking about the murders . Ultimately deciding to cash in the ticket , his friends suggest he spy on Simpson during the golf game and try to get him to confess to the murders . Hooking Peter to a wire , his cover is blown when the device shorts out . Simpson laments having lost a chance of escaping the accusation . Feeling guilty , Peter decides that Simpson is actually innocent , and decides to befriend him .
Peter brings Simpson home with him to meet the family , who are initially less tolerant of Simpson than Peter . Brian tries to tell Peter that he should not trust Simpson just because he idolized him as a kid but Peter refuses .
Deciding to let Simpson stay at their house , word soon gets out of Simpson 's presence in Quahog , causing Peter to decide to throw a house party and help everyone else get to know him better . Later that day , Peter and Simpson are met with an angry mob instead led by Mayor Adam West , intent on driving the latter out of town . Desperate for a place to live without being bothered by furious citizens , Simpson makes a heartfelt speech , professing that he is just as imperfect as everyone else , causing the residents of Quahog to apologize and embrace with him . A split second later , however , the tables turn to a surprise ending as Simpson takes out a knife and kills three people before running off . A furious mob goes on to chase after Simpson , as the Griffins look on , with Peter , wearing a guilty disappointed look , indifferently declaring , " I guess he did do it . "
= = Production = =
" The Juice Is Loose " was written by Andrew Goldberg and directed by Cyndi Tang . The writing process began when Goldberg was creator Seth MacFarlane 's assistant and was given a freelance episode . He wrote " Believe It or Not , Joe 's Walking on Air " , and executive producer David A. Goodman thought he did a " fantastic job " . Goldberg submitted a three @-@ page list of ideas for his next episode , and MacFarlane especially liked the story for " The Juice Is Loose " . They had to add a title card in the beginning of the episode saying that it was a " lost episode " , as O.J. Simpson was sent to jail before the episode aired . The episode features a three @-@ minute long segment of an archive video of Conway Twitty performing " I See the Want To in Your Eyes " , and executive producer Chris Sheridan had to explain to the Fox executives why the segment should be featured in the episode .
Series regular Mike Henry provided the voice of O.J. Simpson in the episode , and Cathy Cahlin Ryan guest starred as Fred Goldman 's wife in a cutaway gag . In addition to Henry and Ryan , actors Reid Bruton , Jules Green , Augie Castagnola , Virenia Lind guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Jeff Bergman , Max Burkholder , Ralph Garman , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener made minor appearances in the episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing on March 15 , 2009 , " The Juice is Loose " was watched by 7 @.@ 21 million households and acquired a 3 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . It was the most @-@ watched show in the " Animation Domination " block , surpassing The Simpsons , American Dad ! and King of the Hill . The episode received mixed reviews from television sources and critics . Ahsan Haque of IGN gave " The Juice Is Loose " 5 @.@ 5 / 10 , saying that the episode was " a largely forgettable episode with only a few moments of brilliance " . The review criticized the usage of a three @-@ minute long Conway Twitty live action singing clip which was received as an " effort to reduce the amount of animation [ ... ] for the episode " . Alex Rocha of TV Guide said that he " did enjoy this episode " but called the Conway Twitty clip a " filler " and that he would have wanted to see a " blank screen or even commercials " instead . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club stated that the episode " relied on an overabundance of pop culture riffs far too dated to elicit much more than a brief chuckle " , and also criticized the Conway Twitty clip . He graded " The Juice Is Loose " a C + .
= HMS Cressy ( 1899 ) =
HMS Cressy was a Cressy @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy around 1900 . Upon completion she was assigned to the China Station . In 1907 she was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station before being placed in reserve in 1909 . Recommissioned at the start of World War I , she played a minor role in the Battle of Heligoland Bight a few weeks after the beginning of the war . Cressy , together with two of her sister ships , was torpedoed and sunk by the German submarine U @-@ 9 on 22 September 1914 with the loss of 560 of her crew .
= = Design and description = =
Cressy was designed to displace 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 190 t ) . The ship had an overall length of 472 feet ( 143 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 69 feet 9 inches ( 21 @.@ 3 m ) and a deep draught of 26 feet 9 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 21 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 660 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The engines were powered by 30 Belleville boilers . On her sea trials , Cressy only reached 20 @.@ 7 knots ( 38 @.@ 3 km / h ; 23 @.@ 8 mph ) , the slowest performance of any of her class . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 600 t ) of coal and her complement ranged from 725 to 760 officers and enlisted men .
Her main armament consisted of two breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mk X guns in single gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . They fired 380 @-@ pound ( 170 kg ) shells to a range of 15 @,@ 500 yards ( 14 @,@ 200 m ) . Her secondary armament of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns was arranged in casemates amidships . Eight of these were mounted on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . They had a maximum range of approximately 12 @,@ 200 yards ( 11 @,@ 200 m ) with their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells . A dozen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats , eight on casemates on the upper deck and four in the superstructure . The ship also carried three 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and two submerged torpedo tubes .
The ship 's waterline armour belt had a maximum thickness of 6 inches ( 152 mm ) and was closed off by 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The armour of the gun turrets and their barbettes was 6 inches thick while the casemate armour was 5 inches thick . The protective deck armour ranged in thickness from 1 – 3 inches ( 25 – 76 mm ) and the conning tower was protected by 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of armour .
= = Service history = =
Cressy , named after the 1346 Battle of Crécy , was laid down by Fairfield Shipbuilding at their shipyard in Govan , Scotland on 12 October 1898 and launched on 4 December 1899 . After finishing her sea trials she passed into the fleet reserve at Portsmouth on 24 May 1901 . She was commissioned by Captain Henry Tudor for service on the China Station on 28 May 1901 , but her departure was delayed for several months when her steering gear broke down shortly after leaving the base and she had to return . She eventually left home waters in early October 1901 , arriving at Colombo on 7 November , and then Singapore on 16 November . She was assigned to the North America and West Indies Station from 1907 through 1909 and placed in reserve upon her return home .
The ship was assigned to the 7th Cruiser Squadron shortly after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . The squadron was tasked with patrolling the Broad Fourteens of the North Sea in support of a force of destroyers and submarines based at Harwich which protected the eastern end of the English Channel from German warships attempting to attack the supply route between England and France . During the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August , the ship was part of Cruiser Force ' C ' , in reserve off the Dutch coast , and saw no action . After the battle , Rear Admiral Arthur Christian ordered Cressy to take aboard 165 unwounded German survivors from the badly damaged ships of Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force . Escorted by her sister Bacchante , she set sail for the Nore to unload their prisoners .
= = = Fate = = =
On the morning of 22 September , Cressy and her sisters , Aboukir and Hogue , were on patrol without any escorting destroyers as these had been forced to seek shelter from bad weather . The three sisters were steaming in line abreast about 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) apart at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were not expecting submarine attack , but had lookouts posted and one gun manned on each side to attack any submarines sighted . The weather had moderated earlier that morning and Tyrwhitt was en route to reinforce the cruisers with eight destroyers .
U @-@ 9 , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Otto Weddigen , had been ordered to attack British transports at Ostend , but had been forced to dive and take shelter from the storm . On surfacing , she spotted the British ships and moved to attack . She fired one torpedo at 06 : 20 at Aboukir which struck her on the starboard side ; the ship 's captain thought he had struck a mine and ordered the other two ships to close to transfer his wounded men . Aboukir quickly began listing and capsized around 06 : 55 despite counterflooding compartments on the opposite side to right her .
As Hogue approached her sinking sister , her captain , Wilmot Nicholson , realized that it had been a submarine attack and signaled Cressy to look for a periscope although his ship continued to close on Aboukir as her crew threw overboard anything that would float to aid the survivors in the water . Having stopped and lowered all her boats , Hogue was struck by two torpedoes around 06 : 55 . The sudden weight loss of the two torpedoes caused U @-@ 9 to broach the surface and Hogue 's gunners opened fire without effect before the submarine could submerge again . The cruiser capsized about ten minutes after being torpedoed and sank at 07 : 15 .
Cressy attempted to ram the submarine , but did not succeed and resumed her rescue efforts until she too was torpedoed at 07 : 20 . Weddigen had fired two torpedoes from his stern tubes , but only one hit . U @-@ 9 had to maneuver to bring her bow around with her last torpedo and fired it at a range of about 550 yards ( 500 m ) at 07 : 30 . The torpedo struck on the port side and ruptured several boilers , scalding the men in the compartment . As her sisters had done , Cressy took on a heavy list and then capsized before sinking at 07 : 55 . Several Dutch ships began rescuing survivors at 08 : 30 and were joined by British fishing trawlers before Tyrwhitt and his ships arrived at 10 : 45 . From all three ships 837 men were rescued and 62 officers and 1 @,@ 397 enlisted men lost : 560 of those lost were from Cressy .
In 1954 the British government sold the salvage rights to all three ships to a German company and they were subsequently sold again to a Dutch company which began salvaging the wrecks ' metal in 2011 .
= Myron Cope =
Myron Cope ( January 23 , 1929 – February 27 , 2008 ) , born Myron Sidney Kopelman , was an American sports journalist , radio personality , and sportscaster . He is best known for being " the voice of the Pittsburgh Steelers . "
Cope was a color commentator for the Steelers ' radio broadcasts for 35 years . He was known for his distinctive , nasally voice with an identifiable Pittsburgh accent , idiosyncratic speech pattern , and a level of excitement rarely exhibited in the broadcast booth . Cope 's most notable catch phrase was " yoi " / ˈjɔɪ / . Cope was the first football announcer inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame . Cope 's autobiography , Double Yoi ! , was published in 2002 . Legislation honoring Cope is currently pending before the United States House of Representatives , having already passed in the United States Senate .
= = Education and early career = =
Born in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , to Jewish parents of Lithuanian ancestry , Cope graduated from Taylor Allderdice High School in 1947 and was inducted into their alumni hall of fame in 2009 . He also graduated from the University of Pittsburgh . He was originally a journalist before becoming a broadcaster . His first job was in Erie , Pennsylvania , with the Daily Times , and by the summer of 1951 , he was working for the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette . Cope then became a freelance journalist , most notably for Sports Illustrated , the Saturday Evening Post , and the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette . In 1963 , Cope received the E.P. Dutton Prize for " Best Magazine Sportswriting in the Nation , " for a portrayal of Cassius Clay . Cope spent the 1983 college football season as a color analyst for the Pittsburgh Panthers . In 1987 , he was named by the Hearst Corporation as a noted literary achiever , along with Mark Twain , Jack London , Frederic Remington , Walter Winchell , and Sidney Sheldon . At its 50th Anniversary , Sports Illustrated selected Cope ’ s profile of Howard Cosell as one of the 50 best written works ever published in the magazine .
= = Family life = =
Cope married Mildred Lindberg of Charleston in 1965 , and the couple moved to Mt . Lebanon . In 1972 , the Copes moved to nearby Upper St. Clair . Mildred died on September 20 , 1994 . In 1999 , Cope moved back to Mt . Lebanon , to a condo in the Woodridge neighborhood . He remained there until his final days , when he entered a Mt . Lebanon nursing home , and is claimed by Mt . Lebanon as a " native . "
Cope had three children , Elizabeth , Martha Ann , and Daniel . Martha Ann died shortly after her birth . His son , Daniel , was born with severe autism ; he has lived most of his life at the Allegheny Valley School , an institution specializing in intellectual developmental disabilities . Cope devoted much of his time and energy to Pittsburgh causes addressing autism , and spoke candidly about his experiences as the parent of a child with autism and his efforts to better educate the public at large about autism .
= = Steelers broadcasting = =
In 1968 , Cope began doing daily sports commentaries on what was then WTAE @-@ AM radio in Pittsburgh . His unique nasal voice , with a distinctive Pittsburgh area accent , was noticed by the Steelers ' brass , and he made his debut as a member of the Steelers ' radio team in 1970 .
During Cope 's 35 @-@ year broadcasting career with the Steelers — the longest term with a single team in NFL history — he was accompanied by only two play @-@ by @-@ play announcers : the late Jack Fleming , with whom he broadcast until 1994 , followed by Bill Hillgrove , who still fills this broadcast role today .
In keeping with his comic personality , a series of television commentaries on WTAE @-@ TV saw Cope calling himself " Doctor Cope " and wearing a white lab coat while pretending to examine the opposing team 's strengths and weaknesses . His predictor was known as the " Cope @-@ ra @-@ scope . "
= = = Catchphrases and Nicknames = = =
Like other sports announcers in Pittsburgh , particularly Penguins commentator Mike Lange and the late Pirates announcer Bob Prince , Cope had a repertoire of unique catchphrases employed in his broadcasts , such as " Mmm @-@ Hah ! " and " Okel Dokel " ( his version of " okey dokey " ) . Cope often used Yiddish expressions , especially " Feh ! " and " Yoi ! " ( sometimes multiplied as " Double Yoi " or rarely " Triple Yoi " ) .
Cope also created nicknames for many players and opposing teams . It was Cope who popularized " The Bus " as a nickname for former Steelers running back Jerome Bettis , " Jack Splat " for Jack Lambert , and he gave Kordell Stewart the nickname " Slash . "
Cope also used the term " Cincinnati Bungles " to describe their division rivals , known during the 1990s for a string of bad seasons and numerous draft busts .
= = Terrible Towel = =
Cope played a large role in the invention of the Terrible Towel . Needing a way to excite the fans during a 1975 playoff game against the Baltimore Colts , Cope urged fans to take yellow dish towels to the game and wave them throughout . Originally , Cope wanted to sell rubber Jack Lambert masks , but realizing the high costs for the masks , opted for the inexpensive option for the Terrible Towel . The Terrible Towel has gained much popularity since its invention and " is arguably the best @-@ known fan symbol of any major pro sports team " .
In 1996 , Cope gave the rights to The Terrible Towel to the Allegheny Valley School in Coraopolis , Pennsylvania . The school provides care for more than 900 people with intellectual disabilities and physical disabilities , including Cope 's son who has severe autism . Proceeds from the Terrible Towel have helped raise $ 3 million for the school .
= = Retirement and death = =
Cope announced his retirement from broadcasting on June 20 , 2005 , citing health concerns . Eight days later , it was announced that Cope was the recipient of the Pete Rozelle Award for " long @-@ time exceptional contributions to radio and television in professional football . " Upon his retirement , the Steelers did not replace Cope , opting instead to downsize to a two @-@ man broadcast team .
On October 31 , 2005 , Cope was honored for his lifetime accomplishments at halftime of the contest between the Steelers and the Ravens . In addition , the Steelers produced a special commemorative edition Terrible Towel with his familiar expressions printed on it . As seen on the towel , production was limited to 35 @,@ 000 towels , representing 35 years of service to the Steelers . Later that season when the team advanced to Super Bowl XL , many Steeler fans wanted Cope to come out of retirement just to call " The one for the thumb . " Cope declined partially for health reasons and partially to enjoy retirement .
Cope died of respiratory failure at a Mt . Lebanon nursing home on the morning of February 27 , 2008 . In the days following his death , many ceremonies were held in his honor , including the local sporting events of the Pittsburgh Panthers college basketball team . Two days after his death , hundreds of people gathered in heavy snow in front of the Pittsburgh City Hall to honor Cope ; included in the ceremony was one minute of silent Terrible Towel waving . His funeral , which was held on February 29 , 2008 , was private . Due to Cope 's large impact on the Pittsburgh area , Bob Smizik , a local sportswriter wrote ,
= = List of awards and honors = =
Cope received many awards and honors , including :
1963 - E.P. Dutton Prize for " Best Magazine Sportswriting in the Nation " for his portrayal of Cassius Clay
1987 - Named as a noted literary achiever by Hearst Corporation
2004 - His profile of Howard Cosell was selected as one of 50 all @-@ time classic articles by Sports Illustrated
2005 - Became the first pro football announcer elected to the Radio Hall of Fame
2005 - Pete Rozelle Radio @-@ Television Award for long @-@ time exceptional contributions to pro football in television and radio
Held the title of " special contributor " at Sports Illustrated
Served as a board member of the Pittsburgh chapter of the Autism Society of America and the Pittsburgh Vintage Grand Prix
Co @-@ founded the Myron Cope / Foge Fazio Golf Tournament for Autistic Children
The only broadcaster appointed to the Pro Football Hall of Fame 's Board of Selectors , serving for 10 years
The asteroid 7835 Myroncope was named in his honor in 2008 .
= MissingNo . =
MissingNo . ( Japanese : けつばん , Hepburn : Ketsuban ) , or MissingNO , is an unofficial Pokémon species found in the video games Pokémon Red and Blue . Standing for " Missing Number " , MissingNo. are used as error handlers by game developer Game Freak ; they appear when the game attempts to access data for a nonexistent Pokémon species . Due to the programming of three in @-@ game events , players can encounter MissingNo. via a glitch . The species was first documented by Nintendo in the May 1999 issue of Nintendo Power .
Encountering MissingNo. causes graphical errors and the mass replication of the sixth item in the player 's item menu ; the latter effect resulted in the glitch 's coverage by strategy guides and game magazines . IGN has noted MissingNo . ' s appearance in Pokémon Red and Blue as one of the most famous video game glitches . Fans of the series have attempted to rationalize MissingNo. as part of the games ' canon , and sociologists have studied its impact on players .
= = History = =
Developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo , the Pokémon series began in Japan in 1996 . The player assumes the role of a Pokémon Trainer whose goal is to capture and train creatures called Pokémon . Players use the creatures ' special abilities to combat other Pokémon , and certain abilities also grant new ways to navigate the game 's world , such as instantaneous travel between two areas .
Nintendo first documented the events that cause MissingNo. to appear in the May 1999 issue of Nintendo Power , with a warning that " any contact with it ( even if you don 't catch it ) could easily erase your game file or disrupt your graphics " . The glitch is the result of a succession of events : first , players watch an in @-@ game tutorial for Pokémon capture . The player then uses a Pokémon with the Fly ability to reach the game 's Cinnabar Island location , and then uses a Pokémon with the Surf ability to travel up and down the eastern " shore " of the island until a MissingNo. appears .
= = Characteristics = =
Encountering a MissingNo . Pokémon is the result of three computing events . The first is the game 's random battle encounter system ; each area assigns values to Pokémon in a data buffer , which the game accesses for the player 's encounters with wild Pokémon . However , no values are assigned to this buffer on the east coast of the Cinnabar and Seafoam Island locations — the information from the previously visited area is used instead . The second factor is the in @-@ game tutorial , which temporarily stores the player 's name in the data buffer . This causes the game to access the hexadecimal values of the player 's name for Pokémon encounters at Cinnabar and Seafoam Island . The third factor is the game 's error handling system ; if the game selects a value from the data buffer that is not an existing Pokémon , a subroutine is triggered that causes the appearance of a Pokémon named MissingNo . , short for " Missing Number " .
As with any wild Pokémon , players may flee from , fight or capture MissingNo . After an encounter with MissingNo . , the quantity of the sixth item in the player 's item menu is usually increased by a large amount and the game 's Hall of Fame Pokémon gallery becomes permanently glitched . Temporary graphical glitches may also occur , which can be removed by viewing the statistics page for another Pokémon or resetting the console . A captured MissingNo. is a fully functional Pokémon , and appears in the game 's Pokémon index as number 000 . All MissingNo. possess consistent abilities , type , statistics and sounds . The Pokémon commonly appears as a scrambled " d " -shape , but certain encounter values cause it to appear as one of three sprites not used by other Pokémon .
= = Reaction and reception = =
While it only appeared in a few games in the series , MissingNo. has had a significant impact . Calling it a " programming quirk " , Nintendo warned against encountering it , claiming players could possibly have to restart the game from the beginning to remove the graphical glitches . Despite Nintendo 's warning , information on how to encounter MissingNo. was printed in several magazines and player 's guides due to its perceived positive effect . Certain players attempted to sell " tips " on capturing MissingNo. for up to $ 200 . Despite it not being an intentional part of the game , in 2009 , IGN included MissingNo. in its list of the top video game Easter eggs , citing its usefulness in replicating the game 's rarer items . IGN stated in a related article , " It really says something about Pokémon fans that they took what is a potentially game @-@ ruining glitch and used it as a shortcut to level up their Pokémon , " and later called it an " unforgettable " glitch that helped push the original games to " gaming super stardom " .
Players ' reactions to MissingNo. have been the subject of sociological studies . Sociologist William Sims Bainbridge stated that Game Freak created " one of the most popular glitches ever in game history " , and cited its creative usage by players . In the book Pikachu 's Global Adventure : The Rise and Fall of Pokémon , professor of education Julian Sefton @-@ Green noticed that in his study of his son 's reaction to MissingNo . ' s usage as a " cheat " , the child 's outlook towards the game was altered drastically , and added that the presence of such elements as a result broke the illusion of the game as an enclosed world and reminded them that " at heart , it is a computer program " . The book Playing with Videogames contains an in @-@ depth study of MissingNo . , which details players ' curiosity when encountering the Pokémon . It describes their tendency to compare notes on its appearance , and to give assessment and critique to each other 's findings . The book states that , in their attempts to interpret MissingNo. as part of the series 's narrative through fan art and fiction , Pokémon communities celebrated the game 's imperfections and tried to imprint themselves on its canon . The author described these circumstances as unique to MissingNo . , and called its popularity an unusual case .
= Edward of Angoulême =
Edward of Angoulême ( 27 January 1365 – c . 20 September 1370 ) was second in line to the throne of the Kingdom of England and heir to the Earldom of Kent and the elder brother of Richard of Bordeaux ( later King Richard II ) . Born in Angoulême , he was the eldest child of Edward , Prince of Wales , commonly called " the Black Prince " , and Joan , Countess of Kent , and thus was a member of the House of Plantagenet . Edward 's birth , during the Hundred Years ' War , was celebrated luxuriously by his father and by other monarchs , such as Charles V of France .
Edward died at the age of five , leaving his three @-@ year @-@ old brother , Richard of Bordeaux , as the new second in line . After the Black Prince 's death in 1376 , Richard became heir apparent to Edward III and succeeded the following year . Richard later ordered a monument to be made for his brother 's tomb , which he had re @-@ located ; he also depicted his brother on the Wilton Diptych . In 1399 , after twenty @-@ two years of what has been described as a " turbulent reign " , Richard was overthrown by his cousin , Henry of Bolingbroke , and subsequently imprisoned in Pontefract Castle , where he died in 1400 .
= = Life = =
= = = Birth = = =
Edward was born at the Château d 'Angoulême , in Angoulême , then part of the Duchy of Aquitaine . His name , Edward of Angoulême , is a territorial designation referring to his birthplace ; this was a common naming practice in 14th @-@ century England . Through his father , Edward , the Black Prince , he was a member of the House of Plantagenet and the second , but eldest surviving grandson of the reigning English monarch , Edward III . Edward was related to the reigning French royal House of Valois through his paternal grandmother , Philippa of Hainault . His mother , Joan , was his father 's first cousin once removed , and was suo jure Countess of Kent .
Edward 's date of birth has been a matter of debate . In the Dictionary of National Biography article for his father , Edward 's birth year is given as 1363 , 1364 or 1365 , based on three contemporary chronicles , including that of Jean Froissart . A letter sent by Joan of Kent to Edward III on 4 February 1365 announces Edward 's birth on 27 January ; therefore , this is the date of birth most used . News of Edward 's birth was " so acceptable to his royal grandfather , that the king conferred upon the messenger , John Delves , an annuity of forty pounds per annum for life . "
Edward was baptized at the Château d 'Angoulême , in March 1365 . The Black Prince enjoyed luxury and Edward 's baptism was meant to show the natives of Aquitaine that they had a sovereign in the Black Prince : present were 154 lords and 706 knights and , supposedly , 18000 horses ; over £ 400 were spent on candles alone . Edward 's baptism was also celebrated with " splendid tournaments . " One of his godparents was Bishop Jean de Crois . The name the Black Prince chose for his eldest son had been borne by three English kings and had already become a popular name with political implications by the time Edward and his brother , Richard ( b . 1367 ) , were born . In Yorkist times , these were the most popular names .
= = = Death = = =
After a prolonged suffering , Edward died of the bubonic plague ; although the exact time of his death is not precisely known , the date of January 1371 is commonly used . The Wigmore Chronicle of 1370 states that Edward died " around the feast of Saint Michael [ 29 September ] " ; this is probably the correct date .
The Black Prince found out about Edward 's death after he returned from the Siege of Limoges ; " he was very grieved in his heart , but none can escape death . " Edward 's loss " was a bitter grief to [ the Black Prince and Joan of Kent ] " and only increased the severity of the Black Prince 's illness . Edward had " already won a reputation for a Christ @-@ like character , " and in his infancy , " historians have been willing to see the seeds of those high qualities which distinguished his father and his grandfather , which were denied to his brother Richard II . " The Black Prince returned to England with Joan and Richard in 1371 , and died there in 1376 of dysentery .
Before the Black Prince and his family left for England , he left his brother , John of Gaunt , in charge of arranging Edward 's funeral , which took place in Bordeaux and was attended by all of the barons of Gascony and Poitou . Edward 's body was exhumed in 1388 / 9 and transported back to England by Robert Waldby , Bishop of Aire , who was acting under Richard II 's orders . It was at this time that Edward was buried at " Chilterne Langley , " also known as Children 's Langley , a priory on the estate of Kings Langley . Between 1540 and 1607 , the church at Kings Langley was ruined ; and Edward had already been re @-@ buried at the Church of the Austin Friars by 1598 .
While Richard could not have remembered Edward well , he still " recalled [ his brother ] with pious affection . " Thus , Edward is featured on the Wilton Diptych , a small diptych which depicts Richard kneeling before the Virgin ( represented by Joan of Kent ) and Child ( represented by Edward ) . The Diptych is held at the National Gallery of London .
= = = Legacy = = =
Edward 's early demise caused great pain to both Richard and his parents : historian Alison Weir states that , from the time the Black Prince returned to England after Edward 's death , " he was a broken man . " Edward 's death also had a substantial impact on English history . Even during Edward 's lifetime , fears that John of Gaunt would claim the throne existed ; Parliament passed the Act of 1368 , which permitted children born in the English domains in France to inherit the Kingdom of England , perhaps fearing that the Act of 1351 , which established Edward and Richard 's citizenship as English , would not be enough to ensure their succession . After Edward III 's death and Richard 's ascension , a regency led by John of Gaunt was avoided . Nonetheless , Gaunt maintained his influential position in the years that followed , and acted as de facto regent until January 1380 .
Although Richard was only ten years old when he began his reign , towards the end of the 1390s , he began what historians consider to be a period of " tyranny . " By the time of Edward 's death , England was in the midst of fighting during the Hundred Years ' War , which had been started by Edward III . Richard made efforts to end the war , but was unsuccessful due to opposition from his magnates and the French refusing to formally acknowledge their territorial losses by transferring land to the English . In 1399 , Richard was imprisoned in the Tower of London and abdicated in favour of his cousin , the Earl of Derby . With Richard 's death on 14 February 1400 , the direct line of the House of Plantagenet was brought to an end .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Endnotes = =
= The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie =
The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie ( also known as The SpongeBob Movie for short ) is a 2004 American animated / live @-@ action comedy film based on the Nickelodeon television series , SpongeBob SquarePants . The film was directed by series creator Stephen Hillenburg , and stars the regular television cast of Tom Kenny , Bill Fagerbakke , Clancy Brown , Rodger Bumpass , and Mr. Lawrence , with guest performances by Scarlett Johansson , Jeffrey Tambor , Alec Baldwin and David Hasselhoff . The plot follows Plankton 's plan to steal King Neptune 's crown and send it to Shell City . SpongeBob and Patrick must retrieve the crown to save Mr. Krabs from Neptune 's wrath and their home ( Bikini Bottom ) from Plankton 's plan .
Previous offers by Paramount Pictures to create a film version of SpongeBob were rejected by Hillenburg , but he eventually accepted one in 2002 . When the film went into production , Hillenburg and the show 's staff halted production on the series after the third season . A writing team — Hillenburg , Paul Tibbitt , Derek Drymon , Aaron Springer , Kent Osborne and Tim Hill — was assembled , conceiving the idea of a mythical hero 's quest : the search for a stolen crown , which would bring SpongeBob and Patrick to the surface . The film was originally going to be as the series finale ; however , Nickelodeon wanted more episodes , so Paul Tibbitt assumed Hillenburg 's position as showrunner to produce further episodes after the movie . During production , Jules Engel , Hillenburg 's mentor at the California Institute of the Arts , died ; the film was dedicated to his memory .
Tie @-@ in promotions were made by 7 @-@ Eleven , the Cayman Islands and Burger King , which decorated some stores with 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) SpongeBob inflatable figures . The film was a box @-@ office success , grossing over $ 140 million with a $ 30 million budget , and received generally positive reviews from critics . A stand @-@ alone sequel titled The SpongeBob Movie : Sponge Out of Water was released on February 6 , 2015 , and a third film is expected to be released on February 8 , 2019 .
= = Plot = =
The film follows the plot of the TV series SpongeBob SquarePants , focusing on the anthropomorphic sea sponge of the same name ( Tom Kenny ) . SpongeBob dreams about managing the Krusty Krab restaurant , which is in trouble because a customer has no cheese on his Krabby Patty , but SpongeBob saves the day . He wakes up and cheerfully prepares for the opening ceremony for the Krusty Krab 2 , hoping that his boss Mr. Krabs ( Clancy Brown ) will promote him to manager of the new restaurant built next door to the original Krusty Krab . At the ceremony , SpongeBob is passed over ; his co @-@ worker , Squidward Tentacles ( Rodger Bumpass ) , has been given the promotion because Mr. Krabs thinks he is " more mature " than SpongeBob .
Meanwhile , Plankton ( Mr. Lawrence ) , Mr. Krabs ' business rival , devises a plot to steal the Krabby Patty secret formula and frame Mr. Krabs . He steals King Neptune 's ( Jeffrey Tambor ) crown that night , leaving evidence that pins the crime on Mr. Krabs , and sends the crown to Shell City , a distant , mysterious land from which no fish has returned . That night , SpongeBob goes to his favorite restaurant , Goofy Goober 's ; he drowns his sorrows in ice cream with his best friend , Patrick Star ( Bill Fagerbakke ) , waking up the next morning with a headache . King Neptune barges into the Krusty Krab 2 the same morning and threatens to slay Mr. Krabs . Although SpongeBob criticizes Mr. Krabs shortly after he arrives , he promises Neptune that he will retrieve the crown from Shell City . Neptune freezes Mr. Krabs , still certain that he is the culprit , and tells SpongeBob to return with the crown in six days for him to spare Mr. Krabs . SpongeBob and Patrick leave for Shell City in the Patty Wagon , a car shaped like a Krabby Patty .
In Bikini Bottom , Plankton steals the Krabby Patty formula and uses it to produce and sell Krabby Patties at his restaurant , the Chum Bucket , with the claim that Krabs bequeathed him the recipe . He sends a hitman named Dennis ( Alec Baldwin ) to pursue SpongeBob and Patrick . Squidward discovers the truth about Plankton stealing Neptune 's crown and tries to alert Neptune . However , Plankton uses mind @-@ controlling bucket helmets disguised as souvenirs to control Bikini Bottom 's residents , including Squidward , and renames the city Planktopolis .
Meanwhile , SpongeBob and Patrick encounter a dangerous trench , but Neptune 's daughter Mindy ( Scarlett Johansson ) helps them past it by making them think she can transform them into men . They are stopped by Dennis , who tries to crush them with his spiked boots , but he is in turn stepped on by a massive " cyclops " ( a diver ) ( Neil Ross ) . The " cyclops " grabs SpongeBob and Patrick , and goes to his beachside store , revealed to be Shell City . At the store , SpongeBob and Patrick find the crown , but are killed in a lethal drying @-@ out process with the heat lamp turned on . Their tears short @-@ circuit the heat lamp ; its smoke activates the sprinkler system , reviving their bodies and the other dried sea creatures to be sold as souvenirs . As the sea creatures attack the diver , SpongeBob and Patrick take the crown and head for the beach . When they lose their way home , David Hasselhoff offers them a ride ; Dennis catches up to them but is knocked by a catamaran back into the sea .
Back at the Krusty Krab 2 , Neptune arrives to execute Mr. Krabs . Just in time , SpongeBob and Patrick return with the crown and confront
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that a number of the inflatables had been stolen from Burger King roofs nationwide . Burger King chief marketing officer Russ Klein said , " As to the motives behind these apparent ' spongenappings ' , we can only speculate . We did receive one ransom note related to an inflatable SpongeBob disappearance in Minnesota . " The chain offered a year 's supply of Whopper sandwiches as a reward for information leading to the return of inflatables stolen in November . One was found attached to a railing at the football @-@ field 50 @-@ yard line at an Iowa college , and another under a bed in Virginia . A ransom note was found for a third : " We have SpongeBob . Give us 10 Krabby Patties , fries , and milkshakes . " Steven Simon and Conrad ( C.J. ) Mercure Jr. were arrested after stealing an inflatable from a Burger King in St. Mary 's County , Maryland . While facing up to 18 months in jail and a $ 500 fine , Simon and Mercure said they were proud of what they did ; Simon said , " Once we got caught by the police , we were like , now we can tell everybody . " The following year Burger King took " extra security precautions " , when Stormtroopers from George Lucas ' Star Wars guarded the delivery of Star Wars toys to a Burger King in North Hollywood .
The Cayman Islands , a British Overseas Territory in the western Caribbean Sea , joined with Nickelodeon to create the first Cayman Islands Sea School with SpongeBob for the film . The partnership was announced by Pilar Bush , Deputy Director of Tourism for Cayman Islands , on March 10 , 2004 . As part of the agreement the Cayman partnership was seen on Nickelodeon 's global multimedia platforms , including on @-@ air , online and in magazines .
In 2005 , Nickelodeon and Simon Spotlight released a book , Ice @-@ Cream Dreams , as a tie @-@ in to the film . It was written by Nancy E. Krulik and illustrated by Heather Martinez , with Krulik and Derek Drymon as contributors .
= = = SpongeBob SquarePants Movie 300 = = =
On October 15 , 2004 , the film was the first to sponsor a NASCAR race : the 300 @-@ mile ( 480 km ) , Busch Series SpongeBob SquarePants Movie 300 at Charlotte Motor Speedway in North Carolina . It was the first race of its kind where children at the track could listen to a special , " kid @-@ friendly " radio broadcast of the event .
Kyle Busch and Jimmie Johnson debuted a pair of SpongeBob SquarePants @-@ themed Lowe 's Chevrolet race cars in the race . Johnson 's No. 48 Chevrolet included an image of SpongeBob across the hood , and Busch 's No. 5 Chevrolet featured Patrick Star . Johnson said , " This sounds so cool [ ... ] I know there are a lot of families who will be excited that Lowe 's is doing this . The great thing is there will be something for every type of race fan . Plus how can we go wrong with SpongeBob helping us out on the car ? "
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD on March 1 , 2005 , in wide- and full @-@ screen editions , by Paramount Home Entertainment . It contains an 18 @-@ minute featurette , The Absorbing Tale Behind The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , featuring interviews with most of the principal cast and crew ; a 15 @-@ minute featurette , Case of the Sponge " Bob " , hosted by Jean @-@ Michel Cousteau ; a 20 @-@ minute animatic segment featuring scenes from the film with dialogue by the original artists , and the film 's trailer . The film was released as a Blu @-@ ray @-@ plus @-@ DVD combination pack on March 29 , 2011 . A VHS version was released on March 1 , 2005 ; it was the final VHS animated film from Nickelodeon Movies . As a tie @-@ in to the film 's DVD release , 7 @-@ Eleven served a limited @-@ edition Under @-@ the @-@ Sea Pineapple Slurpee in March 2005 .
It was re @-@ released on Blu @-@ ray on December 30 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie earned $ 9 @,@ 559 @,@ 752 on its opening day in the United States , second behind Disney 's National Treasure ( which earned $ 11 million ) . It grossed a combined total of $ 32 @,@ 018 @,@ 216 during its opening weekend , on 4 @,@ 300 screens at 3 @,@ 212 theaters , averaging $ 9 @,@ 968 per venue ( or $ 7 @,@ 446 per screen , again second to National Treasure ) . The film dropped an unexpected 44 percent over the Thanksgiving weekend , and 57 percent the weekend after that . The opening weekend earned 37 @.@ 48 percent of the film 's final gross . It closed on March 24 , 2005 , failing to out @-@ gross holiday animated competitors The Incredibles ( from Disney @-@ Pixar , grossing $ 261 @,@ 441 @,@ 092 ) and The Polar Express ( Warner Bros. , grossing $ 183 @,@ 373 @,@ 735 ) . It was still profitable for distributor Paramount Pictures and producer Nickelodeon Movies , earning $ 85 @,@ 417 @,@ 988 in the United States and $ 140 @,@ 161 @,@ 792 worldwide on a budget of $ 30 million . The film was the 29th @-@ highest @-@ grossing 2004 film domestically and is the sixth @-@ highest @-@ grossing animated TV adaptation of all time .
= = = Critical reception = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a rating of 68 % , based on 125 reviews , with an average score of 6 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Surreally goofy and entertaining for both children and their parents . " Metacritic gave the film a score of 66 out of 100 , based on 32 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . According to CinemaScore , audiences gave the film a grade of " B + " on an A + to F scale .
Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars , calling it " the ' Good Burger ' of animation ... plopping us down inside a fast @-@ food war being fought by sponges , starfish , crabs , tiny plankton and mighty King Neptune . " Ed Park of The Village Voice wrote , " No Pixar ? No problem ! An unstoppable good @-@ mood generator , the resolutely 2 @-@ D [ The ] SpongeBob SquarePants Movie has more yuks than Shark Tale and enough soul to swallow The Polar Express whole . " Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review , calling it " an animated adventure that 's funnier than Shark Tale and more charming than The Polar Express . " Randy Cordova of The Arizona Republic said , " Like the TV show it 's based on , it 's a daffy , enjoyable creation . " Jami Bernard of the New York Daily News gave the feature a score of three out of four : " It 's not The Incredibles , or one of those animated features that spent zillions on character design , pedigree and verisimilitude . But SpongeBob is a sweet , silly thing with a child @-@ friendly esthetic all its own . " Will Lawrence of Empire gave the film four out of five stars , calling it " a film for kids , students , stoners , anyone who enjoys a break from reality . " Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave it a B @-@ minus grade : " The best moments in his [ SpongeBob SquarePants ] first movie outing are those that feel most TV @-@ like , just another day in the eternally optimistic undersea society created with such contagious silliness by Stephen Hillenburg . " Desson Thomson of The Washington Post enjoyed the film : " You gotta love SpongeBob . Coolest sponge in the sea , although this one has a suspiciously manufactured look . "
Carla Meyer of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that " The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie retains the 2 @-@ D charm of the hugely popular Nickelodeon cartoon but adds a few tricks – a little 3 @-@ D here , a little David Hasselhoff there . The series ' appeal never lay in its visuals , however . ' SpongeBob ' endeared itself to kids and adults through sweetness and cleverness , also abundant here . " A. O. Scott of The New York Times gave it a score of four out of five : " If you 're tired of ... bluster and swagger , SpongeBob is your man . " Tom Maurstad of The Dallas Morning News also gave the film a B @-@ minus grade : " Being so good is what led to making the movie , and it 's also the reason that many small @-@ screen episodes are better than this big @-@ screen venture . "
Some reviews praised David Hasselhoff 's appearance in the film . Jennifer Frey of The Washington Post wrote , " Getting to see the hairs on Hasselhoff 's back ( and thighs , and calves ) magnified exponentially is perhaps a bit creepy . Like the movie , it 's all in good fun . " Nancy Basile of About.com , who gave the film four out of five stars , wrote that Hasselhoff " must have a great sense of humor . " Cinema Blend founder Joshua Tyler called Hasselhoff 's role " the best movie cameo I 've seen since Fred Savage stuck a joint in his crotch and played a clarinet to charm the resulting smoke like a snake . "
David Edelstein of Slate criticized the film 's plot , calling it a " big , heavy anchor of a story structure to weigh him down . " Mike Clark of USA Today called it " harmlessly off @-@ the @-@ cuff — but facing far more pedigreed multiplex competition ... SpongeBob barely rates as OK when compared with The Incredibles . " A reviewer noted in Time Out London , " Anyone expecting anything more risky will be sadly disappointed . " In his Variety review , Todd McCarthy said the film " takes on rather too much water during its extended feature @-@ length submersion . " Internet Movie Database staff member David N. Butterworth gave it zero stars , saying that " For much like fish , The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie truly stinks . "
While the film was generally well received by fans of the show , it is considered a turning point in the show 's history ; many fans believe that the television series has declined in quality since the film 's release . While episodes aired before the film were praised for their " uncanny brilliance " , those aired after the film have been called " kid @-@ pandering attention @-@ waster [ s ] " , " tedious " , " boring " , " dreck " , a " depressing plateau of mediocrity " and " laugh @-@ skimpy . " After the film 's release , fans " began to turn away from the show , " causing fansites to " bec [ ome ] deserted . " Some fans believe that the show 's 2012 ratings decline correlates with a decline in quality , and " whatever fan support [ the show ] enjoys is not enough " to save it from its slide in ratings .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Video game = =
A video game based on the film was released for PlayStation 2 PC , Game Boy Advance , Xbox and GameCube on October 27 , 2004 for Mac OS X in 2005 and PlayStation 3 on February 7 , 2012 . The home @-@ console version was developed by Heavy Iron Studios ; the Game Boy Advance version was developed by WayForward Technologies and published by THQ .
It was created on the same engine as SpongeBob SquarePants : Battle for Bikini Bottom . Game developer Heavy Iron Studios tweaked the graphics to give the game a sharper and more @-@ imaginative look than Battle for Bikini Bottom . It increased the polygon count , added several racing levels and incorporated many creatures from the film . The game 's plot was based on the film , with SpongeBob and Patrick on a mission taking them outside Bikini Bottom to retrieve Neptune 's crown . On October 4 , 2004 , THQ announced the game 's mobile release . Nickelodeon vice @-@ president for new @-@ media business development Paul Jelinek said , " As one of the leading publishers of wireless entertainment content , THQ Wireless is introducing the SpongeBob SquarePants license to a whole new audience of gamers [ ... ] THQ has been a great partner to Nickelodeon over the years and we look forward to the same standard of excellence with these upcoming SpongeBob SquarePants games for wireless devices . " The mobile console was developed by Amplified Games .
= = Sequels = =
On February 28 , 2012 , the production of a sequel was announced ; it would be directed by Paul Tibbitt , written by Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger and produced by Stephen Hillenburg for a late @-@ 2014 release . On August 1 , 2013 , Paramount changed the sequel 's release date to February 13 , 2015 . It was announced in early June 2014 that the film would instead be released on February 6 , 2015 , to avoid competition with Universal Pictures ' Fifty Shades of Grey , which was set for a February 13 , 2015 release . A third film has been announced and has a release date of February 8 , 2019 .
= Horseshoe Curve ( Pennsylvania ) =
Horseshoe Curve is a three @-@ track railroad curve on the Norfolk Southern Railway 's Pittsburgh Line in Blair County , Pennsylvania . The curve itself is about 2 @,@ 375 @-@ foot ( 724 m ) long and 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) in diameter ; it was completed in 1854 by the Pennsylvania Railroad as a way to lessen the grade to the summit of the Allegheny Mountains . It eventually replaced the time @-@ consuming Allegheny Portage Railroad , the only other route across the mountains for large vehicles .
The rail line has been important since its opening , and during World War II the Curve was targeted by Nazi Germany in 1942 as part of Operation Pastorius . The Curve was later owned and used by Pennsylvania Railroad successors Penn Central , Conrail , and Norfolk Southern . Horseshoe Curve was added to the National Register of Historic Places and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966 , and became a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 2004 .
Horseshoe Curve has long been a tourist attraction with a trackside observation park being completed in 1879 . In the early 1990s the park was renovated and a visitor center built ; the Railroaders Memorial Museum in Altoona manages the center , which has exhibits pertaining to the curve .
= = Location and design = =
Horseshoe Curve is on the Pittsburgh Line , the Norfolk Southern Railway Pittsburgh Division main line between Pittsburgh and Harrisburg , Pennsylvania . Westbound trains climb a maximum grade of 1 @.@ 85 percent for 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Altoona to Gallitzin ; just west of the Gallitzin Tunnels trains pass the summit of the Allegheny Mountains , then descend for 25 miles ( 40 km ) to Johnstown on a grade of 1 @.@ 1 percent or less .
The curve is 5 miles ( 8 km ) west of Altoona in Logan Township , Blair County at railroad milepost 242 . The Blair County Veterans Memorial Highway ( SR 4008 ) follows the valley west from Altoona and tunnels under the curve . Horseshoe Curve bends around a dam and lake , the highest of three reservoirs along the valley which are owned by the Altoona Water Authority and supply water to the city . Horseshoe Curve spans two ravines formed by creeks : Kittanning Run on the north side of the valley , and Glenwhite Run on the south .
For every 100 feet ( 30 m ) , the tracks at the Horseshoe Curve bend 9 degrees and 15 minutes with the entire curve totaling 220 degrees . The curve is 2 @,@ 375 feet ( 724 m ) long and , at its widest , about 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) across . The Horseshoe Curve descends from an approximate elevation of 1 @,@ 640 feet ( 500 m ) on the southern side to 1 @,@ 600 feet ( 490 m ) on the northern . The grade of the curve was listed by the Pennsylvania Railroad as 1 @.@ 45 percent , and currently as 1 @.@ 34 percent by Norfolk Southern . Each track consists of 136 pounds per yard ( 67 @.@ 5 kg / m ) , welded rails that were , as of 2012 , laid in 2011 . Prior to dieselization and the introduction of dynamic braking and rail oilers , the rails along the curve would be transposed — left to right and vice versa — to equalize the wear on each rail from the flanges of passing steam locomotives and rail cars , thereby extending their lifespan .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
In 1834 the state of Pennsylvania built the Allegheny Portage Railroad across the Allegheny Mountains to connect Philadelphia and Pittsburgh , as part of the Main Line of Public Works . The Portage Railroad was a series of canals and inclined planes and remained in use until the mid @-@ 19th century . The Pennsylvania Railroad was incorporated in 1847 to build a railroad from Harrisburg to Pittsburgh , replacing the cumbersome Portage Railroad .
= = = Construction = = =
Using surveys completed in 1842 , the state 's engineers recommended a route west from Lewistown that followed the ridges with a maximum grade of 0 @.@ 852 percent on the 84 @-@ mile ( 135 km ) line . The Chief Engineer for the Pennsylvania Railroad , John Edgar Thomson , instead chose a route on lower , flatter terrain along the Juniata River and accepted the resulting steeper grade west of Altoona . The valley west of Altoona was split into two ravines by a mountain ; surveys had already found a route with an acceptable grade east from Gallitzin to the south side of the valley , and Horseshoe Curve allowed the same grade to continue to Altoona . Engineers built an earth fill over the first ravine encountered while ascending , formed by Kittanning Run , cut the point of the mountain between the ravines , and filled in the second ravine , formed by Glenwhite Run .
Work on Horseshoe Curve began in 1850 and took over three years . It was done without heavy equipment , only men " with picks and shovels , horses and drags " . The entire line , including Horseshoe Curve , opened on February 15 , 1854 . The total cost for 31 @.@ 1 miles ( 50 @.@ 1 km ) of track between Altoona and Johnstown was $ 2 @,@ 495 @,@ 000 or $ 80 @,@ 225 per mile ( $ 49 @,@ 850 / km ) . The remaining part of the mountain inside the curve was leveled in 1879 to allow the construction of a park and observation area — the first built for viewing trains . As demand for train travel increased , a third track was added to the curve in 1898 and a fourth was added two years later .
From around the 1860s to just before World War II passengers could ride to Kittanning Point station near the Curve . Two branch railroads connected to the main line at Horseshoe Curve in the early 20th century ; the Kittanning Run Railroad and the railroad owned by the Glen White Coal and Lumber Company followed their respective creeks to nearby coal mines . The Pennsylvania Railroad delivered empty hopper cars to the Kittanning Point station which the two railroads returned loaded with coal . Across from the station , a spur track on the hillside supplied a coal trestle , where trains could take on fuel and water during the early 1900s . A reservoir was built at the apex of the Horseshoe Curve in 1887 for the city of Altoona ; a second reservoir , below the first , was finished in 1896 . The third reservoir , Lake Altoona , was completed by 1913 . A macadam road to the curve was opened in 1932 allowing access for visitors , and a gift shop was built in 1940 .
Horseshoe Curve was depicted in brochures , calendars and other promotional material ; Pennsylvania Railroad stock certificates were printed with a vignette of it . The Pennsylvania pitted the scenery of Horseshoe Curve against rival New York Central Railroad 's " Water Level Route " during the 1890s . A raised @-@ relief , scale model of the curve was included as part of the Pennsylvania Railroad 's exhibit at the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . Pennsylvania Railroad conductors were told to announce the Horseshoe Curve to daytime passengers — a tradition that continues aboard Amtrak trains .
= = = World War II and post @-@ war = = =
During World War II PRR carried troops and matériel for the Allied war effort , and the Curve was under armed guard . The military intelligence arm of Nazi Germany , the Abwehr , plotted to sabotage important industrial assets in the United States in a project code @-@ named Operation Pastorius . In June 1942 four men were brought by submarine and landed on Long Island , planning to destroy such sites as the Curve , Hell Gate Bridge , Alcoa aluminum factories and locks on the Ohio River . The would @-@ be saboteurs were quickly apprehended by the Federal Bureau of Investigation after one , George John Dasch , turned himself in .
During the 1954 celebration of the centennial of the opening of Horseshoe Curve , a night photo was arranged by Sylvania Electric Products using 6 @,@ 000 flashbulbs and 31 miles ( 50 km ) of wiring to illuminate the area . The stunt also commemorated the 75th anniversary of the incandescent light bulb . Pennsylvania steam locomotive 1361 was placed at the park inside the Horseshoe Curve on June 8 , 1957 . It is one of 425 K4s @-@ class engines , the principal passenger locomotives on the Pennsylvania Railroad that regularly plied the curve . The Horseshoe Curve was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and was designated a National Historic Landmark on November 13 , 1966 . The operation of the observation park was transferred to the city of Altoona the same year . The Pennsylvania Railroad was combined with the New York Central Railroad in 1968 . The merger created Penn Central , which went bankrupt and was taken over by the federal government in 1976 , as part of the merger that created Conrail . The second track from the inside at the Horseshoe Curve was removed by Conrail in 1981 . The K4s 1361 was removed from the curve for a restoration to working order in September 1985 and was replaced with the ex @-@ Conrail EMD GP9 diesel @-@ electric locomotive 7048 that was repainted into a Pennsylvania Railroad scheme .
Starting in June 1990 , the park at the Horseshoe Curve underwent a $ 5 @.@ 8 million renovation funded by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and by the National Park Service through its " America 's Industrial Heritage Project " . The renovations were completed in April 1992 with the dedication of a new visitor center . In 1999 Conrail was divided between CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern , with the Horseshoe Curve being acquired by the latter . The Horseshoe Curve was lit up again with fireworks and rail @-@ borne searchlights during its sesquicentennial in 2004 as an homage to the celebrations in 1954 . It was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2004 .
= = Current operations = =
Train count peaked in the 1940s with over 50 passenger trains per day along with many freight and military trains . Demand for train travel dropped greatly after World War II as highway and air travel became popular . The curve is still busy as part of Norfolk Southern 's Pittsburgh Line and , as of 2008 , was passed by 51 scheduled freight trains each day , not including locals and helper engines which can double the number . The 3 @,@ 000 @-@ horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) EMD SD40 @-@ 2s and SD40Es helpers are coupled to the rear of long trains , providing power on the ascent and assisting in braking on the descent . The 2012 Norfolk Southern track chart lists the annual traffic density passing Horseshoe Curve as 111 @.@ 8 million short tons ( 101 @.@ 4 Mt ) , including locomotives . Amtrak 's Pennsylvanian between Pittsburgh and New York City rounds the curve once each way daily . Average speed for trains at Horseshoe Curve are 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) for freight and approximately 41 miles per hour ( 66 km / h ) for passenger trains .
The Railroaders Memorial Museum in Altoona manages a visitor center next to the curve which is open April to October . The 6 @,@ 800 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 632 m2 ) center has historical artifacts and memorabilia relating to the curve , and a raised @-@ relief map of the Altoona – Johnstown area . Access to the curve is by a 288 @-@ foot ( 88 m ) funicular or a 194 @-@ step stairway . The funicular is single @-@ tracked , with the cars passing each other halfway up the slope ; the cars are painted to resemble Pennsylvania Railroad passenger cars . Along with the locomotive , a former " watchman 's shanty " is in the park . Horseshoe Curve is popular with railfans ; watchers might see three trains passing at once . As part of Norfolk Southern 's 21st Century Steam program , the former Nickel Plate steam locomotive 765 traversed Horseshoe Curve in August 2012 — the first steam locomotive to do so since 1977 — while deadheading to and from Harrisburg . Nickel Plate 765 returned to the curve in May 2013 with public excursion trains from Lewistown to Gallitzin .
= 29th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry =
The 29th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union army of the United States during the American Civil War . The regiment was organized in December 1861 when three new companies were attached to a battalion of seven Massachusetts companies that had been in active service since May 1861 . These seven companies had been recruited to fill out the 3rd Massachusetts and 4th Massachusetts regiments and had signed on for three years of service . When the 3rd and 4th Massachusetts were mustered out in July 1861 , the seven companies that had signed on for three years were grouped together to form a battalion known as the Massachusetts Battalion . Finally , in December 1861 , three more companies were added to their roster to form a full regiment and the unit was designated the 29th Massachusetts .
The regiment took part in 29 battles and four sieges in a variety of theaters of the war . After their early service at Fortress Monroe in Virginia , the 29th was attached , in the spring of 1862 , to the Army of the Potomac during the Peninsular Campaign as part of the famed Irish Brigade . The 29th had the distinction of being the only regiment of non @-@ Irish ethnicity to serve in that brigade . In January 1863 , the IX Corps ( including the 29th Massachusetts ) was transferred to Kentucky and engaged in operations against Confederate guerillas . In the summer of 1863 , the IX Corps was again transferred and took part in the Siege of Vicksburg and the Siege of Jackson , Mississippi . In the fall of 1863 , IX Corps took part in the Knoxville Campaign which resulted in the defeat of Confederate forces in eastern Tennessee . The spring of 1864 saw the IX Corps and the 29th Massachusetts once again returned to duty with the Army of the Potomac , just in time to take part in the Overland Campaign and the Siege of Petersburg . During the Siege of Petersburg , the unit suffered their worst casualties of the war in the Battle of Fort Stedman on March 25 , 1865 .
The 29th was mustered out of service on August 11 , 1865 . Including the seven months served by most of the regiment before its designation as the 29th , the unit had one of the longest terms of service of any Massachusetts regiment — a total of four years and three months .
= = Massachusetts Battalion = =
On April 15 , 1861 , three days after the attack on Fort Sumter , the call went out from Massachusetts Governor John Andrew for the immediate mobilization of the four existing regiments of Massachusetts militia . The 3rd and 4th Massachusetts both left for Washington , D.C. , on April 17 to serve a term of 90 days . But in their haste to reach the capital , these regiments had departed without a full complement of ten companies as required by army regulations . In the following weeks , seven additional companies were formed in Massachusetts and assigned to the 3rd and 4th to fill out their rosters . Unlike the majority of companies in the 3rd and 4th regiments , which had enlisted for 90 days , these new companies signed on for three years of service . These seven companies would eventually form the majority of the 29th Massachusetts .
While serving with the 3rd and the 4th Massachusetts , these companies were primarily garrisoned at Fortress Monroe at the end of the Virginia Peninsula . This strategically important foothold in Virginia allowed Union forces to control the major waterway of Hampton Roads . In an unsuccessful effort to strengthen their hold on the Peninsula , Union troops marched from Fortress Monroe and attacked the Confederate position at Big Bethel Church , resulting in the Battle of Big Bethel on June 10 , 1861 . Two of the companies that would eventually become part of the 29th were involved in this action . The expedition was commanded by Colonel Ebenezer W. Peirce .
When the 3rd and 4th Massachusetts regiments were mustered out in July 1861 , the seven " three @-@ year " companies were consolidated on July 16 to form the " Massachusetts Battalion " under the command of Captain Joseph Barnes . The battalion served relatively light garrison and guard duty at Fortress Monroe , Newport News and Hampton for the remainder of 1861 . In December , three more companies were added to the battalion and , with a full complement of ten companies , the unit became known as the 29th Massachusetts Infantry .
Peirce was appointed the first commander of the 29th . The regimental historian recorded that this appointment was " exceedingly distasteful " to the 29th as there had been an expectation that Barnes , who had led the Massachusetts Battalion , would command the new regiment . Barnes , however , was placed second in command to Peirce as lieutenant colonel . Further , Peirce was disliked for his failure at Big Bethel . During the winter of 1862 , charges were brought against Peirce by officers of the 29th and he was court @-@ martialed for incompetence and improper conduct . His superior officer , Brigadier General John E. Wool , overturned the ruling and Peirce remained in command of the 29th Massachusetts .
= = Peninsular Campaign = =
During the winter and early spring of 1862 , the 29th was deployed on various minor expeditions near Fortress Monroe , Newport News and Norfolk , Virginia . On March 8 and 9 , the regiment was present during the Battle of Hampton Roads , a naval engagement fought primarily between the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia . The regiment helped man a land battery during the engagement , and the men of the 29th were amazed by the new ironclad vessels and the changes they brought to naval warfare .
In the middle of March , once again at Fortress Monroe , the 29th witnessed the arrival of the Army of the Potomac , commanded by Major General George B. McClellan . McClellan intended to use Fortress Monroe as his base of operations for an assault on the Confederate capital of Richmond . The effort would be known as the Peninsular Campaign . Over the course of March 1862 , the men of the 29th watched as roughly 100 @,@ 000 Union soldiers and 15 @,@ 000 mules and horses debarked from Fortress Monroe . The 29th was to remain at Fortress Monroe as the Army of the Potomac made its way toward Richmond . As the campaign became bogged down outside the Confederate capital , additional troops were called for and the 29th Massachusetts departed Hampton Roads on June 7 , 1862 .
= = = Attachment to the Irish Brigade = = =
Traveling by steamboat up the York River , the 29th arrived at White House Landing and marched to the battle front on June 8 , 1862 . The regiment was attached to the Irish Brigade ( 2nd Brigade , 1st Division , II Corps ) . Contemporaries and historians alike have wondered at this unusual assignment . The 29th Massachusetts was made up of men descended , largely , from old @-@ stock English families , some with heritage dating back to the Mayflower . There was , at the time , significant social friction in New England between established Protestant families and Irish immigrants . While the regimental historian observed that the 29th was " cordially welcomed " to the Irish Brigade , other historians , such as Marion Armstrong , point out the oddity of the " aristocratic 29th Massachusetts ... thrown in with three regiments of New York Irishmen . " Historian Daniel Callaghan quotes period sources describing the " unlikely matching of ancient political foes , " and the manner in which the men of the 29th tolerated the Irish @-@ born commander of the Irish Brigade , Brig. Gen. Thomas Francis Meagher , " coldly , in a pinched and critical silence . "
Despite these social differences , the 29th Massachusetts fought alongside the Irish regiments through heavy combat ( the first the regiment had seen ) during the Seven Days Battles . During this series of battles , the Confederates drove McClellan 's army away from Richmond , resulting in the failure of the Peninsular Campaign . After the Union retreat , Meagher praised the 29th 's actions in battle saying that they " had proved themselves the equals of any others in the Brigade , and had no superiors in the army . " Meagher would later call the 29th " Irishmen in disguise . " During the Seven Days Battles , the 29th suffered moderate casualties of six killed and 18 wounded . These casualties included Peirce whose right arm was shot off by cannon fire . Command of the regiment then fell to Barnes .
= = Maryland Campaign = =
Following the failure of the Peninsular Campaign , elements of the Army of the Potomac were shipped to northern Virginia to provide assistance to Union Maj. Gen. John Pope . Pope had been attempting to open a second assault on Richmond from the north , but he was defeated during the Second Battle of Bull Run on August 30 , 1862 . The 29th Massachusetts , along with other elements of the II Corps , arrived too late to take part in the battle .
After his victory at Bull Run , Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee invaded Maryland in September 1862 . The Army of the Potomac , including the 29th Massachusetts , moved to intercept the Confederate offensive . The two armies clashed at Sharpsburg , Maryland , during the Battle of Antietam on September 17 , 1862 .
= = = Battle of Antietam = = =
The battle commenced in the early morning with several assaults on the Confederate left flank by the I Corps and the XII Corps . After these failed , the II Corps , including the Irish Brigade , was called upon to assault a position near the Confederate center known as the " Sunken Road " or " Bloody Lane . " The trench @-@ like road afforded the Confederates a strong defensive position . Just after 9 a.m. , Maj. Gen. Israel B. Richardson 's division , with the Irish Brigade in the lead , moved toward the Sunken Road . Meagher envisioned the delivery of a few volleys from the brigade followed by an impetuous charge . As the Irish Brigade advanced up the crest toward the Sunken Road , it took heavy fire from the Confederates . The progress of the brigade was slowed by a sturdy split rail fence . When Meagher asked for volunteers to run forward and take it down , Corporal Samuel C. Wright of the 29th sprang forward with several others . Wright recalled that many were shot down before they reached the fence and , as " one would grasp a rail , it would be sent flying out of his hands by rifle shots . " The dash back to the lines was just as dangerous . Cpl. Wright was later awarded the Medal of Honor for his bravery at Antietam . He would , over the course of successive battles , be wounded five times and reported dead twice . Despite his travails , he survived the war .
The Irish Brigade , though advancing in good order under heavy fire and delivering effective fire in return , did not reach the Sunken Road . The brigade retired , the regimental historian observed , " as steadily as on drill . " The 29th has been criticized by some historians , including Marion Armstrong , for not advancing as quickly as the rest of the Irish Brigade . An accident in the terrain , a small rise in front of the 29th 's position , afforded them cover , and their casualties were lighter than those of the other regiments of the brigade . Armstrong argues that Barnes was reluctant to leave this advantageous ground , a factor which may have contributed to the failure of the Irish Brigade 's charge . The casualties of the 29th were nine killed , 31 wounded and four missing .
= = Fredericksburg Campaign = =
The Battle of Antietam had been a tactical stalemate . McClellan claimed it as a strategic victory as Lee 's army retreated back into Virginia . Despite this , President Lincoln was displeased with McClellan 's failure to pursue Lee and replaced him with Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside . During November 1862 , Burnside proceeded to gather the Army of the Potomac in Falmouth , Virginia , preparing to assault Lee 's army across the Rappahannock River in Fredericksburg , Virginia .
= = = Removal from the Irish Brigade = = =
While in camp in Falmouth in late November , the officers of the 29th learned that Meagher had arranged for a green Irish Brigade flag to be presented to the regiment , recognizing their role as " honorary Irishmen " and their bravery during the Battle of Antietam . Barnes declined the gift , however . According to the regimental historian , " While the Colonel would have been proud to receive the flag for the regiment as a token of the respect of their Irish comrades , yet he objected to the flag being carried by the regiment , on the ground that it was not an Irish regiment . " Irish Brigade historians , including Joseph Bilby , have observed that there may have been some controversy surrounding the issue . According to Bilby , Barnes refused to accept the flag because they believed it " would brand them as Fenians , " or Irish revolutionaries .
As a result of this incident , on November 30 , 1862 , the 29th was transferred out of the Irish Brigade and into Brig. Gen. Benjamin C. Christ 's brigade in the IX Army Corps . It was replaced in the Irish Brigade by the 28th Massachusetts , an Irish regiment .
The transfer spared the 29th from the Battle of Fredericksburg in which their new brigade played almost no role . Their former comrades in the Irish Brigade , however , made a harrowing charge during the battle and suffered severe casualties .
= = Kentucky = =
Following his failure during the Battle of Fredericksburg , Burnside was removed from command of the Army of the Potomac and returned to the command of the IX Corps , to which the 29th Massachusetts now belonged . On February 5 , 1863 , the IX Corps was detached from the Army of the Potomac and transferred from Virginia to Kentucky where Burnside was to take command of the Department of the Ohio and Union operations in Kentucky and east Tennessee .
The 29th Massachusetts reached Cincinnati via railroad on March 26 , then marched into Kentucky . They were stationed in Paris , Kentucky , during April 1863 , conducting light duty in defending against occasional raids by Confederate guerrillas . In late April they marched to Somerset , Kentucky , where they were occupied with similar duty until early June 1863 .
= = Mississippi = =
In early June , most of the IX Corps was transferred to the command of Maj. Gen. Ulysses Grant who required reinforcements in the Siege of Vicksburg , the last major Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River . The 29th Massachusetts traveled with other elements of the IX Corps via steamship down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers . They arrived in the vicinity of Vicksburg in late June and began digging entrenchments . Less than two weeks after the regiment arrived in Mississippi , the city of Vicksburg surrendered on July 4 , 1863 .
Following the surrender of Vicksburg , the remaining Confederate forces in Mississippi concentrated in the state capital of Jackson . Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman took several corps of Unions troops , including the IX Corps , and laid siege to Jackson in mid @-@ July . While digging trenches , the 29th was exposed to heavy artillery and sharpshooter fire from the Confederates , but the regiment suffered only one casualty during the siege . During the night of July 16 , the Confederate army in Jackson managed to slip away from the city and the siege was ended .
Shortly afterward , the IX Corps was recalled to Kentucky , as Burnside was eager to begin his operations in Tennessee . On the way back to Vicksburg , the 29th acted as provost guard , marching at the rear of the IX Corps to gather stragglers . They missed the first group of steamships to depart for Cincinnati and had to wait three weeks , until August 12 , with other regiments at a camp in Milldale , Mississippi , near Vicksburg . Camp conditions were unsanitary and the weather extremely hot . Many of the men suffered from disease during and after this encampment . As the regimental historian wrote , " Deaths were very frequent among the troops here during this time , burial parties were almost constantly engaged , and the funeral notes of the fife and drum could be heard nearly every hour in the day . None save the strongest came out of that campaign in sound health . "
= = Knoxville Campaign = =
Burnside gathered his Army of the Ohio in the vicinity of Lexington , Kentucky , in late August 1863 in preparation for an invasion of eastern Tennessee . The region was strategically important as a rail link between Virginia and Chattanooga . Also , the population of eastern Tennessee was primarily Unionist . Therefore , it became a key strategic goal of Lincoln 's to force Confederate troops out of the region in hopes that Unionists would gain support and bring the state back into the Union .
Prior to the march , half of the men in the 29th were on the sick list as a result of their service in Mississippi , including Barnes , who took an extended leave and returned for a time to Massachusetts . In his absence , Peirce returned to the 29th to command the unit .
The march across Kentucky , through the Cumberland Gap and on to Knoxville , Tennessee , was one of the longest marches the 29th ever executed — a distance of more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) covered between September 1 and September 26 , 1863 .
On October 21 , the IX Corps made camp in and around Lenoir City , Tennessee , and remained there until November 14 , 1863 . During this time , Confederate Lt. Gen. James Longstreet launched an offensive aimed at the expulsion of Burnside 's troops from Knoxville . The IX Corps , including the 29th Massachusetts , moved southwest to meet the Confederates near Loudon , Tennessee . Union forces were rapidly repulsed and retreated to Knoxville . The siege of that city by the Confederates began in mid @-@ November 1863 . The 29th 's position during the siege was within Fort Sanders . When Longstreet launched his assault on Fort Sanders on November 29 , 1863 , the 29th saw heavy action in repulsing the Confederates . Two members of the 29th , Sgt. Jeremiah Mahoney and Pvt. Joseph S. Manning , later received the Medal of Honor for their bravery in capturing two Confederate battle flags during the battle . The 29th lost only two killed in the Battle of Fort Sanders owing to the strength of their position on the walls of the fort .
Following this Union victory and the retreat of Longstreet 's troops to Virginia , the 29th was stationed in mid @-@ December 1863 at Blaine , Tennessee , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast of Knoxville . Camped on an open plain , exposed to wind and snow , and running very low on provisions , the regiment suffered severely during December 1863 and January 1864 and referred to the camp at Blaine as their Valley Forge . At the end of December , Barnes rejoined the 29th as its commander and Peirce was elevated to brigade command .
In January 1864 , with the end of their three @-@ year term of service only four months away , the men of the 29th were given the option to reenlist for another three years . Those men who chose to accept the offer would receive a 30 @-@ day furlough , while those that did not would be consolidated with the 36th Massachusetts to serve out their remaining months . A total of 166 men chose to reenlist and approximately 90 did not .
On March 21 , 1864 , the 29th and the IX Corps commenced their long march back to Ohio via the Cumberland Gap , reaching Cincinnati on April 1 , 1864 . From there , the men who had reenlisted were sent back to Boston for the furlough they had been promised and those who had not were sent on to Virginia to join the 36th Massachusetts .
= = Overland Campaign = =
While the remaining men of the 29th were on furlough in Massachusetts , Lt. Gen. Ulysses Grant , as general @-@ in @-@ chief of the Union Army , began the Overland Campaign . During the spring of 1864 , he would direct the actions of the Army of the Potomac in northern Virginia , aggressively pushing Lee 's Confederate army toward Richmond in a series of major battles . The men formerly of the 29th who had been transferred to the 36th Massachusetts took part in the opening battles of the campaign , the Battle of the Wilderness and the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House , incurring casualties of seven killed and 30 wounded out of a total of 90 men . This detachment fulfilled their three @-@ year enlistment in mid @-@ May 1864 and returned home .
The furlough for the newly reenlisted ended on May 16 and the 29th Massachusetts , now a small fraction of its original size , departed for Virginia . They rejoined the Army of the Potomac on May 20 , 1864 just in time to take part in the closing battles of the Overland Campaign , particularly the Battle of Cold Harbor . On June 1 , 1864 , the regiment suffered casualties of one killed , 12 wounded and three captured during Grant 's first assault at Cold Harbor . Although the regiment had been temporarily assigned to the V Corps , on June 3 it rejoined the IX Corps . Over the next nine days , the regiment built breastworks and served on picket duty until June 12 when IX Corps rapidly marched to the outskirts of Petersburg , Virginia , in preparation for an assault on that city .
= = Siege of Petersburg = =
= = = Assault on Petersburg = = =
In the pre @-@ dawn hours of June 17 , the divisions of the IX Corps formed up for an assault on the entrenched Confederate position outside Petersburg . Barnes of the 29th had been elevated to command of the 2nd Brigade , 1st Division of the IX Corps , to which the 29th belonged . Major Charles Chipman was placed in command of the 29th in his stead . While other divisions of the IX Corps attacked and were repulsed , the 1st Division moved to its assigned position in the late afternoon and lay down , studying the Confederate breastworks and awaiting orders to advance . At first , the division , to its relief , received orders that the attack had been called off . A short time later , however , came the order to attack . The division , including the 29th , charged from their protected position in a ravine out into an open plain in front of the Confederate entrenchments . According to the regimental historian , " They had scarcely emerged upon the open plain , when the whole crest of the Confederate works was fringed with fire and smoke ; grape , canister , and musketballs filled the air . "
During this charge , the color @-@ bearer of the 29th , Sgt. Silas Grosvenor , was shot through the head . The colors were picked up by Sgt. John A. Tighe who was also killed . Sergeant Major William F. Willis picked up the flag and became the third color @-@ bearer killed in the charge . At this point , the 29th was forced to pause in its advance and retired a short distance . In the confusion , the colors were left on the field . Major Chipman asked for two volunteers to go with him onto the open ground to retrieve the colors . The three found the colors and , according to the regimental historian , the Confederates , admiring the bravery of the trio , did not fire and allowed them to return to their lines .
The 1st Division of the IX Corps eventually captured the Confederate works in their front , however little had been accomplished by the assault on Petersburg overall . The Confederates remained strongly entrenched and the long Siege of Petersburg began . The 29th , numbering just 100 men at this time , lost six killed and 23 wounded .
= = = Battle of the Crater = = =
The 29th occupied trenches outside Petersburg with the rest of the Army of the Potomac during the summer of 1864 . In July , Union troops dug a mine beneath the Confederate position and , on July 30 , 1864 , a massive amount of gunpowder was detonated in the mine , blasting a hole in the Confederate position . During the resulting Battle of the Crater , the 1st Division of the IX Corps led a confused and failed attack . The 29th took part , charging into the crater with other regiments and eventually retreating , losing three killed , seven wounded and six captured .
= = = Battle of Fort Stedman = = =
The 29th played a minor role in the Battle of Globe Tavern , a movement intended to tighten the siege around Petersburg , on August 18 , 1864 . The regiment suffered only a few casualties during this engagement . In the fall of 1864 , the 29th served uneventful duty along the Petersburg siege lines and was eventually , in November , assigned a garrison post in Battery 11 , a small , unfinished ravelin ( detached fortification ) outside of Fort Stedman . Stedman was one of many earthen fortifications built along Union lines during the siege , and was only 150 yards from the Confederate trenches — the narrowest distance between the two armies . They would remain at this post for the next four months .
On March 25 , 1865 , the regiment fought in the Battle of Fort Stedman , the Confederate Army 's final offensive during the Siege of Petersburg . Before dawn on March 25 , Confederate troops achieved complete surprise and easily occupied Fort Stedman entering the rear sally port almost unchallenged . Major Charles T. Richardson , then in command of the 29th , hearing some light gunfire , ordered the 29th to fall in . No general alarm had yet been raised , but Richardson felt certain that an attack was underway . Within minutes , approximately 500 Confederates , a small part of the overall offensive , swept over Battery 11 . The 29th held their ground , however , engaging in heated hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and eventually capturing 300 Confederates — more than twice their own number . The Confederates still occupied Fort Stedman , however , and soon sent another offensive to occupy Battery 11 . This time , the 29th was forced to retreat back to Fort Haskell , the nearest defensible position .
Among the 29th 's casualties in this engagement was Sgt. Calvin F. Harlow who , finding himself surrounded by Confederates , refused to surrender . He and the Confederate officer demanding his surrender shot each other simultaneously . Poet Walt Whitman , learning of Harlow 's story , wrote about him in his book Specimen Days .
After four hours , the Confederate attack lost momentum , and their forces began to pull back into Fort Stedman . An overwhelming Union counterattack eventually recaptured the fort . The 29th took part in the counterattack , re @-@ capturing Battery 11 . Color @-@ bearer Conrad Homan of the 29th was the first to re @-@ enter Battery 11 and was later awarded the Medal of Honor . The regiment lost 10 killed and an unknown number of captured in this engagement .
= = Mustering out = =
The 29th did not take part in the pursuit of Lee 's army during the Appomattox Campaign . The small regiment was instead withdrawn to Washington shortly after Lee 's surrender and served as provost guards in the capital . On August 11 , 1865 , the 29th was mustered out of service . Approximately 173 of its members ( roughly 15 percent ) were killed in action or died of wounds or disease . Official numbers as to the number of wounded are not available . The unit served in 15 states and traveled more than 4 @,@ 200 miles ( 6 @,@ 800 km ) . Taking into account the seven months of duty served prior to the official formation of the regiment , plus a term of reenlistment served by many members , the 29th Massachusetts had one of the longest terms of service of any Massachusetts regiment , a total of four years and three months .
= Black hole =
A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing — including particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light — can escape from inside it . The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole . The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon . Although crossing the event horizon has enormous effect on the fate of the object crossing it , it appears to have no locally detectable features . In many ways a black hole acts like an ideal black body , as it reflects no light . Moreover , quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation , with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass . This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass , making it essentially impossible to observe .
Objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace . The first modern solution of general relativity that would characterize a black hole was found by Karl Schwarzschild in 1916 , although its interpretation as a region of space from which nothing can escape was first published by David Finkelstein in 1958 . Black holes were long considered a mathematical curiosity ; it was during the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general relativity . The discovery of neutron stars sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality .
Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle . After a black hole has formed , it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings . By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes , supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses ( M ☉ ) may form . There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies .
Despite its invisible interior , the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light . Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an external accretion disk heated by friction , forming some of the brightest objects in the universe . If there are other stars orbiting a black hole , their orbits can be used to determine the black hole 's mass and location . Such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars . In this way , astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems , and established that the radio source known as Sagittarius A * , at the core of our own Milky Way galaxy , contains a supermassive black hole of about 4 @.@ 3 million solar masses .
On 11 February 2016 , the LIGO collaboration announced the first observation of gravitational waves ; because these waves were generated from a black hole merger it was the first ever direct detection of a binary black hole merger . On 15 June 2016 , a second detection of a gravitational wave event from colliding black holes was announced .
= = History = =
The idea of a body so massive that even light could not escape was first put forward by John Michell in a letter written in 1783 to Henry Cavendish of the Royal Society :
If the semi @-@ diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun were to exceed that of the Sun in the proportion of 500 to 1 , a body falling from an infinite height towards it would have acquired at its surface greater velocity than that of light , and consequently supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its vis inertiae , with other bodies , all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it by its own proper gravity .
In 1796 , mathematician Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace promoted the same idea in the first and second editions of his book Exposition du système du Monde ( it was removed from later editions ) . He justified his argument mathematically in 1799 .
Such " dark stars " were largely ignored in the nineteenth century , since it was not understood how a massless wave such as light could be influenced by gravity .
= = = General relativity = = =
In 1915 , Albert Einstein developed his theory of general relativity , having earlier shown that gravity does influence light 's motion . Only a few months later , Karl Schwarzschild found a solution to the Einstein field equations , which describes the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass . A few months after Schwarzschild , Johannes Droste , a student of Hendrik Lorentz , independently gave the same solution for the point mass and wrote more extensively about its properties . This solution had a peculiar behaviour at what is now called the Schwarzschild radius , where it became singular , meaning that some of the terms in the Einstein equations became infinite . The nature of this surface was not quite understood at the time . In 1924 , Arthur Eddington showed that the singularity disappeared after a change of coordinates ( see Eddington – Finkelstein coordinates ) , although it took until 1933 for Georges Lemaître to realize that this meant the singularity at the Schwarzschild radius was an unphysical coordinate singularity . Arthur Eddington did however comment on the possibility of a star with mass compressed to the Schwarzschild radius in a 1926 book , noting that Einstein 's theory allows us to rule out overly large densities for visible stars like Betelgeuse because " a star of 250 million km radius could not possibly have so high a density as the sun . Firstly , the force of gravitation would be so great that light would be unable to escape from it , the rays falling back to the star like a stone to the earth . Secondly , the red shift of the spectral lines would be so great that the spectrum would be shifted out of existence . Thirdly , the mass would produce so much curvature of the space @-@ time metric that space would close up around the star , leaving us outside ( i.e. , nowhere ) . "
In 1931 , Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar calculated , using special relativity , that a non @-@ rotating body of electron @-@ degenerate matter above a certain limiting mass ( now called the Chandrasekhar limit at 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ ) has no stable solutions . His arguments were opposed by many of his contemporaries like Eddington and Lev Landau , who argued that some yet unknown mechanism would stop the collapse . They were partly correct : a white dwarf slightly more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a neutron star , which is itself stable because of the Pauli exclusion principle . But in 1939 , Robert Oppenheimer and others predicted that neutron stars above approximately 3 M ☉ ( the Tolman – Oppenheimer – Volkoff limit ) would collapse into black holes for the reasons presented by Chandrasekhar , and concluded that no law of physics was likely to intervene and stop at least some stars from collapsing to black holes .
Oppenheimer and his co @-@ authors interpreted the singularity at the boundary of the Schwarzschild radius as indicating that this was the boundary of a bubble in which time stopped . This is a valid point of view for external observers , but not for infalling observers . Because of this property , the collapsed stars were called " frozen stars " , because an outside observer would see the surface of the star frozen in time at the instant where its collapse takes it inside the Schwarzschild radius .
= = = Golden age = = =
In 1958 , David Finkelstein identified the Schwarzschild surface as an event horizon , " a perfect unidirectional membrane : causal influences can cross it in only one direction " . This did not strictly contradict Oppenheimer 's results , but extended them to include the point of view of infalling observers . Finkelstein 's solution extended the Schwarzschild solution for the future of observers falling into a black hole . A complete extension had already been found by Martin Kruskal , who was urged to publish it .
These results came at the beginning of the golden age of general relativity , which was marked by general relativity and black holes becoming mainstream subjects of research . This process was helped by the discovery of pulsars in 1967 , which , by 1969 , were shown to be rapidly rotating neutron stars . Until that time , neutron stars , like black holes , were regarded as just theoretical curiosities ; but the discovery of pulsars showed their physical relevance and spurred a further interest in all types of compact objects that might be formed by gravitational collapse .
In this period more general black hole solutions were found . In 1963 , Roy Kerr found the exact solution for a rotating black hole . Two years later , Ezra Newman found the axisymmetric solution for a black hole that is both rotating and electrically charged . Through the work of Werner Israel , Brandon Carter , and David Robinson the no @-@ hair theorem emerged , stating that a stationary black hole solution is completely described by the three parameters of the Kerr – Newman metric : mass , angular momentum , and electric charge .
At first , it was suspected that the strange features of the black hole solutions were pathological artifacts from the symmetry conditions imposed , and that the singularities would not appear in generic situations . This view was held in particular by Vladimir Belinsky , Isaak Khalatnikov , and Evgeny Lifshitz , who tried to prove that no singularities appear in generic solutions . However , in the late 1960s Roger Penrose and Stephen Hawking used global techniques to prove that singularities appear generically .
Work by James Bardeen , Jacob Bekenstein , Carter , and Hawking in the early 1970s led to the formulation of black hole thermodynamics . These laws describe the behaviour of a black hole in close analogy to the laws of thermodynamics by relating mass to energy , area to entropy , and surface gravity to temperature . The analogy was completed when Hawking , in 1974 , showed that quantum field theory predicts that black holes should radiate like a black body with a temperature proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole .
The first use of the term " black hole " in print was by journalist Ann Ewing in her article " ' Black Holes ' in Space " , dated 18 January 1964 , which was a report on a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science . John Wheeler used the term " black hole " at a lecture in 1967 , leading some to credit him with coining the phrase . After Wheeler 's use of the term , it was quickly adopted in general use .
= = Properties and structure = =
The no @-@ hair theorem states that , once it achieves a stable condition after formation , a black hole has only three independent physical properties : mass , charge , and angular momentum . Any two black holes that share the same values for these properties , or parameters , are indistinguishable according to classical ( i.e. non @-@ quantum ) mechanics .
These properties are special because they are visible from outside a black hole . For example , a charged black hole repels other like charges just like any other charged object . Similarly , the total mass inside a sphere containing a black hole can be found by using the gravitational analog of Gauss 's law , the ADM mass , far away from the black hole . Likewise , the angular momentum can be measured from far away using frame dragging by the gravitomagnetic field .
When an object falls into a black hole , any information about the shape of the object or distribution of charge on it is evenly distributed along the horizon of the black hole , and is lost to outside observers . The behavior of the horizon in this situation is a dissipative system that is closely analogous to that of a conductive stretchy membrane with friction and electrical resistance — the membrane paradigm . This is different from other field theories such as electromagnetism , which do not have any friction or resistivity at the microscopic level , because they are time @-@ reversible . Because a black hole eventually achieves a stable state with only three parameters , there is no way to avoid losing information about the initial conditions : the gravitational and electric fields of a black hole give very little information about what went in . The information that is lost includes every quantity that cannot be measured far away from the black hole horizon , including approximately conserved quantum numbers such as the total baryon number and lepton number . This behavior is so puzzling that it has been called the black hole information loss paradox .
= = = Physical properties = = =
The simplest static black holes have mass but neither electric charge nor angular momentum . These black holes are often referred to as Schwarzschild black holes after Karl Schwarzschild who discovered this solution in 1916 . According to Birkhoff 's theorem , it is the only vacuum solution that is spherically symmetric . This means that there is no observable difference between the gravitational field of such a black hole and that of any other spherical object of the same mass . The popular notion of a black hole " sucking in everything " in its surroundings is therefore only correct near a black hole 's horizon ; far away , the external gravitational field is identical to that of any other body of the same mass .
Solutions describing more general black holes also exist . Non @-@ rotating charged black holes are described by the Reissner – Nordström metric , while the Kerr metric describes a non @-@ charged rotating black hole . The most general stationary black hole solution known is the Kerr – Newman metric , which describes a black hole with both charge and angular momentum .
While the mass of a black hole can take any positive value , the charge and angular momentum are constrained by the mass . In Planck units , the total electric charge Q and the total angular momentum J are expected to satisfy
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for a black hole of mass M. Black holes satisfying this inequality are called extremal . Solutions of Einstein 's equations that violate this inequality exist , but they do not possess an event horizon . These solutions have so @-@ called naked singularities that can be observed from the outside , and hence are deemed unphysical . The cosmic censorship hypothesis rules out the formation of such singularities , when they are created through the gravitational collapse of realistic matter . This is supported by numerical simulations .
Due to the relatively large strength of the electromagnetic force , black holes forming from the collapse of stars are expected to retain the nearly neutral charge of the star . Rotation , however , is expected to be a common feature of compact objects . The black @-@ hole candidate binary X @-@ ray source GRS 1915 + 105 appears to have an angular momentum near the maximum allowed value .
Black holes are commonly classified according to their mass , independent of angular momentum J or electric charge Q. The size of a black hole , as determined by the radius of the event horizon , or Schwarzschild radius , is roughly proportional to the mass M through
<formula>
where rsh is the Schwarzschild radius and MSun is the mass of the Sun . This relation is exact only for black holes with zero charge and angular momentum ; for more general black holes it can differ up to a factor of 2 .
= = = Event horizon = = =
The defining feature of a black hole is the appearance of an event horizon — a boundary in spacetime through which matter and light can only pass inward towards the mass of the black hole . Nothing , not even light , can escape from inside the event horizon . The event horizon is referred to as such because if an event occurs within the boundary , information from that event cannot reach an outside observer , making it impossible to determine if such an event occurred .
As predicted by general relativity , the presence of a mass deforms spacetime in such a way that the paths taken by particles bend towards the mass . At the event horizon of a black hole , this deformation becomes so strong that there are no paths that lead away from the black hole .
To a distant observer , clocks near a black hole appear to tick more slowly than those further away from the black hole . Due to this effect , known as gravitational time dilation , an object falling into a black hole appears to slow as it approaches the event horizon , taking an infinite time to reach it . At the same time , all processes on this object slow down , from the view point of a fixed outside observer , causing any light emitted by the object to appear redder and dimmer , an effect known as gravitational redshift . Eventually , the falling object becomes so dim that it can no longer be seen .
On the other hand , indestructible observers falling into a black hole do not notice any of these effects as they cross the event horizon . According to their own clocks , which appear to them to tick normally , they cross the event horizon after a finite time without noting any singular behaviour ; it is impossible to determine the location of the event horizon from local observations .
The shape of the event horizon of a black hole is always approximately spherical . For non @-@ rotating ( static ) black holes the geometry of the event horizon is precisely spherical , while for rotating black holes the sphere is oblate .
= = = Singularity = = =
At the center of a black hole , as described by general relativity , lies a gravitational singularity , a region where the spacetime curvature becomes infinite . For a non @-@ rotating black hole , this region takes the shape of a single point and for a rotating black hole , it is smeared out to form a ring singularity that lies in the plane of rotation . In both cases , the singular region has zero volume . It can also be shown that the singular region contains all the mass of the black hole solution . The singular region can thus be thought of as having infinite density .
Observers falling into a Schwarzschild black hole ( i.e. , non @-@ rotating and not charged ) cannot avoid being carried into the singularity , once they cross the event horizon . They can prolong the experience by accelerating away to slow their descent , but only up to a limit ; after attaining a certain ideal velocity , it is best to free fall the rest of the way . When they reach the singularity , they are crushed to infinite density and their mass is added to the total of the black hole . Before that happens , they will have been torn apart by the growing tidal forces in a process sometimes referred to as spaghettification or the " noodle effect " .
In the case of a charged ( Reissner – Nordström ) or rotating ( Kerr ) black hole , it is possible to avoid the singularity . Extending these solutions as far as possible reveals the hypothetical possibility of exiting the black hole into a different spacetime with the black hole acting as a wormhole . The possibility of traveling to another universe is however only theoretical , since any perturbation would destroy this possibility . It also appears to be possible to follow closed timelike curves ( returning to one 's own past ) around the Kerr singularity , which lead to problems with causality like the grandfather paradox . It is expected that none of these peculiar effects would survive in a proper quantum treatment of rotating and charged black holes .
The appearance of singularities in general relativity is commonly perceived as signaling the breakdown of the theory . This breakdown , however , is expected ; it occurs in a situation where quantum effects should describe these actions , due to the extremely high density and therefore particle interactions . To date , it has not been possible to combine quantum and gravitational effects into a single theory , although there exist attempts to formulate such a theory of quantum gravity . It is generally expected that such a theory will not feature any singularities .
= = = Photon sphere = = =
The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness in which photons that move on tangents to that sphere would be trapped in a circular orbit about the black hole . For non @-@ rotating black holes , the photon sphere has a radius 1 @.@ 5 times the Schwarzschild radius . Their orbits would be dynamically unstable , hence any small perturbation , such as a particle of infalling matter , would cause an instability that would grow over time , either setting the photon on an outward trajectory causing it to escape the black hole , or on an inward spiral where it would eventually cross the event horizon .
While light can still escape from the photon sphere , any light that crosses the photon sphere on an inbound trajectory will be captured by the black hole . Hence any light that reaches an outside observer from the photon sphere must have been emitted by objects between the photon sphere and the event horizon .
Other compact objects , such as neutron stars , can also have photon spheres . This follows from the fact that the gravitational field external to a spherically @-@ symmetric object is governed by the Schwarzschild metric , which depends only on the object 's mass rather than the radius of the object , hence any object whose radius shrinks to smaller than 1 @.@ 5 times the Schwarzschild radius will have a photon sphere .
= = = Ergosphere = = =
Rotating black holes are surrounded by a region of spacetime in which it is impossible to stand still , called the ergosphere . This is the result of a process known as frame @-@ dragging ; general relativity predicts that any rotating mass will tend to slightly " drag " along the spacetime immediately surrounding it . Any object near the rotating mass will tend to start moving in the direction of rotation . For a rotating black hole , this effect is so strong near the event horizon that an object would have to move faster than the speed of light in the opposite direction to just stand still .
The ergosphere of a black hole is a volume whose inner boundary is the black hole 's event horizon and an outer boundary of an oblate spheroid , which coincides with the event horizon at the poles but noticeably wider around the equator . The outer boundary is sometimes called the ergosurface .
Objects and radiation can escape normally from the ergosphere . Through the Penrose process , objects can emerge from the ergosphere with more energy than they entered . This energy is taken from the rotational energy of the black hole causing the latter to slow .
= = = Innermost stable circular orbit ( ISCO ) = = =
In Newtonian gravity , test particles can stably orbit at arbitrary distances from a central object . In general relativity , however , there exists an innermost stable circular orbit ( often called the ISCO ) , inside of which , any infinitesimal perturbations to a circular orbit will lead to inspiral into the black hole . The location of the ISCO depends on the spin of the black hole , in the case of a Schwarzschild black hole ( spin zero ) is :
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and decreases with increasing spin .
= = Formation and evolution = =
Considering the exotic nature of black holes , it may be natural to question if such bizarre objects could exist in nature or to suggest that they are merely pathological solutions to Einstein 's equations . Einstein himself wrongly thought that black holes would not form , because he held that the angular momentum of collapsing particles would stabilize their motion at some radius . This led the general relativity community to dismiss all results to the contrary for many years . However , a minority of relativists continued to contend that black holes were physical objects , and by the end of the 1960s , they had persuaded the majority of researchers in the field that there is no obstacle to the formation of an event horizon .
Once an event horizon forms , Penrose proved , general relativity without quantum mechanics requires that a singularity will form within . Shortly afterwards , Hawking showed that many cosmological solutions that describe the Big Bang have singularities without scalar fields or other exotic matter ( see " Penrose – Hawking singularity theorems " ) . The Kerr solution , the no @-@ hair theorem , and the laws of black hole thermodynamics showed that the physical properties of black holes were simple and comprehensible , making them respectable subjects for research . The primary formation process for black holes is expected to be the gravitational collapse of heavy objects such as stars , but there are also more exotic processes that can lead to the production of black holes .
= = = Gravitational collapse = = =
Gravitational collapse occurs when an object 's internal pressure is insufficient to resist the object 's own gravity . For stars this usually occurs either because a star has too little " fuel " left to maintain its temperature through stellar nucleosynthesis , or because a star that would have been stable receives extra matter in a way that does not raise its core temperature . In either case the star 's temperature is no longer high enough to prevent it from collapsing under its own weight . The collapse may be stopped by the degeneracy pressure of the star 's constituents , allowing the condensation of matter into an exotic denser state . The result is one of the various types of compact star . The type of compact star formed depends on the mass of the remnant of the original star left after the outer layers have been blown away . Such explosions and pulsations lead to planetary nebula . This mass can be substantially less than the original star . Remnants exceeding 5 M ☉ are produced by stars that were over 20 M ☉ before the collapse .
If the mass of the remnant exceeds about 3 – 4 M ☉ ( the Tolman – Oppenheimer – Volkoff limit ) , either because the original star was very heavy or because the remnant collected additional mass through accretion of matter , even the degeneracy pressure of neutrons is insufficient to stop the collapse . No known mechanism ( except possibly quark degeneracy pressure , see quark star ) is powerful enough to stop the implosion and the object will inevitably collapse to form a black hole .
The gravitational collapse of heavy stars is assumed to be responsible for the formation of stellar mass black holes . Star formation in the early universe may have resulted in very massive stars , which upon their collapse would have produced black holes of up to 103 M ☉ . These black holes could be the seeds of the supermassive black holes found in the centers of most galaxies . It has further been suggested that supermassive black holes with typical masses of ~ 105 M ☉ could have formed from the direct collapse of gas clouds in the young universe . Some candidates for such objects have been found in observations of the young universe .
While most of the energy released during gravitational collapse is emitted very quickly , an outside observer does not actually see the end of this process . Even though the collapse takes a finite amount of time from the reference frame of infalling matter , a distant observer would see the infalling material slow and halt just above the event horizon , due to gravitational time dilation . Light from the collapsing material takes longer and longer to reach the observer , with the light emitted just before the event horizon forms delayed an infinite amount of time . Thus the external observer never sees the formation of the event horizon ; instead , the collapsing material seems to become dimmer and increasingly red @-@ shifted , eventually fading away .
= = = = Primordial black holes in the Big Bang = = = =
Gravitational collapse requires great density . In the current epoch of the universe these high densities are only found in stars , but in the early universe shortly after the big bang densities were much greater , possibly allowing for the creation of black holes . The high density alone is not enough to allow the formation of black holes since a uniform mass distribution will not allow the mass to bunch up . In order for primordial black holes to form in such a dense medium , there must be initial density perturbations that can then grow under their own gravity . Different models for the early universe vary widely in their predictions of the size of these perturbations . Various models predict the creation of black holes , ranging from a Planck mass to hundreds of thousands of solar masses . Primordial black holes could thus account for the creation of any type of black hole .
= = = High @-@ energy collisions = = =
Gravitational collapse is not the only process that could create black holes . In principle , black holes could be formed in high @-@ energy collisions that achieve sufficient density . As of 2002 , no such events have been detected , either directly or indirectly as a deficiency of the mass balance in particle accelerator experiments . This suggests that there must be a lower limit for the mass of black holes . Theoretically , this boundary is expected to lie around the Planck mass ( mP = √ ħc / G ≈ 1 @.@ 2 × 1019 GeV / c2 ≈ 2 @.@ 2 × 10 − 8 kg ) , where quantum effects are expected to invalidate the predictions of general relativity . This would put the creation of black holes firmly out of reach of any high @-@ energy process occurring on or near the Earth . However , certain developments in quantum gravity suggest that the Planck mass could be much lower : some braneworld scenarios for example put the boundary as low as 1 TeV / c2 . This would make it conceivable for micro black holes to be created in the high @-@ energy collisions that occur when cosmic rays hit the Earth 's atmosphere , or possibly in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN . These theories are very speculative , and the creation of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikely by many specialists . Even if micro black holes could be formed , it is expected that they would evaporate in about 10 − 25 seconds , posing no threat to the Earth .
= = = Growth = = =
Once a black hole has formed , it can continue to grow by absorbing additional matter . Any black hole will continually absorb gas and interstellar dust from its surroundings and omnipresent cosmic background radiation . This is the primary process through which supermassive black holes seem to have grown . A similar process has been suggested for the formation of intermediate @-@ mass black holes found in globular clusters .
Another possibility for black hole growth , is for a black hole to merge with other objects such as stars or even other black holes . Although not necessary for growth , this is thought to have been important , especially for the early development of supermassive black holes , which could have formed from the coagulation of many smaller objects . The process has also been proposed as the origin of some intermediate @-@ mass black holes .
= = = Evaporation = = =
In 1974 , Hawking predicted that black holes are not entirely black but emit small amounts of thermal radiation ; this effect has become known as Hawking radiation . By applying quantum field theory to a static black hole background , he determined that a black hole should emit particles that display a perfect black body spectrum . Since Hawking 's publication , many others have verified the result through various approaches . If Hawking 's theory of black hole radiation is correct , then black holes are expected to shrink and evaporate over time as they lose mass by the emission of photons and other particles . The temperature of this thermal spectrum ( Hawking temperature ) is proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole , which , for a Schwarzschild black hole , is inversely proportional to the mass . Hence , large black holes emit less radiation than small black holes .
A stellar black hole of 1 M ☉ has a Hawking temperature of about 100 nanokelvins . This is far less than the 2 @.@ 7 K temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation . Stellar @-@ mass or larger black holes receive more mass from the cosmic microwave background than they emit through Hawking radiation and thus will grow instead of shrink . To have a Hawking temperature larger than 2 @.@ 7 K ( and be able to evaporate ) , a black hole would need a mass less than the Moon . Such a black hole would have a diameter of less than a tenth of a millimeter .
If a black hole is very small , the radiation effects are expected to become very strong . Even a black hole that is heavy compared to a human would evaporate in an instant . A black hole with the mass of a car would have a diameter of about 10 − 24 m and take a nanosecond to evaporate , during which time it would briefly have a luminosity of more than 200 times that of the Sun . Lower @-@ mass black holes are expected to evaporate even faster ; for example , a black hole of mass 1 TeV / c2 would take less than 10 − 88 seconds to evaporate completely . For such a small black hole , quantum gravitation effects are expected to play an important role and could hypothetically make such a small black hole stable , although current developments in quantum gravity do not indicate so .
The Hawking radiation for an astrophysical black hole is predicted to be very weak and would thus be exceedingly difficult to detect from Earth . A possible exception , however , is the burst of gamma rays emitted in the last stage of the evaporation of primordial black holes . Searches for such flashes have proven unsuccessful and provide stringent limits on the possibility of existence of low mass primordial black holes . NASA 's Fermi Gamma @-@ ray Space Telescope launched in 2008 will continue the search for these flashes .
= = Observational evidence = =
By their very nature , black holes do not directly emit any electromagnetic radiation other than the hypothetical Hawking radiation , so astrophysicists searching for black holes must generally rely on indirect observations . For example , a black hole 's existence can sometimes be inferred by observing its gravitational interactions with its surroundings . However , the Event Horizon Telescope ( EHT ) , run by MIT 's Haystack Observatory , is an attempt to directly observe the immediate environment of the event horizon of Sagittarius A * , the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way . The first image of the event horizon may appear as early as 2018 . The existence of magnetic fields just outside the event horizon of Sagittarius A * , which were predicted by theoretical studies of black holes , was confirmed by the EHT in 2015 .
= = = Detection of gravitational waves from merging black holes = = =
On 24 September 2015 the LIGO gravitational wave observatory made the first @-@ ever successful observation of gravitational waves . The signal was consistent with theoretical predictions for the gravitational waves produced by the merger of two black holes : one with about 36 solar masses , and the other around 29 solar masses . This observation provides the most concrete evidence for the existence of black holes to date . For instance , the gravitational wave signal suggests that the separation of the two object prior to merger was just 350 km ( or roughly 4 times the Schwarzschild radius corresponding to the inferred masses ) . The objects must therefore have been extremely compact , leaving black holes as the most plausible interpretation .
More importantly , the signal observed by LIGO also included the start of the post @-@ merger ringdown , the signal produced as the newly formed compact object settles down to a stationary state . Arguably , the ringdown is the most direct way of observing a black hole . From the LIGO signal it is possible to extract the frequency and damping time of the dominant mode of the ringdown . From these it is possible to infer the mass and angular momentum of the final object , which match independent predictions from numerical simulations of the merger . The frequency and decay time of the dominant mode are determined by the geometry of the photon sphere . Hence , observation of this mode confirms the presence of a photon sphere , however it cannot exclude possible exotic alternatives to black holes that are compact enough to have a photon sphere .
The observation also provides the first observational evidence for the existence of stellar @-@ mass black hole binaries . Furthermore , it is the first observational evidence of stellar @-@ mass black holes weighing 25 solar masses or more .
= = = Proper motions of stars orbiting Sagittarius A * = = =
The proper motions of stars near the center of our own Milky Way provide strong observational evidence that these stars are orbiting a supermassive black hole . Since 1995 , astronomers have tracked the motions of 90 stars orbiting an invisible object coincident with the radio source Sagittarius A * . By fitting their motions to Keplerian orbits , the astronomers were able to infer , in 1998 , that a 2 @.@ 6 million M ☉ object must be contained in a volume with a radius of 0 @.@ 02 light @-@ years to cause the motions of those stars . Since then , one of the stars — called S2 — has completed a full orbit . From the orbital data , astronomers were able to make refine the calculations of the mass to 4 @.@ 3 million M ☉ and a radius of less than 0 @.@ 002 lightyears for the object causing the orbital motion of those stars . The upper limit on the object 's size is still too large to test whether it is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius ; nevertheless , these observations strongly suggest that the central object is a supermassive black hole as there are no other plausible scenarios for confining so much invisible mass into such a small volume . Additionally , there is some observational evidence that this object might possess an event horizon , a feature unique to black holes .
= = = Accretion of matter = = =
Due to conservation of angular momentum , gas falling into the gravitational well created by a massive object will typically form a disc @-@ like structure around the object . Artists ' impressions such as the accompanying representation of a black hole with corona commonly depict the black hole as if it were a flat @-@ space material body hiding the part of the disc just behind it , but detailed mathematical modelling shows that the image of the disc would actually be distorted by the bending of light that originated behind the black hole in such a way that the upper side of the disc would be entirely visible , while there would be a partially visible secondary image of the underside of the disk .
Within such a disc , friction would cause angular momentum to be transported outward , allowing matter to fall further inward , thus releasing potential energy and increasing the temperature of the gas .
When the accreting object is a neutron star or a black hole , the gas in the inner accretion disc orbits at very high speeds because of its proximity to the compact object . The resulting friction is so significant that it heats the inner disc to temperatures at which it emits vast amounts of electromagnetic radiation ( mainly X @-@ rays ) . These bright X @-@ ray sources may be detected by telescopes . This process of accretion is one of the most efficient energy @-@ producing processes known ; up to 40 % of the rest mass of the accreted material can be emitted as radiation . ( In nuclear fusion only about 0 @.@ 7 % of the rest mass will be emitted as energy . ) In many cases , accretion discs are accompanied by relativistic jets that are emitted along the poles , which carry away much of the energy . The mechanism for the creation of these jets is currently not well understood .
As such , many of the universe 's more energetic phenomena have been attributed to the accretion of matter on black holes . In particular , active galactic nuclei and quasars are believed to be the accretion discs of supermassive black holes . Similarly , X @-@ ray binaries are generally accepted to be binary star systems in which one of the two stars is a compact object accreting matter from its companion . It has also been suggested that some ultraluminous X @-@ ray sources may be the accretion disks of intermediate @-@ mass black holes .
In November 2011 the first direct observation of a quasar accretion disk around a supermassive black hole was reported .
= = = X @-@ ray binaries = = =
X @-@ ray binaries are binary star systems that emit a majority of their radiation in the X @-@ ray part of the spectrum . These X @-@ ray emissions are generally thought to result when one of the stars ( compact object ) accretes matter from another ( regular ) star . The presence of an ordinary star in such a system provides a unique opportunity for studying the central object and to determine if it might be a black hole .
If such a system emits signals that can be directly traced back to the compact object , it cannot be a black hole . The absence of such a signal does , however , not exclude the possibility that the compact object is a neutron star . By studying the companion star it is often possible to obtain the orbital parameters of the system and to obtain an estimate for the mass of the compact object . If this is much larger than the Tolman – Oppenheimer – Volkoff limit ( that is , the maximum mass a neutron star can have before it collapses ) then the object cannot be a neutron star and is generally expected to be a black hole .
The first strong candidate for a black hole , Cygnus X @-@ 1 , was discovered in this way by Charles Thomas Bolton , Louise Webster and Paul Murdin in 1972 . Some doubt , however , remained due to the uncertainties that result from the companion star being much heavier than the candidate black hole . Currently , better candidates for black holes are found in a class of X @-@ ray binaries called soft X @-@ ray transients . In this class of system , the companion star is of relatively low mass allowing for more accurate estimates of the black hole mass . Moreover , these systems are actively emit X @-@ rays for only several months once every 10 – 50 years . During the period of low X @-@ ray emission ( called quiescence ) , the accretion disc is extremely faint allowing detailed observation of the companion star during this period . One of the best such candidates is V404 Cyg .
= = = = Quiescence and advection @-@ dominated accretion flow = = = =
The faintness of the accretion disc of an X @-@ ray binary during quiescence is suspected to be caused by the flow of mass entering a mode called an advection @-@ dominated accretion flow ( ADAF ) . In this mode , almost all the energy generated by friction in the disc is swept along with the flow instead of radiated away . If this model is correct , then it forms strong qualitative evidence for the presence of an event horizon , since if the object at the center of the disc had a solid surface , it would emit large amounts of radiation as the highly energetic gas hits the surface , an effect that is observed for neutron stars in a similar state .
= = = = Quasi @-@ periodic oscillations = = = =
The X @-@ ray emissions from accretion disks sometimes flicker at certain frequencies . These signals are called quasi @-@ periodic oscillations and are thought to be caused by material moving along the inner edge of the accretion disk ( the innermost stable circular orbit ) . As such their frequency is linked to the mass of the compact object . They can thus be used as an alternative way to determine the mass of candidate black holes .
= = = Galactic nuclei = = =
Astronomers use the term " active galaxy " to describe galaxies with unusual characteristics , such as unusual spectral line emission and very strong radio emission . Theoretical and observational studies have shown that the activity in these active galactic nuclei ( AGN ) may be explained by the presence of supermassive black holes , which can be millions of times more massive than stellar ones . The models of these AGN consist of a central black hole that may be millions or billions of times more massive than the Sun ; a disk of gas and dust called an accretion disk ; and two jets perpendicular to the accretion disk .
Although supermassive black holes are expected to be found in most AGN , only some galaxies ' nuclei have been more carefully studied in attempts to both identify and measure the actual masses of the central supermassive black hole candidates . Some of the most notable galaxies with supermassive black hole candidates include the Andromeda Galaxy , M32 , M87 , NGC 3115 , NGC 3377 , NGC 4258 , NGC 4889 , NGC 1277 , OJ 287 , APM 08279 + 5255 and the Sombrero Galaxy .
It is now widely accepted that the center of nearly every galaxy , not just active ones , contains a supermassive black hole . The close observational correlation between the mass of this hole and the velocity dispersion of the host galaxy 's bulge , known as the M @-@ sigma relation , strongly suggests a connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself .
= = = Microlensing ( proposed ) = = =
Another way that the black hole nature of an object may be tested in the future is through observation of effects caused by a strong gravitational field in their vicinity . One such effect is gravitational lensing : The deformation of spacetime around a massive object causes light rays to be deflected much as light passing through an optic lens . Observations have been made of weak gravitational lensing , in which light rays are deflected by only a few arcseconds . However , it has never been directly observed for a black hole . One possibility for observing gravitational lensing by a black hole would be to observe stars in orbit around the black hole . There are several candidates for such an observation in orbit around Sagittarius A * .
= = = Alternatives = = =
The evidence for stellar black holes strongly relies on the existence of an upper limit for the mass of a neutron star . The size of this limit heavily depends on the assumptions made about the properties of dense matter . New exotic phases of matter could push up this bound . A phase of free quarks at high density might allow the existence of dense quark stars , and some supersymmetric models predict the existence of Q stars . Some extensions of the standard model posit the existence of preons as fundamental building blocks of quarks and leptons , which could hypothetically form preon stars . These hypothetical models could potentially explain a number of observations of stellar black hole candidates . However , it can be shown from arguments in general relativity that any such object will have a maximum mass .
Since the average density of a black hole inside its Schwarzschild radius is inversely proportional to the square of its mass , supermassive black holes are much less dense than stellar black holes ( the average density of a 108 M ☉ black hole is comparable to that of water ) . Consequently , the physics of matter forming a supermassive black hole is much better understood and the possible alternative explanations for supermassive black hole observations are much more mundane . For example , a supermassive black hole could be modelled by a large cluster of very dark objects . However , such alternatives are typically not stable enough to explain the supermassive black hole candidates .
The evidence for the existence of stellar and supermassive black holes implies that in order for black holes to not form , general relativity must fail as a theory of gravity , perhaps due to the onset of quantum mechanical corrections . A much anticipated feature of a theory of quantum gravity is that it will not feature singularities or event horizons and thus black holes would not be real artifacts . In 2002 , much attention has been drawn by the fuzzball model in string theory . Based on calculations for specific situations in string theory , the proposal suggests that generically the individual states of a black hole solution do not have an event horizon or singularity , but that for a classical / semi @-@ classical observer the statistical average of such states appears just as an ordinary black hole as deduced from general relativity .
= = Open questions = =
= = = Entropy and thermodynamics = = =
In 1971 , Hawking showed under general conditions that the total area of the event horizons of any collection of classical black holes can never decrease , even if they collide and merge . This result , now known as the second law of black hole mechanics , is remarkably similar to the second law of thermodynamics , which states that the total entropy of a system can never decrease . As with classical objects at absolute zero temperature , it was assumed that black holes had zero entropy . If this were the case , the second law of thermodynamics would be violated by entropy @-@ laden matter entering a black hole , resulting in a decrease of the total entropy of the universe . Therefore , Bekenstein proposed that a black hole should have an entropy , and that it should be proportional to its horizon area .
The link with the laws of thermodynamics was further strengthened by Hawking 's discovery that quantum field theory predicts that a black hole radiates blackbody radiation at a constant temperature . This seemingly causes a violation of the second law of black hole mechanics , since the radiation will carry away energy from the black hole causing it to shrink . The radiation , however also carries away entropy , and it can be proven under general assumptions that the sum of the entropy of the matter surrounding a black hole and one quarter of the area of the horizon as measured in Planck units is in fact always increasing . This allows the formulation of the first law of black hole mechanics as an analogue of the first law of thermodynamics , with the mass acting as energy , the surface gravity as temperature and the area as entropy .
One puzzling feature is that the entropy of a black hole scales with its area rather than with its volume , since entropy is normally an extensive quantity that scales linearly with the volume of the system . This odd property led Gerard ' t Hooft and Leonard Susskind to propose the holographic principle , which suggests that anything that happens in a volume of spacetime can be described by data on the boundary of that volume .
Although general relativity can be used to perform a semi @-@ classical calculation of black hole entropy , this situation is theoretically unsatisfying . In statistical mechanics , entropy is understood as counting the number of microscopic configurations of a system that have the same macroscopic qualities ( such as mass , charge , pressure , etc . ) . Without a satisfactory theory of quantum gravity , one cannot perform such a computation for black holes . Some progress has been made in various approaches to quantum gravity . In 1995 , Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa showed that counting the microstates of a specific supersymmetric black hole in string theory reproduced the Bekenstein – Hawking entropy . Since then , similar results have been reported for different black holes both in string theory and in other approaches to quantum gravity like loop quantum gravity .
= = = Information loss paradox = = =
Because a black hole has only a few internal parameters , most of the information about the matter that went into forming the black hole is lost . Regardless of the type of matter which goes into a black hole , it appears that only information concerning the total mass , charge , and angular momentum are conserved . As long as black holes were thought to persist forever this information loss is not that problematic , as the information can be thought of as existing inside the black hole , inaccessible from the outside . However , black holes slowly evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation . This radiation does not appear to carry any additional information about the matter that formed the black hole , meaning that this information appears to be gone forever .
The question whether information is truly lost in black holes ( the black hole information paradox ) has divided the theoretical physics community ( see Thorne – Hawking – Preskill bet ) . In quantum mechanics , loss of information corresponds to the violation of vital property called unitarity , which has to do with the conservation of probability . It has been argued that loss of unitarity would also imply violation of conservation of energy . Over recent years evidence has been building that indeed information and unitarity are preserved in a full quantum gravitational treatment of the problem .
= = = Popular reading = = =
= = = University textbooks and monographs = = =
= = = Review papers = = =
= Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live =
Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live ( also called Back to Business ) was the third residency show by American recording artist Beyoncé . Announced in March , and held during four consecutive nights in May 2012 in Atlantic City , New Jersey , the concerts were part of the opening of the new entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . Beyoncé stated that her alter ego Sasha Fierce was brought back to life for the performances and the main concept was the fact that the birth of her first baby made her more grounded . She promoted the shows by projecting images and releasing behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage on her official website .
The stage included several LED screens and the singer was backed by female background vocalists , all @-@ female band and dancers . The set list contained songs from Beyoncé 's four studio albums as well as several covers and " Jumpin ' , Jumpin ' " , which she recorded with her former girl group Destiny 's Child . She collaborated on outfits with several fashion designers including Ralph and Russo , Swarovski , Dolce & Gabbana , David Koma and her mother , designer Tina Knowles . Critics praised the costumes and Beyoncé 's look during the shows .
Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live received positive reviews from music critics who praised Beyoncé 's vocals and dance abilities during the concerts calling it her post @-@ pregnancy comeback show . Commercially , the shows were also successful with the tickets for all three shows being sold out in one minute on April 6 , 2012 , after they were made available for purchase . Later , when the fourth show was announced , it eventually sold out as well . A preview of the performance of " End of Time " appeared online on May 27 , 2012 and footage of the concert was used in Beyoncé 's 2013 HBO documentary Life Is But a Dream .
= = Background and development = =
On March 19 , 2012 , Beyoncé 's publicist Yvette Noel @-@ Schure announced that the singer would perform three shows ( May 25 – 27 , 2012 ) at Revel Atlantic City to inaugurate the resort and its Ovation Hall , a 5 @,@ 050 @-@ seat concert venue . The concerts were noted as the singer 's first performances since giving birth to her daughter , Blue Ivy Carter , in January of the same year and her first shows since the 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé residency shows in August 2011 . Rehearsals began in March , two months prior to the date of the concerts as Beyoncé had to lose sixty pounds for the show after her pregnancy . James Dinh of MTV News wrote that it was further expected from the concerts to be " much more of a grand spectacle " in comparison with 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé , with high @-@ tech LED display , intense choreography and video backdrops .
On March 20 , 2012 , several billboards by Beyoncé were projected on the Big Screen of the NASDAQ on Times Square advertising her show in Revel Atlantic City . On May 24 , 2012 , the first half of a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video detailing the event premiered . It showed rehearsals and preparations for the show and a performance of " Halo " . In it , Beyoncé stated that she is excited , yet nervous about the shows . She said " [ Performing at Revel is ] like going back to my old job and it 's a little strange . " She continued saying that it was vital for her not to lose herself and still have her own passion even after she became a mother , something she was accomplishing with the shows . Director / Choreographer Frank Gatson Jr. said that the show had the potential of being the greatest show of Beyoncé 's career . The second behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video detailing the event premiered the next day , on May 25 , 2012 . During the video , Beyoncé stated that she tried to bring back to life her alter ego Sasha Fierce for the show . She further said that she is anxious about the show as her team was doing it in two weeks , unlike her previous shows which were prepared in two months . Beyoncé further revealed the concept of the show saying , " What I 'm trying to say with the show ... yes , I had a baby , but it just made me more grounded " . The concert was also called Back to Business referencing Beyoncé 's song " Run the World ( Girls ) " .
= = Stage and set list = =
Onstage , Beyoncé was backed by her all @-@ female band consisting of eleven members , background vocalists and ten dancers including the French duo Les Twins . The stage included several LED screens on which grainy @-@ color videos were shown as well as several black and white geometric patterns . Video interludes with voice @-@ overs recorded by Beyoncé were also shown . Dawn Fallik of The Wall Street Journal noted that the stage set offered " a seemingly endless number of screens and levels " for Beyoncé 's all @-@ female band . Jim Farber of the Daily News praised the look of the graphics saying that they were elegant and classic like a zebra 's stripes . The light shows during the performances were " modest " as described by Ben Ratliff of The New York Times .
Glenn Gamboa of Newsday wrote that the stage set of massive cubes was similar to the Watch the Throne Tour by Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West and noted that the " complicated " system of screens which was used to leave an impression that Beyoncé and her dancers were stepping in and out of black @-@ and @-@ white images was influenced by the opening credits of James Bond films . He further noted , " There were so many striking visual images both on stage and on screen , the show felt like a Pinterest board come to life -- packed with bold colors and graphics , elegant modern dance positions and video clips . " Tris McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger also compared the light @-@ up platforms on the stage with the towering cubes used during the Watch the Throne Tour . In another review , he noted , " The light show was as hypnotic as Laser Floyd , the costumes glittered like mirror balls , and the bass at Ovation Hall was so booming that I often felt like I was standing in a stiff wind . " Chuck Darrow of the Philadelphia Media Network wrote ,
" Beyonce 's name might have been the one on the ticket for the two @-@ hour , 27 @-@ song program , but those responsible for its design and staging deserve as much credit as anyone . The show 's visual centerpiece was a stage @-@ spanning video display screen offering an endless array of multi @-@ hued shapes and geometric patterns , not to mention crystal @-@ clear wide shots and close @-@ ups of the star . The result was a dramatic presentation befitting a performer of Beyonce ’ s magnitude . "
The set list contained songs from Beyoncé 's four studio albums as well as " Jumpin ' , Jumpin ' " , which she recorded with Destiny 's Child . In addition of performing her songs , Beyoncé also covered Whitney Houston 's version of " I Will Always Love You " ( 1992 ) during the performance of " Halo " , Donna Summer 's " Love to Love You Baby " ( 1975 ) during the performance of " Naughty Girl " , Goo Goo Dolls ' " Iris " ( 1998 ) during " If I Were a Boy " and Lauryn Hill 's " Ex @-@ Factor " ( 1998 ) . Caryn Ganz of Spin magazine noted that Beyoncé 's up @-@ tempo songs were performed at the beginning of the concert . Fallik of The Wall Street Journal noted that the show " relied too much on lesser @-@ known , slower songs that lulled the crowd into their seats instead of bringing them to their feet " and added that " only a couple songs called for much movement " .
= = Fashion and wardrobe = =
The shows featured couture costumes designed by fashion house Ralph and Russo . Designer Tamara Ralph said Beyoncé asked them to be " really creative " while creating items with " an ultra @-@ glamorous feel to them " . The duo 's inspiration was " modern showgirl " , paying attention to the " comfort and flexibility of each outfit and the ease of getting in and out of the pieces with quick costume changes " . All the crystals for the show were provided by Swarovski ; a team of 20 couturiers worked to complete the looks , which were embellished with more than 500 @,@ 000 crystals from Swarovski Elements in four weeks . Beyoncé wore shoes by Stuart Weitzman . The dancers were dressed in Dolce & Gabbana and David Koma clothes . The band wore Alexander Vauthier clothes while The Mamas wore pin @-@ up girl clothing . Some clothes for the show were also designed by Beyoncé 's mother Tina Knowles . Beyoncé also worked with David Koma who designed a panelled bodysuit with lace detailing . Koma described his collaboration during an interview with Vogue , saying , " I absolutely love to work with Beyoncé and her team and I 'm very happy that she is back ... She looks more beautiful than ever and it 's always a pleasure to work with her ! " . Co @-@ designer Michael Russo further described his collaboration with Beyoncé , " Beyoncé always delivers energetic performances ... It was an absolute pleasure to work with her to create exquisite pieces that dazzle on stage . "
Beyoncé changed costumes five times during the show . Her looks ranged from a sparkling fringed set to a red leotard . Her fashion during the shows received praise from critics . Celia L. Smith of Essence magazine described Beyoncé 's look as " fabulous " while further calling her costumes " dazzling " and " fierce " . A writer of Vogue magazine noted that Beyoncé 's show " required something a little more spectacular than her recent dressed @-@ down chic " . Dawn Fallik of The Wall Street Journal commented that Beyoncé was " shedding costumes like a chameleon changing colors " during the show . He went on saying , " There were fashion montages with Beyonce in 1950s cat glasses , 1960s headbands and 1970s mod form " further concluding that the fashion was " all well and good " . Emily Sheridan of the Daily Mail also praised the costumes designed for the show , describing them as " sexy " . Chuck Darrow of the Philadelphia Media Network wrote in his review that the " shape @-@ hugging , leg @-@ baring costumes in which she was garbed were , by today 's standards , [ were ] almost demure . " Dan DeLuca of Philadelphia Inquirer noted that her " barely @-@ there " outfits were designed to call attention to Beyoncé 's physique " from the derriere down " .
= = Concert synopsis = =
Beyoncé opened the shows with a performance of " End of Time " as her silhouette appeared in front of a large screen . The performance contained triple @-@ time drumbeats and background vocals from her background singers . A retro @-@ soulful performance of " Love on Top " followed with Beyoncé saying " Atlantic City , snap your fingers " . As she was performing a New Edition @-@ inspired choreography and sang the song 's modulations in an extended vocal showcase the crowd sang along with her . Afterwards , " Get Me Bodied " was performed with Bob Fosse @-@ style swing and formations . Beyoncé performed the reggae dancehall song " Baby Boy " and during a " giddy " version of " Crazy in Love " she wore a cropped , spangled top and a mini skirt . During the performance of the song , pre @-@ recorded vocals by Jay @-@ Z who is featured on it were played . " Diva " was performed as the sixth song of the set . Prior to the performance of " Naughty Girl " , a spoken @-@ word segment about female sexuality was shown with Beyoncé saying " Harnessing the power of your body requires responsibility " . During the performance of the song she also included a sample of the groans and coos from Donna Summer 's " Love to Love You Baby " and sang a snippet of it as a tribute to the singer following her death . During the performance of the eighth song , " Party " , confetti were dropped on stage from the roof and dice @-@ shaped beach balls were being tossed through the crowd as dancers in large feathered headdresses performed a choreography in the aisles . During " Dance for You " , Beyoncé did not sing live but was accompanied vocally by her three backup vocalists and performed a choreographed bump and grind dance . She was wearing a black leotard during the performance of " Freakum Dress " which featured a strut @-@ heavy footwork . During the performance of " I Care " , Beyoncé matched the notes of her guitarist 's solo and " Schoolin ' Life " followed . " 1 + 1 " saw her singing the song seated on top of a piano and the performance focused on the singer and individual members of her band .
The ballad " I Miss You " was performed in front of an electronic backdrop in which a male dancer was silhouetted in kinetic , black @-@ and @-@ white stripes . A re @-@ arranged version of " Resentment " followed with an acoustic guitar used for its musical backbone . Beyoncé opened the performance of " If I Were a Boy " saying " We all know how it feels to be hurt and lied to " and later turned it into a guitar @-@ pop song , in which elements of Goo Goo Dolls ' adult @-@ alt ballad " Iris " were used . An acoustic cover of " Ex @-@ Factor " originally performed by Lauryn Hill followed . " Flaws and All " featured Beyoncé making facial expressions as she dedicated the song to her fans , singing the lines , " I don 't know why you love me / And that ’ s why I love you . " During the performance of " Irreplaceable " , she asked from the crowd to sing the lines " to the left " along with her and made a competition in singing between sections . The first verse and the chorus were sung solely by the crowd . The intro of " Countdown " began with Beyoncé 's ululations and moans , the Boyz II Men sample used in the song , and the opening drum crack and continued with the song 's music video being projected on the screen . Brief snippets of Beyoncé performing Destiny 's Child 's " Jumpin ' , Jumpin ' " ( 2000 ) followed . " Run the World ( Girls ) " was performed with a march choreography and a funky version of " Why Don 't You Love Me " followed . During the end , the song 's beat got transformed into an extended outro . Prior the end of the show a home @-@ video sequence showing Beyoncé biking , drinking a pint of Guinness , going whale @-@ watching and holding her daughter Blue Ivy Carter with a voice @-@ over was shown . Referencing her song " I Was Here " which was played in the background , she said " When I leave this world I 'll leave no regrets . I will leave my mark , so everyone will know I was here " . Beyoncé went on to perform " Halo " in a red dress which she opened with a performance of Whitney Houston 's " I Will Always Love You " as a tribute to her following her death . The show ended with a performance of " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " which featured a Bob Fosse @-@ inspired choreography and a singalong with the crowd .
= = Critical response = =
The concerts received positive response from music critics who praised Beyoncé 's post @-@ pregnancy performing abilities . A writer of Rap @-@ Up described the show as a " triumphant " return to the stage . Adelle Platon of Vibe magazine described the show as post @-@ pregnancy comeback to the stage and added that " it was her amazing set of throwbacks that cemented the fact that Bey [ oncé ] still runs the game . " The Village Voice 's Maura Johnston wrote that the Revel concerts showed how serious Beyoncé was about picking up her career exactly where she 'd left it pre @-@ maternity leave . Melinda Newman of the website HitFix praised Beyoncé 's " incredible " performance even after she gave birth to her first child . Cathy Rainone of WVIT commented that Beyoncé was " fiercer than ever " during the shows . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday described it as her " most ambitious live show yet " and noted that " the reason for the shows ... was to test herself , as a new mother and an artist . " USA Today 's Elysa Gardner praised the show , saying that " The singer was all business — that is to say , warm and gracious , glamorous and relentless . Backed by an all @-@ female band and a tireless posse of dancers and backup vocalists , Beyonce reasserted her unique pop persona ; she was at once angel and seductress , cool diva and woman of the people . " She noted that with the performance of the concerts , Beyoncé reaffirmed " her solidarity with all her fans " and confirmed that she plans on " sticking around for a good long time . "
Caryn Ganz of Spin wrote : " Beyoncé is the greatest performer of her generation and she knows it well . Her Revel concerts were more Liza with a Z than MTV — predicated on nothing but the tour de force of its creator . Saturday night 's two @-@ hour show featured no gimmicks , no backing tracks , no hard @-@ to @-@ follow narratives , no whipped cream cannons . It was old school Vegas @-@ style Entertainment with a capital E : singing , dancing , and charisma wrapped up in a few sparkly Ralph & Russo outfits . " Dan DeLuca of Philadelphia Inquirer praised Beyoncé 's singing with earnest commitment and impassioned intensity further writing that the concert was a " relentlessly entertaining , highly energetic two hours " . Jim Farber of Daily News was positive about the show , praising the performance of the ballads as well as the up @-@ tempo songs , adding that she was " shimmying , sashaying and gyrating like she had everything to prove . " He further said , " Beyoncé didn 't shirk on the razzle or the dazzle in this two @-@ hour event . In fact , this run of shows featured the flashiest lighting , fiercest dancing and most animated theatrics of her starry career ... The assurance of the performance , as well as the enormity of the production , makes it unlikely that Beyoncé ’ s latest show will die with this weekend . " Ben Ratliff of The New York Times commented that " The show lasted two hours and allowed a dip in the middle for ballads , but otherwise ran rampant , functioning as an almost continuous high point " . Celia L. Smith of Essence magazine wrote that , " She sang , danced and put on a show like no other " . A writer for Rap @-@ Up noted that Beyoncé didn 't miss a step during the choreography and added that " Sasha Fierce is alive and well " . Writing that she didn 't disappoint , a journalist of Black Entertainment Television described the concert as " phenomenal " further praising the high @-@ energy performance of her up @-@ tempo songs and adding that she " dazzled " her fans . The journalist added that " Though she made it look easy , keeping up to the beat of the vibrant tunes was no easy task " and marked it as " [ the ] pop queen ’ s return to her throne " . Dawn Fallik of The Wall Street Journal praised Beyoncé 's dancing and voice during the show saying that they were in " enviable form " . Rebecca Thomas of MTV News described the performances as a " spectacular fitting her [ Beyoncé 's ] rising icon status " .
Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine noted that there were two highlights of the night , aside from the choreography and vocal prowess ; the dynamic between Beyoncé and her fans and the video montages from her personal life . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Beyoncé was in a " fighting shape , breezing through four nights of wickedly aggressive modern R & B " and added that the most " attention @-@ grabbing " moments of the night were the covers of other artists that she performed during the concert . Chuck Darrow of the Philadelphia Media Network noted that " Beyonce and her small army of supporting singers , dancers and musicians ... conjured an impressive onslaught of sight , sound and motion . " He further noted that unlike Lady Gaga and Madonna who used " sartorial extremism " to call attention to themselves , " It is testament to Beyonce ’ s star @-@ power that her stage incandescent presence never allowed the visual pyrotechnics behind her or the hyperkinetic dancers beside her to rise above the peripheral . " Praising the feminism showcased during the show , Tris McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote in his review that Beyoncé gave everything she had for the concert pulling them out as vigorously as she could . He further added " The star gave Ovation Hall exactly what it wanted , and left the new theater smoking . The problem for Revel now : following it up . " In another review , he described the concert as " spellbinding " , wrote that everything onstage was perfectly choreographed , down to the " goofy mid @-@ song mugging " that added so much character to her performances . He concluded that no other pop artist sounds " quite as awake " as Beyoncé does .
Beyoncé 's performance also received positive response from celebrities and fans . US First Lady Michelle Obama , who attended the show said , " Beyoncé stepped up in a way that so many of our celebrities and athletes are stepping up on behalf of this issue , so I love her to death and was glad to be out there moving my body with her . " Governor of New Jersey Christopher J. Christie used his Twitter account to write that everything about the show was " great " . Beyoncé 's husband and rapper Jay @-@ Z , also wrote on Twitter that Beyoncé was the " best performer in the world " . A writer of Complex magazine further discussed his statements , " Sure , he 's married to her ... But upon further reflection , he just might have a point . What other artist out there gives the type of live performance she does on a nightly basis ? Who can give you that incredible voice singing power ballads and up @-@ tempo dance cuts — while dancing ? ... In a world with hotshots like Lady Gaga , legends like U2 , and even Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West 's The Throne bodying stages worldwide , is Beyoncé best performer on earth ? " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Tickets for the concerts were made available on April 6 , 2012 , 10 a.m. EST through Ticketmaster after an exclusive pre @-@ sale one day earlier on Beyonce.com , Beyoncé 's official website . Within one minute , all three shows were sold out . On May 7 , 2012 , an additional concert was scheduled for May 28 , 2012 because of high demand . Tickets were sold in a similar fashion , with an exclusive pre @-@ sale on Beyonce.com and a Ticketmaster general sale taking place on May 11 , 2012 , 10 a.m. EST and May 14 , 10 a.m. EST respectively . The fourth date would eventually sell @-@ out as well . Listed for sale at $ 95 – $ 495 , ticket prices took a hike up to $ 1 @,@ 700 through ticket resale companies like StubHub . According to Jim Farber of Daily News , the tickets were sold for high prices because the Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live was the only show by Beyoncé announced that year .
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
A sixty @-@ second preview of the performance of " End of Time " at Revel , premiered online on Beyoncé 's website on May 27 , 2012 . Jacob Moore of Complex magazine wrote that Beyoncé " prove [ d ] she 's still got it " during the footage of the performance . A writer of Rap @-@ Up commented that " Sasha Fierce busts out some ferocious moves with her female dancers " . Footage of the concert was also used in Beyoncé 's HBO documentary film , Life Is But a Dream , that aired on February 16 , 2013 . Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times described the performances included in the film as " dazzling " . A DVD from the concert titled Live in Atlantic City was released as a bonus disc with the home media release of the documentary on November 25 , 2013 . The DVD was available for pre @-@ order on November 1 , 2013 .
= = Opening act = =
Luke James
= = Set list = =
Source :
= Fantasia ( 1940 film ) =
Fantasia is a 1940 American animated film produced by Walt Disney and released by Walt Disney Productions . With story direction by Joe Grant and Dick Huemer , and production supervision by Ben Sharpsteen , it is the third feature in the Disney animated features canon . The film consists of eight animated segments set to pieces of classical music conducted by Leopold Stokowski , seven of which are performed by the Philadelphia Orchestra . Music critic and composer Deems Taylor acts as the film 's Master of Ceremonies , providing a live @-@ action introduction to each animated segment .
Disney settled on the film 's concept as work neared completion on The Sorcerer 's Apprentice , an elaborate Silly Symphonies short designed as a comeback role for Mickey Mouse , who had declined in popularity . As production costs grew higher than what it could earn , Disney decided to include the short in a feature @-@ length film with other segments set to classical pieces . The soundtrack was recorded using multiple audio channels and reproduced with Fantasound , a pioneering sound reproduction system that made Fantasia the first commercial film shown in stereophonic sound .
Fantasia was first released in theatrical roadshow engagements held in thirteen U.S. cities from November 13 , 1940 . It received mixed critical reaction and was unable to make a profit due to World War II cutting off distribution to the European market , the film 's high production costs , and the expense of leasing theatres and installing the Fantasound equipment for the roadshow presentations . The film was subsequently reissued multiple times with its original footage and audio being deleted , modified , or restored in each version . As of 2012 , Fantasia has grossed $ 76 @.@ 4 million in domestic revenue and is the 22nd highest @-@ grossing film of all time in the U.S. when adjusted for inflation . Fantasia , as a franchise , has grown to include video games , Disneyland attractions , a live concert , and a theatrically released sequel ( Fantasia 2000 ) co @-@ produced by Walt 's nephew Roy E. Disney in 1999 . Fantasia has grown in reputation over the years and is now widely acclaimed ; in 1998 the American Film Institute ranked it as the 58th greatest American film in their 100 Years ... 100 Movies and the fifth greatest animated film in their 10 Top 10 list .
= = Program = =
Fantasia opens with live action scenes of members of an orchestra gathering against a blue background and tuning their instruments in half @-@ light , half @-@ shadow . Master of ceremonies Deems Taylor enters the stage ( also in half @-@ light , half @-@ shadow ) and introduces the program .
Toccata and Fugue in D Minor by Johann Sebastian Bach . Live @-@ action shots of the orchestra illuminated in blue and gold , backed by superimposed shadows , fade into abstract patterns . Animated lines , shapes and cloud formations reflect the sound and rhythms of the music .
Nutcracker Suite by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky . Selections from the ballet suite underscore scenes depicting the changing of the seasons from summer to autumn to winter . A variety of dances are presented with fairies , fish , flowers , mushrooms , and leaves , including " Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy " , " Chinese Dance " , " Dance of the Flutes " , " Arabian Dance " , " Russian Dance " and " Waltz of the Flowers " .
The Sorcerer 's Apprentice by Paul Dukas . Based on Goethe 's 1797 poem " Der Zauberlehrling " . Mickey Mouse , the young apprentice of the sorcerer Yen Sid ,
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1 @.@ 3 million by April 1941 , but the $ 85 @,@ 000 in production and installation costs of a single Fantasound setup , along with theatres having to be leased , forced Disney to exceed their loan limits . The onset of the Second World War prevented plans for a potential release in Europe , normally the source of as much as forty @-@ five per cent of the studio 's income . Up to eighty @-@ eight engagements were outlined across five years , but wartime demands for material limited the number of Fantasound prints to sixteen . All but one of the Fantasound setups were dismantled and given to the war effort . Upon acquiring the film 's distribution rights in April 1941 , RKO initially continued the roadshow booking policy but presented the film in mono , which was easier to exhibit . The combined average receipts from each roadshow was around $ 325 @,@ 000 , which placed Fantasia at an even greater loss than Pinocchio .
= = = = 1942 , 1946 , 1956 and 1963 runs = = = =
Disney allowed RKO to handle the general release of Fantasia , but fought their decision to have the film cut . He gave in as the studio needed as much income as possible to remedy its finances , but refused to cut it himself , " You can get anybody you want to edit it ... I can 't do it . " With no input from Disney , musical director Ed Plumb and Ben Sharpsteen reduced Fantasia to one hour and forty minutes at first , then to one hour and twenty minutes by removing most of Taylor 's commentary and the Toccata and Fugue . Fantasia was re @-@ released in January 1942 at more popular prices with a mono soundtrack , and was placed on the lower half of double bills with the Western film Valley of the Sun .
RKO reissued Fantasia once more on September 1 , 1946 , with the animated sequences complete and the scenes of Taylor , Stokowski , and the orchestra restored but shortened . Its running time was restored to one hour and fifty @-@ five minutes . This edit would be the standard form for subsequent re @-@ releases , and was the basis for the 1990 restoration .
By 1955 the original sound negatives began to deteriorate , though a four @-@ track copy had survived in good condition . Using the remaining Fantasound system at the studio , a three @-@ track stereo copy was transferred across telephone wires onto magnetic film at an RCA facility in Hollywood . This copy was used when Fantasia was reissued in stereo by Buena Vista Distribution in SuperScope , a derivative of the anamorphic widescreen CinemaScope format , on February 7 , 1956 . The projector featured an automatic control mechanism designed by Disney engineers that was coupled to a variable anamorphic lens , which allowed the picture to switch between its Academy standard aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 to the wide ratio of 2 @.@ 35 : 1 in twenty seconds without a break in the film . This was achieved by placing the cues that controlled the mechanism on a separate track in addition to the three audio channels . Only selected parts of the animation were stretched , while all live action scenes remained unchanged . This reissue garnered some criticism from viewers , as the widescreen format led to the cropping and reframing of the images .
On February 20 , 1963 , Fantasia was re @-@ released in both standard and SuperScope versions with stereo sound , though existing records are unclear . Its running time was fifty @-@ six seconds longer than the previous issue which is unexplained . This was the final release that occurred before Disney 's death in 1966 .
= = = = 1969 , 1977 , 1982 , 1985 and 1990 runs = = = =
Fantasia began to make a profit from its $ 2 @.@ 28 million budget after its return to theaters on December 17 , 1969 . The film was promoted with a psychedelic @-@ styled advertising campaign , and it became popular among teenagers and college students who were reported to have taken drugs for a psychedelic experience . Animator Ollie Johnston recalled that young people " thought we were on a trip when we made it ... every time we 'd go to talk to a school or something , they 'd ask us what we were on . " The release is also noted for the controversial removal of four scenes from The Pastoral Symphony over racial stereotyping . Fantasia was issued on a regular basis , typically for exhibition in art houses in college towns , until the mid @-@ 1970s .
The film was reissued nationwide once more on April 15 , 1977 , this time with simulated stereo sound . This edit featured the RKO distribution logo being replaced with that of Buena Vista Distribution , since RKO had not been part of a release since 1946 . It had not been removed earlier as the credit sequence would have required to be re @-@ shot . A two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute reduction in the film 's running time in this version remains unclear in existing records .
For the 1982 and 1985 releases Disney presented Fantasia with a completely new soundtrack recorded in Dolby Stereo . First released on April 2 , 1982 , this version of the film marked the first time a film 's soundtrack had been digitally re @-@ recorded in its entirety . To replace Stokowski 's recordings , the noted film conductor Irwin Kostal was engaged . He directed a 121 @-@ piece orchestra and 50 @-@ voice choir for the recording that took place over eighteen sessions and cost $ 1 million . To maintain continuity with the animation Kostal based his performance on the tempos and pacing of the Stokowski recordings , including the cuts and revisions to The Rite of Spring . However , for Night on Bald Mountain he used Mussorgsky 's original orchestration instead of Leopold Stokowski 's own edition that was part of the original soundtrack . The new recording also corrected a two @-@ frame lag in projection caused by the old recording techniques used in the 1930s . Deems Taylor 's scenes were deleted and a much briefer voiceover narration was recorded by Hugh Douglas as the studio felt the modern audience " is more sophisticated and knowledgeable about music . " This version returned to around 400 theaters in 1985 , this time with actor Tim Matheson providing the narration .
For its fiftieth anniversary , Fantasia returned to 550 theaters nationwide on October 5 , 1990 , in its traditional 1946 version including the live action scenes with Taylor and the original Stokowski score . The film underwent a two @-@ year restoration process which began after a six @-@ month search to piece together the original negatives that had been in storage since 1946 . This marked the first time since then that a release of the film had been processed from the original and not from a copy . Each of its 535 @,@ 680 frames were restored at YCM Laboratories , and an untouched print from 1951 was used for guidance on color and tone . Theaters were required to have specific stereo equipment installed , and to present the film in its original 1 @.@ 33 : 1 aspect ratio with black borders on the side of their screens . The Stokowski soundtrack was digitally remastered using the 1955 magnetic soundtrack , with an estimated three thousand pops and hisses being removed in the process . The 1990 reissue of Fantasia went on to gross $ 25 million domestically .
= = = Home media = = =
= = = = Audio = = = =
Disney considered releasing a multi @-@ disc 78 @-@ rpm record album of Fantasia 's soundtrack in conjunction with the film 's 1940 roadshow release , but this idea was not realized . The soundtrack was ultimately released as a three record LP set in sixteen countries by Disneyland Records in 1957 under the catalog number WDX @-@ 101 . Disney was required to obtain permission from Stokowski , who initially rejected the deal unless the Philadelphia Orchestra Association received a share of the royalties . With nearly two hours of music , the Fantasia soundtrack album is the longest soundtrack album ever released of a Disney film .
The Fantasia soundtrack album contains all of the musical selections but none of the commentary from the film . After stereo LP 's became possible , Buena Vista Records released a stereo version of the soundtrack album .
The original soundtrack was remastered and issued as a two @-@ disc CD set by Walt Disney Records in 1991 and re @-@ released in 2006 . It eventually sold 100 @,@ 000 copies . In 1982 , Buena Vista Records also released a two @-@ disc edition of the re @-@ recorded soundtrack conducted by Irwin Kostal . This was also issued on CD by Walt Disney Records .
In 2015 , the film 's remastered soundtrack was released as the fifth volume in the Walt Disney Records : The Legacy Collection , in recognition of the film 's 75th anniversary . The Legacy release contains both Leopold Stokowski and Irwin Kostal versions of the film 's soundtrack as well as the never before released Stokowski recording of the deleted " Clair de Lune " segment . Sterling Holloway 's reading of the " Sorcerer 's Apprentice " and " Peter and the Wolf " ( from Make Mine Music ) are also included as bonus tracks .
= = = = Video = = = =
Fantasia has received three home video releases . The first , featuring the 1990 restored theatrical version , was released on VHS and laser disc on November 1 , 1991 , as part of the " Walt Disney Classics " line . The 50 @-@ day release prompted 9 @.@ 25 million advance orders for cassettes and a record 200 @,@ 000 for discs , doubling the figure of the previous record . The " Deluxe Edition " package included the film , a " making of " feature , a commemorative lithograph , a 16 @-@ page booklet , a two @-@ disc soundtrack of the Stokowski score and a certificate of authenticity signed by Roy E. Disney , the nephew of Walt . Fantasia became the biggest @-@ selling sell @-@ through cassette of all time with 14 @.@ 2 million copies being purchased . The record was surpassed by Beauty and the Beast in December 1992 . This version was also released as a DVD in 2000 , outside of the U.S. in the United Kingdom and other countries , again under the " Walt Disney Classics " banner .
In November 2000 , Fantasia was released on video for the second time , this time along with Fantasia 2000 , on DVD with 5 @.@ 1 surround sound . The films were issued both separately and in a three @-@ disc set called The Fantasia Anthology . A variety of bonus features were included in the bonus disc , The Fantasia Legacy . This edition attempted to follow as closely as possible the runtime and format of the original roadshow version , and included additional restored live @-@ action footage of Taylor and the orchestra , including the bookends to the film 's intermission . In the 2000 and 2010 releases , Deems Taylor 's voice has been overdubbed throughout by Corey Burton because most of the audio tracks to Taylor 's restored scenes have been lost .
Both films were reissued again by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment in November 2010 separately , as a two @-@ disc DVD / Blu @-@ ray set and a combined DVD and Blu @-@ ray four @-@ disc ( named the " Fantasia 2 Movie Collection " ) set that featured 1080p high @-@ definition video and 7 @.@ 1 surround sound . The 2010 version of Fantasia featured a new restoration by Reliance MediaWorks and a new sound restoration , but was editorially identical to the 2000 version . This also marked the first time the roadshow version was released in Europe . Fantasia was withdrawn from release and returned to the " Disney Vault " moratorium on April 30 , 2011 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Early criticism
Fantasia garnered significant critical acclaim at the time of release and was seen by some critics as a masterpiece . The West Coast premiere at the Carthay Circle Theatre was a grand affair , attracting some 5000 people , including Shirley Temple , Cecil B. DeMille , Forrest Tucker , James Cagney , Robert Montgomery , James Murphy , Edgar Bergen , and many other notables in the film industry . Among those at the film 's premiere was film critic Edwin Schallert of the Los Angeles Times who considered the film to be a magnificent achievement in film which would go down in film history as a landmark film , noting the rapturous applause the film received by the audience during the various interludes . He stated that Fantasia was " caviar to the general , ambrosia and nectar for the intelligentsia " and considered the film to be " courageous beyond belief " . Music critic of the newspaper , Isabel Morse Jones , was highly praising of the soundtrack to the film , believing it to be a " dream of a symphony concert " , an " enormously varied concert of pictorial ideas , of abstract music by acknowledged composers , of performers Leopold Stokowski and orchestra players of Hollywood and Philadelphia , and , for the vast majority , new and wonderful sound effects " . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times , also at the premiere , noted that " motion @-@ picture history was made last night ... Fantasia dumps conventional formulas overboard and reveals the scope of films for imaginative excursion ... Fantasia ... is simply terrific . " Peyton Boswell , an editor at Art Digest , called it " an aesthetic experience never to be forgotten " . Time magazine described the premiere as " stranger and more wonderful than any of Hollywood 's " and the experience of Fantasound " as if the hearer were in the midst of the music . As the music sweeps to a climax , it froths over the proscenium arch , boils into the rear of the theatre , all but prances up and down the aisles . " Dance Magazine devoted its lead story to the film , saying that " the most extraordinary thing about Fantasia is , to a dancer or balletomane , not the miraculous musical recording , the range of color , or the fountainous integrity of the Disney collaborators , but quite simply the perfection of its dancing . " Variety also hailed Fantasia , calling it " a successful experiment to lift the relationship from the plane of popular , mass entertainment to the higher strata of appeal to lovers of classical music . " The Chicago Tribune assigned three writers to cover the film 's Chicago premiere : society columnist Harriet Pribble ; film critic Mae Tinee ; and music critic Edward Barry . Pribble left amazed at the " brilliantly @-@ attired audience " , while Tinee felt the film was " beautiful ... but it is also bewildering . It is stupendous . It is colossal . It is an overwhelmingly ambitious orgy of color , sound , and imagination . " Barry was pleased with the " program of good music well performed ... and beautifully recorded " and felt " pleasantly distracted " from the music to what was shown on the screen . In a breakdown of reviews from both film and music critics , Disney author Paul Anderson found 33 % to be " very positive " , 22 % both " positive " and " positive and negative " , and 11 % negative .
Those who adopted a more negative view at the time of the film 's release came mostly from the classical music community . Many took fault with Stokowski 's rearrangements and abridgements of the music . Igor Stravinsky , the only living composer whose music was featured in the film , expressed displeasure at how in Stokowski 's arrangement of The Rite of Spring , “ the order of the pieces had been shuffled , and the most difficult of them eliminated , " and criticized the orchestra 's performance , observing that the simplification of the score " did not save the musical performance , which was execrable . " Other composers and music critics leveled criticism at the premise of the film itself , arguing that presenting classical music with visual images would rob the musical pieces of their integrity . Composer and music critic Virgil Thomson praised Fantasound which he thought offered " good transmission of music " , but disliked the " musical taste " of Stokowski , with exception to The Sorcerer 's Apprentice and The Rite of Spring . Olin Downes of The New York Times too hailed the quality of sound that Fantasound presented , but said , " much of Fantasia distracted from or directly injured the scores . " Film critic Pauline Kael dismissed parts of Fantasia as " grotesquely kitschy " . Some parents resisted paying the higher roadshow prices for their children , and several complained that the Night on Bald Mountain segment had frightened them . There were also a few negative reactions that were more political in nature , especially since the film 's release happened at a time when Nazi Germany reigned supreme in Europe . One review of the film in this manner , written by Dorothy Thompson for The New York Herald Tribune on November 25 , 1940 , was especially harsh . Thompson claimed that she " left the theater in a condition bordering on nervous breakdown , " because the film was a " remarkable nightmare . " Thompson went on to compare the film to rampant Nazism , which she described as " the abuse of power " and " the perverted betrayal of the best instincts . " Thompson also claimed that the film depicted nature as being " titanic " while man was only " a moving lichen on the stone of time . " She concluded that the film was " cruel " , " brutal and brutalizing " , and a negative " caricature of the Decline of the West " . In fact , Thompson claimed that she was so distraught by the film that she even walked out of it before she saw the two last segments , Night on Bald Mountain and Ave Maria , because she did not want to be subject to any more of the film 's " brutalization " .
Later criticism
Fantasia holds a 96 % " fresh " rating based on a sample of 50 reviews , with an average score of 8 @.@ 6 out of 10 on Rotten Tomatoes , a website which aggregates film reviews . Its consensus — " A landmark in animation and a huge influence on the medium of music video , Disney 's Fantasia is a relentlessly inventive blend of the classics with phantasmagorical images " . TV Guide awarded the film four stars , calling it " the most ambitious animated feature ever to come out of the Disney studios " , noting how the film " integrates famous works of classical music with wildly uneven but extraordinarily imaginative visuals that run the gamut from dancing hippos to the purely abstract " . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times rated the film four stars out of four , and noted that throughout Fantasia , " Disney pushes the edges of the envelope " . However , Empire magazine only rated it 2 stars out of 5 ( poor ) , concluding " this is a very patchy affair - while some of the animated pieces work , others come across as downright insane " . Remarks have also been made about Fantasia not being a children 's film . Mark I. Pinksy considers Fantasia to be one of the more problematic of Disney 's animated features in that it was intended as much as for adults as children and not what people had come to expect .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
Fantasia was ranked fifth at the 1940 National Board of Review Awards in the Top Ten Films category . Disney and Stokowski won a Special Award for the film at the 1940 New York Film Critics Circle Awards . Fantasia was the subject of two Academy Honorary Awards on February 26 , 1942 — one for Disney , William Garity , John N. A. Hawkins , and the RCA Manufacturing Company for their " outstanding contribution to the advancement of the use of sound in motion pictures through the production of Fantasia " , and the other to Stokowski " and his associates for their unique achievement in the creation of a new form of visualized music in Walt Disney 's production Fantasia , thereby widening the scope of the motion picture as entertainment and as an art form " .
In 1990 , Fantasia was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . On the 100th anniversary of cinema in 1995 , the Vatican included Fantasia in its list of 45 " great films " made under the Art category ; the others being Religion and Values .
Fantasia is featured in three lists that rank the greatest American films as determined by the American Film Institute . The film ranked number 58 in 100 Years ... 100 Movies in 1998 before it was dropped from its ranking in the 10th Anniversary revision in 2007 , though it was nominated for inclusion . The 10 Top 10 list formed in 2008 placed Fantasia fifth under Animation .
= = = Controversies = = =
In the late 1960s , four shots from The Pastoral Symphony were removed that depicted two characters in a racially stereotyped manner . A black centaurette called Sunflower was depicted polishing the hooves of a white centaurette , and a second named Otika appeared briefly during the procession scenes with Bacchus and his followers . According to Disney archivist David Smith , the sequence was aired uncut on television in 1963 before the edits were made for the film 's 1969 theatrical reissue . John Carnochan , the editor responsible for the change in the 1991 video release , said : " It 's sort of appalling to me that these stereotypes were ever put in " . Film critic Roger Ebert commented on the edit : " While the original film should , of course , be preserved for historical purposes , there is no need for the general release version to perpetrate racist stereotypes in a film designed primarily for children . " The edits have been in place in all subsequent theatrical and home video reissues .
In May 1992 , the Philadelphia Orchestra Association filed a lawsuit against The Walt Disney Company and Buena Vista Home Video . The orchestra maintained that as a co @-@ creator of Fantasia , the group was entitled to half of the estimated $ 120 million in profits from video and laser disc sales . The orchestra dropped its case in 1994 when the two parties reached an undisclosed settlement out of court . British music publisher Boosey & Hawkes filed a further lawsuit in 1993 , contending that Disney did not have the rights to distribute The Rite of Spring in the 1991 video releases because the permission granted to Disney by Stravinsky in 1940 was only in the context of a film to be shown in theaters . The United States district court backed Boosey & Hawkes 's case in 1996 , but the Second Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the ruling in 1998 , stating that Disney 's original " license for motion picture rights extends to video format distribution " .
= = Additional material = =
Disney had wanted Fantasia to be an ongoing project , with a new edition being released every few years . His plan was to substitute one of the original segments with a new one as it was completed , so audiences would always see a new version of the film . From January to August 1941 , story material was developed based on additional musical works , including Ride of the Valkyries by Richard Wagner , The Swan of Tuonela by Jean Sibelius , Invitation to the Dance by Carl Maria von Weber , and Flight of the Bumblebee by Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , which was later adapted into the Bumble Boogie segment in Melody Time ( 1948 ) . There was also consideration for a segment inspired by the Polka and Fugue from Schwanda the Bagpiper by Jaromír Weinberger . The film 's disappointing initial box office performance and the USA 's entry into World War II brought an end to these plans . Deems Taylor prepared introductions for The Firebird by Stravinsky , La Mer by Claude Debussy , Adventures in a Perambulator by John Alden Carpenter , Don Quixote by Richard Strauss , and Pictures at an Exhibition by Mussorgsky " to have them for the future in case we decided to make any one of them " .
Another segment , Debussy 's Clair de lune , was developed as part of the film 's original program . After being completely animated , it was cut out of the final film to shorten its lengthy running time . The animation depicted two egrets flying through the Florida Everglades on a moonlit night . The sequence was later edited and re @-@ scored for the Blue Bayou segment in Make Mine Music ( 1946 ) . In 1992 , a workprint of the original was discovered and Clair de Lune was restored , complete with the original soundtrack of Stokowski with the Philadelphia Orchestra . It was included as a bonus feature in The Fantasia Anthology DVD in 2000 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Sequel = = =
In 1980 , the Los Angeles Times reported that animators Wolfgang Reitherman and Mel Shaw had begun work on Musicana , " an ambitious concept mixing jazz , classical music , myths , modern art and more , following the old Fantasia format " . Animation historian Charles Solomon wrote that development took place between 1982 and 1983 , which combined " ethnic tales from around the world with the music of the various countries " . Proposed segments for the film included a battle between an ice god and a sun goddess set to Finlandia by Sibelius , one set in the Andes to the songs of Yma Sumac , and another featuring caricatures of Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald . The project was shelved in favor of Mickey 's Christmas Carol .
Roy E. Disney , the nephew of Walt , co @-@ produced Fantasia 2000 which entered production in 1990 and features seven new segments performed by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra with conductor James Levine . The Sorcerer 's Apprentice is the only segment retained from the original film . Fantasia 2000 premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 17 , 1999 as part of a five @-@ city live concert tour , followed by a four @-@ month engagement in IMAX cinemas and a wide release in regular theatres , in 2000 .
Early development for a third film began in 2002 , with a working title of Fantasia 2006 . Plans were made to include The Little Matchgirl by Roger Allers and One by One by Pixote Hunt in the film before the project was shelved in 2004 , with the proposed segments released as individual short films .
= = = Live @-@ action adaptations = = =
The Sorcerer 's Apprentice segment was adapted into the feature @-@ length movie , The Sorcerer 's Apprentice ( 2010 ) .
The Night on Bald Mountain segment is reported to be currently in development by Disney Productions for a feature @-@ length live @-@ action film treatment written by Matt Sazama and Burk Sharpless .
In February 2016 , it was announced Disney is developing a live @-@ action version of Nutcracker Suite , which was last depicted as a segment of the 1940 film . The feature film is titled , The Nutcracker and the Four Realms .
= = = Parodies and spin @-@ offs = = =
Fantasia is parodied in A Corny Concerto , a Warner Bros. cartoon from 1943 of the Merrie Melodies series . The short features Elmer Fudd in the role of Taylor , wearing his styled eyeglasses , who introduces two segments set to pieces by Johann Strauss ( Tales from the Vienna Woods and the Blue Danube Waltz , the former featuring Porky and Bugs and the latter featuring Daffy ) . In 1976 , Italian animator Bruno Bozzetto produced Allegro Non Troppo , a feature @-@ length parody of Fantasia . Jerry Bruckheimer used the story of The Sorcerer 's Apprentice as a basis for his eponymous fantasy @-@ adventure film in 2010 . Disney are developing the Night on Bald Mountain sequence from the film with Matt Sazama and Burk Sharpless writing and executive produce the live action film .
The animated television series The Simpsons references Fantasia in a few episodes . Matt Groening , the creator of the franchise , expressed a wish to make a parody film named Simpstasia ; it was never produced , partly because it would have been too difficult to write a feature @-@ length script . In " Treehouse of Horror IV " , director David Silverman had admired the animation in Night on Bald Mountain , and made the first appearance of Devil Flanders resemble Chernabog . The episode " Itchy & Scratchy Land " references The Sorcerer 's Apprentice in a snippet titled " Scratchtasia " , which features the music and several shots parodying it exactly .
In 2014 , BBC Music created a film similar to Fantasia called Ten Pieces , intended to introduce children to classical music . Several pieces featured in the Fantasia films are included along with an original body music piece called " Connect It " .
In June 2015 plans were announced to adapt the " Night on Bald Mountain " sequence into a live @-@ action film .
= = = Theme parks = = =
From 2001 to 2015 , the Sorcerer 's Hat was the icon of Disney 's Hollywood Studios , one of the four theme parks located at Walt Disney World Resort . The structure was of the magic hat from The Sorcerer 's Apprentice . Also located at the resort is Fantasia Gardens , a miniature golf course that integrates characters and objects from the film in each hole . The fireworks and water show Fantasmic ! features scenes from The Sorcerer 's Apprentice and other Fantasia segments on water projection screens , and involves the plot of Mickey as the apprentice doing magic whilst also battling the Disney Villains .
For the 20th anniversary of Disneyland Paris , Mickey was depicted in a special version of his Sorcerer 's Apprentice outfit with his friends wearing similar outfits .
= = = Video games = = =
In 1983 , Atari released a game called Sorcerer 's Apprentice for the Atari 2600 , based on that segment of Fantasia . The player , as Mickey Mouse , must collect falling stars and comets which will prevent the marching brooms from flooding Yen Sid 's cavern .
In 1991 , a side @-@ scrolling Fantasia video game developed by Infogrames was released for the Sega Mega Drive / Genesis system . The player controls Mickey Mouse , who must find missing musical notes scattered across four elemental worlds based upon the film 's segments .
There are several film reel levels based on some of the movie 's segments such as Sorcerer 's Apprentice and Night on Bald Mountain that appear in the Epic Mickey games . Yen Sid and Chernabog also make cameo appearances in the games ( Yen Sid the sorcerer from The Sorcerer 's Apprentice narrates the openings and endings of the two games and served as the creator of the Wasteland . Chernabog the demon from the Night on Bald Mountain / Ave Maria segment appears as a painting in the first game and appears in the Night on Bald Mountain film reel levels in the second ) .
The Disney / Square Enix crossover game series Kingdom Hearts features Chernabog as a boss in the first installment . The Night on Bald Mountain piece is played during the fight . Yen Sid appears frequently in the series beginning with Kingdom Hearts II , voiced in English by Corey Burton . Symphony of Sorcery , a world based on the movie , appears in Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance . Like the Timeless River world in Kingdom Hearts II , it is featured as a period of Mickey Mouse 's past .
Fantasia : Music Evolved , a music game , was developed by Harmonix in association with Disney Interactive for the Xbox 360 and Xbox One consoles . The game utilizes the Kinect device to put players in control of music in a manner similar to Harmonix ' previous rhythm games , affecting the virtual environment and interactive objects within it . The game features licensed contemporary rock music such as Queen and Bruno Mars .
Mickey , in his Sorcerer 's Apprentice guise , appears as a playable character in Disney Infinity .
= = = Concert = = =
A live concert presentation of the film named Disney Fantasia : Live in Concert , showcases various segments from both Fantasia and Fantasia 2000 . The concert version features a live symphony orchestra and piano soloist accompanying projected high definition video segments . As of 2014 , the Fantasia concert is touring throughout the world .
= = = Television = = =
Several elements from the film appear in television series Once Upon a Time . The hat from The Sorcerer 's Apprentice appears in the fourth season episode " A tale of Two Sisters " . As the series progressed , the hat was shown to have the ability to absorb others , and those it absorbed would appear as a star on the hat . The Sorcerer 's Apprentice himself makes an appearance , where he is an old man who guards the hat in the Enchanted Forest .
Chernabog from Night On Bald Mountain also makes an appearance in the episode " Darkness on the Edge of Town , " .
= = Credits = =
Musical score conducted by Leopold Stokowski . Performed by the Philadelphia Orchestra , except as noted .
= USS Wyandotte ( 1864 ) =
Originally named USS Tippecanoe , after the river in Indiana , USS Wyandotte was a single @-@ turreted Canonicus @-@ class monitor built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . Completed after the end of the war , Wyandotte was laid up until 1876 , although she received her new name in 1869 . The ship was commissioned in 1876 and assigned to the North Atlantic Squadron for the next three years . She became a receiving ship in 1879 until she was placed in reserve again in 1885 . Wyandotte was on militia duty when the Spanish – American War began and she was recommissioned in 1898 to defend Boston , Massachusetts from any Spanish raiders . The ship was decommissioned after the end of the war and sold for scrap in 1899 .
= = Description and construction = =
The ship was 224 feet 6 inches ( 68 @.@ 4 m ) long overall , had a beam of 43 feet 5 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . Wyandotte had a tonnage of 1 @,@ 034 tons burthen and displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men .
Wyandotte was powered by a two @-@ cylinder horizontal vibrating @-@ lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers . The 320 @-@ indicated @-@ horsepower ( 240 kW ) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried 140 – 150 long tons ( 140 – 150 t ) of coal . Wyandotte 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° .
The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) wrought iron plates , backed by wood . The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one @-@ inch plates . The ship 's deck was protected by armor 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . A 5 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ inch ( 130 by 380 mm ) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened to several of the older Passaic @-@ class monitors during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863 . The base of the funnel ( ship ) was protected to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of armor . A " rifle screen " of 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) armor 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high was installed on the top of the turret to protected the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven , captain of her sister ship Tecumseh . The only known modification after the ship 's completion was the addition of a hurricane deck between the turret and the funnel sometime after the end of the Civil War .
The contract for Wyandotte , the only Navy ship to be named after the Wyandotte Indian Tribe , was awarded to Miles Greenwood ; the ship was laid down on 28 September 1862 at the shipyard of John Litherbury in Cincinnati , Ohio . She was launched on 22 December 1864 and completed on 15 February 1866 . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built that reflected battle experience with earlier monitors . This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches ( 203 mm ) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret . Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) to increase the ship 's buoyancy , moving the position of the turret to balance the ship 's trim and replacing all of the ship 's deck armor . Completion of the ship was further delayed by the low depth of the Ohio River which prevented her movement from Cincinnati in December 1864 to finish their fitting out . The river finally rose in March 1865 which allowed the ship to reach New Albany , Indiana on 14 March . Wyandotte was moved to Evansville , Indiana in late May to complete her hull where rudimentary facilities and illness among her workers delayed her construction still further .
The monitor joined her sisters Oneota , Manayunk , and Catawba in ordinary opposite Cairo , Illinois when she was completed on 15 February 1866 although they drew enough water that they had to be anchored in the main channel where they were often struck by debris , drifting ice , and were vulnerable to accidents . Wyandotte 's anchor chain was broken on 27 March when she was struck by a steamboat towing barges and the ship collided with Oneota and the two ships were dragged 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream before they could be brought under control . This was a persistent problem and the Navy finally decided to move the ships down to New Orleans in May 1866 . In 1869 , she was twice renamed , first to Vesuvius on 15 June and then Wyandotte on 10 August .
= = Service history = =
The monitor was moved to Key West , Florida in 1870 and then to the Philadelphia Navy Yard by 1872 . In 1873 – 74 , Wyandotte was thoroughly overhauled by John Roach & Sons in Chester , Pennsylvania and commissioned for the first time on 24 January 1876 , under the command of Lieutenant Thomas C. Terrell . The ship was assigned to the North Atlantic Squadron through 1879 and spent her time on exercises and training cruises ; she was based at Hampton Roads , Virginia for a while . She served as the station ship at Washington , D.C. , beginning in 1879 , before she was again placed in reserve in 1885 , first at Richmond , Virginia and then at Norfolk , Virginia .
Wyandotte was transferred to the Connecticut Naval Militia in 1896 , and she was recommissioned for local defense duties on 30 April 1898 during the Spanish – American War in response to political pressure . Commanded by Lt. John B. Milton , the ship sailed from New Haven , Connecticut on 17 May , to guard Boston and remained on there from 19 May to 5 September . Wyandotte sailed to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania after the end of the war and arrived there on 9 September . She was decommissioned on 20 September and sold for scrap on 17 January 1899 .
= Toluid Civil War =
The Toluid Civil War was fought between Kublai Khan and his younger brother , Ariq Böke , from 1260 to 1264 . Möngke Khan died in 1259 with no declared successor , precipitating infighting between members of the Tolui family line for the title of Great Khan that escalated to a civil war . The Toluid Civil War , and the wars that followed it ( such as the Berke – Hulagu war and the Kaidu – Kublai war ) , weakened the authority of the Great Khan over the Mongol Empire and split the empire into autonomous khanates .
= = Background = =
The Tolui family successfully enthroned their candidate for Great Khan , Möngke , in the kurultais of 1250 and 1251 . The Ögedeid candidate for Great Khan , Shiremun , and his cousin Nakhu , were embittered by their loss and plotted a failed assassination of Möngke . Möngke took revenge by purging his opponents in the royal house , and members of both the Chagatai and Ögedei families .
Möngke handed control over the Caucasus region to the Golden Horde in 1252 . With the approval of Möngke , Berke succeeded his brother , Batu , as Khan of the Golden Horde in Russia in 1255 . Hulagu of the Ilkhanate seized control of the Caucasus from the Golden Horde , and his sacking of Baghdad in 1258 angered Berke , a convert to Islam . Möngke Khan died in 1259 without appointing a successor . He likely favored Ariq Böke , whom Möngke designated in 1258 as commander of Karakorum ( then capital of the empire ) , but he did little else to secure Ariq Böke 's claim to the throne .
= = Civil war = =
Kublai Khan was campaigning against the southern Song in 1260 when he received news that Ariq Böke was challenging him for the succession of the throne . Ariq Böke formed alliances with powerful members of the Mongol nobility to endorse him as a candidate for Great Khan . Most of Möngke 's immediate family supported Ariq Böke . Kublai withdrew from the Song and mobilized his troops to fight Ariq Böke . In China , Kublai summoned a kurultai at Kaiping , where he was elected Great Khan . This was the first kurultai to proclaim a Great Khan outside the Mongol homeland or Central Asia . Ariq Böke convened his own kurultai in Karakorum that proclaimed him Great Khan a month later , creating two rival claimants for the throne . Hulagu embarked for Mongolia to attend the kurultai , but the Mamluk defeat of the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut forced him to retreat back to the Middle East . Berke capitalized on the Mamluk victory by invading the Ilkhanate , beginning the Berke – Hulagu war .
Ariq Böke allied with Berke Khan of the Golden Horde and Alghu of the Chagatai Khanate . Hulagu of the Ilkhanate was the sole ally of Kublai Khan . Berke supported Ariq Böke because he was resentful of Hulagu , who had close ties with Kublai . Hulagu and Berke , however , became occupied with their own war and could not intervene in the Toluid Civil War .
Kublai had access to supplies from the fertile lands of China , while Ariq Böke had to import resources to Karakorum in the semi @-@ arid steppes . Kublai Khan depended on these supplies from China and therefore needed Chinese popular support to win the civil war . Kublai ingratiated himself to his subjects with the help of his Chinese advisers . He presented himself as a sage emperor capable of uniting the Chinese , and Ariq Böke as a destructive usurper . Kublai promised to reduce taxes , modeled his government institutions to resemble those of the Chinese dynasties , and adopted the era name of Zhongtong , which means " moderate rule " . His policies were popular in northern China , but had no impact on his relations with the Southern Song . The Song invaded while Kublai was preoccupied with the civil war , and recovered territory previously lost to the Mongols . Kublai dispatched a diplomat , Hao Jing , to discuss the prospects of a peaceful resolution to the war with the Southern Song . The Song , however , rejected Kublai 's overtures and imprisoned Hao for the next decade .
Kublai now controlled three of the four possible supply lines to Karakorum . Kadan , Kublai 's Ögedeid ally , defended the territories of the former Western Xia from Ariq Böke and commanded the forces stationed in Gansu . Kublai 's troops guarded the area surrounding Yan ( modern Beijing ) . The only supply line still open to Ariq Böke was the Yenisei River valley in the northwest . When Kublai 's army advanced towards Karakorum in late 1260 , Ariq Böke retreated from Karakorum to a tributary of the Yenisei . The oncoming winter then compelled Kublai and Ariq Böke to encamp their armies and wait for spring .
In the interim , Kublai acquired more supplies and men . He fortified Yan and the border defenses of northern China . Kadan defeated and executed Alandar , a general sent to secure the vital Central Asian trade routes for Ariq Böke . Lian Xixian , one of Kublai 's Confucian advisers , commanded soldiers for the khan in western China . He won a victory against Ariq Böke 's ally , Liu Taiping , in northwestern China , seizing food supplies intended for Ariq Böke 's army . Lian also drove supporters of Ariq Böke out of the towns of Liangzhou and Ganzhou . In southwestern China , his forces protected Sichuan from Ariq Böke 's encroaching troops . Kublai paid Kadan and Lian Xixian handsomely for their military service in gifts and promotions . He rewarded Kadan with 300 packs of silk and 300 taels of silver , and appointed Lian Xixian to the position of Prime Minister of the Right in the Secretariat .
Kublai 's victories left Alghu as Ariq Böke 's only standing ally . Ariq Böke convinced Alghu to take control of the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia . Chagatai 's khan , Qara Hülëgü , had recently died . Alghu fought and killed Abishkha , a rival claimant to the throne endorsed by Kublai as ruler of the khanate . Alghu was one of Ariq Böke 's strongest supporters and he appointed him khan of Chagatai . The khanate became an important source of Ariq Böke 's provisions . Ariq Böke gave Alghu complete control over tax revenues in the region .
In 1261 , Kublai and Ariq Böke engaged in battle at Shimultai . Ariq Böke lost the battle and retreated . He returned to the region ten days later to challenge Kublai 's forces near the Khingan Mountains of eastern Mongolia . The troops that Ariq Böke attacked were not personally led by Kublai , and made up only a small portion of Kublai 's army . Even so , the battle ended in a stalemate . Meanwhile , most of Mongolia was now under the control of Kublai , threatening Ariq Böke 's control of the Yenisei Valley supply line . A weakened Ariq Böke entreated Alghu for help . Alghu refused , and executed the envoys sent by Ariq Böke , who had demanded a share of Alghu 's tax revenues .
At this time , a rebellion in China distracted Kublai from the civil war , and he departed for Kaiping instead of further pursuing Ariq Böke . Ariq Böke went to war with Alghu after the threat of an attack by Kublai receded . Alghu defeated Ariq Böke 's commander , Khara Bukha , near the Ili River in Xinjiang , but lost his headquarters at Almalikh to Ariq Böke . He withdrew to the oasis cities of the Tarim Basin .
Ariq Böke was now left with few allies , and several of his supporters deserted from his side . Ürüng Tash , son of Möngke , defected , taking his father 's tamga seal from Ariq Böke and giving it to Kublai as a symbol of his loyalty . Alghu then returned to the Ili River to remove Ariq Böke from Xinjiang . Ariq Böke lacked the resources or the allies to defend himself . He surrendered to Kublai in 1264 , ending the civil war .
= = Aftermath = =
Kublai imprisoned Ariq Böke , but did not immediately punish him . Kublai 's supporters wanted retribution , so Kublai ignored Ariq Böke for a year as punishment . He conducted a purge to eliminate officials in the Mongol government who sympathized with Ariq Böke . Kublai accused Bolghai , an important Mongol official who served under Möngke , of treachery for conspiring with Ariq Böke . Kublai authorized the execution of Bolghai and other Ariq Böke supporters . Kublai summoned a kurultai to decide a punishment for Ariq Böke and solidify his own claim to the throne . Kublai was reluctant to punish his brother without public support of the Mongol nobility . Ariq Böke died mysteriously in 1266 while still imprisoned , leading to speculation that Kublai had secretly poisoned him .
Ariq Böke 's defeat by Kublai could not stop the fracturing of the empire . When Kublai convened his kurultai to confirm his status as Great Khan , none of the three other khans attended . Berke and Hulagu continued fighting , until Hulagu died in 1265 . The Ögedei line sought to exploit the disunity to advance the interests of their own family . They held a grudge against the Tolui family for the kurultai of 1251 and the subsequent purge of the Ögedeids after the assassination plot . Kaidu , from the Ögedei family , believed that a member of the Ögedeids deserved the title of Great Khan and started an insurrection in 1269 against Kublai that lasted for decades .
Most of the western khanates did not recognize Kublai as Great Khan . Although some of them still asked Kublai to confirm the enthronement of their new regional khans , the four khanates were functionally independent sovereign states . The Ilkhanate based in Persia and the Yuan dynasty based in China had close diplomatic relations , and shared scientific and cultural knowledge , but military cooperation between all four Mongol khanates would never occur again — the united Mongol Empire had disintegrated .
= Once Upon a Time ( game ) =
Once Upon a Time is a card game produced by Atlas Games , originally released in 1994 with a second edition published in 1995 and the current third edition in 2012 . One object of Once Upon a Time is to tell a fairy tale as a group . While the story is developed by the whole group , the competitive aspect of the game is that each player has an individual goal of using all of the " Storytelling " cards he or she has in hand , and finishing the story with their own special " Happy Ever After " card . Only one player at a time is the current storyteller , giving him or her a chance to play their Storytelling cards , while the other players have a chance to " interrupt " the story and become the storyteller if , for example , the storyteller mentions something on one of the interrupting player 's cards .
= = Gameplay = =
Each player is dealt a hand of cards that represent story elements : objects , people , events , and " aspects " often involved in fairy tales ( for instance , there are cards for " crown " , " key " , " stepmother " , " a death " , " time passes " , " sleeping " , et cetera ) . These " Storytelling " cards represent ingredients of a fairy tale , i.e. words or phrases that are likely to appear in fairy tales . From a different deck of cards , each player is also dealt a single " Happy Ever After " ending card , to be kept secret from other players until it is used . The object of the game for each player is to use their cards in telling a story , finishing the story by using their Happy Ever After card .
One player at a time is the storyteller . ( The 2nd edition rules suggest the starting storyteller could be the " player with the longest beard " , or any other method upon which the players agree . ) Whenever a story ingredient is mentioned , if any player has a Storytelling card for that ingredient , he or she can play it and become ( or continue being ) the storyteller . A player may be required to draw extra Storytelling cards ( for example , when they are the storyteller and are interrupted by another player who becomes the new storyteller , or if he or she hesitates for too long while telling the story ) . If the storyteller ends the story with the ending on their Happy Ever After card , and is out of cards , he or she wins . Players are expected to cooperate ( to some extent ) in order to avoid contradictions in the story as it develops , for the story to make sense , and ( according to the rulebook ) that any ending to the story is " satisfying " .
= = Expansions = =
Expansions contain 55 additional cards . 2nd Edition expansions include :
Dark Tales , dark story elements
Create @-@ Your @-@ Own Storytelling Cards , blank cards
3rd Edition expansions include :
Seafaring Tales , aquatic elements
Enchanting Tales , prince and princess elements
Knightly Tales , medieval elements
Create @-@ Your @-@ Own Storytelling Cards , blank cards
The 3rd edition also has a Writer 's Handbook available , in trade paperback format .
= = Awards and critical reception = =
In his 2007 essay on the game in Hobby Games : The 100 Best , British author and game designer Marc Gascoigne stated that Once Upon a Time is " one of the best ways [ he had ] ever found to grab a non @-@ gamer by their imagination and fling them into our world " .
In 1999 Pyramid magazine named Once Upon a Time as one of The Millennium 's Best Card Games and also as one of The Millennium 's Most Underrated Games . Editor Scott Haring stated " the game 's just as good for kids as it is for adults . " Commenting on the second edition , reviewer Derek Pearcy said the game " is a brilliant example of what we should be getting in this new game market " and " not only is this game easy to learn , not only is it fast , fun , and an Idea Whose Time Has Come , but ... girls think it rocks " commenting upon " the occasional insulting lip @-@ service [ many game companies have paid ] to their female readership . "
Other awards include :
Once Upon a Time 2nd Edition was named to Games magazine 's Best Family Card Game section in the 1997 Games 100 list .
In 2013 the 3rd edition of the game won a Recommended Parents ' Choice Award .
The 3rd edition was featured on the Tabletop ( web series ) with Wil Wheaton in 2013 .
Once Upon a Time 3rd Edition received the Tillywig Best Family Fun Award in 2013 .
The cover art for the 3rd Edition was featured in Spectrum 20 .
The 3rd edition was nominated for an Origins Award in 2013 , in the Children 's , Family , or Party Game category .
= Avery Point Light =
Avery Point Light or Avery Point Lighthouse is a lighthouse in Groton , Connecticut , United States , on the Avery Point Campus of the University of Connecticut . Although construction was completed in March 1943 , the lighthouse was not lit until May 1944 due to concerns of possible enemy invasion . Its original light consisted of eight 200 @-@ watt bulbs that were later replaced by a flashing green light in 1960 . It was deactivated on June 25 , 1967 , when the United States Coast Guard Training Station moved to Governors Island . It is officially listed as the last lighthouse built in the state ; the only other claimant is the replica Mystic Seaport Light .
The lighthouse deteriorated until it was declared a hazard by the University of Connecticut in 1997 . A restoration effort was launched in 1999 through the American Lighthouse Foundation ( ALF ) and in 2000 by a new local chapter , the Avery Point Lighthouse Society . The restoration of the lighthouse began in 2001 and was completed in 2006 , requiring a replica lantern and extensive structural repairs and replacement of the crumbling of the blocks . Two bills for $ 150 @,@ 000 and $ 100 @,@ 000 were appropriated and used to complete the restoration . The relighting and re @-@ dedication of the lighthouse was held on October 15 , 2006 . The lighthouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2002 .
= = Construction = =
The land upon which Avery Point Light was constructed was owned by Morton F. Plant 's estate ; his Branford Manor is located several hundred feet away . Twenty four years after Plant 's death the estate was sold to the state of Connecticut before being transferred to the U.S. Coast Guard . The Coast Guard 's deed required the construction and maintenance of beacon lights or other navigational aids as part of the Coast Guard 's new training facility . The Avery Point Light was named for Captain James Avery of New London , Connecticut .
The Avery Point Light was designed by Alfred Hopkins and Associates to be a 41 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) octagonal tower . Construction of the tower was completed in March 1943 ; it is built of brown concrete blocks and topped with an octagonal wooden lantern . During the restoration effort , it was discovered that six different types of concrete blocks were used in the construction . The tower has a total of five windows , with two facing south and one for the north , east and west . The lantern gallery deck is constructed of concrete and lined with thirty two Italian marble balusters , originally imported from Italy around 1900 . The interior has an iron ladder , originally wooden , that leads up to the watchroom level . The lighthouse design and masonry tower have Colonial Revival elements . It is the last lighthouse built in the state of Connecticut as an official navigational aid .
= = Service = =
The Avery Point Light was not lighted until May 2 , 1944 , due to concerns about possible enemy invasions by sea . D 'Entremont notes that the first light , consisting of eight 200 @-@ watt bulbs , were an unusual array that created a fixed white light source . Though it never had a formal keeper , the lighthouse was tended by personnel or students from the United States Coast Guard Training Station . In 1960 , the light was changed to flashing green and the candlepower rating doubled from 100 to 200 . The light was deactivated on June 25 , 1967 when the training facility moved from Avery Point to Governors Island .
= = Restoration = =
The Avery Point Light was listed by the university as being in " dangerously poor condition " by July 1997 and declared it a safety hazard . In December 2007 , Lighthouse Digest included a brief article with the title " Avery Point added to Doomsday List " after rumors of it being torn down were reported . The article included two images that show the blocked off lighthouse with its crumbling bricks and a sign reading " Keep Out Hazardous Area " . In 1999 , fund @-@ raising began to save and restore the lighthouse through the American Lighthouse Foundation ( ALF ) and in 2000 through the Avery Point Lighthouse Society ( APLS ) , a chapter of the ALF .
In 2000 , the APLS website estimated $ 25 @,@ 000 for the initial engineering study and $ 150 @,@ 000 @-@ 200 @,@ 000 to complete the restoration . In 2001 , Connecticut State Senator Catherine Cook introduced a bill for $ 150 @,@ 000 in bonds to fund the restoration of the Avery Point Light ; it was later approved . An article in the New London Day also noted an engineering study valued at $ 40 @,@ 000 was being conducted for no cost by James Nordon 's engineering firm of Gibble , Norden and Champion .
On December 1 , 2001 , the first part of the restoration began with the removal of the lantern . Due the deterioration of the lantern , the decision was made to make a replica of the original lantern . From 2003 through 2004 , the West Mystic Wooden Boat Building Company , donated the materials and labor to construct the replica . The company 's owner , Steve Jones , has close ties to the Avery Point Light ; he is a former lighthouse keeper for the Harbor of Refuge Light in Lewes , Delaware and is also a University of Connecticut professor .
The concrete blocks used in the construction were of poor construction due to the high sand content that crumbled with the expanding and contraction of the mortar . The decision was made to replace the outer face of the concrete blocks and strengthen the remaining original blocks with cement and steel reinforcements . A total of 3 @,@ 000 blocks were needed to complete the restoration and had to be produced using special molds . The restoration work on the tower began in September 2003 . Though increased costs of the restoration resulted in another need of funding to complete the project . In 2003 , federal funding for another $ 100 @,@ 000 came from the National Park Service 's " Save America ’ s Treasures Act " and it was endorsed by Senators Christopher Dodd and Joseph Lieberman . Delays in the appropriation of funding delayed the second phase of the structural restoration until June 2005 ; and the work was conducted from July through early November . The relighting and re @-@ dedication of the lighthouse was held on October 15 , 2006 .
= = Importance = =
The lighthouse has been claimed to be a memorial tower in various sources , including the 1994 America 's Atlantic Coast Lighthouses : A Traveler 's Guide which states " the tower was built as a memorial tower and as a symbolic representation of the USCG lighthouse keeping responsibilities . " D 'Entremont notes that the misunderstanding stems from an article from 1955 in U.S. Coast Guard Magazine and acknowledges that it has come to serve as a memorial . The lighthouse was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2002 .
= William IV of the United Kingdom =
William IV ( William Henry ; 21 August 1765 – 20 June 1837 ) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and King of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death . The third son of George III and younger brother and successor to George IV , he was the last king and penultimate monarch of Britain 's House of Hanover .
William served in the Royal Navy in his youth and was , both during his reign and afterwards , nicknamed the " Sailor King " . He served in North America and the Caribbean . In 1789 , he was created Duke of Clarence and St Andrews . Since his two older brothers died without leaving legitimate issue , he inherited the throne when he was 64 years old . His reign saw several reforms : the poor law was updated , child labour restricted , slavery abolished in nearly all the British Empire , and the British electoral system refashioned by the Reform Act 1832 . Although William did not engage in politics as much as his brother or his father , he was the last monarch to appoint a prime minister contrary to the will of Parliament . Through his brother , the Viceroy of Hanover , he granted his German kingdom a short @-@ lived liberal constitution .
At the time of his death William had no surviving legitimate children , but he was survived by eight of the ten illegitimate children he had by the actress Dorothea Jordan , with whom he cohabited for twenty years . William was succeeded in the United Kingdom by his niece , Victoria , and in Hanover by his brother , Ernest Augustus .
= = Early life = =
William was born in the early hours of the morning on 21 August 1765 at Buckingham House , the third child and son of King George III and Queen Charlotte . He had two elder brothers , George and Frederick , and was not expected to inherit the Crown . He was baptised in the Great Council Chamber of St James 's Palace on 20 September 1765 . His godparents were his paternal uncles , the Duke of Gloucester and Prince Henry ( later Duke of Cumberland ) , and his paternal aunt , Princess Augusta , then hereditary duchess of Brunswick @-@ Wolfenbüttel .
He spent most of his early life in Richmond and at Kew Palace , where he was educated by private tutors . At the age of thirteen , he joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman , and was present at the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1780 . His experiences in the navy seem to have been little different from those of other midshipmen , though in contrast to other sailors he was accompanied on board ships by a tutor . He did his share of the cooking and got arrested with his shipmates after a drunken brawl in Gibraltar ; he was hastily released from custody after his identity became known .
He served in New York during the American War of Independence . While William was in America , George Washington approved a plot to kidnap him , writing : " The spirit of enterprise so conspicuous in your plan for surprising in their quarters and bringing off the Prince William Henry and Admiral Digby merits applause ; and you have my authority to make the attempt in any manner , and at such a time , as your judgment may direct . I am fully persuaded , that it is unnecessary to caution you against offering insult or indignity to the persons of the Prince or Admiral ... " The plot did not come to fruition ; the British heard of it and assigned guards to William , who had up till then walked around New York unescorted .
He became a lieutenant in 1785 and captain of HMS Pegasus the following year . In late 1786 , he was stationed in the West Indies under Horatio Nelson , who wrote of William : " In his professional line , he is superior to two @-@ thirds , I am sure , of the [ Naval ] list ; and in attention to orders , and respect to his superior officer , I hardly know his equal . " The two were great friends , and dined together almost nightly . At Nelson 's wedding , William insisted on giving the bride away . He was given command of the frigate HMS Andromeda in 1788 , and was promoted to rear @-@ admiral in command of HMS Valiant the following year .
William sought to be made a duke like his elder brothers , and to receive a similar parliamentary grant , but his father was reluctant . To put pressure on him , William threatened to stand for the House of Commons for the constituency of Totnes in Devon . Appalled at the prospect of his son making his case to the voters , George III created him Duke of Clarence and St Andrews and Earl of Munster on 16 May 1789 , supposedly saying : " I well know it is another vote added to the Opposition . " William 's political record was inconsistent and , like many politicians of the time , cannot be certainly ascribed to a single party . He allied himself publicly with the Whigs as well as his elder brothers George , Prince of Wales , and Frederick , Duke of York , who were known to be in conflict with the political positions of their father .
= = Service and politics = =
The newly created duke ceased his active service in the Royal Navy in 1790 . When Britain declared war on France in 1793 , he was anxious to serve his country and expected a command , but was not given a ship , perhaps at first because he had broken his arm by falling down some stairs drunk , but later because he gave a speech in the House of Lords opposing the war . The following year he spoke in favour of the war , expecting a command after his change of heart ; none came . The Admiralty did not even reply to his request . He did not lose hope of being appointed to an active post . In 1798 he was made an admiral , but the rank was purely nominal . Despite repeated petitions , he was never given a command throughout the Napoleonic Wars . In 1811 , he was appointed to the honorary position of Admiral of the Fleet . In 1813 , he came nearest to any actual fighting , when he visited the British troops fighting in the Low Countries . Watching the bombardment of Antwerp from a church steeple , he came under fire . A bullet pierced his coat .
Instead of serving at sea , he spent time in the House of Lords , where he spoke in opposition to the abolition of slavery , which although not legal in the United Kingdom still existed in the British colonies . Freedom would do the slaves little good , he argued . He had travelled widely and , in his eyes , the living standard among freemen in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland was worse than that among slaves in the West Indies . His experience in the West Indies lent weight to his position , which was perceived as well @-@ argued and just by some of his contemporaries . Others thought it " shocking that so young a man , under no bias of interest , should be earnest in continuance of the slave trade " . In his speech to the House of Lords , the Duke insulted William Wilberforce , the leading abolitionist , saying : " the proponents of the abolition are either fanatics or hypocrites , and in one of those classes I rank Mr. Wilberforce " . On other issues he was more liberal , such as supporting moves to abolish penal laws against dissenting Christians . He also opposed efforts to bar those found guilty of adultery from remarriage .
= = Relationships and marriage = =
From 1791 William lived with an Irish actress , Dorothea Bland , better known by her stage name , Mrs. Jordan , the title " Mrs. " being assumed at the start of her stage career to explain an inconvenient pregnancy and " Jordan " because she had " crossed the water " from Ireland to Britain .
William was part of the first generation to grow to maturity under the Royal Marriages Act 1772 , which forbade descendants of George II from marrying unless they either obtained the monarch 's consent or , if over the age of 25 , gave twelve months ' notice to the Privy Council . Several of George III 's sons , including William , chose to cohabit with the women they loved , rather than seek a wife . Having legitimate issue was not a primary concern for William , as he was one of the younger sons of George III , he was not expected to figure in the succession , which was considered secure once the Prince of Wales married and had a daughter , Princess Charlotte , second @-@ in @-@ line to the throne .
William appeared to enjoy the domesticity of his life with Mrs. Jordan , remarking to a friend : " Mrs. Jordan is a very good creature , very domestic and careful of her children . To be sure she is absurd sometimes and has her humours . But there are such things more or less in all families . " The couple , while living quietly , enjoyed entertaining , with Mrs. Jordan writing in late 1809 : " We shall have a full and merry house this Christmas , ' tis what the dear Duke delights in . " George III was accepting of his son 's relationship with the actress ( though recommending that he halve her allowance ) ; in 1797 , he created William Ranger of Bushy Park , which included a large residence , Bushy House , for William 's growing family . William used Bushy as his principal residence until he became king . His London residence , Clarence House , was constructed to the designs of John Nash between 1825 and 1827 .
The couple had ten illegitimate children — five sons and five daughters — nine of whom were named after William 's siblings ; each was given the surname " FitzClarence " . Their affair lasted for twenty years before ending in 1811 . Mrs. Jordan had no doubt as to the reason for the break @-@ up : " Money , money , my good friend , has , I am convinced made HIM at this moment the most wretched of men , " adding , " With all his excellent qualities , his domestic virtues , his love for his lovely children , what must he not at this moment suffer ? " She was given a financial settlement of £ 4 @,@ 400 ( equivalent to £ 287 @,@ 900 today ) per year and custody of her daughters on condition that she did not resume the stage . When she resumed acting in an effort to repay debts incurred by the husband of one of her daughters from a previous relationship , William took custody of the daughters and stopped paying the £ 1 @,@ 500 ( equivalent to £ 94 @,@ 600 today ) designated for their maintenance . After Mrs. Jordan 's acting career began to fail , she fled to France to escape her creditors , and died , impoverished , near Paris in 1816 .
Before he met Mrs. Jordan , William had an illegitimate son whose mother is unknown ; the son , also called William , drowned off Madagascar in HMS Blenheim in February 1807 . Caroline von Linsingen , whose father was a general in the Hanoverian infantry , claimed to have had a son , Heinrich , by William in around 1790 but William was not in Hanover at the time that she claims and the story is considered implausible by historians .
Deeply in debt , William made multiple attempts at marrying a wealthy heiress , but his suits were unsuccessful . Following the death of William 's niece Princess Charlotte of Wales , then second @-@ in @-@ line to the British throne , in 1817 , the king was left with twelve children , but no legitimate grandchildren . The race was on among the royal dukes to marry and produce an heir . William had great advantages in this race — his two older brothers were both childless and estranged from their wives , who were both beyond childbearing age anyway , and William was the healthiest of the three . If he lived long enough , he would almost certainly ascend the British and Hanoverian thrones , and have the opportunity to sire the next monarch . William 's initial choices of potential wives either met with the disapproval of his eldest brother , the Prince of Wales , or turned him down . William 's younger brother Adolphus , the Duke of Cambridge , was sent to Germany to scout out the available Protestant princesses ; he came up with Princess Augusta of Hesse @-@ Kassel , but her father Frederick declined the match . Two months later , the Duke of Cambridge married Augusta himself . Eventually , a princess was found who was amiable , home @-@ loving , and was willing to accept , even enthusiastically welcoming William 's nine surviving children , several of whom had not yet reached adulthood . At Kew on 11 July 1818 , William married Princess Adelaide of Saxe @-@ Meiningen , the daughter of George I , Duke of Saxe @-@ Meiningen . At 25 , Adelaide was half William 's age . Their marriage , which lasted almost twenty years until William 's death , was a happy one . Adelaide took both William and his finances in hand . For their first year of marriage , the couple lived in economical fashion in Germany , and William 's debts were soon on the way to being paid , especially since Parliament had voted him an increased allowance , which he reluctantly accepted after his requests to increase it further were refused . William is not known to have had mistresses after his marriage . The couple had two short @-@ lived daughters and Adelaide suffered three miscarriages . Despite this , false rumours that Adelaide was pregnant persisted into William 's reign — he dismissed them as " damned stuff " .
= = Lord High Admiral = =
William 's elder brother , the Prince of Wales , had been Prince Regent since 1811 because of the mental illness of their father , George III . In 1820 , the King died , leaving the Crown to the Prince Regent , who became George IV . William , Duke of Clarence , was now second in the line of succession , preceded only by his brother , Frederick , Duke of York . Reformed since his marriage , William walked for hours , ate relatively frugally , and the only drink he imbibed in quantity was barley water flavoured with lemon . Both of his older brothers were unhealthy , and it was considered only a matter of time before he became king . When the Duke of York died in 1827 , William , then more than 60 years old , became heir presumptive . Later that year , the incoming Prime Minister , George Canning , appointed William to the office of Lord High Admiral , which had been in commission ( that is , exercised by a board rather than by a single individual ) since 1709 . While in office , the Duke had repeated conflicts with his Council , which was composed of Admiralty officers . Things finally came to a head in 1828 when , as Lord High Admiral , William put to sea with a squadron of ships , leaving no word of where they were going , and remaining away for ten days . The King , through the Prime Minister , by now Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington , requested his resignation ; the Duke of Clarence complied .
Despite the difficulties the Duke experienced , he did considerable good as Lord High Admiral . He abolished the cat o ' nine tails for most offences other than mutiny , attempted to improve the standard of naval gunnery and required regular reports of the condition and preparedness of each ship . He commissioned the first steam warship and advocated more . Holding the office permitted William to make mistakes and learn from them — a process that might have been far more costly had he not learnt before becoming King that he should act only with the advice of his councillors .
William spent the remaining time during his brother 's reign in the House of Lords . He supported the Catholic Emancipation Bill against the opposition of his younger brother , Ernest Augustus , Duke of Cumberland , describing the latter 's position on the Bill as " infamous " , to the Duke of Cumberland 's outrage . George IV 's health was increasingly bad ; it was obvious by early 1830 that he was near death . The King took his leave of his younger brother at the end of May , stating , " God 's will be done . I have injured no man . It will all rest on you then . " William 's genuine affection for his older brother could not mask his rising anticipation that he would soon be king .
= = Reign = =
= = = Early reign = = =
When King George IV died on 26 June 1830 without surviving legitimate issue , the Duke of Clarence succeeded him as William IV . Aged 64 , he was the oldest person yet to assume the British throne . Unlike his extravagant brother , William was unassuming , discouraging pomp and ceremony . In contrast to George IV , who tended to spend most of his time in Windsor Castle , William was known , especially early in his reign , to walk , unaccompanied , through London or Brighton . Until the Reform Crisis eroded his standing , he was very popular among the people , who saw him as more approachable and down @-@ to @-@ earth than his brother .
The King immediately proved himself a conscientious worker . His first Prime Minister Arthur Wellesley , the Duke of Wellington , stated that he had done more business with King William in ten minutes than he had with George IV in as many days . Lord Brougham described him as an excellent man of business , asking enough questions to help him understand the matter — whereas George IV feared to ask questions lest he display his ignorance and George III would ask too many and then not wait for a response .
The King did his best to endear himself to the people . Charlotte Williams @-@ Wynn wrote shortly after his accession : " Hitherto the King has been indefatigable in his efforts to make himself popular , and do good natured and amiable things in every possible instance . " Emily Eden noted : " He is an immense improvement on the last unforgiving animal , who died growling sulkily in his den at Windsor . This man at least wishes to make everybody happy , and everything he has done has been benevolent . "
William dismissed his brother 's French chefs and German band , replacing them with English ones to public approval . He gave much of George IV 's art collection to the nation , and halved the royal stud . George IV had begun an extensive ( and expensive ) renovation of Buckingham Palace ; his brother refused to reside there , and twice tried to give the palace away , once to the Army as a barracks , and once to Parliament after the Houses of Parliament burned down in 1834 . His informality could be startling : When in residence at the Royal Pavilion in Brighton , King William used to send to the hotels for a list of their guests and invite anyone whom he knew to dinner , urging guests not to " bother about clothes . The Queen does nothing but embroider flowers after dinner . "
Upon taking the throne , William did not forget his nine surviving illegitimate children , creating his eldest son Earl of Munster and granting the other children the precedence of a younger son ( or daughter ) of a marquess . Despite this , his children importuned for greater opportunities , disgusting elements of the press who reported that the " impudence and rapacity of the FitzJordans is unexampled " . The relationship between William and his sons " was punctuated by a series of savage and , for the King at least , painful quarrels " over money and honours . His daughters , on the other hand , proved an ornament to his court , as , " They are all , you know , pretty and lively , and make society in a way that real princesses could not . "
= = = Reform crisis = = =
At the time , the death of the monarch required fresh elections and , in the general election of 1830 , Wellington 's Tories lost ground to the Whigs under Charles Grey , 2nd Earl Grey , though the Tories still had the largest number of seats . With the Tories bitterly divided , Wellington was defeated in the House of Commons in November , and Lord Grey formed a government . Grey pledged to reform the electoral system , which had seen few changes since the fifteenth century . The inequities in the system were great ; for example , large towns such as Manchester and Birmingham elected no members ( though they were part of county constituencies ) , while small boroughs — known as rotten or pocket boroughs — such as Old Sarum with just seven voters , elected two members of Parliament each . Often , the rotten boroughs were controlled by great aristocrats , whose nominees were invariably elected by the constituents — who were , most often , their tenants — especially since the secret ballot was not yet used in Parliamentary elections . Landowners who controlled seats were even able to sell them to prospective candidates .
When the House of Commons defeated the First Reform Bill in 1831 , Grey 's ministry urged William to dissolve Parliament , which would lead to a new general election . At first , William hesitated to exercise his prerogative to dissolve Parliament because elections had just been held the year before and the country was in a state of high excitement which might boil over into violence . He was , however , irritated by the conduct of the Opposition , which announced its intention to move the passage of an Address , or resolution , in the House of Lords , against dissolution . Regarding the Opposition 's motion as an attack on his prerogative , and at the urgent request of Lord Grey and his ministers , William IV prepared to go in person to the House of Lords and prorogue Parliament . The monarch 's arrival would stop all debate and prevent passage of the Address . When initially told that his horses could not be ready at such short notice , William is supposed to have said , " Then I will go in a hackney cab ! " Coach and horses were assembled quickly and William immediately proceeded to Parliament . Said The Times of the scene before William 's arrival , " It is utterly impossible to describe the scene ... The violent tones and gestures of noble Lords ... astonished the spectators , and affected the ladies who were present with visible alarm . " Lord Londonderry brandished a whip , threatening to thrash the Government supporters , and was held back by four of his colleagues . William hastily put on the crown , entered the Chamber , and dissolved Parliament . This forced new elections for the House of Commons , which yielded a great victory for the reformers . But although the House of Commons was clearly in favour of parliamentary reform , the House of Lords remained implacably opposed to it .
The crisis saw a brief interlude for the celebration of the King 's Coronation on 8 September 1831 . At first , William wished to dispense with the coronation entirely , feeling that his wearing the crown while proroguing Parliament answered any need . He was persuaded otherwise by traditionalists . He refused , however , to celebrate the coronation in the expensive way his brother had — the 1821 coronation had cost £ 240 @,@ 000 , of which £ 16 @,@ 000 was merely to hire the jewels . At William 's instructions , the Privy Council budgeted less than £ 30 @,@ 000 for the coronation . When traditionalist Tories threatened to boycott what they called the " Half Crown @-@ nation " , the King retorted that they should go ahead , and that he anticipated " greater convenience of room and less heat " .
After the rejection of the Second Reform Bill by the Upper House in October 1831 , agitation for reform grew across the country ; demonstrations grew violent in so @-@ called " Reform Riots " . In the face of popular excitement , the Grey ministry refused to accept defeat in the House of Lords , and re @-@ introduced the Bill , which still faced difficulties in the House of Lords . Frustrated by the Lords ' recalcitrance , Grey suggested that the King create a sufficient number of new peers to ensure the passage of the Reform Bill . The King objected — though he had the power to create an unlimited number of peers , he had already created 22 new peers in his Coronation Honours . William reluctantly agreed to the creation of the number of peers sufficient " to secure the success of the bill " . However , the King , citing the difficulties with a permanent expansion of the peerage , told Grey that the creations must be restricted as much as possible to the eldest sons and collateral heirs of existing peers , so that the created peerages would eventually be absorbed as subsidiary titles . This time , the Lords did not reject the bill outright , but began preparing to change its basic character through amendments . Grey and his fellow ministers decided to resign if the King did not agree to an immediate and large creation to force the bill through in its entirety . The King refused , and accepted their resignations . The King attempted to restore the Duke of Wellington to office , but Wellington had insufficient support to form a ministry and the King 's popularity sank to an all @-@ time low . Mud was slung at his carriage and he was publicly hissed . The King agreed to reappoint Grey 's ministry , and to create new peers if the House of Lords continued to pose difficulties . Concerned by the threat of the creations , most of the bill 's opponents abstained and the Reform Act 1832 was passed . The mob blamed William 's actions on the influence of his wife and brother , and his popularity recovered .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
William distrusted foreigners , particularly anyone French , which he acknowledged as a " prejudice " . He also felt strongly that Britain should not interfere in the internal affairs of other nations , which brought him into conflict with the interventionist Foreign Secretary , Lord Palmerston . William supported Belgian independence and , after unacceptable Dutch and French candidates were put forward , favoured Prince Leopold of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , the widower of his niece , Charlotte , as a candidate for the newly created Belgian throne .
Though he had a reputation for tactlessness and buffoonery , William could be shrewd and diplomatic . He foresaw that the potential construction of a canal at Suez would make good relations with Egypt vital to Britain . Later in his reign , he flattered the American ambassador at a dinner by announcing that he regretted not being " born a free , independent American , so much did he respect that nation , which had given birth to George Washington , the greatest man that ever lived " . By exercising his personal charm , William assisted in the repair of Anglo @-@ American relations , which had been so deeply damaged during the reign of his father .
= = = King of Hanover = = =
William never visited Hanover as its king . His brother , Prince Adolphus , Duke of Cambridge , acted as viceroy there throughout William 's reign as he had throughout George IV 's reign .
Public perception in Germany was that Britain dictated Hanoverian policy . This was not the case . In 1832 , Metternich introduced laws that curbed fledgling liberal movements in Germany . Britain 's Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston opposed this , and sought William 's influence to cause the Hanoverian government to take the same position . The Hanoverian government instead agreed with Metternich , much to Palmerston 's dismay , and William declined to intervene . The conflict between William and Palmerston over Hanover was renewed the following year when Metternich called a conference of the German states , to be held in Vienna , and Palmerston wanted Hanover to decline the invitation . Instead , the Viceroy accepted , backed fully by William .
In 1833 , William signed a new constitution for Hanover , which empowered the middle class , gave limited power to the lower classes , and expanded the role of the parliament of Hanover . The constitution was revoked after William 's death by the new king , William 's brother , Ernest Augustus .
= = = Later life = = =
For the remainder of his reign , William interfered actively in politics only once , in 1834 , when he became the last British sovereign to choose a prime minister contrary to the will of Parliament . In 1834 , the ministry was facing increasing unpopularity and Lord Grey retired ; the Home Secretary , William Lamb , 2nd Viscount Melbourne , replaced him . Lord Melbourne retained most Cabinet members , and his ministry retained an overwhelming majority in the House of Commons . Some members of the Government , however , were anathema to the King , and increasingly left @-@ wing policies concerned him . The previous year Grey had already pushed through a bill reforming the Protestant Church of Ireland . The Church collected tithes throughout Ireland , supported multiple bishoprics and was wealthy . However , barely an eighth of the Irish population belonged to the Church of Ireland . In some parishes , there were no Church of Ireland members at all , but there was still a priest paid for by tithes collected from the local Catholics and Presbyterians , leading to charges that idle priests were living in luxury at the expense of the Irish living at the level of subsistence . Grey 's bill had reduced the number of bishoprics by half , abolished some of the sinecures and overhauled the tithe system . Further measures to appropriate the surplus revenues of the Church of Ireland were mooted by the more radical members of the Government , including Lord John Russell . The King had an especial dislike for Russell , calling him " a dangerous little Radical . "
In November 1834 , the Leader of the House of Commons and Chancellor of the Exchequer , John Charles Spencer , Viscount Althorp , inherited a peerage , thus removing him from the House of Commons to the Lords . Melbourne had to appoint a new Commons leader and a new Chancellor ( who by long custom , must be drawn from the Commons ) , but the only candidate whom Melbourne felt suitable to replace Althorp as Commons leader was Lord John Russell , whom William ( and many others ) found unacceptable due to his radical politics . William claimed that the ministry had been weakened beyond repair and used the removal of Lord Althorp — who had previously indicated that he would retire from politics upon becoming a peer — as the pretext for the dismissal of the entire ministry . With Lord Melbourne gone , William chose to entrust power to a Tory , Sir Robert Peel . Since Peel was then in Italy , the Duke of Wellington was provisionally appointed Prime Minister . When Peel returned and assumed leadership of the ministry for himself , he saw the impossibility of governing because of the Whig majority in the House of Commons . Consequently , Parliament was dissolved to force fresh elections . Although the Tories won more seats than in the previous election , they were still in the minority . Peel remained in office for a few months , but resigned after a series of parliamentary defeats . Lord Melbourne was restored to the Prime Minister 's office , remaining there for the rest of William 's reign , and the King was forced to accept Russell as Commons leader .
The King had a mixed relationship with Lord Melbourne . Melbourne 's government mooted more ideas to introduce greater democracy , such as the devolution of powers to the Legislative Council of Lower Canada , which greatly alarmed the King , who feared it would eventually lead to the loss of the colony . At first , the King bitterly opposed these proposals . William exclaimed to Lord Gosford , Governor General @-@ designate of Canada : " Mind what you are about in Canada ... mind me , my Lord , the Cabinet is not my Cabinet ; they had better take care or by God , I will have them impeached . " When William 's son Augustus FitzClarence enquired of his father whether the King would be entertaining during Ascot week , William gloomily replied , " I cannot give any dinners without inviting the ministers , and I would rather see the devil than any one of them in my house . " Nevertheless , William approved the Cabinet 's recommendations for reform . Despite his disagreements with Lord Melbourne , the King wrote warmly to congratulate the Prime Minister when he triumphed in the adultery case brought against him concerning Lady Caroline Norton — he had refused to permit Melbourne to resign when the case was first brought . The King and Prime Minister eventually found a modus vivendi ; Melbourne applying tact and firmness when called for ; while William realised that his First Minister was far less radical in his politics than the King had feared .
Both the King and Queen were fond of their niece , Princess Victoria of Kent . Their attempts to forge a close relationship with the girl were frustrated by the conflict between the King and the Duchess of Kent , the young princess 's widowed mother . The King , angered at what he took to be disrespect from the Duchess to his wife , took the opportunity at what proved to be his final birthday banquet in August 1836 to settle the score . Speaking to those assembled at the banquet , who included the Duchess and Princess Victoria , William expressed his hope that he would survive until Princess Victoria was 18 so that the Duchess of Kent would never be regent . He said , " I trust to God that my life may be spared for nine months longer ... I should then have the satisfaction of leaving the exercise of the Royal authority to the personal authority of that young lady , heiress presumptive to the Crown , and not in the hands of a person now near me , who is surrounded by evil advisers and is herself incompetent to act with propriety in the situation in which she would be placed . " The speech was so shocking that Victoria burst into tears , while her mother sat in silence and was only with difficulty persuaded not to leave immediately after dinner ( the two left the next day ) . William 's outburst undoubtedly contributed to Victoria 's tempered view of him as " a good old man , though eccentric and singular " . William survived , though mortally ill , to the month after Victoria 's coming of age . " Poor old man ! " , Victoria wrote as he was dying , " I feel sorry for him ; he was always personally kind to me . "
William was " very much shaken and affected " by the death of his eldest daughter , Sophia , Lady de L 'Isle and Dudley , in childbirth in April 1837 . A watercolour sketch made by her during her pregnancy in early 1837 shows how frail he had become .
William and his eldest son , George , Earl of Munster , were estranged at the time , but William hoped that a letter of condolence from Munster signalled a reconciliation . His hopes were not fulfilled and Munster , still thinking he had not been given sufficient money or patronage , remained bitter to the end .
Queen Adelaide attended the dying William devotedly , not going to bed herself for more than ten days . William IV died in the early hours of the morning of 20 June 1837 at Windsor Castle , where he was buried . As he had no living legitimate issue , the Crown of the United Kingdom passed to Princess Victoria of Kent , the only child of Edward Augustus , Duke of Kent , George III 's fourth son . Under Salic Law , a woman could not rule Hanover , and so the Hanoverian Crown went to George III 's fifth son , Ernest Augustus , Duke of Cumberland . William 's death thus ended the personal union of Britain and Hanover , which had persisted since 1714 . The main beneficiaries of his will were his eight surviving children by Mrs. Jordan . Although William IV is not the direct ancestor of the later monarchs of the United Kingdom , he has many notable descendants through his illegitimate family with Mrs. Jordan , including Prime Minister David Cameron , TV presenter Adam Hart @-@ Davis , author and statesman Duff Cooper , and the first Duke of Fife , who married Queen Victoria 's granddaughter Louise .
= = Legacy = =
William 's reign was short , but eventful . The ascendancy of the House of Commons and the corresponding decline of the House of Lords were marked by the Reform Crisis , and the King 's unsuccessful attempt to remove the Melbourne ministry indicated a reduction in the political influence of the Crown and the King 's influence with the people . During the reign of George III , the King could have dismissed one ministry , appointed another , dissolved Parliament , and expected the people to vote in favour of the new administration . Such was the result of a dissolution in 1784 , after the dismissal of the Fox @-@ North Coalition , and 1807 , after the dismissal of Lord Grenville . But when William IV dismissed the Melbourne ministry , the Tories under Sir Robert Peel were not able to win the ensuing elections . The King 's ability to influence the opinion of the people , and therefore national policy , had been reduced . None of William 's successors has attempted to remove a government or appoint another against the wishes of Parliament . William understood that as a constitutional monarch he was powerless to act against the opinion of Parliament . He said , " I have my view of things , and I tell them to my ministers . If they do not adopt them , I cannot help it . I have done my duty . "
During his reign great reforms were enacted by Parliament including the Factory Act , preventing child labour , the Abolition Act , emancipating slaves in the colonies , and the Poor Law , standardising provision for the destitute . He attracted criticism from reformers , who felt that reform did not go far enough , and from reactionaries , who felt that reform went too far . The modern interpretation is that he failed to satisfy either political extreme by trying to find compromise between two bitterly opposed factions , but in the process proved himself more capable as a constitutional monarch than many had supposed .
= = Titles , styles , honours , and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
21 August 1765 – 16 May 1789 : His Royal Highness The Prince William Henry
16 May 1789 – 26 June 1830 : His Royal Highness The Duke of Clarence and St Andrews
26 June 1830 – 20 June 1837 : His Majesty The King
William 's official style as King of the United Kingdom was " William the Fourth , by the Grace of God , of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , King , Defender of the Faith " . He was the first king of the United Kingdom named William , though there were three previous kings of England called William and two of Scotland .
His style in Hanover was " William the Fourth , by the Grace of God , King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , etc . , and also King of Hanover , Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg , etc . "
= = = Honours = = =
British honours
5 April 1770 : Knight of the Thistle
19 April 1782 : Knight of the Garter
23 June 1789 : Member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
2 January 1815 : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
12 August 1815 : Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order
26 April 1827 : Royal Fellow of the Royal Society
Foreign honours
24 April 1814 : Knight of the Holy Spirit of France
Knight of Saint Andrew of Russia
Knight of the Black Eagle of Prussia
15 July 1830 : Knight of the Elephant of Denmark
= = = Arms = = =
As a son of the sovereign , William was granted the use of the royal arms ( without the electoral inescutcheon in the Hanoverian quarter ) in 1781 , differenced by a label of three points argent , the centre point bearing a cross gu
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les , the outer points each bearing an anchor azure . In 1801 his arms altered with the royal arms , however the marks of difference remained the same .
As king his arms were those of his two kingdoms , the United Kingdom and Hanover , superimposed : Quarterly , I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) ; overall an escutcheon tierced per pale and per chevron ( for Hanover ) , I Gules two lions passant guardant Or ( for Brunswick ) , II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure ( for Lüneburg ) , III Gules a horse courant Argent ( for Westphalia ) , overall an inescutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or , the whole escutcheon surmounted by a crown .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
= Prometheus ( 2012 film ) =
Prometheus ( / prəˈmiːθɪəs / pro @-@ MEE @-@ thee @-@ uhs ) is a 2012 American science fiction film directed by Ridley Scott , written by Jon Spaihts and Damon Lindelof , and starring Noomi Rapace , Michael Fassbender , Guy Pearce , Idris Elba , Logan Marshall @-@ Green , and Charlize Theron . It is set in the late 21st century and centers on the crew of the spaceship Prometheus as it follows a star map discovered among the artifacts of several ancient Earth cultures . Seeking the origins of humanity , the crew arrives on a distant world and discovers a threat that could cause the extinction of the human race .
Development of the film began in the early 2000s as a fifth installment in the Alien franchise . Scott and director James Cameron developed ideas for a film that would serve as a prequel to Scott 's 1979 science @-@ fiction horror film Alien . By 2003 , the development of Alien vs. Predator took precedence , and the project remained dormant until 2009 when Scott again showed interest . Spaihts wrote a script for a prequel to the events of the Alien films , but Scott opted for a different direction to avoid repeating cues from those films . In late 2010 , Lindelof joined the project to rewrite Spaihts 's script , and he and Scott developed a story that precedes the story of Alien but is not directly connected to that franchise . According to Scott , although the film shares " strands of Alien 's DNA , so to speak " , and takes place in the same universe , Prometheus explores its own mythology and ideas .
Prometheus entered production in April 2010 , with extensive design phases during which the technology and creatures that the film required were developed . Principal photography began in March 2011 , with an estimated US $ 120 – 130 million budget . The project was shot using 3D cameras throughout , almost entirely on practical sets , and on location in England , Iceland , Spain , and Scotland . It was promoted with a marketing campaign that included viral activities on the web . Three videos featuring the film 's leading actors in character , which expanded on elements of the fictional universe , were released and met with a generally positive reception and awards .
Prometheus was released on June 1 , 2012 , in the United Kingdom and on June 8 , 2012 , in North America . It grossed over $ 403 million worldwide . Reviews praised both the film 's visual aesthetic design and the acting , most notably Fassbender 's performance as the android David . However , the plot drew a mixed response from critics , who criticized plot elements that remained unresolved or were predictable . A sequel , Alien : Covenant , is scheduled to be released on August 4 , 2017 .
= = Plot = =
As a spacecraft departs a planet , a humanoid alien drinks an iridescent liquid then dissolves . The remains of the alien cascade into a waterfall .
In 2089 , archaeologists Elizabeth Shaw and Charlie Holloway discover a star map in Scotland that matches others from several unconnected ancient cultures . They interpret this as an invitation from humanity 's forerunners , the " Engineers " . Peter Weyland , the elderly CEO of Weyland Corporation , funds an expedition to follow the map to the distant moon LV @-@ 223 aboard the scientific vessel Prometheus . The ship 's crew travels in stasis while the android David monitors their voyage . Arriving in 2093 , mission director Meredith Vickers informs them of their mission to find the Engineers , and not to make contact without her permission .
The Prometheus lands on the barren , mountainous surface near a large artificial structure , which a team explores . Inside they find stone cylinders , a monolithic statue of a humanoid head , and the decapitated corpse of a large alien , thought to be an Engineer ; Shaw recovers its head . The crew finds other bodies , leading them to surmise the species is extinct . Crew members Millburn and Fifield grow uncomfortable with the discoveries and attempt to return to Prometheus , but become stranded in the structure when they get lost . The expedition is cut short when a storm forces the crew to return to the ship . David secretly takes a cylinder from the structure , while the remaining cylinders begin leaking a dark liquid . In the ship 's lab , the Engineer 's DNA is found to match that of humans . David investigates the cylinder and the liquid inside . He intentionally taints a drink with the liquid and gives it to the unsuspecting Holloway , who had stated he would do anything for answers . Shortly after , Shaw and Holloway have sex .
Inside the structure , a snake @-@ like creature kills Millburn , and sprays a corrosive fluid that melts Fifield 's helmet . Fifield falls face @-@ first into a puddle of dark liquid . When the crew return , they find Millburn 's corpse . David separately discovers a control room containing a surviving Engineer in stasis , and a star map highlighting Earth . Meanwhile , Holloway sickens rapidly . He is rushed back to Prometheus , but Vickers refuses to let him aboard , and at his urging , burns him to death with a flamethrower . Later , a medical scan reveals that Shaw , despite being sterile , is pregnant . Fearing the worst , she uses an automated surgery table to extract a squid @-@ like creature from her abdomen . Shaw then discovers that Weyland has been in stasis aboard Prometheus . He explains that he wants to ask the Engineers to prevent his death from old age . As Weyland prepares to leave for the structure , Vickers addresses him as " Father . "
A monstrous , mutated Fifield attacks the Prometheus 's hangar bay and kills several crew members before he is killed . The Prometheus 's captain , Janek , speculates that the structure was an Engineer military installation that lost control of a virulent biological weapon , the dark liquid . He also determines that the structure houses a spacecraft . Weyland and a team return to the structure , accompanied by Shaw . David wakes the Engineer from stasis and speaks to him in an attempt to explain what Weyland wants . The Engineer responds by decapitating David and killing Weyland and his team , before reactivating the spacecraft . Shaw flees and warns Janek that the Engineer is planning to release the liquid on Earth , convincing him to stop the spacecraft . Janek ejects the lifeboat and rams Prometheus into the alien craft , while Vickers flees in an escape pod . The Engineer 's disabled spacecraft crashes onto the ground ; its wreckage crushes Vickers . Shaw goes to the lifeboat and finds her alien offspring is alive and has grown to gigantic size . David 's still @-@ active head warns Shaw that the Engineer has survived . The Engineer forces open the lifeboat 's airlock and attacks Shaw , who releases her alien offspring onto the Engineer ; it thrusts an ovipositor down the Engineer 's throat , subduing him . Shaw recovers David 's remains , and with his help , launches another Engineer spacecraft . She intends to reach the Engineers ' homeworld in an attempt to understand why they wanted to destroy humanity .
In the lifeboat , an alien creature bursts out of the Engineer 's chest .
= = Cast = =
Noomi Rapace as Elizabeth Shaw :
Rapace described Shaw , an archaeologist , as a believer in God with a very strong faith , and said that , " In the middle of the movie , things happen and she changes into more of a warrior . And in the end , she 's such a survivor . " To aid her method acting , she developed a complete backstory for Shaw , and worked with a dialect coach to achieve a British accent . She also asked her make @-@ up artist to apply extra blood and sweat during filming to more accurately portray her character . Rapace said , " I was out there filming for about six months and it was super @-@ intense , my body was in so much pain sometimes but it was absolutely amazing . " She dismissed comparisons to the Alien franchise 's Ellen Ripley . Rapace came to director Ridley Scott 's attention for her performance as Lisbeth Salander in the 2009 drama film The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo . She met Scott in August 2010 , and by January 2011 she had secured the role . Actresses Anne Hathaway , Natalie Portman , Gemma Arterton , Carey Mulligan , and Abbie Cornish were all considered for the role during development . Lucy Hutchinson , who was eight years old in 2012 , portrays Shaw as a child .
Michael Fassbender as David :
David is an android that acts as the ship 's butler and maintenance man . It is designed to be indistinguishable from humans , and begins to develop " its own ego , insecurities , jealousy and envy " . Writer Damon Lindelof stated that the character provides a non @-@ human perspective on the film 's events , and said , " what does the movie look like from the robot 's point of view ? If you were to ask him , ' What do you think about all of this ? What 's going on ? What do you think about these humans who are around you ? ' Wouldn 't it be cool if we found a way for that robot to answer those questions ? " Fassbender said , " David 's views on the human crew are somewhat childlike . He is jealous and arrogant because he realizes that his knowledge is all @-@ encompassing , and therefore he is superior to the humans . David wants to be acknowledged and praised for his brilliance " . In developing his character , Fassbender avoided watching the android characters of Alien ( 1979 ) and Aliens ( 1986 ) , and instead observed the replicants in Scott 's 1982 science fiction film Blade Runner , with a focus on Sean Young 's character Rachael , whose " vacancy " and longing for a soul interested him . Fassbender drew further inspiration from the voice of the HAL 9000 computer in 2001 : A Space Odyssey , the " funny walk and economy of movement " of Olympic diver Greg Louganis , and the performances of David Bowie in The Man Who Fell to Earth , Dirk Bogarde in The Servant , and Peter O 'Toole in Lawrence of Arabia . David 's blond hair was modeled on that of T. E. Lawrence . Scott favored Fassbender for the role ; by January 2011 he was confirmed to have joined the cast , despite earlier reports that his agents had sought too high a fee .
Charlize Theron as Meredith Vickers :
Vickers is a Weyland Corporation employee who is sent to monitor the expedition . Theron described the character as " a suit who slowly sheds [ her ] skin through the film " , and also as " somewhat of a villain ... [ who ] definitely has an agenda " . She stated " Vickers is pragmatic , and desperately wants to control the situation . " Scott wanted the character to lurk in the background of scenes watching other characters instead of being the focus . Theron said that this helped layer her character because " you 're just so suspicious of her , instantly . " The similarities between the appearances and mannerisms of Vickers and David were intended to raise the possibility that David was based on Vickers 's DNA , or that Vickers is an android herself . After Theron was cast in the role , she developed three new scenes with Scott and Lindelof to expand her character . Physical action scenes , some of which involved her running through sand in 30 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) boots were a problem for Theron . It was intended that Theron would portray Shaw , but a prior commitment to Mad Max : Fury Road prevented her involvement . When that film was delayed , she was able to rejoin Prometheus . Michelle Yeoh and Angelina Jolie were considered for the role .
Idris Elba as Janek :
Janek is the captain of the Prometheus . Elba described the character as " a longshoreman and a sailor " , with a military background . He said , " [ being the captain is ] his life and the crew is his responsibility , " and " he 's a realistic , pragmatic character . He has to get involved ... in a film with huge ideas , you need a character like this , who can go ' Wait ... why are we doing this ? ' " .
Guy Pearce as Peter Weyland :
Weyland is the billionaire founder and CEO of Weyland Corp. Lindelof described him as having a massive ego and suffering from a god complex . Applying the necessary prosthetics and make @-@ up to transform Pearce into the elderly Weyland took five hours , and an hour to remove it . Pearce observed old people to gain insight into the movement for his character , as he found replicating the impeded physical movement the most difficult part of the role . Max von Sydow was Scott 's original choice to play Weyland , but the casting of Pearce made it possible for him to portray Weyland as both an elderly character , and a younger man who appeared in an earlier script draft .
Logan Marshall @-@ Green as Charlie Holloway :
Holloway is an archaeologist and Shaw 's love interest . Marshall @-@ Green was cast after he was seen performing on stage " off @-@ off @-@ off Broadway " . He described Holloway as the " X Games @-@ type scientist " , and said that he liked the character 's " leap @-@ before @-@ looking " philosophy . He also said that Holloway " doesn 't want to meet his maker . He wants to stand next to his maker . He 's willing to go to the edge to get that . " Describing the character 's motivation , he said : " he goes to the extreme in everything he does , sometimes for the better , sometimes for the worse of the [ Prometheus crew ] . I think what drives him is the thrill of the search . " Marshall @-@ Green contrasted Holloway with Shaw , and said : " she 's the believer . I 'm the scientist . I 'm the skeptic . I 'm the atheist " .
Sean Harris portrays Fifield , a geologist who has become mentally unstable after many missions . Harris described the character as " someone who can sense when things are up . He 's your audience guy , going , ' Don 't go in that tunnel . We should not be doing this ! ' " Fifield 's bright red mohawk hairstyle was designed by Harris and Scott , based on Scott 's sketch of a man with a " severe haircut " . Rafe Spall portrays Millburn , a biologist . Spall auditioned for another role , but Scott wanted him to play Millburn . On his casting , Spall said " Alien is one of the best films ever made , and it 's a real buzz to be in a space suit on an Alien set with Ridley Scott coming and speaking to you . It 's incredible . That 's why I wanted to be an actor , to be in a space suit on an Alien set " .
Other cast members include Kate Dickie as the ship 's medic , Ford ; Emun Elliott and Benedict Wong as , respectively , ship pilots Chance and Ravel ; and Patrick Wilson as Shaw 's father . Ian Whyte and Daniel James portray Engineers .
= = Themes = =
The central theme in Prometheus concerns the eponymous Titan of Greek mythology who defies the gods and gifts humanity with fire , for which he is subjected to eternal punishment . The gods want to limit their creations in case they attempt to usurp the gods . The film deals with humanity 's relationship with the gods — their creators — and the consequence of defying them . A human expedition intends to find God and receive knowledge about belief , immortality and death . They find superior beings who appear god @-@ like in comparison to humanity , and the Prometheus crew suffer consequences for their pursuit . Shaw is directly responsible for the events of the plot because she wants her religious beliefs affirmed , and believes she is entitled to answers from God ; her questions remain unanswered and she is punished for her hubris . The film offers similar resolution , providing items of information but leaving the connections and conclusions to the audience , potentially leaving the question unanswered . Further religious allusions are implied by the Engineers ' decision to punish humanity with destruction 2 @,@ 000 years before the events of the film . Scott suggested that an Engineer was sent to Earth to stop humanity 's increasing aggression , but was crucified , implying it was Jesus Christ . However , Scott felt that an explicit connection in the film would be " a little too on the nose . "
Artificial intelligence , a unifying theme throughout Scott 's career as a director , is particularly evident in Prometheus , primarily through the android David . David , the android , is like humans but does not want to be like them , eschewing a common theme in " robotic storytelling " such as Blade Runner . David is created in the image of humanity , and while the human crew of the Prometheus ship searches for their creators expecting answers , David exists among his human creators yet is underwhelmed ; he questions his creators about why they are seeking their own . Lindelof described the ship as a prison for David . At the conclusion of the film , David 's creator ( Weyland ) is dead and his fundamental programming will end without someone to serve . Lindelof explained that David 's programming becomes unclear and that he could be programmed by Shaw or his own sense of curiosity . Following Weyland 's death , David is left with Shaw , and is sincere and interested in following her , partly out of survival and partly out of curiosity .
Another theme is creation and the question of " Who Am I ? Who Made Me ? Why Hast Thou Forsaken Me ? " Development of the in @-@ universe mythology explored the Judeo @-@ Christian creation of man , but Scott was interested in Greco @-@ Roman and Aztec creation myths about gods who create man in their own image by sacrificing a piece of themselves . This creation is shown in the film 's opening in which an Engineer sacrifices itself after consuming the dark liquid , acting as a " gardener in space " to bring life to a world . One of their expeditions creates humanity , who create artificial life ( David ) in their own image . David then introduces the dark liquid to Holloway who impregnates a sterile Shaw , and the resulting child impregnates an Engineer , creating the child of all three generations . Scott likened the Engineers to the dark angels of John Milton 's Paradise Lost , and said that humanity was their offspring and not God 's .
Shaw is the only religious believer in the crew and openly displays her religious belief with a necklace of a Christian cross . Lindelof said that with her scientific knowledge , her beliefs felt outdated in 2093 . Shaw is excited when she learns that she was created by the Engineers and not a supernatural deity , but it does not cause her to lose her faith , it reinforces it . Lindelof said that asking questions and searching for meaning is the point of being alive , and so the audience is left to question whether Shaw was protected by God because of her faith . Scott wanted the film to end with Shaw 's declaration that she is still searching for definitive answers . In addition to the religious themes , Lindelof said that Prometheus is pro @-@ science and explores whether scientific knowledge and faith in God can co @-@ exist .
Beside drawing several influences from Paradise Lost , The Atlantic 's Govindini Murty noted further influences , and wrote that " [ t ] he striking images Ridley Scott devises for Prometheus reference everything from Stanley Kubrick 's 2001 to Leonardo da Vinci 's Vitruvian Man and Mario Bava 's Planet of the Vampires . Scott also expands on the original Alien universe by creating a distinctly English mythology informed by Milton 's Paradise Lost and the symbolic drawings of William Blake . "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Development on a fifth film in the Alien franchise was in progress by 2002 . Scott considered returning to the series he created with his 1979 science fiction horror film Alien , to pursue a sequel that would explore the engineered origins of the series 's Alien creatures , and the " space jockey " — the extraterrestrial being , who briefly appears in Alien , as the deceased pilot of a derelict spaceship . Alien star Sigourney Weaver also expressed interest in returning to the series . Aliens director James Cameron discussed the potential for a sequel with Scott , and began working with another writer on a story for the film . It was then that 20th Century Fox approached Cameron with a script for a crossover film that would pit the series 's monsters against the title characters of the Predator films ; this project became the 2004 science fiction film Alien vs. Predator . After Fox confirmed that it would pursue the crossover , Cameron stopped working on his own project , believing the crossover would " kill the validity of the franchise . " In 2006 , Cameron confirmed that he would not return to the Alien sequel project , believing that the series was Fox 's asset , and he was unwilling to deal with the studio 's attempts to influence the potential sequel .
In May 2009 , Fox said that the project was a " reboot " of the Alien franchise , and soon afterwards was reported as an untitled prequel to Alien . Development stopped in June 2009 when Fox clashed with Scott over his selection of former television advertisement director Carl Erik Rinsch as director . Fox was only interested in pursuing the project if Scott directed . By July 2009 , Scott was contracted to direct the film , and screenwriter Jon Spaihts was hired to write the script based on his pitched idea for a direct Alien prequel . With the director and writer in place , and pleased with Spaihts 's pitch , Fox scheduled a release date for December 2011 , but this was eventually canceled . In June 2010 , Scott announced that the script was complete and that pre @-@ production would begin , and a filming date was set for January 2011 . Fox eventually pushed to develop the project into an original work , and by July 2010 , Lindelof had been hired to redevelop Spaihts 's screenplay . In October 2010 , Lindelof submitted his rewritten screenplay to Fox . Scott had initially requested a $ 250 million budget and an adult oriented project , but Fox was reluctant to invest this amount of money , and wanted to ensure the film would receive a lower age @-@ rating to broaden the potential audience .
In December 2010 , it was reported that the film would be called Paradise , named after John Milton 's poem Paradise Lost , but Scott considered that this would convey too much information about the film . Fox CEO Thomas Rothman suggested Prometheus , which was confirmed as the title in January 2011 . A release date was scheduled for March 9 , 2012 , but weeks later the release was postponed until June 8 , 2012 . With the name confirmed , the production team began to publicly distance the film from its Alien origins , and were deliberately vague about the connection between the films , believing it would build audience anticipation for Prometheus . Scott stated that " while Alien was indeed the jumping @-@ off point for this project , out of the creative process evolved a new , grand mythology and universe in which this original story takes place . The keen fan will recognize strands of Alien 's DNA , so to speak , but the ideas tackled in this film are unique , large and provocative . " In June 2011 , Scott and Lindelof confirmed that Prometheus takes place in the same universe as the events of the Alien series . In July 2011 , Scott stated that " by the end of the third act you start to realize there 's a DNA of the very first Alien , but none of the subsequent [ films ] . "
= = = Writing = = =
Spaihts met Scott in late 2009 and they discussed Scott 's desire to pursue an Alien prequel . Spaihts offered his concept , including a " bridge " that would connect the story of the film 's human characters to the Alien saga . Spaihts was quickly hired , which he credited to the reception of his " bridge " idea . Spaihts claimed he created the concept spontaneously , without preconception . Spaihts wrote a 20 @-@ page " extremely detailed outline " ; within three and a half weeks he had completed his first draft , and he submitted it to the producers on Christmas Day , 2009 . Within 12 hours , Scott returned the script with notes for changes , and Spaihts spent the Christmas holiday redrafting .
Spaihts was tasked with exploring unresolved mysteries from Alien , such as the Space Jockey . He considered the mysteries of Alien to be alien in nature , and said , " all the mysteries have alien players : the exoskeleton nightmare and ... the elephantine titan that was called the ' space jockey ' ... How do you make anyone care about events between creatures like this ? " His solution was to link the alien mysteries to the past and future of humanity . He said : " if that story is somehow ours , and deeply enmeshed with the human story . That story changes meaning within our own life , things of such significance that we think of our own lives differently . " Spaihts found translating Scott 's stylistic visual concepts to text difficult , and he periodically constrained some of Scott 's ideas . He reminded Scott that in the scene they were discussing , the characters were subject to gravity and so could not simply float . By April 2010 , the script was on the fourth draft . Scott said about the script , " we are talking about gods and engineers . Engineers of space . And were the aliens designed as a form of biological warfare ? Or biology that would go in and clean up a planet ? " In June 2010 , Scott announced that the script was complete and ready for filming .
However , Scott instead contacted Lindelof and asked him to review Spaihts 's script . Within the hour , a messenger delivered the script to Lindelof and informed him that he would wait outside to return it as soon as Lindelof had finished reading it . Lindelof was unaware of what Scott and the producers liked about the existing script , and informed them that he found the general concept appealing , but that the story relied too heavily on elements of the Alien films , such as the Alien creatures ' life @-@ cycle . As a direct prequel to Alien , it was focused on leading into that film 's story , and recreating the familiar cues of that series , and Scott wanted to avoid repeating his previous accomplishments . Lindelof said , " If the ending to [ Prometheus ] is just going to be the room that John Hurt walks into that 's full of [ alien ] eggs [ in Alien ] , there 's nothing interesting in that , because we know where it 's going to end . Good stories , you don 't know where they 're going to end . " " A true prequel should essentially precede the events of the original film , but be about something entirely different , feature different characters , have an entirely different theme , although it takes place in that same world . "
Lindelof said that the other parts of the script were strong enough to survive without the Alien hallmarks , such as the Alien creature , which he believed had been diluted by the exposure it had received . He said , " [ The producers ] were just looking for someone to say to them , Hey , we don 't need the Alien stuff in here . It shouldn 't be about that . It can be a part of this movie , but it shouldn 't be what it 's about . " Lindelof said that the film could instead run parallel to the Alien series , and that a sequel would be Prometheus 2 and not Alien , and submitted an idea for how such a sequel could work . Lindelof met with the producers the following morning , and was hired shortly afterwards in late 2010 . Under Lindelof , the script diverged from Spaihts 's Alien prequel into an original creation . Scott and Lindelof worked together five days a week between July and August 2010 to construct the vision Scott wanted to convey and decide what script changes were needed , including scaling back the Alien symbolism and tropes . In August and September 2010 , Lindelof spent almost five weeks writing his first draft , which he submitted in mid @-@ September 2010 . Inspired by Blade Runner and Spaihts 's script , Lindelof thought that it would be possible to combine an Alien story of action and horror with " the Blade Runner thematic , " to ask bigger questions than he felt were normally posed in science fiction films . Lindelof said ,
Blade Runner might not have done well [ financially ] when it first came out , but people are still talking about it because it was infused with all these big ideas . [ Scott ] was also talking about very big themes in Prometheus . It was being driven by people who wanted the answers to huge questions . But I thought that we could do that without ever getting too pretentious . Nobody wants to see a movie where people are floating in space talking about the meaning of life ... That was already present in [ Spaihts 's ] original script and [ Scott ] just wanted to bring it up more .
Scott 's story concept was partially inspired by Chariots of the Gods ? , Erich von Däniken 's work about the theory of ancient astronauts which hypothesizes that life on Earth was created by aliens . Scott said , " NASA and the Vatican agree that [ it is ] almost mathematically impossible that we can be where we are today without there being a little help along the way ... That 's what we 're looking at [ in the film ] , at some of Erich von Däniken 's ideas of how did we humans come about . " Spaihts originated the idea that David , the android , is like humans but does not want to be anything like them , eschewing a common theme in " robotic storytelling " such as Blade Runner . He also developed the theme that while the human crew are searching for their creators , David is already among its creators . Scott liked these ideas and further explored them in Lindelof 's rewrite . For Shaw , Lindelof felt it was important that she was distinct from Alien 's Ripley , to avoid inevitable comparisons between the two characters . In Spaihts 's draft , Shaw was directly responsible for the events of the plot because she wants to seek out potentially dangerous knowledge . As with David , Lindelof expanded this facet of the character during his rewrites . He spent approximately eight months developing the script , finishing in March 2011 as filming began .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Pre @-@ production began in April 2010 . A team developed graphic designs for the film . Scott convinced Fox to invest millions of dollars to hire scientists and conceptual artists to develop a vision of the late 21st century . The production of Prometheus was marked by a high degree of secrecy and story details were kept " extremely under @-@ wraps . " Ridley Scott was determined to maintain the secrecy of the plot , and he required the cast to sign clauses to prevent them disclosing story details , and the cast were only allowed to read the script under supervision in Scott 's production office . One exception was made when a courier flew to one actor outside the US , and then stood guard while the actor read the script . Scott said , " I was insistent that the script not leak onto the internet , where it gets dissected out of context , which spoils it for everyone . "
In July 2011 , Lindelof said that the film would rely upon practical effects , and would use CGI generally for on @-@ set pre @-@ visualization of external space visuals . Scott said that " you can pretty much do anything you want " with digital technology , and , " Doug Trumbull once said to me ' If you can do it live , do it live . ' That was 29 years ago . Even though we have remarkable digital capabilities I still say do it live . It 's cheaper . " Cinematographer Dariusz Wolski convinced Scott that it would be possible to film in 3D with the same ease and efficiency of 2D filming . 3D company 3ality Technica provided some of the rigs and equipment to facilitate 3D filming , and trained the film 's crew in their proper operation . According to Scott , the decision to film in 3D added $ 10 million to the film 's budget . Since 3D films need high lighting levels on set , the hallmark dark and shadowy atmosphere of the Alien films was added in post @-@ production using color grading processes , and the 3D equipment was based on post @-@ Avatar technology .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Principal photography began on March 21 , 2011 , lasted 82 days , and had an estimated $ 120 – 130 million budget . Filming began at Shepperton Studios and Pinewood Studios in England . Scott used eight sound stages for filming , including the 007 Stage . Studio space was limited and the crew had to make five stages work for approximately 16 sets , and increased the size of the 007 stage by over 30 % .
Exterior shots of the alien world were shot in Iceland , where filming occurred for two weeks . It commenced on July 11 , 2011 , at the base of Hekla , an active volcano in southern Iceland . Speaking about working at the volcano , Scott said , " If one is afraid of nature in this profession then it would be best to find a different job " . Filming also took place at Dettifoss , one of the most powerful waterfalls in Europe . The Iceland shoot involved 160 Icelandic crew members and over 200 imported crew . Scott said that the filming in Iceland comprised approximately fifteen minutes of footage for the film , and that the area represented the beginning of time . Morocco had been chosen as a location for these scenes , but the 2010 Arab Spring protests forced the change of venue . Alternatives including the Mojave Desert had been considered , but Scott explained that Iceland was ultimately chosen because " here it is so rough and ' Jurassic @-@ like ' and that proved decisive " .
In September 2011 , filming moved to the Ciudad de la Luz audiovisual complex in Alicante , Spain . Shooting areas included the complex 's large water tank , and a nearby beach . The complex was booked from August 22 , 2011 , through to December 10 , 2011 , and set construction occurred from August until late September . Approximately 250 people worked on the three @-@ month @-@ long Spain shoot , generating over € 1 million in the local economy . Filming also took place in the Wadi Rum valley in Jordan .
Scott avoided using green screens unless necessary . Instead , he used various items so the actors would know where they should be looking in any particular scene on the practical sets where CGI elements would be inserted in post @-@ production . Rapace said that green screens were used fewer than six times during filming . The production used five 3ality Technical Atom 3D rigs , four of which were configured with Red Epic 3D cameras set on camera dollies and tripods , which were continuously in use during filming . The fifth rig used an Epic camera as a steadicam , which was used only occasionally .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Scott focused on using the 3D footage to increase the illusion of depth . Despite this being his first 3D film he found the process easy . He said , " You can literally twiddle a knob and the depth will increase " , and , " the trick is not to overdo it " . In December 2011 , Rapace undertook additional dialogue recordings for the film . Additional pick @-@ up scenes were filmed during January 2012 , including a one @-@ day shoot on the Isle of Skye , Scotland , and a new scene shot at a cave in the Scottish mountains . For dark scenes , the film was color graded to specifically compensate for the light loss of 3D glasses , to ensure the image was comparable to the 2D version .
In July 2011 , Scott said that he was filming Prometheus with both adult @-@ oriented R and more accessible PG @-@ 13 film ratings in mind , allowing the more adult content to be cut if necessary without harming the overall presentation . Scott said he had a responsibility to 20th Century Fox to be able to present a PG @-@ 13 cut of the film if the studio demanded , allowing it to be viewed by a wider potential audience . When asked about the rating , Scott said , " the question is , do you go for the PG @-@ 13 , or do you go for what it should be , which is R ? Financially it makes quite a difference ... essentially it 's kinda R ... it 's not just about blood , it 's about ideas that are very stressful . " Scott also said that , regardless of rating , he would present the most aggressive cut of the film he could , while Rothman said that Scott would not be forced to compromise the film 's quality to avoid an R @-@ rating . On May 7 , 2012 , Fox confirmed that the film had received an R @-@ rating and would be released without any cuts being made . According to Scott , the scene of Shaw surgically removing her alien offspring was the significant cause of the restrictive rating , and it was suggested that removing the scene entirely would be the only way to gain a lower one . A fight scene between Shaw and the Engineer was shortened because Scott decided that Shaw directly wounding the Engineer diminished his role . Scott concluded work on the film in March 2012 .
= = = Music = = =
Marc Streitenfeld , who had worked with Scott on earlier projects , composed the musical score for Prometheus . It took just over a week to record with a 90 @-@ piece orchestra at Abbey Road Studios in London , England . Streitenfeld began writing ideas for the score after reading the script before filming commenced . He used some unusual techniques to compose the score , and said , " I actually wrote out the sheet music backwards so the orchestra played it backwards and then I digitally flipped it . So you 're hearing the score as it 's written , the same melody , but with a backwards sounding orchestra which gives it a kind of unusual , unsettling sound . " The Prometheus ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) album was released on iTunes on May 15 , 2012 , and on CD on June 4 , 2012 . It features 23 tracks by Streitenfeld and two supplemental tracks by Harry Gregson @-@ Williams . Frédéric Chopin 's " Raindrop prelude " ( 1838 ) is also featured in the film .
= = Design = =
Production designer Arthur Max led the film 's design staff . His art team were tasked with deconstructing the art and visuals of Alien , and reverse @-@ designing them for the chronologically earlier setting of Prometheus . Influence was drawn from the work of Alien creature designer H. R. Giger , and designers Ron Cobb and Chris Foss , including their designs for that film which Scott had been unable to develop at the time .
= = = Costumes and sound = = =
For the crew 's space suits , Scott was inspired to include spherical glass helmets after reading a story in Steve Jobs ' biography about building an office out of Gorilla Glass . Scott said , " If I 'm in 2083 and I 'm going into space , why would I design a helmet that has blind spots . What I want is something where I have 360 [ vision ] . Glass , by then , will be light and you won 't be able to break it with a bullet . " The interior of the prop helmets had nine functioning video screens , internal lighting , an air supply provided by two fans , and battery packs concealed within a backpack . The helmet 's exterior featured a functional light source and high definition video cameras with a transmitter and recorder . For the suit itself , Scott wanted to avoid the unwieldy NASA @-@ style suit . His frequent collaborator , Janty Yates , used medical research concepts relating to skin replacement treatments and materials to develop a garment that would be believable , flexible and comfortable . The outfit comprised a neoprene suit worn under an outer space suit , a base to which the helmet could be attached , and a backpack .
Aboard the ship , Yates gave the characters their own distinct looks . Theron is dressed in an ice @-@ silver , silk mohair suit . Yates said , " [ Theron ] is the ice queen . It was always our vision to make her look as sculptural as possible " . Fassbender 's David is dressed similarly to other crew members , but his outfit was given finer lines to produce a more linear appearance . To create a casual , relaxed appearance , Marshall @-@ Green 's Holloway was dressed in hoodies , fisherman pants , and flip @-@ flops , while Elba wore a canvas @-@ greased jacket to represent his long career at the helm of a ship .
Sound effects were generated with a variety of sources including Pop Rocks — a brand of popping candy — and a parrot . The glistening ice forming on the stone cylinders discovered in the film was created by applying the popping candy to materials such as wet metal and stone that was then sprayed with water to produce the " popping , cracking " sound . Sound designer Ann Scibelli 's parrot was recorded over several weeks to document her variety of vocalizations which were then used as beeps , alarms and the cries of Shaw 's alien offspring .
= = = Sets and vehicles = = =
Arthur Max designed the sets such as the alien world landscape and structures , and the vehicles , including the Prometheus and the Engineer 's ship . Digital 3D models and miniature replicas of each set were built to allow the designers to envisage the connections between them and to know where the CGI elements would be inserted . To better blend the practical and the digital , the design team took rock samples from the Iceland location so they could match the graphical textures with the real rocks . To create the Prometheus , Max researched NASA and European Space Agency spacecraft designs , and extended these concepts with his own ideas of how future space vehicles might look . He said that he wanted " to do something that was state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art , which would represent a flagship spacecraft with every technology required to probe into the deepest corners of the galaxy . "
The interior of the Prometheus was built across a two @-@ level structure , fronted by a large , faceted , wrap around windscreen . Theron 's quarters were designed to represent her high status in the crew , and were furnished with modern and futuristic items , including Swarovski chandeliers and a Fazioli piano . The ship 's garage was built on the backlot of Pinewood Studios in England . The vehicles inside were built in 11 weeks and were designed to operate on difficult terrain while having a futuristic aesthetic . Max created a large pyramid structure for the alien world , which had its main interior areas connected by a series of chambers , corridors , and tunnels ; it was so large that some members of the film crew became lost inside it . The pyramid was enhanced in post @-@ production to further increase its size . One of the key sets , the chamber where the crew find the humanoid @-@ head statue , was designed to resemble the interior of a cathedral and convey a quasi @-@ religious impression . Giger designed the murals that appear within the chamber .
For the scene of the Prometheus ' descent to the alien moon LV @-@ 223 , visual effects art director Steven Messing referenced NASA imagery , including vortex cloud structures . He also used aerial photographs of locations in Iceland and Wadi Rum shot by VFX supervisor Richard Stammers and his team . Messing painted over these images and combined them with 3D set extensions to create a realistic altered landscape . Scott wanted the ship 's descent scenes to have a sense of grandeur to contrast the dark and shrouded descent featured in Alien . Much of LV @-@ 223s world was based upon the world visited in Alien , but scaled back as Scott felt some elements were too unrealistic . Other influences were the Martian mountain Olympus Mons and several large mountain structures on Earth . NASA advisers provided concepts for the aesthetics of alien worlds which were incorporated into the design work . MPC developed a digital representation of Wadi Rum using the design material , modified it to locate the alien pyramid and a landing area for the Prometheus , and resized the planet 's natural features relative to the alien structures .
= = = Creature effects = = =
Neal Scanlan and Conor O 'Sullivan developed the film 's alien creatures , aiming to convey that each creature has a logical biological function and purpose . Scanlan said that much of Scott 's inspiration for creature design is drawn from natural life , such as plants and sea creatures . Creature designer Carlos Huante chose to make the creature designs pale to contrast the black @-@ toned , Giger @-@ influenced aesthetic of Alien . Huante designed them to be white and embryonic because the events in the film occur before Giger 's influence had taken effect . Huante took influences from references Scott was using to design the pale @-@ skinned Engineers . Huante also referenced other Giger works , national monuments , large sculptures , and the Crazy Horse Memorial statue in South Dakota . Part of Huante 's early design work included developing precursors to Alien 's Facehugger , and a primitive Alien creature , but these were cut from the final release . When designing the Engineers , Scott and Huante referenced paintings by William Blake and J. M. W. Turner , and classical sculptures . Scott wanted the Engineers to resemble Greco @-@ Roman gods , and instructed designer Neville Page to reference the Statue of Liberty , Michelangelo 's David , and Elvis Presley . The 8 @-@ foot tall , humanoid Engineers were created by applying bulky , full @-@ body prosthetics to the actors , whose facial features were diminished by the material , and were later digitally enhanced to preserve the " godlike " physical perfection . Scott described the Engineers as tall , elegant " dark angels " .
The snake @-@ like alien dubbed the " Hammerpede " was given life through a mixture of CGI and practical effects , and the wires controlling the practical puppet were digitally removed . For a scene in which the Hammerpede is decapitated , the VFX team digitally animated and inserted the spontaneous growth of a replacement head . During the scene in which the Hammerpede erupts from Spall 's character 's corpse , Scott controlled the puppet using wires . Scott did not inform Dickie about what was to occur in the scene and her screaming reaction was real . The creature 's design was partially inspired by translucent sea creatures with visible arteries , veins , and organs beneath the skin 's surface , and cobras . The designers gave the creature a smooth , muscular , and powerful appearance . Early designs of the " Trilobite " , the tentacled offspring cut from Shaw , resembled an octopus or squid . Page redeveloped this creature as an embryo in an early state of development , with tentacles that began fused together and would gradually split , creating new tentacles , as the creature developed . The practical creature was a remotely operated animatronic creation with a silicone skin .
The mutated Fifield effects were achieved mainly through the use of make @-@ up and prosthetics . Due to concerns that the practical effects would be unsatisfactory , the filmmakers completed an alternative version of the sequence , in which Fifield was rendered as " a digital character with elongated limbs and an engorged , translucent head , incorporating a semblance of Harris 's face " . Three other variations of the mutated Fifield were modeled , but these were rejected as being too inhuman .
For its grown form , the " Adult Trilobite " , Max found inspiration from an arthropod @-@ like creature from Earth 's Cambrian period , and the alien octopus in Jean Giraud 's illustrations for the comic strip The Long Tomorrow . Further inspiration came after Max found a formaldehyde @-@ preserved giant squid , an image which met with Scott 's approval . The film 's last @-@ unveiled creature , the " Deacon " , was named by Scott for its long , pointed head that he considered resembled a bishop 's mitre . Scanlan aimed to represent the creature 's genetic lineage , beginning with Shaw and Holloway who produce the Trilobite which impregnates the Engineer , in its design . However , they focused on making the creature feminine , and said that " it was born of a female before being born of a male . " Messing drew inspiration for the Deacon 's birth scene from the birth of foals , and created an iridescent appearance for its skin , based on the equine placenta . The Deacon 's protruding jaw was inspired by the goblin shark .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Prometheus contains approximately 1 @,@ 300 digital effect shots . The main effects studio was Moving Picture Company ( MPC ) , which produced 420 of the shots . Several other studios , including Weta Digital , Fuel VFX , Rising Sun Pictures , Luma Pictures , Lola Visual Effects , and Hammerhead Productions , also produced effects shots for the film .
The creation of life from the disintegration of an Engineer in the film 's opening scene was created by WETA Digital . The scene was difficult to produce because it had to convey the story of the Engineer 's DNA breaking apart , reforming and recombining into Earth DNA in a limited span of time . The team focused on making the DNA stages distinct to convey its changing nature . Scott requested the studio to focus on the destruction occurring within the Engineer . A light color scheme was used for the Engineer 's DNA and decayed fish spines were used as an image reference , while the infected DNA had a melted appearance . To find methods of depicting the DNA destruction , the team carved vein @-@ like structures from silicone and pumped black ink and oils into them while filming the changes occurring over an extended period of time .
A key scene involving a large 3D hologram star map , dubbed the Orrery , was inspired by the 1766 Joseph Wright painting A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery , in which a scientist displays a mechanical planetarium by candlelight . While discussing the necessity of a star map with Spaihts , Scott mentioned that he envisaged a physical representation being similar to the painting , although he was unaware of its title and described it as " circles in circles with a candle lit image " . Using Scott 's description , Spaihts located an image of the painting . Spaihts said , " making the leap from a star map , to an Enlightenment painting , and then back into the far future . [ Scott 's ] mind just multiplexes in that way " . The Orrery was one of the most complex visual effects , contained 80 – 100 million polygons , and took several weeks to render as a single , complete shot .
= = Marketing = =
Prometheus ' marketing campaign began on July 21 , 2011 at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , where images and footage from the film were presented by Lindelof and Theron ; Scott and Rapace participated via satellite contribution . A segment of the footage showed Theron performing naked push @-@ ups , which attracted much attention . A teaser poster was released on December 14 , 2011 , with the tagline , " The search for our beginning could lead to our end . " A bootleg recording of an incomplete trailer was leaked online on November 27 , 2011 , but was swiftly taken down by Fox . The trailer was released on December 22 , 2011 .
On March 17 , 2012 , Scott , in partnership with AMC Theaters , hosted the premiere of the first full Prometheus trailer at the AMC Downtown Disney during WonderCon in Anaheim , California . The event was streamed live via Facebook , Twitter , and the AMC Theater website , and the trailer was posted on AMC 's YouTube channel immediately after its debut . Reactions to the trailer from WonderCon attendees , and on Twitter , were generally positive , and it received nearly three million views in the three days following its release . On April 10 , 2012 , media outlets were shown a 13 @-@ minute montage of scenes in 3D from the film 's opening at the Vue Cinema in Leicester Square , London . The screening , and in particular the 3D visuals and the performances of Fassbender , Rapace , Theron , and Elba , was well received .
On April 29 , 2012 , the international launch trailer debuted in the United Kingdom on Channel 4 during the first advertisement break of the TV show Homeland . Viewers were encouraged to share their opinions about the trailer on Twitter , some of which were then shared in a live broadcast during a later break . This was the first time that viewers ' tweets were used in a broadcast advertisement . A competition , offering viewers a chance to win tickets to the film whenever the social platform Zeebox detected the advertisement airing , was launched on that site . On May 8 , 2012 , the advertisement became the subject of an investigation by the British broadcasting regulatory body Ofcom for allegedly breaching broadcast rules when a voiceover encouraged viewers to book tickets during the advertisement with the Channel 4 logo onscreen . The broadcast potentially broke a ruling that advertising and teleshopping must be clearly distinguishable from editorial content .
Although marketers typically avoid promoting adult @-@ oriented films to reach a broader demographic , the film attracted several promotional partners including Coors , Amazon , and Verizon FiOS , which were estimated to have spent $ 30 million in marketing support . Amazon directed interested users to purchase tickets through Fandango , and placed promotional material in products shipped to customers ; this was the first time that Amazon had allowed such marketing by an external company . The premiere in London was streamed live via the film 's website and the Verizon FiOS Facebook page . The event was facilitated by BumeBox , which took audience questions from social sites and gave them to reporters to ask at the event . The National Entertainment Collectibles Association ( NECA ) released a series of Prometheus action figures in September 2012 . A book , Prometheus : The Art of the Film , containing production art and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes photographs , was released on June 12 , 2012 .
= = = Viral campaign = = =
A viral marketing campaign began on February 28 , 2012 , with the release of a video featuring a speech by Pearce , in character as Peter Weyland , about his vision for the future . Set in 2023 , the video presents a futuristic vision of a TED conference , an annual technology and design event held in Long Beach , California . The segment was conceived and designed by Scott and Lindelof , and directed by Scott 's son , Luke . The production was made in collaboration with , and made available through TED because Lindelof wanted to introduce new audiences to the conference itself . Lindelof said that the scene takes place in a futuristic stadium because " a guy like Peter Weyland — whose ego is just massive , and the ideas that he 's advancing are nothing short of hubris — that he 'd basically say to TED , ' If you want me to give a talk , I 'm giving it in Wembley Stadium . ' "
TED community director Tom Rielly helped the film 's producers gain approval for the use of the TED brand , which had not previously been used for promotional purposes . Rielly was involved in designing the 2023 conference , and said that the association generated millions of unique visits to the TED website . The video 's release was accompanied by a fictional TED blog about the 2023 conference and a tie @-@ in website for the fictional Weyland Corporation . On March 6 , 2012 , the Weyland website was updated to allow visitors to invest in the company as part of a game , which would reveal new Prometheus media .
During the 2012 WonderCon , attendees at the film 's panel were given Weyland Corporation business cards that directed them to a website and telephone number . After calling the number , the caller was sent a text message from Weyland Corporation that linked them to a video that was presented as an advertisement for the " David 8 " android , narrated by Fassbender . An extended version of the video , released on April 17 , 2012 , lists the android 's features , including its ability to seamlessly replicate human emotions without the restrictions of ethics or distress . A full page " David 8 " advertisement was placed in The Wall Street Journal ; a Twitter account operated by a David8 , that allowed Twitter users to ask the character questions , was included . A partnership with Verizon FiOS was launched , offering a virtual tour of the Prometheus spaceship . Another video , " Quiet Eye " , starring Rapace as Shaw , was released on May 16 , 2012 , and debuted on the Verizon FIOS Facebook page . In a telephone call monitored by Yutani , a fictional company from the Alien series , Shaw requests Weyland 's aid to seek out alien life . In France , the Saint @-@ Martin ghost train station was converted to resemble alien architecture from the film , and was visible to passing commuters . The campaign continued after the film 's release with a website that was listed during the film 's end credits . The site referenced the philosophical novel Thus Spoke Zarathustra by Friedrich Nietzsche , and featured a video of Weyland , who quotes from the book . Another video followed in September 2012 , featuring Elba 's Captain Janek preparing for a mission .
At the May 2012 Digital Hollywood conference , Lindelof said that the videos originated from the question of the film 's status as an Alien prequel . It was decided that creating videos with the film 's stars would generate more interest than any commentary about its connection to the Alien films . He also said that the videos needed to be cool enough to justify their existence , but not so important that their absence from the final film would be an issue for audiences .
= = Release = =
The premiere of Prometheus took place on May 31 , 2012 , at the Empire cinema in Leicester Square , London . The film was released in the United Kingdom on June 1 , 2012 , and in North America on June 8 , 2012 . It was simultaneously released in IMAX theaters and in 3D , and it is encoded for D @-@ Box motion seats that provide physical feedback to the audience during the film .
= = = Pre @-@ release = = =
In the United Kingdom , approximately £ 1 million ( $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) of tickets were pre @-@ sold . 18 @,@ 827 tickets pre @-@ sold for the London IMAX , the largest IMAX screen in the country , which broke the theater records for the highest grossing week of pre @-@ sales with £ 293 @,@ 312 ( $ 474 @,@ 687 ) , and the highest grossing first day of pre @-@ sales with £ 137 @,@ 000 ( $ 221 @,@ 717 ) . It extended this record to 30 @,@ 000 tickets sold and £ 470 @,@ 977 ( $ 737 @,@ 588 ) earned , and become the most pre @-@ booked film at that theater , exceeding the performance of high @-@ profile IMAX releases including Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 2 and Avatar .
In North America , audience tracking showed high interest among males , but low among females . In the week before the film 's release , predictions were conflicted on whether Prometheus or Madagascar 3 : Europe 's Most Wanted ( the first family @-@ oriented film of the summer ) , which were released simultaneously , would reach number 1 for that weekend . On June 6 , 2012 , Fandango reported that with 42 % of daily sales Prometheus was beating Madagascar 3 . The online tracking for Prometheus surged with each additional promotional footage . Prometheus was predicted to earn approximately $ 30 million , and Madagascar 3 around $ 45 million . As the weekend approached , tracking suggested a $ 55 million debut for Madagascar 3 and $ 50 – $ 55 million for Prometheus . Prometheus was disadvantaged by Madagascar opening in 264 more theaters and its adult rating .
= = = Box office = = =
Prometheus was considered a financial success overall . After a strong start in North America , the film failed to meet the studio 's expectations , but it continued to perform strongly in other territories until the end of its theatrical run . Prometheus earned $ 126 @,@ 477 @,@ 084 ( 31 @.@ 4 % ) in North America and $ 276 @,@ 877 @,@ 385 ( 68 @.@ 6 % ) elsewhere for a worldwide total of $ 403 @,@ 354 @,@ 469 , making it the 15th highest grossing film of 2012 , and the 159th highest @-@ grossing film worldwide unadjusted for inflation .
Prometheus was released in 15 markets between May 30 and June 1 , 2012 — about a week before its North American release . The earlier start in these countries was timed to avoid competition with the start of the 2012 UEFA European Football Championship the following week . On its opening day , which varies depending on the country , it earned $ 3 @.@ 39 million in the United Kingdom , $ 2 @.@ 2 million in Russia , and $ 1 @.@ 5 million in France . The film earned $ 34 @.@ 8 million during its opening weekend from 4 @,@ 695 theaters in 15 markets , and debuted at number 1 in 14 of them , with an average of $ 7 @,@ 461 per theater . Its overall rank for the weekend was third behind Men in Black 3 and Snow White & the Huntsman . Its opening weekends in the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta ( $ 10 @.@ 1 million ) , Russia and the CIS ( $ 9 @.@ 80 million ) , and France and the Maghreb region ( $ 6 @.@ 68 million ) represented its largest takings . By June 8 , the film had opened in a total of 50 markets , and was also successful during its opening weekends in Australia ( $ 7 @.@ 2 million ) and South Korea ( $ 4 @.@ 2 million ) . During its late August opening in Japan , the film earned $ 9 @.@ 6 million .
In North America , Prometheus earned $ 3 @.@ 561 million in midnight showings at 1 @,@ 368 theaters , including $ 1 @.@ 03 million from 294 IMAX theaters , and went on to earn $ 21 @.@ 4 million through its opening day . During its opening weekend , the film earned $ 51 @.@ 05 million from 3 @,@ 396 theaters — an average of $ 15 @,@ 032 per theater — ranking second behind Madagascar 3 ( $ 60 @.@ 4 million ) , which made it the second largest opening for a film directed by Scott behind his 2001 thriller Hannibal , the third largest second @-@ place opening , the ninth largest opening for a prequel , and the tenth largest for an R @-@ rated film . The largest demographic of the opening weekend audience was over the age of 25 ( 64 % ) and male ( 57 % ) . 3D showings accounted for 54 % of ticket sales , while IMAX contributed 18 % — the majority of which was accounted for in the 3D figure . The film closed on September 20 , 2012 after 105 days ( 15 weeks ) in release with a total gross of $ 126 @.@ 4 million . The figure made it the number 43 highest grossing film to never finish a week as the number 1 film .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film garnered a 73 % approval rating from 273 critics — an average rating of 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 — on the review @-@ aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes , which said , " Ridley Scott 's ambitious quasi @-@ prequel to Alien may not answer all of its big questions , but it 's redeemed by its haunting visual grandeur and compelling performances — particularly Michael Fassbender as a fastidious android . " Metacritic provides a score of 65 out of 100 from 42 critics , which indicates " generally favorable " reviews . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a " B " on a scale of A + to F , with audience members under 25 rating it the highest at A- . Reviews frequently praised both the film 's visual aesthetic and design , and Fassbender 's performance as the android David received almost universal acclaim . However the plot drew a mixed response from critics , who criticized plot elements that remained unresolved or were predictable , tempered by appreciation for the action and horror set @-@ pieces .
The Hollywood Reporter 's Todd McCarthy called the film 's visuals vivid , stunning , and magnificent on a technical level , and praised the performances of Fassbender , Rapace , and Theron , but wrote that the film " caters too much to imagined audience expectations when a little more adventurous thought might have taken it to some excitingly unsuspected destinations . " Time Out London 's Tom Huddleston wrote that " the photography is pleasingly crisp and the design is stunning " , but that , " [ t ] he script feels flat ... the dialogue is lazy , while the plot , though crammed with striking concepts , simply fails to coalesce . After an enjoyable setup , the central act is baggy , confusing and , in places , slightly boring , while the climax has flash and fireworks but no real momentum . " Emanuel Levy wrote that the writing was his only complaint about the film , which , he said , " is not only uneven , but promises more original ideas and thematic provocations than it can possibly deliver . " Roger Ebert gave the film 4 out of 4 stars , labeling it a " seamless blend of story , special effects and pitch @-@ perfect casting , filmed in sane , effective 3 @-@ D that doesn 't distract . " Ebert wrote that Rapace 's performance " continues here the tradition of awesome feminine strength begun by Sigourney Weaver in Alien " , but considered that Elba 's Janek has the most interesting character evolution . Ebert thought that the plot raises questions and does not answer them , which made the film intriguing and parallel to the " classic tradition of golden age sci @-@ fi " . He later went on to name it as one of the best films of 2012 .
Total Film 's Jonathan Crocker wrote that the plot successfully integrated itself with Alien 's mythology while offering its own original ideas . Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum was positive towards the cast , particularly Rapace , and the cinematography . Salon 's Andrew O 'Hehir wrote that the film was " somber , spectacular and ponderous , " but that the " portentousness and grandiosity ... is at once the film 's great strength and great weakness " and criticized the characters for lacking common sense . O 'Hehir also mentioned Wolski 's cinematography and Max 's production design . The New York Times ' A. O. Scott criticized the story as weak , and argued that the narrative 's twists and reversals undermine its " lofty , mindblowing potential " . He said the film has no revelations , just " bits of momentarily surprising information bereft of meaning or resonance " , and that Rapace is a " fine heroine , vulnerable and determined " .
Variety film critic Justin Chang wrote that the film 's narrative structure was unable to handle the philosophical dimension of the plot , and that Prometheus was lazily deferring key plot points under the presumption that a sequel would be made . The Guardian 's Peter Bradshaw wrote that Prometheus was " more grandiose , more elaborate — but less interesting " than Alien , and lacked the latter 's " central killer punch " . Ian Nathan of Empire magazine was unimpressed by Rapace — whom he described as an unconvincing lead — and said that with " a lack of suspense , threadbare characters , and a very poor script , the stunning visuals , gloopy madness , and sterling Fassbenderiness can 't prevent Prometheus feeling like Alien 's poor relation . " The Village Voice 's Nick Pinkerton wrote that the film is " prone to shallow ponderousness " , and that Scott " can still mimic the appearance of an epic , noble , important movie — but the appearance is all . " He criticized Rapace and Marshall @-@ Green for failing to instill interest in their characters ' relationship , but added : " there are a few set pieces here that will find a place of honor among aficionados of body horror and all things clammy and viscous " .
James Cameron said : " I enjoyed Prometheus . I thought it was great . I thought it was Ridley returning to science fiction with gusto , with great tactical performance , beautiful photography , great native 3D . There might have been a few things that I would have done differently , but that 's not the point — you could say that about any movie . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
In North America , Prometheus DVD and Blu @-@ ray disc releases were listed for pre @-@ order in partnership with Amazon on June 1 , 2012 , a week before the film was released in theaters . A limited number of cinema tickets for the film were offered as a pre @-@ order incentive . In June 2012 , FX obtained the rights to the film 's network television premiere . On September 7 , 2012 , Fox announced that Prometheus would be the launch title of its new digital distribution initiative " Digital HD " . The film was released on September 18 , 2012 , three weeks prior to its DVD , Blu @-@ ray disc and Video on demand ( VOD ) release , for downloading and streaming through platforms including Amazon , iTunes , PlayStation Network and Xbox Live in over 50 countries . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray disc and DVD on October 9 , 2012 . The Blu @-@ ray disc edition of the film was released in a 2 @-@ disc set and a 4 @-@ disc " Collector 's Edition " . Both versions contain the theatrical cut of Prometheus , commentary by Scott , Lindelof and Spaihts , a DVD and digital copy of the film , alternate and deleted scenes , and other features . Additionally , the Collector 's Edition contains the 3D version of the film and approximately 7 hours of supplemental features including a documentary on the film 's production . On October 8 , 2012 , it was reported that Fox had requested an extended version of the film for home media , but Scott refused to edit cut scenes back into the theatrical version of the film , which he considered his director 's cut . During its first week of sale in the United Kingdom , Prometheus was the number 1 selling film on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc , outselling its nearest competitor by a factor of three .
= = Sequel = =
On March 17 , 2012 , Scott said that the film leaves many questions unanswered and that these could be answered in a sequel . He said , " If we 're lucky , there 'll be a second part . It does leave you with some nice open questions . " Asked whether a sequel would be a direct prequel to Alien , Lindelof said : " If we 're fortunate enough to do a sequel ... it will tangentialize even further away from the original Alien . " In June 2012 , Lindelof said that while plot elements were deliberately left unresolved so that they could be answered in a sequel , he and Scott had thoroughly discussed what should be resolved so that Prometheus could stand alone , as a sequel was not guaranteed . Scott said that a sequel would follow Shaw to her next destination , " because if it is paradise , paradise cannot be what you think it is . Paradise has a connotation of being extremely sinister and ominous . " Lindelof cast doubt on his participation , and said , " if [ Scott ] wants me to be involved in something , that would be hard to say no to . At the same time , I do feel like [ Prometheus ] might benefit from a fresh voice or a fresh take or a fresh thought . " Scott said that an additional film would be required to bridge the gap between the Prometheus sequel and Alien . Scott later stated it would take an additional two sequels to bridge the gap to Alien .
As of August 1 , 2012 , Fox was pursuing a sequel with Scott , Rapace , and Fassbender involved , and was talking to new writers in case Lindelof did not return . The film would be scheduled for a release no earlier than 2014 . In December 2012 , Lindelof had decided not to work on a sequel , citing other commitments . In June 2013 , Jack Paglen was in negotiations to write the sequel . In October 2013 , Scott confirmed that the script was complete , but in March 2014 , Michael Green was hired to rewrite Paglen 's script . In August 2015 , it was announced that production for the film would begin in January 2016 with Michael Fassbender and Noomi Rapace reprising their roles , and Scott directing . While at the Toronto Film Festival to promote his film The Martian , Scott stated that production on the film will begin in February 2016 . In September 2015 , Scott said that the title of the sequel will be Alien : Paradise Lost , an allusion to John Milton 's epic poem which may also suggest a deeper connection with the Alien franchise . In an interview with Empire , Scott said that the title change did not affect the film 's story and the film will have a connection to the character of Ellen Ripley .
In October 2015 , Deadline.com reported that Rebecca Ferguson is in negotiations for a role . In November 2015 , Scott announced that the film was retitled Alien : Covenant . In December 2015 , Deadline reports that actress Katherine Waterston was cast in the lead role of Daniels . Alien : Covenant will take place ten years after the events of Prometheus . Scott has stated that the sequel will be a hard R rating . In February 2016 , Danny McBride entered negotiations to join the film as a crew member of the Covenant ship. along with Demian Bichir , Jussie Smollett , Amy Seimetz , Carmen Ejogo , Callie Hernandez , Alex England and Billy Crudup joining the cast .
The film is currently scheduled for release on August 4 , 2017 .
= = Comics = =
In 2013 , a comic book series was announced by Dark Horse Comics that serves as a spin @-@ off to Prometheus . The series , titled Fire and Stone , is an Alien vs. Predator crossover featuring content exclusive to Prometheus . The first issue of Fire and Stone was released on September 10 , 2014 .
= Ned Williamson =
Edward Nagle " Ned " or " Ed " Williamson ( October 24 , 1857 – March 3 , 1894 ) was an American Major League Baseball player for 13 seasons from 1878 until 1890 . He played for three different teams : the Indianapolis Blues of the National League ( NL ) for one season , the Chicago White Stockings ( NL ) for 11 seasons , and the Chicago Pirates of the Players ' League for one season .
From 1883 and 1887 , Williamson held the single @-@ season record for both doubles and home runs . Although his record for doubles was surpassed in 1887 , he held the home run record until 1919 , when it was topped by Babe Ruth of the Boston Red Sox . Statistically , he was one of the best fielders of his era . During the first eight years of his career , he led the league at his position in both fielding percentage and double plays five times , and he also led his position in assists six times . Later , when he moved to shortstop , he again led the league in both assists and double plays .
His career was shortened by a knee injury that he suffered in Paris during a world @-@ tour organized by Albert Spalding . After he left organized baseball , his health declined rapidly . He contracted tuberculosis and ultimately died at the age of 36 of dropsy .
= = Career = =
Born in Philadelphia , Williamson began his major league career on May 1 , 1878 for the Indianapolis Blues of the National League . That season he played in all 63 of the team 's games as the starting third baseman , leading the league in that category . He umpired his only game on August 12 , calling a game between the Chicago White Stockings
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alloud became Prime Minister , while a civilian Council of Ministers headed by Sulaiman Maghribi was founded to implement RCC policy .
Although theoretically a collegial body operating through consensus building , Gaddafi dominated the RCC , although some of the others attempted to constrain what they saw as his excesses . Gaddafi remained the government 's public face , with the identities of the other RCC members only being publicly revealed on 10 January 1970 . All young men from ( typically rural ) working and middle @-@ class backgrounds , none had university degrees ; in this way they were distinct from the wealthy , highly educated conservatives who previously governed the country .
The coup completed , the RCC proceeded with their intentions of consolidating the revolutionary government and modernizing the country . They purged monarchists and members of Idris ' Senussi clan from Libya 's political world and armed forces ; Gaddafi believed this elite were opposed to the will of the Libyan people and had to be expunged . " People 's Courts " were founded to try various monarchist politicians and journalists , and though many were imprisoned , none were executed . Idris was sentenced to execution in absentia .
In May 1970 , the Revolutionary Intellectuals Seminar was held to bring intellectuals in line with the revolution , while that year 's Legislative Review and Amendment united secular and religious law codes , introducing sharia into the legal system . Ruling by decree , the RCC maintained the monarchy 's ban on political parties , in May 1970 banned trade unions , and in 1972 outlawed workers ' strikes and suspended newspapers . In September 1971 , Gaddafi resigned , claiming to be dissatisfied with the pace of reform , but returned to his position within a month . In February 1973 , he resigned again , once more returning the following month .
= = = = Economic and social reform = = = =
With crude oil as the country 's primary export , Gaddafi sought to improve Libya 's oil sector . In October 1969 , he proclaimed the current trade terms unfair , benefiting foreign corporations more than the Libyan state , and by threatening to reduce production , in December Jalloud successfully increased the price of Libyan oil . In 1970 , other OPEC states followed suit , leading to a global increase in the price of crude oil . The RCC followed with the Tripoli Agreement , in which they secured income tax , back @-@ payments and better pricing from the oil corporations ; these measures brought Libya an estimated $ 1 billion in additional revenues in its first year .
Increasing state control over the oil sector , the RCC began a program of nationalization , starting with the expropriation of British Petroleum 's share of the British Petroleum @-@ N.B. Hunt Sahir Field in December 1971 . In September 1973 , it was announced that all foreign oil producers active in Libya were to be nationalized . For Gaddafi , this was an important step towards socialism . It proved an economic success ; while gross domestic product had been $ 3 @.@ 8 billion in 1969 , it had risen to $ 13 @.@ 7 billion in 1974 , and $ 24 @.@ 5 billion in 1979 . In turn , the Libyans ' standard of life greatly improved over the first decade of Gaddafi 's administration , and by 1979 the average per @-@ capita income was at $ 8 @,@ 170 , up from $ 40 in 1951 ; this was above the average of many industrialized countries like Italy and the U.K.
The RCC attempted to suppress regional and tribal affiliation , replacing it with a unified pan @-@ Libyan identity . In doing so , they tried discrediting tribal leaders as agents of the old regime , and in August 1971 a Sabha military court tried many of them for counter @-@ revolutionary activity . Long @-@ standing administrative boundaries were re @-@ drawn , crossing tribal boundaries , while pro @-@ revolutionary modernizers replaced traditional leaders , but the communities they served often rejected them . Realizing the failures of the modernizers , Gaddafi created the Arab Socialist Union ( ASU ) , a mass mobilization vanguard party of which he was president . The ASU recognized the RCC as its " Supreme Leading Authority " , and was designed to further revolutionary enthusiasm throughout the country .
The RCC implemented measures for social reform , adopting sharia as a basis . The consumption of alcohol was banned , night clubs and Christian churches were shut down , traditional Libyan dress was encouraged , while Arabic was decreed as the only language permitted in official communications and on road signs . From 1969 to 1973 , the RCC introduced social welfare programs funded with oil money , which led to house @-@ building projects and improved healthcare and education . In doing so , they greatly expanded the public sector , providing employment for thousands .
Compulsory education was expanded from 6 to 9 years old , while adult literacy programs and free university education were implemented ; Beida University was founded , while Tripoli University and Benghazi University were expanded . These early social programs proved popular within Libya . This popularity was partly due to Gaddafi 's personal charisma , youth and underdog status as a Bedouin , as well as his rhetoric emphasizing his role as the successor to the anti @-@ Italian fighter Omar Mukhtar .
= = = = Foreign relations = = = =
The influence of Nasser 's Arab nationalism over the RCC was immediately apparent . The administration was instantly recognized by the neighbouring Arab nationalist regimes in Egypt , Syria , Iraq and Sudan , with Egypt sending experts to aid the inexperienced RCC . Gaddafi propounded Pan @-@ Arab ideas , proclaiming the need for a single Arab state stretching across North Africa and the Middle East . In December 1969 , Libya founded the Arab Revolutionary Front with Egypt and Sudan as a step towards political unification , and in 1970 Syria stated its intention to join .
After Nasser died in November 1970 , his successor , Anwar Sadat , suggested that rather than a unified state , they create a political federation , implemented in April 1971 ; in doing so , Egypt , Syria and Sudan got large grants of Libyan oil money . In February 1972 , Gaddafi and Sadat signed an unofficial charter of merger , but it was never implemented as relations broke down the following year . Sadat became increasingly wary of Libya 's radical direction , and the September 1973 deadline for implementing the Federation passed by with no action taken .
After the 1969 coup , representatives of the Four Powers – France , the United Kingdom , the United States and the Soviet Union – were called to meet RCC representatives . The U.K. and U.S. quickly extended diplomatic recognition , hoping to secure the position of their military bases in Libya and fearing further instability . Hoping to ingratiate themselves with Gaddafi , in 1970 the U.S. informed him of at least one planned counter @-@ coup . Such attempts to form a working relationship with the RCC failed ; Gaddafi was determined to reassert national sovereignty and expunge what he described as foreign colonial and imperialist influences . His administration insisted that the U.S. and U.K. remove their military bases from Libya , with Gaddafi proclaiming that " the armed forces which rose to express the people 's revolution [ will not ] tolerate living in their shacks while the bases of imperialism exist in Libyan territory . " The British left in March and the Americans in June 1970 .
Moving to reduce Italian influence , in October 1970 all Italian @-@ owned assets were expropriated and the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Italian community expelled from Libya alongside a smaller number of Jews . The day became a national holiday . Aiming to reduce NATO power in the Mediterranean , in 1971 Libya requested that Malta cease to allow NATO to use its land for a military base , in turn offering them foreign aid . Compromising , Malta 's government continued allowing NATO use of the island , but only on the condition that they would not use it for launching attacks on Arab territory . Orchestrating a military build @-@ up , the RCC began purchasing weapons from France and the Soviet Union . The commercial relationship with the latter led to an increasingly strained relationship with the U.S. , who were then engaged in the Cold War with the Soviets .
Gaddafi was especially critical of the U.S. due to their support for Israel . Gaddafi supported the Palestinians in the Israeli – Palestinian conflict , viewing the 1948 creation of Israel as a Western colonial occupation forced on the Arab world . Calling on the Arab states to wage " continuous war " against Israel , in 1970 he initiated a Jihad Fund to finance anti @-@ Israeli militants . In June 1972 Gaddafi created the First Nasserite Volunteers Centre to train anti @-@ Israeli guerrillas .
His relationship with Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat of Fatah was strained , with Gaddafi considering him too moderate and calling for more violent action . Instead he supported militia like the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine , Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command , the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine , As @-@ Sa 'iqa , the Palestinian Popular Struggle Front , and the Abu Nidal Organization . He funded the Black September Organization who perpetrated the 1972 Munich massacre of Israeli athletes in West Germany , and had the killed militants ' bodies flown to Libya for a hero 's funeral . Gaddafi also welcomed the three surviving attackers in Tripoli following their release in exchange for the hostages of hijacked Lufthansa Flight 615 a few weeks later and allowed them to go into hiding .
Gaddafi financially supported other militant groups across the world , including the Black Panther Party , Nation of Islam , Tupamaros , 19th of April Movement and Sandinista National Liberation Front in the Americas , the ANC among other liberation movements in the fight against Apartheid in South Africa , the Provisional Irish Republican Army , ETA , Sardinian nationalists , Action directe , the Red Brigades , and the Red Army Faction in Europe , and the Armenian Secret Army , Japanese Red Army , Free Aceh Movement , and Moro National Liberation Front in Asia . Gaddafi was indiscriminate in the causes he funded , sometimes switching from supporting one side in a conflict to the other , as in the Eritrean War of Independence . Throughout the 1970s these groups received financial support from Libya , which came to be seen as a leader in the Third World 's struggle against colonialism and neocolonialism . Though many of these groups were labelled " terrorists " by critics of their activities , Gaddafi rejected such a characterisation , instead considering them revolutionaries engaged in liberation struggles .
= = = The " Popular Revolution " : 1973 – 77 = = =
On 16 April 1973 , Gaddafi proclaimed the start of a " Popular Revolution " in a Zuwarah speech . He initiated this with a 5 @-@ point plan , the first point of which dissolved all existing laws , to be replaced by revolutionary enactments . The second point proclaimed that all opponents of the revolution had to be removed , while the third initiated an administrative revolution that Gaddafi proclaimed would remove all traces of bureaucracy and the bourgeoisie . The fourth point announced that the population must form People 's Committees and be armed to defend the revolution , while the fifth proclaimed the beginning of a cultural revolution to expunge Libya of " poisonous " foreign influences . He began to lecture on this new phase of the revolution in Libya , Egypt , and France .
As part of this Popular Revolution , Gaddafi invited Libya 's people to found General People 's Committees as conduits for raising political consciousness . Although offering little guidance for how to set up these councils , Gaddafi claimed that they would offer a form of direct political participation that was more democratic than a traditional party @-@ based representative system . He hoped that the councils would mobilize the people behind the RCC , erode the power of the traditional leaders and the bureaucracy , and allow for a new legal system chosen by the people .
The People 's Committees led to a high percentage of public involvement in decision making , within the limits permitted by the RCC , but exacerbated tribal divisions . They also served as a surveillance system , aiding the security services in locating individuals with views critical of the RCC , leading to the arrest of Ba 'athists , Marxists and Islamists . Operating in a pyramid structure , the base form of these Committees were local working groups , who sent elected representatives to the district level , and from there to the national level , divided between the General People 's Congress and the General People 's Committee . Above these remained Gaddafi and the RCC , who remained responsible for all major decisions .
= = = = Third Universal Theory and The Green Book = = = =
In June 1973 , Gaddafi created a political ideology as a basis for the Popular Revolution . Third International Theory considered the U.S. and the Soviet Union as imperialist , thus rejected Western capitalism as well as Eastern bloc communism 's atheism . In this respect it was similar to the Three Worlds Theory developed by China 's political leader Mao Zedong . As part of this theory , Gaddafi praised nationalism as a progressive force and advocated the creation of a pan @-@ Arab state which would lead the Islamic and Third Worlds against imperialism .
Gaddafi saw Islam as having a key role in this ideology , calling for an Islamic revival that returned to the origins of the Qur 'an , rejecting scholarly interpretations and the Hadith ; in doing so , he angered many Libyan clerics . During 1973 and 1974 , his government deepened the legal reliance on sharia , e.g. introducing flogging as punishment for those convicted of adultery or homosexual activity .
Gaddafi summarized Third International Theory in three short volumes published between 1975 and 1979 , collectively known as The Green Book . Volume one was devoted to the issue of democracy , outlining the flaws of representative systems in favour of direct , participatory GPCs . The second dealt with Gaddafi 's beliefs regarding socialism , while the third explored social issues regarding the family and the tribe . While the first two volumes advocated radical reform , the third adopted a socially conservative stance , proclaiming that while men and women were equal , they were biologically designed for different roles in life . During the years that followed , Gaddafists adopted quotes from The Green Book , such as " Representation is Fraud " , as slogans . Meanwhile , in September 1975 , Gaddafi implemented further measures to increase popular mobilization , introducing objectives to improve the relationship between the Councils and the ASU .
These radical reforms led to discontent , furthered by widespread opposition to the RCC 's decision to spend oil money on foreign causes . In 1974 , Libya saw its first civilian attack on Gaddafi 's government when a Benghazi army building was bombed . In 1975 two RCC members , Bashir Saghir al @-@ Hawaadi and Omar Mehishi , launched a failed coup against Gaddafi , and in the aftermath only five RCC members remained . This led to the RCC 's official abolition in March 1977 .
In September 1975 , Gaddafi purged the army , arresting around 200 senior officers , and in October he founded the clandestine Office for the Security of the Revolution . In 1976 , student demonstrations broke out in Tripoli and Benghazi , and were attacked by police and Gaddafist students . The RCC responded with mass arrests , and introduced compulsory national service for young people . Dissent also arose from conservative clerics and the Muslim Brotherhood , who were persecuted as anti @-@ revolutionary . In January 1977 , two dissenting students and a number of army officers were publicly hanged ; Amnesty International condemned it as the first time in Gaddafist Libya that dissenters had been executed for purely political crimes .
= = = = Foreign relations = = = =
Following Anwar Sadat 's ascension to the Egyptian presidency , Libya 's relations with Egypt deteriorated . Sadat was perturbed by Gaddafi 's unpredictability and insistence that Egypt required a cultural revolution . In February 1973 , Israeli forces shot down Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 , which had strayed from Egyptian airspace into Israeli @-@ held territory during a sandstorm . Gaddafi was infuriated that Egypt had not done more to prevent the incident , and in retaliation planned to destroy the RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 , a British ship chartered by American Jews to sail to Haifa for Israel 's 25th anniversary . Gaddafi ordered an Egyptian submarine to target the ship , but Sadat cancelled the order , fearing a military escalation .
Gaddafi was later infuriated when Egypt and Syria planned the Yom Kippur War against Israel without consulting him , and was angered when Egypt conceded to peace talks rather than continuing the war . Gaddafi become openly hostile to Egypt 's leader , calling for Sadat 's overthrow , and when Sudanese President Gaafar Nimeiry took Sadat 's side , Gaddafi by 1975 sponsored the Sudan People 's Liberation Army to overthrow Nimeiry . Focusing his attention elsewhere in Africa , in late 1972 and early 1973 , Libya invaded Chad to annex the uranium @-@ rich Aouzou Strip . Offering financial incentives , he successfully convinced 8 African states to break off diplomatic relations with Israel in 1973 . Intent on propagating Islam , in 1973 Gaddafi founded the Islamic Call Society , which had opened 132 centres across Africa within a decade . In 1973 he converted Gabonese President Omar Bongo , an action which he repeated three years later with Jean @-@ Bédel Bokassa , president of the Central African Republic .
Gaddafi sought to develop closer links in the Maghreb ; in January 1974 Libya and Tunisia announced a political union , the Arab Islamic Republic . Although advocated by Gaddafi and Tunisian President Habib Bourguiba , the move was deeply unpopular in Tunisia and soon abandoned . Retaliating , Gaddafi sponsored anti @-@ government militants in Tunisia into the 1980s . Turning his attention to Algeria , in 1975 Libya signed the Hassi Messaoud defence agreement allegedly to counter " Moroccan expansionism " , also funding the Polisario Front of Western Sahara in their independence struggle against Morocco . Seeking to diversify Libya 's economy , Gaddafi 's government began purchasing shares in major European corporations like Fiat as well as buying real estate in Malta and Italy , which would become a valuable source of income during the 1980s oil slump .
= = Great Socialist People 's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya = =
= = = Foundation : 1977 = = =
On 2 March 1977 the General People 's Congress adopted the " Declaration of the Establishment of the People 's Authority " at Gaddafi 's behest . Dissolving the Libyan Arab Republic , it was replaced by the Great Socialist People 's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ( Arabic : الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الاشتراكية , al @-@ Jamāhīrīyah al- ‘ Arabīyah al @-@ Lībīyah ash @-@ Sha ‘ bīyah al @-@ Ishtirākīyah ) , a " state of the masses " conceptualized by Gaddafi . Officially , the Jamahiriya was a direct democracy in which the people ruled themselves through the 187 Basic People 's Congresses , where all adult Libyans participated and voted on national decisions . These then sent members to the annual General People 's Congress , which was broadcast live on television . In principle , the People 's Congresses were Libya 's highest authority , with major decisions proposed by government officials or with Gaddafi himself requiring the consent of the People 's Congresses .
Debate remained limited , and major decisions regarding the economy and defence were avoided or dealt with cursorily ; the GPC largely remained " a rubber stamp " for Gaddafi 's policies . On rare occasions , the GPC opposed Gaddafi 's suggestions , sometimes successfully ; notably , when Gaddafi called on primary schools to be abolished , believing that home schooling was healthier for children , the GPC rejected the idea . In other instances , Gaddafi pushed through laws without the GPC 's support , such as when he desired to allow women into the armed forces . Gaddafi proclaimed that the People 's Congresses provided for Libya 's every political need , rendering other political organizations unnecessary ; all non @-@ authorized groups , including political parties , professional associations , independent trade unions and women 's groups , were banned .
With preceding legal institutions abolished , Gaddafi envisioned the Jamahiriya as following the Qur 'an for legal guidance , adopting sharia law ; he proclaimed " man @-@ made " laws unnatural and dictatorial , only permitting Allah 's law . Within a year he was backtracking , announcing that sharia was inappropriate for the Jamahiriya because it guaranteed the protection of private property , contravening The Green Book 's socialism . His emphasis on placing his own work on a par with the Qur 'an led conservative clerics to accuse him of shirk , furthering their opposition to his regime . In July , a border war broke out with Egypt , in which the Egyptians defeated Libya despite their technological inferiority . The conflict lasted one week before both sides agreed to sign a peace treaty that was brokered by several Arab states . That year , Gaddafi was invited to Moscow by the Soviet government in recognition of their increasing commercial relationship .
= = = Revolutionary Committees and furthering socialism : 1978 – 80 = = =
In December 1978 , Gaddafi stepped down as Secretary @-@ General of the GPC , announcing his new focus on revolutionary rather than governmental activities ; this was part of his new emphasis on separating the apparatus of the revolution from the government . Although no longer in a formal governmental post , he adopted the title of " Leader of the Revolution " and continued as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces . He continued exerting considerable influence over Libya , with many critics insisting that the structure of Libya 's direct democracy gave him " the freedom to manipulate outcomes " .
Libya began to turn towards socialism . In March 1978 , the government issued guidelines for housing redistribution , attempting to ensure the population that every adult Libyan owned his own home and that nobody was enslaved to paying their rent . Most families were banned from owning more than one house , while former rental properties were seized and sold to the tenants at a heavily subsidized price . In September , Gaddafi called for the People 's Committees to eliminate the " bureaucracy of the public sector " and the " dictatorship of the private sector " ; the People 's Committees took control of several hundred companies , converting them into worker cooperatives run by elected representatives .
On 2 March 1979 , the GPC announced the separation of government and revolution , the latter being represented by new Revolutionary Committees , who operated in tandem with the People 's Committees in schools , universities , unions , the police force and the military . Dominated by revolutionary zealots , the Revolutionary Committees were led by Mohammad Maghgoub and a Central Coordinating Office , and met with Gaddafi annually . Publishing a weekly magazine The Green March ( al @-@ Zahf al @-@ Akhdar ) , in October 1980 they took control of the press . Responsible for perpetuating revolutionary fervour , they performed ideological surveillance , later adopting a significant security role , making arrests and putting people on trial according to the " law of the revolution " ( qanun al @-@ thawra ) . With no legal code or safeguards , the administration of revolutionary justice was largely arbitrary and resulted in widespread abuses and the suppression of civil liberties : the " Green Terror . "
In 1979 , the committees began the redistribution of land in the Jefara plain , continuing through 1981 . In May 1980 , measures to redistribute and equalize wealth were implemented ; anyone with over 1000 dinar in his bank account saw that extra money expropriated . The following year , the GPC announced that the government would take control of all import , export and distribution functions , with state supermarkets replacing privately owned businesses ; this led to a decline in the availability of consumer goods and the development of a thriving black market .
The Jamahiriya 's radical direction earned the government many enemies . In February 1978 , Gaddafi discovered that his head of military intelligence was plotting to kill him , and began to increasingly entrust security to his Qaddadfa tribe . Many who had seen their wealth and property confiscated turned against the administration , and a number of western @-@ funded opposition groups were founded by exiles . Most prominent was the National Front for the Salvation of Libya ( NFSL ) , founded in 1981 by Mohammed Magariaf , which orchestrated militant attacks against Libya 's government , while another , al @-@ Borkan , began killing Libyan diplomats abroad . Following Gaddafi 's command to kill these " stray dogs " , under Colonel Younis Bilgasim 's leadership , the Revolutionary Committees set up overseas branches to suppress counter @-@ revolutionary activity , assassinating various dissidents . Although nearby nations like Syria also used hit squads , Gaddafi was unusual in publicly bragging about his administration 's use of them ; in June 1980 , he ordered all dissidents to return home or be " liquidated wherever you are . "
In 1979 , the U.S. placed Libya on its list of " State Sponsors of Terrorism " , while at the end of the year a demonstration torched the U.S. embassy in Tripoli in solidarity with the perpetrators of the Iran hostage crisis . The following year , Libyan fighters began intercepting U.S. fighter jets flying over the Mediterranean , signalling the collapse of relations between the two countries . Libyan relations with Lebanon and Shi 'ite communities across the world also deteriorated due to the August 1978 disappearance of imam Musa al @-@ Sadr when visiting Libya ; the Lebanese accused Gaddafi of having him killed or imprisoned , a charge he denied . Relations with Syria improved , as Gaddafi and Syrian President Hafez al @-@ Assad shared an enmity with Israel and Egypt 's Sadat . In 1980 , they proposed a political union , with Libya paying off Syria 's £ 1 billion debt to the Soviet Union ; although pressures led Assad to pull out , they remained allies . Another key ally was Uganda , and in 1979 , Gaddafi sent 2 @,@ 500 troops into Uganda to defend the regime of President Idi Amin from Tanzanian invaders . The mission failed ; 400 Libyans were killed and they were forced to retreat . Gaddafi later came to regret his alliance with Amin , openly criticising him .
= = = Conflict with the USA and its allies : 1981 – 86 = = =
The early and mid @-@ 1980s saw economic trouble for Libya ; from 1982 to 1986 , the country 's annual oil revenues dropped from $ 21 billion to $ 5 @.@ 4 billion . Focusing on irrigation projects , 1983 saw construction start on " Gaddafi 's Pet Project " , the Great Man @-@ Made River ; although designed to be finished by the end of the decade , it remained incomplete at the start of the 21st century . Military spending increased , while other administrative budgets were cut back . Libya had long supported the FROLINAT militia in neighbouring Chad , and in December 1980 , re @-@ invaded Chad at the request of the Frolinat @-@ controlled GUNT government to aid in the civil war ; in January 1981 , Gaddafi suggested a political merger . The Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) rejected this , and called for a Libyan withdrawal , which came about in November 1981 . The civil war resumed , and so Libya sent troops back in , clashing with French forces who supported the southern Chadian forces . Many African nations had tired of Libya 's policies of interference in foreign affairs ; by 1980 , nine African states had cut off diplomatic relations with Libya , while in 1982 the OAU cancelled its scheduled conference in Tripoli in order to prevent Gaddafi gaining chairmanship . Proposing political unity with Morocco , in August 1984 , Gaddafi and Moroccan monarch Hassan II signed the Oujda Treaty , forming the Arab @-@ African Union ; such a union was considered surprising due to the strong political differences and longstanding enmity that existed between the two governments . Relations remained strained , particularly due to Morocco 's friendly relations with the U.S. and Israel ; in August 1986 , Hassan abolished the union . Domestic threats continued to plague Gaddafi ; in May 1984 , his Bab al @-@ Azizia home was unsuccessfully attacked by a joint NFSL – Muslim Brotherhood militia , and in the aftermath 5000 dissidents were arrested .
In 1981 , the new US President Ronald Reagan pursued a hard line approach to Libya , erroneously considering it a puppet regime of the Soviet Union . In turn , Gaddafi played up his commercial relationship with the Soviets , visiting Moscow again in April 1981 and 1985 , and threatening to join the Warsaw Pact . The Soviets were nevertheless cautious of Gaddafi , seeing him as an unpredictable extremist . Beginning military exercises in the Gulf of Sirte – an area of sea that Libya claimed as a part of its territorial waters – in August 1981 the U.S. shot down two Libyan Su @-@ 22 planes monitoring them . Closing down Libya 's embassy in Washington , D.C. , Reagan advised U.S. companies operating in the country to reduce the number of American personnel stationed there . In March 1982 , the U.S. implemented an embargo of Libyan oil , and in January 1986 ordered all U.S. companies to cease operating in the country , although several hundred workers remained . Diplomatic relations also broke down with the U.K. , after Libyan diplomats were accused in the shooting death of Yvonne Fletcher , a British policewoman stationed outside their London embassy , in April 1984 . In Spring 1986 , the U.S. Navy again began performing exercises in the Gulf of Sirte ; the Libyan military retaliated , but failed as the U.S. sank several Libyan ships .
After the U.S. accused Libya of orchestrating the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing , in which two American soldiers died , Reagan decided to retaliate militarily . The Central Intelligence Agency were critical of the move , believing that Syria were a greater threat and that an attack would strengthen Gaddafi 's reputation ; however Libya was recognised as a " soft target . " Reagan was supported by the U.K. but opposed by other European allies , who argued that it would contravene international law . In Operation El Dorado Canyon , orchestrated on 15 April 1986 , U.S. military planes launched a series of air @-@ strikes on Libya , bombing military installations in various parts of the country , killing around 100 Libyans , including several civilians . One of the targets had been Gaddafi 's home . Himself unharmed , two of Gaddafi 's sons were injured , and he claimed that his four @-@ year @-@ old adopted daughter Hanna was killed , although her existence has since been questioned . In the immediate aftermath , Gaddafi retreated to the desert to meditate , while there were sporadic clashes between Gaddafists and army officers who wanted to overthrow the government . Although the U.S. was condemned internationally , Reagan received a popularity boost at home . Publicly lambasting U.S. imperialism , Gaddafi 's reputation as an anti @-@ imperialist was strengthened both domestically and across the Arab world , and in June 1986 , he ordered the names of the month to be changed in Libya .
= = = " Revolution within a Revolution " : 1987 – 98 = = =
The late 1980s saw a series of liberalising economic reforms within Libya designed to cope with the decline in oil revenues . In May 1987 , Gaddafi announced the start of the " Revolution within a Revolution " , which began with reforms to industry and agriculture and saw the re @-@ opening of small business . Restrictions were placed on the activities of the Revolutionary Committees ; in March 1988 , their role was narrowed by the newly created Ministry for Mass Mobilization and Revolutionary Leadership to restrict their violence and judicial role , while in August 1988 Gaddafi publicly criticised them , asserting that " they deviated , harmed , tortured " and that " the true revolutionary does not practise repression . " In March , hundreds of political prisoners were freed , with Gaddafi falsely claiming that there were no further political prisoners in Libya . In June , Libya 's government issued the Great Green Charter on Human Rights in the Era of the Masses , in which 27 articles laid out goals , rights and guarantees to improve the situation of human rights in Libya , restricting the use of the death penalty and calling for its eventual abolition . Many of the measures suggested in the charter would be implemented the following year , although others remained inactive . Also in 1989 , the government founded the Al @-@ Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights , to be awarded to figures from the Third World who had struggled against colonialism and imperialism ; the first year 's winner was South African anti @-@ apartheid activist Nelson Mandela . From 1994 through to 1997 , the government initiated cleansing committees to root out corruption , particularly in the economic sector .
In the aftermath of the 1986 U.S. attack , the army was purged of perceived disloyal elements , and in 1988 , Gaddafi announced the creation of a popular militia to replace the army and police . In 1987 , Libya began production of mustard gas at a facility in Rabta , although publicly denying it was stockpiling chemical weapons , and unsuccessfully attempted to develop nuclear weapons . The period also saw a growth in domestic Islamist opposition , formulated into groups like the Muslim Brotherhood and the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group . A number of assassination attempts against Gaddafi were foiled , and in turn , 1989 saw the security forces raid mosques believed to be centres of counter @-@ revolutionary preaching . In October 1993 , elements of the increasingly marginalised army initiated a failed coup in Misrata , while in September 1995 , Islamists launched an insurgency in Benghazi , and in July 1996 an anti @-@ Gaddafist football riot broke out in Tripoli . The Revolutionary Committees experienced a resurgence to combat these Islamists .
In 1989 , Gaddafi was overjoyed by the foundation of the Arab Maghreb Union , uniting Libya in an economic pact with Mauritania , Morocco , Tunisia and Algeria , viewing it as beginnings of a new Pan @-@ Arab union . Meanwhile , Libya stepped up its support for anti @-@ western militants such as the Provisional IRA , and in 1988 , Pan Am Flight 103 was blown up over Lockerbie in Scotland , killing 243 passengers and 16 crew members , plus 11 people on the ground . British police investigations identified two Libyans – Abdelbaset al @-@ Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah – as the chief suspects , and in November 1991 issued a declaration demanding that Libya hand them over . When Gaddafi refused , citing the Montreal Convention , the United Nations ( UN ) imposed Resolution 748 in March 1992 , initiating economic sanctions against Libya which had deep repercussions for the country 's economy . The country suffered an estimated $ 900 million financial loss as a result . Further problems arose with the west when in January 1989 , two Libyan warplanes were shot down by the U.S. off the Libyan coast . Many African states opposed the UN sanctions , with Mandela criticising them on a visit to Gaddafi in October 1997 , when he praised Libya for its work in fighting apartheid and awarded Gaddafi the Order of Good Hope . They would only be suspended in 1998 when Libya agreed to allow the extradition of the suspects to the Scottish Court in the Netherlands , in a process overseen by Mandela .
= = = Pan @-@ Africanism , reconciliation and privatization : 1999 – 2011 = = =
As the 20th century came to a close , Gaddafi increasingly rejected Arab nationalism , frustrated by the failure of his Pan @-@ Arab ideals ; instead he turned to Pan @-@ Africanism , emphasising Libya 's African identity . From 1997 to 2000 , Libya initiated cooperative agreements or bilateral aid arrangements with 10 African states , and in 1999 joined the Community of Sahel @-@ Saharan States . In June 1999 , Gaddafi visited Mandela in South Africa , and the following month attended the OAU summit in Algiers , calling for greater political and economic integration across the continent and advocating the foundation of a United States of Africa . He became one of the founders of the African Union ( AU ) , initiated in July 2002 to replace the OAU ; at the opening ceremonies , he proclaimed that African states should reject conditional aid from the developed world , a direct contrast to the message of South African President Thabo Mbeki . At the third AU summit , held in Libya in July 2005 , he called for a greater level of integration , advocating a single AU passport , a common defence system and a single currency , utilising the slogan : " The United States of Africa is the hope . " In June 2005 , Libya joined the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa ( COMESA ) , and in August 2008 Gaddafi was proclaimed " King of Kings " by an assembled committee of traditional African leaders . On 1 February 2009 , his " coronation ceremony " was held in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , coinciding with Gaddafi 's election as AU chairman for a year .
The era saw Libya 's return to the international arena . In 1999 , Libya began secret talks with the British government to normalise relations . In 2001 , Gaddafi condemned the September 11 attacks on the U.S. by al @-@ Qaeda , expressing sympathy with the victims and calling for Libyan involvement in the War on Terror against militant Islamism . His government continued suppressing domestic Islamism , at the same time as Gaddafi called for the wider application of sharia law . Libya also cemented connections with China and North Korea , being visited by Chinese President Jiang Zemin in April 2002 . Influenced by the events of the Iraq War , in December 2003 , Libya renounced its possession of weapons of mass destruction , decommissioning its chemical and nuclear weapons programs . Relations with the U.S. improved as a result , while UK Prime Minister Tony Blair met with Gaddafi in the Libyan desert in March 2004 . The following month , Gaddafi travelled to the headquarters of the European Union ( EU ) in Brussels , signifying improved relations between Libya and the EU , the latter ending its remaining sanctions in October . In October 2010 , the EU paid Libya € 50 million to stop African migrants passing into Europe ; Gaddafi encouraged the move , saying that it was necessary to prevent the loss of European cultural identity to a new " Black Europe " . Removed from the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism in 2006 , Gaddafi nevertheless continued his anti @-@ western rhetoric , and at the Second Africa @-@ South America Summit in Venezuela in September 2009 , joined Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez in calling for an " anti @-@ imperialist " front across Africa and Latin America . Gaddafi proposed the establishment of a South Atlantic Treaty Organization to rival NATO . That month he also addressed the United Nations General Assembly in New York for the first time , using it to condemn " western aggression " . In Spring 2010 , Gaddafi proclaimed jihad against Switzerland after Swiss police accused two of his family members of criminal activity in the country , resulting in the breakdown of bilateral relations .
Libya 's economy witnessed increasing privatization ; although rejecting the socialist policies of nationalized industry advocated in The Green Book , government figures asserted that they were forging " people 's socialism " rather than capitalism . Gaddafi welcomed these reforms , calling for wide @-@ scale privatization in a March 2003 speech . In 2003 , the oil industry was largely sold to private corporations , and by 2004 , there was $ 40 billion of direct foreign investment in Libya , a sixfold rise over 2003 . Sectors of Libya 's population reacted against these reforms with public demonstrations , and in March 2006 , revolutionary hard @-@ liners took control of the GPC cabinet ; although scaling back the pace of the changes , they did not halt them . In 2010 , plans were announced that would have seen half the Libyan economy privatized over the following decade . While there was no accompanying political liberalization , with Gaddafi retaining predominant control , in March 2010 , the government devolved further powers to the municipal councils . Rising numbers of reformist technocrats attained positions in the country 's governance ; best known was Gaddafi 's son and heir apparent Saif al @-@ Islam Gaddafi , who was openly critical of Libya 's human rights record . He led a group who proposed the drafting of the new constitution , although it was never adopted , and in October 2009 was appointed to head the PSLC . Involved in encouraging tourism , Saif founded several privately run media channels in 2008 , but after criticising the government they were nationalised in 2009 . In October 2010 , Gaddafi apologized to African leaders on behalf of Arab nations for their involvement in the African slave trade .
= = Libyan Civil War = =
= = = Origins : February – March 2011 = = =
Following the start of the Arab Spring in 2011 , Gaddafi spoke out in favour of Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali , then threatened by the Tunisian Revolution . He suggested that Tunisia 's people would be satisfied if Ben Ali introduced a Jamahiriyah system there . Fearing domestic protest , Libya 's government implemented preventative measures , reducing food prices , purging the army leadership of potential defectors and releasing several Islamist prisoners . They proved ineffective , and on 17 February 2011 , major protests broke out against Gaddafi 's government . Unlike Tunisia or Egypt , Libya was largely religiously homogenous and had no strong Islamist movement , but there was widespread dissatisfaction with the corruption and entrenched systems of patronage , while unemployment had reached around 30 % .
Accusing the rebels of being " drugged " and linked to al @-@ Qaeda , Gaddafi proclaimed that he would die a martyr rather than leave Libya . As he announced that the rebels would be " hunted down street by street , house by house and wardrobe by wardrobe " , the army opened fire on protests in Benghazi , killing hundreds . Shocked at the government 's response , a number of senior politicians resigned or defected to the protesters ' side . The uprising spread quickly through Libya 's less economically developed eastern half . By February 's end , eastern cities like Benghazi , Misrata , al @-@ Bayda and Tobruk were controlled by rebels , and the Benghazi @-@ based National Transitional Council ( NTC ) had been founded to represent them .
In the conflict 's early months it appeared that Gaddafi 's government – with its greater firepower – would be victorious . Both sides disregarded the laws of war , committing human rights abuses , including arbitrary arrests , torture , extrajudicial executions and revenge attacks . On 26 February the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1970 , suspending Libya from the UN Human Rights Council , implementing sanctions and calling for an International Criminal Court ( ICC ) investigation into the killing of unarmed civilians . In March , the Security Council declared a no fly zone to protect the civilian population from aerial bombardment , calling on foreign nations to enforce it ; it also specifically prohibited foreign occupation . Ignoring this , Qatar sent hundreds of troops to support the dissidents , and along with France and the United Arab Emirates provided the NTC with weaponry and training .
= = = NATO intervention : March – August 2011 = = =
A week after the implementation of the no @-@ fly zone , NATO announced that it would be enforced . On 30 April a NATO airstrike killed Gaddafi 's sixth son and three of his grandsons in Tripoli , though Gaddafi and his wife were unharmed . Western officials remained divided over whether Gaddafi was a legitimate military target under the U.N. Security Council resolution . U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates said that NATO was " not targeting Gaddafi specifically " but that his command @-@ and @-@ control facilities were legitimate targets — including a facility inside his sprawling Tripoli compound that was hit with airstrikes on 25 April .
On 27 June , the ICC issued arrest warrants for Gaddafi , his son Saif al @-@ Islam , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Abdullah Senussi , head of state security , for charges concerning crimes against humanity . Libyan officials rejected the ICC , claiming that it had " no legitimacy whatsoever " and highlighting that " all of its activities are directed at African leaders " . That month , Amnesty International published their findings , in which they asserted that many of the accusations of mass human rights abuses made against Gaddafist forces lacked credible evidence , and were instead fabrications of the rebel forces which had been readily adopted by the western media . Amnesty International did however still accuse Gaddafi forces of numerous war crimes . On 15 July 2011 , at a meeting in Istanbul , over 30 governments recognised the NTC as the legitimate government of Libya . Gaddafi responded to the announcement with a speech on Libyan national television , in which he called on supporters to " Trample on those recognitions , trample on them under your feet ... They are worthless " .
Now with NATO support in the form of air cover , the rebel militia pushed westward , defeating loyalist armies and securing control of the centre of the country . Gaining the support of Amazigh ( Berber ) communities of the Nafusa Mountains , who had long been persecuted as non @-@ Arabic speakers under Gaddafi , the NTC armies surrounded Gaddafi loyalists in several key areas of western Libya . In August , the rebels seized Zliten and Tripoli , ending the last vestiges of Gaddafist power . On 25 August , the Arab League recognised the NTC to be " the legitimate representative of the Libyan state " , on which basis Libya would resume its membership in the League .
= = = Capture and death : September – October 2011 = = =
Only a few towns in western Libya — such as Bani Walid , Sebha and Sirte — remained Gaddafist strongholds . Retreating to Sirte after Tripoli 's fall , Gaddafi announced his willingness to negotiate for a handover to a transitional government , a suggestion rejected by the NTC . Surrounding himself with bodyguards , he continually moved residences to escape NTC shelling , devoting his days to prayer and reading the Qur 'an . On 20 October , Gaddafi broke out of Sirte 's District 2 in a joint civilian @-@ military convoy , hoping to take refuge in the Jarref Valley . At around 8.30am , NATO bombers attacked , destroying at least 14 vehicles and killing at least 53 . The convoy scattered , and Gaddafi and those closest to him fled to a nearby villa , which was shelled by rebel militia from Misrata . Fleeing to a construction site , Gaddafi and his inner cohort hid inside drainage pipes while his bodyguards battled the rebels ; in the conflict , Gaddafi suffered head injuries from a grenade blast while defence minister Abu @-@ Bakr Yunis Jabr was killed .
A Misratan militia took Gaddafi prisoner , beating him , causing serious injuries ; the events were filmed on a mobile phone . A video appears to picture Gaddafi being poked or stabbed in the rear end " with some kind of stick or knife " or possibly a bayonet . Pulled onto the front of a pick @-@ up truck , he fell off as it drove away . His semi @-@ naked , lifeless body was then placed into an ambulance and taken to Misrata ; upon arrival , he was found to be dead . Official NTC accounts claimed that Gaddafi was caught in a cross @-@ fire and died from his bullet wounds . Other eye @-@ witness accounts claimed that rebels had fatally shot Gaddafi in the stomach ; a rebel identifying himself as Senad el @-@ Sadik el @-@ Ureybi later claimed responsibility . Gaddafi 's son Mutassim , who had also been among the convoy , was also captured , and found dead several hours later , most probably from an extrajudicial execution . Around 140 Gaddafi loyalists were rounded up from the convoy ; tied up and abused , the corpses of 66 were found at the nearby Mahari Hotel , victims of extrajudicial execution . Libya 's chief forensic pathologist , Dr. Othman al @-@ Zintani , carried out the autopsies of Gaddafi , his son and Jabr in the days following their deaths ; although the pathologist initially told the press that Gaddafi had died from a gunshot wound to the head , the autopsy report was not made public .
On the afternoon of Gaddafi 's death , NTC Prime Minister Mahmoud Jibril publicly revealed the news . Gaddafi 's corpse was placed in the freezer of a local market alongside the corpses of Yunis Jabr and Mutassim ; the bodies were publicly displayed for four days , with Libyans from all over the country coming to view them . In response to international calls , on 24 October Jibril announced that a commission would investigate Gaddafi 's death . On 25 October , the NTC announced that Gaddafi had been buried at an unidentified location in the desert ; Al Aan TV showed amateur video footage of the funeral . Seeking vengeance for the killing , Gaddafist sympathisers fatally wounded one of those who had captured Gaddafi , Omran Shaaban , near Bani Walid in September 2012 .
= = Personal and public life = =
= = = Ideology = = =
As a schoolboy , Gaddafi adopted the ideologies of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism , influenced in particular by Nasserism , the thought of Egyptian revolutionary and president Gamal Abdel Nasser , whom Gaddafi adopted as his hero . During the early 1970s , Gaddafi formulated his own particular approach to Arab nationalism and socialism , known as Third International Theory , which has been described as a combination of " utopian socialism , Arab nationalism , and the Third World revolutionary theory that was in vogue at the time " . He laid out the principles of this Theory in the three volumes of The Green Book , in which he sought to " explain the structure of the ideal society . " His Arab nationalist views led him to believe that there needed to be unity across the Arab world , combining the Arab nation under a single nation @-@ state . He described his approach to economics as " Islamic socialism " , although biographers Blundy and Lycett noted that Gaddafi 's socialism had a " curiously Marxist undertone " , with political scientist Sami Hajjar arguing that Gaddafi 's model of socialism offered a simplification of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ' theories . Gaddafi saw his socialist Jamahiriyah as a model for the Arab , Islamic , and non @-@ aligned worlds to follow .
Gaddafi 's ideological worldview was moulded by his environment , namely his Islamic faith , his Bedouin upbringing , and his disgust at the actions of European colonialists in Libya . He was driven by a sense of " divine mission " , believing himself a conduit of Allah 's will , and thought that he must achieve his goals " no matter what the cost " . Raised within the Sunni branch of Islam , Gaddafi called for the implementation of sharia within Libya . He desired unity across the Islamic world , and encouraged the propagation of the faith elsewhere . On a 2010 visit to Italy , he paid a modelling agency to find 200 young Italian women for a lecture he gave urging them to convert . He also funded the construction and renovation of two mosques in Africa , including Uganda 's Kampala Mosque . He nevertheless clashed with conservative Libyan clerics as to his interpretation of Islam . Many criticised his attempts to encourage women to enter traditionally male @-@ only sectors of society , such as the armed forces . Gaddafi was keen to improve women 's status , though saw the sexes as " separate but equal " and therefore felt women should usually remain in traditional roles .
A fundamental part of Gaddafi 's ideology was anti @-@ Zionism . He believed that the state of Israel should not exist , and that any Arab compromise with the Israeli government was a betrayal of the Arab people . In large part due to their support of Israel , Gaddafi despised the United States , considering the country to be imperialist and lambasting it as " the embodiment of evil . " Rallying against Jews in many of his speeches , his anti @-@ Semitism has been described as " almost Hitlerian " by Blundy and Lycett . From the late 1990s onward , his view seemed to become more moderate . In 2007 , he advocated the Isratin single @-@ state solution to the Israeli – Palestinian conflict , stating that " the [ Israel @-@ Palestine ] solution is to establish a democratic state for the Jews and the Palestinians ... This is the fundamental solution , or else the Jews will be annihilated in the future , because the Palestinians have [ strategic ] depth . " Two years later he argued that a single @-@ state solution would " move beyond old conflicts and look to a unified future based on shared culture and respect . "
= = = Personal and family life = = =
Gaddafi was a very private individual , who described himself as a " simple revolutionary " and " pious Muslim " called upon by Allah to continue Nasser 's work . Reporter Mirella Bianco found that his friends considered him particularly loyal and generous , and asserted that he adored children . She was told by Gaddafi 's father that even as a child he had been " always serious , even taciturn " , a trait he also exhibited in adulthood . His father said that he was courageous , intelligent , pious , and family oriented .
Other sources describe Gaddafi as " extraordinarily vain " and a womaniser . Blundy and Lycett note Gaddafi had a large wardrobe , and sometimes changed his outfit multiple times a day . He saw himself as a fashion icon , stating " Whatever I wear becomes a fad . I wear a certain shirt and suddenly everyone is wearing it . "
In the 1970s and 1980s there were reports of his making sexual advances toward female reporters and members of his entourage . After the civil war , more serious charges came to light . Annick Cojean , a journalist for Le Monde , wrote in her book , Gaddafi 's Harem that Gaddafi had raped , tortured , performed urolagnia , and imprisoned hundreds or thousands of women , usually very young . Another source — Libyan psychologist Seham Sergewa — reported that several of his female bodyguards claim to have been raped by Gaddafi and senior officials . After the civil war , Luis Moreno Ocampo , prosecutor for the International Criminal Court , said there was evidence that Gaddafi told soldiers to rape women who had spoken out against his regime . In 2011 Amnesty International questioned this and other claims used to justify NATO 's war in Libya .
According to a Brazilian plastic surgeon , Gaddafi had been his patient in 1995 . The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency believed that Gaddafi had suffered from clinical depression , while the Israeli authorities claimed that he had been afflicted by epilepsy and hemorrhoids . He was a fan of Beethoven , and said his favourite novels were Uncle Tom 's Cabin , Roots , and Colin Wilson 's The Outsider . He was also a football enthusiast .
Following his ascension to power , Gaddafi moved into the Bab al @-@ Azizia barracks , a six @-@ mile long fortified compound located two miles from the center of Tripoli . His home and office at Azizia was a bunker designed by West German engineers , while the rest of his family lived in a large two @-@ story building . Within the compound were also two tennis courts , a soccer field , several gardens , camels , and a Bedouin tent in which he entertained guests . In the 1980s , his lifestyle was considered modest in comparison to those of many other Arab leaders . Gaddafi allegedly worked for years with Swiss banks to launder international banking transactions . In November 2011 , The Sunday Times identified property worth £ 1 billion in the UK that Gaddafi allegedly owned . Gaddafi had an Airbus A340 private jet , which he bought from Prince Al @-@ Waleed bin Talal of Saudi Arabia for $ 120 million in 2003 . Operated by Tripoli @-@ based Afriqiyah Airways and decorated externally in their colours , it had various luxuries including a jacuzzi .
Gaddafi married his first wife , Fatiha al @-@ Nuri , in 1969 . She was the daughter of General Khalid , a senior figure in King Idris ' administration , and was from a middle @-@ class background . Although they had one son , Muhammad Gaddafi ( b . 1970 ) , their relationship was strained , and they divorced in 1970 . Gaddafi 's second wife was Safia Farkash , née el @-@ Brasai , a former nurse from Obeidat tribe born in Bayda . They met in 1969 , following his ascension to power , when he was hospitalized with appendicitis ; he claimed that it was love at first sight . The couple remained married until his death . Together they had seven biological children : Saif al @-@ Islam Gaddafi ( b . 1972 ) , Al @-@ Saadi Gaddafi ( b . 1973 ) , Mutassim Gaddafi ( 1974 – 2011 ) , Hannibal Muammar Gaddafi ( b . 1975 ) , Ayesha Gaddafi ( b . 1976 ) , Saif al @-@ Arab Gaddafi ( 1982 – 2011 ) , and Khamis Gaddafi ( 1983 – 2011 ) . He also adopted two children , Hanna Gaddafi and Milad Gaddafi .
= = = Public image = = =
A cult of personality devoted to Gaddafi existed in Libya . His face appeared on a wide variety of items , including postage stamps , watches , and school satchels . Quotations from The Green Book appeared on a wide variety of places , from street walls to airports and pens , and were put to pop music for public release . Gaddafi claimed that he disliked this personality cult , but that he tolerated it because Libya 's people adored him .
Biographers Blundy and Lycett believed that he was " a populist at heart . " Throughout Libya , crowds of supporters would turn up to public events at which he appeared ; described as " spontaneous demonstrations " by the government , there are recorded instances of groups being coerced or paid to attend . He was typically late to public events , and would sometimes not show up at all . Although Bianco thought he had a " gift for oratory " , he was considered a poor orator by biographers Blundy and Lycett . Biographer Daniel Kawczynski noted that Gaddafi was famed for his " lengthy , wandering " speeches , which typically involved criticising Israel and the U.S.
Gaddafi was notably confrontational in his approach to foreign powers , and generally shunned western ambassadors and diplomats , believing them to be spies . He once said that HIV was " a peaceful virus , not an aggressive virus " and assured attendees at the African Union that " if you are straight you have nothing to fear from AIDS " . He also said that the H1N1 influenza virus was a biological weapon manufactured by a foreign military , and he assured Africans that the tsetse fly and mosquito were " God 's armies which will protect us against colonialists " . Should these ' enemies ' come to Africa , " they will get malaria and sleeping sickness " .
Gaddafi was preoccupied with his own security , regularly changing where he slept and sometimes grounding all other planes in Libya when he was flying . He made very particular requests when traveling to foreign nations . During his trips to Rome , Paris , Madrid , Moscow , and New York City , he resided in a bulletproof tent , following his Bedouin traditions .
Starting in the 1980s , he travelled with his all @-@ female Amazonian Guard , who were allegedly sworn to a life of celibacy . However , according to psychologist Seham Sergewa , after the civil war several of the guards told her they had been pressured into joining and raped by Gaddafi and senior officials . He hired several Ukrainian nurses to care for him and his family 's health , and traveled everywhere with his trusted Ukrainian nurse Halyna Kolotnytska . Kolotnytska 's daughter denied the suggestion that the relationship was anything but professional .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Gaddafi remained a controversial and divisive figure on the world stage throughout his life and after death . Supporters praised Gaddafi 's administration for the creation of an almost classless society through domestic reform . They stress the regime 's achievements in combating homelessness and ensuring access to food and safe drinking water . Highlighting that under Gaddafi , all Libyans enjoyed free education to a university level , they point to the dramatic rise in literacy rates after the 1969 revolution . Supporters have also applauded achievements in medical care , praising the universal free healthcare provided under the Gaddafist administration , with diseases like cholera and typhoid being contained and life expectancy raised . Biographers Blundy and Lycett believed that under the first decade of Gaddafi 's leadership , life for most Libyans " undoubtedly changed for the better " as material conditions and wealth drastically improved , while Libyan studies specialist Lillian Craig Harris remarked that in the early years of his administration , Libya 's " national wealth and international influence soared , and its national standard of living has risen dramatically . " Such high standards declined during the 1980s , as a result of economic stagnation . Gaddafi claimed that his Jamahiriya was a " concrete utopia " , and that he had been appointed by " popular assent " , with some Islamic supporters believing that he exhibited barakah . His opposition to Western governments earned him the respect of many in the Euro @-@ American far right .
Critics labelled Gaddafi " despotic , cruel , arrogant , vain and stupid " , with western governments and press presenting him as the " vicious dictator of an oppressed people " . During the Reagan administration , the United States regarded him as " Public Enemy No. 1 " and Reagan famously dubbed him the " mad dog of the Middle East " . According to critics , the Libyan people lived in a climate of fear under Gaddafi 's administration , due to his government 's pervasive surveillance of civilians . Gaddafi 's Libya was typically described by western commentators as " a police state " . Opponents were critical of Libya 's human rights abuses ; according to Human Rights Watch ( HRW ) and others , hundreds of arrested political opponents often failed to receive a fair trial , and were sometimes subjected to torture or extrajudicial execution , most notably in the Abu Salim prison , including an alleged massacre on 29 June 1996 in which HRW estimated that 1 @,@ 270 prisoners were massacred . Dissidents abroad or " stray dogs " were also publicly threatened with death and sometimes killed by government hit squads . His government 's treatment of non @-@ Arab Libyans has also came in for criticism from human rights activists , with native Berbers , Italians , Jews , refugees , and foreign workers all facing persecution in Gaddafist Libya . According to journalist Annick Cojean and psychologist Seham Sergewa , Gaddafi and senior officials raped and imprisoned hundreds or thousands of young women and reportedly raped several of his female bodyguards . Gaddafi 's government was frequently criticized for not being democratic , with Freedom House consistently giving Libya under Gaddafi the " Not Free " ranking for civil liberties and political rights .
International reactions to Gaddafi 's death were divided . U.S. President Barack Obama stated that it meant that " the shadow of tyranny over Libya has been lifted , " while UK Prime Minister David Cameron stated that he was " proud " of his country 's role in overthrowing " this brutal dictator " . Contrastingly , former Cuban President Fidel Castro commented that in defying the rebels , Gaddafi would " enter history as one of the great figures of the Arab nations " , while Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez described him as " a great fighter , a revolutionary and a martyr . " Nelson Mandela expressed sadness at the news , praising Gaddafi for his anti @-@ apartheid stance , remarking that he backed the African National Congress during " the darkest moments of our struggle " . Gaddafi was mourned by many as a hero across Sub @-@ Saharan Africa , for instance , a vigil was held by Muslims in Sierra Leone . The Daily Times of Nigeria stated that while undeniably a dictator , Gaddafi was the most benevolent in a region that only knew dictatorship , and that he was " a great man that looked out for his people and made them the envy of all of Africa . " The Nigerian newspaper Leadership reported that while many Libyans and Africans would mourn Gaddafi , this would be ignored by western media and that as such it would take 50 years before historians decided whether he was " martyr or villain . "
Following his defeat in the civil war , Gaddafi 's system of governance was dismantled and replaced under the interim government of the NTC , who legalised trade unions and freedom of the press . In July 2012 , elections were held to form a new General National Congress ( GNC ) , who officially took over governance from the NTC in August . The GNC proceeded to elect Mohammed Magariaf as president of the chamber , and then voted Mustafa A.G. Abushagur as Prime Minister ; when Abushagar failed to gain congressional approval , the GNC instead elected Ali Zeidan to the position . In January 2013 , the GNC officially renamed the Jamahiriyah as the " State of Libya " .
= Lamentation ( Millennium ) =
" ' Lamentation " is the eighteenth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on April 18 , 1997 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter and directed by Winrich Kolbe . " Lamentation " featured guest appearances by Bill Smitrovich and Alex Diakun , and introduced Sarah @-@ Jane Redmond as Lucy Butler .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) searches for an escaped convict he had helped to catch , believing that the criminal 's new wife Lucy Butler ( Redmond ) may be helping him . However , Butler may instead be a much greater threat to Black and his family than he had anticipated .
" Lamentation " marked the death of recurring character Bob Bletcher , played by Smitrovich . Smitrovich had appeared intermittently since " Pilot " . The episode has been well @-@ received critically , described as a " pivotal point " in the series . It was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 5 million households in its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Seattle Police Department detective Bob Bletcher ( Bill Smitrovich ) are hiking across the North Cascades when Black receives an urgent page from the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Travelling to the Behavioral Sciences Unit , Black learns that serial killer Ephraim Fabricant ( Alex Diakun ) has escaped from a hospital while donating a kidney to his sister . Fabricant was arrested and convicted due to the profile constructed by Black ; although he was spared execution when Black asked for leniency in order to allow Fabricant 's mind to be studied .
Fellow Millennium Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) informs Black that , before his escape , Fabricant had married a correspondent he met through a prison pen @-@ pal service . Watts and Black interview the woman , Lucy Butler ( Sarah @-@ Jane Redmond ) , at her home . Butler is adamant she has not seen or heard from Fabricant since his escape . However , Black finds information on Butler 's computer which he believes is linked to his own home address ; and photographs of a judge who he recognizes as having been murdered .
Elsewhere , Fabricant is being operated on by a nurse whose face is hidden ; she removes the staples from his surgical incision . Black and Watts return to Butler 's home with a search warrant , having discovered that Butler 's young son had been killed with cyanide , and she had been suspected of the murder ; the judge had also been poisoned with the same substance .
Fabricant is found in a hospital emergency room , collapsing from his injuries . A doctor examines him and discovers his second kidney has been removed — without anaesthesia . Black 's home telephone number is found on Fabricant 's hospital bracelet . Back at Black 's home , his wife Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) finds a human kidney in her refrigerator . A strange man appears at the top of her staircase , and she runs to find her husband 's gun , which is missing . Bletcher arrives , letting Catherine know that her daughter Jordan is safe outside with a colleague of his . He searches the house for the intruder , finding Butler instead . As a bolt of lightning illuminates the scene , her face has distorted into that of a demon . Giebelhouse ( Stephen J. Lang ) later discovers Bletcher 's body hanging from a ceiling post , with his throat cut .
Meanwhile , Fabricant warns Black that he was taken from the hospital and operated on by the " sum of all evil " ; Fabricant also warns that this entity knows who Black is and what he is capable of . Returning home , Black discovers that Butler was arrested elsewhere for a motoring offence , but was released without charge . Black takes his daughter Jordan hiking over the same North Cascades trail he and Bletcher had visited earlier .
= = Production = =
" Lamentation " was the third of four episodes helmed by director Winrich Kolbe , who had previously worked on " Force Majeure " and " Kingdom Come " , and would return later in the first season for " Broken World " . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter . Beyond creating the concept for Millennium , Carter would write a total of six other episodes for the series in addition to " Lamentation " — three in the first season , and a further three in the third season .
The character Ephraim Fabricant was named for real @-@ life murderer Valery Fabrikant , a mechanical engineering professor who shot dead four of his colleagues in what became known as the Concordia University massacre . In addition , the character 's back @-@ story and demise were both intended to echo the case of Jack the Ripper — both were believed to be medically trained , while the use of Fabricant 's kidney to send a message is based on the From Hell letter , sent to the police by the Ripper along with one of his victims ' kidneys .
The episode features the death of the character Bob Bletcher . Smitrovich had first portrayed Bletcher in " Pilot " , appearing intermittently throughout the first season . Smitrovich 's final appearance would be in the following episode , " Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " .
" Lamentation " also introduces the character Lucy Butler , who would return in " Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " , as well as in the second season episode " A Room with No View " , and the third season episodes " Antipas " and " Saturn Dreaming of Mercury " . Redmond , admittedly a fan of Carter and recurring series director David Nutter , had initially auditioned for another episode of the first season , set to be directed by Nutter . Redmond did not get the part she auditioned for but was instead contacted about portraying a minor recurring role instead , which led to her casting as Butler .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Lamentation " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on April 18 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented 6 @.@ 5 million households , and left the episode the fifty @-@ seventh most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode an A , describing it as " an episode where the show crystallizes and clarifies its central mission " . VanDerWerff felt that episode 's first half was " bland " and " fairly staid " , but that its second half compensated for this , becoming " one of the best episodes of horror TV I ’ ve ever seen " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 5 out of 5 , calling it " one of the scariest , creepiest installments of the entire first season " . Gibron felt that " with the unexpected shock ending and a wonderfully suspenseful sequence in the Black home , this is one of the best episodes of Millennium " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Lamentation " five stars out of five , finding its first act to be " a classic piece of misdirection " . Shearman felt that " Lamentation " was " an intentional jolt to the show " , describing it as " a pivotal point " in a series which had been " radically redefining itself " .
= Poet Laureate of New Jersey =
The Poet Laureate of New Jersey ( statutorily known as New Jersey William Carlos Williams Citation of Merit ) was an honor presented biennially by the Governor of New Jersey to a distinguished New Jersey poet . Created in 1999 , this position existed for less than four years and was abolished by the legislature effective July 2 , 2003 . When the New Jersey State Legislature created the laureate position , the bill provided specifically for the creation of an award named in honor of twentieth @-@ century poet and physician William Carlos Williams ( 1883 – 1963 ) who resided in Rutherford , New Jersey . However , the legislature recognized that the award 's recipient would " be considered the poet laureate of the State of New Jersey for a period of two years . Before the position was abolished , only two poets , Gerald Stern and Amiri Baraka , had been appointed as the state 's poet laureate .
The legislature 's bill was signed into law by Governor Christine Todd Whitman . It was expected that the award 's recipient — the poet laureate — would " engage in activities to promote and encourage poetry within the State and shall give no fewer than two public readings within the State each year . " In this respect , New Jersey 's poet laureate was similar to the position of Poet laureate in other American states and in several other countries . However , a public reading in September 2002 by the state 's second laureate , Newark @-@ based poet Amiri Baraka of his poem " Somebody Blew Up America " was met with harsh criticism by the public and news media . The poem which explores terrorist attacks on September 11 , 2001 was considered to be violent , incendiary and anti @-@ Semitic , and the ensuing controversy ignited a political firestorm . Because of Baraka 's defiant refusals to apologize or resign as poet laureate and that there was no mechanism within the law to remove him , the position was abolished by the legislature and Governor James E. McGreevey in 2003 .
= = Establishing the position ( 1998 – 2000 ) = =
On December 10 , 1998 , Assemblyman Richard H. Bagger and Assemblyman Leonard Lance introduced legislation in the New Jersey General Assembly to establish an award called the New Jersey William Carlos Williams Citation of Merit , " which the Governor will present biennially to a distinguished New Jersey poet . " The award was named to honour William Carlos Williams ( 1883 – 1963 ) , a National Book Award and Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning poet and physician who practiced medicine in his birthplace of Rutherford , New Jersey . According to the bill , the person receiving this award would receive a $ 10 @,@ 000 honorarium and be considered the poet laureate of the State of New Jersey . This legislation , designed as Assembly Bill No. 2714 , passed the General Assembly on March 29 , 1999 with 72 votes in favour , 2 votes opposed . The bill was passed by the New Jersey State Senate on June 21 , 1999 with a vote of 39 in favour and none opposed . The bill was signed into law by Governor Christine Todd Whitman on October 4 , 1999 .
The statute provided that every two years , a panel of four persons from New Jersey " who are either distinguished poets or persons who represent a range of stylistic approaches in the field of poetry " and chosen by " the New Jersey Council for the Humanities , in consultation with the New Jersey State Council on the Arts " would convene to select candidates for the position for the consideration of the state 's governor . An incumbent poet laureate would be the fifth member of the panel that selected his successor . The governor alone would appoint the poet laureate by presenting him or her with the New Jersey William Carlos Williams Citation of Merit .
Pursuant to statute , the state 's poet laureate would serve for a term of two years in which the person appointed would be required to " engage in activities to promote and encourage poetry within the State and shall give no fewer than two public readings within the State each year . "
= = First poet laureate ( 2000 – 02 ) = =
Poet Gerald Stern ( born 1925 ) , from Lawrenceville , New Jersey , was appointed as the state 's first poet laureate by Governor Christine Todd Whitman on April 17 , 2000 . At the time of his appointment , Stern had been the author of twelve books of poetry and won the National Book Award for his 1998 collection This Time : New and Selected Poems . Stern had been a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1991 for his collection Leaving Another Kingdom . Poet and Drew University literature professor Ross Gay described Stern 's work , saying that his poems " feel to me , often , a bit like that story , or rather , his manner of telling it : here is my pain , here is my sorrow , here is the song I ’ ve made of it . " Stern 's last public reading as poet laureate was held on June 27 , 2002 at a Summer Writer 's Conference held at Rutgers University 's Camden campus .
= = Second poet laureate ( 2002 – 03 ) = =
= = = Appointment of Amiri Baraka = = =
Governor Jim McGreevey had announced the appointment of Newark @-@ born poet Amiri Baraka ( 1934 – 2014 ) as the state 's second poet laureate on August 28 , 2002 although his selection was expected at least two months earlier . Baraka , born Everett Leroy Jones , is an African @-@ American poet , playwright , and author of fiction , essays and music criticism . Baraka 's poetry and writing has attracted both acclaim and condemnation . Within the African @-@ American community , critics compare him to James Baldwin and call Baraka one of the most respected and most widely published Black writers of his generation . Others have said that his work often ventures into expressions of violence , racism , homophobia , and misogyny — particularly his advocacy of rape , hate , and violence towards women , homosexuals , Caucasians , and Jews .
The previous poet laureate , Gerald Stern , said that he advocated for Baraka 's selection because he " thought it was important for the black community to get recognition . " Slate.com political reporter David Weigel said that McGreevey 's selection of Baraka " was a no @-@ brainer — he was a sort of icon , and a major figure within a constituency McGreevey counted on " . At a ceremony in August 2002 , Baraka warned McGreevey that the decision to appoint him as poet laureate might be a mistake because of his controversial views , saying " You 're gonna catch hell for this " . After Baraka 's death in January 2014 , McGreevey said , " I named him poet laureate because I appreciated his art , his intelligence and his creative energy . I ’ ve always had great personal affect ( ion ) for him and recognized him as a gifted creative force . "
= = = Controversy over " Somebody Blew Up America " = = =
On September 20 , 2002 , Baraka incited a public controversy with a public reading of his poem " Somebody Blew Up America " in front of 2 @,@ 000 people at the September 2002 Geraldine R. Dodge Poetry Festival held in Stanhope , New Jersey . He was briefly booed by the audience . This poem , written in October 2001 , was read at the festival — held one year after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center — and was later published in his 2003 collection Somebody Blew Up America and Other Poems . This poem , and the collection in which it was included , is described by one critic as " one more mark in modern Black radical and revolutionary cultural reconstruction . " Princeton University poetry professor Craig Dworkin , said that he did not like the poem , but added " I do like the sense that a poet can be disturbing and not necessarily comforting or consensus @-@ building . " Immediately after its public reading , the poem met with harsh criticism by literary critics , politicians , and the public . The poem is highly critical of racism in America , and includes angry depictions of public figures such as Rudolph Giuliani , Trent Lott , Clarence Thomas , Condoleezza Rice , Colin Powell and Ward Connerly . It was also considered anti @-@ Semitic because of lines claiming Israel 's involvement in the World Trade Center attacks , and supporting the theory that the United States government knew about the 9 / 11 attacks in advance .
In comments a week after this reading , Baraka was quoted by New Jersey 's largest newspaper The Star @-@ Ledger : " The Israelis knew about it just like Bush knew about it , just like the Germans knew about it , just like the French knew about it . Bush couldn ’ t hope for a better legitimization of his trying to make the Middle East a gas station . " Despite this , Baraka denies that his poem is anti @-@ Semitic pointing to the accusation in the poem 's text which he claims is directed only against Israelis rather than Jews as a people . The Anti @-@ Defamation League denounced the poem as antisemitic and have pointed to several examples of a long pattern of anti @-@ Semitism in his work and public statements though Baraka and his defenders defined his position as Anti @-@ Zionism .
Commenting on Baraka 's poem and the resulting controversy , the state 's first poet laureate Gerald Stern stated that he was " shocked at the stupidity of it " and remarked that the response to it was difficult to weigh — that although " we don 't censor poets ... lies never serve good , and there was hate in it . "
After Baraka 's public reading , Governor McGreevey sought to remove Baraka from the poet laureate post . Baraka refused to resign and defied the state 's right to remove him . On October 2 , Baraka posting a defiant statement on his website stating in capital letters " I WILL NOT ' APOLOGIZE ' , I WILL NOT ' RESIGN ! ' " McGreevey and state officials learned that there was no legal way to remove Baraka in the law authorizing and defining the position . However , the city of Newark supported Baraka and his work , and responded to the attempts to remove him as poet laureate by appointing him to be the poet laureate of the Newark Public Schools in December 2002 .
= = = Repeal and aftermath = = =
On October 17 , 2002 , legislation was introduced in the General Assembly to abolish the post . It was one of several bills offered to amend the law , make a declarative legislative statement in support of Baraka 's resignation , or abolish the post . This bill sought to abolish the post and offered only two brief provisions to effect that goal :
The bill , proposed in the New Jersey State Senate passed in the senate with 21 votes supporting it and 19 abstentions . It passed the General Assembly by a 69 @-@ 2 vote . This act was subsequently signed into law by Governor McGreevey on July 2 , 2003 and it became effective immediately . Baraka ceased being poet laure
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that it may be unsafe or condemned after even a fairly short period . This problem is exacerbated in hot climates , where chemical reactions are faster , and is more prevalent where filling staff are badly trained or overworked .
The blast caused by a sudden release of the gas pressure inside a diving cylinder makes them very dangerous if mismanaged . The greatest risk of explosion exists while filling , but cylinders have also been known to burst when overheated . The cause of failure can range from reduced wall thickness or deep pitting due to internal corrosion , neck thread failure due to incompatible valve threads , or cracking due to fatigue , sustained high stresses , or overheating effects in aluminum .
= = Inspection and testing = =
Most countries require diving cylinders to be checked on a regular basis . This usually consists of an internal visual inspection and a hydrostatic test . The inspection and testing requirements for scuba cylinders may be very different from the requirements for other compressed gas containers due to the more corrosive environment .
In the United States , an annual visual inspection is not required by the USA DOT , though they do require a hydrostatic test every five years . The visual inspection requirement is a diving industry standard based on observations made during a review by the National Underwater Accident Data Center .
In European Union countries a visual inspection is required every 2 @.@ 5 years , and a hydrostatic test every five years .
In Norway a hydrostatic test ( including a visual inspection ) is required 3 years after production date , then every 2 years .
Legislation in Australia requires that cylinders are hydrostatically tested every twelve months .
In South Africa a hydrostatic test is required every 4 years , and visual inspection every year . Eddy current testing of neck threads must be done according to the manufacturer 's recommendations .
A hydrostatic test involves pressurising the cylinder to its test pressure ( usually 5 / 3 or 3 / 2 of the working pressure ) and measuring its volume before and after the test . A permanent increase in volume above the tolerated level means the cylinder fails the test and must be permanently removed from service .
An inspection includes external and internal inspection for damage , corrosion , and correct colour and markings . The failure criteria vary according to the published standards of the relevant authority , but may include inspection for bulges , overheating , dents , gouges , electrical arc scars , pitting , line corrosion , general corrosion , cracks , thread damage , defacing of permanent markings , and colour coding .
When a cylinder is manufactured , its specification , including manufacturer , working pressure , test pressure , date of manufacture , capacity and weight are stamped on the cylinder .
After a cylinder passes the test , the test date , ( or the test expiry date in some countries such as Germany ) , is punched into the shoulder of the cylinder for easy verification at fill time . There is an international standard for the stamp format .
Compressor operators may be required to check these details before filling the cylinder and may refuse to fill non @-@ standard or out @-@ of @-@ test cylinders .
= = Safety = =
Before any cylinder is filled , verification of testing dates and a visual examination for external damage and corrosion are required by law in some jurisdictions , and are prudent even if not legally required at other places . Test dates can be checked by looking at the visual inspection sticker and the hydro @-@ test date is stamped on top of the cylinder .
Before use the user should verify the contents of the cylinder and check the function of the cylinder valve . This is usually done with a regulator connected to control the flow . Pressure and gas mixture are critical information for the diver , and the valve should open freely without sticking or leaks from the spindle seals . Breathing gas bled from a cylinder may be checked for smell . If the gas does not smell right it should not be used . Breathing gas should be almost free of smell , though a very slight aroma of the compressor lubricant is fairly common . No smell of combustion products or volatile hydrocarbons should be discernible . Failure to recognize that the gas was not on or that cylinder was empty by divers conducting a pre @-@ dive evaluation has been noted .
A neatly assembled setup , with regulators , gauges , and delicate computers stowed inside the BCD , or clipped where they will not be walked on , and stowed under the boat bench or secured to a rack , is the practice of a competent diver .
As the scuba set is a life support system , no unauthorised person should touch a diver 's gear , even to move it , without their knowledge and approval .
Full cylinders should not be exposed to temperatures above 65 ° C and cylinders should not be filled to pressures greater than the developed pressure appropriate to the certified working pressure of the cylinder .
Cylinders should be clearly labelled with their current contents . A generic " Nitrox " or " Trimix " label will alert the user that the contents may not be air , and must be analysed before use . In some parts of the world a label is required specifically indicating that the contents are air , and in other places a colour code without additional labels indicates by default that the contents are air .
In a fire , the pressure in a gas cylinder rises in direct proportion to its absolute temperature . If the internal pressure exceeds the mechanical limitations of the cylinder and there are no means to safely vent the pressurized gas to the atmosphere , the vessel will fail mechanically . If the vessel contents are ignitable or a contaminant is present this event may result in an explosion .
= = = Accidents = = =
The major diving accident and fatality research studies that have been conducted globally including work by the Divers Alert Network , the Diving Incident Monitoring Study , and Project Stickybeak have each identified cases where the mortality was associated with the diving cylinder .
Some recorded accidents associated with diving cylinders :
Valve ejected due to mix up with valve threads 3 / 4 " NPSM and 3 / 4 " BSP ( F ) caused damage to a dive shop compressor room .
Dive Instructor leg nearly amputated by ejected valve while attempting to remove valve from pressurised cylinder .
Valve ejected during filling due to thread failure , sank dive boat . Bursting disks in cylinder valves replaced by solid bolts .
Filling hose failure severely injured operator when hose hit his face . Wound exposed jaw bone . 14 stitches to close the wound .
Cases of lateral epicondylitis have been reported caused by the handling of diving cylinders .
= = = Handling = = =
Cylinders should not be left standing unattended unless secured so that they can not fall in reasonably foreseeable circumstances as an impact could damage the cylinder valve mechanism , and conceivably fracture the valve at the neck threads . This is more likely with taper thread valves , and when it happens most of the energy of the compressed gas is released within a second , and can accelerate the cylinder to speeds which can cause severe injury or damage to the surroundings .
= = = Long term storage = = =
Breathing quality gases do not normally deteriorate during storage in steel or aluminium cylinders . Provided there is insufficient water content to promote internal corrosion , the stored gas will remain unchanged for years if stored at temperatures within the allowed working range for the cylinder , usually below 65 ° C. If there is any doubt , a check of oxygen fraction will indicate whether the gas has changed ( the other components are inert ) . Any unusual smells would be an indication that the cylinder or gas was contaminated at the time of filling . However some authorities recommend releasing most of the contents and storing cylinders with a small positive pressure .
= = = Transportation = = =
Diving cylinders are classified by the UN as dangerous goods for transportation purposes ( US : Hazardous materials ) . Selecting the Proper Shipping Name ( well known by the abbreviation PSN ) is a way to help ensure that the dangerous goods offered for transport accurately represent the hazards .
IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations ( DGR ) 55th Edition defines the Proper Shipping Name as " the name to be used to describe a particular article or substance in all shipping documents and notifications and , where appropriate , on packagings " .
The International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code ( IMDG Code ) defines the Proper Shipping Name as " that portion of the entry most accurately describing the goods in the Dangerous Goods List which is shown in upper @-@ case characters ( plus any letters which form an integral part of the name ) . "
= = = = International air = = = =
International Civil Aviation Organisation ( ICAO ) Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air states that provided that pressure in diving cylinders is less than 200 kilopascals ( 2 bar ; 29 psi ) , these can be carried as checked in or carry @-@ on baggage . It maybe necessary to empty the cylinder to verify this . Once emptied , the cylinder valve should be closed to prevent moisture entering the cylinder . Security restrictions implemented by individual countries may further limit or forbid the carriage of some items permitted by ICAO , and airlines and security screening agencies have the right to refuse the carriage of certain items .
= = = = Europe = = = =
Since 1996 the carriage of dangerous goods legislation of the UK has been harmonized with that of Europe .
Road transport
The 2009 ( amended 2011 ) UK Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment Regulations ( CDG Regulations ) implement the European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road ( ADR ) . Dangerous goods to be carried internationally in road vehicles must comply with standards for the packaging and labelling of the dangerous goods , and appropriate construction and operating standards for the vehicles and crew .
The regulations cover transportation of gas cylinders in a vehicle in a commercial environment . Transportation of pressurised diving gas cylinders with a combined water capacity of less than 1000 litres on a vehicle for personal use is exempt from ADR .
Transport of gas cylinders in a vehicle , for commercial purposes , must follow basic legal safety requirements and , unless specifically exempted , must comply with ADR . The driver of the vehicle is legally responsible for the safety of the vehicle and any load being carried , and insurance for the vehicle should include cover for the carriage of dangerous goods .
Diving gases , including compressed air , oxygen , nitrox , heliox , trimix , helium and argon , are non @-@ toxic , non flammable , and may be oxidizer or asphyxiant , and are rated in Transport category 3 . The threshold quantity for these gases is 1000 litres combined water capacity of the cylinders . Pressure must be within the rated working pressure of the cylinder . Empty air cylinders at atmospheric pressure are rated in Transport category 4 , and there is no threshold quantity .
Commercial loads below the 1000 litres threshold level are exempt from some of the requirements of ADR , but must comply with basic legal and safety requirements , including :
Driver training
Cylinders should be transported in open vehicles , open containers or trailers , with a gas @-@ tight bulkhead separating driver from load . If cylinders must be carried inside a vehicle it must be well ventilated .
Ventilation . Where gas cylinders are carried inside a vehicle , in the same space as people , the windows should be kept open to allow air to circulate .
Cylinders must be secured so that they cannot move during transport . They shall not project beyond the sides or ends of the vehicle . It is recommended that cylinders are transported vertically , secured in an appropriate pallet .
Cylinder valves must be closed whilst in transit and checked that there are no leaks . Where applicable , protective valve caps and covers should be fitted to cylinders before transporting . Cylinders should not be transported with equipment attached to the valve outlet ( regulators , hoses etc . ) .
A fire extinguisher is required on the vehicle .
Gas cylinders may only be transported if they are in @-@ date for periodic inspection and test , except they may be transported when out of date for inspection , testing or disposal .
Cylinders should be kept cool ( at ambient temperatures ) and not stowed in places where they will be exposed to sources of excessive heat .
Product identification labels attached to cylinders to identify the contents and provide safety advice must not be removed or defaced .
It is not necessary to mark and label the vehicle if carrying dangerous goods below the threshold level . The use of hazard labels can assist the emergency services , and they may be displayed , but all hazard labels must be removed when the relevant dangerous goods are not being transported .
When the journey is complete the gas cylinders should be immediately unloaded from the vehicle .
All loads above the threshold must comply with the full requirements of ADR .
= = = = USA = = = =
Transportation of hazardous materials for commercial purposes in the USA is regulated by Code of Federal Regulations Title 49 - Transportation , ( abbreviated 49 CFR ) . A cylinder containing 200 kPa ( 29 @.@ 0 psig / 43 @.@ 8 psia ) or greater at 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) of non @-@ flammable , nonpoisonous compressed gas , and being transported for commercial purposes is classified as HAZMAT ( hazardous materials ) in terms of 49 CFR 173 @.@ 115 ( b ) ( 1 ) . Cylinders manufactured to DOT standards or special permits ( exemptions ) issued by the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration and filled to the authorized working pressure are legal for commercial transport in the USA under the provisions and conditions of the regulations . Cylinders manufactured outside the USA may be transported under a special permit , and these have been issued for solid metal and composite cylinders with working pressures of up to 300 bar ( 4400 psi ) by several manufacturers .
Surface transport
Commercial transportation of breathing gas cylinders with a combined weight of more than 1000 pounds may only be done by a commercial HAZMAT transportation company . Transport of cylinders with a combined weight of less than 1000 pounds requires a manifest , the cylinders must have been tested and inspected to federal standards , and the contents marked on each cylinder . Transportation must be done in a safe manner , with the cylinders restrained from movement . No special licence is required . DOT regulations require content labels for all cylinders under the regulations , but according to PSI , labelling of breathing air will not be enforced . Oxygen or non @-@ air oxidizing ( 23 @.@ 5 + % O2 ) mixtures must be labelled . Private ( non @-@ commercial ) transport of scuba cylinders is not covered by this regulation .
Air transport
Empty scuba tanks or scuba tanks pressurized at less than 200 kPa are not restricted as hazardous materials . Scuba cylinders are only allowed in checked baggage or as a carry @-@ on if the cylinder valve is completely disconnected from the cylinder and the cylinder has an open end to allow for a visual inspection inside .
= = Gas cylinder colour @-@ coding and labeling = =
= = = Worldwide = = =
The colours permitted for diving cylinders vary considerably by region , and to some extent by the gas mixture contained .
In some parts of the world there is no legislation controlling the colour of diving cylinders . In other regions the colour of cylinders used for commercial diving , or for all underwater diving may be specified by national standards .
In many recreational diving settings where air and nitrox are the widely used gases , nitrox cylinders are identified with a green stripe on yellow background . Aluminium diving cylinders may be painted or anodized and when anodized may be coloured or left in their natural silver . Steel diving cylinders are usually painted , to reduce corrosion , often yellow or white to increase visibility . In some industrial cylinder identification colour tables , yellow shoulders means chlorine and more generally within Europe it refers to cylinders with toxic and / or corrosive contents ; but this is of no significance in scuba since gas fittings would not be compatible .
Cylinders that are used for partial pressure gas blending with pure oxygen may also be required to display an " oxygen service certificate " label indicating they have been prepared for use with high partial pressures and gas fractions of oxygen .
= = = European Union = = =
In the European Union gas cylinders may be colour @-@ coded according to EN 1098 @-@ 3 . In the UK this standard is optional . The " shoulder " is the domed top of the cylinder between the parallel section and the pillar valve . For mixed gases , the colours can be either bands or " quarters " .
Air has either a white ( RAL 9010 ) top and black ( RAL 9005 ) band on the shoulder , or white ( RAL 9010 ) and black ( RAL 9005 ) " quartered " shoulders .
Heliox has either a white ( RAL 9010 ) top and brown ( RAL 8008 ) band on the shoulder , or white ( RAL 9010 ) and brown ( RAL 8008 ) " quartered " shoulders .
Nitrox , like Air , has either a white ( RAL 9010 ) top and black ( RAL 9005 ) band on the shoulder , or white ( RAL 9010 ) and black ( RAL 9005 ) " quartered " shoulders .
Pure oxygen has a white shoulder ( RAL 9010 ) .
Pure helium has a brown shoulder ( RAL 9008 ) .
Trimix has a white , black and brown segmented shoulder .
These breathing gas cylinders must also be labeled with their contents . The label should state the type of breathing gas contained by the cylinder .
= = = = Offshore = = = =
Breathing gas containers for offshore use may be coded and marked according to IMCA D043 .
IMCA colour coding for individual cylinders allows the body of the cylinder to be any colour that is not likely to cause misinterpretation of the hazard identified by the colour code of the shoulder .
= = = South Africa = = =
Scuba cylinders are required to comply with the colours and markings specified in SANS 10019 : 2006 .
Cylinder colour is Golden yellow with a French grey shoulder .
Cylinders containing gases other than air or medical oxygen must have a transparent adhesive label stuck on below the shoulder with the word NITROX or TRIMIX in green and the composition of the gas listed .
Cylinders containing medical oxygen must be black with a white shoulder .
= Nevill Ground =
The Nevill Ground is a cricket venue located in Royal Tunbridge Wells , Kent , England . It is owned by Tunbridge Wells Borough Council and is used by Tunbridge Wells CC as well as annually for Tunbridge Wells Cricket Week by Kent County Cricket Club . It was opened in 1898 and was first used by Kent in 1901 and has been used by them annually since then , despite a suffragette arson attack that destroyed the pavilion in 1913 .
It played host to one One Day International during the 1983 Cricket World Cup , the group stage match between India and Zimbabwe in which Kapil Dev made a score of 175 not out . The Nevill Ground is known for having rhododendron bushes around the perimeter .
= = History = =
The Nevill Ground was established in 1895 after the purchase of the land by the Tunbridge Wells Cricket , Football and Athletic Club , with assistance from the Bluemantle Cricket Club . It was purchased on a 99 @-@ year lease from the Marquess of Abergavenny as the land was part of his Eridge Park estate . The Nevill Ground was named after William Nevill , 1st Marquess of Abergavenny . Building of the ground 's facilities started in 1896 with it being officially opened by the Marquess of Abergavenny in 1898 . In the early 20th century , the county boundary between Kent and East Sussex ran through the Nevill Ground 's pitch . Rhododendron bushes were also planted in the Nevill Ground 's early history . The rhododendrons around the pitch are considered by cricket commentators as one of the defining images of the Nevill Ground . The end opposite the pavilion is known as the Railway End due to the Hastings Line running close by that end of the ground .
The first pavilion was designed by architect C. H. Strange . It was built in 1903 at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 200 and was destroyed in a suffragette arson attack in April 1913 . During the First World War , the Nevill Ground was requisitioned by the British army to graze cavalry horses . This damaged the pitch and it took a few years for it to recover . During the Second World War , the Nevill Ground was again requisitioned for military purposes , this time to hold soldiers . In 1946 , ownership of the ground was transferred from the Tunbridge Wells Cricket , Football and Athletic Club to Tunbridge Wells Borough Council .
In 1995 , a permanent brick stand was built and became known as the Bluemantle Stand after the Bluemantle Cricket Club members who helped to build it . The Bluemantle Stand was built on the site of the original pavilion . Every Tunbridge Wells Cricket Week , Tunbridge Wells Borough Council erects a temporary grandstand at the Nevill Ground .
= = = 1913 arson = = =
On 11 April 1913 , the cricket pavilion was burnt down by militant suffragettes due to Kent having a policy of no @-@ admittance to women . The fire was started in the dressing rooms with the perpetrator setting fire to cricket nets that were being stored in there . The fire was discovered by a passing lamplighter . The fire brigade extinguished the fire in an hour , too late to save the pavilion . In front of the remains of the pavilion , firemen found suffragette literature , an electric lantern and a picture of Emmeline Pankhurst . The fire also destroyed photographs of the first Canterbury Cricket Week and the Bluemantle Cricket Club 's archives . The attack may have been provoked by a comment from an unknown Kent official who is reported to have said " It is not true that women are banned from the pavilion . Who do you think makes the teas ? "
There was an angry reaction to the attack locally and nationally . The National League for Opposing Woman Suffrage held a meeting in the town with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle attending , where he called the suffragettes " female hooligans " and compared the attack to " blowing up a blind man and his dog " . A new pavilion was built using the original designs after a series of fund raising concerts at the Opera House at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 200 . Construction was finished in 9 weeks , being completed hours before Kent were due to play at the Tunbridge Wells Cricket Week in July 1913 . Nevill Ground was the only cricket ground to be attacked by suffragettes .
= = Usage = =
The Nevill Ground is used regularly by Kent Cricket League team , Tunbridge Wells CC . It is also used to host field hockey and is used by Tunbridge Wells Hockey Club . It was formerly used to host association football however the Nevill Ground stopped hosting football in 1903 . It is also home to the town 's athletics club Tunbridge Wells Harriers . Kent County Cricket Club use the ground as one of its outgrounds for two or three County Matches a year . Two first @-@ class matches were played every year until 1992 , when the number was reduced to one . However , since the demise of Mote Park in Maidstone , Tunbridge Wells regained an extra fixture .
The Nevill Ground was first used as an outground by Kent in 1901 at the behest of George Harris , 4th Baron Harris . In order to assist Kent , Tunbridge Wells Borough Council contribute £ 25 @,@ 000 to cover the running costs of hosting Kent 's games at the Nevill Ground . The Nevill Ground was popular with Kent 's players due to its surroundings and it was described by cricket historian , E. W. Swanton as " no mean contender for the most delectable English cricket ground . "
In 2012 , Kent 's Friends Life Twenty20 match against Sussex was moved to the St Lawrence Ground after the Nevill Ground was flooded after heavy rainfall leading to the 100th Tunbridge Wells Cricket Week being cut short .
= = = 1983 World Cup = = =
The Nevill Ground was selected as one of the host grounds for the 1983 Cricket World Cup . It hosted one group stage match between India and Zimbabwe on 18 June 1983 . Kapil Dev scored 175 not out after India were 9 – 4 , which helped India win by 31 runs and qualify into the semi @-@ finals , thus avoiding a play @-@ off against Australia . Dev 's partnership with Syed Kirmani set a world record for the largest ninth wicket stand of 126 . This match led to the Nevill Ground being held in high regard by Indian cricket fans with there being a view that the game at the Nevill Ground inspired a change in the way cricket was played in India . This led to players such as Sachin Tendulkar and Rahul Dravid playing for India in later years .
There was no official footage taken of the match since the BBC was on strike on the day of the match , the Nevill Ground being ruled as too small with India and Zimbabwe being deemed too " irrelevant " for a camera crew to be sent to the match . Despite this there were reports of an Indian who filmed unofficial coverage of the match with a camcorder . The tape was purchased by Dev after the match for an unknown amount . However , it has been claimed that this is an urban legend and that there was no proof of this occurring .
In 2008 , to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the game , Dev returned to the Nevill Ground to film a news segment . Afterwards he was welcomed by representatives of Kent County Cricket Club and Tunbridge Wells Borough Council .
= = = 1993 Women 's World Cup = = =
In 1993 , The Nevill Ground was selected as one of the venues used in the 1993 Women 's Cricket World Cup . It hosted one match between Australia and the West Indies , which Australia won by 8 wickets .
= = Records = =
1913 ( 1913 ) : Kent dismissed Warwickshire for 16 runs . This was the lowest score by a first @-@ class team scored against Kent .
1960 ( 1960 ) : Kent 's County Championship match at the Nevill Ground against Worcestershire was to date , the last first @-@ class match to finish in less than a day . After the match , Kent 's Colin Cowdrey called the pitch " disgraceful " .
1983 ( 1983 ) : Kapil Dev 's 175 not out against Zimbabwe was a One Day International record for the highest individual runs scored . This record was later beaten by Viv Richards .
1983 ( 1983 ) : Kapil Dev and Syed Kirmani set the world record for the highest ninth wicket partnership of 126 not out at the Nevill Ground . This record stood for 27 years before being beaten by Angelo Mathews and Lasith Malinga for Sri Lanka .
2015 ( 2015 ) : Kent scored 688 for 8 declared against Essex , the highest score by the county on a home ground and the third highest in county history .
= Tadeusz Kościuszko =
Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Kościuszko ( Andrew Thaddeus Bonaventure Kościuszko ; February 4 or 12 , 1746 – October 15 , 1817 ) was a Polish – Lithuanian military engineer and a military leader who became a national hero in Poland , Lithuania , Belarus , and the United States . He fought in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth 's struggles against Russia and Prussia , and on the American side in the American Revolutionary War . As Supreme Commander of the Polish National Armed Forces , he led the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising .
Kościuszko was born in February 1746 in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , in a village that is now in Belarus ; his exact birthdate is unknown . At age 20 , he graduated from the Corps of Cadets in Warsaw , Poland , but after the outbreak of a civil war involving the Bar Confederation in 1768 , Kościuszko moved to France in 1769 to pursue further studies . He returned to Poland in 1774 , two years after its First Partition , and took a position as tutor in Józef Sylwester Sosnowski 's household . After Kościuszko attempted to elope with his employer 's daughter and was severely beaten by the father 's retainers , he returned to France . In 1776 , Kościuszko moved to North America , where he took part in the American Revolutionary War as a colonel in the Continental Army . An accomplished military architect , he designed and oversaw the construction of state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art fortifications , including those at West Point , New York . In 1783 , in recognition of his services , the Continental Congress promoted him to brigadier general .
Returning to Poland in 1784 , Kościuszko was commissioned a major general in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Army in 1789 . After the Polish – Russian War of 1792 had resulted in the Second Partition of Poland , he organized an uprising against Russia in March 1794 , serving as its Naczelnik ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) . Russian forces captured him at the Battle of Maciejowice in October 1794 . The defeat of the Kościuszko Uprising that November led to Poland 's Third Partition in 1795 , which ended the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth 's independent existence for 123 years . In 1796 , following the death of Tsaritsa Catherine the Great , Kościuszko was pardoned by her successor , Tsar Paul I , and he emigrated to the United States . A close friend of Thomas Jefferson , with whom he shared ideals of human rights , Kościuszko wrote a will in 1798 dedicating his American assets to the education and freedom of U.S. slaves . He eventually returned to Europe and lived in Switzerland until his death in 1817 . The execution of his will later proved difficult and the funds were never used for the purpose he had intended .
= = Early life = =
Kościuszko was born in February 1746 in the village of Mereczowszczyzna ( since 1945 Merechevschina , Belarus ) , a folwark near the town of Kosów Poleski ( since 1945 Kosava , Belarus ) . His exact birthdate is unknown ; commonly cited are February 4 and February 12 . The area lay within the Polesie region , then in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , a part of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth .
Kościuszko was the youngest son of a member of the szlachta ( nobility ) , Ludwik Tadeusz Kościuszko , an officer in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Army , and his wife Tekla , née Ratomska . The Kościuszkos held the Polish Roch III coat of arms . At the time of Tadeusz Kościuszko 's birth , the family possessed modest landholdings in the Grand Duchy , which were worked by 31 peasant families .
Tadeusz was baptized by the Roman Catholic church and the Orthodox Church , thereby receiving the names Andrzej , Tadeusz , and Bonawentura . His paternal family was ethnically Lithuanian – Ruthenian and traced their ancestry to Konstanty Fiodorowicz Kostiuszko , a courtier of Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund I the Old . Kościuszko 's maternal family , the Ratomskis , were also Ruthenian .
Modern Belarusian writers interpret his Ruthenian or Lithuanian heritage as Belarusian . He once described himself as a Litvin , a term that denoted inhabitants , of whatever ethnicity , of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , within the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . Modern Belarusian writers interpret Litvin as designating a Belarusian , before the word " Belarusian " had come into use . Kościuszko , however , did not speak the Belarusian language ; his family had become Polonized as early as the 16th century . Like most Polish – Lithuanian nobility of the time , the Kościuszkos spoke Polish and identified with Polish culture .
In 1755 , Kościuszko began attending school in Lyubeshiv , but never finished due to his family 's financial straits after his father 's death in 1758 . Poland 's King Stanisław August Poniatowski established a Corps of Cadets ( Korpus Kadetów ) in 1765 , at what is now Warsaw University , to educate military officers and government officials . Kościuszko enrolled in the Corps on December 18 , 1765 , likely thanks to the patronage of the Czartoryski family . The school emphasized military subjects and the liberal arts , and after graduating on December 20 , 1766 , Kościuszko was promoted to chorąży ( a military rank roughly equivalent to modern lieutenant ) ; he stayed on as a student instructor and by 1768 had attained the rank of captain .
= = = European travels = = =
In 1768 , civil war broke out in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , when the Bar Confederation sought to depose King Stanisław August Poniatowski . One of Kościuszko 's brothers , Józef , fought on the side of the insurgents . Faced with a difficult choice between the rebels and his sponsors — the King and the Czartoryski family , who favored a gradualist approach to shedding Russian domination — Kościuszko chose to leave Poland . In late 1769 , he and a colleague , the noted artist Aleksander Orłowski , were granted royal scholarships , and on October 5 they set off for Paris . They wanted to further their military education , but as foreigners they were barred from enrolling in French military academies , and so they enrolled instead in the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture . There Kościuszko pursued his interest in drawing and painting and took private lessons in architecture from the noted French architect Jean @-@ Rodolphe Perronet .
Kościuszko , however , did not give up on improving his military knowledge . He audited lectures for five years and frequented the libraries of the Paris military academies . His exposure to the French Enlightenment , along with the religious tolerance practiced in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , strongly influenced his later career . The French economic theory of physiocracy made a particularly strong impression on his thinking . He also developed his artistic skills , and while his career would take him in a different direction , all his life he continued drawing and painting .
In the First Partition of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772 , Russia , Prussia and Austria annexed large swaths of Polish – Lithuanian territory and gained influence over the internal politics of the reduced Polish and Lithuanian states . When Kościuszko finally returned home in 1774 , he found that his brother Józef had squandered most of the family fortune , and there was no place for him in the Army , as he could not afford to buy an officer 's commission . He took a position as tutor to the family of the magnate , province governor ( voivode ) and hetman Józef Sylwester Sosnowski and fell in love with the governor 's daughter Ludwika . Their elopement was thwarted by her father 's retainers . Kościuszko received a thrashing at their hands , an event that may have led to his later antipathy to class distinctions . In the autumn of 1775 , he decided to emigrate to avoid Sosnowski and his retainers . In late 1775 , he attempted to join the Saxon army but was turned down and decided to return to Paris . There he learned of the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , in which the British colonies in North America had revolted against the crown and begun their struggle for independence . The first American successes were well @-@ publicized in France , and the French people and government openly supported the revolutionaries ' cause .
= = American Revolutionary War = =
On learning of the American Revolution , Kościuszko , himself a man of revolutionary aspirations , sympathetic to the American cause and an advocate of human rights , sailed for America in June 1776 along with other foreign officers , likely with the help of a French supporter of the American revolutionaries , Pierre Beaumarchais . On August 30 , 1776 , Kościuszko submitted an application to the Second Continental Congress ; he was assigned to the Continental Army the next day .
= = = Northern region = = =
Kościuszko 's first task was building fortifications at Fort Billingsport in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , to protect the banks of the Delaware River and prevent a possible British advance up the river to Philadelphia . He initially served as a volunteer in the employ of Benjamin Franklin , but on October 18 , 1776 , Congress commissioned him a colonel of engineers in the Continental Army .
In spring 1777 , Kościuszko was attached to the Northern Army under Major General Horatio Gates , arriving at the Canadian border in May 1777 . Subsequently posted to Fort Ticonderoga , he reviewed the defenses of what had been one of the most formidable fortresses in North America . His surveys prompted him to strongly recommend the construction of a battery on Sugar Loaf , a high point overlooking the fort . His prudent recommendation , in which his fellow engineers concurred , was turned down by the garrison commander , Brigadier General Arthur St. Clair .
This proved a tactical blunder : when a British army under General John Burgoyne arrived in July 1777 , Burgoyne did exactly what Kościuszko had warned of and had his engineers place artillery on the hill . With the British in complete control of the high ground , the Americans realized their situation was hopeless and abandoned the fortress with hardly a shot fired in the Siege of Ticonderoga . The British advance force nipped hard on the heels of the outnumbered and exhausted Continentals as they fled south . Major General Philip Schuyler , desperate to put distance between his men and their pursuers , ordered Kościuszko to delay the enemy . Kościuszko designed an engineer 's solution : his men felled trees , dammed streams , and destroyed bridges and causeways . Encumbered by their huge supply train , the British began to bog down , giving the Americans the time needed to safely withdraw across the Hudson River .
Gates tapped Kościuszko to survey the country between the opposing armies , choose the most defensible position , and fortify it . Finding just such a position near Saratoga , overlooking the Hudson at Bemis Heights , Kościuszko laid out a strong array of defenses , nearly impregnable from any direction . His judgment and meticulous attention to detail frustrated the British attacks during the Battle of Saratoga , and Gates accepted the surrender of Burgoyne 's force there on October 16 , 1777 . The dwindling British army had been dealt a sound defeat , turning the tide to an American advantage . Kościuszko 's work at Saratoga received great praise from Gates , who later told his friend Dr. Benjamin Rush : " [ T ] he great tacticians of the campaign were hills and forests , which a young Polish engineer was skillful enough to select for my encampment . "
At some point in 1777 , Kościuszko composed a polonaise and scored it for the harpsichord . Named for him , and with lyrics by Rajnold Suchodolski , it later became popular with Polish patriots during the November 1830 Uprising . Around that time , Kościuszko was assigned a black orderly , Agrippa Hull , whom he would treat as an equal and a friend .
In March 1778 Kościuszko arrived at West Point , New York , and spent more than two years strengthening the fortifications and improving the stronghold 's defenses . It was these defenses that the American General Benedict Arnold subsequently attempted to surrender to the British when he became a traitor . Soon after Kościuszko had finished fortifying West Point , in August 1780 , General George Washington granted Kościuszko 's request to transfer to combat duty with the Southern Army . Kościuszko 's West Point fortifications would be widely praised as innovative for the time .
= = = Southern region = = =
After traveling south through rural Virginia in October 1780 , Kościuszko proceeded to North Carolina to report to his former commander General Gates . However , following Gates ' disastrous defeat at Camden on August 16 , 1780 , the Continental Congress had selected Washington 's choice , Major General Nathanael Greene , to replace the disgraced Gates as commander of the Southern Department . When Greene formally assumed command on December 3 , 1780 , he retained Kościuszko as his chief engineer . By then , he had been praised by both Gates and Greene .
Over the course of this campaign , Kościuszko was placed in command of building bateaux , siting the location for camps , scouting river crossings , fortifying positions , and developing intelligence contacts . Many of his contributions were instrumental in preventing the destruction of the Southern Army . This was especially so during the famous " Race to the Dan " , when British General Charles Cornwallis chased Greene across 200 miles ( 320 km ) of rough back country in January and February 1781 . Thanks largely to a combination of Greene 's tactics , and Kościuszko 's bateaux , and accurate scouting of the rivers ahead of the main body , the Continentals safely crossed each river , including the Yadkin and the Dan . Cornwallis , having no boats , and finding no way to cross the swollen Dan , finally gave up the chase and withdrew back into North Carolina . The Continentals regrouped south of Halifax , Virginia , where Kościuszko had earlier , at Greene 's request , established a fortified depot .
During the Race to the Dan , Kościuszko had helped select the site where Greene eventually returned to fight Cornwallis at Guilford Courthouse . Though tactically defeated , the Americans all but destroyed Cornwallis ' army as an effective fighting force and gained a permanent strategic advantage in the South . Thus , when Greene began his reconquest of South Carolina in the spring of 1781 , he summoned Kościuszko to rejoin the main body of the Southern Army . The combined forces of the Continentals and Southern militia gradually forced the British from the back country into the coastal ports during the latter half of 1781 and , on August 16 , Kościuszko participated in the Second Battle of Camden . At Ninety Six , Kościuszko besieged the Star Fort from May 22 to June 18 . During the unsuccessful siege , he suffered his only wound in seven years of service , bayonetted in the buttocks during an assault by the fort 's defenders on the approach trench that he was constructing .
Kościuszko subsequently helped fortify the American bases in North Carolina , before taking part in several smaller operations in the final year of hostilities , harassing British foraging parties near Charleston , South Carolina . He had become engaged in these operations after the death of his friend Colonel John Laurens , taking over Laurens ' intelligence network in the area . He commanded two cavalry squadrons and an infantry unit , and his last known battlefield command of the war occurred at James Island , South Carolina , on November 14 , 1782 . In what has been described as the Continental Army 's final armed action of the war , he was very nearly killed as his small force was routed . A month later , he was among the Continental troops that reoccupied Charleston following the British evacuation of the city . Kościuszko spent the rest of the war there , conducting a fireworks display on April 23 , 1783 , to celebrate the signing of the Treaty of Paris earlier that month .
= = = Mustering @-@ out = = =
Having not been paid in his seven years of service , in late May 1783 , Kościuszko decided to collect the salary owed to him . That year , he was asked by Congress to supervise the fireworks during the July 4 celebrations at Princeton , New Jersey . On October 13 , 1783 , Congress promoted him to brigadier general , but he still had not received his back pay ; many other officers and soldiers were in the same situation . While waiting for his pay , unable even to finance a voyage back to Europe , Kościuszko , like a number of others , lived on money borrowed from the Polish @-@ Jewish banker Haym Solomon . Eventually , he would receive a certificate for 12 @,@ 280 dollars , at 6 % , to be paid on January 1 , 1784 , and the right to 500 acres ( 202 @.@ 34 ha ; 0 @.@ 78 sq mi ) of land , but only if he chose to settle in the United States . For the winter of 1783 – 84 , his former commanding officer , General Greene , invited Kościuszko to stay at his mansion . He was also inducted into the Society of the Cincinnati .
= = Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth = =
On July 15 , 1784 , Kościuszko set off for Poland , where he arrived on August 26 . Due to a conflict between his patrons , the Czartoryski family , and King Stanisław August Poniatowski , Kościuszko once again failed to get a commission in the Commonwealth Army . He settled in Siechnowicze ( Belarusian : Сяхновічы , now Sehnovichi , Belarus ) . His brother Józef had lost most of the family 's lands through bad investments , but with the help of his sister Anna , Kościuszko secured part of the lands for himself . He decided to limit his male peasants ' corvée ( obligatory service to the lord of the manor ) to two days a week , and completely exempted the female peasants . His estate soon stopped being profitable , and he began going into debt . The situation was not helped by failure of the money promised by the American government — interest on late payment for his seven years ' military service — to materialize . Kościuszko struck up friendships with liberal activists ; Hugo Kołłątaj offered him a position as lecturer at Kraków 's Jagiellonian University , which Kościuszko declined .
Finally the Great Sejm of 1788 – 92 introduced some reforms , including a planned build @-@ up of the army to defend the Commonwealth 's borders . Kościuszko saw a chance to return to military service and spent some time in Warsaw , among those who engaged in the political debates outside the Great Sejm . He wrote a proposal to create a militia force , on the American model . As political pressure grew to build up the army , and Kościuszko 's political allies gained influence with the King , Kościuszko again applied for a commission , and on October 12 , 1789 , received a royal commission as a major general . He began receiving the high salary of 12 @,@ 000 złoty a year , ending his financial difficulties . He asked for a transfer to the Lithuanian army but was instead assigned to a unit in the west , in Greater Poland . On February 1 , 1790 , he reported for duty in Włocławek , and in mid @-@ March he was given a command . Around summer , he commanded some infantry and cavalry units in the region between the Bug and Vistula Rivers . In August 1790 he was posted to Volhynia , stationed near Starokostiantyniv and Międzyborze . Prince Józef Poniatowski , who happened to be the King 's nephew , recognized Kościuszko 's superior experience and made him his second @-@ in @-@ command , leaving him in command when he was absent .
Meanwhile , Kościuszko became more closely involved with the political reformers , befriending Hugo Kołłątaj , Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and others . Kościuszko argued that the peasants and Jews should receive full citizenship status , as this would motivate them to help defend Poland in the event of war . The political reformers centered in the Patriotic Party scored a major victory with the adoption of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . Kościuszko saw the Constitution as a step in the right direction , but was disappointed that it retained the monarchy and did little to improve the situation of the most underprivileged , the peasants and the Jews . The Commonwealth 's neighbors saw the Constitution 's reforms as a threat to their influence over Polish internal affairs . A year after the Constitution 's adoption , on May 14 , 1792 , reactionary magnates formed the Targowica Confederation , which asked Russia 's Tsaritsa Catherine II for help in overthrowing the Constitution . Four days later , on May 18 , 1792 , a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ man Russian army crossed the Polish border , headed for Warsaw , beginning the Polish – Russian War of 1792 .
= = = Defense of the Constitution = = =
The Russians had a 3 : 1 advantage in strength , with some 98 @,@ 000 troops against 37 @,@ 000 Poles ; they also had an advantage in combat experience . Before the Russians invaded , Kościuszko had been appointed deputy commander of Prince Józef Poniatowski 's infantry division , stationed in Polish West Ukraine . When the Prince became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the entire Polish ( Crown ) Army on May 3 , 1792 , Kościuszko was given command of a division near Kiev .
The Russians attacked on a wide front with three armies . Kościuszko proposed that the entire Polish army be concentrated and engage one of the Russian armies , in order to assure numerical parity and boost the morale of the mostly inexperienced Polish forces with a quick victory ; but Poniatowski rejected this plan . On May 22 , 1792 , the Russian forces crossed the border in Ukraine , where Kościuszko and Poniatowski were stationed . The Crown Army was judged too weak to oppose the four enemy columns advancing into West Ukraine , and began a fighting withdrawal to the western side of the Southern Bug River , with Kościuszko commanding the rear guard . On June 18 , Poniatowski won the Battle of Zieleńce ; Kościuszko 's division , on detached rear @-@ guard duty , did not take part in the battle and rejoined the main army only at nightfall ; nonetheless , his diligent protection of the main army 's rear and flanks won him the newly created Virtuti Militari , to this day Poland 's highest military decoration . ( Storożyński , however , states that Kościuszko received the Virtuti Militari for his later , July 18 victory at Dubienka . ) The Polish withdrawal continued , and on July 7 Kościuszko 's forces fought a delaying battle against the Russians at Volodymyr @-@ Volynskyi ( the Battle of Włodzimierz ) . On reaching the northern Bug River , the Polish Army was split into three divisions to hold the river defensive line — weakening the Poles ' point numerical superiority , against Kościuszko 's counsel of a single strong , concentrated army .
Kościuszko 's force was assigned to protect the front 's southern flank , touching up to the Austrian border . At the Battle of Dubienka ( July 18 , 1792 ) Kościuszko repulsed a numerically superior enemy , skilfully using terrain obstacles and field fortifications , and came to be regarded as one of Poland 's most brilliant military commanders of the age . With some 5 @,@ 300 men , he defeated 25 @,@ 000 Russians led by General Michail Kachovski . Despite the tactical victory , Kościuszko had to retreat from Dubienka , as the Russians crossed the nearby Austrian border and began flanking his positions .
After the battle , King Stanisław August Poniatowski promoted Kościuszko to lieutenant @-@ general and awarded him the Order of the White Eagle . News of Kościuszko 's victory spread over Europe , and on August 26 he received the honorary citizenship of France from the Legislative Assembly of revolutionary France . While Kościuszko considered the war 's outcome to still be unsettled , the King requested a ceasefire . On July 24 , 1792 , before Kościuszko had received his promotion to lieutenant @-@ general , the King shocked the army by announcing his accession to the Targowica Confederation and ordering the Polish – Lithuanian armies to cease hostilities against the Russians . Kościuszko considered abducting the King as the Bar Confederates had done two decades earlier , in 1771 , but was dissuaded by Prince Józef Poniatowski . On August 30 Kościuszko resigned his army position and briefly returned to Warsaw , where he received his promotion and pay , but refused the King 's request that he remain in the Army . Around that time , he also fell ill with jaundice .
= = Émigré = =
The King 's capitulation was a hard blow for Kościuszko , who had not lost a single battle in the campaign . By mid @-@ September 1792 he was resigned to leaving the country , and in early October he departed from Warsaw . First he went east , to the Czartoryski family manor at Sieniawa , which gathered various malcontents . In mid @-@ November he spent two weeks in Lwów ( in Ukrainian , Lviv ; in German , Lemberg ) , where he was welcomed by the populace ; since the war 's end , his presence had drawn crowds eager to see the famed commander . Izabela Czartoryska discussed having him marry her daughter Zofia . The Russians planned to arrest him if he returned to territory under their control ; the Austrians , who held Lwów , offered him a commission in the Austrian Army , which he turned down . Subsequently they planned to deport him , but he left Lwów before they could do so . At the turn of the month , he stopped in Zamość at the Zamoyskis ' estate , met Stanisław Staszic , then went on to Puławy .
He did not tarry long there either : on December 12 – 13 , he was in Kraków ; on December 17 , in Wrocław ; and shortly after , he settled in Leipzig , where many notable Polish soldiers and politicians formed an émigré community . Soon he and some others began plotting an uprising against Russian rule in Poland . The politicians , grouped around Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj , sought contacts with similar opposition groups in Poland and by spring 1793 had been joined by other politicians and revolutionaries , including Ignacy Działyński . While Kołłątaj and others had begun planning an uprising before Kościuszko joined them , his support was a major boon to them , as he was among the most popular individuals in Poland .
After two weeks in Leipzig , before the second week of January 1793 , Kościuszko set off for Paris , where he tried to gain French support for the planned uprising in Poland . He stayed there until summer , but despite the growing revolutionary influence there , the French paid only lip service to the Polish cause , and refused to commit themselves to anything concrete . Kościuszko concluded that the French authorities were not interested in Poland beyond what use it could have for their own cause , and he was increasingly disappointed in the pettiness of the French Revolution — the infighting among different factions , and the growing reign of terror .
On January 23 , 1793 , Prussia and Russia signed the Second Partition of Poland . The Grodno Sejm , convened under duress in June , ratified the partition and was also forced to rescind the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . With the second partition , Poland became a small country of roughly 200 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 77 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and a population of some 4 million . This came as a shock to the Targowica Confederates , who had seen themselves as defenders of centuries @-@ old privileges of the magnates , but had hardly expected that their appeal for help to the Tsarina of Russia would further reduce and weaken their country .
In August 1793 , Kościuszko , though worried that an uprising would have little chance against the three partitioning powers , returned to Leipzig , where he was met with demands to start planning one as soon as possible . In September he clandestinely crossed the Polish border to conduct personal observations and meet with sympathetic high @-@ ranking officers in the residual Polish Army , including General Józef Wodzicki . The preparations went slowly , and he left for Italy , planning to return in February 1794 . However , the situation in Poland was changing rapidly . The Russian and Prussian governments forced Poland to again disband most of her army , and the reduced units were to be incorporated into the Russian Army . In March , Tsarist agents discovered the revolutionaries in Warsaw and began arresting notable Polish politicians and military commanders . Kościuszko was forced to execute his plan earlier than he had intended and , on March 15 , 1794 , set off for Kraków .
= = Kościuszko Uprising = =
Learning that the Russian garrison had departed Kraków , Kościuszko entered the city on the night of March 23 , 1794 . The next morning , in the Main Square , he announced an uprising . Kościuszko received the title of Naczelnik ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) of Polish – Lithuanian forces fighting against the Russian occupation . He proceeded to mobilize the populace , intending to raise sufficient numbers of volunteers to counteract the larger and more professional Russian Army . He also hoped that neither Austria nor Prussia would intervene , and so discouraged insurgent activity in the Austrian and Prussian Partitions .
Kościuszko gathered an army of some 6 @,@ 000 , including 4 @,@ 000 regular soldiers and 2 @,@ 000 recruits , and marched on Warsaw . The Russians succeeded in organizing an army to oppose him more quickly than he had expected , but he scored a victory at Racławice on April 4 , 1794 , where he turned the tide by personally leading an infantry charge of peasant volunteers ( kosynierzy , scythemen ) . Nonetheless , this Russian defeat was not strategically significant , and the Russian forces quickly forced Kościuszko to retreat toward Kraków . Near Połaniec he received reinforcements and met with other Uprising leaders ( Kołłątaj , Potocki ) ; at Połaniec he issued a major political declaration of the Uprising , the Proclamation of Połaniec . The declaration stated that serfs were entitled to civil rights and reduced their work obligations ( corvée ) . Meanwhile , the Russians set a bounty for Kościuszko 's capture , " dead or alive " .
By June , the Prussians had begun actively aiding the Russians , and on June 6 , 1794 , Kościuszko fought a defensive battle against a Prussian @-@ Russian force at Szczekociny . From late June , for several weeks , he defended Warsaw , controlled by the insurgents . On June 28 , a mob of insurgents in Warsaw captured and hanged Bishop Ignacy Massalski and six others . Kościuszko issued a public reproach , writing , " What happened in Warsaw yesterday filled my heart with bitterness and sorrow " , and urging , successfully , that rule of law be followed . By the morning of September 6 , the Prussian forces having been withdrawn to suppress an uprising underway in Greater Poland , the siege of Warsaw was lifted . On October 10 , during a sortie against a new Russian attack , Kościuszko was wounded and captured at Maciejowice . He was imprisoned by the Russians at Saint Petersburg in the Peter and Paul Fortress . Soon afterward , the uprising ended with the Battle of Praga , where according to a contemporary Russian witness , the Russians troops massacred 20 @,@ 000 Warsaw residents . The subsequent Third Partition of Poland ended the existence of a sovereign Polish state for the next 123 years .
= = Later life = =
The death of Tsaritsa Catherine the Great on November 17 , 1796 , led to a change in Russia 's policies toward Poland . On November 28 , Tsar Paul I , who had hated Catherine , pardoned Kościuszko and set him free , after he had tendered an oath of loyalty . Paul promised to free all Polish political prisoners held in Russian prisons and forcibly settled in Siberia . The Tsar gave Kościuszko 12 @,@ 000 rubles , which the Pole later , in 1798 , attempted to return , when also renouncing the oath .
Kościuszko left for the United States , via Stockholm , Sweden and London , departing from Bristol on June 17 , 1797 , and arriving in Philadelphia on August 18 . Though welcomed by the populace , he was viewed with suspicion by the American government , controlled by the Federalists , who distrusted Kościuszko for his previous association with the Democratic @-@ Republican Party .
In March 1798 , Kościuszko received a bundle of letters from Europe . The news in one of them came as a shock to him , causing him , still in his wounded condition , to spring from his couch and limp unassisted to the middle of the room and exclaim to General Anthony Walton White , " I must return at once to Europe ! " The letter in question contained news that Polish General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski and Polish soldiers were fighting in France under Napoleon and that Kościuszko 's sister had sent his two nephews in Kościuszko 's name to serve in Napoleon 's ranks . Around that time Kościuszko also received news that Talleyrand was seeking Kościuszko 's moral and public endorsement for the French fight against one of Poland 's partitioners , Prussia . The call of family and country drew Kościuszko back to Europe . He immediately consulted Thomas Jefferson , who procured him a passport under a false name and arranged for his secret departure for France . Kościuszko left no word for either his former comrade @-@ in @-@ arms and fellow St. Petersburg prisoner Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz or for his own servant , only leaving some money for them .
Other factors contributed to his decision to depart . His French connections meant that he was vulnerable to deportation or imprisonment under the terms of the Alien and Sedition Acts . Jefferson was concerned that the U.S. and France were verging on the brink of war after the XYZ Affair and regarded him as an informal envoy . Kościuszko later wrote , " Jefferson considered that I would be the most effective intermediary in bringing an accord with France , so I accepted the mission even if without any official authorization . "
= = = Disposition of American estate = = =
Before Kościuszko left for France , he collected his back pay , wrote a will , and entrusted it to Jefferson as executor . Kościuszko and Jefferson had become firm friends by 1797 and thereafter corresponded for twenty years in a spirit of mutual admiration . Jefferson wrote that " He is as pure a son of liberty as I have ever known . " In the will , Kościuszko left his American estate to be sold to buy the freedom of black slaves , including Jefferson 's own , and to educate them for independent life and work . Several years after Kościuszko 's death , Jefferson , aged 77 , pleaded inability to act as executor due to age and the numerous legal complexities of the bequest , which was tied up in the courts until 1856 . Jefferson recommended his friend John Hartwell Cocke , who also opposed slavery , as executor , but Cocke likewise declined to execute the bequest . The case of Kościuszko 's American estate went three times to the U.S. Supreme Court . He had made four wills , three of which postdated the American one . None of the money that Kościuszko had earmarked for the manumission and education of African Americans in the United States was ever used for that purpose . Though the American will was never carried out , its legacy went to found an educational institute for African Americans in the United States — at Newark , New Jersey , in 1826 , bearing Kościuszko 's name .
= = = Return to Europe = = =
Kościuszko arrived in Bayonne , France , on June 28 , 1798 . By that time , Talleyrand 's plans had changed and no longer included him . Kościuszko remained politically active in Polish émigré circles in France , and on August 7 , 1799 , he joined the Society of Polish Republicans ( Towarzystwo Republikanów Polskich ) . Kościuszko , however , refused the offered command of Polish Legions being formed for service with France . On October 17 and November 6 , 1799 , he met with Napoleon Bonaparte ; however , he failed to reach an agreement with the French general , who regarded Kościuszko a " fool " who " overestimated his influence " in Poland . Kościuszko , for his part , disliked Napoleon for his dictatorial aspirations and called him the " undertaker of the [ French ] Republic " . In 1801 , Kościuszko settled in Breville , near Paris , distancing himself from politics .
Kościuszko did not believe that Napoleon would restore Poland in any durable form . When Napoleon 's forces approached the borders of Poland , Kościuszko wrote him a letter , demanding guarantees of parliamentary democracy and substantial national borders , which Napoleon ignored . Kościuszko concluded that Napoleon had created the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807 only as an expedient , not because he supported Polish sovereignty . Consequently , Kościuszko did not move to the Duchy of Warsaw or join the new Army of the Duchy , allied with Napoleon .
Instead , after the fall of Napoleon , he met with Russia 's Tsar Alexander I , in Paris and then in Braunau , Switzerland . The Tsar hoped that Kościuszko could be convinced to return to Poland , where the Tsar planned to create a new , Russian @-@ allied Polish state ( the Congress Kingdom ) . In return for his prospective services , Kościuszko demanded social reforms and restoration of territory , which he wished would reach the Dvina and Dnieper Rivers in the east . However , soon afterwards , in Vienna , Kościuszko learned that the Kingdom of Poland to be created by the Tsar would be even smaller than the earlier Duchy of Warsaw . Kościuszko called such an entity " a joke " . When he received no reply to his letters to the Tsar , he left Vienna and moved to Solothurn , Switzerland .
On April 2 , 1817 , Kościuszko emancipated the peasants in his remaining lands in Poland , but Tsar Alexander disallowed this . Suffering from poor health and old wounds , on October 15 , 1817 , Kościuszko died in Solothurn at age 71 after falling from a horse , developing a fever , and suffering a stroke a few days later .
= = Funerals = =
Kościuszko 's first funeral was held on October 19 , 1817 , at a formerly Jesuit church in Solothurn . As news of his death spread , masses and memorial services were held in partitioned Poland . His embalmed body was deposited in a crypt of the Solothurn church . In 1818 , Kościuszko 's body was transferred to Kraków , arriving at St. Florian 's Church on April 11 , 1818 . On June 22 , 1818 , or June 23 , 1819 ( accounts vary ) , to the tolling of the Sigismund Bell and the firing of cannon , it was placed in a crypt at Wawel Cathedral , a pantheon of Polish kings and national heroes .
Kościuszko 's internal organs , which had been removed during embalming , were separately interred in a graveyard at Zuchwil , near Solothurn . Kościuszko 's organs remain there to this day ; a large memorial stone was erected in 1820 , next to a Polish memorial chapel . His heart , however , was not interred with the other organs , but instead kept in an urn at the Polish Museum in Rapperswil , Switzerland . The heart , along with the rest of the Museum 's holdings , were repatriated back to Warsaw in 1927 , where the heart now reposes in a chapel at the Royal Castle .
= = Memorials and tributes = =
The Polish historian Stanisław Herbst states in the 1967 Polish Biographical Dictionary that Kościuszko may be Poland 's and the world 's most popular Pole ever . There are monuments to him around the world , beginning with the Kościuszko Mound at Kraków , erected in 1820 – 23 by men , women , and children bringing earth from the battlefields where he had fought . The Thaddeus Kosciusko Bridge , a twin bridge structure completed in 1959 which spans the Mohawk River in Albany , New York , and the Kosciuszko Bridge , built in 1939 in New York City , were named in Kosciuszko 's honor .
Kościuszko 's 1796 Philadelphia residence is now the Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial , America 's smallest national park or unit of the National Park System . There is a Kościuszko Museum at his last residence , in Solothurn , Switzerland . A Polish @-@ American cultural agency , the Kosciuszko Foundation , headquartered in New York City , was created in 1925 .
A series of Polish Air Force units have borne the name " Kościuszko Squadron " . During World War II a Polish Navy ship bore his name , as did the Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division .
One of the first examples of a historical novel , Thaddeus of Warsaw , was written in Kościuszko 's honor by the Scottish author Jane Porter ; it proved very popular , particularly in the United States , and went through over eighty editions in the 19th century . An opera , Kościuszko nad Sekwaną ( Kościuszko at the Seine ) , written in the early 1820s , featured music by Franciszek Salezy Dutkiewicz and libretto by Konstanty Majeranowski . Later works have included dramas by Apollo Korzeniowski , Justyn Hoszowski and Władysław Ludwik Anczyc ; three novels by Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , one by Walery Przyborowski , one by Władysław Stanisław Reymont ; and works by Maria Konopnicka .
Kościuszko also appears in non @-@ Polish literature , including a sonnet by Samuel Taylor Coleridge , another by James Henry Leigh Hunt , poems by John Keats and Walter Savage Landor , and a work by Karl Eduard von Holtei .
In 1933 , the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative stamp depicting an engraving of a statue of Kościuszko that stands in Washington , D.C. ' s Lafayette Square , near the White House . The stamp was issued on the 150th anniversary of Kościuszko 's naturalization as an American citizen . Poland has also issued several stamps in his honor .
There are statues of Kosciuszko in Poland at Kraków ( by Leonard Marconi ) , which was destroyed by German forces during the World War II occupation and was later replaced with a replica by Germany in 1960 and Łódź ( by Mieczysław Lubelski ) ; in the United States at Boston , West Point , Philadelphia ( by Marian Konieczny ) , Detroit ( a copy of Leonard Marconi 's Kraków statue ) , Washington , D.C. , Chicago , Milwaukee and Cleveland ; and in Switzerland at Solothurn . Kościuszko has been the subject of paintings by Richard Cosway , Franciszek Smuglewicz , Michał Stachowicz , Juliusz Kossak and Jan Matejko . A monumental Racławice Panorama was painted by Jan Styka and Wojciech Kossak for the centenary of the 1794 Battle of Racławice . A commemorative monument was built in Minsk , Belarus in 2005 .
Geographic features that bear his name include Mount Kosciuszko , the tallest mountain in Australia . In the United States , places named after Kościuszko include Kosciusko Island in Alaska , Kosciusko County in Indiana , the city of Kosciusko in central Mississippi and numerous streets and parks .
Kościuszko has been the subject of many written works . The first biography of him was published in 1820 by Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , who served beside Kosciuszko as his aide @-@ de @-@ camp and was also imprisoned in Russia after the uprising . English @-@ language biographies have included Monica Mary Gardner 's Kościuszko : A Biography , which was first published in 1920 , and a 2009 work by Alex Storozynski titled The Peasant Prince : Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution .
= Governor of Indiana =
The Governor of Indiana is the chief executive of the state of Indiana . The governor is elected to a four @-@ year term , and responsible for overseeing the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the functions of many agencies of the Indiana state government . The governor also shares power with other statewide executive officers , who manage other state government agencies . The governor works out of the Indiana Statehouse and holds official functions at the Indiana Governor 's Residence in the state capital of Indianapolis .
The 50th and current governor is Mike Pence , a Republican .
The position of governor has developed over the course of two centuries . It has become considerably more powerful since the mid @-@ 20th century after decades of struggle with the Indiana General Assembly and Indiana Supreme Court to establish the executive branch of the government as an equal third branch of the state government . Although gubernatorial powers were again significantly expanded by constitutional amendments during the 1970s , Indiana governors remain significantly less powerful than their counterparts in most other states .
= = Office = =
= = = Authority = = =
The governor 's powers are established in Article V of the Constitution of Indiana . Constitutionally , the governor has very limited executive authority to manage the government of the state ; most exercisable powers over state agencies are held by independent elected cabinet heads .
The governor works in concert with the state legislature ( the bicameral Indiana General Assembly , consisting of the Indiana House of Representatives and the Indiana Senate ) and the state supreme court ( the Supreme Court of Indiana ) to govern the state . The governor has the power to veto legislation passed by the General Assembly . If vetoed , a bill is returned to the General Assembly for reconsideration . Unlike other states , most of which require a two @-@ thirds supermajority to override a veto , the Indiana General Assembly may override the veto with an absolute majority vote in both chambers .
One of the governor 's most important political powers is the ability to call a special session of the General Assembly . During a two @-@ year period , the assembly can meet on its own for no more than 91 days , and this often prevents them from passing all the legislation they intend to . This can give the governor considerable influence in the body which will often compromise on issues with him or her in exchange for a special legislative session .
Among his other powers , the governor can call out the state defense force ( the Indiana Guard Reserve ) or the Indiana National Guard in times of emergency or disaster . The governor is also charged with the enforcement of all the state 's laws and the Indiana Code through the Indiana State Police . The governor also has the ability to grant a pardon or commutation of sentence of any person convicted of a crime in the state , except in cases of treason or impeachment .
In addition to constitutional powers , governors also have a considerable degree of statutory authority . Most of the authority exercised by governors on a daily basis is derived from statute , giving the General Assembly a great degree of power to expand or contract the governor 's authority . Historically , the party in control of the General Assembly would reassign control of agencies from the governor or to the governor based his party affiliation , and the party affiliation of the cabinet heads , which at times has left the governor with no direct control over state agencies .
The governor also can influence the state court system through the appointment of judges . In Indiana , when vacancies occur on the Supreme Court , Tax Court , and circuit courts , the Judicial Nominating Commission interviews candidates and sends a list of three candidates for each vacancy to the governor , who chooses one . Justices of the peace and superior courts judges are elected in Indiana ; if a vacancy occurs ( such as by death or resignation ) the governor may make an appointment , who holds the office until the next general election . The authority to make such appointments gives the governor considerable sway in setting the makeup of the judiciary .
The annual salary of the governor of Indiana is US $ 111 @,@ 688 ( 2015 ) . Additionally , he receives $ 6 @,@ 000 annually for discretionary spending and expenses .
= = = Requirements = = =
To become governor of a state , a candidate must be a citizen of the United States and must have been a resident of the state in which they are running for the period of five consecutive years before the election . The candidate must also be at least 30 years old when sworn into office . The governor may not hold any other state or federal office during his term and must resign from any such position before being eligible to be sworn in as governor . Before taking the office , the candidate must swear an oath of office administered by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Indiana , promising to uphold the Constitution and laws of the state .
= = = Term limits = = =
Once elected , a governor serves a four @-@ year term beginning on the date he is sworn into office ; inauguration day is the second Monday in January . He remains governor until his successor takes the oath of office . The governor 's term can be shorter if he resigns , dies , becomes incapacitated or impeached . There is no limit to how many terms a governor may serve ; however , the governor is limited to being elected to two consecutive terms at a time and may remain in office a maximum of eight years in any twelve @-@ year period . To be eligible to run for a third term , the governor would have to sit out for one election period .
= = = Succession = = =
If the governor becomes incapacitated , then the Lieutenant Governor of Indiana becomes acting @-@ governor until his recovery . Only two governors have become incapacitated during their terms , and current precedent is that the governor 's office is to notify the lieutenant governor , who will then make the decision to become acting @-@ governor by notifying the General Assembly by letter . The governor can resume his powers & duties by sending a letter to the General Assembly notifying them that he is again capable of executing the duties of office . If the governor resigns , dies , or is impeached , tried , and convicted , then the lieutenant governor becomes governor . If the office of the lieutenant governor is vacant , then the Senate Pro @-@ Tempore becomes governor . If the office of Senate President pro tempore is also vacant , then the Senate must elect a new Pro @-@ Tempore to fill the governor 's office .
= = = Residence and offices = = =
The governor maintains an office on the first floor of the Indiana Statehouse in Indianapolis , and from there he manages all of the state 's agencies that are under his jurisdiction . He shares the building with the Indiana General Assembly and the Supreme Court of Indiana . The other elected executive officers , including the attorney general and the lieutenant governor , are also located in the statehouse , but most of the state 's bureaus are located in the state office building . Traditionally , the governor lives in the Indiana Governor 's Residence , also located in Indianapolis ; however , former governor Mitchell Daniels ' family maintained their private home , using the Governor 's Residence only for official functions .
= = History = =
= = = Governors = = =
The first Governor of Indiana , Jonathan Jennings , was elected in August 1816 and assumed office in December of that year . The first capital was in Corydon , and the first three governors maintained homes and offices there . The capital was moved to Indianapolis in December 1824 . Governors originally served three @-@ years terms until the constitution was replaced in 1851 . The 1851 constitution extended terms to four years but banned governors from serving consecutive terms . The constitution was amended again in 1972 to allow governors to serve consecutive terms but limited them to two consecutive terms at a time .
There have been 50 Governors of Indiana . Republicans and Democrats have each held the position 21 times . Four have died while in office ; seven have resigned . Ten Lieutenant Governors have succeeded to become Governor . James B. Ray has been the only President of the Senate pro tempore to assume the office of Governor .
Jonathan Jennings was the first Governor to have an attempted impeachment brought against him in response to his actions as an agent of the federal government during the negotiations of the Treaty of St. Mary 's in 1819 , illegal under Indiana 's constitution . The evidence of his role was destroyed , and after two months of investigation the proceedings were dropped . The only other time was when the General Assembly attempted to bring impeachment proceedings against Governor James B. Ray for a similar action in 1826 , but the action was also defeated 28 – 30 .
= = = Power shifts = = =
Historically , the office of Indiana 's Governor has been a weaker institution relative to the other branches of state government and also when compared to the role of governors of other U.S. states . During Indiana 's territorial period , there was a considerable resentment to the power wielded by the territorial governors , and in response the anti @-@ governor faction , which dominated the constitutional convention , created a weak executive position . The governor was not given complete authority over the militia , his term was set at three years , and most of his actions could be overridden by the General Assembly . The position was steadily weakened by the legislature , and his power was limited further by the constitution of 1851 . The governor 's authority to choose his own appointments for the state courts was removed , and the ability to appoint his own cabinet was ended . The cabinet was effectively made independent by making them elected popularly . The authority to propose budgets was revoked , and serving consecutive terms was banned . By comparison , the Supreme Court was made almost entirely independent , and the General Assembly assumed many of the powers taken from the governor .
Governors first began to assert their own power during the American Civil War as the General Assembly attempted to remove command of the militia from the governor . In response , the General Assembly was effectively suppressed , during which time the governor assumed many powers to appoint public officials , hire and remove state employees , and manage state finances . When the General Assembly reconvened with a majority sympathetic to the governor , he was permitted to continue many of his assumed powers . In 1889 , the General Assembly began to reassert its authority over hiring state employees . The issued ended when the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the legislature , again returning to it final authority over hiring state employees . The legislature passed acts in 1895 that removed the last of the governor 's authority to appoint anyone to executive positions .
With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s , the governors again began to reassert authority . The Executive Reorganization Act was passed , returning the governor to a considerable level of appointment power . New state welfare and regulatory agencies were placed directly under the governor 's control , greatly expanding his role in running the state and creating a large number of patronage positions . The legislature responded by trying to create a merit system for public offices , but it was largely unable to effectively enforce it given the new scope of government agencies . The battle with the governor continued until 1941 , when the legislature rescinded the Executive Reorganization Act and replaced it with the State Administration Act , which placed most of the government under the control of elected commissioners and reduced the governor 's practical executive authority to commander of the militia and the executor of legislation . The matter was taken to the Supreme Court in the case of Tucker v. State of Indiana . The court ruled for the first time that the governor was in fact the Chief Executive of the state , and that the legislature could pass no law that infringed upon that right . The decision was a major shift from previous court decisions and granted governors a legal basis to resist future encroachment on their powers .
During the 1970s , a series of amendments was passed under popular governors that also increased their powers . The state courts were again made appointive , but selection of the candidates was granted to the court @-@ dominated Indiana Judicial Nominating Commission . However , the governor was given more control over the process in which he previously had none . Another amendment removed the ban on consecutive terms , allowing Indiana 's first consecutive term governors in over one hundred years . A third amendment granted the power to prepare a budget to a State Budgetary Agency , which was run by officials appointed by the governor . The significant authority this gave the governor over the budget was the " greatest transfer of power " to the governor yet , according to historian and professor of political science Linda Gugin .
Despite gaining considerable power during the mid twentieth @-@ century , the governor is still much weaker than those of other states . He has no line @-@ item veto authority , and the pocket @-@ veto was ruled unconstitutional . If a governor does not sign or reject a bill , it becomes law automatically . This led to a fist fight during the term of Claude Matthews , who was locked out of the House chambers to prevent him from returning a bill in time . Vetoes are also easily overridden , requiring only a simple majority as opposed to a super majority . The legislature still exercises final control over the hiring of state employees , but given the large size of the government and the short legislative sessions , they are unable to make any considerable impact other than their continued advocacy for an expanded merit system . The cabinet is still almost entirely independent of the governor , and he has control over only half of the government 's agencies , such as the Indiana State Police and the Indiana Bureau of Motor Vehicles . Other large agencies , such as the Department of Administration , are under the control of the cabinet .
= = = Veto usage = = =
During the state 's early history , vetoes were seldom employed by governors primarily because they were seen as only symbolic since the General Assembly could override them with only a simple majority . Governor James Whitcomb was the first to make significant use of the power and vetoed a record of fifteen bills during a single legislative session . Roger Branigin , who presided over a hostile legislature , made the most total vetoes of any governor , returning a total of one hundred bills to the assembly . Despite the fact that vetoes are easily overridden , only around ten percent of vetoed bills are overridden . During the 1970s , for example , 117 bills were vetoed , but only eleven were overridden . Observers and historians attribute this to the short length of legislative sessions , which often do not allow enough time for a large number of bills to pass through both houses twice . Another factor is that legislators of the same party as the governor typically refuse to override his veto , even in cases where they supported the bill originally .
= = = General Assembly relations = = =
The governor 's relationship with the General Assembly has typically been the determining factor in his success at enacting his agenda , although other factors also play an important role . In most of Indiana 's history , the governor has come to power at a time in which his party controlled the assembly . Since the political parties first became dominant in 1831 and until 2010 , thirty @-@ three sessions of the legislature have been divided with different parties controlling the House and Senate . Only five sessions have occurred where the legislature was entirely controlled by the opposition party , while in ninety @-@ eight sessions the governor 's party controlled the entire assembly .
Governors who had previously been legislators have generally had greater success in achieving their legislative goals while governor . Three speakers of the house have become governor . Governor Joseph A. Wright had the worst relations of any governor with the assembly . He twice delivered speeches to a joint session where he harangued them for what he perceived to be corruption , accusing them of taking bribes from the Bank of Indiana . The legislature responded by overriding all his anti @-@ banking vetoes . He was so disliked by his own party that he was expelled from it after his term .
= = = Traits = = =
Except for James Whitcomb , all of Indiana 's governors have been married at the time of their election . Whitcomb married while in office . About half of the governors have been married multiple times , all due the death of their first wives . Three governors ' wives , including Whitcomb 's , died while their husbands were in office . Except for Jonathan Jennings and Thomas R. Marshall , all of the state governors have also had children . After leaving office , Marshall adopted a young boy . Only twenty of Indiana 's governors were native to the state . Seven were born in Pennsylvania , four born in Ohio , and four born in Kentucky . Other governors have come from Michigan , Virginia , New York , and Vermont .
Territorial Governor William Henry Harrison was appointed to office at age twenty @-@ seven , making him the youngest executive . James B. Ray , elevated at thirty @-@ one and reelected at thirty @-@ two , was the youngest governor to be elected to office . Evan Bayh , at age thirty @-@ four , is the only other governor under the age of forty to be elected . James D. Williams , at age sixty @-@ nine , was oldest governor to be elected and died in office at age seventy @-@ two . The average age of governors at the time of their election is fifty .
Thirty @-@ two of Indiana 's governors have served in the military . Veteran organizations have served as a gateway for the governorship . Ira J. Chase served as leader of the Grand Army of the Republic . Paul V. McNutt , Ralph F. Gates , and George N. Craig were leaders of the American Legion , whose national headquarters is in Indianapolis . Thirty governors have been lawyers by profession , and three have been farmers . Thirty received a college education , with eleven of them having attended Indiana University . Several governors have gone on to higher office , with nine serving in the United States Senate , and two serving as Vice President of the United States .
= = Gubernatorial elections = =
Under the original constitution of 1816 , the state held gubernatorial elections every three years . The first election was held before statehood was approved , in August 1816 . Until the constitution was replaced in 1851 , elections were held in October , and winners took office in December . In 1851 , Indiana adopted its second and current constitution , which banned governors from serving consecutive terms and lengthened terms to four years . Elections since then have been held on Election Day in November during years divisible by four , concurrent with presidential elections . In 1972 a constitutional amendment allowing governors to serve two consecutive four @-@ year terms was approved .
= Haakon Lie =
Haakon Steen Lie ( 22 September 1905 – 25 May 2009 ) was a Norwegian politician who served as party secretary for the Norwegian Labour Party from 1945 to 1969 . Coming from humble origins , he became involved in the labour movement at an early age , and quickly rose in the party system . After actively working for the resistance movement and the exiled government during World War II , he was elected to the second @-@ highest position in the party after the war , and his years in office were the most successful in the party 's history .
Lie is widely considered – along with Einar Gerhardsen – to be the architect of the post @-@ war success of the Labour Party , and of the Norwegian welfare state . At the same time , he has also been the subject of criticism for organising surveillance of Norwegian oppositionals , in particular communists . Lie remained active in Norwegian public life , even after his 100th birthday , and in 2008 he celebrated his 103rd birthday with the release of a new biography , " Slik jeg ser det nå " ( As I see it now ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Born 22 September 1905 into a family of Finnish origin in Oslo ( then named Kristiania ) , he was baptized Håkon Steen Lie . He would later change the spelling to Haakon during World War II . His father was fireman Andreas Lie ( 1870 @-@ 1942 ) and his mother was homemaker Karen Halvorsdatter Gunderud ( 1871 @-@ 1952 ) . Though he describes his childhood as a happy one , his family was poor and , until 1916 , his father had to work 120 hours a week . With his parents , two brothers , and two sisters , he grew up at his fathers fire @-@ station sharing one room and a kitchen in the St. Hanshaugen neighborhood . Lie got involved with the labour movement at the age of sixteen , in 1921 .
Here he met some of his lifelong friends and colleagues : Martin Tranmæl , Oscar Torp and Einar Gerhardsen . When the Labour Party left the Third Communist International in 1923 , and was split between the new @-@ founded Communist Party and the remaining social democrats , Lie ended up on the latter wing . The bitter strife between the two factions strongly influenced his lifelong anti @-@ communist stance .
= = = Early career = = =
After first attending Møllergata elementary school and later Ila elementary school , he graduated from Secondary school in 1925 and in 1927 , after giving up university studies , ( having attended the State School of Forestry in Kongsberg ) and a brief stint as an industrial worker , he became a forester . He was happy with this occupation , but after a bout of tuberculosis in 1927 , had to give it up as well , and started working as secretary for the party . In 1931 he was made leader of Arbeidernes Opplysningsforbund ( AOF , Workers ' Information Society ) , an institution recently created to promote education in the working class . Lie has cited the AOF as the proudest achievement of his career .
In the early 1930s he made journeys to both Germany and Russia . His experience with authoritarian states – both fascist and communist – helped reinforce his political outlook of a democracy / dictatorship dichotomy rather than a simple right / left one . During the Spanish Civil War in 1936 – 39 , he helped organise aid to those fighting the fascists and , during the winter of 1936 – 37 , he visited the country . At one point the former pacifist Lie also took flying lessons to actively participate in the conflict , but this plan was never carried out .
= = = World War II = = =
When Norway was invaded by Germany in April 1940 , Lie immediately started organising resistance , taking charge of free radio broadcasts from various locations in the country . For two months this work kept him in constant movement around Norway , and on 7 June 1940 , when King Haakon VII and the government left the country for London , he was in Vadsø , replacing a broken transmitter . At this point further broadcasts became impossible , and Lie had to make his way south , through Finland and Sweden , to Oslo . Here he became involved in the underground labour movement , mainly through printing newspapers and spreading information .
After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 , the occupying authority in Norway started cracking down harder on opposition . A strike over milk rations in September led to the arrest and execution of the two labour leaders Viggo Hansteen and Rolf Wickstrøm . This was followed by several high @-@ profile arrests – among them Einar Gerhardsen – and Lie had to flee the country . He left his house only hours before the Germans appeared to arrest him . From Sweden he made his way to the United Kingdom , where he worked as a propaganda secretary for the exiled Norwegian labour movement in London . He made two visits to the United States to gather support and financial aid , the first time he went from New York to Seattle where he held a series of lectures and radio @-@ interviews before he travelled through Canada from the west- to the east coast . The second trip was as a labour attaché with diplomatic status . While Haakon was in exile , his brother Per , who was also a labour activist , was arrested in Norway in 1942 . He was imprisoned and eventually sent to Dachau , where he died from typhoid fever in March 1945 .
= = Party secretary = =
On 20 June 1945 , Lie returned to Norway . At the national convention of the Labour Party that same year , he was elected party secretary . While Gerhardsen became chairman and prime minister , and gradually assumed his role as " Father of the Nation " ( " Landsfaderen " ) , Lie maintained party discipline and staked out the political strategy in the background . From his position at the head of the party he helped orchestrate the predominant position the party was to hold in the following years , with absolute parliamentary majorities won in the 1945 , 1949 , 1953 and 1957 elections . During the reconstruction of the post @-@ war years , he helped lead the party onto a more moderate path . Private versus public ownership of industry now became a practical , rather than an ideological question . The policy proved highly successful ; the country experienced unprecedented growth , as well as improved conditions for the working class , during his tenure .
= = = Anti @-@ communist surveillance = = =
Lie had been personally shaken by the post @-@ war Soviet suppression of the social @-@ democratic parties in Poland , Czechoslovakia and Hungary . He viewed Yugoslavia leader Josip Broz Tito as the " Martin Luther of communism " after Tito had openly defied the Soviet Union by chiselling out the Third Way . When the Soviets initiated a blockade of Yugoslavia following the Tito – Stalin split , Lie organized humanitarian aid @-@ shipments from Norway . Another concern was that the Pro @-@ Moscow Norwegian Communist Party ( NKP ) had was gaining support among leftist voters , with opinion polls showing an increase to 15 @.@ 4 % . As he put it : " It was voting based upon the myth of the Soviet Union as the land of peace and socialism - a myth which had to be broken down " . It was during this period that Lie , with support from the trade union center set up significant and wide @-@ ranging surveillance of Norwegian communists , ( a practice later deemed illegal by a government committee , the Lund commission ) .
Lie himself defended his hard @-@ line tactics , claiming communism had represented a threat to democracy as well as the party , famously exclaiming " The Labour Party is no damn Sunday school ! ( Norwegian : Arbeiderpartiet er faen ingen søndagsskole ! ) " . There were also external events that aided his cause . The Marshall Plan accepted in 1947 and the Norwegian membership in NATO from 1949 drew the nation closer to the United States . Meanwhile , the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 demonstrated the threat represented by the Soviet Union . Yet Lie was stronger in his support of the United States , and more fierce in his anti @-@ communism , than most within the Labour party .
In 1961 , a left @-@ wing splinter group who was previously centred around the party newspaper " Orientering " decided to break off and form a new party known as Socialist People 's Party ( SF ) . They were later to deny the Labour Party a majority in the 1961 elections as well as to bring down the third cabinet Gerhardsen as a result of the Kings Bay Affair .
= = = Feud with Gerhardsen = = =
Meanwhile , the relationship between Lie and Gerhardsen grew cooler . Gerhardsen was becoming far more amenable to the Soviets in part due to the influence of his wife , Werna , who was highly sympathetic to the Soviet Union ( some even claiming she was a KGB informant ) . Gerhardsen had grown more and more frustrated at Lie 's hard @-@ line tactics against communists and perceived Soviet sympathisers , as well as his attempts to stifle foreign policy debate within the Central Committee . Lie on his part grew embittered over what he perceived was the Gerhardsen @-@ couple protecting key leftists , such as Trygve Bull . According to Bull , Lie and Gerhardsen hardly spoke to each other after 1957 .
At the national party convention of 1967 Gerhardsen openly attacked Lie , to which Lie reportedly responded by threatening to " break " Gerhardsen " like a louse " ( " Jeg skal knekke deg som en lus " ) . Gerhardsen later regretted the attack , and later sent Lie a letter of apology - to which the latter never replied . Lie resigned as party secretary in 1969 , and Gerhardsen retired from active politics the same year . At was not until 1985 , at the behest of former defence minister Jens Christian Hauge , that the pair officially reconciled .
= = Later life = =
Lie remained active as a public commentator and in politics after his retirement from party politics , and even after his centenary . He led the losing campaign for Norwegian membership in the EEC in the early 1970s , and in 2000 he led a battle to prevent the privatisation of the national oil company Statoil . His preferred method of staying updated on current international events was through weekly readings of The Economist .
Influenced by the support he experienced from Jewish labour leaders in the United States , he was a supporter of the state of Israel , though he is highly critical of the Israeli government 's current treatment of the Palestinians and to the settlement of the West Bank .
Lie initiated Operation donor funds for construction of Israeli settlement called " Moshav Norge " ( Change to Yanuv ) in memory of 28 children crashes in Hurum air disaster .
He wrote several books , among them the controversial memoir ... slik jeg ser det ( " ... the way I see it " , 1975 ) , in which he strongly attacked Gerhardsen . He also wrote a two @-@ volume biography of his mentor Martin Tranmæl , Et bål av vilje and Veiviseren ( " A Beacon of Resolve " , 1988 and " The Pathfinder " , 1991 ) . In his latest book , released in 2008 at 103 years of age , being traditionally a strong proponent of cooperation with the United States , he called for enhanced security cooperation between the Nordic countries and argued Norway should buy the Swedish JAS Gripen aircraft instead of the US @-@ made Joint Strike Fighter .
In 1970 , after retiring as party secretary , he acquired a patch of woodland where he could resume his passion for forestry . For many years he spent his winters in the US state of Florida , but eventually moved back permanently to Norway .
Lie died on 25 May 2009 , aged 103 , after a long illness . He had been hospitalised six months earlier . Friends of Israel in the Norwegian Labour Movement ( Norwegian : Venner av Israel i Norsk Arbeiderbevegelse ) , planted a forest to his memory in Israel .
= = Personal life = =
Lie was married twice – first in 1929 to Ragnhild Halvorsen ( 1905 @-@ 91 ) a companion from the labour youth movement . They divorced in 1951 because when he was in America he met Minnie Dockterman , who would be his future wife , thereby creating a scandal . He married Minnie Dockterman in 1952 ( 1912 – 99 ) . He left three daughters , two ; Gro ( 1932- ) and Turid ( 1938- ) by his first wife and one ; Karen ( 1952 ) by the second wife . In addition he left five grandchildren as well as six great @-@ grandchildren .
= The Red Badge of Courage =
The Red Badge of Courage is a war novel by American author Stephen Crane ( 1871 – 1900 ) . Taking place during the American Civil War , the story is about a young private of the Union Army , Henry Fleming , who flees from the field of battle . Overcome with shame , he longs for a wound , a " red badge of courage , " to counteract his cowardice . When his regiment once again faces the enemy , Henry acts as standard @-@ bearer .
Although Crane was born after the war , and had not at the time experienced battle first @-@ hand , the novel is known for its realism . He began writing what would become his second novel in 1893 , using various contemporary and written accounts ( such as those published previously by Century Magazine ) as inspiration . It is believed that he based the fictional battle on that of Chancellorsville ; he may also have interviewed veterans of the 124th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment , commonly known as the Orange Blossoms . Initially shortened and serialized in newspapers in December 1894 , the novel was published in full in October 1895 . A longer version of the work , based on Crane 's original manuscript , was published in 1982 .
The novel is known for its distinctive style , which includes realistic battle sequences as well as the repeated use of color imagery , and ironic tone . Separating itself from a traditional war narrative , Crane 's story reflects the inner experience of its protagonist ( a soldier fleeing from combat ) rather than the external world around him . Also notable for its use of what Crane called a " psychological portrayal of fear " , the novel 's allegorical and symbolic qualities are often debated by critics . Several of the themes that the story explores are maturation , heroism , cowardice , and the indifference of nature . The Red Badge of Courage garnered widespread acclaim , what H. G. Wells called " an orgy of praise " , shortly after its publication , making Crane an instant celebrity at the age of twenty @-@ four . The novel and its author did have their initial detractors , however , including author and veteran Ambrose Bierce . Adapted several times for the screen , the novel became a bestseller . It has never been out of print and is now thought to be Crane 's most important work and a major American text .
= = Background = =
Stephen Crane published his first novel , Maggie : A Girl of the Streets , in March 1893 at the age of 22 . Maggie was not a success , either financially or critically . Most critics thought the unsentimental Bowery tale crude or vulgar , and Crane chose to publish the work privately after it was repeatedly rejected for publication . Crane found inspiration for his next novel while spending hours lounging in a friend 's studio in the early summer of 1893 . There , he became fascinated with issues of Century Magazine that were largely devoted to famous battles and military leaders from the Civil War . Frustrated with the dryly written stories , Crane stated , " I wonder that some of those fellows don 't tell how they felt in those scraps . They spout enough of what they did , but they 're as emotionless as rocks . " Returning to these magazines during subsequent visits to the studio , he decided to write a war novel . He later stated that he " had been unconsciously working the detail of the story out through most of his boyhood " and had imagined " war stories ever since he was out of knickerbockers . "
At the time , Crane was intermittently employed as a free @-@ lance writer , contributing articles to various New York City newspapers . He began writing what would become The Red Badge of Courage in June 1893 , while living with his older brother Edmund in Lake View , New Jersey . Crane conceived the story from the point of view of a young private who is at first filled with boyish dreams of the glory of war , only to become disillusioned by war 's reality . He took the private 's surname , " Fleming , " from his sister @-@ in @-@ law 's maiden name . He would later relate that the first paragraphs came to him with " every word in place , every comma , every period fixed . " Working mostly nights , he wrote from around midnight until four or five in the morning . Because he could not afford a typewriter , he carefully wrote in ink on legal @-@ sized paper , occasionally crossing through or overlying a word . If he changed something , he would rewrite the whole page . He later moved to New York City , where he completed the novel in April 1894 .
= = Publication history = =
The title of Crane 's original , 55 @,@ 000 @-@ word manuscript was " Private Fleming / His various battles " , but in order to create the sense of a less traditional Civil War narrative , he ultimately changed the title to The Red Badge of Courage : An Episode of the American Civil War . In early 1894 , Crane submitted the manuscript to S. S. McClure , who held on to it for six months without publication . Frustrated , the author asked for the manuscript to be returned , after which he gave it to Irving Bacheller in October . An abbreviated version of Crane 's story was first serialized in The Philadelphia Press in December 1894 . This version of the story , which was culled to 18 @,@ 000 words by an editor specifically for the serialization , was reprinted in newspapers across America , establishing Crane 's fame . Crane biographer John Berryman wrote that the story was published in at least 200 small city dailies and approximately 550 weekly papers . In October 1895 , a version , which was 5 @,@ 000 words shorter than the original manuscript , was printed in book form by D. Appleton & Company . This version of the novel differed greatly from Crane 's original manuscript ; the deletions were thought by some scholars to be due to demands by an Appleton employee who was afraid of public disapproval of the novel 's content . Parts of the original manuscript removed from the 1895 version include all of the twelfth chapter , as well as the endings to chapters seven , ten and fifteen . The handwritten original of the novel , as well as dozens of published editions , manuscript correspondence , and additional material related to the book 's editorial and publication history , reside at the University of Virginia in the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library .
Crane 's contract with Appleton allowed him to receive a flat ten percent royalty of all copies sold . However , the contract also stipulated that he was not to receive royalties from the books sold in Great Britain , where they were released by Heinemann in early 1896 as part of its Pioneer Series . In 1982 , W. W. Norton & Company published a version of the novel based on Crane 's original 1894 manuscript of 55 @,@ 000 words . Edited by Henry Binder , this version is questioned by those who believe Crane made the original edits for the 1895 Appleton edition on his own accord . Since its initial publication , the novel has never gone out of print .
= = Plot summary = =
On a cold day the fictional 304th New York Regiment awaits battle beside a river . Eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Private Henry Fleming , remembering his romantic reasons for enlisting as well as his mother 's resulting protests , wonders whether he will remain brave in the face of fear , or turn and run . He is comforted by one of his friends from home , Jim Conklin , who admits that he would run from battle if his fellow soldiers also fled . During the regiment 's first battle , Confederate soldiers charge , but are repelled . The enemy quickly regroups and attacks again , this time forcing some of the unprepared Union soldiers to flee . Fearing the battle is a lost cause , Henry deserts his regiment . It is not until after he reaches the rear of the army that he overhears a general announcing the Union 's victory .
Ashamed , Henry escapes into a nearby forest , where he discovers a decaying body in a peaceful clearing . In his distress , he hurriedly leaves the clearing and stumbles upon a group of injured men returning from battle . One member of the group , a " tattered soldier " , asks Henry where he is wounded , but the youth dodges the question . Among the group is Jim Conklin , who has been shot in the side and is suffering delirium from blood @-@ loss . Jim eventually dies of his injury , defiantly resisting aid from his friend , and an enraged and helpless Henry runs from the wounded soldiers . He next joins a retreating column that is in disarray . In the ensuing panic , a man hits Henry on the head with his rifle , wounding him . Exhausted , hungry , thirsty , and now wounded , Henry decides to return to his regiment regardless of his shame . When he arrives at camp , the other soldiers believe his injury resulted from a grazing bullet during battle . The other men care for the youth , dressing his wound .
The next morning Henry goes into battle for the third time . His regiment encounters a small group of Confederates , and in the ensuing fight Henry proves to be a capable soldier , comforted by the belief that his previous cowardice had not been noticed , as he " had performed his mistakes in the dark , so he was still a man " . Afterward , while looking for a stream from which to obtain water with a friend , he discovers from the commanding officer that his regiment has a lackluster reputation . The officer speaks casually about sacrificing the 304th because they are nothing more than " mule drivers " and " mud diggers . " With no other regiments to spare , the general orders his men forward .
In the final battle , Henry acts as the flag @-@ bearer after the color sergeant falls . A line of Confederates hidden behind a fence beyond a
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clearing shoots with impunity at Henry 's regiment , which is ill @-@ covered in the tree @-@ line . Facing withering fire if they stay and disgrace if they retreat , the officers order a charge . Unarmed , Henry leads the men while entirely escaping injury . Most of the Confederates run before the regiment arrives , and four of the remaining men are taken prisoner . The novel closes with the following passage :
It rained . The procession of weary soldiers became a bedraggled train , despondent and muttering , marching with churning effort in a trough of liquid brown mud under a low , wretched sky . Yet the youth smiled , for he saw that the world was a world for him , though many discovered it to be made of oaths and walking sticks . He had rid himself of the red sickness of battle . The sultry nightmare was in the past . He had been an animal blistered and sweating in the heat and pain of war . He turned now with a lover 's thirst to images of tranquil skies , fresh meadows , cool brooks , an existence of soft and eternal peace .
Over the river a golden ray of sun came through the hosts of leaden rain clouds .
= = Historical accuracy and inspiration = =
Although Crane once wrote in a letter , " You can tell nothing ... unless you are in that condition yourself , " he wrote The Red Badge of Courage without any experience of war . He would , however , later serve as a war correspondent during the Greco @-@ Turkish and Spanish – American Wars . Nevertheless , the realistic portrayal of the battlefield in The Red Badge of Courage has often misled readers into thinking that Crane ( despite being born six years after the end of the Civil War ) was himself a veteran . While trying to explain his ability to write about battle realistically , Crane stated : " Of course , I have never been in a battle , but I believe that I got my sense of the rage of conflict on the football field , or else fighting is a hereditary instinct , and I wrote intuitively ; for the Cranes were a family of fighters in the old days " .
Crane drew from a variety of sources in order to realistically depict battle . Century 's " Battles and Leaders " series served as direct inspiration for the novel , and one story in particular ( Warren Lee Goss 's " Recollections of a Private " ) contains many parallels to Crane 's work . Thomas Beer wrote in his problematic 1923 biography that Crane was challenged by a friend to write The Red Badge of Courage after having announced that he could do better than Émile Zola 's La Débâcle . This anecdote , however , has not been substantiated . The metaphor of the " red badge of courage " itself may have been inspired by true events ; historian Cecil D. Eby , Jr. noted that Union officer Philip Kearny 's insisted his troops wear bright red unit insignia patches , which became known as marks of valor and bravery . While the 304th New York Volunteer Infantry is fictional , many strategies and occurrences in the novel echo actual events during the Civil War . Details concerning specific campaigns during the war , especially regarding battle formations and actions during the Battle of Chancellorsville , have been noted by critics .
It is believed that Crane listened to war stories in the town square of Port Jervis , New York ( where his family at times resided ) told by members of the 124th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment , commonly known as the Orange Blossoms . The Orange Blossoms first saw battle at Chancellorsville , which is believed by local historians to have been the inspiration for the battle depicted in The Red Badge of Courage . Furthermore , there was a Private James Conklin who served in the 124th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment , and Crane 's short story " The Veteran " , which was published in McClure 's Magazine the year after The Red Badge of Courage , depicts an elderly Henry Fleming who specifically identifies his first combat experience as having occurred at Chancellorsville .
= = Style and genre = =
The Red Badge of Courage has a distinctive style , which is often described as naturalistic , realistic , impressionistic or a mixture of the three . Told in a third @-@ person limited point of view , the novel reflects the inner @-@ experience of Henry Fleming , a young soldier who flees from combat , rather than upon the external world around him . The Red Badge of Courage is notable in its vivid descriptions and well @-@ cadenced prose , both of which help create suspense within the story . Critics in particular have pointed to the repeated use of color imagery throughout the novel , both literal and figurative , as proof of the novel 's use of Impressionism . Blue and gray uniforms are mentioned , as are yellow and orange sunlight , and green forests , while men 's faces grow red with rage or courage , and gray with death . Crane also uses animalistic imagery to comment upon people , nature , and war itself . For example , the novel begins by portraying the army as a living entity that is " stretched out on the hills , resting . "
While the novel takes place during a series of battles , The Red Badge of Courage is not a traditional Civil War narrative . Focusing on the complex internal struggle of its main character , rather than on the war itself , Crane 's novel often divides readers as to whether the story is intended to be either for or against war . By avoiding political , military , and geographic details of the conflict between the states , the story becomes divorced from its historical context . Notably lacking are the dates in which the action takes place , and the name of the battle ; these omissions effectively shift attention away from historical patterns in order to concentrate on the emotional violence of battle in general . The writer alluded to as much in a letter , in which he stated he wished to depict war through " a psychological portrayal of fear . "
Writing more than thirty years after the novel 's debut , author Joseph Conrad agreed that the novel 's main struggle was internal rather than external , and that Fleming " stands before the unknown . He would like to prove to himself by some reasoning process that he will not ' run from the battle ' . And in his unblooded regiment he can find no help . He is alone with the problem of courage . " Crane 's realistic portrayal of the psychological struck a chord with reviewers ; as one contemporary critic wrote for The New York Press : " At times the description is so vivid as to be almost suffocating . The reader is right down in the midst of it where patriotism is dissolved into its elements and where only a dozen men can be seen , firing blindly and grotesquely into the smoke . This is war from a new point of view . "
With its heavy use of irony , symbolism and metaphor , the novel also lends itself to less straightforward readings . As with many of Crane 's fictional works , the novel 's dialogue often uses distinctive local dialects , contributing to its apparent historicity ; for example , Jim Conklin muses at the beginning of the novel : " I s 'pose we must go reconnoiterin ' ' round th ' kentry jest t ' keep ' em from gittin ' too clost , or t 'develope 'm , or something " . The ironic tone increases in severity as the novel progresses , especially in terms of the ironic distance between the narrator and protagonist . The title of the work itself is ironic ; Henry wishes " that he , too , had a wound , a red badge of courage " , echoing a wish to have been wounded in battle . The wound he does receive ( from the rifle butt of a fleeing Union soldier ) , however , is not a badge of courage but a badge of shame .
By substituting epithets for characters ' names ( " the youth " , " the tattered soldier " ) , Crane injects an allegorical quality into his work , making his characters point to a specific characteristic of man . There have been numerous interpretations concerning hidden meanings within The Red Badge of Courage . Beginning with Robert W. Stallman 's 1968 Crane biography , several critics have explored the novel in terms of Christian allegory . In particular , the death of Henry Fleming 's Christ @-@ like friend , Jim Conklin , is noted for evidence of this reading , as well as the concluding sentence of chapter nine , which refers to the sun as " fierce wafer " in the sky . John Berryman was one of the first critics to interpret the novel as a modern wasteland through which the protagonist plays the role of an Everyman . Still others read the novel as having a Naturalist structure , comparing the work to those by Theodore Dreiser , Frank Norris and Jack London .
= = Themes = =
As the title of the work suggests , the main theme of the novel deals with Henry Fleming 's attempt to prove himself a worthy soldier by earning his " red badge of courage " . The first twelve chapters , until he receives his accidental wound , expose his cowardice . The following chapters detail his growth and apparently resulting heroism . Before the onset of battle , the novel 's protagonist romanticized war ; what little he knew about battle he learned from books : " He had read of marches , sieges , conflicts , and he had longed to see it all " . Therefore , when confronted by the harsh realities of war , Henry is shocked , and his idealism falters . Finding solace in existential thoughts , he internally fights to make sense of the senseless world in which he finds himself . When he seems to come to terms with his situation , he is yet again forced into the fears of battle , which threaten to strip him of his enlightened identity . Joseph Hergesheimer wrote in his introduction to the 1925 Knopf edition of the novel that , at its heart , The Red Badge of Courage was a " story of the birth , in a boy , of a knowledge of himself and of self @-@ command . "
However , the text is ambiguous , making it questionable that Henry ever matures . As critic Donald Gibson stated in The Red Badge of Courage : Redefining the Hero , " the novel undercuts itself . It says there is no answer to the questions it raises ; yet it says the opposite .... It says that Henry Fleming finally sees things as they are ; it says he is a deluded fool . It says that Henry does not see things as they are ; but no one else does either . " Although Crane critic and biographer Stallman wrote of Henry 's " spiritual change " by the end of the story , he also found this theme difficult to champion in light of the novel 's enigmatic ending . Although Henry " progresses upwards toward manhood and moral triumph " , as he begins to mature by taking leave of his previous " romantic notions , " " the education of the hero ends as it began : in self deception . " Critic William B. Dillingham also noted the novel 's heroism paradox , especially in terms of the introspective Henry 's lapse into unreasoning self @-@ abandon in the second half of the book . Dillingham stated that " in order to be courageous , a man in time of physical strife must abandon the highest of his human facilities , reason and imagination , and act instinctively , even animalistically . "
The indifference of the natural world is a reoccurring theme in Crane 's work . At the beginning of the novel , as the regiments advance toward battle , the sky is described as being an innocuous " fairy blue . " In chapter seven , Henry notes the inexplicable tranquility of nature , " a woman with a deep aversion to tragedy " , even as the battle rages on . Similarly , Heaven itself is indifferent to the slaughter he encounters on the battlefield . The dichotomy between nature 's sweetness and war 's destructiveness is further described in chapter eighteen : " A cloud of dark smoke as from smoldering ruins went up toward the sun now bright and gay in the blue , enameled sky . " After his desertion , however , Henry finds some comfort in the laws of nature , which seem to briefly affirm his previous cowardice :
This landscape gave him assurance . A fair field holding life . It was the religion of peace . It would die if its timid eyes were compelled to see blood .... He threw a pine cone at a jovial squirrel , and he ran with chattering fear . High in a treetop he stopped , and , poking his head cautiously from behind a branch , looked down with an air of trepidation . The youth felt triumphant at this exhibition . There was the law , he said . Nature had given him a sign . The squirrel , immediately upon recognizing danger , had taken to his legs without ado . He did not stand stolidly baring his furry belly to the missile , and die with an upward glance at the sympathetic heavens . On the contrary , he had fled as fast as his legs could carry him .
= = Reception = =
The Red Badge of Courage received generally positive reviews from critics on its initial publication ; in particular , it was said to be a remarkably modern and original work . Appleton 's 1895 publication went through ten editions in the first year alone , making Crane an overnight success at the age of twenty @-@ four . H. G. Wells , a friend of the author , later wrote that the novel was greeted by an " orgy of praise " in England and the United States . An anonymous reviewer for The New York Press wrote shortly after the novel 's initial publication that " One should be forever slow in charging an author with genius , but it must be confessed that The Red Badge of Courage is open to the suspicion of having greater power and originality than can be girdled by the name of talent . " The reviewer for The New York Times was impressed by Crane 's realistic portrayal of war , writing that the book " strikes the reader as a statement of facts by a veteran " , a sentiment that was echoed by the reviewer for The Critic , who called the novel " a true book ; true to life , whether it be taken as a literal transcript of a soldier 's experiences in his first battle , or ... a great parable of the inner battle which every man must fight . "
The novel , however , did have its initial detractors . Some critics found Crane 's young age and inexperience troubling , rather than impressive . For example , one reviewer wrote , " As Mr. Crane is too young a man to write from experience , the frightful details of his book must be the outcome of a very feverish imagination . " Crane and his work also received criticism from veterans of the war ; one in particular , Alexander C. McClurg , a brigadier general who served through the Chickamauga and Chattanooga campaigns , wrote a lengthy letter to The Dial ( which his publishing company owned ) in April 1896 , lambasting the novel as " a vicious satire upon American soldiers and American armies . " Author and veteran Ambrose Bierce , popular for his Civil War @-@ fiction , also expressed contempt for the novel and its writer . When a reviewer for The New York Journal referred to The Red Badge of Courage as a poor imitation of Bierce 's work , Bierce responded by congratulating them for exposing " the Crane freak " . Some reviewers also found fault with Crane 's narrative style , grammar mistakes , and apparent lack of traditional plot .
While it eventually became a bestseller in the United States , The Red Badge of Courage was more popular and sold more rapidly in England when it was published in late 1895 . Crane was delighted with his novel 's success overseas , writing to a friend : " I have only one pride and that is that the English edition of The Red Badge of Courage has been received [ sic ] with great praise by the English reviewers . I am proud of this simply because the remoter people would seem more just and harder to win . " Critic , veteran and Member of Parliament George Wyndham called the novel a " masterpiece " , applauding Crane 's ability to " stage the drama of man , so to speak , within the mind of one man , and then admits you as to a theatre . " Harold Frederic wrote in his own review that " If there were in existence any books of a similar character , one could start confidently by saying that it was the best of its kind . But it has no fellows . It is a book outside of all classification . So unlike anything else is it that the temptation rises to deny that it is a book at all " . Frederic , who would later befriend Crane when the latter relocated to England in 1897 , juxtaposed the novel 's treatment of war to those by Leo Tolstoy , Émile Zola and Victor Hugo , all of whose works he believed to be " positively ... cold and ineffectual " when compared to The Red Badge of Courage .
= = Legacy = =
Crane himself later wrote about the novel : " I don 't think The Red Badge to be any great shakes but then the very theme of it gives it an intensity that the writer cant [ sic ] reach every day . " For the remainder of Crane 's short career ( he died from tuberculosis at the age of 28 ) The Red Badge of Courage served as the standard against which the rest of his works were compared . Appleton republished the novel again in 1917 , shortly after the US entered World War I , reissuing it three additional times that same year .
Since the resurgence of Crane 's popularity in the 1920s , The Red Badge of Courage has been deemed a major American text , and Crane 's most important work . While modern critics have noted Crane 's " anticipation of the modern spectacle of war " , others , such as Crane scholar Stanley Wertheim , believe the work to be " unquestionably the most realistic novel about the American Civil War " . Donald Gibson called the novel " ahead of its time " because it did " not conform to very many contemporary notions about what literature should be and do . " The novel has been anthologized numerous times , including in Ernest Hemingway 's 1942 collection Men at War : The Best War Stories of All Time . In the introduction , Hemingway wrote that the novel " is one of the finest books of our literature , and I include it entire because it is all as much of a piece as a great poem is . " Robert W. Stallman 's introduction to the Modern Library 's 1951 edition of The Red Badge of Courage contained one of the first modern assessments of the novel .
The novel has been adapted several times for the screen . A 1951 film by the same name was directed by John Huston , starring Medal of Honor @-@ winner Audie Murphy as Henry Fleming . Written by Huston and Albert Band , the film suffered from a troubled production history , went over budget , and was cut down to only seventy minutes despite objections from the director . A made @-@ for @-@ television movie was released in 1974 , starring Richard Thomas as Fleming , while the 2008 Czech film Tobruk was partly based on The Red Badge of Courage .
In 1957 , actor Edmond O 'Brien had a spoken @-@ word recording of The Red Badge of Courage ( Caedmon TC 1040 ) . Billboard said " Edmond O 'Brien brings intensity in the narrative portions and successfully impersonates the varied characters in dialog . "
The main character in the Nintendo 3DS Videogame Code Name : S.T.E.A.M. is named after and based upon Henry Fleming , the protagonist from the book The Red Badge of Courage .
= Philomela =
Philomela ( / ˌfɪləˈmiːlə / ) or Philomel ( / ˈfɪləˌmɛl / ; Ancient Greek : Φιλομήλη , Philomēlē ) is a minor figure in Greek mythology and is frequently invoked as a direct and figurative symbol in literary , artistic , and musical works in the Western canon .
She is identified as being the " princess of Athens " and the younger of two daughters of Pandion I , King of Athens , and Zeuxippe . Her sister , Procne , was the wife of King Tereus of Thrace . While the myth has several variations , the general depiction is that Philomela , after being raped and mutilated by her sister 's husband , Tereus , obtains her revenge and is transformed into a nightingale ( Luscinia megarhynchos ) , a migratory passerine bird native to Europe and southwest Asia and noted for its song . Because of the violence associated with the myth , the song of the nightingale is often depicted or interpreted as a sorrowful lament . Coincidentally , in nature , the female nightingale is mute and only the male of the species sings .
Ovid and other writers have made the association ( either fancifully or mistakenly ) that the etymology of her name was " lover of song , " derived from the Greek φιλο- and μέλος ( " song " ) instead of μῆλον ( " fruit " or " sheep " ) . The name means " lover of fruit , " " lover of apples , " or " lover of sheep . "
= = The story of Philomela in myth = =
The most complete and extant rendering of the story of Philomela , Procne , and Tereus can be found in Book VI of the Metamorphoses of the Roman poet Ovid ( Publius Ovidius Naso ) ( 43 BC – AD 17 / 18 ) , where the story reaches its full development during antiquity . It is likely that Ovid relied upon Greek and Latin sources that were available in his era such as the Bibliotheca of Pseudo @-@ Apollodorus ( 2nd century BC ) , or sources that are no longer extant or exist today only in fragments — especially Sophocles ' tragic drama Tereus ( 5th century BC ) .
According to Ovid , in the fifth year of Procne 's marriage to Tereus , King of Thrace and son of Ares , she asked her husband to " Let me at Athens my dear sister see / Or let her come to Thrace , and visit me . " Indulging his wife 's request , Tereus agreed to travel to Athens and escort Philomela , his wife 's sister , to Thrace . King Pandion of Athens , the father of Philomela and Procne , was apprehensive about letting his only remaining daughter leave his home and protection and asks Tereus to protect her as if he were her father . Tereus agrees . However , Tereus lusted for Philomela when he first saw her , and that lust grew during the course of the return voyage to Thrace .
Arriving in Thrace , he forced her to a cabin or lodge in the woods and raped her . After the assault , Tereus threatened her and advised her to keep silent . Philomela was defiant and angered Tereus . In his rage , he cut out her tongue and abandoned her in the cabin . In Ovid 's Metamorphoses Philomela 's defiant speech is rendered ( in an 18th @-@ century English translation ) as :
Rendered unable to speak because of her injuries , Philomela wove a tapestry ( or a robe ) that told her story and had it sent to Procne . Procne was incensed and in revenge , she killed her son by Tereus , Itys ( or Itylos ) , boiled him and served him as a meal to her husband . After Tereus ate Itys , the sisters presented him with the severed head of his son , and he became aware of their conspiracy and his cannibalistic meal . He snatched up an axe and pursued them with the intent to kill the sisters . They fled but were almost overtaken by Tereus at Daulia in Phocis . In desperation , they prayed to the gods to be turned into birds and escape Tereus ' rage and vengeance . The gods transformed Procne into a swallow and Philomela into a nightingale . Subsequently , the gods would transform Tereus into a hoopoe .
= = = Variations on the myth = = =
It is typical for myths from antiquity to have been altered over the passage of time or for competing variations of the myth to emerge . With the story of Philomela , most of the variations concern which sister became the nightingale or the swallow , and into what type of bird Tereus was transformed . Since Ovid 's Metamorphoses , it has been generally accepted that Procne was transformed into a nightingale , and Philomela into a swallow . The description of Tereus as an " epops " has generally been translated as a hoopoe ( scientific name : Upupa epops ) . Since many of the earlier sources are no longer extant , or remain only fragments , Ovid 's version of the myth has been the most lasting and influenced most later works .
Early Greek sources have it that Philomela was turned into a swallow , which has no song ; Procne turns into a nightingale , singing a beautiful but sad song in remorse . Later sources , among them Ovid , Hyginus , and the Bibliotheca of Pseudo @-@ Apollodorus , and in modern literature the English romantic poets like Keats write that although she was tongueless , Philomela was turned into a nightingale , and Procne into a swallow . Eustathius ' version of the story has the sisters reversed , so that Philomela married Tereus and that Tereus lusted after Procne .
It is salient to note that in taxonomy and binomial nomenclature , the genus name of the martins ( the larger @-@ bodied among swallow genera ) is Progne , a Latinized form of Procne . Other related genera named after the myth include the Crag Martins Ptyonoprogne , and Saw @-@ wings Psalidoprocne . Coincidentally , although most of the depictions of the nightingale and its song in art and literature are of female nightingales , the female of the species does not sing — it is the male of the species who sings its characteristic song .
In an early account , Sophocles wrote that Tereus was turned into a large @-@ beaked bird whom some scholars translate as a hawk while a number of retellings and other works ( including Aristophanes ' ancient comedy , The Birds ) hold that Tereus was instead changed into a hoopoe . Various later translations of Ovid state that Tereus was transformed into other birds than the hawk and hoopoe , including references by Dryden and Gower to the lapwing .
Several writers omit key details of the story . According to Pausanias , Tereus was so remorseful for his actions against Philomela and Itys ( the nature of the actions is not described ) that he kills himself . Then two birds appear as the women lament his death . Many later sources omit the Tereus ' tongue @-@ cutting mutilation of Philomela altogether .
According to Thucydides , Tereus was not King of Thrace , but rather from the city of Daulia in Phocis , a city inhabited by Thracians . He cites in proof of this that poets who mention the nightingale refer to it as a " Daulian bird . " It is thought that Thucydides commented on the myth in his famous work on the Peloponnesian War because Sophocles ' play confused the mythical Tereus with contemporary ruler Teres I of Thrace .
= = = Elements borrowed from other myths and stories = = =
The story of Philomela , Procne and Tereus is largely influenced by the lost tragedy Tereus of Sophocles . Scholar Jenny Marsh claims that Sophocles borrowed certain plot elements from Euripides drama Medea — notably a wife killing her child in an act of revenge against her husband — and incorporated them in his tragedy Tereus . She implies that the infanticide of Itys did not appear in the Tereus myth until Sophocles ' play and that it was introduced because of what was borrowed from Euripides .
It is possible that social and political themes have woven their way into the story as a contrast between Athenians who believed themselves to be the hegemonic power in Greece and the more civilized of the Greek peoples , and the Thracians who were considered to be a " barbaric race . " It is possible that these elements were woven into Sophocles ' play Tereus and other works of the period .
= = Appearances in the Western canon = =
The material of the Philomela myth has been used in various creative works — artistic and literary — for the past 2 @,@ 500 years . Over the centuries , the myth has been associated with the image of the nightingale and its song described as both exceedingly beautiful and sorrowful . The continued use of the image in artistic , literary , and musical works has reinforced this association .
= = = From antiquity and the influence of Ovid = = =
Beginning with Homer 's Odyssey , ancient dramatists and poets evoked the story of Philomela and the nightingale in their works . Most notably , it was the core of the tragedy Tereus by Sophocles ( lost , extant only in fragments ) , and later in a set of plays by Philocles , the nephew of the great playwright Aeschylus . In Aeschylus 's Agamemnon , the prophetess Cassandra has a visionary premonition of her own death in which she mentioned the nightingale and Itys , lamenting :
In his Poetics , Aristotle points to the ″ voice of the shuttle ″ in Sophocles ′ tragedy Tereus as an example of a poetic device that aids in the ″ recognition ″ — the change from ignorance to knowledge — of what has happened earlier in the plot . Such a device , according to Aristotle , is ″ contrived ″ by the poet , and thus is ″ inartistic . ″ . The connection between the nightingale 's song and poetry is evoked by Aristophanes in his comedy The Birds and in the poetry of Callimachus . Roman poet Virgil compares the mourning of Orpheus for Eurydice to the “ lament of the nightingale ” .
While Ovid 's retelling of the myth is the more famous version of the story , he had several ancient sources on which to rely before he finished the Metamorphoses in A.D. 8 . Many of these sources were doubtless available to Ovid during his lifetime but have been lost or come to us at present only in fragments . In his version , Ovid recast and combined many elements from these ancient sources . Because his is the most complete , lasting version of the myth , it is the basis for many later works .
In the 12th century , French trouvère ( troubadour ) Chrétien de Troyes , adapted many of the myths recounted in Ovid 's Metamorphoses into Old French . However , de Troyes was not alone in making use of Ovid 's material . Geoffrey Chaucer recounted the story in his unfinished work The Legend of Good Women and briefly alluded to the myth in his Troilus and Criseyde . John Gower included the tale in his Confessio Amantis . References to Philomela are common in the motets of the ars nova , ars subtilior , and ars mutandi musical eras of the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries .
= = = In Elizabethean and Jacobean England = = =
Throughout the late Renaissance and Elizabethean eras , the image of Philomela and the nightingale incorporated elements of mourning and beauty after being subjected to an act of violence . In the long poem " The Steele Glas " ( 1576 ) , poet George Gascoigne ( 1535 – 1577 ) depicts " Philomel " as the representative of poetry ( Poesys ) , her sister Progne as satire ( Satyra ) , and Tereus as " vayne Delight . " The characterization of Philomela and the nightingale was that of a woman choosing to exercise her will in recovering her voice and resisting those forces which attempts to silence her . Critics have pointed to Gascoigne 's use of the Philomela myth as a personal appeal and that he was fighting in verse a battle with his enemies who violently opposed his poems . In his poem " The complaynt of Philomene " ( 1576 ) , the myth is employed to depict punishment and control .
In " The Nymph 's Reply to the Shepherd " , Sir Walter Raleigh ( 1554 – 1618 ) relays consolation regarding the nymph 's harsh rejection of the shepherd 's romantic advances in the spirit of " time heals all wounds , " by citing in the second stanza ( among several examples ) that eventually with the passage of time Philomel would become " dumb " to her own pain and that her attention would be drawn away from the pain by the events of life to come .
In Sir Philip Sidney 's ( 1554 – 1586 ) courtly love poem " The Nightingale " , Sydney 's narrator who is in love with a woman he cannot have compares his own romantic situation to that of Philomela 's plight and claims that he has more reason to be sad . However , recent literary criticism has labelled this claim as sexist and an unfortunate marginalization of the traumatic rape of Philomela . Sydney argues that the rape was an " excess of love " and less severe than being deprived of love as attested by the line , " Since wanting is more woe than too much having . "
Playwright and poet William Shakespeare ( 1564 – 1616 ) makes frequent use of the Philomela myth — most notably in his tragedy Titus Andronicus ( c . 1588 – 1593 ) where characters directly reference Tereus and Philomela in commenting on rape and mutilation of Lavinia by Aaron , Chiron , and Demetrius . Prominent allusions to Philomela also occur in the depiction of Lucrece in The Rape of Lucrece , in the depiction of Imogen in Cymbeline , and in Titania 's lullaby in A Midsummer Night 's Dream where she asks Philomel to " sing in our sweet lullaby " . In Sonnet 102 , Shakespeare addresses his lover ( the " fair youth " ) and compares his love poetry to the song of the nightingale , noting that " her mournful hymns did hush the night " ( line 10 ) , and that as a poet would " hold his tongue " ( line 13 ) in deference to the more beautiful nightingale 's song so that he " not dull you with my song " ( line 14 ) . Emilia Lanyer ( 1569 – 1645 ) , a poet who is considered by some scholars to be the woman referred to in the poetry of William Shakespeare as " Dark Lady " , makes several references to Philomela in her patronage poem " The Description of Cookeham " in Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum ( 1611 ) . Lanyer 's poem , dedicated to Margaret Clifford , Countess of Cumberland and her daughter Lady Anne Clifford refers to Philomela 's " sundry layes " ( line 31 ) and later to her " mournful ditty " ( line 189 ) .
The image of the nightingale appears frequently in poetry of the period with it and its song described by poets as an example of " joyance " and gaiety or as an example of melancholy , sad , sorrowful , and mourning . However , many use the nightingale as a symbol of sorrow but without a direct reference to the Philomela myth .
= = = In Classical and Romantic works = = =
Poets in the Romantic Era recast the myth and adapted the image of the nightingale with its song to be a poet and “ master of a superior art that could inspire the human poet ” . For some romantic poets , the nightingale even began to take on qualities of the muse . John Keats ( 1795 – 1821 ) , in " Ode to a Nightingale " ( 1819 ) idealizes the nightingale as a poet who has achieved the poetry that Keats himself longs to write . Keats directly employs the Philomel myth in " The Eve of St. Agnes " ( 1820 ) where the rape of Madeline by Porphyro mirrors the rape of Philomela by Tereus . Keats ' contemporary , poet Percy Bysshe Shelley ( 1792 – 1822 ) invoked a similar image of the nightingale , writing in his A Defence of Poetry that " a poet is a nightingale who sits in darkness and sings to cheer its own solitude with sweet sounds ; his auditors are as men entranced by the melody of an unseen musician , who feel that they are moved and softened , yet know not whence or why . ”
First published in the collection Lyrical Ballads , " The Nightingale " ( 1798 ) is an effort by Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( 1772 – 1834 ) to move away from associations that the nightingale 's song was one of melancholy and identified it with the joyous experience of nature . He remarked that " in nature there is nothing melancholy , " ( line 15 ) expressing hope " we may not thus profane / Nature ’ s sweet voices , always full of love / And joyance ! " ( lines 40 – 42 ) .
At the poem 's conclusion , Coleridge writes of a father taking his crying son outside in the night :
Coleridge , and his friend William Wordsworth ( 1770 – 1850 ) who called the nightingale a " fiery heart , " depicted the bird " as an instance of natural poetic creation , " and as the " voice of nature . "
Other notable mentions include :
In the poem " Philomela " ( 1853 ) by English poet Matthew Arnold ( 1822 – 1888 ) , the poet asks upon hearing the crying of a fleeing nightingale if it can find peace and healing in the English countryside far away from Greece , although lamenting its pain and passion " eternal . "
In his 1881 poem " The Burden of Itys " , Oscar Wilde describes Itys as the symbol of Greek art and pleasure is contrasted with Christ . The landscape of Greece is also compared to the landscape of England , specifically Kent and Oxford .
Algernon Charles Swinburne ( 1837 – 1909 ) wrote a poem called " Itylus " based on the story in which Philomela and Procne , after being transformed into the nightingale and swallow , ask when they will be able to forget the grief of having slain Itylus — the answer being they will forget when the world ends .
English poet Ann Yearsley ( 1753 – 1806 ) in lamenting the sufferings of African slaves invokes the myth and challenges that her song " shall teach sad Philomel a louder note , " in her abolitionist poem " A Poem on the Inhumanity of the Slave @-@ Trade " ( 1788 )
In " A la Juventud Filipina " , Filipino national hero José Rizal ( 1861 – 1896 ) , used the image of Philomel as inspiration for young Filipinos to use their voices to speak of Spanish injustice and colonial oppression .
= = = In modern works = = =
The Philomela myth is perpetuated largely through its appearance as a powerful device in poetry . In the 20th century , American @-@ British poet T. S. Eliot ( 1888 – 1965 ) directly referenced the myth in his most famous poem , " The Waste Land " ( 1922 ) , where he describes ,
Eliot employs the myth to depict themes of sorrow , pain , and that the only recovery or regeneration possible is through revenge . Several of these mentions reference other poets ' renderings of the myth , including those of Ovid and Gascoigne . Eliot 's references to the nightingales singing by the convent in " Sweeney and the Nightingales " ( 1919 – 1920 ) is a direct reference the murder of Agamemnon in the tragedy by Aeschylus — wherein the Greek dramatist directly evoked the Philomela myth . The poem describes Sweeney as a brute and that two women in the poem are conspiring against him for his mistreatment of them . This mirrors not only the elements of Agamemnon 's death in Aeschylus ' play but the sister 's revenge against Tereus in the myth .
In the poem " To the Nightingale " , Argentine poet and fabulist , Jorge Luis Borges ( 1899 – 1986 ) , who compares his efforts as a poet to the bird 's lament though never having heard it . He describes its song as " encrusted with mythology " and that the evolution of the myth has distorted it — that the opinions of other poets and writers have kept both poet and reader from actually hearing the original sound and knowing the essence of the song .
Several artists have applied Ovid 's account to new translations or reworkings , or adapted the story for the stage . British poet Ted Hughes ( 1930 – 1998 ) used the myth in his 1997 work Tales from Ovid ( 1997 ) which was a loose translation and retelling of twenty @-@ four tales from Ovid 's Metamorphoses . Both Israeli dramatist Hanoch Levin ( in The Great Whore of Babylon ) and English playwright Joanna Laurens ( in The Three Birds ) wrote plays based on the story . Most recently the story was adapted into an opera by Scottish composer James Dillon in 2004 and a 1964 vocal composition by American composer Milton Babbitt with text by John Hollander .
Several female writers have used the Philomela myth as a vehicle for exploring the subject of rape , women and power ( empowerment ) , and feminist themes , including novelist Margaret Atwood in her novella Nightingale published in The Tent ( 2006 ) , Emma Tennant in her story " Philomela " , Jeannine Hall Gailey who uses the myth in several poems published in Becoming the Villainess ( 2006 ) , and Timberlake Wertenbaker in her play The Love of the Nightingale ( 1989 ) ( later adapted into an opera of the same name composed by Richard Mills ) .
= PJ Harvey =
Polly Jean Harvey , MBE ( born 9 October 1969 ) , known as PJ Harvey , is an English musician , singer @-@ songwriter , writer , poet , and composer . Primarily known as a vocalist and guitarist , she is also proficient with a wide range of instruments .
Harvey began her career in 1988 when she joined local band Automatic Dlamini as a vocalist , guitarist , and saxophone player . The band 's frontman , John Parish , would become her long @-@ term collaborator . In 1991 , she formed an eponymous trio and subsequently began her professional career . The trio released two studio albums , Dry ( 1992 ) and Rid of Me ( 1993 ) before disbanding , after which Harvey continued as a solo artist . Since 1995 , she has released a further nine studio albums with collaborations from various musicians including John Parish , former bandmate Rob Ellis , Mick Harvey , and Eric Drew Feldman and has also worked extensively with record producer Flood .
Among the accolades she has received are the 2001 and 2011 Mercury Prize for Stories from the City , Stories from the Sea ( 2000 ) and Let England Shake ( 2011 ) respectively — the only artist to have been awarded the prize twice — eight Brit Award nominations , six Grammy Award nominations and two further Mercury Prize nominations . Rolling Stone awarded her 1992 's Best New Artist and Best Singer Songwriter and 1995 's Artist of the Year , and listed Rid of Me , To Bring You My Love ( 1995 ) and Stories from the City , Stories from the Sea on its 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list . In 2011 , she was awarded for Outstanding Contribution To Music at the NME Awards . In June 2013 , she was awarded an MBE for services to music .
other
= = Early life = =
Harvey was born on 9 October 1969 in Bridport , Dorset , as the second child of Ray and Eva Harvey , who owned a stone quarrying business , and grew up on the family 's farm in Corscombe . During her childhood , she attended school in nearby Beaminster , where she received guitar lessons from folk singer / songwriter Steve Knightley , and her parents introduced her to music that would later influence her work , including blues music , Captain Beefheart and Bob Dylan .
As a teenager , Harvey began learning saxophone and joined an eight @-@ piece instrumental group Bologne , based in Dorset . She was also a guitarist with folk duo the Polekats , with whom she wrote some of her earliest material . After finishing school , Harvey attended Yeovil College and attended a visual arts foundation course .
= = Music career = =
= = = Automatic Dlamini : 1988 – 1991 = = =
In July 1988 , Harvey became a member of Automatic Dlamini , a band based in Bristol with whom she gained extensive ensemble @-@ playing experience . Formed by John Parish in 1983 , the band consisted of a rotating line @-@ up that at various times included Rob Ellis and Ian Oliver . Harvey had met Parish in 1987 through mutual friend Jeremy Hogg , the band 's slide guitarist . Providing saxophone , guitars and background vocals , she travelled extensively during the band 's early days , including performances in West Germany , Spain and Poland to support the band 's debut studio album , The D is for Drum . A second European tour took place throughout June and July 1989 . Following the tour , the band recorded Here Catch , Shouted His Father , their second studio album , between late 1989 and early 1990 . This is the only Automatic Dlamini material to feature Harvey , but remains unreleased , although bootleg versions of the album are in circulation .
In January 1991 , Harvey left to form her own band with former bandmates Ellis and Oliver ; yet she had formed lasting personal and professional relationships with certain members , especially Parish , whom she has referred to as her " musical soulmate . " Parish would subsequently contribute to , and sometimes co @-@ produce , Harvey 's solo studio albums and has toured with her a number of times . As a duo , Parish and Harvey have recorded two collaborative albums where Parish composed the music and Harvey penned the lyrics . Additionally , Parish 's girlfriend in the late 1980s was photographer Maria Mochnacz . She and Harvey became close friends and Mochnacz went on to shoot and design most of Harvey 's album artwork and music videos , contributing significantly to her public image .
Harvey has said of her time with Automatic Dlamini : " I ended up not singing very much but I was just happy to learn how to play the guitar . I wrote a lot during the time I was with them but my first songs were crap . I was listening to a lot of Irish folk music at the time , so the songs were folky and full of penny whistles and stuff . It was ages before I felt ready to perform my own songs in front of other people . " She also credits Parish for teaching her how to perform in front of audiences , saying " after the experience with John 's band and seeing him perform I found it was enormously helpful to me as a performer to engage with people in the audience , and I probably did learn that from him , amongst other things . "
= = = PJ Harvey Trio ; Dry and Rid of Me : 1991 – 1993 = = =
In January 1991 , following her departure from Automatic Dlamini , Harvey formed her own band with former bandmates Rob Ellis and Ian Oliver . Harvey decided to name the trio PJ Harvey after rejecting other names as " nothing felt right at all or just suggested the wrong type of sound " , and also to allow her to continue music as a solo artist . The trio consisted of Harvey on vocals and guitars , Ellis on drums and backing vocals , and Oliver on bass . Oliver later departed to rejoin the still @-@ active Automatic Dlamini . He was subsequently replaced with Steve Vaughan . The trio 's " disastrous " debut performance was held at a skittle alley in Charmouth Village Hall in April 1991 . Harvey later recounted the event saying : " we started playing and I suppose there was about fifty people there , and during the first song we cleared the hall . There was only about two people left . And a woman came up to us , came up to my drummer , it was only a three piece , while we were playing and shouted at him ' Don 't you realize nobody likes you ! We 'll pay you , you can stop playing , we 'll still pay you ! ' "
The band relocated to London in June 1991 when Harvey applied to study sculpture at Central Saint Martins College of Art & Design , still undecided as to her future career . During this time , the band recorded a set of demo recordings and distributed them to record labels . Independent label Too Pure agreed to release the band 's debut single " Dress " in October 1991 , and later signed PJ Harvey . " Dress " received mass critical acclaim upon its release and was voted Single of the Week in Melody Maker by guest reviewer John Peel , who admired " the way Polly Jean seems crushed by the weight of her own songs and arrangements , as if the air is literally being sucked out of them ... admirable if not always enjoyable . " However , Too Pure provided little promotion for the single and critics claim that " Melody Maker had more to do with the success of the " Dress " single than Too Pure Records . " A week after its release , the band recorded a live radio session for Peel on BBC Radio 1 on 29 October featuring " Oh , My Lover , " " Victory , " " Sheela @-@ Na @-@ Gig , " and " Water . "
The following February , the trio released " Sheela @-@ Na @-@ Gig " as their equally @-@ acclaimed second single and their debut studio album , Dry ( 1992 ) , followed in March . Like the singles preceding it , Dry received an overwhelming international critical response . The album was cited by Kurt Cobain of Nirvana as his sixteenth favourite album ever in his posthumously @-@ published Journals . Rolling Stone also named Harvey as Songwriter of the Year and Best New Female Singer . A limited edition double LP version of Dry was released alongside the regular version of the album , containing both the original and demo versions of each track , called Dry Demonstration , and the band also received significant coverage at the Reading Festival in 1992 .
Island ( PolyGram ) signed the trio amid a major label bidding war in mid @-@ 1992 , and in December 1992 the trio travelled to Cannon Falls , Minnesota in the United States to record the follow @-@ up to Dry with producer Steve Albini . Prior to recording with Albini , the band recorded a second session with John Peel on 22 September and recorded a version of Bob Dylan 's " Highway 61 Revisited , " and two new songs " Me Jane " and " Ecstasy . " The recording sessions with Albini took place at Pachyderm Recording Studio and resulted in the band 's major label debut Rid of Me in May 1993 . Rolling Stone wrote that it " is charged with aggressive eroticism and rock fury . It careens from blues to goth to grunge , often in the space of a single song . " The album was promoted by two singles , " 50ft Queenie " and " Man @-@ Size " , as well as tours of the United Kingdom in May and the United States in June , continuing there during the summer .
However , during the American leg of the tour , internal friction started to form between the members of the trio . Deborah Frost , writing for Rolling Stone , noticed " an ever widening personal gulf " between the band members , and quoted Harvey as saying " It makes me sad . I wouldn 't have got here without them . I needed them back then – badly . But I don 't need them anymore . We all changed as people . " Despite the tour 's personal downsides , footage from live performances was compiled and released on the long @-@ form video Reeling with PJ Harvey ( 1993 ) . The band 's final tour was to support U2 in August 1993 , after which the trio officially disbanded . In her final appearance on American television in September 1993 on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , Harvey performed a solo version of " Rid of Me . " As Rid of Me sold substantially more copies than Dry , 4 @-@ Track Demos , a compilation album of demos for the album was released in October and inaugurated her career as a solo artist . In early 1994 , it was announced that U2 's manager , Paul McGuinness , had become her manager .
= = = Solo career : 1993 – present = = =
= = = = To Bring You My Love and Is This Desire ? : 1993 – 1999 = = = =
As Harvey embarked on her solo career , she explored collaborations with other musicians . In 1995 she released her third studio album , To Bring You My Love , featuring former bandmate John Parish , Bad Seeds multi @-@ instrumentalist Mick Harvey and French drummer Jean @-@ Marc Butty , all of whom would continue to perform and record with Harvey throughout her career . The album was also her first material to be produced by Flood . Simultaneously a more blues @-@ influenced and more futuristic record than its predecessors , To Bring You My Love showcased Harvey broadening her musical style to include strings , organs and synthesisers . Rolling Stone said in its review that " Harvey sings the blues like Nick Cave sings gospel : with more distortion , sex and murder than you remember . To Bring You My Love was a towering goth version of grunge . " During the successive tours for the album , Harvey also experimented with her image and stage persona .
The record generated a surprise modern rock radio hit in the United States with its lead single , " Down by the Water . " Three consecutive singles — " C 'mon Billy " , " Send His Love to Me " and " Long Snake Moan " — were also moderately successful . The album was a commercial success selling one million copies worldwide including 370 @,@ 000 in the United States . It was also certified Silver in the United Kingdom within seven months of its release , having sold over 60 @,@ 000 copies . In the United States , the album was voted Album of the Year by The Village Voice , Rolling Stone , USA Today , People , The New York Times and the Los Angeles Times . Rolling Stone also named Harvey 1995 's Artist of the Year and Spin ranked the album third in The 90 Greatest Albums of the ' 90s , behind Nirvana 's Nevermind ( 1991 ) and Public Enemy 's Fear of a Black Planet ( 1990 ) .
In 1996 , following the international success of To Bring You My Love and other collaborations , Harvey began composing material that would end up on her fourth studio album , during what she referred to as " an incredibly low patch . " The material diverged significantly from her former work and introduced electronica elements into her song @-@ writing . During recording sessions in 1997 original PJ Harvey Trio drummer Rob Ellis rejoined Harvey 's band , and Flood was hired again as producer . The sessions , which continued into April the following year , resulted in Is This Desire ? ( 1998 ) . Though originally released to mixed reviews in September 1998 , the album was a success and received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Alternative Music Performance . The album 's lead single , " A Perfect Day Elise , " was moderately successful in the United Kingdom , peaking at number 25 on the UK Singles Chart , her most successful single to date .
= = = = Stories from the City , Stories from the Sea and Uh Huh Her : 2000 – 2006 = = = =
In early 2000 Harvey began work on her fifth studio album Stories from the City , Stories from the Sea with Rob Ellis and Mick Harvey . Written in her native Dorset , Paris and New York , the album showcased a more mainstream indie rock and pop rock sound to her previous albums and the lyrics followed themes of love that tied into Harvey 's affection for New York City . The album also featured Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke on three tracks , including his lead vocals on " This Mess We 're in . " Upon its release in October 2000 the album was a critical and commercial success , selling over one million copies worldwide and charting in both the United Kingdom and the United States . The album 's three singles — " Good Fortune " , " A Place Called Home " and " This Is Love " — were moderately successful .
The album also received a number of accolades including a BRIT Award nomination for Best Female Artist and two Grammy Award nominations for Best Rock Album and Best Female Rock Performance for the album 's third single , " This Is Love " . However , most notably , Harvey was nominated for , and won , the 2001 Mercury Music Prize . The awards ceremony was held on the same day as the 11 September attacks on the United States and Harvey was on tour in Washington , D.C. , one of the affected cities , when she won the prize . Reflecting on the win in 2011 , she said : " quite naturally I look back at that and only remember the events that were taking place across the world and to win the prize on that day — it didn 't have much importance in the grand scheme of things " , noting " it was a very surreal day " . The same year , Harvey also topped a readers ' poll conducted by Q Magazine of the 100 Greatest Women in Rock Music .
During three years of various collaborations with other artists , Harvey was also working on her sixth studio album , Uh Huh Her , which was released in May 2004 . For the first time since 4 @-@ Track Demos ( 1993 ) , Harvey played every instrument — with the exception of drums provided by Rob Ellis — and was the sole producer . The album received " generally favourable reviews " by critics , though its production was often criticised . It was also a commercial success , debuting and peaking at number 12 in the UK Albums Chart and being certified Silver by the BPI within a month of its release .
Harvey also did an extensive world tour in promotion of the album , lasting seven months in total . For the tour , she formed a backing band consisting of Rob Ellis , bassist Dingo and future Red Hot Chili Peppers guitarist Josh Klinghoffer and performed at various European summer festivals , including Glastonbury , as well as opening two shows for Morrissey . Selected recordings from the tour were included on Harvey 's first live DVD , On Tour : Please Leave Quietly , directed by Maria Mochnacz and released in 2006 .
= = = = White Chalk and Let England Shake : 2007 – 2014 = = = =
During her first performance since the Uh Huh Her tour at the Hay Festival of Literature & Arts on 26 May 2006 , Harvey revealed that her next studio album would be almost entirely piano @-@ based . Following the October release of The Peel Sessions 1991 – 2004 , a compilation of songs recorded from 1991 to 2000 during her radio sessions with John Peel , she began recording her seventh studio album White Chalk in November , together with Flood , John Parish , and Eric Drew Feldman in a studio in West London . White Chalk was released in September 2007 and marked a radical departure from her usual alternative rock style , consisting mainly of piano ballads . The album received favourable reviews , its style being described by one critic as containing " pseudo @-@ Victorian elements — drama , restraint , and antiquated instruments and sounds . " Harvey herself said of the album : " when I listen to the record I feel in a different universe , really , and I 'm not sure whether it 's in the past or in the future . The record confuses me , that 's what I like — it doesn 't feel of this time right now , but I 'm not sure whether it 's 100 years ago or 100 years in the future " , summing up the album 's sound as " really weird . " During the tour for the album Harvey performed without a backing band , and also began performing on an autoharp , which continues to be her primary instrument after guitar and has influenced her material since White Chalk .
In April 2010 , Harvey appeared on The Jools Holland Show to perform a new song titled " Let England Shake . " In a pre @-@ performance interview with Marr , she stated that the new material she had written had been " formed out of the landscape that I 've grown up in and the history of this nation " and as " a human being affected by politics . " Her eighth studio album Let England Shake was released in February 2011 , and received universal critical acclaim from critics . NME 's 10 / 10 review summarised the album as " a record that ventures deep into the heart of darkness of war itself and its resonance throughout England 's past , present and future " and other reviews also noted its themes and writing style as " bloody and forceful , " mixing " ethereal form with brutal content , " and " her most powerful . " Dealing with the ongoing conflict in Afghanistan and other episodes from English history , the album featured John Parish , Mick Harvey and Jean @-@ Marc Butty as Harvey 's backing band and the quartet toured extensively in its promotion . Following the release of the album 's two well @-@ received singles — " The Words That Maketh Murder " and " The Glorious Land " — and the collection of short films by Seamus Murphy to accompany the album , Harvey won her second Mercury Music Prize on 6 September . The award marked her as the first artist to receive the award twice , entering her into The Guinness Book Of Records as the only artist to have achieved this . , and sales of Let England Shake increased 1 @,@ 190 % overnight following her win . On 23 September , Let England Shake was certified Gold in the United Kingdom and was listed as album of the year by MOJO and Uncut .
On 3 August 2013 Harvey released a song Shaker Aamer in support of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp detainee by the same name who was the last British citizen to be held there . The song describes in detail what Aamer endured during his four @-@ month hunger strike .
= = = = The Hope Six Demolition Project : 2015 – present = = = =
Starting on 16 January 2015 , PJ Harvey began recording her 9th studio album in front of a live audience . A custom built recording studio was made in London 's Somerset House . Reporter for Uncut magazine noted that much like her previous album Let England Shake , many of the lyrics were politically charged , but this time it was more globally focused . While recording she was shown to be using saxophones , an autoharp , and a bouzouki . Flood was confirmed to be the producer of the album . On 18 December 2015 , Harvey released a 20 @-@ second teaser for the album , which contained a release date of spring 2016 .
On 21 January 2016 the debut single , The Wheel , and the name of the album , The Hope Six Demolition Project , were announced on Steve Lamacq 's show on BBC Radio 6 Music . The album 's release date was also revealed to be 15 April .
A video for ' The Orange Monkey ' , taken from The Hope Six Demolition Project , was shared on 2 June 2016 , directed by Seamus Murphy , and featuring clips from trips to Afghanistan .
= = = Collaborations and projects = = =
Besides her own work , Harvey has also collaborated with a number of other artists . In 1995 , she recorded a duet of American folk song " Henry Lee " with partner Nick Cave and also featured on the Bob Dylan cover " Death is Not the End , " both released on Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds ' Murder Ballads ( 1996 ) . In the same year she sang the theme song " Who Will Love Me Now ? " on Philip Ridley 's film The Passion of Darkly Noon . In May 1998 , before the release of Is This Desire ? , she featured on Tricky 's Angels with Dirty Faces , performing lead vocals on " Broken Homes " , and also contributed to Sparklehorse 's 2001 album It 's a Wonderful Life performing guitar , piano , and background vocals on two songs , " Eyepennies " and " Piano Fire . " Following the tour in promotion of Stories from the City , Stories from the Sea , she contributed vocals to eight tracks on Volume 9 : I See You Hearin ' Me and Volume 10 : I Heart Disco by Josh Homme 's side project The Desert Sessions , also appearing in the music video for " Crawl Home . " Throughout 2004 , Harvey produced Tiffany Anders ' album Funny Cry Happy Gift , and also produced , performed on and wrote five songs for Marianne Faithfull 's album Before the Poison , and contributed background vocals on " Hit the City , " " Methamphetamine Blues " and " Come to Me " on Mark Lanegan 's album Bubblegum . Harvey contributed the song " Slow @-@ Motion Movie @-@ Star " , an outtake from Stories from the City , Stories from the Sea , to Mick Harvey 's fourth studio album , Two of Diamonds , released in 2007 .
Harvey has also recorded two studio albums with long @-@ time collaborator John Parish . Dance Hall at Louse Point ( 1996 ) was written collectively with Parish with the exception of the song " Is That All There Is ? " , written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller . The album also listed her as Polly Jean Harvey , which in part affected the album 's sales . Harvey has also reflected on how the album was " an enormous turning point " and " lyrically , it moved me into areas I 'd never been to before . " In 1998 , she also performed lead vocals on " Airplane Blues , " as a soundtrack accompaniment to the Wingwalkers art exhibition by Rebecca Goddard and Parish 's wife , Michelle Henning , which was released as the closing song on Parish 's second solo album How Animals Move in 2002 . Following the release of White Chalk , Harvey reunited with Parish to record A Woman a Man Walked By , released in March 2009 . Like Dance Hall at Louse Point , the album received positive reviews but also was a moderate commercial success , peaking at number 25 in the UK Albums Chart .
Aside from collaborations , Harvey has also embarked on a number of projects as a composer . In January 2009 , a new stage production of Henrik Ibsen 's Hedda Gabler opened on Broadway . Directed by Ian Rickson and starring Mary @-@ Louise Parker in the title role , the play featured an original score of incidental music written by Harvey . In November 2011 , Harvey also composed part of the score for the Young Vic 's long @-@ running production of Hamlet in London . In May 2012 , Harvey composed two songs , " Horse " and " Bobby Don 't Steal , " for Mark Cousins ' film What is This Film Called Love ? , which also features " To Bring You My Love . "
= = Musical style and influences = =
Harvey possesses an expansive contralto vocal range . Harvey dislikes repeating herself in her music , resulting in very different @-@ sounding albums . In an October 2004 interview with Rolling Stone , she said : " when I 'm working on a new record , the most important thing is to not repeat myself ... that 's always my aim : to try and cover new ground and really to challenge myself . Because I 'm in this for learning . " While her musical style has been described as alternative rock , punk blues , art rock , and avant @-@ rock , she has experimented with various other genres including electronica , indie rock and folk music .
She is also known for changing her physical appearance for each album by altering her mode of dress or hairstyle , creating a unique aesthetic that extends to all aspects of the album , from the album art to the live performances . She works closely with friend and photographer Maria Mochnacz to develop the visual style of each album . Around the time of To Bring You My Love , for example , Harvey began experimenting with her image and adopting a theatrical aspect to her live performances . Her former fashion style , which consisted of simple black leggings , turtleneck sweaters and Doc Martens boots , was replaced by ballgowns , catsuits , wigs and excessive make @-@ up . She also began using stage props like a Ziggy Stardust @-@ style flashlight microphone . She denied the influence of drag , Kabuki or performance art on her new image , a look she affectionately dubbed " Joan Crawford on acid " in an interview with Spin in 1996 , but admitted that " it 's that combination of being quite elegant and funny and revolting , all at the same time , that appeals to me . I actually find wearing make @-@ up like that , sort of smeared around , as extremely beautiful . Maybe that 's just my twisted sense of beauty . " However , she later told Dazed & Confused magazine , " that was kind of a mask . It was much more of a mask than I 've ever had . I was very lost as a person , at that point . I had no sense of self left at all " , and has never repeated the overt theatricality of the To Bring You My Love tour .
At an early age , she was introduced by her parents to blues music , jazz and art rock , which , she told Rolling Stone in 1995 , would later influence her : " I was brought up listening to John Lee Hooker , to Howlin ' Wolf , to Robert Johnson , and a lot of Jimi Hendrix and Captain Beefheart . So I was exposed to all these very compassionate musicians at a very young age , and that 's always remained in me and seems to surface more as I get older . I think the way we are as we get older is a result of what we knew when we were children . " During her teenage years , she began listening to new wave and synthpop bands such as Soft Cell , Duran Duran and Spandau Ballet , although later stated that it was a phase when she was " having a bit of a rebellion against my parents ' record collection . " In her later teenage years , she became a fan of American indie rock bands including Pixies , Television and Slint ( whom she reached out to when the band included a message in the inside sleeve of Spiderland saying " interested female vocalists write 1864 Douglas Blvd . , Louisville , KY 40205 " ) . Though not as many critics have suspected , Patti Smith ; a frequent comparison that Harvey dismisses as " lazy journalism . " However , recently Harvey has said that Smith is " so energising to see and so passionate with what she 's doing " . Harvey has also cited Siouxsie Sioux in terms of live performance , stating : " She is so exciting to watch , so full of energy and human raw quality " . She has also drawn inspiration from Russian folk music , Italian soundtrack composer Ennio Morricone , classical composers like Arvo Pärt , Samuel Barber and Henryk Górecki ; and Neil Young . As a lyricist , Harvey has cited numerous poets , authors and lyricists as influences on her work including Harold Pinter , T. S. Eliot , William Butler Yeats , James Joyce , Ted Hughes and contemporaries such as Shane MacGowan and Jez Butterworth .
= = Non @-@ musical endeavours = =
Outside her better @-@ known music career , Harvey is also an occasional artist and actress . In 1998 she appeared in Hal Hartley 's film The Book of Life as Magdalena — a modern @-@ day character based on the Biblical Mary Magdalene — and had a cameo role as a Playboy Bunny in A Bunny Girl 's Tale , a short film directed by Sarah Miles , in which she also performs " Nina in Ecstasy " , an outtake from Is This Desire ? ( 1998 ) . Harvey also collaborated with Miles on another film , Amaeru Fallout 1972 , which includes Harvey performing a cover of " When Will I See You Again . "
Harvey is also an accomplished sculptor who has had several pieces exhibited at the Lamont Gallery and the Bridport Arts Centre . In 2010 , she was invited to be the guest designer for the summer issue of Francis Ford Coppola 's literary magazine Zoetrope : All @-@ Story . The issue featured Harvey 's paintings and drawings alongside short stories by Woody Allen . Speaking of her artistic contributions to the magazine in 2011 , Harvey said : " the first opportunity I ever had to show any work was in this magazine . They were drawn while I was writing and recording the record ( Let England Shake ) . It does relate to the record in the way the cycle keeps happening . "
In December 2013 , Harvey gave her debut public poetry reading at the British Library . On 2 January 2014 PJ Harvey guest @-@ edited BBC Radio 4 's Today programme .
In October 2015 , PJ Harvey published her first collection of poetry , a collaboration with photographer Seamus Murphy , entitled The Hollow of The Hand . To create the book , PJ Harvey and Seamus Murphy made several journeys to Kosovo , Afghanistan , and Washington DC . Seamus Murphy had previously worked with PJ Harvey to create 12 Short Films for Let England Shake .
= = Personal life = =
Harvey has acquired a reputation for eccentricity to match her music ; for example , Steve Albini said she ate nothing but potatoes while making Rid of Me . But she rejects the notion that her song lyrics are autobiographical , telling The Times in 1998 : " the tortured artist myth is rampant . People paint me as some kind of black witchcraft @-@ practising devil from hell , that I have to be twisted and dark to do what I am doing . It 's a load of rubbish " . Similarly , she later told Spin : " some critics have taken my writing so literally to the point that they 'll listen to ' Down by the Water ' and believe I have actually given birth to a child and drowned her . "
In the early 1990s , Harvey was romantically involved with drummer and photographer Joe Dilworth . From 1996 to 1997 , following their musical collaborations , Harvey had a relationship with Nick Cave , and their subsequent break @-@ up influenced Cave 's follow @-@ up studio album The Boatman 's Call ( 1997 ) , with songs such as " Into My Arms , " " West Country Girl " and " Black Hair " being written specifically about her .
Harvey has one older brother , Saul , and four nephews through him . She said in 1995 that she would love to have children , stating : " I wouldn 't consider it unless I was married . I would have to meet someone that I wanted to spend the rest of my life with . That 's the only person who I would want to be the father of my children . Maybe that will never happen . I obviously see it in a very rational way but I 'd love to have children . "
Harvey has encountered widespread opposition to a comment made in favour of fox hunting in a 1998 NME magazine feature , which reported Harvey saying she was not opposed to fox hunting and that , " Seeing the hunt out on the fields is just so natural to me . "
Harvey was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to music .
= = Discography = =
Dry ( 1992 )
Rid of Me ( 1993 )
To Bring You My Love ( 1995 )
Dance Hall at Louse Point ( with John Parish ) ( 1996 )
Is This Desire ? ( 1998 )
Stories from the City , Stories from the Sea ( 2000 )
Uh Huh Her ( 2004 )
White Chalk ( 2007 )
A Woman a Man Walked By ( with John Parish ) ( 2009 )
Let England Shake ( 2011 )
The Hope Six Demolition Project ( 2016 )
= 1887 Halloween tropical storm =
The 1887 Halloween tropical storm was a late @-@ season tropical cyclone that caused significant damage along the East Coast of the United States during Halloween of 1887 . The sixteenth tropical storm of the annual hurricane season , it formed from an area of disturbed weather over the Gulf of Mexico on October 29 . The storm later came ashore along the west coast of Florida . After crossing the state , it produced severe thunderstorms along the North Carolina – Virginia coastline before becoming extratropical on November 1 . The extratropical system intensified into the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . It eventually dissipated on November 6 , shortly after hitting northwest France .
The storm affected the town of Norfolk , where it became the most damaging storm since 1879 . Despite the damage inland , the storm is best known for the unusually high amount of shipwrecks and maritime incidents it caused . One ship , a schooner called the Manantico , capsized , killing the captain and one of its crew members . Three other ships were driven ashore on Virginia beaches from Dam Rock to Cape Henry , and numerous others were put in danger .
= = Meteorological history = =
The storm originated from an area of disturbed weather that had persisted in the Gulf of Mexico during late October 1887 , outside the area of coastal stations . On October 29 , the disturbance completed tropical cyclogenesis and became the sixteenth tropical storm of the season . After forming , the storm was located 200 miles ( 320 km ) northwest of Key West and began moving east @-@ northeastward , making landfall on the Florida Peninsula . It crossed land and emerged over water within the next eight hours while weakening . During its passage near Fort Meade , the storm had an estimated barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 007 millibars ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) , supporting minimal tropical storm strength . Upon crossing the state , it paralleled the East Coast for two days while restrengthening . It passed closest to land near the North Carolina coastline on October 31 at its peak intensity , with sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a pressure of 993 millibars ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Shortly after moving away from land , it became extratropical .
The extratropical cyclone moved away from the coast and strengthened to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale on November 1 . It began a weakening trend on November 2 while taking a wavering path across the north Atlantic Ocean . On November 4 , the cyclone started a general east @-@ southeast motion , passing near the southwest coasts of Ireland and Great Britain . It made landfall on the Cotentin Peninsula of France on November 6 and dissipated , although one proposed track , which is a modified track that differs from the official record due to new evidence or theory , was given by Charles Mitchell that showed the cyclone executing a counter @-@ clockwise loop over northwest France until dissipating the storm on November 8 .
= = Impact = =
In its formative stages , the storm was responsible for causing rain from the Rio Grande Valley along the Gulf Coast to Florida . As the storm crossed Florida , Fort Meade recorded less than 1 in ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) of rainfall . As it strengthened off the East Coast , the storm caused damage in various towns . A maximum wind speed of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) was measured at Hatteras , North Carolina . In Kitty Hawk , impact from the storm was more intense , generating maximum winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) to as high as 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) from late on October 30 to the following afternoon ; despite the intensity , only minor damage was reported . In Lenoir and Raleigh , heavy rain totals up to 4 @.@ 18 in ( 10 @.@ 6 cm ) were reported . Unusually , reports of hail and snow were also received from these locations . Telegraph poles were snapped on Bodie Island and south of Little Kinnakeet , affecting communication . The worst land @-@ based impact from the storm was in Virginia . Cape Henry was hit with a combination of wind , rain , and blown sand on October 31 and communications between Cape Henry and Norfolk were lost . In Norfolk , the storm was the longest @-@ lasting and most damaging since the Great Beaufort Hurricane of 1879 . The storm conditions made beaches in the area so hazardous that they were watched day and night . Effects from the storm reached as far north as Provincetown , Massachusetts , where winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) were recorded .
Despite causing damage along the East Coast , the storm is best known for causing a record number of maritime incidents . Numerous ships were caught in the storm from October 30 , when the steamship Claribel reported gale @-@ force winds , to November 6 , when another steamship , the Australia , reported stormy weather . One ship , the brig Osseo , was caught in the storm on November 1 and became flooded . Although the pumps were manned , the water level inside the ship soon reached 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) . After being carried away by a wave , the distressed ship was spotted by the Camalia , which rescued the crew and brought them to port . Another vessel , the Wyonoka , spotted a sunken schooner with its five crew grasping the mast and ropes : they were also rescued . In addition , four ships were deemed total losses after being beached in Virginia . The first was the Mary D. Cranmer , which was ripped from its cables and stranded near Cape Henry . Shortly after the rescue of the crew of the Cranmer another ship , the Carrie Holmes , was found beached . The ship had been driven so far up the beach that its crew were able to jump and wade to safety .
A third ship , the Manantico also crashed into shore due to a combination of the storm and human error in which the captain confused Cape Henry with Cape Charles after spotting another schooner . The Manantico was also where the two deaths associated with the storm occurred . The first was when a cook on the ship was crushed to death by the cargo of lumber being hauled by the ship . The ship was then pushed towards a sand bar . The captain , who had stayed high on the starboard side for safety , began climbing down to slip the ship cables , but the ship made a sudden stop . This flung the captain into the water , and he drowned . Both bodies were found after the storm and were very disfigured . The captain was sent to Middletown , Connecticut for interment while the body of the cook was buried on the beach . The final ship was the Harriet Thomas , which was the schooner spotted by the Manantico . After beaching , the crew managed to get a rope to shore where fishermen had tied the other end . The crew were able to climb ashore , although the captain had to be rescued via alternate means due to being too heavy for this method . The ship was written off as a $ 7000 ( 1887 USD ) loss . Although all four ships were beached , due to the loss of communications , only one wreck – that of the Mary D. Cranmer – was reported in the Norfolk Virginian newspaper . As a result , news of the two deaths from the Manantico were initially unreported .
= Rajasaurus =
Rajasaurus ( ' Raja ' meaning " king " ( derived from Sanskrit ) here , " king of lizards " ) is a genus of carnivorous abelisaurian theropod dinosaur with an unusual head crest . Between 1982 and 1984 , its fossilized bones were discovered by Suresh Srivastava of the Geological Survey of India ( GSI ) . Excavated from the Narmada River valley in Rahioli in the Kheda district of Gujarat , India , the find was announced as a new genus of dinosaur by American and Indian scientists on August 13 , 2003 .
Paleontologists Paul Sereno of the University of Chicago , Jeff Wilson of the University of Michigan , and Srivastava worked together as an Indo – American group to study the Narmada River fossils . The fossils represented the partial skeleton of the new species Rajasaurus narmadensis , which means " princely lizard from the Narmada Valley . " The fossilized bones of Rajasaurus have also been found in the upriver region of the Narmada , at Jabalpur , in the state of Madhya Pradesh .
= = Description = =
Rajasaurus was an abelisaurid , a member of a group of theropod predators known to have lived only on landmasses that were part of the supercontinent Gondwana , such as Africa , India , Madagascar , and South America . Rajasaurus closely resembles Majungasaurus , a contemporary abelisaur from Madagascar , an island that had separated from the Indian landmass about 20 million years earlier . It was found to be an abelisaurid through a phylogenetic analysis of anatomical characteristics , and was described as a carnotaurine abelisaurid ( the subfamily including Carnotaurus ) because of the configuration of its nasal bones and its possession of a growth ( " excrescence " ) on its frontal bone . Rajasaurus is distinguished from other genera by its single nasal @-@ frontal horn , the elongated proportions of its supratemporal fenestrae ( holes in the upper rear of the skull ) , and the form of the ilia ( principle bones of the hip ) which feature a transverse ridge separating the brevis shelf from the hip joint .
Rajasaurus was identified from a partial skeleton including a part of the skull ( braincase ) , backbone , hip bones , parts of the hind legs and tail . This specimen , GSI 21141 / 1 – 33 , serves as the type specimen of the genus and species . Rajasaurus measured about 7 @.@ 6 – 9 m ( 24 @.@ 9 – 29 @.@ 5 ft ) long and what is preserved of the skull shows it bore a distinctive low rounded horn , made up of outgrowths from the nasal and frontal bones .
= = History of discovery = =
The Narmada River in central India drains its valley from east to west , in a rift valley and eventually into the Arabian Sea after traveling 1 @,@ 312 km ( 815 @.@ 2 mi ) . Dinosaur bones have been reported from the Narmada valley since the late 19th century , including some belonging to Titanosaurus indicus .
The history of the fossils named Rajasaurus begins in 1981 . When G.N. Dwivedi and D.M. Mohabey , geologists of the Geological Survey of India , were on a mapping mission , the workers of the ACC Cement quarry at Rahioli , in Gujarat showed them smooth ball @-@ like limestone structures from the quarry . These " balls " turned out to be dinosaurian eggs . The geologists also found that the limestone bed containing the fossilized eggs was underlain by a layer of coarse sandstone and conglomerate with abundant dinosaurian fossil bones .
During the years 1982 – 84 Suresh Srivastava , a GSI geologist at the Palaeontology Division of the GSI 's Western Region , collected large numbers of bone fossil fragments from Rahioli , and also precisely mapped the area . These fossils were taken to the Palaeontology Division at Jaipur for identification . U. B. Mathur and Suresh Srivastava , under the supervision of S. C. Pant , meticulously cleaned many of the skeletal parts ( braincase , dorsal and caudal vertebrae , sacrum , thigh bone , upper arm , shin bones , and others ) , leading to the publication of multiple research papers . There was a lull in further activity until a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) was signed with Punjab University in 1994 – 95 .
In 2001 , further research on the fossils was continued by two American scientists sponsored by the American Institute of Indian Studies , New Delhi and the National Geographic Society , U.S.A. The Americans , Paul Sereno and Jeff Wilson , started the reconstruction of the collection of dinosaur bones gathered in 1983 and 1984 . The team of scientists , after a detailed study of the maps prepared earlier by Srivastava , were able to reconstruct the partial skull , left and right hip bones , and a sacrum . They interpreted the part of a skull and a horn as resembling those of dinosaurs found in Madagascar . Fossils of Rajasaurus were also found near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh . In all , the collected fossils include a partial skull , limb bones , hip bones , and vertebrae .
Although Rajasaurus was formally described in 2003 , there are fossils described in 1923 that may belong to this genus . Charles Alfred Matley described Lametasaurus indicus in that year from specimens including an ilium , a sacrum , a shin bone , and armor scutes found at Bara Simla . Lametasaurus was later shown to be a chimera , and Wilson et al. suggested that the ilium and sacrum ( now lost ) were exemplars of the similarly stout Rajasaurus .
The discovery of Rajasaurus could lead to additional information on the evolutionary relationships of abelisaurs , since previously described specimens from India were mainly isolated bones . At a press conference held in 2003 on the discovery of Rajasaurus , Sereno stated :
The discovery , which will be put for examination before global experts , was important since it would help in adding to the current knowledge of dinosaur belonging to the family of Abelisaur predators and adding a new angle to dinosaurs in the Indian subcontinent .
= = Palaeobiology = =
Rajasaurus is known only from the Indian Peninsula . At the time it was alive , the Indian landmass had recently separated from the rest of Gondwana and was moving north . While Rajasaurus had evolved along its own direction , it was still similar to other abelisaurids such as Majungasaurus from Madagascar and Carnotaurus from South America ; these animals descended from a common lineage .
Rajasaurus has been found in the Lameta Formation . This rock unit represents a forested setting of rivers and lakes that formed between episodes of volcanism . The volcanic rocks are now known as the Deccan Traps . Rajasaur and sauropod fossils are known from river and lake deposits that were quickly buried by Deccan volcanic flows . Other dinosaurs from the Lameta Formation include the noasaurid Laevisuchus , abelisaurids Indosaurus and Indosuchus , and the titanosaurian sauropods Jainosaurus , Titanosaurus , and Isisaurus .
Coprolites have been recorded in the Lameta Formation , and the presence of fungi in coprolites indicates that leaves were eaten by the dinosaurs which lived in a tropical or subtropical climate . Another scientific study of similarities in egg taxa suggested close phyletic relationships that supports the existence of a terrestrial connection between dinosaurian fauna in India and Europe during the Cretaceous , and between two Gondwanan areas , Patagonia and India .
= = Cultural significance = =
In order to educate people about extinct forms of life , the Geological Survey of India installed life – size fibreglass models of Rajasaurus and Titanosaurus at their Lucknow regional office . The installation is presented in an appropriate setting , with representations of plants that existed during the Mesozoic Era . Also displayed are limb bones , vertebra , eggs and coprolites of sauropod dinosaurs and fossil eggs of Rajasaurus collected from Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh .
A restored skull of Rajasaurus is a prominent exhibit in the Indian Museum at Kolkata .
Also interested in Rajasaurus is Aliya Babi ( of the erstwhile royal family of Balasinore ) , who became a dinosaur enthusiast after closely watching the efforts made by GSI at Rahioli to unearth the fossils , and made efforts to promote dinosaur tourism to Rahioli in order to showcase its millions of years of dinosaur heritage . She also set up a small museum at her hotel .
A Jurassic Ride Rajasaurus River Adventure has been launched at the Adlabs Imagica , India . The ride is inspired by Jurassic Park : The Ride located at Universal Parks .
= Govindudu Andarivadele =
Govindudu Andarivadele ( English : The lord is a people 's man ) , also known by the acronym GAV , is a 2014 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film written and directed by Krishna Vamsi and produced by Bandla Ganesh for Parameswara Art Productions . The film features Ram Charan , Srikanth , Kajal Aggarwal and Kamalinee Mukherjee in the lead roles , while Prakash Raj , Jayasudha , Rahman and Adarsh Balakrishna play supporting roles . Yuvan Shankar Raja composed the film 's soundtrack and score while Sameer Reddy worked as the cinematographer .
The film is partially inspired by the 1991 Telugu film Seetharamaiah Gari Manavaralu directed by Kranthi Kumar . Govindudu Andarivadele portrays a " non @-@ residential Indian " named Abhiram who visits his grandfather Balaraju 's house as a student of agriculture . He actually came to reconcile the differences between his father , Chandrasekhar Rao , and Balaraju . The pair parted ways as Chadrasekhar went to the US while Balaraju stayed and built a charitable hospital for local people . Abhiram succeeds in winning over family members , and Balaraju understands the truth behind Abhiram and his attempts .
The film was officially announced in Hyderabad on 6 February 2014 . Principal photography commenced from the same day and ended on 22 September 2014 . A large portion of the film was shot in Hyderabad , Rameswaram , Nagercoil , Kanyakumari , Pollachi and Karaikudi in India while significant portions were shot in London and Jordan . The film was released worldwide on 1 October 2014 to positive reviews from critics . The film became one of the highest grossing Telugu films of 2014 . It was dubbed into Malayalam and Tamil as Ekalavya and Ram Leela respectively .
= = Plot = =
Balaraju , the head of his village , lives with his wife Baby , his two sons ; Chandrasekhar Rao and Bangari , and his two daughters . He helps Chandrasekhar become a doctor and builds a local hospital . On the day it opens , Chandrasekhar comes back home with his lover Kausalya , also a doctor . Both express their wish to marry and settle abroad , which upsets Balaraju , leading to their separation .
25 years later , Chandrasekhar , a successful doctor in London , tells the story to his son Abhiram and daughter Indu . Abhiram decides to go home to Balaraju and attempt a reconciliation . He meets his friend , Bunny , at the airport and goes to the village on Bunny 's bike the next day . On the way , he witnesses a cockfight organised by Bangari and Baachi ; he gets the help of Balaraju to pardon Bangari and get Baachi arrested . Abhiram then introduces himself as a student from London who came here to learn agricultural practices and martial arts . He particularly impresses Balaraju 's family when he saves a child 's life and so is allowed to stay with them .
Balaraju 's granddaughter Satya comes back from Hyderabad . Abhiram is surprised to see Satya 's cultured behaviour and traditional attire , as Bunny and Abhiram previously met her in a pub in Hyderabad . She is equally surprised to see him ; his cell phone contains photos showing how she spent her time at the pub . Abhiram blackmails Satya with the photos , but she then asks Bangari to get Abhiram 's cell phone by telling him that Abhiram is blackmailing her . Their collective efforts fail , and Baachi is also dragged into the affair .
A fight happens between Abhiram and Baachi , deepening their rivalry . To get rid of Bangari , Balaraju arranges Chitra 's marriage . Satya tells Bangari about this who then kidnaps Chitra . Abhiram chases him , saves Chitra and gets Bangari arrested . Satya finds Abhiram 's phone and finds out his true identity . Abhiram offers to help Balaraju renovate the hospital he built with his father 's assistance ; Balaraju accepts the offer . Abhiram finds out that Satya has his phone when he goes to call his father . She deletes the photos of her . After learning that she knows the truth , Abhiram does a deal with her . They fall in love with each other .
Later , Chitra , now Abhiram 's friend at the house , tells him why Bangari was expelled from the house . Bangari and Chitra love one another and Balaraju does not approve of it , as Bangari is rather spoilt and drinks too much . Frustrated and intoxicated , Bangari enters Chitra 's room and tells her of his attempt to rape her so as to marry her . However , Balaraju expels him from the house after catching him . Balaraju ’ s brother @-@ in @-@ law and his son , Rajendra , who plan to set up a Special economic zone manufacturing beer , release Bangari from jail . Abhiram 's father sends the advanced equipment to Hyderabad , which Bunny and Bangari receive . Bangari attacks Bunny and seizes the equipment . Abhiram stops Bangari and his men and reveals his identity . Bangari realises what he has done and reconciles with Balaraju . The equipment is unloaded at the hospital .
Indu too visits Balaraju 's house . Satya gets engaged to an American NRI doctor . However , she tells Abhiram that she would die if she doesn 't marry him . He decides to break up with her and upon hearing this , Bangari reveals Abhiram and Indu 's identity to Balaraju , who orders Abhiram 's and Indu to leave the house .
Later , Abhiram gets a phone call from his father who plans to come back to the village . Suddenly , Baachi kidnaps Indu . An injured Abhiram manages to save her , but gets shot by Baachi . Bangari arrives and Abhiram prevents Baachi from getting harmed by saying that Baachi too is a family member . Chandrasekhar comes to the hospital and operates on Abhiram . When Abhiram regains consciousness , Balaraju welcomes him , Indu and Chandrasekhar back into the family . The film ends with Abhiram getting married to Satya and Bangari to Chitra , also coinciding with Balaraju and Baby 's anniversary .
= = Cast = =
Principal cast
Ram Charan as Abhiram .
Srikanth as Bangari .
Kajal Aggarwal as Satya .
Kamalinee Mukherjee as Chitra .
Prakash Raj as Balaraju .
Jayasudha as Baby .
Rahman as Dr. Chandrasekhar Rao .
Ayesha Kaduskar as Indu , Abhiram 's sister .
Supporting cast
Bangari 's gang members
M. S. Narayana .
Peela Gangadhar .
Harsha Chemudu .
Giridhar .
Raghu Karumachi .
DV Artist .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In September 2010 , Chiranjeevi invited Krishna Vamsi to discuss making a movie with Ram Charan as the lead . After a story @-@ narration session , they agreed to move ahead . In August 2013 , after a three @-@ year gap , it was announced that Ram Charan , Daggubati Venkatesh and Krishna would act in a film directed by Vamsi and produced by Bandla Ganesh under the banner Parameswara Art Productions banner . At that point , however , the script was not yet complete and so the project was still put on hold .
In December 2013 , Bandla Ganesh tweeted a photo featuring himself , Krishna Vamsi and Director of Photography Sameer Reddy at the Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy Temple in Antarvedi with the finished script . The film was initially titled Vijetha after the 1985 Telugu film which featured Chiranjeevi and Bhanupriya in the lead roles . In March 2014 , the supposed story of the film was leaked onto the internet . The story was that Ram Charan played the role of an NRI who visits his joint family to bridge a gap between his father and his father 's younger brother .
On 27 March 2014 , when the film poster was released , the title was confirmed as Govindudu Andarivadele . In mid April 2014 , Yuvan Shankar Raja was signed up as the film 's composer after S. Thaman opted out because of conflicting projects . Sources reported that talks were also held with G. V. Prakash Kumar . It was the first time that Krishna Vamsi had collaborated with Yuvan Shankar Raja , with the director later informing that he had waited five years to work with the composer . Reports regarding Rajkiran being replaced by Prakash Raj because of Chiranjeevi and the altering of the original script , and that Prakash Raj was included to strengthen the Telugu cultural identity of the film were dismissed as rumours . The film 's shoot was put on hold due to the climate at the shooting spot being unsuitable for children acting in the film rather than because of Chiranjeevi . Ram Charan , in an interview with The Hindu , said that Rajkiran was replaced with Prakash Raj as the sections involving the former ended up looking more like a Tamil film .
= = = Casting = = =
Vamsi wanted to cast a popular actor as the protagonist to widen the film 's appeal , and approached Ram Charan because of his relationship with him since Charan 's childhood . Venkatesh and Krishna were initially set to play the lead roles along with Charan , with Venkatesh playing the role of Charan 's paternal uncle . In September 2013 , Kajal Aggarwal was signed to play opposite Charan . Actor Jagapati Babu turned down the role of Charan 's father as he wanted to concentrate on antagonistic character roles .
In November 2013 , Tamil actor Rajkiran was chosen to play the role of Charan 's grandfather , previously earmarked for Krishna . The producers also began searching for a new actress in the lead role . In December 2013 , Venkatesh left the project and was subsequently replaced by Telugu actor Srikanth , saying that the role did not suit his image rather than any other dissatisfaction . Chandini Choudary was rumoured to have been signed up as the female lead , but this proved not to be the case . Tamannaah was approached as well , but she had prior commitments in Aagadu and Baahubali . Kajal was finalised by the end of 2013 as Charan 's heroine in this film , marking her return to Telugu Cinema after a brief hiatus .
Kamalini Mukherjee was chosen by Krishna Vamsi in late January 2014 by Krishna Vamsi , mainly because of her appearance and her acting talent . A song from rock band " The Tapes " took seven to nine hours to film for a sequence in the film featuring Charan and Kajal . This was the band 's first onscreen appearance . Vennela Kishore confirmed his presence in the film twice through his Twitter account .
In the end of May 2014 , Prakash Raj replaced Rajkiran as Ram Charan 's grandfather . Vamsi said " Raj Kiran was cast initially and I had doubts about this casting . After shooting a few scenes , I went to Chiranjeevi and he suggested , ' You can think of taking someone who can carry Telugu nativity . ' He just made that suggestion , but that was when I replaced Raj Kiran with Prakash Raj " . He added that Chiranjeevi did not interfere in this decision . However , Chiranjeevi helped Vamsi and Raj reconcile their differences . Jayasudha and Rahman were signed for key roles . M. S. Narayana was selected to play a supporting role . Adarsh Balakrishna was selected to portray the film 's antagonist , recommended by Srikanth to Vamsi .
= = = Characterisation and costume designing = = =
Ram Charan 's character was Abhiram , an NRI who goes from London to India in search of his roots . He was depicted as the star player of a Rugby League player at Hemel Hempstead Charan grew a ponytail and appeared in traditional Telugu costume , wearing a dhoti for some scenes in the film , contrasting with the modern clothes he wore in previous films . He also learnt stick fighting skills for the film .
Vamsi showed Charan a lot of family dramas , drove him to villages to help him understand the atmosphere and mindset of the people . According to Vamsi , Charan " comes across as a shy and reserved guy but has a fun and family loving side to him " , which he tried to show onscreen . Srikanth played the role of Charan 's younger paternal uncle and wore his hair long for the role . His costume was rustic in appearance . A still of him in costume was shown in the end of July 2014 . His " crucial role " in the film was aggressive and rebellious .
Kajal Aggarwal revealed one of her outfits in the film on 27 July 2014 would be a black half @-@ sari . Jayasudha was selected to play the role of Prakash Raj 's wife in the film while Rahman was signed in to play the role of Ram Charan 's father . Kamalini Mukherjee 's character was named Chitra , a rural girl quite unlike the urbane roles she had played in the past . Adarsh Balakrishna , cast as a flashy M. P. ' s son living in the same village , wore jewellery with Indian costume , again with long hair .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 6 February 2014 in Hyderabad and continued for 3 days there before a long pre @-@ planned schedule started in Rameswaram , Nagercoil and Pollachi . Kajal joined the sets of the film in Hyderabad on 9 February 2014 and some scenes between herself and Charan were shot there . They also participated in the film 's shoot at Nagercoil near Kanyakumari in mid February 2014 after the completion of the schedule at Rameswaram . A fight sequence with Charan , Srikanth and others was filmed at Kanyakumari before shifting to Pollachi . A few action sequences focusing Charan were shot at Pollachi in late March 2014 . He also worked on some key action sequences for the film under the supervision of Ram Lakshman in mid May 2014 , for which a special set was built . Some song sequences were shot in Malaysia from 2 June 2014 .
The film 's shoot continued in Hyderabad from 5 June 2014 and the team planned to go to London after filming some family scenes at the special house set constructed earlier in Ramanaidu Cine Village in Hyderabad . 30 scenes and 2 songs were shot in that house set in Hyderabad over a period of 45 days . Prakash Raj allotted bulk dates and the reshoot took 8 days only and not 20 days as earlier reported . After completing the shoot of few scenes and a montage song , the first part of the film 's Hyderabad schedule ended on 18 June 2014 . The next part commenced on 21 June 2014 . At the end of June 2014 , another song was shot on a special set featuring mirrors , in which the lead pair participated . Due to incessant rain at Pollachi , the shooting continued at Hyderabad , delaying the planned schedule . The Pollachi schedule therefore began on 23 July 2014 , lasting for 5 days . A fresh schedule began in Karaikudi on whose completion , filming continued in Hyderabad from 4 August 2014 . The film 's shoot was temporarily halted on 19 August 2014 because of the statewide survey in Telangana .
The next schedule began in London on 22 August 2014 . A romantic song was shot on Charan and Kajal in early September 2014 in Jordan . After its completion , a song was shot with the lead pair in London . The production unit returned to Hyderabad on 14 September 2014 . A quarter of the film was shot in London . Charan 's introduction scene was shot at the Pennine Way Stadium , and a rugby match was shot at the Rugby League club in Hemel Hempstead in Hertfordshire in south @-@ eastern England . To add some authenticity , the local club captain B. J. Swindells was brought on board . Two songs sequences were shot simultaneously in Hyderabad .
The principal photography ended on 22 September 2014 on completion of the songs shoot . However , it was officially announced later that the film would be released without a song which would be shot on 2 and 3 October and then be added to the film .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The film 's dubbing activities commenced at Shabdalaya Studios in Hyderabad on 18 July 2014 . The supporting cast then dubbed their respective roles . Yuvan Shankar Raja started re @-@ recording for the film 's first half on 26 August 2014 at his studio in Chennai . Srikanth completed dubbing for his role on 10 September 2014 and Charan completed dubbing on 24 September 2014 . Chiranjeevi personally monitored the post @-@ production works and promotion strategies . In an interview with the Deccan Chronicle , Chiranjeevi mentioned that Charan also participated in the production and editing of the film 's trailer and took extra care of the trailer 's release and had asked him to check if everything was right . While shooting two songs at Hyderabad , the post production works were completed .
A copy of the film was sent to Central Board of Film Certification on 26 September 2014 . The same day , the film was awarded an ' U / A ' certificate instead of a clean ' U ' due to some sections and scenes between the lead actors . The Board asked the makers to obtain a No Objection Certificate from Animal Welfare Board of India to retain scenes featuring animals . They muted a few dialogues as well as " backless " views of the heroine . They also insisted on obscuring the brands on alcoholic drinks as well as the display of mandatory warnings " when Srikanth is smoking " .
= = Themes and influences = =
Ram Charan said in an interview that the film was partially inspired by Seetharamaiah Gari Manavaralu ( 1991 ) , although there were also remarks about tracing inspiration from Vamsi 's previous works , Ninne Pelladata ( 1986 ) and Murari ( 2001 ) . Critics also compared the film to other family dramas like Brindavanam ( 2010 ) and Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) .
In an interview with The Hindu , Vamsi said " Tell me one new story that has been written since Ramayana and Mahabharata . Aatma Bandhuvu ( 1962 ) , Devudu Chesina Manushulu ( 1973 ) , Ramarajyamlo Bheemaraju ( 1983 ) and Muddula Manavaralu ( 1986 ) — which was a remake of the Tamil film Poove Poochooda Vaa ( 1985 ) — all had a similar structure of a protagonist returning to unite a family " . He added that this film was made to showcase the folk arts , music and spirituality of the Telugu people . He also drew inspiration from the husband and wife scenes shown in the film Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) , as he wanted to incorporate the same themes into Telugu films .
= = Music = =
Yuvan Shankar Raja composed the music for the film , which marked his first collaboration with Vamsi ; it was also the first time he scored for a film starring Srikanth and Ram Charan . The soundtrack , consisting of six songs , was released on 15 September 2014 in Hyderabad . The audio rights were purchased by Aditya Music . The soundtrack received positive reviews from critics .
= = Release = =
The film was released on 1 October 2014 . The makers wanted to capitalise on the long holiday of Navratri , followed by Bakrid . Charan attended the film 's premiere show in the United States on 30 September 2014 alongside other cast and crew members . Govindudu Andarivadele was released in 750 screens in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh , 100 in Karnataka , 50 in Tamil Nadu , 85 in Maharashtra and 60 in other parts of North India . The film was released in 154 screens in the United States and 50 screens in other International markets . The film was dubbed into Malayalam and Tamil as Ekalavya and Ram Leela respectively .
= = = Distribution = = =
In mid @-@ July 2014 , the distribution rights of the film in the Ceded region were sold for approximately ₹ 81 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) including prints & publicity costs which , as of March 2015 , is the highest amount for a Ram Charan film . The Nellore region rights were sold to Hari Pictures for a record price of ₹ 20 million ( US $ 300 @,@ 000 ) . Asian Movies acquired the film 's overseas distribution rights and released it in collaboration with CineGalaxy , Inc . Aakash Movies distributed the film in the UAE along with Ravi Teja 's Power . Errabus distributed the film in the United Kingdom . Bandla Ganesh himself distributed the film in the Nizam and Krishna regions .
= = = Marketing = = =
The first @-@ look posters and stills of the film were unveiled on 26 March 2014 and 27 March 2014 . On 26 March 2014 , 4 stills of Charan from the film were released into the Internet , coinciding with his birthday on 27 March 2014 and receiving a positive response . The next day , posters designed by Working Title featuring the logo and 3 of those 4 stills were released . The posters also received a positive response and were widely distributed on various social networking sites . The film 's teaser was initially planned to be launched on 29 July 2014 at Ramanaidu Studios , but the release was postponed to 7 August 2014 . A promotional event was planned at Ramanaidu Studios in Nanakramguda for the teaser 's launch .
The first teaser of 40 seconds was launched with a press conference at the house set in Ramanaidu Studios where the film was shot . The teaser received very good response from the critics and the viewers . Reviewing the teaser , Nivedita Mishra of Hindustan Times wrote " Make no mistake , this one is no poor regional cousin of Bollywood . It 's got color , good @-@ looking stars with baddies to boot and loads of song and dance executed with a finesse that only Indian film industry can . The teaser of Ram Charan Teja 's new film Govindudu Andarivadele is out and proves just that . From lush paddy fields to festive Indian family lives , this one has it all . Watch out for a shot of Ram Charan Teja riding a bullock cart ! Quite novel ! " . The Times of India wrote " the teaser looked colorful and quite impressive reminding Krishna Vamsi 's style of family and love entertainers " . Subramaniam Harikumar of Bollywood Life wrote " The teaser sure has raised out hope . A lot of importance seems to be given to the rustic village backdrop with green fields and bullock carts and big ancestral bungalows . The cinematography is top notch with colours melting in your eyes in every frame . The teaser gives equal importance to family , tradition and romance , with all the important characters getting a decent exposure in the promo . " The film 's teaser received more than 300 @,@ 000 views within 24 hours of its online release on YouTube . A set of stills were released in the second week of September 2014 .
The film 's official trailer was launched on 15 September 2014 at the Shilpakala Vedika along with the film 's soundtrack . The trailer too received positive response . As a part of the film 's promotion , Bandla Ganesh booked 860 spots on the Telugu news channels for airing the film 's teaser and trailer until 2 October 2014 . Out of them 70 spots each were booked on TV5 , TV9 , and Sakshi , while 50 spots each were booked on 14 other Telugu news channels . Post release , Ram Charan and Kajal participated in a special promotional program title Radhe Govinda hosted by Anasuya where they spoke about the film as a part of the film 's promotion . As a marketing strategy , the makers planned to add the song Kokkokkodi to the film being screened in theatres to boost the takings .
= = = Home media = = =
Gemini TV acquired the film 's satellite rights for an amount of ₹ 90 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) . The film had its worldwide Television premier on 21 March 2015 on the eve of Ugadi . The film 's DVDs and VCDs were released and marketed by Sri Balaji Movies on 31 March 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film received generally positive reviews from critics . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu wrote " Filmmakers hope the family audience will troop in , connect with a thought , a dialogue , a character or a bond between the on @-@ screen family members , have a good laugh , shed a few tears and get their money ’ s worth . An old @-@ fashioned story told reasonably well is enough to put a smile on many faces . Krishnavamsi walks this predictable path in Govindudu Andarivadele " and added " This oft @-@ repeated tale , has shades of several family dramas told earlier in Telugu , Tamil and Hindi cinema . Yet , Krishna Vamsi makes it his own in the way he narrates it " . Sandhya Rao of Sify wrote , " Overall Govindhudu Andhari Vadele is a neat family drama with the right dash of emotions . The first half is okay , but the second half surely does elevate the film to a different level . Watch GAV this festive season . "
Oneindia Entertainment wrote " Govindudu Andarivadele is a must watch family entertainer with emotion , action , family bonding and love . The movie has included everything which should be in a family drama . GAV will be a grand treat this festival season " and rated the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . IndiaGlitz wrote " A nice blend of sentiment and comedy apart , Govindudu Andarivadele packs the punch by presenting a different Ram Charan . Krishna Vamsi shows yet again that a director with a knack for varied themes can always spring up surprises by coming back in form — that too with a bang . His screenplay lives up to his own set standards , and goes beyond to unleash an actor Charan as against the star Charan " and rated the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 .
Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave the film 3 out of 5 and said , " The film has some moments that stand out like Ram Charan 's introduction on the rugby field , a couple of well picturised songs , a few smart one @-@ liners and a couple of profound musings on the importance of family and overly color graded village imagery " , before concluding that " the movie does offer [ ... ] some feel good melodrama and production values that are more rich than original . " Suresh Kaviyarani of the Deccan Chronicle rated the film 3 out of 5 and said , " You can watch it once for Charan ’ s performance and it is a clean family drama . This is a holiday time and it may work out for this film . " Behindwoods wrote " This family entertainer does bring a glow in our faces and take us on a nostalgic trip of vacations we had with our joint families . Even though the proceedings of the film and the song placements hinder the progress at times , overall , the screenplay takes the film to the finish line . The story might lack an equally powerful antagonist , but there is nothing obvious about the movie that goes wrong " and rated the film 2 @.@ 75 out of 5 , summarising the film as an age old story that still works .
In contrast , Subramanian Harikumar of Bollywood Life gave a mixed review saying , " Govindudu Andarivadele is an earnest attempt to dish out a clean family entertainer . But alas it ’ s cliche ridden plot pulls it down . " He felt that the film was pleasing to the eyes but lacked novelty in its novelty in story and treatment , giving the film a rating of 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Haricharan Pudipeddi , writing for IANS , gave a mixed review saying , " Govindudu Andarivadele displays Telugu filmmakers ' reluctance to dig deep within a genre . There 's enough material readily available from our own lives for an engaging family tale , but rarely do we come across anything realistic . " and gave the film a rating of 2 out of 5 .
= = = Box office = = =
= = = = India = = = =
Govindudu Andarivadele took a record opening at the box office . The film grossed approximately ₹ 86 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) in both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana together on the first day of its theatrical run . This surpassed the opening @-@ day collections of Mahesh Babu 's 1 : Nenokkadine , which grossed ₹ 84 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) in the region . According to trade reports , the film amassed approximately ₹ 23 million ( US $ 340 @,@ 000 ) in Nizam while the Ceded region registered around ₹ 16 million ( US $ 240 @,@ 000 ) . Collections in the East Godavari and Guntur regions were around ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) and ₹ 12 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 180 @,@ 000 ) respectively . According to trade analyst Trinath , the film collected a total of ₹ 128 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 9 million ) in India alone on its release day . The film collected a share of ₹ 231 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 4 million ) in five days at the AP / Nizam region . The film managed to gross a total of ₹ 271 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 0 million ) at AP / Nizam region by the end of its first week run . This took the first week worldwide collections to approximately ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) share . The film had the third @-@ highest AP / Nizam share as well as having the top worldwide week one share , surpassing Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu ( 2013 ) and Race Gurram .
The film 's collections slowed down on its eighth day , collecting ₹ 9 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 140 @,@ 000 ) at Nizam box office alone . This took its nine @-@ day worldwide collections to ₹ 363 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 4 million ) . On the next day , there was a drop of nearly 50 % in the film 's collections when compared to the release day because of new releases in many theatres . On that day , it collected approximately ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) at the worldwide box office . It witnessed subsequent growth on the second Saturday and collected ₹ 8 million ( US $ 120 @,@ 000 ) share at AP / Nizam Box office . The film grossed a total of ₹ 317 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 7 million ) at AP / Nizam region in 12 days and with revenue from Karnataka , Rest of India and Overseas , the 12 day global total was ₹ 395 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 9 million ) with which this film surpassed the final collections of Businessman ( 2012 ) , Pokiri ( 2006 ) , Arundhati ( 2009 ) , Aagadu and Iddarammayilatho ( 2013 ) . The film was declared one of the biggest hits of 2014 at the Box office .
The film crossed the ₹ 400 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 9 million ) mark in two weeks with the film collecting ₹ 322 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 8 million ) at AP / Nizam Box office and the rest from Karnataka , Rest of India and Overseas . It was Ram Charan 's fifth film to gross in excess of ₹ 400 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 9 million ) . The film 's final collections in AP / Nizam region stood at ₹ 338 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 0 million ) , ₹ 36 million ( US $ 530 @,@ 000 ) in Karnataka and ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) from rest of India . It surpassed the final collections of Legend but failed to enter the list of all @-@ time top 10 Telugu films with highest worldwide share , ending in thirteenth place behind Eega ( 2012 ) . The film completed a 50 @-@ day run on 20 November 2014 .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
The film had the biggest opening for a Ram Charan picture in the US , where it grossed ₹ 10 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 160 @,@ 000 ) on its first day , according to trade analyst Jeevi of Idlebrain.com. The film grossed ₹ 18 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 270 @,@ 000 ) in 2 days in the US . The film grossed around ₹ 7 @.@ 28 million ( US $ 110 @,@ 000 ) on its third day in the US including reported and non @-@ reported screens , making the film Ram Charan 's highest @-@ grossing US @-@ released film . By the end of the first weekend , the film grossed around ₹ 39 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) at US Box office including rentrak and non reporting screens . It earned around ₹ 36 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 540 @,@ 000 ) rentrak only from 121 locations in 5 days including Tuesday premier shows in the US . The film collected an amount of ₹ 32 million ( US $ 480 @,@ 000 ) in its lifetime at Overseas Box office .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Remake = =
In mid January 2015 , an associate of Prabhu Deva said he was interested in remaking the film in Hindi after watching a special screening by Bandla Ganesh . Ganesh confirmed that Prabhu watched the film and liked it . Prakash Raj was also expected to be a part of the remake as Prabhu was impressed with his performance .
= Mit Gas =
Mit Gas is the second studio album by the musical supergroup Tomahawk . It was released on May 6 , 2003 , through Ipecac Recordings , the record label owned by vocalist Mike Patton . Mit Gas charted in several countries , reaching the top 20 in Norway 's VG @-@ lista and the United States ' Billboard Independent Albums charts .
Recorded after an unreceptive tour with the band Tool , Mit Gas has been described by critics as a more focused and unified album than its predecessor , Tomahawk . The album was supported by a tour alongside Melvins , Skeleton Key and Dälek . Mit Gas has garnered positive reviews , drawing comparisons to the works of Frank Zappa , Pink Floyd and Led Zeppelin .
= = Production = =
Tomahawk is a musical supergroup consisting of Mike Patton , vocalist for Faith No More and Mr. Bungle ; Duane Denison , guitarist for The Jesus Lizard ; Kevin Rutmanis , bass player for Melvins ; and John Stanier , drummer for Helmet . Mit Gas was recorded after they toured with the band Tool , whose fans frequently booed Tomahawk off stage during their performances . Denison has likened the experience of playing to the unreceptive and uninterested crowds as similar to " being pro @-@ choice at a [ then @-@ US president ] Bush rally and trying to make your point " . Subsequently , the band opted to organize their own tour in support of the album , choosing to work with Melvins , Skeleton Key and Dälek . Speaking about the planning required to stage a four @-@ act tour , Patton stated " that 's a lot of music . That 's a lot of time to be sitting in some stinking @-@ ass club with some guy puking in your purse " . Tool 's guitarist Adam Jones offered to direct a video , but the offer was declined by the band . Reports suggested that a cover of the theme from the movie Flashdance What a Feeling was going to be included on the album , although the song was not on the final track listing .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Tomahawk .
= = Personnel = =
= = Release and reception = =
Mit Gas was released in the United States on May 6 , 2003 , and in the United Kingdom six days later , through Ipecac Recordings , the record label owned by Patton and Greg Werckman .
Reviews of Mit Gas have been positive . Writing for AllRovi , Daphne Carr awarded the album a rating of four stars out of five , adding that it " expand [ s ] the borders of guitar rock with intelligence and humor " . Carr felt that " You Can 't Win " and " Rape This Day " were among the album 's best songs , and compared the overall sound to the work of avant @-@ garde musician Frank Zappa . Pitchfork Media 's Scott Hreha rated the album 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 , finding that the band seemed to compliment each other musically more than they had on their previous album . Hreha singled out " You Can 't Win " , " Mayday " and " Rape This Day " as highlights of the record , and praised the album 's ability to " straddle the distance between ambience and onslaught " . Stephen Hang of PopMatters felt that the album was rewarding but challenging to listeners , and that Patton 's lyrics were deliberately obtuse . Hang was positive about the album 's sound , but described the release as having " deliver [ ed ] the goods for Patton ’ s small , devoted cult audience " .
Spin magazine awarded the album a " B − " rating , describing it as " heavy on nuts and bolts , light on bolts from the blue " . The reviewer felt that the group 's lineup suggested a greater potential than the resultant album offered , but called it " solid " nonetheless . Matt Rhodes , writing for Consequence of Sound , reviewed the album positively , stating that " frankly , this album sounds like dark , kinky sex " . Rhodes compared it to the works of Pink Floyd and Led Zeppelin , and felt that Denison 's guitar parts served to specifically compliment Patton 's vocals , rather than attempting to stand out for themselves . Tom Mallon of CMJ New Music Monthly felt that the album presented a more cohesive group than was present on Tomahawk , allowing the band to " [ step ] out of the shadows " of their previous careers . Mallon praised Patton 's vocal performances , finding them to be his most diverse work since the 1999 Mr. Bungle album California .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , Mit Gas reached a peak position of 137 in the Billboard 200 albums chart , spending two weeks in the chart . The album also attained a peak of 7 on the Independent Albums chart , also published by Billboard , spending five weeks on that chart . The album also charted in Norway , making it to number 17 during a three @-@ week stay on the VG @-@ lista chart ; and in Australia , where it reached number 28 on the Aria Charts , staying there for two weeks .
= Battle of Burton Bridge ( 1643 ) =
The Battle of Burton Bridge was fought between Royalist and Parliamentarian forces at Burton upon Trent on 4 July 1643 during the First English Civil War . By the time of the battle the town , which had at various times been held by both sides , was garrisoned by a Parliamentarian unit under the command of Captain Thomas Sanders and the town 's military governor , Colonel Richard Houghton . The key river crossing at Burton was desired by Queen Henrietta Maria , who was proceeding southwards from Yorkshire with a convoy of supplies destined for King Charles I at Oxford . The Royalists , led by Colonel Thomas Tyldesley , launched a cavalry charge across the bridge which succeeded in defeating the Parliamentarians and capturing most of their officers , including Sanders and Houghton . The Queen 's convoy proceeded on its way south to Oxford with Tyldesley receiving a knighthood and a promotion in recognition of his victory . Burton changed hands several more times during the course of the war , before finally coming into Parliament 's control in 1646 .
= = Background = =
The county of Staffordshire , several days travel from the main seat of power in London , had a long @-@ standing disinclination to paying taxes and levies imposed by the King . James I 's Privy Council was forced to write to the county 's Justices of the Peace for their failure to raise a single penny to support the King 's campaign to reclaim the Palatinate in Germany for his son @-@ in @-@ law Frederick V in the 1620s . The county was also slow to pay Charles I 's ship money which began to be levied ( in defiance of the Parliament ) on the inland counties in 1634 and saw much resistance . Open dissent against the King 's decrees occurred in 1640 in objection to the levying of 300 men from the county for the King 's campaign against the Scots . Riots took place in Uttoxeter with an armed guard having to be formed to prevent the levy from deserting .
Upon the outbreak of
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2 @,@ 850 tickets were sold for the game , and that number was given as the official attendance . Real attendance estimates range from 40 @,@ 000 @-@ 50 @,@ 000 , due to the poor weather and the fact that the stadium was half @-@ empty through much of the game .
During the pre @-@ game coin toss , a member of the Wounded Warrior Project , which rehabilitates wounded American war veterans , threw the ceremonial coin . Georgia Tech won the coin toss and elected to receive the ball to begin the game . After Georgia Tech made its selection , Wake Forest elected to defend the north end zone to begin the game , forcing Georgia Tech 's kickers to kick into the wind during the first and fourth quarters .
= = = First quarter = = =
Wake Forest kicked off to begin the game , and Georgia Tech returned the kick to its own 24 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the game , Tech running back Tashard Choice attempted a rush , but was stopped for a loss of one yard . The play set the tone for the rest of the game , which would be a hard @-@ fought , low @-@ scoring defensive struggle . After the loss , Choice broke free on the second play of the game for a 24 @-@ yard run and a first down . On the next two plays , the Georgia Tech offense used their passing attack as quarterback Reggie Ball completed two passes , driving the Yellowjackets into Wake Forest territory . Subsequent plays allowed Tech to penetrate the Wake Forest red zone , but there , the Demon Deacons ' defense stiffened . Despite having a first down inside the Wake Forest 10 @-@ yard line , Georgia Tech did not cross the goal line . Denied a touchdown , Georgia Tech was forced to settle for a field goal attempt from kicker Travis Bell . Bell 's kick was good , and with 9 : 59 remaining in the first quarter , Georgia Tech took a 3 – 0 lead .
Following Georgia Tech 's post @-@ score kickoff , Wake Forest received the ball , but failed to gain a first down . The Deacons ' offense went three and out and was forced to punt . On Tech 's next possession , they too had difficulty moving the football on offense . Though they picked up a first down off of a penalty on Wake Forest , they were unable to gain a first down by their own devices and were forced to punt the ball away .
The two teams traded possessions once more , and as the first quarter came to an end , Georgia Tech was in possession of the ball but was preparing to punt it away after yet another failure to pick up a first down .
= = = Second quarter = = =
Following the Georgia Tech punt , Wake Forest received the ball to begin the second quarter . Wake Forest , after a three and out , again punted the ball and Georgia Tech took over on offense . On their first full possession of the second quarter , Tech seemed to have more success moving the ball . Quarterback Reggie Ball picked up a first down running the ball , then completed a 22 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Calvin Johnson , driving the Yellow Jackets inside Wake Forest territory . Once there , however , Wake Forest 's defense stiffened . Ball was unable to complete two consecutive passes , and his third pass inside Wake Forest territory was intercepted .
Having regained the ball , Wake Forest answered Georgia Tech 's drive with one of their own . Several Wake running backs rushed with the ball , but it was Wake Forest quarterback Riley Skinner who advanced the ball the most . He completed a 24 @-@ yard pass to Willie Idlette , then an eight @-@ yard toss to Nate Morton . Inside Tech territory , Wake 's offense stumbled . Skinner was sacked by a Tech defender , and kicker Sam Swank was sent into the game to attempt a 45 @-@ yard field goal . Swank 's kick was no good , and with 7 : 26 remaining in the second quarter , Georgia Tech still had a 3 – 0 lead .
Taking over after the missed field goal , Georgia Tech was unable to gain a first down . After the Yellow Jackets punted the ball away , Wake Forest continued to have the increased offensive success they had shown in their previous drive . This time , it was running back Kenneth Moore who picked up the majority of the Deacons ' yardage , as he carried the ball eight times during the drive . Toward the end of the drive , Wake Forest was assisted by a 10 @-@ yard penalty against the Yellow Jackets , which drove them inside Georgia Tech 's red zone . There , however , Tech 's defense stiffened . Despite having a first down at Tech 's 10 @-@ yard line , Wake was unable to score a touchdown . Kicker Sam Swank again came into the game to attempt a field goal , and connected on a 19 @-@ yard field goal . The kick tied the score at 3 – 3 with just 58 seconds remaining in the first half .
With time in the half virtually exhausted , Georgia Tech elected to run down the clock and take the game into halftime tied , 3 – 3 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Georgia Tech received the ball to begin the game , Wake Forest received the ball to begin the second half . As in the first half , however , both teams ' offenses were stifled by each team 's defense . On its first possession of the second half , Wake Forest reached the Georgia Tech 48 @-@ yard line before being forced to punt .
Georgia Tech 's first possession of the half was slightly more successful than Wake Forest 's , as the Yellow Jackets drove inside the Deacons ' 30 @-@ yard line on several passes from Reggie Ball . Again , however , the Tech defense stumbled . Facing a fourth down inside the Wake Forest red zone , Tech elected to attempt to convert the first down rather than punt the ball . Despite needing just one yard to gain another first down , Georgia Tech was stopped short of the line . The play was typical of the third quarter , which saw both teams fail to score .
Both Wake Forest and Georgia Tech mounted several drives into the other 's territory , but were either stopped outside field goal range or attempted to convert a fourth down rather than kick the ball . As the quarter came to an end , the score remained tied 3 – 3 , with neither team having scored a touchdown .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
At the beginning of the fourth quarter , Georgia Tech was in possession of the ball , deep inside Wake Forest territory . Shortly after the quarter began , Tech failed to gain a needed first down in order to continue its drive . Instead of attempting to convert the fourth down — Tech had attempted and failed on two fourth @-@ down conversions in the third quarter — Tech instead sent in kicker Travis Bell . Bell 's 34 @-@ yard attempt sailed through the goalposts , and with 12 : 53 remaining in the game , Georgia Tech took a 6 – 3 lead .
After Georgia Tech 's post @-@ score kickoff , Wake Forest continued to struggle on offense . Quarterback Riley Skinner was sacked , threw an 18 @-@ yard completion , then three incomplete passes . Wake was forced to punt the ball away again , allowing the Yellow Jackets the possibility of expanding their lead . On Tech 's first play after the punt , however , Reggie Ball 's pass was intercepted , allowing Wake Forest another chance on offense . The play turned the momentum of the game in favor of Wake Forest , who proceeded to move the ball with slightly more effectiveness . During the Wake Forest drive , Skinner completed a 39 @-@ yard pass to John Tereshinski , who drove the Deacons inside Georgia Tech territory , where the drive continued . Though Wake Forest was forced to settle for a 33 @-@ yard field goal from kicker Sam Swank , the score tied the game at 6 – 6 with 7 : 59 remaining in the game .
Wake 's post @-@ score kickoff was downed in the end zone for a touchback . With time running down , Georgia Tech had a chance for a game @-@ winning score if it could sustain a drive into Wake Forest territory from its own 20 @-@ yard line . The drive began with a promising 14 @-@ yard completion to Calvin Johnson , but after Reggie Ball threw three incomplete passes , Georgia Tech was forced to punt the ball back to Wake Forest . The Deacons , after getting the ball at their own 20 @-@ yard line , began a drive of their own . Riley Skinner completed his first four passes of the drive , including a long 45 @-@ yard strike to Willie Idlette for the longest play of the game . With a first down inside the Georgia Tech red zone , the Deacons seemed to be in perfect position for a potentially game @-@ winning touchdown . But as had every other drive previous , Wake Forest 's offense failed to cross the goal line . Sam Swank kicked a 22 @-@ yard field goal to give the Deacons a 9 – 6 lead , but Georgia Tech still had time for one final drive .
After receiving the Wake Forest kickoff , however , Georgia Tech 's hopes were quickly deflated by three plays that resulted in negative yardage or no gain . Georgia Tech was forced into its final punt of the game , and Wake Forest received the ball and ran out the remaining time on the clock . Wake Forest won the 2006 ACC Championship Game by a 9 – 6 score .
= = Statistical summary = =
Thanks to his performance in the game , Wake Forest placekicker Sam Swank was named the game 's most valuable player . Swank was successful on three of his four field goal kicks during the game , kicking 19 , 33 , and 22 @-@ yard field goals while missing on a 45 @-@ yard attempt in the second quarter . The Demon Deacons ' nine points — all of which were scored by Swank — were the least ever scored by the winning team in a Division I @-@ A conference championship game .
Wake Forest quarterback Riley Skinner finished the game having completed 14 of his 25 pass attempts . He passed for 201 yards , one @-@ fifth of which came on a single play during Wake Forest 's final drive of the game . On the opposite side of the ball , Georgia Tech quarterback Reggie Ball completed just nine of his 29 passes . Two of Ball 's passes were intercepted by Wake Forest defenders , and Ball accounted for just 129 passing yards .
The majority of Georgia Tech 's offense came on the ground from running back Tashard Choice and from quarterback scrambles by Ball . Choice ran the ball 21 times , netting 100 yards . Ball was Tech 's second @-@ leading rusher , and picked up 46 yards on 15 different rushes . Eight different players carried the ball for Wake Forest , with Kenneth Moore and Willie Idlette picking up the majority of the yardage . Moore finished the game with 16 carries for 38 yards , while Idlette earned 35 yards on six different attempts . Half of Idlette 's yards came on one 19 @-@ yard carry , and he also earned 73 receiving yards during the game to lead all Wake receivers .
On defense , Jon Abbate led all Wake Forest defenders with 15 total tackles . Abbate also earned two tackles for loss and a quarterback sack of Reggie Ball . Riley Swanson and Aaron Curry each caught an interception for Wake . Kenny Scott led the Georgia Tech defense statistically , earning eight total tackles , two tackles for loss , and one quarterback sack . Adamm Oliver finished with seven total tackles and one and a half tackles for loss .
= = Post @-@ game effects = =
With the victory , Wake Forest finished the regular season with an 11 – 2 record , breaking its previous team record for wins in a season . The 2006 ACC Championship was Wake 's second championship in history , the first having come in 1970 . Following the game , the Deacons ' head coach , Jim Grobe , earned multiple national coach of the year honors for taking Wake to its first ACC championship in 36 years and taking the program from the worst in the ACC to the best in just one season .
Following the game , Wake Forest earned an automatic bid to the 2007 Orange Bowl as a reward for its status as ACC champion . Wake Forest faced the Louisville Cardinals in Pro Player Stadium , now known as Sun Life Stadium , in Miami Gardens , Florida .
Georgia Tech 's took itto a 9 – 3 record . Tech was selected as a participant in the 2007 Gator Bowl as a reward for its second @-@ place ACC finish .
Tech 's selection to the Gator Bowl was a controversial one . Because both the Gator Bowl and ACC Championship game were held in Jacksonville , Georgia Tech would be forced to play two games in Jacksonville in four weeks . The team , league , and bowl officials were concerned that fact would hurt attendance .
= Typhoon Noul ( 2015 ) =
Typhoon Noul , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Dodong , was a relatively small but powerful tropical cyclone that affected several areas but caused minor damage . The sixth named storm and third typhoon of the annual typhoon season , Noul formed as a tropical depression over the eastern Caroline Islands on May 2 , 2015 . It moved generally to the west and west @-@ northwest , gradually intensifying into a tropical storm and later typhoon . On May 9 , Noul began rapid deepening as it developed a well @-@ defined eye . Early the next day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated peak 10 minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , while the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated peak 1 minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , equivalent to Category 5 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Noul struck northeastern Luzon in the Philippines at that intensity and greatly weakened . After passing east of Taiwan , the typhoon accelerated to the northeast and weakened due to unfavorable conditions . On May 12 , Noul became extratropical south of Japan , and the remnants continued to the northeast for several days , dissipating on May 16 .
The typhoon first affected Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia , bringing 296 mm ( 11 @.@ 65 in ) of rainfall and causing about US $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage . Noul forced 3 @,@ 803 people to evacuate in the Philippines and stranded thousands others due to travel cancellations . Two people died while preparing for the storm . Its effects were limited to two provinces , amounting to ₱ 16 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 362 @,@ 000 ) in damage . Later , heavy rainfall in Taiwan helped ease water restrictions . The storm caused heavy crop damage in the Miyako District of Okinawa , totaling ¥ 2 @.@ 8 billion ( US $ 23 @.@ 2 million ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Noul were related to a strong westerly wind burst that also led to the formation of later Typhoon Dolphin . By April 30 , 2015 , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , persisted and pulsed about 230 km ( 145 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Chuuk State within the Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) . The system had a broad circulation amid an environment favorable for tropical cyclogenesis , including low to moderate wind shear . The circulation slowly consolidated , developing improved outflow and increasingly organized convection . At 06 : 00 UTC on May 2 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) designated the system as a tropical depression about 850 km ( 525 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Chuuk . At 00 : 00 UTC the next day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 06W .
The nascent tropical cyclone moved northwestward through a weakness in the subtropical ridge . Aided by decreasing wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures , the convection organized into a central dense overcast . At 18 : 00 UTC on May 3 , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Noul . The strengthening ridge turned the storm to the west toward the Philippines . On May 5 , an eye developed in the center of the storm while Noul was near Yap State , prompting the JTWC to upgrade the storm to typhoon status . At 18 : 00 UTC that day , the JMA upgraded Noul to a severe tropical storm , and later to typhoon status at 06 : 00 UTC on May 6 . The storm 's spiral rainbands became increasingly organized , although the eye initially remained cloud @-@ filled . Early on May 7 , Noul crossed 135º E into the area of responsibility of PAGASA – the Philippines ' weather bureau – who assigned the local name Dodong .
Due to radial outflow , low vertical wind shear , and water temperatures above 30 ° C , Noul started rapid deepening on May 9 while approaching the Philippine island of Luzon , forming a sharply well @-@ defined 35 km ( 20 mi ) eye embedded in a deepening symmetric core ; therefore , the JTWC upgraded it to a super typhoon late on the same day . At 00 : 00 UTC on May 10 , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . At the same time , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , equivalent to Category 5 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . As the typhoon neared the northeast tip of Luzon , satellite imagery showed rapid deterioration of the storm 's core structure and warming of the cloud tops . According to PAGASA , at around 08 : 45 UTC on May 10 , Noul made landfall in the Philippines at Pananapan Point in Santa Ana , Cagayan . However , the JMA and JTWC tracks do not show landfall , but instead show the center staying offshore . After its closest approach to Luzon , the storm 's structure continued to deteriorate , becoming elongated and less organized due to increasing wind shear and land interaction . By late on May 10 , the eye largely disappeared from satellite imagery as Noul turned northward over water , steered around the subtropical ridge . A large residual eye persisted in the center of the waning convection , although stronger wind shear increasingly disrupted the storm 's structure . An approaching trough steered Noul to the northeast , bringing it east of Taiwan on May 11 . By early on May 12 , the storm had become increasingly elongated as dry air became entrained in the center , with the structure resembling a " comma " -shape , according to the JTWC . The agency downgraded it to a tropical storm at 00 : 00 UTC that day as the storm accelerated through Amami Ōshima . Six hours later , the storm became extratropical off the southern coast of Japan .
The extratropical remnants of Noul continued to the northeast . Around 12 : 00 UTC on May 12 , the storm passed through the Kantō region of southeastern Japan . The center quickly moved back over water and passed just east of Hokkaido on May 13 . Noul slowed its forward motion while remaining south of the Kuril Islands and Russia 's Kamchatka Peninsula . At 06 : 00 UTC on May 16 , the remnants of Noul dissipated near the international date line , after being absorbed by another large extratropical storm .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Federated States of Micronesia = = =
Ahead of the storm 's arrival , typhoon warnings were issued for Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) . In its formative stages , Noul caused minor damage to Fais Island and Ulithi Atoll . On the island of Yap , the typhoon produced gusts to 116 km / h ( 72 mph ) and 296 mm ( 11 @.@ 65 in ) of rainfall . Damage on the island was estimated at US $ 100 @,@ 000 . The storm delayed a supply ship to outlying islands of the state that were previously affected by Typhoon Maysak a month prior .
= = = Philippines = = =
Typhoon Noul , known as Typhoon Dodong within the country , entered the Philippine area of Responsibility on May 7 . In response to the storm , PAGASA raised warning signal 4 , the highest level , for northeastern Cagayan as well as the offshore Batanes and Babuyan Islands . Neighboring provinces had lower warning signals . A total of 3 @,@ 803 people evacuated their homes in Cagayan and Isabela to 27 storm shelters ; families returned home by late on May 10 after the storm moved ashore without causing much damage . Flights and ferry routes were canceled , stranding 10 @,@ 000 people . The Philippine Army deployed 18 soldiers to assist in storm preparations , utilizing boats and helicopters . Fishermen were advised not to go out to sea east of Luzon . People were also evacuated from the vicinity of Mount Bulusan after rains from Noul threatened to cause lahars and mudslides from ash of a recent eruption . They were allowed to return after Noul recurved to the north and the threat did not materialize . Two people in Cagayan died due to electrocution while attempting to fix their roofs ahead of the storm .
Upon striking the Philippines , the typhoon produced high winds and heavy rainfall to Luzon . Noul knocked down trees and damaged houses , resulting in power outages to seven communities ; the power was restored within one day . The storm 's rains were beneficial to local farmers after an extended dry spell . In Santa Ana where the storm moved ashore , the storm caused minor damage to seven schools . Across Cagayan , the storm damaged ₱ 2 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 60 @,@ 000 ) worth of corn and rice crops , as well as minor damage to fisheries . There was minor infrastructure damage in neighboring Ilocos Norte . Overall , Noul caused ₱ 16 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 362 @,@ 000 ) in damage .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In Taiwan , domestic flights from mainland Taiwan to the outlying Green Island and Orchid Island were canceled for May 10 . Also in the outlying islands , schools and offices were closed in anticipation of the storm , while boats sought shelter at harbors . Heavy rains from the storm 's outer bands and a frontal system brought much needed rain to areas of northern Taiwan suffering from a severe drought . A total of 93 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) of rain fell at the Shihmen Dam , amounting to an increase of approximately 7 million tonnes of water in the reservoir , and bringing it to 30 @.@ 5 % capacity . Several major cities were able to lift water rationing as a result . Rainfall amounted to 69 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) at the Baoshan Reservoir , 60 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 38 in ) at the Mingte Reservoir , and 52 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 07 in ) at the Feistui Reservoir .
On May 11 , Noul impacted the Ryukyu Islands of Japan as a weakening typhoon . The Yaeyama Islands experienced unexpectedly strong winds , with Ishigaki measuring its highest sustained winds during May on record at 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) ; records there began in 1897 . To the east , sustained winds of 131 km / h ( 81 mph ) and gusts to 172 km / h ( 107 mph ) were observed on Shimoji @-@ shima . Across Okinawa , the storm 's high winds and waves damaged crops , accounting for ¥ 2 @.@ 8 billion ( US $ 23 @.@ 2 million ) in crop damage . Most of the crop damage occurred in the Miyako District , where the storm also caused power outages . On Tokunoshima island , the storm damaged 13 houses and injured six people . The typhoon also caused 47 flights to be canceled , stranding 4 @,@ 300 people . Noul dropped heavy rainfall across Japan that set daily May records , including 143 mm ( 5 @.@ 6 in ) on Ishigaki Island . Rainfall also spread into the main islands of Japan , reaching 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) in the Tōkai region . One person in Kyoto sustained significant injuries after falling amid high winds . The storm also delayed oil shipments from Japan 's oil refineries .
The remnants of Noul , in conjunction with later Typhoon Dolphin , shifted the broader weather pattern to bring record warmth to Alaska , making the temperatures warmer than that of Washington , D.C ..
= Hermeneutic style =
The hermeneutic style is a style of Latin in the later Roman and early Medieval periods characterised by the extensive use of unusual and arcane words , especially derived from Greek . The style is first found in the work of Apuleius in the second century , and then in several late Roman writers . In the early medieval period , some leading Continental scholars were exponents , including Johannes Scotus Eriugena and Odo of Cluny .
In England , the seventh @-@ century bishop Aldhelm was the most influential hermeneutic writer ; Latin scholarship declined in the ninth century , and when it revived in the tenth , the hermeneutic style became increasingly influential . Unlike in continental Europe , where it was used only by a minority of writers , in tenth @-@ century England it became nearly universal . It was the house style of the English Benedictine Reform , the most important intellectual movement in later Anglo @-@ Saxon England . The style fell out of favour after the Norman Conquest , and the twelfth @-@ century chronicler William of Malmesbury described it as disgusting and bombastic . Historians were equally dismissive until the late twentieth century , when scholars such as Michael Lapidge argued that it should be taken seriously as an important aspect of late Anglo @-@ Saxon culture .
= = Definition = =
In 1953 , Alistair Campbell argued that there were two principal styles of Latin in Anglo @-@ Saxon England . One , which he called the classical , was exemplified by the writings of Bede ( c . 672 – 735 ) , while the English bishop Aldhelm ( c . 639 – 709 ) was the most influential author of the other school , which extensively used rare words , including Greek ones derived from " hermeneutic " glossaries . Andy Orchard contrasts the " limpid and direct prose style of Bede , with its basically biblical vocabulary and syntax " with the " highly elaborate and ornate style of Aldhelm , with a vocabulary and syntax ultimately derived from Latin verse " . Aldhelm was the most learned man in the first four centuries of Anglo @-@ Saxon Christianity , with a profound knowledge of Latin poetry ( unlike Bede ) . His style was highly influential in the two centuries after his death , and it was dominant in later Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Borrowing from Greek was not confined to hermeneutic writers of Latin . In a 2005 study , J. N. Adams , Michael Lapidge and Tobias Reinhardt observe that " the exhumation of ( poorly understood ) Greek words from Greek @-@ Latin glossaries for purposes of stylistic ornamentation was widespread throughout the Middle Ages . "
In the preface to his 1962 edition of Æthelweard 's Chronicon , Campbell referred to the " hermeneutic tradition " . In 1975 , Michael Lapidge developed Campbell 's distinction in an essay on the " hermeneutic style " . He stated that the term implies that the vocabulary is based mainly on the Hermeneumata , a name for certain Greek @-@ Latin glossaries . He did not consider the term entirely satisfactory , and suggested that " glossematic " would be an alternative , but adopted " hermeneutic " because it had been used by other scholars . Jane Stevenson also expresses dissatisfaction with the term , and in the view of Rebecca Stephenson : " The word " hermeneutic " itself is misleading , since this style has nothing to do with the modern field of hermeneutics , nor does it feature words drawn from the Hermeneumata , a set of Greek and Latin glossaries , from which its exotic vocabulary was once thought to derive . " However , both scholars reluctantly accept the term . The style was formerly called " Hisperic " , but scholars now reject this term as wrongly suggesting that it is Irish , and think " Hisperic " should be confined to the language of the very obscure Hisperica Famina .
Lapidge states :
By " hermeneutic " I understand a style whose most striking feature is the ostentatious parade of unusual , often very arcane and apparently learned vocabulary . In Latin literature of the medieval period , this vocabulary is of three general sorts : ( 1 ) archaisms , words which were not in use in classical Latin but were exhumed by medieval authors from the grammarians or from Terence and Plautus ; ( 2 ) neologisms or coinages ; and ( 3 ) loan words .
= = Early development = =
The hermeneutic style was possibly first seen in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius in the second century , and it is also found in works by late Latin writers such as Ammianus Marcellinus and Martianus Capella . In Britain and Ireland , the style is found in authors on the threshold of the medieval period including the British monk Gildas , the Irish missionary Columbanus and the Anglo @-@ Saxon bishop Aldhelm , and works such as the Hisperica Famina . The Anglo @-@ Saxons were the first people in Europe who had to learn Latin as a foreign language when they converted to Christianity , and in Lapidge 's view : " That they attained stylistic mastery in a medium alien to them is remarkable in itself " .
The influential ninth @-@ century Irish philosopher Johannes Scotus Eriugena had a thorough knowledge of Greek , and through his translations and use of unusual Greek words in poetry helped to raise the prestige of the hermeneutic style . The style became fashionable at Laon , where Johannes 's colleague and fellow Irishman , Martianus Hiberniensis , lectured . Hincmar of Rheims rebuked his nephew , Hincmar of Laon :
But when there are sufficient Latin words which you could have put in those places where you have put grecisms and abstruse words and even Irish words and other barbarisms ( Græca et obstrusa et interdum Scottica et alia barbara ) – as you saw fit – which are bastardised and corrupt , it would appear that you have inserted those words most unfortunately not out of humility but for the ostentation of those Greek words which you wished to use – which you yourself don 't understand – so that everyone who reads them may recognise that you wanted to vomit up words which you hadn 't choked down .
= = Continental Europe = =
The style is found in several centres on the Continent in the tenth century . In Italy , the leading proponents were Liutprand of Cremona , Eugenius Vulgarius and Atto of Vercelli . In Germany , works which display it include the anonymous Gesta Apollonnii and the letters of Froumond of Tegernsee . French works which display the hermeneutic style include Dudo of Saint @-@ Quentin 's Gesta Normanniae Ducum and the Libellus Sacerdotalis by Lios Monocus .
Two other French authors were particularly influential in England . The first two books of Abbo of Saint @-@ Germain 's Bella Parisiacae Vrbis describe the siege of Paris by the Normans from 888 to 895 ; they received very little circulation . However , in order to make the work a trinity ( three @-@ volume work ) he added a book described by Lapidge as " a series of exhortations to the monastic life … written in a fiercely tangled and often inscrutable Latin whose vocabulary is nearly all glossary @-@ based " . This became a very popular textbook , especially in England . The other influential French author was Odo of Cluny , who was probably a mentor of Oda , Archbishop of Canterbury ( 941 – 958 ) , a driving force behind the English Benedictine Reform and a proponent of the hermeneutic style . Lapidge suggests that the style in northern France was particularly associated with centres of the Cluniac ( Benedictine ) reform , and the leading figures in the English reform , Oda , Dunstan , Æthelwold and Oswald , were all practitioners of the hermeneutic style and had strong connections with Continental Benedictine centres . Lapidge argues :
One might surmise that the hermeneutic style was cultivated energetically in England in an attempt to show that English learning was as profound and English writing as sophisticated as anything produced on the Continent . The impetus for the cultivation of the style in tenth @-@ century England was therefore probably of Continental origin .
A late proponent of the style was the German Thiofrid of Echternach , abbot of Echternach between 1083 and 1110 , who was strongly influenced by Aldhelm .
= = England = =
On the Continent , some writers were exponents of the hermeneutic style ; in England in the later tenth century almost all were . The study of difficult texts had been a traditional part of Latin education in England since the days of Aldhelm , and he profoundly influenced later writers . In tenth @-@ century England , Aldhelm and Abbo were studied intensively , whereas hermeneutic works did not form an important part of the Continental curriculum . Aldhelm 's De Virginitate ( On Virginity ) was particularly influential , and in the 980s an English scholar requested permission from Archbishop Æthelgar to go to Winchester to study it , complaining that he had been starved of intellectual food . A passage in De Virginitate reads :
So , against the dread beast of pride and against these sevenfold brutes of poisonous vices , which strive cruelly to tear apart with their rabid teeth and virulent fangs all who are unarmed , despoiled of the cuirass of virginity and stripped of the shield of chastity , the virgins of Christ and the young champions of the church must fight with muscle and strength . Against , as it were , the ferocious legions of the barbarians , which in their troops never cease to batter the tortoise of the soldiers of Christ with the artillery of guileful fraud , the struggle must go on manfully , fought with the darts of spiritual weaponry and the iron @-@ tipped spears of the virtues . Let us not , like timid soldiers who effeminately dread the shock of war and the call of the trumpeter , inertly offer to the ravening foe the backs of our shoulders rather than the bosses of our shields !
Anglo @-@ Latin suffered a severe decline in the ninth century , partly due to the Viking invasions , but it began to revive in the 890s under Alfred the Great , who revered Aldhelm . Asser 's Life of King Alfred has a hermeneutic flavour . Alfred was assisted by scholars he brought in from continental Europe . One of them was a German , John the Old Saxon , and in Lapidge 's view a poem he wrote praising the future King Æthelstan , and punning on the Old English meaning of Æthelstan as " noble stone " , marks an early sign of a revival of the hermeneutic style :
You , prince , are called by the name " sovereign stone " ,
Look happily on this prophecy for your age :
You shall be the " noble rock " of Samuel the Seer ,
[ Standing ] with mighty strength against devilish demons .
Often an abundant cornfield foretells a great harvest ; in
Peaceful days your stony mass is to be softened .
You are more abundantly endowed with the holy eminence of learning .
I pray you may seek , and the Glorious One may grant , the [ fulfilment implied in your ] noble name .
The revival of the hermeneutic style was assisted by foreign scholars at the court of King Æthelstan in the late 920s and 930s , some of them , such as Israel the Grammarian , practitioners of hermeneutic Latin . The style was first seen in tenth @-@ century England in charters drafted between 928 and 935 by an anonymous scribe of King Æthelstan called by scholars " Æthelstan A " , who was strongly influenced by Aldhelm and by Hiberno @-@ Latin works which may have been brought to England by Israel . According to Scott Thompson Smith , the charters of " Æthelstan A " : " are generally characterised by a rich pleonastic style with aggressively literary proems and anathemas , ostentatious language and imagery throughout , decorative rhetorical figures , elaborate dating clauses and extensive witness lists . " The charters are first seen shortly after Æthelstan had become the first king of all England by his conquest of Viking @-@ ruled Northumbria in 927 , and in the view of Mechthild Gretsch the charters are the result of " the affection of a style associated with a glorious intellectual past in order to boost what was conceived as a glorious military and political achievement " .
David Woodman gives a translation of the start of a charter drafted by " Æthelstan A " , S 416 issued on 12 November 931 :
The lamentable and loudly detestable sins of this tottering age , surrounded by the dire barkings of obscene and fearsome mortality , challenge and urge us , not carefree in a homeland where peace has been attained but , as it were , teetering over an abyss of fetid corruption , that we should flee those things not only by despising them together with their misfortunes with the whole effort of our mind but also by hating them just like the wearisome nausea of melancholy , striving towards that Gospel text , " Give and it will be given unto you " .
Only one short hermeneutic work by the mid @-@ century Archbishop of Canterbury , Oda , survives , but his influence can be seen in his protégé Frithegod of Canterbury 's Breuiloquium Vitae Wilfredi , described by Lapidge as " the most difficult Anglo @-@ Latin text " , which " may dubiously be described as the ' masterpiece ' of Anglo @-@ Latin hermeneutic style " . Lapidge states that " the hermeneutic style was practised with considerable flair and enthusiasm at Canterbury " . Other centres of the style were also closely associated with leaders of the Benedictine reform : Ramsey Abbey , founded by Oswald , Bishop of Worcester , Glastonbury Abbey , where the future Archbishop of Canterbury , Dunstan , was abbot in the 940s and Winchester , where Æthelwold was bishop . There are different emphases in the various centres : a predilection for neologisms at Canterbury and for grecisms at Winchester , while the leading Ramsey scholar , Byrhtferth , favoured unusual polysyllabic adverbs . The most important document of the Benedictine Reform , the Regularis Concordia , drafted by Æthelwold , was written in hermeneutic style strongly influenced by Aldhelm . Discussing the ideology of the reform movement , Caroline Brett comments : " The use of hermeneutic Latin with its deliberately obscure neologisms and verbal borrowings must have sent potent signals of a learned hierocratic caste , guardians of arcane yet powerful knowledge . "
Lapidge gives a translation of a poem by Dunstan :
Christ , you grant .
O omnipotent Father , may you deign to bring rewards to the donor – ( you ) who above the depths and realms of the heaven as well as the earth and at the same time the recesses of the sea – throughout all this world you rule the angelic citizens of such bounteous merit ; and may you grant to grow in me the seed of holy labour by which I may always be able to hymn appropriately your name .
O you , Son , who , concealed in your mother 's womb , you gather together peoples by your Father 's act – for I perchance am able to compose a holy narrative because you are seen to be God , because , glorious one , the glittering stars show ( you ) to the world ; and I ask , after the close of my life , that you grant to me from the throne of heaven to take a tiny gift because of the honour ( I have ) attained .
I beseech you , Holy Spirit of the Father and Son : for when the holy throng re @-@ echoes its songs , may I then with humble voice be able to ascend quickly as I leave the grave , bearing then the holy prayers of the saints who already have scorned this present world of dust with their learned outpourings , and may I fearlessly be able to pour out my glorious song to the triune ( God ) .
Virgin , whom the messenger salutes in angelic speech , you were born without stain : I ask that you implore him – who , born from the conception of celestial seed holds the mysterious command as triunal deity – to forgive me my sins , that he may deign to grant longlasting joys through his own eternity and to look upon me with the sight of his holy vision .
Grant , I beseech you , O prophetic fathers , O you patriarchs , O you prophets of angelic distinction , O you leaders blessedly confessing with the Lord his holy governance – Abraham , Elijah , Enoch his companion , together with all the rest – that the king quickly deign to render skilfully his aid to me in the three sounds of ' O ' , lest the deceitful one , who rules in the front of the nine fallen orders , be able to say the word " puppup " .
Now I beseech the ancient fathers with Peter their leader on behalf of wretched and anxious me : pour out your prayers and aid so that the trinal custodian of each new saint may afterwards forgive me until I may overcome the hideous enemy of this world .
Christ , you grant .
In the late tenth century , Latin had higher prestige than Anglo @-@ Saxon , and hermeneutic Latin had higher prestige than simple Latin . This presented Byrhtferth with a problem in his Enchiridion , a school text designed to teach the complicated rules for calculating the date of Easter , as hermeneutic Latin is unsuitable for pedagogic instruction . His solution was to include passages in hermeneutic Latin condemning the ignorant and lazy secular clergy , who he said refused to learn Latin , thus justifying using Anglo @-@ Saxon to provide clear explanations for their benefit . In a passage in Latin he wrote :
Some ignorant clerics reject calculations of this kind ( for shame ! ) and do not wish to keep their phylacteries , that is , they do not preserve the order , which they have received in the bosom of mother church , nor do they persist in the holy teaching of meditation . They should consider carefully the way of the Pharisees and the Sadducees , and they should spit out their doctrine like filth . A cleric ought to be the keeper of his own soul , just as a noble man subjects a young foal to the yoke , so he ought to subject his own soul to service , by filling the alabaster box with precious oil , that is , he ought to be inwardly subjected daily , by obeying the divine laws and admonitions of the Redeemer .
Byrhtferth aimed for an elevated style , but he was frequently guilty of solecisms caused by overreaching his ability in Latin .
Almost all proponents of the style were clerical , but there is one notable exception . Ealdorman Æthelweard was a descendant of King Æthelred I , grandfather of an Archbishop of Canterbury , and patron of Ælfric of Eynsham , the one major English writer of the period who rejected the style . Æthelweard 's Chronicon was a translation into hermeneutic Latin of a lost version of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . His style is regarded by historians as eccentric and at times unintelligible . In the view of Angelika Lutz his prose was influenced by Anglo @-@ Saxon heroic poetry as well as Latin and Greek sources : " That it was later viewed as a failure may be attributed both to his limited command of Latin grammar and his extreme stylistic pretensions . "
In 2005 Lapidge reflected :
Thirty years ago , when I first attempted to describe the characteristic features of tenth @-@ century Anglo @-@ Latin literature , I was rather naively bedazzled by the display of vocabulary which one encounters there . Because much of the vocabulary appeared to derive either from Aldhelm or from glossaries of the type called " hermeneumata " , I followed scholarly tradition and described the style as " hermeneutic " , on the assumption that the principal impulse behind the verbal display was that of dazzling the reader with arcane vocabulary exhumed from Greek @-@ Latin glossaries and authors such as Aldhelm . I now suspect that the perception needs modification : that the authors ' principal aim was not obfuscation , but was their ( misguided , perhaps ) attempt to reach in their prose a high stylistic register .
= = Decline = =
After the Norman Conquest authors rejected the hermeneutic style . The twelfth @-@ century chronicler William of Malmesbury expressed his disgust at language he considered bombastic . In Frank Stenton 's view , Byrhtferth 's hermeneutic life of Oswald gives a poor impression of the quality of English scholarship . He described it as " a disorderly work , written in a flamboyant prose , studded with strange words , which had to be explained by glosses inserted between the lines " .
Lapidge describes the repudiation of the hermeneutic style by modern scholars as disappointing . ″ Invariably it is castigated as ′ uncouth ′ or ′ barbarous ′ and its practitioners are dismissed with contempt as the fellows of Dogberry . ″ In his view : " however unpalatable this style might be to modern taste , it was none the less a vital and pervasive aspect of late Anglo @-@ Saxon culture , and it deserves closer and more sympathetic attention than it has previously received " .
= Congo serpent eagle =
The Congo serpent eagle ( Dryotriorchis spectabilis ) is a species of bird of prey in the family Accipitridae , and is placed in the monotypic genus Dryotriorchis . This species is found in western and central Africa , with its range stretching from Sierra Leone south to Angola and west to the Democratic Republic of the Congo . It occurs in upper and lower Guinean forests , which are dense rainforests . This serpent eagle specializes in hunting in these forests ’ dark understories . It has two subspecies , the nominate subspecies Dryotriorchis spectabilis spectabilis and Dryotriorchis spectabilis batesi . Though monotypic , it appears to be very closely related to Circaetus . This hawk is a medium @-@ sized bird with distinctive short , rounded wings and a long , rounded tail . It is varying shades of brown on its back and has a slight crest . Its breast is white with variable amounts of a rufous wash and , in the nominate subspecies , is covered in round , blackish spots . The subspecies D. s. batesi only has these dots on its flanks . The Congo serpent eagle closely resembles Cassin 's hawk @-@ eagle , and some ornithologists believe that this likeness is a rare example of avian mimicry . It is a very vocal raptor , and often is one of the most heard species in its habitat .
This serpent eagle feeds on snakes , chameleons , and toads , and hunts these species by dropping onto them from a perch in the understory . Its excellent eyesight enables it to hunt in the dark forest . Very little is known about its breeding habits , though it is suspected to breed from June to December . The Congo serpent eagle is listed as a species of Least Concern due to its large range and population . This species has been kept as a pet .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Congo serpent eagle was first described in 1863 by Hermann Schlegel as Astur spectabilis from a specimen collected near Elmina , Ghana . Schlegel published his description in Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor De Dierkunde and placed this species within the goshawks . In 1874 George Ernest Shelley , who had access to more specimens , realized that this bird wasn 't a goshawk and moved the species into its own monotypic genus , Dryotriorchis . Dryotriorchis is a distinct genus due to its short wings , long tail , short crest , and oval nostrils . The word " Dryo- " is from the Greek for " oak " and " triorchis " from the Greek for " hawk " , specifically a kind of hawk thought to have three testicles . It is believed that the genus is more closely related to Circaetus than Terathopius , and it is possibly a link between these and the Asian genus Spilornis . The syrinx morphology is distinctly like those of accipiter hawks but shows similarities to features found in Nisaetus . Two subspecies are known : the nominate subspecies Dryotriorchis spectabilis spectabilis and D. s. batesi . D. s. batesi was originally described as a separate species , Dryotriorchis batesi , by Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1904 due to its unspotted breast . Sharpe named the subspecies in honor of G. L. Bates , who shipped him specimens from Cameroon . This species is also known as the West African Serpent eagle and the African Serpent @-@ eagle .
The Congo serpent eagle is superficially similar in plumage and size to Cassin 's hawk @-@ eagle , which has an overlapping range with the serpent eagle . It has been suggested that the Congo serpent eagle evolved to mimic the Cassin 's hawk @-@ eagle , which could give the serpent eagle several advantages , possibly including the ability to trick its reptilian prey into not fleeing , lowering its own predation , and / or minimizing mobbing by birds through its resemblance to a predator of birds . D. s. spectabilis more closely resembles the immature Cassin 's hawk @-@ eagle , while D. s. batesi resembles the adult . This is one of very few suspected examples of avian mimicry .
= = Description = =
This hawk is a medium @-@ sized , slender species with short , rounded wings and a long , rounded tail . It is 54 to 60 centimeters ( 21 to 24 in ) long , with the tail contributing 24 @.@ 5 to 26 @.@ 8 centimeters ( 9 @.@ 6 to 10 @.@ 6 in ) . The wingspan is 94 to 106 centimeters ( 37 to 42 in ) across . The adult of the nominate subspecies , Dryotriorchis spectabilis spectabilis , has a blackish @-@ brown crown and upper neck while the sides of the neck and a broad collar are a dark rufous @-@ brown . The feathers on the top of the head are slightly pointed , giving this species a hint of a crest . The remaining upperparts are a dark chocolate brown . The cheeks are light brown while the throat is buffy white with streaks . The eyes are large and dark brown or grey in females and yellow in males while the beak is short but deep . It also has a black median streak . The bird 's underparts are white with variable amounts of rufous wash and a number of large , round blackish spots . The serpent eagle 's thighs are barred sepia @-@ brown and white , while the undertail is white . The underwing is largely white with some black spots and brown coloration . The tail is light brown , with five to six broad black bars . The claws are short and sharp , while the legs are yellow . Sexes are similar , though the female averages about three percent larger than the male . Immatures have a white crown and mantle , while the upper back has rounded brown or black spots that vanish as the bird ages . The wings and tail are greyish @-@ brown and paler than those of the adults and are more darkly barred .
D. s. batesi is similar to the nominate subspecies , but is browner and paler on the back while the spots on D. s. spectabilis 's chest only appear on this subspecies ' flanks . The immature does possess a spotted chest , with the spots vanishing as the bird ages .
This is a very vocal raptor and is one of the most frequently heard birds of prey in its range . It makes a cat @-@ like meowing sound as well as a low , mournful , nasal " cow @-@ cow @-@ cow " at intervals over extended periods of time . When heard over a large distance , some ornithologists have compared its call to that of a turaco .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Congo serpent eagle lives in southern Sierra Leone and Guinea , Liberia , and southern Côte d 'Ivoire and Ghana . It is also found in southern Nigeria and the Central African Republic south through northern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo in the east and through Gabon into the northern Republic of the Congo in the west with an isolated population in northern Angola . D. s. spectabilis is found in upper Guinean forests from Liberia to northern Cameroon , while D. s. batesi is found in lower Guinean forests from southern Cameroon through Gabon and western Uganda . Its range covers 2 @,@ 880 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The species lives in dense primary forest below 900 meters ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) in elevation in the dark understory . As it is adapted for dense forest , it is not well @-@ adapted for secondary forests and plantations . The Congo serpent eagle does not migrate , though it is unknown if it is locally nomadic .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
Little is known about this species ' behavior . The Congo serpent eagle lives in the understory of its habitat and occasionally perches on lower boughs in tall trees . It lives either alone or in pairs . This species is known to hunt snakes , lizards , especially chameleons , toads , and potentially small mammals . It hunts by dropping to the ground from its perch in the understory , where it may strike its prey repeatedly with its feet ; this serpent eagle may also grab prey from the foliage while hunting . Its large eyes enable this species to hunt in low light , though it is diurnal . Studies on the species ' eyes have shown that they have about two times the visual resolution of a human 's . It may breed from October to December in Gabon and from June to November in the Democratic Republic of the Congo .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Currently , the Congo serpent eagle 's population is dwindling due to deforestation . However , it is listed as a species of Least Concern due to its large population of over 10 @,@ 000 adults and large range of 2 @,@ 880 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . This species has been kept as a pet and in the 1970s was available from some pet shops . The Congo serpent eagle has been depicted on postage stamps from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania .
= 2013 Rosario gas explosion =
A gas explosion in a residential area of Rosario , the third @-@ largest city in Argentina , occurred on August 6 , 2013 . It was caused by a large gas leak ; a nearby building collapsed , and others were at high risk of structural failure . Twenty @-@ two people died , and sixty were injured . Several organizations helped secure the area , search for survivors and aid people who lost their homes . Shortly after the explosion , the time needed for reconstruction was estimated at six months .
The provincial judiciary launched an investigation into the cause of the explosion . Primary suspects were Litoral Gas ( the natural @-@ gas provider for Rosario ) and an employee who carried out maintenance work at the building that day . Several public figures sent condolences , and most of the candidates for the 2013 primary elections suspended their political campaigns .
= = The event = =
The explosion occurred at 9 : 30 a.m. near the intersection of Oroño and Salta Streets in central Rosario . Initial reports confirmed eight people dead , sixty injured and fifteen missing ; eight more deaths were later confirmed . Searches the following day revealed twelve fatalities , ten of whom were identified . A number of people were missing ; some were found dead among the debris , while others were rescued . The search for survivors ended on August 13 , with twenty @-@ two people confirmed dead . A 65 @-@ year @-@ old woman who had been injured died on October 8 .
The explosion was caused by a gas leak in a 30 @-@ year @-@ old building . It severely damaged a nearby nine @-@ story apartment building , causing it to collapse . Mónica Fein , mayor of Rosario , asked residents to avoid the area because of the risk that more buildings might collapse , and to ease the work of disaster management personnel . The streets were covered with broken glass from damaged buildings . Gas and electricity were immediately disconnected , and the national government sent an Argentine Federal Police task force to the scene .
The natural gas supplier , Litoral Gas , immediately began sealing the distribution pipe to the area . The Center for Ambulatory Medical Specialties of Rosario ( Spanish : Centro de Especialidades Médicas Ambulatorias de Rosario ) managed the information about the dead and injured , and tents were prepared for those left homeless . Firefighters and other workers found people trapped on the upper floors of buildings and evacuated them over adjacent roofs . Although the building was not destroyed by the explosion , a high risk of structural failure remained .
= = Investigation = =
Neighbors reported to the press that they had smelled a gas leak several hours before the explosion and had called Litoral Gas . Company director José María González said that the company had received no such calls , and thought that callers might have dialed the 911 emergency number instead . Prosecutor Camporini reported at the trial that the building had experienced several gas leaks before the explosion .
The provincial judiciary launched an investigation into the circumstances surrounding the explosion . The prosecution conducted a search and seizure at the offices of Litoral Gas to confirm the absence of customer complaints about the gas leak . Judge Juan Carlos Curto ordered the arrest of Carlos Osvaldo García , an employee of the department responsible for gas service to the area . He was captured during the night , and his assistant Pablo Miño surrendered to police the following day . According to witnesses , one employee fled in a van before the explosion , when he realized the severity of the gas leak , while another remained to try to evacuate people from the endangered area . The van belonged to García , who experienced an acute stress reaction during the trial . Curto checked the remnants of the gas employee 's workshop to verify García 's testimony .
Prosecutor Graciela Argüelles said that , according to the investigation , Litoral Gas ignored calls for help from García , who was not properly trained to manage such a situation . The judge suggested that documents seized from Litoral Gas might prove the existence of customer reports of a gas leak . Curto thought that the employees might not bear sole responsibility , and that the liability of Litoral Gas had to be investigated as well .
Pablo Miño was released from prison , but Curto refused to release García , saying that Miño had extenuating circumstances which García did not . Miño 's job was to give García the required tools , not to do the maintenance . He was in the street , watching over the van , which was not properly parked and locked , and did not see García 's work before the explosion . Curto stopped short of pronouncing Miño innocent at that early stage .
As the case expanded beyond his jurisdiction , Curto recused himself from the trial and was replaced by Javier Beltramone , who released García from prison . Litoral Gas demanded Beltramone 's recusal for expressing an opinion about the case to the press . The appeal court agreed in a 2 – 1 vote to remove Beltramone , and the case was transferred to Patricia Bilotta . García had claimed that he was following instructions received in the days before the explosion , so Bilotta summoned the technical officers of Litoral Gas to clarify that point . Litoral Gas said that García had not received any instructions prior to the explosion .
Litoral Gas proposed an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement to the relatives of the victims , offering about 1200 US dollars per square meter of collapsed building , in addition to compensation for loss of life . Vice Governor Jorge Henn rejected it as immoral , and most of the families also initially rejected the proposal . By May 2014 , however , almost half of the families had accepted the settlement .
= = Reaction = =
The explosion occurred shortly before the primary 2013 Argentine legislative elections on August 11 . The governor of Santa Fe province , Antonio Bonfatti , asked the political parties to end their campaigns to allow mourning for the victims of the explosion . The Front for Victory and Progressive , Civic and Social Front candidates suspended their campaigns , and the national government declared two days of mourning . The period of mourning was observed by all candidates in Buenos Aires and most other provinces , who ended their political campaigns .
President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner , who had recently returned from a diplomatic visit to the United Nations , visited the site of the explosion on August 7 . She was berated by local residents ; some were angry because her surprise visit halted work at the site , and others thought her presence was politically motivated . The president stayed briefly , visited the CEMAR and met Bonfatti . Kirchner 's entourage was surrounded by members of La Cámpora , who tried to prevent demonstrations against her and keep journalists and residents at bay .
Weeks before the explosion , several social networking sites had scheduled a country @-@ wide cacerolazo ( a pot @-@ banging protest demonstration ) , known as 8A , against Kirchner for August 8 . The websites had already conducted successful cacerolazos ( 8N and 18A ) . Despite the national mourning , the 8A protest went ahead as planned , with the added slogan " No more pointless deaths " . Candidate Ricardo Gil Lavedra thought the cacerolazo should have been canceled , as the campaigning was , but fellow candidate Rodolfo Terragno supported it . It was attended by fewer people than previous ones in Buenos Aires and the rest of the country . The demonstration in Rosario was not a cacerolazo , but a silent candlelight vigil attended by nearly a hundred people . There was a second demonstration in Rosario on August 22 , proceeding from the National Flag Memorial to the headquarters of Litoral Gas .
Pope Francis sent a letter of condolence to Archbishop José Luis Mollaghan of Rosario , and it was read during a mass and procession for Saint Cajetan at Plaza 25 de Mayo . Newell 's Old Boys and Rosario Central , two local soccer teams and rivals in the Rosario derby , organized a charity match for the victims at the Gabino Sosa stadium , and Rosario @-@ born Lionel Messi provided support through the " Leo Messi " charity . The charity match collected 120 @,@ 000 pesos . Musicians Fito Páez , Vicentico , Babasónicos , Las Pelotas , Chaqueño Palavecino , Ciro Pertusi , Lisandro Aristimuño , Pablo Dacal and Coki de Bernardis performed concerts in several Argentine cities to raise money for the victims .
= = Reconstruction = =
Bonfatti announced that Santa Fe province would provide financial help to the victims of the explosion . Since most houses in the vicinity were damaged , affected families would receive a subsidy of $ 20 @,@ 000 to rent homes during reconstruction . They would receive $ 50 @,@ 000 in credit to buy furniture and appliances , payable in 60 months with five percent interest . Rosario 's real estate firms prepared a list of houses for rent without charging victims their regular fee . Some of the affected buildings may have had cheap insurances which would not cover the risk of an explosion . Some cars trapped in an underground parking lot could not be retrieved .
When the search for survivors ended , authorities closed Salta Street . Engineers began checking the buildings at ground zero , trying to restore the original layout of the street and demolishing unstable structures . Secretary of Public Works Omar Saab said that the two remaining buildings were beyond repair and had to be demolished . As a sign of respect , the demolition would not be carried out with explosives . Secretary of Housing Gustavo Leone estimated that the work would take nearly six months . People were allowed to enter their destroyed houses in small groups at a time , starting on August 9 . Nearby streets began to be reopened on August 13 .
The CGT union signed a deal with the association of factories of Rosario and the government of Rosario to make sure that all the victims of the explosions would keep their jobs .
= King John 's Hunting Lodge , Axbridge =
King John 's Hunting Lodge is a wool @-@ merchant 's house built c . 1460 in Axbridge , a town in the English county of Somerset . It is a jettied timber @-@ frame building of three storeys , occupying a corner plot on the town square . The building has served a variety of purposes with shops on the ground floor and workshops and living quarters on the first and second floors . At one time The King 's Head Inn occupied part of the building and a sculpture of a king 's head , which acted as a sign for the pub is preserved within , and a replica is attached to the outside . The lodge was bequeathed to the National Trust in 1971 , and repairs were undertaken to reverse significant deterioration to the building .
The house is leased by the National Trust to Axbridge and District Museum Trust , who operate it as a local museum which includes exhibits relating to local geology and history from the Neolithic to World War II . It is a Grade II * listed building .
= = History = =
In 1340 the site of the present building was occupied by a building belonging to John Oldeway . It contained shops and was called " the stockhouse " . The current building , which was constructed around 1460 , was occupied by shops on the ground floor , living areas and workshops on the first floor , and storage and sleeping areas on the second floor .
The house is the finest of a number of timber @-@ frame houses in the High Street and The Square . The three @-@ storey building is jettied on two adjacent sides and has three gables on the longer side . On the first and second floors curved brackets can be seen which support the floor above . The structure is based around a single wooden post , known as a king post , at the front corner of the building , which supports the floor boards and the horizontal dragon beams that carry the projection of the upper floors at each level .
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , the building housed a succession of shops and underwent various changes which contributed to its physical decline . A Miss Ripley bought the building in 1930 , and used it to store her collection of antiques until 1968 , allowing the public to see her collection once a year . She bequeathed it to the National Trust in 1971 , who undertook the works necessary to make it fit for visitors and saved it from probable destruction .
In overhauling the structure of the premises , the National Trust restored its medieval character by recreating on the ground floor the appearance of arcaded stalls opening onto the street , and the sixteenth @-@ century decoration of the upstairs windows , although this caused a dilemma as it required the removal of fine 18th @-@ century windows .
The origin of the name is unclear as it was not built until long after the reign of King John , who died in 1216 . Its present name first appeared in a 1915 publication , The Heart of Mendip by Francis Knight , when it was being run as a saddler 's shop . The royal part of the name may have come from the fact that there was a carved king 's head on the building , from a time when The King 's Head Inn occupied part of the premises , but whether this represented King John or another king is not known . The head was attached to one corner of the exterior , but is now inside the building , and a replica placed on the outside .
= = Museum = =
The property is owned by the National Trust and run as a local history museum by Axbridge and District Museum Trust with support from Somerset County Museums Service and Axbridge Archaeological and Local History Society . Until 2011 funding was received from Sedgemoor District Council , but this was withdrawn and an entry charge introduced to help pay for the running costs .
The museum aims to illustrate the history , geology and community of Axbridge and the surrounding area ( the area of the old Axbridge Rural District , which included many neighbouring villages such as Cheddar , Wedmore , Mark and Winscombe ) . There is a core of long @-@ term and permanent exhibits , reviewed regularly for possible changes , updates , and revised displays and information , and there is a programme of temporary exhibitions to reflect many aspects of local life and heritage .
Each room has a specific theme , which includes aspects of local history such as life during World War II , and aspects of law and order . Another exhibition shows local geology and archaeological finds from local caves . The exhibits include a fine flint flake which has been identified from the Neolithic occupation of Ebbor Gorge . The museum also displays paintings of local scenes and objects including a clock made by John Bilbie of the Bilbie family , who lived in Axbridge , and a merchants ' table known as a " nail " , similar to those outside The Exchange in Bristol which were made with a flat top and raised edges to prevent coins from tumbling onto the pavement .
= Effects of Hurricane Charley in Jamaica =
The effects of Hurricane Charley in Jamaica included one fatality and at least $ 1 million in damages . Forming out of a tropical wave on August 9 , 2004 , Charley quickly tracked through the eastern Caribbean Sea and attained tropical storm status on August 10 . While passing south of Jamaica on August 11 , the storm was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane . During its passage of Jamaica , Charley had maximum winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , a low @-@ end Category 1 hurricane . Turning north , the storm impacted western Cuba as a Category 3 storm before making landfall in Florida as a strong Category 4 . The storm eventually dissipated on August 15 . As Charley approached Jamaica , officials issued tropical storm watches and warnings before issuing a hurricane watch . Two cruise ships were diverted from docking in Jamaica , affecting 5 @,@ 700 passengers . Numerous shelters were set up across the island ; however , relatively few people sought refuge in them .
Although it was only a Category 1 hurricane , Charley caused significant damage in southern Jamaica . Saint Elizabeth Parish sustained the worst damage . About 750 farmers reported damage , and at one point , flooding isolated 30 families . The only fatality in Jamaica occurred after a man attempted to rescue a family but was swept away by flood waters . Following the storm , search and rescue teams were deployed to flooded regions . Days later , officials allocated roughly $ 7 @.@ 6 million ( JMD ; US $ 86 @,@ 000 ) to repair damaged roads . Residents in areas that sustained severe agricultural losses also requested assistance from the government .
= = Background = =
Hurricane Charley began as a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa in early August 2004 . Tracking westward , the system gradually organized and was declared a tropical depression on August 9 while located roughly 115 mi ( 185 km ) south @-@ southeast of Barbados . The following day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm and was given the name Charley after entering the eastern Caribbean Sea . Quickly tracking northwest , the small storm intensified .
Late on August 11 , as Charley traveled south of Jamaica , it attained hurricane intensity , with winds reaching 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Over the following days , the storm curved northeast and impacted western Cuba as a Category 3 hurricane before striking Florida as an intense Category 4 hurricane with winds up to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) on August 13 . The weakened Charley rapidly tracked northeast before dissipating on August 15 near Long Island , New York .
= = Preparations = =
On August 10 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) , based in Miami , Florida , issued a tropical storm watch for the entire island of Jamaica as Tropical Storm Charley intensified over the eastern Caribbean Sea . Later that day , the watch was upgraded to a warning as the storm quickly approached the island . Early on August 11 , a hurricane watch was declared for the island as Charley neared hurricane intensity . Late on August 11 , all watches and warnings for Jamaica were changed to hurricane warnings as Charley attained Category 1 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The warning was later discontinued on August 12 as Hurricane Charley tracked towards Cuba , no longer a threat to Jamaica .
Following the issuance of hurricane watches , Robert Pickersgill , Minister of Transport and Works in Jamaica closed both airports , Norman Manley International Airport and Sangster International Airport , on the island and shut down all ports . A total of 33 flights were canceled or delayed by the storm . Roughly 3 @,@ 000 passengers from the Carnival Conquest cruise ship were diverted from their scheduled arrival in Montego Bay , resulting in millions of dollars in losses . Another cruise ship , The Triumph , carrying 2 @,@ 700 passengers was also diverted . Most businesses on the island were closed on August 12 . Emergency shelters were set up across the island ahead of the storm ; however , press reports indicate that no one sought refuge in shelters . Residents along the coast were urged to evacuate by the Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management due to the risk of storm surge and large swells that could inundate low @-@ lying communities . Up to 6 in ( 150 mm ) of rain fell in eastern portions of the island , triggering mudslides .
On August 11 , the Jamaica Red Cross opened its Emergency Operations Center in preparation for Hurricane Charley and placed the warning level at one , the lowest warning level . Residents throughout the country stocked up on emergency supplies and non @-@ perishable food , noted by an increase in sales at shops . In Saint James Parish , emergency officials activated all necessary agencies by August 11 . Late on August 11 , emergency officials quickly opened 50 shelters in the parish . In Saint Elizabeth Parish , 100 residents sought refuge in the six shelters opened throughout the parish . A total of $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( JMD ; US $ 17 @,@ 000 ) was allocated by the Ministry of Local Government for repairs after the storm . The Jamaica Red Cross alerted local branches to be prepared as Charley approached .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
On August 11 , a 60 ft ( 18 m ) yacht carrying three people was disabled roughly 58 mi ( 93 km ) southeast of the Morant Cays . The Jamaica Defence Force Coast Guard rescued the crew members the following day and brought them to Kingston Public Hospital as they were severely dehydrated and exhausted . During the preparations , storms ahead of the hurricane knocked out power in isolated areas . After nearly completing restoration of the initial power outage , lightning struck a power line and left more residents without electricity .
The community of Big Woods was significantly affected by flooding , with 30 families being isolated in the area . The only fatality from the storm also occurred in this community after a man was washed away while trying to rescue a family . The severity of damage in Big Woods prompted Jamaica Labour Party Area Council Four chairman to state that it should be declared a disaster area . Torrential rains during a two @-@ hour span overnight triggered most of the flooding in the area , isolating many homes and inundating several . In Westmoreland Parish , severe flooding inundated several homes and damaged roadways . One home sustained significant damage after a large tree fell on it . In Kingston , high winds damaged power lines and some homes . Water supply to most regions was cut due to damage to pipelines and high water turbidity . Widespread power outages occurred due to numerous downed trees and power lines .
The banana industry sustained severe losses , with trees downed and fruit damaged and numerous livestock drowned in flood waters . Initial assessments of agricultural losses from the storm reached $ 300 million ( JMD ; US $ 3 @.@ 4 million ) . Residents requested the government for immediate assistance as families were without a source of food and income . Official assessments in four parishes placed the damage to agriculture and livestock at $ 88 @.@ 4 million ( JMD ; US $ 1 million ) , with roughly $ 73 @.@ 5 million ( JMD ; US $ 835 @,@ 000 ) of this accounting for 750 farmers in Saint Elizabeth .
Roads in Saint Elizabeth sustained substantial damage , with 32 separate roads experiencing severe impacts . Throughout the country , a total of $ 7 @.@ 6 million ( JMD ; US $ 86 @,@ 000 ) was provided to repair the roads , $ 4 @.@ 23 million ( JMD ; US $ 48 @,@ 000 ) of which was used in Saint Elizabeth alone . Widespread damage to crops also resulted in an increased price in store costs . The loss to farmers was untimely as it followed a three @-@ month drought that was preceded by damaging hailstorms that ruined crops . Following the storm , search and rescue teams were deployed , mainly in Saint Elizabeth Parish following reports of flooding .
= The Boat Race 2003 =
The 149th Boat Race took place on 6 April 2003 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) tidal stretch of the River Thames in south @-@ west London . The lead changed twice during the race , which Oxford won by one foot ( 30 cm ) , the smallest margin of victory in the history of the event . The close race has been described as " epic " , while multiple Olympic gold @-@ medallist Steve Redgrave suggested that the race was the " greatest we will see in our lifetimes " .
Umpired by the Boat Race veteran Boris Rankov , the 2003 race was the first to be scheduled on a Sunday . As a result of a collision between the Cambridge boat and a launch , a member of the Cambridge crew was replaced just two days before the race . This was the first Boat Race to feature two sets of brothers on opposing sides . In the reserve race Goldie beat Isis and Oxford won the Women 's race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course , between Putney and Mortlake on the River Thames in south @-@ west London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the 2003 race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race by three @-@ quarters of a length , but Cambridge led overall with 77 victories to Oxford 's 70 ( excluding the " dead heat to Oxford by five feet " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Aberdeen Asset Management for the fourth consecutive year , and was the first to be scheduled on a Sunday , in order to avoid a clash with the live television broadcast of the Grand National . Although the 1984 race was held on a Sunday , it had been postponed from the Saturday following a collision between the Cambridge boat and a barge .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat , has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
The umpire for the race was former Oxford rower Boris Rankov , who had represented the Dark Blues a record six times between 1978 and 1983 . Cambridge were coached by Robin Williams ( for the ninth time ) while Oxford 's coach was Sean Bowden , assisted by coxing adviser Dan Topolski .
= = Crews = =
Wayne Pommen , the first @-@ choice Cambridge bow , was injured two days before the race , fracturing his wrist following a full @-@ speed collision with the harbourmaster 's launch during a practice start . Matthias Kleinz was hit on the head but did not require medical attention . Cambridge number seven James Livingston said : " For a couple of seconds I thought I was going to die . We were going flat out and all of a sudden I heard Jim 's voice . I 've never heard so much fear in anybody 's voice before . " Pommen was circumspect : " A few of us were feeling quite lucky last night ... at the same time , it was very frustrating and disappointing ... but there was no point sulking in the corner . " Three oars were destroyed and two riggers bent ; the boat was sent to Weybridge to be repaired . Pommen was replaced by Ben Smith , brother of the Oxford stroke Matthew . Not since the 1979 race had such a late change in the line @-@ up of a crew been made . Along with James and David Livingston , this was the first time in the history of the Boat Race that two pairs of brothers would be racing against one another .
The official weigh @-@ in took place on 1 April at the London Eye . The Cambridge crew had an advantage of 7 kilograms ( 15 lb ) per member , representing the largest disparity between the crews since the 1990 event and the lightest Dark Blue crew since the 1975 race . Oxford were considered " underdogs " for the race . The Cambridge crew had an average age of 23 , while Oxford 's crew averaged 21 . The Oxford crew featured seven Britons , an Australian and a Canadian , while the Cambridge crew consisted of four Britons , two Americans , two Germans and an Australian . Cambridge 's Tim Wooge , the 30 @-@ year @-@ old stroke rowing in his third Boat Race , was the first German president of Cambridge University Boat Club , and the heaviest man in the race . His Dark Blue counterpart Matthew Smith was rowing in his fourth Boat Race . Robin Bourne @-@ Taylor , Basil Dixon and Matt Smith had rowed for Oxford in the 2002 race , while , in James Livingston , Cambridge saw just one Blue return from the previous year 's event .
= = Race descriptions = =
= = = Main race = = =
Cambridge won the coin toss and the Light Blue boat club president , Tim Wooge , was clear : " Cambridge choose Surrey " . Cambridge elected to start from the southern bank ( the " Surrey side " ) of the Thames , handing the northern side of the river ( the " Middlesex side " ) to Oxford . At race time , conditions were overcast and breezy . Oxford took an early lead with a slightly higher stroke rate than Cambridge as both coxes were warned by the umpire to avoid a clash . By the Mile Post , the Dark Blues were half @-@ a @-@ second ahead . Five minutes into the race , Oxford , with a third of a length lead , were warned again by the umpire and moved away from the racing line , and following a series of oar clashes , allowed Cambridge to take the lead , shooting Hammersmith Bridge a second ahead . Oxford continued to stay in touch with Cambridge along the long middle bend of the course , towards the Chiswick Steps , and retook the lead on the approach to Barnes Bridge as the course curved back in their favour . With a three @-@ quarter length lead at Barnes , Oxford began to weaken and Cambridge recovered to a third of a length . With every stroke , the Cambridge boat gained on Oxford , outrating them in a " sprint finish " , but the Dark Blues passed the finishing post 1 foot ( 30 cm ) ahead , the narrowest winning margin in the history of the race .
Oxford finished with a time of 18 minutes 6 seconds . Rankov did not initially announce the result , instead he " spread his arms wide and shrugged his shoulders " . The result was confirmed to Rankov by finishing judge Ben Kent , with the winning margin being approximately 0 @.@ 05 seconds , and announced to the crews by Rankov under Chiswick Bridge : " One foot to Oxford " . James Livingston wrote of himself at the finish : " eyes widen and bulge in horror . Our desolation is total . "
It was the first time a crew had won the race with a deficit of more than one stone ( 6 @.@ 4 kg ) per man . It was Oxford 's third victory in the previous four years and brought the overall result to 77 – 71 in Cambridge 's favour . At the finish , following tradition , the Oxford crew threw their cox , Acer Nethercott , into the water in celebration .
= = = Women and reserves races = = =
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by nine lengths in a time of 18 minutes 4 seconds , two seconds quicker than the Blue boat , recording their fourth consecutive victory and their sixth in seven years . Earlier , Oxford won the 58th women 's race in a time of 6 minutes 35 seconds , three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ahead of their Light Blue opponents . It was their second consecutive win and took the overall result to 38 – 20 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Reaction = =
The Oxford University Boat Club president and stroke Matthew Smith said " It feels fantastic and I think it will take a while to top this feeling " . He went on to say : " We have got an awesome bunch of guys in this squad ... but I have such respect for Cambridge ... with a lighter crew we 've turned round the biggest weight deficit in history . " Nethercott remarked " I really thought we had lost . In the space of a few seconds I went from the lowest point in my life to absolute , unbridled ecstasy . " The Cambridge oarsman James Livingston said " It was the worst margin to lose by . I just wish I could stop losing these epic races " while the Cambridge coach Williams described the defeat as a " blow to the heart " . Wooge was disappointed : " I pull my hat off to Oxford , that was an amazing race . " Rankov later revealed " It ’ s the hardest I ’ ve ever had to work in an umpiring situation . "
The five @-@ time Olympic gold medallist Steve Redgrave , who presented the trophy to the victorious president , Matthew Smith , commented on the race : " Remember that race and cling on to the memory , because it will be the greatest we will see in any of our lifetimes . " An estimated 400 million people worldwide watched the event on television , with over 5 million viewers watching on BBC One in the United Kingdom . The race is retold in the book Blood Over Water , authored by opposing brothers James and David Livingston .
Martin Cross , writing in The Guardian , said the race provided " a thrilling finish and renewed interest from the public " , Christopher Dodd in The Independent called the race " stupendous , a titanic struggle of will " , while Rachel Quarrell of The Daily Telegraph declared Oxford 's victory as " epic " and suggested that " there will never be a better Boat Race . " Simon Barnes of The Times described the finish : " At the finishing line , the bobble of the Oxford bow was inches in front , a second later , it was inches behind . If the line had come with the completion rather than the beginning of the final Cambridge stroke , the result would have gone the other way . " Author and journalist Christopher Dodd , writing in Rowing News summarised the race as " incredible " and a " titanic struggle of wills " .
= 14th / 32nd Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 14th / 32nd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army which served during the Second World War . It was formed in September 1942 by the amalgamation of the 14th and 32nd Battalions and was assigned to the 6th Brigade , 4th Division in Geraldton , Western Australia . The battalion served firstly in Australia and then later New Guinea , being employed mainly on garrison duties , before being transferred to the 5th Division and deployed to New Britain late in the war where it took part briefly in the Australian containment campaign on that island . In April 1945 it returned to Australia for rest and re @-@ organisation and was disbanded later that year without seeing further combat .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
By mid @-@ 1942 , an over mobilisation of Australia 's military forces resulted in a manpower shortage in the Australian economy . In order to rectify this situation , the Australian government decided to amalgamate and disband a number of units from the Militia in order to free up their personnel and return them to the civilian workforce . As a result , on 12 October 1942 , the 14th and 32nd Battalions , which had been undertaking garrison duties around Geraldton , Western Australia , were amalgamated to form the 14th / 32nd Battalion . Upon formation the battalion adopted the territorial title of the " Prahran / Footscray Regiment " and was assigned to the 6th Brigade , 4th Division .
The battalion 's personnel were drawn predominately from the 14th Battalion , although 164 officers and men from the 32nd who had volunteered to serve under the same conditions of the Second Australian Imperial Force , were transferred to the 14th / 32nd at this time . As more than 65 per cent of the battalion 's 996 personnel volunteeredfor overseas service , the battalion was designated as an Australian Imperial Force battalion , meaning that it could be sent outside the territorial limits imposed by the Defence Act ( 1903 ) .
= = = New Guinea and New Britain = = =
After this , the 14th / 32nd Battalion was moved to the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland , to undertake amphibious landing and jungle warfare training in preparation for deployment overseas . In July 1943 , they were sent to Port Moresby , New Guinea , where they once again filled the role of garrison troops for almost a year , operating between Buna , Gona and Nassau Bay . In 1944 , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Caldwell , who had previously commanded at company @-@ level in Greece and the Middle East , the battalion was attached to the 5th Division and on 4 November the 14th / 32nd Battalion , forming the vanguard of the 6th Brigade , carried out an amphibious landing at Jacquinot Bay on New Britain .
Although opposition to the landing was expected , the 14th / 32nd Battalion arrived on the beach and found that the Japanese defenders had withdrawn further down the coast . This allowed the battalion to concentrate on the task of establishing a beachhead and unloading stores . This task was made more difficult though by a torrential downpour on 6 November , nevertheless they were eventually able to establish themselves around Pal Mal Mal Plantation and patrols were sent out to locate the Japanese . By 10 November , patrols reached the Esis River and after contacting locals it was found that the Japanese were withdrawing towards the Gazelle Peninsula , where it was estimated that about 93 @,@ 000 Japanese were stationed . Due to the size of the Japanese garrison , as the rest of the 5th Division began to arrive on the island , it was decided that the Australians would undertake a campaign of containment rather than engage in offensive operations . As a part of this campaign , the 14th / 32nd Battalion was assigned the
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built on a hill by late 1686 and featuring machicolation and other castle @-@ like features . The fort was burned down by Iroquois in 1691 , with only the mill itself left standing .
Governor @-@ General Frontenac ordered the construction of a second , more imposing fort in 1692 . It was rebuilt in 1702 @-@ 1703 to protect the nearby fur trading post . With extensive cannons and swiveling wall guns , it was the " most substantial castle @-@ like fort " near Montreal . It was eventually destroyed in 1776 by Benedict Arnold , under American military control , but the ruins have been maintained since then . In 2003 , it was classified as a historic site .
= = Background = =
Thanks to the tireless work of French explorers , the colony of New France covered the largest area , but it was numerically inferior to the neighbouring New England . Consequently , a number of Ingénieurs du Roi ( " King 's Engineers " ) were appointed to make the colony the best fortified in North America :
Quebec served as the only fortified city in the Americas , centred on the Citadelle of Quebec . An unusual feature of Montreal 's defence was a string of 30 outlying forts to protect against the constant Iroquois threat to the expansion of French settlements . The majority of these were simple stockades , but as artillery was not as developed as on the battlefields of Europe , some of these were built like the fortified manor houses of France . Roughly four of these were substantial stone forts which served as defensive residences , sometimes considered " true castles " , as well as imposing structures to prevent Iroquois incursions . Initially , Fort Senneville was a French stockaded fort , built in 1671 about half a mile above the Sainte @-@ Anne rapids . The property was part of a fief ceded to Dugué de Boisbriant in 1672 by the Society of Saint @-@ Sulpice , and subsequently relinquished in payment of a debt to two of the most significant figures in New France 's history : Jacques Le Ber and Charles Le Moyne , who used the site as a fur @-@ trading post .
A large stone windmill was built on a hill by late 1686 , doubling as a watch tower over the Ottawa River , the Lake of Two Mountains and the mouth of the Des Prairies River . This windmill was like no other in New France ( although a similar fortified windmill was later built in Quebec ) , with thick walls , square loopholes for muskets , with machicolation at the top for pouring lethally hot liquids and rocks onto attackers .
In October 1687 , the nearby Fort Sainte @-@ Anne and the Senneville mill were attacked by Iroquois , and although several settlers were killed , the attackers were repulsed . A second attack was more successful in 1691 , and the fort was burned down . Only the mill itself was left standing .
= = Second fort = =
The attack had come shortly after the 1690 Battle of Quebec , and an enraged Governor @-@ General Frontenac ordered the construction of a second , more imposing fort . The fort was rebuilt in 1692 with thick stone walls and corner tower bastions . With extensive cannons and swivel wall guns , it was the " most substantial castle @-@ like fort " near Montreal .
It was never attacked again . The windmill was rebuilt in 1700 , and was probably still in use until the 1780s . In 1703 , Jacques Le Ber de Senneville constructed a large stone house and fort in order to improve and protect his fur trading operations , and the local seigneural manor house was built in 1706 . However , after the fall of New France in 1763 , it was not used by the British as a military post . In 1776 , Fort Senneville was destroyed during the American Revolutionary War by Continental Army troops under Benedict Arnold , in military manoeuvres associated with the Battle of the Cedars .
In 1865 , the property was purchased as a summer residence by John Joseph Caldwell Abbott , former prime minister of Canada and Mayor of Montreal . Sir Edward Seaborne Clouston purchased the domain from Abbott 's estate in 1898 .
= = The site today = =
The site remains private property . The 10 @-@ acre ( 4 ha ) area today is important part to Montreal 's cultural and natural heritage for several reasons .
In November 2003 , Quebec recognized its historical significance by classifying it a " Site historique " . The Ministry of Culture and Communications has commissioned studies on the historical ownership of the fort , and funded archaeological research and repairs to consolidate the structure of the ruin , recognising " the exceptional historic and prehistoric archaeological potential of the ruin and its surroundings " .
The site 's value today includes its ecological and environmental significance , and its shoreline , which is in a semi @-@ natural state , is part of the habitat for the rare map turtle . It is situated between the Lake of Two Mountains and the Senneville Forest ecoterritory , as described in Montreal 's Natural Spaces Policy . Therefore , it could be considered part of the wildlife corridor ( lien faunique ) between the lake and the forest .
= Augmentative and alternative communication =
Augmentative and alternative communication ( AAC ) is an umbrella term that encompasses the communication methods used to supplement or replace speech or writing for those with impairments in the production or comprehension of spoken or written language . AAC is used by those with a wide range of speech and language impairments , including congenital impairments such as cerebral palsy , intellectual impairment and autism , and acquired conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinson 's disease . AAC can be a permanent addition to a person 's communication or a temporary aid .
Modern use of AAC began in the 1950s with systems for those who had lost the ability to speak following surgical procedures . During the 1960s and 1970s , spurred by an increasing commitment in the West towards the inclusion of disabled individuals in mainstream society and developing the skills required for independence , the use of manual sign language and then graphic symbol communication grew greatly . It was not until the 1980s that AAC began to emerge as a field in its own right . Rapid progress in technology , including microcomputers and speech synthesis , have paved the way for communication devices with speech output and multiple options for access to communication for those with physical disabilities .
AAC systems are diverse : unaided communication uses no equipment and includes signing and body language , while aided approaches use external tools . Aided communication methods can range from paper and pencil to communication books or boards to devices that produce voice output ( speech generating devices or SGD 's ) and / or written output . The symbols used in AAC include gestures , photographs , pictures , line drawings , letters and words , which can be used alone or in combination . Body parts , pointers , adapted mice , or eye tracking can be used to select target symbols directly , and switch access scanning is often used for indirect selection . Message generation is generally much slower than spoken communication , and as a result rate enhancement techniques may be used to reduce the number of selections required . These techniques include " prediction " , in which the user is offered guesses of the word / phrase being composed , and " encoding " , in which longer messages are retrieved using a prestored code .
The evaluation of a user 's abilities and requirements for AAC will include the individual 's motor , visual , cognitive , language and communication strengths and weaknesses . The evaluation requires the input of family members , particularly for early intervention . Respecting ethnicity and family beliefs are key to a family @-@ centered and ethnically competent approach . Studies show that AAC use does not impede the development of speech , and may result in a modest increase in speech production . Users who have grown up with AAC report satisfying relationships and life activities ; however , they may have poor literacy and are unlikely to be in employment .
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines augmentative and alternative communication one of communications as well as display of text , large @-@ print , tactile communication , plain language , accessible multimedia and accessible information and communications technology .
= = Scope = =
Augmentative and alternative communication is used by individuals to compensate for severe speech @-@ language impairments in the expression or comprehension of spoken or written language . People making use of AAC include individuals with a variety of congenital conditions such as cerebral palsy , autism , intellectual disability , and acquired conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , traumatic brain injury and aphasia . Prevalence data vary depending on the country and age / disabilities surveyed , but typically between 0 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 5 % of the population are considered to have such severe speech @-@ language impairments that they have difficulty making themselves understood , and thus could benefit from AAC . An estimated 0 @.@ 05 % of children and young people require high technology AAC . Well @-@ known AAC users include physicist Stephen Hawking , broadcaster Roger Ebert and poet Christopher Nolan . Award @-@ winning films such as My Left Foot and The Diving Bell and the Butterfly , based on books by AAC users Christy Brown and Jean @-@ Dominique Bauby respectively , have brought the lives of those who use AAC to a wider audience .
The field was originally called " Augmentative Communication " ; the term served to indicate that such communication systems were to supplement natural speech rather than to replace it . The addition of " alternative " followed later , when it became clear that for some individuals non @-@ speech systems were their only means of communication . AAC users typically utilize a variety of aided and unaided communication strategies depending on the communication partners and the context .
= = Forms of AAC = =
= = = Unaided AAC = = =
Unaided AAC systems are those that do not require an external tool , and include facial expression , vocalizations , gestures , and sign languages and systems . Informal vocalizations and gestures such as body language and facial expressions are part of natural communication , and such signals may be used by those with profound disabilities . More formalized gestural codes exist that lack a base in a naturally occurring language . For example , the Amer @-@ Ind code is based on Plains Indian Sign Language , and has been used with children with severe @-@ profound disabilities , and adults with a variety of diagnoses including dementia , aphasia and dysarthria . The benefits of gestures and pantomime are that they are always available to the user , usually understood by an educated listener , and are efficient means of communicating .
In contrast , sign languages have a linguistic base and permit the expression of an unlimited number of messages . Approaches to signing can be divided into two major categories , those that encode an existing language , and those that are languages in their own right . Signing Exact English may be considered the most widely used example of the former and American Sign Language as a common example of the latter . Signing is used alone or in conjunction with speech to support communication with individuals with a variety of disorders . The specific hand shapes and movements of sign and gesture require an individual to have adequate fine motor and motor planning skills . Sign languages require more fine @-@ motor coordination and are less transparent in meaning than gestural codes such as Amer @-@ Ind ; the latter limits the number of people able to understand the person 's communication without training .
= = = Aided AAC = = =
An AAC aid is any " device , either electronic or non @-@ electronic , that is used to transmit or receive messages " ; such aids range from communication books to speech generating devices . Since the skills , areas of difficulty and communication needs of AAC users vary greatly , an equally diverse range of communication aids and devices is required .
= = = = Low @-@ tech = = = =
Low @-@ tech communication aids are defined as those that do not need batteries , electricity or electronics . These are often very simple communication boards or books , from which the user selects letters , words , phrases , pictures , and / or symbols to communicate a message . Depending on physical abilities and limitations , users may indicate the appropriate message with a body part , light pointer , eye @-@ gaze direction , or a head / mouth stick . Alternatively , they may indicate yes or no while a listener scans through possible options .
= = = = High @-@ tech = = = =
High @-@ tech AAC aids permit the storage and retrieval of electronic messages , with most allowing the user to communicate using speech output . Such devices are known as speech generating devices ( SGD ) or voice output communication aids ( VOCA ) . A device 's speech output may be digitized and / or synthesized : digitized systems play recorded words or phrases and are generally more intelligible while synthesized speech uses text @-@ to @-@ speech software that can be harder to understand but that permits the user to spell words and speak novel messages .
High @-@ tech systems may be dedicated devices developed solely for AAC , or non @-@ dedicated devices such as computers that run additional software to allow them to function as AAC devices . They may be static or dynamic in form . Static communication devices have symbols in fixed positions on paper overlays , which are changed manually . To increase the vocabulary available , some static devices have multiple levels , with different words appearing on different levels . On dynamic AAC devices , the user can change the symbols available using page links to navigate to appropriate pages of vocabulary and messages .
High @-@ tech devices vary in the amount of information that they can store , as well as their size , weight and thus their portability . Access methods depend on the abilities of the user , and may include the use of direct selection of symbols on the screen or keyboard with a body part , pointer , adapted mice or joysticks , or indirect selection using switches and scanning . Devices with voice output offer its user the advantage of more communicative power , including the ability to initiate conversation with communication partners who are at a distance . However , they typically require programming , and tend to be unreliable . Because of the latter , low tech systems often recommended as a backup in case of device failure .
= = Symbols = =
Symbols used on high and low @-@ tech AAC systems include graphic , auditory , gestural and textural symbols to represent objects , actions and concepts . For users with literacy skills , both low and high @-@ tech devices may use alphabet @-@ based symbols including individual letters , whole words , or parts thereof . With low @-@ tech devices , the communication partner must interpret the symbols chosen whereas a high @-@ tech device can speak the created message aloud . Several large graphic symbol sets have been developed ; these include Blissymbols , which possess linguistic characteristics such as grammatical indicators , and the more iconic Picture Communication Symbols ( PCS ) which do not . Tactile symbols are textured objects , real objects or parts of real objects that are used as a communication symbols particularly for individuals with visual impairments and / or significant intellectual impairments . Auditory symbols such as choices of spoken words or Morse code can also be integrated with assistive technology for the visually impaired .
The choice of symbols and aspects of their presentation , such as size and background , depend on an individual 's preferences as well as their linguistic , visual , and cognitive skills .
= = Access and selection methods = =
Technological advances have dramatically increased the types of selection methods available for individuals with communication impairments . In " Direct Selection " , the selection is made by pointing to the desired symbol using a finger or an alternative pointer , such as eye gaze , a head stick , head- or eye @-@ controlled mouse . To accommodate motor control difficulties some users use alternative activation strategies ; for example in " timed activation " , the user maintains selection of the symbol for a predetermined period of time until it is recognized by the system . With the " release activation " , the selection of the item is only made when the person releases contact from the display .
Direct activation of an AAC system is generally the first choice of access method as it is faster and cognitively easier . Those unable to do so may use indirect selection or " scanning " . In this method , items displayed for selection are scanned ; the scanning may be visual using indicators such as lights , highlighting , and / or contrasting borders , or auditory using spoken prompts from a communication partner or device . When the desired message is reached , the AAC user indicates the choice using an alternative selection technique such as a switch , vocalization or gesture . Several different patterns for switch access scanning are available : in " circular scanning " , the items are displayed in a circle and then scanned one at a time . It is often introduced first to children or beginning AAC users because it is the easiest to understand . In " linear scanning " , items are organized in rows and are scanned one at a time until a choice is made . Although more demanding than circular scanning , it is still easy to learn . Finally , in " group @-@ item scanning " , items are grouped and the groups scanned consecutively . Once a particular group is selected , items within the group are scanned . One of the most common group @-@ item strategies is row @-@ column scanning in which each row forms a group . The rows of items are scanned and when a row is selected , the items in the row are scanned one at a time until a message is selected .
There are three main selection control techniques in scanning . In " automatic scanning " , the scan proceeds at a pre @-@ determined speed and pattern until the user selects an item . In " inverse scanning " , the switch is held down to advance the scan , and released to choose the desired iem . In " step scanning " , the AAC user activates one switch to move the indicator through the items , and another switch to select the item .
= = Vocabulary organization = =
Vocabulary organization refers to the way pictures , words , phrases , and sentences are displayed on the communication system . In general , the goal is to facilitate efficient and effective communication , especially when the individual 's AAC system contains a large number of symbols .
Communication books and devices are often presented in a grid format ; the vocabulary items displayed within them may be organized by spoken word order , frequency of usage or category . In the Fitzgerald Key organization , symbols from different semantic and syntactic classes are organized grammatically in groups from left to right to facilitate sentence construction . Since research has shown that children and adults use a small number of words frequently , in a core @-@ fringe vocabulary organization , the words and messages that are communicated most frequently appear on a " main page " . The fringe vocabulary — words and messages used more rarely and that are specific to an individual — appear on other pages . Symbols may also be organized by category , grouping people , places , feelings , foods , drinks , and action words together . Another form of grid organization groups vocabulary according to specific activities . Each display contains symbols for the people , places , objects , feelings , actions , and other relevant vocabulary items for a specific activity or routine .
Visual scene displays are a different method of organizing and presenting symbols . These are depictions of events , people , objects , and related actions in a picture , photograph , or virtual environment representing a situation , place , or specific experience . They are similar to activity displays in that they contain vocabulary that is associated with specific activities or routines . For example , a photo of a child 's room may be included in the child 's AAC system . Objects and events within the photograph are then used as symbols for communication . Research suggests that visual scene displays are easier than grid displays for young children or those with cognitive impairments to learn and use .
= = Rate enhancement strategies = =
Augmentative and alternative communication is typically much slower than speech , with users generally producing 8 – 10 words per minute . Rate enhancement strategies can increase the user 's rate of output to around 12 – 15 words per minute , and as a result enhance the efficiency of communication . There are two main options for increasing the rate of communication : encoding and prediction .
Encoding is a technique permitting an AAC user to produce an entire word , sentence or phrase using only one or two activations of their AAC system . In numeric , alpha @-@ numeric , and letter encoding ( also known as abbreviation @-@ expansion ) , words and sentences are coded as sequences of letters and numbers . For example , typing " HH " may retrieve " Hello , how are you ? " . In iconic encoding strategies , such as Semantic compaction , icons ( picture symbols ) are combined in a sequence to produce words or phrases .
Prediction is a rate enhancement strategy in which the device attempts to predict the letter , word or phrase being written by the user . The user can then select the correct prediction without needing to write the full word . Word prediction software may determine the words predicted based on their frequency in language , association with other words , past choices of the user , or grammatical suitability .
= = Assessment and system implementation = =
An evaluation of an individual 's abilities , limitations and communication needs is necessary to select appropriate AAC techniques . The purpose of the assessment is to identify potential AAC approaches that can bridge discrepancies between a potential user 's current communication and their present and future communication needs . AAC evaluations are often conducted by specialized teams which may include a speech @-@ language pathologist , occupational therapist , rehabilitation engineer , physiotherapist , social worker and a physician . Users , family members and teachers are also key members of the decision making team . Sensitivity to and respect of cultural diversity contributes to ongoing family involvement and to the selection of the most appropriate AAC system . For members of some cultural groups the presence of an AAC device increases the visibility of disability and is thus viewed as stigmatizing .
A user 's motor abilities , communication skills and needs , cognition and vision are assessed in order to determine the most appropriate match to a communication system . Depending on the individual 's physical status , recommendations of an alternative access method , a change in seating / positioning , a mounting system and / or communication aid adaptations may be needed . For example , someone with spastic arm movements may require a key guard on top of the keyboard or touchscreen to reduce the selection of non @-@ target items . The person 's needs and abilities determine the symbols chosen and their organization , with the goal being that the communication system can be used as efficiently as possible in different contexts , with different communication partners , and for different social purposes . Researcher Janice Light identified four social purposes of communicative interaction in AAC : the expression of needs and wants to a listener , the transfer of information as in more general conversation , the development of social closeness through such things as jokes and cheering , and finally social etiquette practices such as " please " and " thank you " . These four purposes vary in terms of the relative importance of the content , rate , duration and the focus of the interaction . It is important that the AAC systems selected also reflect the priorities of the individual and their family . In Western cultures , professionals may see a communication device as helping to promote an individual 's self @-@ determination , i.e. , the ability to make one 's own decisions and choices . However , cultural and religious factors may affect the degree to which individual autonomy is a valued construct , and influence family attitudes towards AAC .
Training can help the user make use of their AAC system to communicate effectively with others , to control their environment through communication , and to make choices , decisions and mistakes . Skilled users of AAC show communicative competence in four interrelated areas : linguistic , operational , social and strategic . Linguistic competence refers to language skills in the person 's native language as well as the linguistic code of the symbol system selected . Operational competence involves the skills in the use and maintenance of the tool of communication , while social competence and strategic competence reflect knowledge and judgment in communicative interactions , including the compensations required for a slow speaking rate , communication breakdowns and those unfamiliar with AAC . An AAC user may require specific device programming and / or training to achieve competency in these areas .
Communication partners may also require training to notice and consistently interpret the communication signals of a severely disabled individual , particularly because there is a danger that learned helplessness can be the result of repeated failure to communicate successfully . Parties may need assistance to avoid the directive communication style that can lead a child user of AAC not to develop a full range of communication skills such as initiating or taking the lead in conversation , using complex syntax , asking questions , making commands or adding new information . Young AAC users benefit from rich language and literacy experiences to foster vocabulary development , discourse skills , and phonological awareness , all of which supports successful literacy learning . Communication partners are encouraged to provide augmented input with the child , such as signing or pointing to symbols and codes as they communicate , including using the individual 's communication system themselves . They also benefit from focussed and explicit reading instruction .
= = Outcomes = =
= = = Speech = = =
Several reviews have found that the use of AAC does not impede the development of speech in individuals with autism or developmental disabilities , and in fact may result in modest gains being observed . A 2006 research review of 23 AAC intervention studies found gains in speech production in 89 % of the cases studied , with the remainder showing no change . A descriptive review looking specifically at Picture Exchange Communication System ( PECS ) intervention studies found that several studies reported an increase in speech , often during later phases , while one noted little or no effect .
Researchers hypothesize that using an AAC device relieves the pressure of having to speak , allowing the individual to focus on communication , and that the reduction in psychological stress makes speech production easier . Others speculate that in the case of speech generating devices , the model of spoken output leads to an increase in speech production .
= = = Language and literacy = = =
Language and literacy have far reaching effects as they facilitate self @-@ expression and social interaction in a variety of settings . Furthermore , literacy fosters independence by providing access to educational and vocational opportunities . Children whose disabilities require AAC often experience developmental delays in language skills such as vocabulary knowledge , length of sentences , syntax , and impaired pragmatic skills . These delays may be due in part to the fact that expressive language is limited by more than the children 's own language knowledge . Unlike speaking children , children who use AAC do not always have access to their AAC system , and don 't select the content available on the device . These external characteristics may impact language learning opportunities . Most children in this category do not achieve literacy skills beyond that of a typically developing 7 – 8 year old . Cognitive , language and learning delays contribute to difficulty with literacy development , but environmental factors also play a role . The most literate AAC users often report having access to abundant reading and writing material at home as well as in school during childhood . Studies have shown that many children who use AAC have literacy experiences that are reduced quality , quantity , and opportunity at home and at school as compared to children without disabilities . Research suggests that with explicit reading instruction , AAC users can develop good literacy skills .
= = = Employment = = =
According to a 1997 U.S. Census Bureau report less than 10 % of severely disabled individuals were employed . Despite the various barriers to employment , some AAC users achieve success in educational endeavours and employment , though often in lower paying jobs . Factors that have been found to be related to employment are a strong work ethic and access to AAC technology , the support of family and friends , education , and work skills . Individuals with ALS who use AAC may continue working ; factors supporting continued employment include access to AAC , support from employers , governmental programs and others . Employers of AAC users report that skills in time management , problem solving , communication , technology and a good education are important to employers .
= = = Quality of life = = =
Several studies of young adults who had used AAC since childhood report a generally good quality of life , though few lived independently , or were in paid employment . The young adults used multiple modes of communication including aided and unaided AAC approaches . More positive quality of life outcomes often correlated with better quality of communication and interaction , as well as personal characteristics , family and community support , and excellent AAC services . Poorer outcomes were related to lack of access to appropriate AAC supports and resources , problems with technology and negative attitudes .
= = Specific groups of AAC users = =
= = = Cerebral palsy = = =
Cerebral palsy is a term referring to a non @-@ progressive developmental neuromotor disorder with an upper motor neuron lesion origin . Depending on the location of the brain lesion , individuals with cerebral palsy can have a wide variety of gross and fine motor challenges , including different forms and areas of the body affected . Fine motor planning , control and coordination are often affected . Dysarthria , a speech disorder resulting from neurological damage to the motor @-@ speech system , occurs in an estimated 31 % to 88 % of those with cerebral palsy . Such individuals may require AAC support for communication . Approximately one half to one third have some degree of intellectual impairment , and visual and hearing problems are also common . Gross and fine motor challenges are often of particular concern in accessing an AAC device . Appropriate seating and positioning are important to facilitate optimum stability and movement . Extensive motor training and practice may be required to develop efficient AAC access and use .
= = = Intellectual impairment = = =
Individuals with intellectual impairments face challenges in developing communication skills , including problems with generalization ( the transfer of learned skills into daily activities ) . They may lack communication opportunities in their daily lives , and responsive communicators who understand their communication methods . AAC intervention for this population emphasizes partner training as well as opportunities for integrated , natural communication . Studies have shown that appropriate use of AAC techniques with children and adults with intellectual impairments can enhance communication skills , increase participation in activities , choice @-@ making , and even influence the perceptions and stereotypes of communication partners .
While most individuals with intellectual disabilities do not have concomitant behavioural issues , problems in this area are typically more prevalent in this population than others . AAC approaches may be used as part of teaching functional communication skills to non @-@ speaking individuals as an alternative to " acting out " for the purpose of exerting independence , taking control , or informing preferences .
= = = Autism = = =
Autism is a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication , and by restricted and repetitive behaviour . Typically there is particular difficulty acquiring expressive communication skills . Children with autism have been found to have strong visual processing skills , making them good candidates for an AAC approach . AAC intervention in this population is directed towards the linguistic and social abilities of the child , including providing the child with a concrete means of communication , as well as facilitating the development of interactional skills .
AAC systems for this population generally begin with communication boards and / or object or picture exchanges such as the Picture Exchange Communication System ( PECS ) . A 2009 descriptive review provided preliminary evidence that PECS is easily learned by most individuals with autism , provides communication to those with little or no functional speech , and has some limited positive impact on social interaction and challenging behaviours . A study that compared the use of a speech generating device to a picture exchange system found that both were reasonable options for children with autism , as the ease and speed of acquisition of each system was similar .
= = = Developmental verbal dyspraxia = = =
Developmental verbal dyspraxia , also known as Childhood apraxia of speech , is a developmental motor speech disorder involving impairments in the motor control of speech production . The speech of a child with developmental verbal dyspraxia may be unintelligible to the point that daily communication needs cannot be met . A child with developmental verbal dyspraxia often experiences great amounts of frustration , so AAC can be a strategy to support communication alongside more traditional speech therapy to improve speech production .
A wide variety of AAC systems have been used with children with developmental verbal dyspraxia . Manual signs or gestures are frequent introduced to these children , and can include the use of fingerspelling alongside speech . Manual signs have been shown to decrease errors in articulation . Aided AAC systems typically include communication boards and speech generating devices . A multimodal approach is often used , with several AAC approaches introduced so that the child can take advantage of the most effective method for a particular situation .
= = = Traumatic brain injury = = =
Traumatic brain injury can result in severe motor speech disorders ; dysarthria is the most common such disorder , accounting for roughly a third of all cases . Depending on the stage of recovery , AAC intervention may involve identifying consistent communication signals , the facilitation of reliable yes / no responses to questions , and the ability to express basic needs and answer questions . Individuals who do not recover natural speech to a degree sufficient to meet their communication needs typically suffer from severe impairments related to cognition . Difficulties with memory and learning new skills may influence AAC choices ; well @-@ established competencies such as spelling may be more effective than AAC systems that require navigation through multiple pages to access information .
= = = Aphasia = = =
Aphasia is the result of damage to the brain 's language centres affecting production , comprehension , or both , and can cause severe , chronic language impairment . Individuals with aphasia often communicate using a combination of speech , gestures , and aided communication ; the proportion of each may change as the person recovers , and depends on the context and the individual 's skills .
Depending on their language and cognitive skills , those with aphasia may use AAC interventions such as communication and memory books , drawing , photography , written words , speech generating devices and keyboards . Visual scene displays have been used on communication devices with adults who have chronic , severe aphasia ; these feature photos of people , places or events that are meaningful to the individual and facilitative of communicative interaction . Approaches such as " Supported Conversation for Adults with Aphasia " train the communication partners to use resources such as writing key words , providing written choices , drawing , and using items such as photographs and maps to help the individual with aphasia produce and comprehend conversation . Communication boards can be very helpful for patients with aphasia , especially with patients who are very severe . They can be produced at a very low tech level , and can be utilized by patients to point to pictures / words they are trying to say . Communication boards are extremely functional and help patients with aphasia communicate their needs .
= = = Locked @-@ in syndrome = = =
Strokes that occur in the brainstem may cause profound deficits , including locked @-@ in syndrome , in which cognitive , emotional and linguistic abilities remain intact but all or almost all voluntary motor abilities are lost . Most people affected by this type of stroke rely on AAC strategies to communicate , since few recover intelligible speech or functional voice . The AAC strategies used vary with the individual 's preferences and motor capabilities which may change over time . As eye movements are most likely to be preserved , eye blinks are frequently used for communication . Low @-@ tech alphabet boards are often introduced immediately to provide the individual with basic communication . Partner @-@ assisted scanning may be used , in which the AAC user signals when the desired letter is named by a communication partner . When vertical and horizontal eye movements are functional , a transparent alphabet board may be used in which the AAC user looks at the desired letter and this is acknowledged by the communication partner . Individuals with locked @-@ in syndrome have difficulty using high @-@ tech devices due to issues with motor control , vision , memory , alertness and linguistic ability . In particular , a voluntary , reliable and easily controlled muscle movement is necessary to access such a device , such as head , jaw , hand or finger movements . In some individuals , intensive practice , even long after the initial stroke , has been shown to increase the accuracy and consistency of head movements , which can be used to access a communication device .
= = = Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis = = =
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ( ALS ) or Motor Neurone Disease ( MND ) is a progressive condition which leads to weakness and eventual paralysis . Approximately 75 % of people with ALS are unable to speak by the time of their death . In a procedure known as voice banking , people with ALS may digitally record words and phrases while still able to do so , for later inclusion in a communication device . AAC systems used typically change over time depending on severity of speech impairment , physical status , and the individual 's communication needs . Use of augmentative communication strategies generally begins when speaking rate drops to 100 words per minute . In the early stages , AAC may consist of using an alphabet board to cue the listener to the first letter of the word being spoken , and may be used with those less familiar with the individual . In the later stages , AAC often becomes the main communicative method , although familiar conversation partners may still understand some spoken words . Since cognition and vision are typically unaffected in ALS , writing @-@ based systems are preferred to graphic symbols , as they allow the unlimited expression of all words in a language .
The method of access to a communication device depends on the type and severity of the disease . In the spinal form of ALS , the limbs are affected from the onset of the disease ; in these cases a head mouse or eye tracking access may be used initially . In the bulbar form , speech is affected before the limbs ; here handwriting and typing on keyboard @-@ style devices are frequently the first forms of AAC . AAC users may change access methods as the disease progresses . Low @-@ tech systems , such as eye gazing or partner assisted scanning , are used in situations when electronic devices are unavailable ( for example , during bathing ) and in the final stages of the disease .
= = = Parkinson 's disease = = =
Parkinson 's disease is a progressive neurological condition in which dysarthria may develop later in the progression of the disease . Some individuals eventually lose all functional speech . AAC approaches are generally used to supplement and support natural speech . A portable amplifier , for example , may be used to increase the volume of speech and thus its intelligibility . The individual may be taught to point to the first letter of each word they say on an alphabet board , leading to a reduced speech rate and visual cues for the listener to compensate for impaired articulation . Entire words can be spelled out if necessary . In users that have reduced range and speed of movement , a smaller than usual selection display may be preferred . High @-@ tech AAC keyboard speech @-@ generating devices are also used ; keyguards may be required to prevent accidental keystrokes caused by the tremor typical of the disease . Factors affecting AAC use in Parkinson 's disease include motor deficits and cognitive changes ; the latter may result in unawareness of their problems with spoken communication .
= = = Multiple sclerosis = = =
Dysarthria is the most common communication problem in individuals with multiple sclerosis ( MS ) , however , significant difficulties with speech and intelligibility are uncommon . Individuals with MS vary widely in their motor control capacity and the presence of intention tremor , and methods of access to AAC technology are adapted accordingly . Visual impairments are common in MS and may necessitate approaches using auditory scanning systems , large @-@ print text , or synthetic speech feedback that plays back words and letters as they are typed .
= = = Dementia = = =
Dementia is an acquired , chronic , cognitive impairment characterized by deficits in memory and other cognitive domains . Communication impairments are partly attributed to memory deficits , and AAC intervention may be used to compensate for deficits and to capitalize on the person 's strengths , such as the ability to recognize material they cannot recall . Low @-@ tech devices are generally preferred , such as memory books that include autobiographical information , daily schedules , photographs , and reminders or labels . Several studies have shown positive outcomes in the amount of on @-@ topic conversation and the length of interaction with these approaches . The gains were maintained four months after the training in the use of the memory aids had ceased . High @-@ tech devices with voice output have been found to be less effective ; in one study devices resulted in limited topic elaboration / initiation , reduced output and heightened distraction . AAC is also used to enhance the comprehension of those with dementia . The use of augmented listening strategies , such as identifying topics of conversation with pictures , improves the conversational skills of individuals with dementia .
= = History = =
The history of AAC can be traced to the days of classical Rome and Greece , with the first recorded use of augmentative strategies with the deaf . The use of manual alphabets and signs was recorded in Europe from the 16th century , as was the gestural system of Hand Talk used by Native Americans to facilitate communication between different linguistic groups . The first known widely available communication aid was a letter and word @-@ based communication board developed for , and with , F. Hall Roe , who had cerebral palsy . This communication board was distributed in the 1920s by a men 's group in Minneapolis .
The modern era of AAC began in the 1950s in Europe and North America , spurred by several societal changes ; these included an increased awareness of individuals with communication and other disabilities , and a growing commitment , often backed by government legislation and funding , to develop their education , independence and rights . In the early years , AAC was primarily used with laryngectomy and glossectomy cases , and later with individuals with cerebral palsy and aphasia . It was typically only employed after traditional speech therapy had failed , as many felt hesitant to provide non @-@ speech intervention to those who might be able to learn to speak . Individuals with intellectual impairment were not provided with AAC support because it was believed that they did not possess the prerequisite skills for AAC . The main systems used were manual signs , communication boards and Morse code , though in the early 1960s , an electric communication device in the form of a sip @-@ and @-@ puff typewriter controller named the Patient Operated Selector Mechanism ( POSM or POSSUM ) was developed in the United Kingdom .
From the 1960s onward , sign language increased in acceptance and use in the Deaf community , and AAC also came to be viewed as acceptable for those with other diagnoses . Manual sign languages , such as Makaton , were advocated for those with both hearing and cognitive impairments , and later for those with intellectual impairment or autism with normal hearing . Research into whether primates could learn to sign or use graphic symbols spurred further interest the use of AAC with those with cognitive impairments . The use of Amer @-@ Ind hand signals opened the field to AAC techniques specifically for adult users .
Blissymbols were first used in Canada in 1971 to provide communication to those not able to use traditional orthography ; their use quickly spread to other countries . With improved technology , keyboard communication devices developed in Denmark , the Netherlands and the US increased in portability ; the typed messages were displayed on a screen or strip of paper . By the end of the 1970s , communication devices were being commercially produced , and a few , such as the HandiVoice , had voice output . Countries such as Sweden , Canada and the United Kingdom initiated government @-@ funded services for those with severe communication impairments , including developing centres of clinical and research expertise .
The late 1970s and 1980s saw a massive increase of AAC @-@ related research , publications , and training as well the first national and international conferences . The International Society for Alternative and Augmentative Communication ( ISAAC ) was founded in 1983 ; its members included clinicians , teachers , rehabilitation engineers , researchers , and AAC users themselves . The organization has since played an important role in developing the field through its peer @-@ reviewed journal , conferences , national chapters and its focus on AAC in developing countries . AAC became an area of professional specialization ; a 1981 American Speech @-@ Language @-@ Hearing Association position paper , for example , recognized AAC as a field of practice for speech @-@ language pathologists . At the same time , AAC users and family members played an increasing prominent role in the development of knowledge of AAC through their writing and presentations , by serving on committees and founding advocacy organizations .
From the 1980s , improvements in technology led to a greatly increased number , variety , and performance of commercially available communication devices , and a reduction in their size and price . Alternative methods of access such eye pointing or scanning became available on communication devices . Speech output possibilities included digitized and synthesized speech , with text @-@ to @-@ speech options available in German , French , Italian , Spanish , Swedish and Ewe . AAC services became more holistic , seeking to develop a balance of aided and unaided strategies with the goal of improving functioning in the person 's daily life , and greater involvement of the family . Increasingly , individuals with acquired conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , Parkinson 's disease , head injury , and locked @-@ in syndrome , received AAC services . In addition , with the challenge to the notion of AAC prerequisites , those with severe to profound intellectual impairments began to be served . Courses on AAC were developed for professional training programs , and literature such as textbooks and guides were written to support students , clinicians and parents .
The 1990s brought a focus on greater independence for people with disabilities , and more inclusion in mainstream society . In schools , students with special needs were placed in regular classrooms rather than segregated settings , which led to an increased use of AAC as a means of improving student participation in class . Interventions became more collaborative and naturalistic , taking place in the classroom with the teacher , rather than in a therapy room . Facilitated communication – a method by which a facilitator physically and emotionally supports a person with severe communication needs as they type on a keyboard or letter board – received wide attention in the media and in the field . The question of the authorship made the approach controversial ; most of the subsequent research indicated that the facilitators were unknowingly influencing the messages typed . As a result , professional organizations and AAC researchers and clinicians have not typically accepted facilitated communication .
Rapid progress in hardware and software development continued , including projects funded by the European Community . The first commercially available dynamic screen speech generating devices were developed in the 1990s . At the same time synthesized speech was becoming available in more languages . Software programs were developed that allowed the computer @-@ based production of communication boards . High @-@ tech devices have continued to reduce in size and weight , while increasing accessibility and capacities . Modern communication devices can also enable users to access the internet and some can be used as environmental control devices for independent access of TV , radio , telephone etc .
Future directions for AAC focus on improving device interfaces , reducing the cognitive and linguistic demands of AAC , and the barriers to effective social interaction . AAC researchers have challenged manufacturers to develop communication devices that are more appealing aesthetically , with greater options for leisure and play and that are easier to use . The rapid advances in smartphone and tablet computer technologies has the potential to radically change the availability of economical , accessible , flexible communication devices ; however , the user interfaces are needed that meet the various physical and cognitive challenges of AAC users . Android and other open source operating systems , provide opportunities for small communities , such as AAC , to develop the accessibility features and software required . Other promising areas of development include the access of communication devices using signals from movement recognition technologies that interpret body motions , or electrodes measuring brain activity , and the automatic transcription of dysarthric speech using speech recognition systems . Utterance @-@ based systems , in which frequent utterances are organized in sets to improve the speed of communication exchange , are also in development . Similarly , research has focussed on the provision of timely access to vocabulary and conversation appropriate for specific interactions . Natural language generation techniques have been investigated , including the use of logs of past conversations with conversational partners , data from a user 's schedule and from real @-@ time Internet vocabulary searches , as well as information about location from global positioning systems and other sensors . However , despite the frequent focus on technological advances in AAC , practitioners are urged to retain the focus on the communication needs of the AAC users : " The future for AAC will not be driven by advances in technology , but rather by how well we can take advantage of those advancements for the enhancement of communicative opportunities for individuals who have complex communication needs " .
= 1st Cavalry Division ( Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) =
The 1st Cavalry Division was a horsed cavalry formation of the Royal Yugoslav Army that formed part of the Yugoslav 1st Army Group during the German @-@ led Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 . In peacetime , the division consisted of two cavalry brigades commanding a total of four cavalry regiments , but its wartime organisation specified one cavalry brigade commanding two or three cavalry regiments , along with divisional @-@ level combat and supporting units .
Along with the rest of the Yugoslav Army , the 1st Cavalry Division began mobilising on 3 April 1941 , and was still engaged in that process three days later when the Germans began an air campaign and a series of preliminary operations against the Yugoslav frontiers . By the end of the following day , the division 's cavalry brigade headquarters and all of the division 's cavalry regiments had been detached for duty with other formations of the 1st Army Group . The divisional headquarters and divisional @-@ level units remained in the vicinity of Zagreb until 10 April , when they were given orders to establish a defensive line southeast of Zagreb along the Sava river , with infantry and artillery support . The division had only begun to deploy for this task when the German 14th Panzer Division captured Zagreb . The divisional headquarters and all attached units were then disarmed by armed Croat fifth column groups , or surrendered to German troops .
= = Background = =
The Royal Yugoslav Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije , VKJ ) was formed after World War I as the army of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( Kingdom of SCS ) , when that country was created on 1 December 1918 . To defend the new kingdom , an army was formed around the nucleus of the victorious Royal Serbian Army combined with armed formations raised in the former parts of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire that joined with the Kingdom of Serbia to form the new state . Many former Austro @-@ Hungarian officers and soldiers became members of the new army . From its beginning , the army , like other aspects of public life in the new kingdom , was dominated by ethnic Serbs , who saw the army as a means by which to secure Serb hegemony in the new kingdom .
The development of the army was hampered by the poor economy of the kingdom , and this continued through the 1920s . In 1929 , King Alexander changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , at which time the army became the VKJ . The army budget remained tight , and as tensions rose across Europe during the 1930s , it became hard to secure weapons and munitions from other countries . Consequently , at the time World War II broke out in September 1939 , the VKJ had several serious weaknesses , which included reliance on draught animals for transport , and the large size of its formations . For example , infantry divisions had a wartime strength of 26 @,@ 000 – 27 @,@ 000 men , as compared to contemporary British infantry divisions of half that strength . These characteristics resulted in slow , unwieldy formations , and the inadequate supply of arms and munitions meant that even the very large Yugoslav formations had low firepower . Older generals better suited to the trench warfare of World War I were combined with an army that was not equipped or trained to resist the fast @-@ moving combined arms approach used by the Germans in Poland and France .
The weaknesses of the VKJ in strategy , structure , equipment , mobility and supply were exacerbated to a significant degree by the lack of unity across Yugoslavia which had resulted from two decades of Serb hegemony , and the attendant lack of political legitimacy achieved by the central government . Attempts to address the lack of unity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force . Fifth column activity was also a serious concern , not only from the Croatian nationalist Ustaše , but from the Slovene and ethnic German minorities in the country .
= = Structure = =
= = = Peacetime organisation = = =
According to regulations issued by the Royal Yugoslav Army in 1935 , the 1st Cavalry Division was headquartered in Zagreb during peacetime , and was under the control of Cavalry Command in Belgrade , as was the 2nd Cavalry Division , which was located in southeastern Yugoslavia at Niš . In peacetime , the 1st Cavalry Division comprised :
1st Cavalry Brigade , headquartered in Čakovec near Zagreb
2nd Cavalry Brigade , headquartered in Subotica in the Banat north of Belgrade
2nd Cavalry Regiment , based in Virovitica on the Drava river in Slavonia
3rd Cavalry Regiment , based in Subotica
6th Cavalry Regiment , based in Zagreb
8th Cavalry Regiment , based in Čakovec
= = = Wartime organisation = = =
The wartime organisation of the Royal Yugoslav Army was laid down by regulations issued in 1936 – 37 , which introduced a requirement to raise a third cavalry division for war service . The strength of a cavalry division was 6 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 men . The theoretical war establishment of a fully mobilised Yugoslav cavalry division was :
headquarters and headquarters company
a cavalry brigade consisting of 2 or 3 cavalry regiments
an artillery battalion of four batteries , one of which was motorised and equipped with 47 mm anti @-@ tank guns
a bicycle @-@ mounted infantry battalion with three rifle companies and one machine gun company
a signals squadron
a bridging squadron equipped with pontoons
a chemical platoon
a divisional cavalry battalion consisting of two cavalry squadrons , a machine gun squadron , an engineer squadron and a bicycle company
logistics units
Each cavalry regiment was to consist of four cavalry squadrons , a machine gun squadron , and an engineer squadron . Shortly before the war , an abortive attempt was made to motorise the 1st Cavalry Division , but this was stymied by a lack of motor transport and the division largely remained a horsed formation throughout its existence . The 1st Cavalry Division was also never equipped with the planned motorised anti @-@ tank battery , and the divisional artillery battalion was largely equipped with World War I @-@ vintage pieces . Two peacetime components of the division , the 2nd Cavalry Brigade and 3rd Cavalry Regiment , were earmarked to join other formations when they were mobilised , so the primary fighting formation of the 1st Cavalry Division was the 1st Cavalry Brigade , commanding the 2nd , 6th and 8th Cavalry Regiments .
= = Planned deployment = =
In case of war , Yugoslav planners saw the 1st Cavalry Division forming the bulk of the reserve for the 1st Army Group . The 1st Army Group was responsible for the defence of northwestern Yugoslavia , with the 4th Army defending the western sector along the Hungarian border , and the 7th Army along the Reich and Italian borders . The 1st Cavalry Division was to be held as the 1st Army Group reserve around Zagreb . On the left of the 4th Army , the boundary with the 7th Army ran from Radgon on the Mura through Krapina and Karlovac to Otočac . On the right of the 4th Army was the 2nd Army of the 2nd Army Group , with the boundary running from just east of Slatina through Požega towards Banja Luka . The Yugoslav defence plan saw both armies deployed in a cordon , the 4th Army behind the Drava river between Varaždin and Slatina , and the 7th Army along the border region from the Adriatic in the west to Radgon in the east . It was envisaged that this reserve would be located in and around Zagreb . The planners estimated that cavalry formations would take 4 – 7 days to mobilise .
= = Operations = =
= = = Mobilisation = = =
A general mobilisation was not called until 3 April 1941 , out of fear of offending Adolf Hitler . By the time the invasion commenced , the 1st Cavalry Division had only begun mobilisation . According to the Yugoslav historian Velimir Terzić , on 6 April the mobilisation of the division was proceeding slowly due to the low number of conscripts that reported for duty , and the poor provision of animals and vehicles . A large portion of the strength of the division had been earmarked to be detached to one of the formations of the 4th Army , Detachment Ormozki .
The commander of the 1st Cavalry Division was Diviziski General Dragoslav Stefanović . While the divisional headquarters and other divisional @-@ level units were mobilising in Sesvete near Zagreb , the headquarters of the 1st Cavalry Brigade had been designated to command Detachment Ormozki , and the 6th and 8th Cavalry Regiments and the divisional artillery battalion had also been allocated to that formation . This reduced the main fighting elements of the division to a single cavalry regiment ( the 2nd ) , which was mobilising in Virovitica . The rest of the 1st Army Group reserve comprised an independent artillery battalion mobilising in Zagreb , and the 110th Infantry Regiment which was moving to Zagreb from Celje , a distance of 114 kilometres ( 71 mi ) to the northwest . By early morning of 6 April 1941 when the invasion commenced , the 110th Regiment had reached Zidani Most , still some 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) from Zagreb .
= = = Deployment = = =
Stripped of most of its subordinate units , the 1st Cavalry Division remained in reserve near Zagreb during the first few days of fighting . On 10 April , due to the critical situation on the front of the 4th Army , the division was directed to take under its command the 110th Infantry Regiment and the independent artillery battalion , and defend against crossings of the 110 @-@ kilometre ( 68 mi ) stretch of the river Sava between Jasenovac and Zagreb , while collecting stragglers and organising resistance . These orders were quickly overtaken by the rapid advance of the 14th Panzer Division to Zagreb when it broke out of its bridgehead across the Drava river at Gyékényes on the Hungarian border . By 19 : 30 on 10 April , lead elements of the 14th Panzer Division had reached the outskirts of Zagreb , having covered nearly 160 km ( 99 mi ) in a single day . Armed fifth column Ustase groups and German troops disarmed the division and its attached units before they could establish any coherent defence along the Sava .
= = = Books = = =
= Warrior @-@ class ironclad =
The Warrior @-@ class ironclads were a class of two warships built for the Royal Navy between 1859 and 1862 , the first ocean @-@ going ironclads with iron hulls ever constructed . The ships were designed as armoured frigates in response to an invasion scare sparked by the launch of the French ironclad Gloire and her three sisters in 1858 . They were initially armed with a mix of rifled breech @-@ loading and muzzle @-@ loading smoothbore guns , but the Armstrong breech @-@ loading guns proved unreliable and were ultimately withdrawn from service .
The ships spent their first commission with the Channel Fleet before being rearmed with new rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns in the late 1860s . Warrior rejoined the Channel Fleet after her refit while Black Prince joined the 1st Class Reserve and joined the fleet during its annual manoeuvres . The two ships exchanged roles after another refit in the mid @-@ 1870s . Both ships spent most of the last two decades of the 19th century in reserve . Warrior was hulked in 1902 and survived to be restored in 1979 as a museum ship . Black Prince became a training ship in 1896 and was hulked in 1910 before being sold for scrap in 1923 .
= = Design and description = =
The Warrior @-@ class ships have been described as revolutionary , but in truth they were more evolutionary than not as everything except their wrought iron armour had been in use by ocean @-@ going ships for years . The naval architect and historian David K. Brown commented , " What made [ Warrior ] truly novel was the way in which these individual aspects were blended together , making her the biggest and most powerful warship in the world . " They were designed in response to Gloire , which started an invasion scare in Britain , but they had a very different concept of operation to the French ship which was meant as a replacement for wooden ships of the line . They were designed by Chief Constructor of the Navy Isaac Watts as 40 @-@ gun armoured frigates largely based on the fine lines of the large frigate Mersey . Warrior and her sister Black Prince were not intended to stand in the line of battle as the Admiralty was uncertain about their ability to withstand concentrated fire from wooden two and three @-@ deck ships of the line . Rather they were designed to be fast enough to force battle on a fleeing enemy and to control the range at which a battle was fought for their own advantage .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Warrior @-@ class ships were 380 feet 2 inches ( 115 @.@ 9 m ) long between perpendiculars and 420 feet ( 128 @.@ 0 m ) long overall . This was 44 feet ( 13 @.@ 4 m ) longer than the Mersey , the longest wooden @-@ hulled ship in the Royal Navy . They had a beam of 58 feet 4 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 26 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . The ships displaced 9 @,@ 137 long tons ( 9 @,@ 284 t ) . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 92 compartments and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms .
Two bilge keels were fitted ( the first used by the Royal Navy ) , which significantly reduced the roll of the ships . Because of their length the ships proved to be very sluggish while manoeuvring , as Warrior proved when she collided with Royal Oak in 1868 . The Warrior @-@ class ships trimmed down by the bow , not least because they were fitted with a 40 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 41 t ) iron knee placed at the bow to give it a traditionally pleasing shape . This also prevented the ships from ramming any other ships . The bowsprit was shortened after completion in an effort to reduce the trim , but it was not noticeably successful .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Warrior @-@ class ships had one 2 @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine made by John Penn and Sons driving a single 24 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) propeller . Ten rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 20 psi ( 138 kPa ; 1 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced a total of 5 @,@ 267 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 928 kW ) and was the most powerful thus far built for a warship . On sea trials in October 1861 Warrior had a maximum speed around 14 @.@ 3 knots ( 26 @.@ 5 km / h ; 16 @.@ 5 mph ) ; Black Prince was about a half knot slower . The ships carried 800 long tons ( 810 t ) of coal , enough to steam 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .
The ironclads were ship rigged and had a sail area of 48 @,@ 400 square feet ( 4 @,@ 497 m2 ) . The lower masts were made of wood , but the other masts were iron . Warrior made 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) under sail , but Black Prince could only do 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . Under both sail and steam Warrior once logged 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . Both funnels were semi @-@ retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail alone . The ships ' propellers could be hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail . They were the largest hoistable propellers ever made and required about 600 men to be raised .
= = = Armament = = =
The armament of the Warrior @-@ class ships was intended to be 40 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns , 19 on each side on the main deck and one each fore and aft as chase guns on the upper deck . This was modified during construction to ten rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns , 26 × 68 @-@ pounders , and four rifled breech @-@ loading 40 @-@ pounder guns as saluting guns . The 40 @-@ pounder guns were to have been replaced by 70 @-@ pounder guns , but these failed their tests and were never issued . Both breech @-@ loading guns were new designs from Armstrong and much was hoped for them . Four of the 110 @-@ pounder guns were installed on the main deck amidships and the other two became chase guns ; all of the 68 @-@ pounder guns were mounted on the main deck . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 forestalled plans to completely equip the ships with the 110 @-@ pounder gun .
The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The shell of the 40 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading gun was 4 @.@ 75 inches ( 121 mm ) in diameter and weighed 40 pounds ( 18 @.@ 1 kg ) . The gun had a maximum range of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) . The 110 @-@ pounder gun weighed 9 @,@ 520 pounds ( 4 @,@ 318 @.@ 2 kg ) while the 40 @-@ pounder weighed 3 @,@ 584 pounds ( 1 @,@ 625 @.@ 7 kg ) . In 1863 – 64 the 40 @-@ pounder guns were replaced by a heavier version with the same ballistics . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
Both ships were rearmed during their 1867 – 68 refit with a mix of 7 @-@ inch and 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . Warrior received twenty @-@ eight 7 @-@ inch and four 8 @-@ inch guns while Black Prince received four fewer 7 @-@ inch guns . Both ships received four 20 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns for use as saluting guns . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The Warrior @-@ class ships had a wrought iron armour belt , 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , that covered 213 feet ( 64 @.@ 9 m ) amidships . The armour extended 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) above the waterline and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below it . 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads protected the guns on the main deck . The armour was backed by 16 inches ( 410 mm ) of teak . The ends of the ship were left entirely unprotected which meant that the steering gear was very vulnerable .
= = Construction = =
The gun ports of the Warrior @-@ class ships were built 46 inches ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide , which allowed the 68 @-@ pounders to traverse 52 ° . While the ships were building the directing bar was developed which consisted of an iron bar that fastened to a pivot bolt in the sill of the gun port . After the gun carriages were modified , this allowed them to pivot much closer to the gun port than had previously been possible and meant that the gun ports could be narrowed to a width of 24 inches ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) while retaining the same arc of fire . The gun ports were narrowed to the new width by 7 inches ( 178 mm ) of wrought iron . Another delay was the modification of the armour plates with tongue and groove joints to lock the plates together and increase their resistance to armour @-@ piercing shells . All together these modifications delayed the completion of Warrior by a year past her contract completion date .
= = Service = =
HMS Warrior joined the Channel Fleet in July 1862 and was placed in ordinary from 1864 to 1867 , during which time she was refitted . The ship rejoined the Channel Fleet in 1867 and towed a floating drydock to Bermuda in 1869 with her sister Black Prince . Warrior was placed in ordinary again from 1872 to 1875 and was modified with a poop deck . She was recommissioned into the 1st Class Reserve in 1875 and made periodic training cruises until 1883 . The ship was formally reclassified as an armoured frigate in 1884 , but was disarmed and mastless . Warrior was hulked as a depot ship in Portsmouth Harbor in 1902 and renamed Vernon III in 1904 when she became part of HMS Vernon , the Royal Navy 's Torpedo School . The ship regained her original name in 1923 and was converted once more into an oil pipeline pier in 1927 . Warrior was towed to Pembroke Dock in 1929 and was renamed C77 in 1942 to release her name for the new aircraft carrier HMS Warrior . In 1979 C77 was moved to Hartlepool and was restored as HMS Warrior ( 1860 ) as the Fleet Headquarters in Northwood , London had assumed the name of HMS Warrior in the early 1960s . The ironclad can now be seen near HMS Victory at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard .
Black Prince capsized while in dock at Greenock , damaging her masts . She arrived in Spithead in November 1861 with only jury @-@ rigged fore and mizzenmasts . The ship was assigned to the Channel Fleet upon her completion and in 1867 – 68 she was rearmed and then assigned to the 1st Class Reserve . She was refitted in 1874 and given a poop deck , and rejoined the Channel Fleet in 1875 as the flagship of Rear Admiral Sir John Dalrymple @-@ Hay , second in command of the fleet . Black Prince was placed in reserve in 1878 in Devonport until she was converted to a training ship in 1896 in Queenstown , Ireland and renamed Emerald in 1903 . The ship was hulked and renamed Impregnable III in 1910 when she was assigned to the training school HMS Impregnable before she was sold for scrap on 21 March 1923 .
= Stamata Revithi =
Stamata Revithi ( Greek : Σταμάτα Ρεβίθη ; 1866 – after 1896 ) was a Greek woman who ran the 40 @-@ kilometre marathon during the 1896 Summer Olympics . The Games excluded women from competition , but Revithi insisted that she be allowed to run . Revithi ran one day after the men had completed the official race , and although she finished the marathon in approximately 5 hours and 30 minutes and found witnesses to sign their names and verify the running time , she was not allowed to enter the Panathinaiko Stadium at the end of the race . She intended to present her documentation to the Hellenic Olympic Committee in the hopes that they would recognize her achievement , but it is not known whether she did so . No known record survives of Revithi 's life after her run .
According to contemporary sources , a second woman , " Melpomene " , also ran the 1896 marathon race . There is debate among Olympic historians as to whether or not Revithi and Melpomene are the same person .
= = Biographical elements = =
= = = Before the 1896 Olympics = = =
Stamata Revithi was born in Syros in 1866 . Records of her life from 1896 show that she was living in poverty in Piraeus in 1896 . At that point she had given birth to two children , a son who died in 1895 , aged seven , and another child who was seventeen months old by the time of the 1896 Olympics . According to Olympic historian Athanasios Tarasouleas , Revithi , who was blonde and thin with large eyes , looked much older than her age .
Revithi believed that she could gain employment in Athens , and so walked there from her home — a distance of 9 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) . Her journey took place several days prior to the Olympic marathon , a special race of 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) invented as part of the athletics program , and based on Michel Bréal 's idea of a race from the city of Marathon to the Pnyx . Bréal took inspiration from Pheidippides , who , according to legend , ran the distance from Marathon to Athens to announce the Greek victory over Persia at the Battle of Marathon , and died immediately after giving his message .
En route to Athens , Revithi encountered a male runner along the road . He gave her money and advised her to run the marathon to become famous , and , consequently , earn money or more easily find a job . After this discussion Revithi decided to run the race : she had enjoyed long @-@ distance running as a child , and believed she could beat the male competitors .
The 1896 Olympic Games were the first held in the Modern era and the most important international multi @-@ sport event Greece had ever hosted . The rules of the Games generally excluded women from competition . Influenced by both his times — in the Victorian era women were considered to be inferior to men — and his admiration for the ancient Olympic Games , when only men were allowed to participate in the events , Baron Pierre de Coubertin , the visionary of the modern Olympic Games , was not in favour of women 's participation in the Olympic Games or in sports generally . He believed that a woman 's greatest achievement would be to encourage her sons to be distinguished in sports and to applaud a man 's effort .
= = = 1896 marathon = = =
Revithi arrived at the race location , the small village of Marathon , on Thursday , 9 April [ O.S. 28 March ] , where the athletes had already assembled for the following day 's race . She attracted the attention of the reporters and was warmly greeted by Marathon 's mayor , who sheltered her in his house . She answered the reporters ' questions and was quick @-@ witted when a male runner from Chalandri teased her , predicting that when she entered the Stadium , there would be no crowds left . Revithi retorted that he should not insult women , since male Greek athletes had already been humiliated by the Americans .
Prior to the start of the race on the morning of Friday , 10 April [ O.S. 29 March ] , the old priest of Marathon , Ioannis Veliotis , was scheduled to say a prayer for the athletes in the church of Saint John . Veliotis refused to bless Revithi because she was not an officially recognized athlete . The organizing committee ultimately refused her entry into the race . Officially , she was rejected because the deadline for participation had expired ; however , as Olympic historians David Martin and Roger Gynn point out , the real problem was her gender . According to Tarasouleas , the organizers promised that she would compete with a team of American women in another race in Athens , which never took place .
Beginning at 8 : 00 the following day , Revithi ran the marathon course on her own . Before starting , she had the town 's only teacher , the mayor , and the city magistrate sign a statement testifying to the time she departed from the village . She ran the race at a steady pace and reached Parapigmata ( the place where the Evangelismos Hospital stands today , near the Hilton Athens ) at 13 : 30 ( 5 ½ hours ) . Revithi was not allowed to enter Panathinaiko Stadium — her race was stopped in Parapigmata by a few Greek military officers whom she asked to sign her handwritten report to certify her time of arrival in Athens . She stated to the reporters that she wanted to meet Timoleon Philimon ( the General @-@ Secretary of the Hellenic Olympic Committee ) to present her case . Historians believe that she intended to present her documents to the Hellenic Olympic Committee in the hopes that they would recognize her achievement . Neither her reports nor documents from the Hellenic Olympic Committee have been discovered to provide corroboration .
= = = Aftermath = = =
There is no account of Revithi 's life following the marathon . Although some newspapers printed articles about her story in the build @-@ up to the marathon , these reports did not follow up on her life after the race . It is not known whether she met Philimon or if she ever found a job . As Tarasouleas stated , " Stamata Revithi was lost in the dust of history " . Violet Piercy , of the United Kingdom , was the first woman to complete an officially timed marathon race : she clocked a time of 3 hours and 40 minutes in a British race on 3 October 1926 . Women were finally allowed to run the Olympic marathon at the 1984 Summer Olympics , when American Joan Benoit won the inaugural race in a time of 2 hours and 24 minutes .
= = Melpomene = =
In March 1896 , a French @-@ language newspaper in Athens ( the Messager d 'Athènes ) reported that there was " talk of a woman who had enrolled as a participant in the Marathon race . In the test run which she completed on her own [ ... ] she took 4 ½ hours to run the distance of 42 [ sic ] kilometres which separates Marathon from Athens . " Later that year , Franz Kémény , a founding International Olympic Committee member from Hungary , wrote in German that , " indeed a lady , Miss Melpomene , completed the 40 kilometres marathon in 4 ½ hours and requested an entry into the Olympic Games competition . This was reportedly denied by the commission . " According to Martin and Gynn , " a peculiarity here is why there is no first name for Melpomene " . The Messager report faded into obscurity for about 30 years before it was revived in 1927 in an issue of Der Leichtathlet .
Olympic historian Karl Lennartz contends that two women ran the marathon in 1896 , and that the name " Melpomene " was confirmed by both Kémény and Alfréd Hajós , two @-@ time Olympic swim champion of 1896 . Lennartz presents the following account : a young woman named Melpomene wanted to run the race and completed the distance in 4 ½ hours at the end of February or the beginning of March . The organizing committee , however , did not allow her to run , and the newspaper Akropolis criticized the committee for its decision . The Olympic Marathon took place on 10 April [ O.S. 29 March ] 1896 , and another female runner , Stamata Revithi , took 5 ½ hours to run the course on 11 April [ O.S. 30 March ] 1896 . The newspapers Asti , New Aristophanes and Atlantida reported this on 12 April [ O.S. 31 March ] 1896 .
However , Tarasouleas argues that no contemporary press reports in Greek newspapers mention Melpomene by name , while the name Revithi appears many times ; Tarasouleas suggests that Melpomene and Revithi are the same person , and Martin and Green argue that " a contemporary account referring to Revithi as a well @-@ known marathon runner could explain the earlier run by a woman over the marathon course — this was by Revithi herself , not Melpomene " . The daily Athens newspaper Estia of 4 April [ O.S. 23 March ] 1896 refers to " the strange woman , who , having run a few days ago in the Marathon as a try @-@ out , intends to compete the day after tomorrow . Today she came to our offices and said ' should my shoes hinder me , I will remove them on the way and continue barefoot ' . " Moreover , Tarasouleas notes that on 13 March [ O.S. 1 March ] 1896 , another local newspaper indicated that a woman and her baby had registered to run the marathon , but again her name is not mentioned . Trying to resolve the mystery , Tarasouleas asserts that " perhaps Revithi had two names , or perhaps for reasons unknown she was attributed the name of the Muse Melpomene " .
= Hurricane Cleo =
Hurricane Cleo was the third named storm , first hurricane , and first major hurricane of the 1964 Atlantic hurricane season . Cleo was one of the longest @-@ lived storms of the season . This compact yet powerful hurricane travelled through the Caribbean Sea and later hit Florida before moving offshore Georgia into the Carolinas , killing 156 people and causing roughly $ 187 million in damage . Major damage was seen as far north as east @-@ central Florida , with the heaviest rains falling along the immediate coast of the Southeast United States into southeast Virginia .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on August 15 , 1964 , moved westward , not organizing into a tropical depression until around 890 miles ( 1432 @.@ 3 km ) east of Barbados on August 20 – as reported by a Navy reconnaissance plane . It continued west @-@ northwestward , quickly strengthening to a hurricane the next day with a minimum central pressure of 993 mb . Early in the afternoon of August 22 , Cleo crossed Guadeloupe as a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane . The hurricane continued to strengthen as it moved through the Caribbean Sea and reached its peak intensity of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) on the August 23 while south of the Dominican Republic . It maintained that intensity for a day , bringing heavy rain and winds to Hispaniola . As Cleo passed south of Haiti on August 24 , it veered northward momentarily , enough to move on to the Southwest Peninsula of Haiti . The circulation of the hurricane was greatly disrupted by the mountainous terrain of the island , quickly weakening the hurricane .
Cleo weakened to a Category 1 hurricane before hitting southern Cuba on the August 26 . It crossed the island quickly . Shortly after emerging from the north coast of Cuba , Cleo restrengthened to a hurricane , having weakened to a tropical storm while over Cuba . Cleo managed to intensify to a 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , Category 2 hurricane before hitting the Miami , Florida area on August 27 . It weakened to a tropical storm while over Florida on the 28th . The center moved offshore between Jacksonville and St. Augustine , Florida , before moving back onshore near Savannah , Georgia on August 29 without any increase in intensity . Its northward path along the Florida coast was unusual for the month of August .
Cleo continued to weaken as it moved through the Carolinas , drifting through as a tropical depression . After bringing heavy rain through the area , Cleo exited into the Atlantic Ocean near Norfolk , Virginia , and quickly intensified to a tropical storm again on the September 1 . The following day , Cleo became a hurricane again , but it remained well offshore and did not cause any further damage . Cleo was last noted on September 5 northeast of Newfoundland .
= = Preparation = =
Early on August 21 hurricane warnings were in effect for Barbados and the Windward Islands . On August 22 hurricane warnings were in effect for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands , with hurricane watches in effect for Haiti and the Dominican Republic . By August 23 , hurricane watches remained in effect for Haiti and the Dominican Republic . Hurricane warnings were issued for Jamaica on August 24 . By August 26 a hurricane watch had been raised from Key Largo , Florida to West Palm Beach , Florida . In advance of Cleo , the second stage of the Titan II / Gemini launch vehicle was taken down and stored in a hangar on August 26 to protect it from the storm . Early on August 27 , hurricane warnings extended northward to Cape Kennedy , Florida with gale warnings northward to Daytona Beach , Florida . Hurricane warnings were in effect northward to Brunswick , Georgia early on August 28 with a hurricane watch in effect between Brunswick , Georgia and Charleston , South Carolina . The hurricane watch for portions of the Georgia and South Carolina coasts continued into August 29 .
= = Impact = =
= = = Guadeloupe = = =
Official reports from Guadeloupe indicated 14 dead , 40 injured , 1 @,@ 000 homes destroyed and extensive damage to the island 's infrastructure . The hurricane devastated sugar and banana plantations . One C @-@ 124 aircraft delivered seven tons of relief supplies to the island .
= = = Greater Antilles = = =
Moderate to heavy rains fell across Puerto Rico , peaking at 4 @.@ 95 inches ( 125 @.@ 7 mm ) at Matrullas Dam . The outer bands of Cleo produced peak sustained winds of 52 mph ( 85 km / h ) at Point Tuna , Puerto Rico . Offshore Puerto Rico on its initial penetration of Cleo on August 23 , a Lockheed WC @-@ 121N Super Constellation used as a reconnaissance aircraft experienced its port wing tip fuel tank and portion of wing torn away by extreme updraft turbulence , which injured six of its crew . While trying to exit the storm , the starboard tip tank and larger portion of wing were torn away by extreme down draft turbulence . The aircraft was damaged beyond repair . Cleo led to the wettest known 24 ‑ hour period recorded for any site within the Dominican Republic for any month , with 19 @.@ 99 inches ( 507 @.@ 8 mm ) falling at Polo . Les Cayes , Haiti was leveled as the storm struck the town . The aircraft carrier U.S.S. Boxer arrived off the coast of Hispaniola on August 29 to provide medical aid and evacuation services to those in the worst impacted areas of Haiti and the Dominican Republic . Damage in Cuba was minimal because the hurricane had weakened and moved through quickly .
= = = Florida = = =
The hurricane was the first to directly strike Miami since Hurricane King in the 1950 season . Cleo intensified rapidly just prior to landfall , bringing sustained winds of 100 – 105 mph ( 160 km / h – 170 km / h ) with gusts to 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) to the Miami area , due to moving over water temperatures of 30 to 32 degrees Celsius and its compact size . Lightning was observed within the eyewall at the National Hurricane Center . The pressure fell to 967 @.@ 6 mb ( 28 @.@ 57 inches ) in North Miami . Major damage was constrained to a 20 – 35 mile ( 30 km – 50 km ) wide strip from Miami to Melbourne , in the form of broken glass , interior flooding , uprooted trees , overturned aircraft , power failures , and agriculture . Cleo cut power to 620 @,@ 000 homes and businesses in southeast Florida . In Miami Shores the electriciry was out for five days . At least two dozen fires blazed across Miami . About a quarter of the grapefruit crop was lost within the Indian River citrus producing region . The storm surge reached 4 – 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m – 1 @.@ 8 m ) between Miami and Pompano Beach . The highest rainfall total measured within Florida was 9 @.@ 37 inches ( 240 mm ) at Stuart .
The Sebastian River Baptist Church had its roof torn off during the cyclone . Minor damage occurred north of Melbourne . Heavy rains fell along the east coast of the state , along and east of its track . Three tornadoes were reported with the storm within the state borders .
Cleo caused the Fort Lauderdale News , one of South Florida 's biggest newspapers , to miss publishing , the only time that happened in its history . Storyland , a popular children 's theme park in Pompano Beach , was destroyed and never rebuilt . A disaster declaration for Florida was made on September 8 . Florida Atlantic University 's grand opening to students was delayed six days due to Cleo .
= = = Southeast United States = = =
Heavy rains spread up along the Georgia coast into the Carolinas and southern Virginia in association with the weakening tropical storm . Interaction with a frontal boundary to its north led to significant rains across extreme southeast Virginia to the left of its track exceeding 14 inches ( 356 mm ) in the Norfolk metropolitan area . This helped lead to double the average rainfall for the month of September for southeast Virginia . Seven tornadoes were reported within South Carolina , while North Carolina witnessed three tornado touchdowns .
= = = Retirement = = =
The name Cleo was retired and will never be used for an Atlantic hurricane again ; this name was replaced by Candy in 1968 .
= = Lasting impact = =
After surviving Cleo 's wrath in the Bahamas , a survivor came up with the idea of a floating hospital designed to help out areas after a catastrophe . A husband @-@ wife pair who survived Cleo bought a retired luxury liner for such a purpose 14 years later , and it was put into service in 1982 . Virginia Beach , Virginia fought to build a drainage canal to help drain the Lynnhaven flood zone after Cleo 's flooding rains struck the region . Over the objection of those in North Carolina , the canal was built . The result of the creation of this canal was an increase in salinity of nearly fivefold from pre @-@ canal levels , which decimated aquatic vegetation in Currituck Sound by 1998 . As a result , black bass disappeared from Currituck Sound .
= Death on the Rock =
" Death on the Rock " was a controversial television documentary produced by Thames Television as part of the current affairs series This Week , and broadcast on ITV on 28 April 1988 . The programme examined the deaths of three Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) members in Gibraltar on 6 March 1988 at the hands of the British Special Air Service ( codenamed " Operation Flavius " ) . " Death on the Rock " presented evidence that the IRA members were shot without warning or while attempting to surrender . It was condemned by the British government , while tabloid newspapers denounced it as sensationalist . " Death on the Rock " subsequently became the first individual documentary to be the subject of an independent inquiry , in which it was largely vindicated .
The project began after it emerged that the three IRA members shot in Gibraltar were found to be unarmed and not in possession of a bomb . The series ' editor , Roger Bolton , dispatched journalists to Gibraltar and Spain , where they interviewed several people who witnessed the shootings as well as Spanish police officers who had been involved in surveillance of the IRA team . The journalists also filmed the funerals of the IRA members in Belfast . Satisfied by the journalists ' findings , Bolton sought a conclusion to the programme ; as the British government refused to comment , Bolton recruited a leading human rights lawyer to give his opinion on the findings . The documentary was broadcast on 28 April 1988 ( just under two months after the shootings ) , despite two attempts by Sir Geoffrey Howe , the foreign secretary , to have the Independent Broadcasting Authority postpone the broadcast . Using the eyewitness statements , the documentary questioned the government 's version of events , and suggested that the three IRA members may have been unlawfully killed . Reporter Julian Manyon summed up the programme 's findings : none of the witnesses interviewed for the programme heard the soldiers challenge the trio before opening fire , but variously believed they had seen the IRA members shot in the back , with their hands up , or shot after falling to the ground . The final contributor was the lawyer recruited by Bolton , who suggested that a judicial inquiry was necessary to resolve the conflicts .
The morning after the broadcast , several tabloid newspapers attacked the documentary , accusing it of sensationalism and " trial by television " . In the following days , they mounted a campaign against Carmen Proetta , one of the documentary 's main witnesses , accusing her of being a former prostitute and of being anti @-@ British ; Proetta later successfully sued several newspapers for libel . Other newspapers accused " Death on the Rock " of misrepresenting the eyewitnesses ' statements and criticised the IBA for allowing the documentary to be broadcast . The eyewitnesses interviewed for " Death on the Rock " gave evidence at the inquest into the shootings ; most repeated the statements they had given the programme , but one witness — who had told the programme he had seen a soldier stand over one of the IRA members and fire at the man while he was on the ground — retracted his previous statement . As a result of the retraction , Thames commissioned an independent inquiry into the making of " Death on the Rock " — the first time an inquiry had been commissioned into the making of an individual documentary . The Windlesham – Rampton report found that the programme 's tendency was to present evidence that the IRA members had been unlawfully killed , but that it sought to raise questions rather than to reach a conclusion . The authors made several criticisms of the documentary , but overall found it a " trenchant " work of journalism , made in " good faith and without ulterior motives " . Thames lost its franchise and the IBA was abolished as a result of the Broadcasting Act 1990 — decisions which several involved parties believed were influenced by the government 's anger at " Death on the Rock " .
= = Background = =
= = = This Week = = =
This Week was a current affairs television series which began in 1956 . In 1978 , it was renamed TV Eye and took on a light entertainment format ; the title This Week was restored in 1986 , after which it became steadily more journalistic . The programme was broadcast simultaneously across the ITV regions and became a mainstay of ITV 's current affairs programming . By 1988 , the programme had interviewed several prime ministers and leaders of the opposition , including Margaret Thatcher ( the incumbent prime minister ) , who had been interviewed for three full episodes .
= = = Gibraltar shootings = = =
On 6 March 1988 , three members of an IRA Active Service Unit — Daniel McCann , Mairead Farrell , and Sean Savage — were witnessed parking a car in a car park in Gibraltar ; the car park was used as an assembly area for British soldiers preparing for the weekly " changing of the guard " ceremony outside the Convent ( the residence of the governor of Gibraltar ) . The three were suspected by the British authorities of being part of a plot to detonate a car bomb in the car park while it was full of soldiers preparing for the ceremony ; while the suspects were walking back towards the Spanish border , they were shot dead by British soldiers , members of the Special Air Service . In the immediate aftermath of the shootings , the British government released a statement to the effect that a large car bomb had been found in Gibraltar , and that three suspected terrorists had been shot dead by the Gibraltar Police . That evening , British television news reported the finding of the alleged car bomb , and added that the IRA members had been involved in a " shootout " with authorities . All of Britain 's daily newspapers covered the shootings the following morning , several of which cited the size of the alleged car bomb as 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) and claimed that it was " packed with shrapnel " . The same morning , Ian Stewart , Minister of State for the Armed Forces , told BBC Radio 4 that " military personnel were involved " in the shootings , and that " a car bomb was found , which has been defused " .
The following day , however , Sir Geoffrey Howe , the British foreign secretary , made a statement to the House of Commons regarding the shootings , in which he informed the house that the IRA members were unarmed , and that the car parked in the assembly area did not contain an explosive device . Howe stated that the IRA members " made movements which led the military personnel , operating in support of the Gibraltar Police , to conclude that their own lives and the lives of others were under threat " . " In light of this response " , Howe continued , " they were shot " by " military personnel , operating in support of the Gibraltar Police " . Subsequent inquiries led to the discovery of a large quantity of explosives in Marbella ( 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Gibraltar ) , along with detonators and timers .
= = Investigation = =
This Week 's editor , Roger Bolton initially believed there was little merit in investigating the shootings . Based on the official account of events that was presented in the immediate aftermath of the shootings , Bolton believed that most people would think the IRA members " deserved what they got " . Bolton 's interest , however , was piqued by Sir Geoffrey Howe 's statement , and the revelation in it that the deceased were unarmed and were not in possession of a bomb . Shortly afterwards , he dispatched two of This Week 's journalists , Julian Manyon and Chris Oxley , to Gibraltar and Spain ( respectively ) to gather more information on the shootings . Bolton believed that the Milltown Cemetery attack and the corporals killings , two events in Belfast which resulted from the Gibraltar killings , provided " even more compelling reasons " to investigate the shootings ; the team considered switching the focus of the programme to the effects the shootings had in Belfast , but decided to continue with the original project .
= = = Gibraltar = = =
After ten days ' investigation , Oxley was surprised to learn that the Gibraltar Police were handling the police investigation into the shootings , having been closely involved in the events leading up to them . He also grew concerned that the police investigation was insufficiently rigorous when he learned that the police had not taken statements from residents whose flats overlooked the scene of Farrell 's and McCann 's deaths . The Gibraltar coroner , Felix Pizzarello , welcomed This Week 's investigation , telling Oxley that he hoped the journalists would uncover witnesses who could assist the inquest . While Oxley was investigating the shootings from Gibraltar , Manyon travelled to Madrid in an attempt to learn more about the surveillance operation which took place in Spain prior to the shootings . Bolton added Alison Cahn to the team on 18 March ; her task was to visit the flats which overlooked the petrol station where McCann and Farrell were shot , with the aim of interviewing any residents who might have witnessed the events of 6 March . After several days ' work , the team found two eyewitnesses to the shootings who were willing to speak on camera : Stephen Bullock , a local lawyer who had witnessed the events while out for a walk with his wife ; and Josie Celecia , a housewife who had seen the shooting of McCann and Savage from her apartment window . Both witnesses ' statements appeared to the journalists to be inconsistent with the official account of the shootings .
The journalists quickly decided they needed expert advice on ballistics and explosives , to which end they engaged Lieutenant Colonel George Styles , GC , a retired British Army officer who had served as a bomb @-@ disposal officer in Northern Ireland during the Troubles . Styles arrived in Gibraltar on 23 March , and immediately went to inspect the car park where Savage had parked the white Renault on the day of the shootings , after which he walked through the town along what the journalists believed was the IRA members ' most likely route . When asked his opinion by the journalists , Styles cast doubt on the authorities ' stated reasons for the shootings . He explained to the journalists that — had Savage 's white Renault contained a substantial bomb — the weight would have been evident on the vehicle 's springs . Styles also felt that the potential bomb was unlikely to have been detonated with a remote detonator on account of the buildings between the scenes of the shootings and the likelihood that it would be drowned out by other radio signals in the area . Finally , the journalists asked Styles to examine the scenes of the shootings , including ricochet marks that the soldiers ' bullets had left on the pumps at the petrol station where McCann and Farrell were shot .
As Styles was examining the ricochet marks , Alison Cahn was approached by an elderly woman , who led Cahn to a nearby apartment building . There , the woman introduced Cahn to her daughter — Carmen Proetta — who told Cahn that she had witnessed the shooting at the petrol station ; although initially reluctant , she was persuaded by Cahn to give her account of the events in an affidavit . Proetta asserted that , immediately before McCann and Farrell were shot , she saw a police car travelling north on Winston Churchill Avenue with its siren activated ; as she watched , the police car stopped abruptly and four men — one uniformed police officer and three men in civilian clothes — jumped out . She stated that the three men in plain clothes , all carrying pistols , leapt across the central reservation barrier , at which point she saw McCann and Farrell raise their hands . Proetta believed that all three men then opened fire , while McCann and Farrell had their hands in the air , and that neither suspect made any movements towards their clothing or Farrell 's handbag . She went on to state that she witnessed one of the men crouch over McCann and Farrell while they were on the ground , and continue to shoot them . According to Styles , Proetta 's account of the shooting tallied with the bullet marks he examined at the petrol station ; he also found her description of the bullets striking the bodies particularly convincing , believing that only somebody who had witnessed such an event would be able to describe it so vividly . The journalists also discovered that Proetta 's account of the soldiers arriving in a police car matched some of the newspaper reports from the day after the shootings .
By the end of March , Cahn had traced two further witnesses to the shootings — Diana Treacy , who claimed to have seen the soldiers shooting Savage in the back without warning and continuing to shoot him while he was on the ground , and Kenneth Asquez , who had provided a hand @-@ written , unsigned statement , but was extremely reluctant to be filmed or named as a witness . He had come to the attention of the journalists through another witness , who provided Cahn with a video recording of the aftermath of the shootings . The journalists approached the witness through a second intermediary — Christopher Finch , a local lawyer who had been assisting them as a consultant — and received a typed but unsigned affidavit . In both documents , Asquez stated that he had been a passenger in a car that was passing the scene of Savage 's shooting on 6 March ; he described seeing Savage lying on the ground with a soldier standing over him , and witnessing the soldier shoot Savage " two or three times at point @-@ blank range " while the latter was on the ground . The journalists failed to persuade Asquez to sign his affidavit , but decided to incorporate it into the programme nonetheless .
= = = Spain = = =
Julian Manyon arrived in Madrid on 11 March , and shortly afterwards engaged Henry Debelius , a journalist and American expatriate , as an interpreter and consultant for the programme . Within days , the two men wrote to the Spanish police headquarters to request information from the authorities and assistance in reconstructing the surveillance operation that preceded the shootings as the IRA team travelled through Spain . Ten days later , they met with a spokesman for the Spanish interior ministry , who confirmed that the Spanish authorities had tracked the three IRA members throughout their time in Spain . The Spanish surveillance operation included multiple cars following the suspects ' vehicle , periodically " leap @-@ frogging " each other to avoid attracting attention ; use of a helicopter to track the team 's movements ; constant radio communication between the officers involved and police headquarters ; and officers monitoring the suspects ' movements at fixed observations posts . The spokesman also told the men that the Spanish kept the British authorities constantly apprised of the IRA team 's movements , and that the British were aware of Savage 's arrival at the Gibraltar border , and allowed the white Renault he was driving to enter the territory .
= = = Northern Ireland = = =
As well as the investigation in Gibraltar and Spain , This Week conducted some of the filming for " Death on the Rock " in Northern Ireland . Its journalists filmed the funeral of McCann , Savage , and Farrell ; while there , Manyon took the opportunity to interview Gerry Adams , leader of Sinn Féin , who refused to confirm that the three were planning a bomb attack on Gibraltar . The team decided against using Adams ' interview , and only 45 seconds of the footage was used in the final cut . The journalists were keen to show the potential impact of a bomb like the one the IRA had planned to explode in Gibraltar ; they initially hoped to film a controlled explosion of a bomb of similar size , but no private contractor would conduct such an experiment without government approval . In lieu of filming an explosion , This Week interviewed Noreen Hill — whose husband was left in a coma as a result of a smaller bombing in Enniskillen in November 1987 — to " depict the human tragedy of IRA bombings " . They also filmed an interview with a second survivor of the Enniskillen bombing , which was not included in the final cut .
= = Conclusion = =
Based on the information his journalists had gathered from eyewitnesses in Gibraltar and that provided by the Spanish authorities , Bolton believed his team had enough to broadcast a documentary about the Gibraltar shootings . The journalists filmed those eyewitnesses who were willing to speak on camera . They also rented a helicopter , and — with the assistance of the Spanish authorities , who provided two police officers who had taken part in the operation — filmed a reconstruction of the Spanish surveillance operation .
Throughout the investigation , the authorities in Britain and Gibraltar refused to provide any information or to comment on the journalists ' findings . Thus , This Week were unable to present their conclusions to a member of the government and broadcast their reaction , as was the usual practice for closing such a documentary . In place of such a conclusion , Bolton approached George Carman — a leading London lawyer specialising in human rights issues — who agreed to be interviewed for the programme .
On 26 April , two days before " Death on the Rock " was due to air , the British government intervened to prevent its broadcast . Foreign secretary Sir Geoffrey Howe telephoned Lord Thomson , chair of the Independent Broadcasting Authority ( IBA ) , to request he force the postponement of the broadcast on the grounds that Howe feared the documentary might prejudice the coroner 's inquest . Thomson personally viewed " Death on the Rock " before making the final decision to permit its broadcast , with two alterations to the commentary . He later wrote that , " paradoxically " , the decision " was not a difficult one . My colleagues and I saw no reason why the IBA should prevent Thames ' journalists interviewing those who claimed to be eyewitnesses and investigating the affair as numerous other journalists had since the shootings , provided that the criminal record of the terrorists and the enormity of the outrage they planned was made clear and the legal position had been established to our satisfaction " . With a slightly altered rationale — that the documentary could contaminate witness evidence at the inquest — Howe again attempted to prevent the programme 's broadcast on the day it was due to be shown ; after taking further legal advice , the IBA upheld its decision to permit the showing of " Death on the Rock " .
= = Broadcast = =
Final editing of the programme was still under way while the IBA was considering Howe 's requests , causing Bolton to worry that it would not be completed in time . The editing was eventually finished just ten minutes before the documentary was due to air . " Death on the Rock " was ultimately broadcast in the United Kingdom on schedule , at 21 : 00 on 28 April 1988 , six weeks after the shootings .
The programme opened with excerpts from two of the interviews prior to the title sequence , followed by an introduction from Jonathan Dimbleby , who told viewers that the evidence presented in the programme was " of critical importance for those who wish to find out what really happened in Gibraltar last month " . The commentary cut to Manyon , who introduced Styles and discussed the impact the IRA 's bomb would have had , and then to Noreen Hill , whose husband was in a coma as a result of the Enniskillen bombing . Manyon pointed out that the IRA expressed regret after Enniskillen , but that they were by then already planning to attack Gibraltar . Manyon told viewers of the three IRA members ' backgrounds , before introducing an interview with an official from the Spanish Interior Ministry , who discussed the Spanish surveillance operation , of which viewers were shown a reconstruction with a voice @-@ over from Manyon . The programme reconstructed Savage 's movements as he crossed the border into Gibraltar , parked his car in the assembly area for the ceremony and met up with McCann and Farrell , after which it broadcast part of Howe 's statement to the House of Commons : " Their presence and actions near the parked Renault car gave rise to strong suspicion that it contained a bomb , which appeared to be corroborated by a rapid technical examination of the car " . Manyon explained that the vehicle was later found not to contain a bomb , and introduced Styles , who believed that such an examination would have shown that the car did not contain a bomb , as the weight would have been evident on the vehicle 's springs .
Manyon continued to narrate as the programme reconstructed the IRA team 's movements through Gibraltar towards the border until McCann and Farrell reached a petrol station on Winston Churchill Avenue . " Then , suddenly " , Manyon told viewers , " shots rang out , and in less than a minute all three terrorists were dead — shot by the SAS " . The commentary again cut to Howe 's statement , after which Manyon detailed This Week 's investigation . He introduced the four eyewitnesses the journalists had discovered ( Diana Treacy , Josie Celecia , Stephen Bullock , and Carmen Proetta ) . Celecia described witnessing McCann and Farrell walking along Winston Churchill Avenue before hearing several shots , and then seeing a soldier continue to fire at the pair while they were on the ground . Proetta told the programme she saw a police car arrive opposite the petrol station , that three armed men in plain clothes then disembarked , jumped across the central barrier , and shot McCann and Farrell while the latter had their hands up . Bullock was interviewed walking the route he had walked on the day of the shootings ; his account was of two men in plain clothes shooting McCann and Farrell at very close range and continuing to shoot as the pair fell and while they were on the ground . Treacy , meanwhile , was walking along Landport Lane when Savage ran past her , pursued by at least one soldier . She stated that she did not hear any warning before Savage was shot ; she ran away after the shooting began . Asquez was not named in the broadcast ; his statement — that he saw a soldier firing at Savage while the latter was on the ground — was read out by an actor .
Styles told Manyon he believed it unlikely that the IRA would have succeeded in detonating a bomb in the assembly area from the petrol station where McCann and Farrell were shot ( a distance of approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) ) . Returning to Proetta , the documentary heard her reaction to Howe 's statement that McCann and Farrell made threatening movements ; Proetta believed that the incident was triggered by the siren from the police car on Winston Churchill Avenue . She believed that any movements McCann and Farrell made were in response to the siren , and was adamant that the pair had their hands up when they were shot . Manyon summed up the programme 's findings :
no independent witnesses heard a challenge ,
Proetta believed McCann and Farrell were shot with their hands up ,
Treacy saw Savage shot in the back ,
two witnesses claimed to have seen the IRA members " finished off " on the ground ,
Styles believed the authorities should have known the car did not contain a bomb .
Carman — the QC recruited by Bolton — was the last contributor to the documentary . Presented with This Week 's evidence , he disagreed with Margaret Thatcher 's statement that the inquest would be sufficient to establish the facts of the incident . He opined that a more powerful judicial enquiry , possibly headed by a British High Court judge , would be better equipped to eliminate the inconsistencies between the official version of events and the eyewitness statements . In conclusion , Manyon asked Carman " do you believe this case is so important that the government should take such extraordinary steps in order to clarify the facts ? " Carman responded " the programme indicates there are serious , important public issues involved , and speaking as a lawyer , one is always anxious when there is contest on the facts in such important areas , they should be properly and efficiently investigated " . The documentary closed with Jonathan Dimbleby :
That report was made , as you may have detected , without the cooperation of the British government , which says it will make no comment until the inquest .
As our film contained much new evidence hitherto unavailable to the coroner , we are sending the transcripts to his court in Gibraltar , where it 's been made clear to us that all such evidence is welcomed .
From This Week , goodnight .
= = Reaction = =
The controversy surrounding " Death on the Rock " was " unsurpassed " in Lord Thomson 's experience . The morning after the broadcast , the British broadsheets appeared open @-@ minded or moderately favourable to This Week ; The Times told readers that " Death on the Rock " " seemed a significant , thoroughly responsible and serious examination of a most disturbing case " and that it " simply raised serious questions and suggested they needed deep examination " . The tabloids , however , berated the programme and its makers . The Sun accused the makers of a " cheap scoop " and labelled the programme " IRA propaganda " . The Daily Mail was equally robust ; its main headline read " fury over SAS ' trial by TV ' " , while in an inside article , it called the programme " woefully one @-@ sided " , and accused Bolton of having previously collaborated with the IRA for sensational news stories . That evening , Bolton agreed to appear on Channel 4 's Right of Reply , a show which allowed ordinary viewers to question the makers of controversial television programmes ; the programme was pre @-@ recorded , and , unusually , the producers agreed to cut the end of the recording after one of the participants — a former member of Margaret Thatcher 's personal staff claiming to be an impartial viewer — launched an attack on Bolton , in which he accused Bolton of associating with terrorists .
Beginning in the days after the broadcast of " Death on the Rock " , the British tabloid press mounted a campaign against Carmen Proetta , one of the documentary 's key witnesses . The day after the broadcast , the London Evening Standard printed a story about Proetta 's husband ; the piece — citing the Gibraltar Police press officer — claimed that Maxie Proetta was a drug smuggler well known to the Gibraltar Police . Over the course of the week , several of the tabloids ran stories claiming that Carmen Proetta ran an escort agency and that she was a former prostitute with a criminal record ; in one headline , The Sun labelled her " the tart of Gib " . Several stories also attempted to portray Proetta as anti @-@ British , including one in the broadsheet Daily Telegraph which claimed she was one of the 44 people who voted to end the British administration in Gibraltar 's 1967 referendum . In fact , Proetta had served briefly as a director of a Spanish tour company and had no criminal record in either Spain or Gibraltar ; her husband had been convicted for drug possession in Spain and was , at the time of the shootings , facing separate charges for allowing his boat to be used by drug smugglers . Proetta later sued The Sun and other newspapers for libel and won substantial damages .
The Sunday Times , meanwhile , attempted to undermine the programme 's credibility with its own investigative journalism . Citing " official sources " , the paper told its readers that This Week 's account of the shootings was " crucially flawed " , and " bore no resemblance to what happened " . It went on to claim that several of the programme 's witnesses felt that " Death on the Rock " had misrepresented their statements . It stated that the documentary 's technical advisor , Lieutenant Colonel George Styles , was aggrieved that two of his " key opinions " had been omitted from the version broadcast — specifically that what Proetta interpreted as a gesture of surrender may have been an involuntary reaction to the bullets striking the suspects ' bodies , and that the IRA members could still have detonated a bomb in another vehicle parked on the Spanish side of the border . The latter opinion was omitted because the This Week team saw little for the IRA to gain by detonating a bomb on Spanish soil , while the former was included in the broadcast . Josie Celecia , it alleged , had dismissed Proetta 's account as " ridiculous " , while Stephen Bullock had contradicted Proetta 's statement that she had seen plain @-@ clothed soldiers arriving in a police car — testimony The Sunday Times believed " destroyed " Proetta 's evidence . Both witnesses complained in letters to other newspapers . Through these , it emerged that Bullock had dismissed only one detail in Proetta 's evidence as " ridiculous " , while he and Proetta had been referring to two distinct police cars in their statements . The Sunday Times omitted Styles ' belief that the shootings were a pre @-@ emptive attack . Styles ' view was one of " two active service units waging war [ ... ] taking [ the IRA members ] out quickly , cleanly , and without other people being hurt — that seems to be the only way " . Several newspapers were critical of the IBA 's decision to allow the documentary to be broadcast .
= = Inquest = =
The witnesses uncovered during the production of " Death on the Rock " appeared at the inquest , which began on 6 September . One of the first civilians to give evidence was Allen Feraday , an explosives expert who worked for the Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) ; he confirmed Styles ' contribution to the documentary — that the IRA had not been known to use a remote @-@ detonated bomb without a direct line of sight to their target . The various expert witnesses at the inquest disagreed as to whether a detonation signal could have reached the parked Renault from the scenes of the shootings . Multiple eyewitnesses gave evidence over the course of the inquest . Four gave evidence which broadly supported the official version of events ; in particular , none saw the soldiers shoot McCann , Savage , or Farrell while they were on the ground . The witnesses from " Death on the Rock " also appeared . Stephen Bullock told the coroner that he saw McCann and Savage raise their hands before seeing the SAS shoot them at point blank range . Josie Celecia 's evidence — that she saw a soldier shooting at McCann and Farrell while the pair were on the ground — was stringently challenged by government lawyers , who pointed out that her account had changed somewhat since she had appeared on camera and that she was unable to identify the SAS soldiers from photographs taken by her husband .
Maxie Proetta appeared on 22 September . He told the coroner that he had witnessed four men ( three in plain clothes and one uniformed Gibraltar Police officer ) arriving opposite the petrol station on Winston Churchill Avenue ; the men jumped over the central reservation barrier and Farrell put her hands up , after which he heard a series of shots . In contrast to his wife 's testimony , he believed that Farrell 's gesture was one of self @-@ defence rather than surrender , and he believed that the shots he heard did not come from the men from the police car . The government lawyers suggested that the police car he and his wife had seen was one seen by other eyewitnesses further south , and that it was responding to the shootings rather than transporting soldiers , but Mr Proetta was adamant that the lawyers ' suggestion did not make sense . Carmen Proetta appeared the following day . Mrs Proetta 's testimony contained some discrepancies with the evidence she gave to " Death on the Rock " ; she was no longer certain that she had seen the SAS shoot McCann and Savage while the latter were on the ground , because she could not recall seeing shell casings being ejected from the soldiers ' weapons . The government lawyers questioned the reliability of Proetta 's evidence based on her changes , and implied that she behaved suspiciously by giving evidence to " Death on the Rock " before the police . She responded that the police had not spoken to her about the shootings until after " Death on the Rock " had been shown . Asquez , who provided an unsworn statement to the programme through an intermediary , reluctantly appeared at the inquest . He retracted the statements he had given to the journalists , which he claimed he had made up after " pestering " from Major Bob Randall ( who had sold the programme a video recording of the aftermath of the shootings ) . The British tabloids covered Asquez 's retraction extensively , while several members of parliament accused " Death on the Rock " of manipulating Asquez in an attempt to discredit the SAS and the British government . However , Asquez 's statement contained several details that were not released publicly , and which only entered the public domain during the inquest , though , when questioned by the coroner , Asquez said he could not explain the discrepancy because he was " a bit confused " . The inquest concluded on 30 September and the jury returned a verdict of lawful killing .
Following the inquest , the families of McCann , Savage , and Farrell applied to the European Commission of Human Rights for an opinion on whether the authorities ' actions in Gibraltar violated Article 2 ( the " right to life " ) of the European Convention on Human Rights ( ECHR ) ; This Week 's journalists provided statements to the commission regarding the Spanish surveillance operation ( the existence of which had been denied by the British authorities at the inquest ) . The commission 's report found no violation of Article 2 , but the commission referred the case to the European Court of Human Rights ( ECtHR ) for a final decision . The court rejected the families ' submission that the British government had conspired to kill the three , but did find a violation of Article 2 in the defective planning and control of the operation . Nevertheless , the applicants ' claim for damages was dismissed on the grounds that the trio had been killed while preparing an act of terrorism , though it did order the government to pay the applicants ' costs .
= = Windlesham – Rampton Report = =
Following Asquez 's retraction of his statement and his allegation that he was pressured into giving a false account of the events he witnessed , the IBA contacted Thames to express its concern and to raise the possibility of an investigation into the making of the documentary . Thames eventually agreed to commission an independent inquiry into the programme ( the first such inquiry into an individual programme ) , to be conducted by two people with no connection to either Thames or the IBA ; to that end , Thames engaged Lord Windlesham and Richard Rampton , QC . Windlesham was a Conservative politician , privy councillor , and former
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As was common in the late 19th century South , Florida had imposed legal racial segregation under Jim Crow laws requiring separate black and white public facilities and transportation . Blacks and whites created their own community centers : by 1920 , the residents of Rosewood were mostly self @-@ sufficient . They had three churches , a school , a large Masonic Hall , a turpentine mill , a sugarcane mill , a baseball team named the Rosewood Stars , and two general stores , one of which was white @-@ owned . The village had about a dozen two @-@ story wooden plank homes , other small two @-@ room houses , and several small unoccupied plank farm and storage structures . Some families owned pianos , organs , and other symbols of middle @-@ class prosperity . Survivors of Rosewood remember it as a happy place . In 1995 , survivor Robie Mortin recalled at age 79 that when she was a child there , that " Rosewood was a town where everyone 's house was painted . There were roses everywhere you walked . Lovely . "
= = = Racial tensions in Florida = = =
Racial violence at the time was common throughout the nation , manifested as individual incidents of extra @-@ legal actions , or attacks on entire communities . Lynchings reached a peak around the start of the 20th century as southern states were disenfranchising blacks and imposing white supremacy ; whites used it as a means of social control throughout the South . In 1866 Florida , as did many Southern states , passed laws called Black Codes disenfranchising black citizens . Although these were quickly overturned , and black citizens enjoyed a brief period of improved social standing , by the late 19th century black political influence was virtually nil . The white Democrat @-@ dominated legislature passed a poll tax in 1885 , which largely served to disenfranchise poor whites and blacks alike . Losing political power , blacks suffered a deterioration of their legal and political rights in the years following . Without the right to vote , blacks were excluded as jurors and could not run for office , effectively excluding them from the political process . The United States as a whole was experiencing rapid social changes : an influx of European immigrants , industrialization and the growth of cities , and political experimentation in the North . In the South , black Americans grew increasingly dissatisfied with their lack of economic opportunity and status as second @-@ class citizens .
Elected officials in Florida represented the voting white majority . Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward ( 1905 – 1909 ) suggested finding a location out of state for blacks to live separately . Tens of thousands of blacks moved to the North during and after World War I in the Great Migration , unsettling labor markets and introducing more rapid changes into cities . They were recruited by many expanding northern industries , such as the Pennsylvania Railroad , the steel industry , and meatpacking . Florida governors Park Trammell ( 1913 – 1917 ) and Sidney Catts ( 1917 – 1921 ) generally ignored the emigration of blacks to the North and its causes . While Trammell was state attorney general , none of the 29 lynchings committed during his term was prosecuted , nor were any of the 21 that occurred while he was governor . Catts ran on a platform of white supremacy and anti @-@ Catholic sentiment ; he openly criticized the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) when they complained he did nothing to investigate two lynchings in Florida . Catts changed his message when the turpentine and lumber industries claimed labor was scarce ; he began to plead with black workers to stay in the state . By 1940 , 40 @,@ 000 blacks had left Florida to find employment , but also to escape the oppression of segregation , underfunded education and facilities , violence , and disenfranchisement .
When U.S. troop training began for World War I , many white Southerners were alarmed at the thought of arming black soldiers . A confrontation regarding the rights of black soldiers culminated in the Houston Riot of 1917 . German propaganda encouraged black soldiers to turn against their " real " enemies : American whites . Rumors reached the U.S. that French women had been sexually active with black American soldiers , which University of Florida historian David Colburn argues struck at the heart of Southern fears about power and miscegenation . Colburn connects growing concerns of sexual intimacy between the races to what occurred in Rosewood : " Southern culture had been constructed around a set of mores and values which places white women at its center and in which the purity of their conduct and their manners represented the refinement of that culture . An attack on women not only represented a violation of the South 's foremost taboo , but it also threatened to dismantle the very nature of southern society . " The transgression of sexual taboos subsequently combined with the arming of blacks to raise fears among whites of an impending race war in the South .
The influx of blacks into urban centers in the North and Midwest increased racial tensions in those cities . Between 1917 and 1923 , racial disturbances erupted in numerous cities throughout the U.S. , motivated by economic competition for industrial jobs , mostly between ethnic whites , immigrants and their descendants , and southern blacks , who were often used as strikebreakers . One of the first and most violent instances was a riot in East St. Louis , sparked in 1917 . In the Red Summer of 1919 , racially motivated mob violence erupted in 23 cities — including Chicago , Omaha , and Washington , D.C. — caused by competition for jobs and housing by returning World War I veterans of both races , and the arrival of waves of new European immigrants . Further unrest occurred in Tulsa in 1921 , when whites attacked the black Greenwood community . David Colburn distinguishes two types of violence against blacks up to 1923 : Northern violence was generally spontaneous mob action against entire communities . Southern violence , on the other hand , took the form of individual incidents of lynchings and other extrajudicial actions . The Rosewood massacre , according to Colburn , resembled violence more commonly perpetrated in the North in those years .
In the mid @-@ 1920s , the Ku Klux Klan ( KKK ) reached its peak membership in the South and Midwest after a revival beginning around 1915 . Its growth was due in part to tensions from rapid industrialization and social change in many growing cities ; in the Midwest and West , its growth was related to the competition of waves of new immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe . The KKK was strong in the Florida cities of Jacksonville and Tampa ; Miami 's chapter was influential enough to hold initiations at the Miami Country Club . The Klan also flourished in smaller towns of the South where racial violence had a long tradition dating back to the Reconstruction era . An editor of The Gainesville Daily Sun admitted that he was a member of the Klan in 1922 , and praised the organization in print .
Despite Governor Catts ' change of attitude , white mob action frequently occurred in towns throughout north and central Florida and went unchecked by local law enforcement . Extrajudicial violence against blacks was so common that it seldom was covered by newspapers . In 1920 , whites removed four black men from jail , who were suspects accused of raping a white woman in Macclenny , and lynched them . In Ocoee the same year , two black citizens armed themselves to go to the polls during an election . A confrontation ensued and two white election officials were shot , after which a white mob destroyed Ocoee 's black community , causing as many as 30 deaths , and destroying 25 homes , two churches , and a Masonic Lodge . Just weeks before the Rosewood massacre , the Perry Race Riot occurred on 14 and 15 December 1922 , in which whites burned Charles Wright at the stake and attacked the black community of Perry , Florida after a white schoolteacher was murdered . On the day following Wright 's lynching , whites shot and hanged two more black men in Perry ; next they burned the town 's black school , Masonic lodge , church , amusement hall , and several families ' homes .
= = Events in Rosewood = =
= = = Fannie Taylor 's story = = =
The Rosewood massacre occurred after a white woman in Sumner claimed she had been assaulted by a black man . Frances " Fannie " Taylor was 22 years old in 1923 and married to James , a 30 @-@ year @-@ old millwright employed by Cummer & Sons in Sumner . They lived there with their two young children . James ' job required him to leave each day during the darkness of early morning . Neighbors remembered Fannie Taylor as " very peculiar " . She was meticulously clean , scrubbing her cedar floors with bleach so that they shone white . Other women attested that Taylor was aloof ; no one knew her very well .
On January 1 , 1923 , the Taylors ' neighbor reported that she heard a scream while it was still dark , grabbed her revolver and ran next door to find Fannie bruised and beaten , with scuff marks across the white floor . Taylor was screaming that someone needed to get her baby . She said a black man was in her house ; he had come through the back door and assaulted her . The neighbor found the baby , but no one else . Taylor 's initial report stated her assailant beat her about the face but did not rape her . Rumors circulated — widely believed by whites in Sumner — that she was both raped and robbed . The charge of rape of a white woman by a black was inflammatory in the South : the day before , the Klan had held a parade and rally of over 100 hooded Klansmen 50 miles ( 80 km ) away in Gainesville under a burning cross and a banner reading , " First and Always Protect Womanhood " .
The neighbor also reported the absence that day of Taylor 's laundress , Sarah Carrier , whom the white women in Sumner called " Aunt Sarah " . Philomena Goins , Carrier 's granddaughter , told a different story about Fannie Taylor many years later . She joined her grandmother Carrier at Taylor 's home as usual that morning . They watched a white man leave by the back door later in the morning before noon . She said Taylor did emerge from her home showing evidence of having been beaten , but it was well after morning . Carrier 's grandson and Philomena 's brother , Arnett Goins , sometimes went with them ; he had seen the white man before . His name was John Bradley and he worked for the Seaboard Air Line Railway . Carrier told others in the black community what she had seen that day ; the black community of Rosewood understood that Fannie Taylor had a white lover , they got into a fight that day , and he beat her . When the man left Taylor 's house , he went to Rosewood .
Quickly , Levy County Sheriff Robert Elias Walker raised a posse and started an investigation . When they learned that Jesse Hunter , a black prisoner , had escaped from a chain gang , they began a search to question him about Taylor 's attack . Men arrived from Cedar Key , Otter Creek , Chiefland , and Bronson to help with the search . Adding confusion to the events recounted later , as many as 400 white men began to gather . Sheriff Walker deputized some of them , but was unable to initiate them all . Walker asked for dogs from a nearby convict camp , but one dog may have been used by a group of men acting without Walker 's authority . Dogs led a group of about 100 to 150 men to the home of Aaron Carrier , Sarah 's nephew . Aaron was taken outside , where his mother begged the men not to kill him . He was tied to a car and dragged to Sumner . Sheriff Walker put Carrier in protective custody at the county seat in Bronson to remove him from the men in the posse , many of whom were drinking and acting on their own authority . Worried that the group would quickly grow further out of control , Walker also urged black employees to stay at the turpentine mills for their own safety .
A group of white vigilantes , who had become a mob by this time , seized Sam Carter , a local blacksmith and teamster who worked in a turpentine still . They tortured Carter into admitting that he had hidden the escaped chain gang prisoner . Carter led the group to the spot in the woods where he said he had taken Hunter , but the dogs were unable to pick up a scent . To the surprise of many witnesses , someone fatally shot Carter in the face . The group hung Carter 's mutilated body from a tree as a symbol to other black men in the area . Some in the mob took souvenirs of his clothes . Survivors suggest that John Bradley fled to Rosewood because he knew he was in trouble and had gone to the home of Aaron Carrier , a fellow veteran and Mason . Carrier and Carter , another Mason , covered Bradley in the back of a wagon . Carter took Bradley to a nearby river , let him out of the wagon , then returned home to be met by the mob ; they had reached him led by dogs following Bradley 's scent .
After lynching Sam Carter , the mob met Sylvester Carrier — Aaron 's cousin and Sarah 's son — on a road and told him to get out of town . Carrier refused , and when the mob moved on , he suggested gathering as many people as possible for protection .
= = = Escalation = = =
Despite the efforts of Sheriff Walker and mill supervisor W. H. Pillsbury to disperse the mobs , white men continued to gather . On the evening of January 4 , a mob of armed white men went to Rosewood and surrounded the house of Sarah Carrier . It was filled with approximately 15 to 25 people seeking refuge , including many children hiding upstairs under mattresses . Some of the children were in the house because they were visiting their grandmother for Christmas . They were protected by Sylvester Carrier and possibly two other men , but Carrier may have been the only one armed . He had a reputation of being proud and independent . In Rosewood , he was a formidable character , a crack shot , expert hunter , and music teacher , who was simply called " Man " . Many whites considered him arrogant and disrespectful .
Sylvester Carrier was reported in the New York Times saying that the attack on Fannie Taylor was an " example of what negroes could do without interference " . Whether or not he said this is debated , but a group of 20 to 30 white men , inflamed by the reported statement , went to the Carrier house . They believed that the black community in Rosewood was hiding escaped prisoner Jesse Hunter .
Reports conflict about who shot first , but after two members of the mob approached the house , someone opened fire . Sarah Carrier was shot in the head . Her nine @-@ year @-@ old niece at the house , Minnie Lee Langley , had witnessed Aaron Carrier taken from his house three days earlier . When Langley heard someone had been shot , she went downstairs to find her grandmother , Emma Carrier . Sylvester placed Minnie Lee in a firewood closet in front of him as he watched the front door , using the closet for cover : " He got behind me in the wood [ bin ] , and he put the gun on my shoulder , and them crackers was still shooting and going on . He put his gun on my shoulder ... told me to lean this way , and then Poly Wilkerson , he kicked the door down . When he kicked the door down , Cuz ' Syl let him have it . "
Several shots were exchanged : the house was riddled with bullets , but the whites did not overtake it . The standoff lasted long into the next morning , when Sarah and Sylvester Carrier were found dead inside the house ; several others were wounded , including a child who had been shot in the eye . Two white men , C. P. " Poly " Wilkerson and Henry Andrews , were killed ; Wilkerson had kicked in the front door , and Andrews was behind him . At least four whites were wounded , one possibly fatally . The remaining children in the Carrier house were spirited out the back door into the woods . They crossed dirt roads one at a time , then hid under brush until they had all gathered away from Rosewood .
= = = Razing Rosewood = = =
News of the armed standoff at the Carrier house attracted white men from all over the state to take part . Reports were carried in the St. Petersburg Independent , the Florida Times @-@ Union , the Miami Herald , and The Miami Metropolis , in versions of competing facts and overstatement . The Miami Metropolis listed 20 blacks and four whites dead and characterized the event as a " race war " . National newspapers also put the incident on the front page . The Washington Post and St. Louis Dispatch described a band of " heavily armed Negroes " and a " negro desperado " as being involved . Most of the information came from discrete messages from Sheriff Walker , mob rumors , and other embellishments to part @-@ time reporters who wired their stories to the Associated Press . Details about the armed standoff were particularly explosive . According to historian Thomas Dye , " The idea that blacks in Rosewood had taken up arms against the white race was unthinkable in the Deep South " .
Black newspapers understandably covered the events from a different angle . The Afro @-@ American in Baltimore highlighted the acts of African @-@ American heroism against the onslaught of " savages " . Another newspaper reported : " Two Negro women were attacked and raped between Rosewood and Sumner . The sexual lust of the brutal white mobbists satisfied , the women were strangled . "
The white mob burned the black churches in Rosewood . Philomena Goins ' cousin , Lee Ruth Davis , heard the bells tolling in the church as the men were inside setting it on fire . The mob also destroyed the white church in Rosewood . Many black residents fled for safety into the nearby swamps , some clothed only in their pajamas . Wilson Hall was nine years old at the time ; he later recounted his mother waking him to escape into the swamps early in the morning when it was still dark ; the lights from approaching cars of white men could be seen for miles . The Hall family walked 15 miles ( 24 km ) through swampland to the town of Gulf Hammock . The survivors recall that it was uncharacteristically cold for Florida , and people suffered when they spent several nights in raised wooded areas called hammocks to evade the mob . Some took refuge with sympathetic white families . Sam Carter 's 69 @-@ year @-@ old widow hid for two days in the swamps , then was driven by a sympathetic white mail carrier , under bags of mail , to join her family in Chiefland .
White men began surrounding houses , pouring kerosene on and lighting them , then shooting at those who emerged . Lexie Gordon , a light @-@ skinned 50 @-@ year @-@ old woman who was ill with typhoid fever , had sent her children into the woods . She was killed by a shotgun blast to the face when she fled from hiding underneath her home , which had been set on fire by the mob . Fannie Taylor 's brother @-@ in @-@ law claimed to be her killer . On January 5 , more whites converged on the area , forming a mob of between 200 and 300 people . Some came from out of state . Mingo Williams , who was 20 miles ( 32 km ) away near Bronson , was collecting turpentine sap by the side of the road when a car full of whites stopped and asked his name . As was custom among many residents of Levy County , both black and white , Williams used a nickname that was more prominent than his given name ; when he gave his nickname of " Lord God " , they shot him dead .
Sheriff Walker pleaded with news reporters covering the violence to send a message to the Alachua County Sheriff P. G. Ramsey to send assistance . Carloads of men came from Gainesville to assist Walker ; many of them had probably participated in the Klan rally earlier in the week . W. H. Pillsbury tried desperately to keep black workers in the Sumner mill , and worked with his assistant , a man named Johnson , to dissuade the white workers from joining others using extra @-@ legal violence . Armed guards sent by Sheriff Walker turned away blacks who emerged from the swamps and tried to go home . W. H. Pillsbury 's wife secretly helped smuggle people out of the area . Several white men declined to join the mobs , including the town barber who also refused to lend his gun to anyone . He said he did not want his " hands wet with blood " .
Governor Cary Hardee was on standby , ready to order National Guard troops in to neutralize the situation . Despite his message to the sheriff of Alachua County , Walker informed Hardee by telegram that he did not fear " further disorder " and urged the governor not to intervene . The governor 's office monitored the situation , in part because of intense Northern interest , but Hardee would not activate the National Guard without Walker 's request . Walker insisted he could handle the situation ; records show that Governor Hardee took Sheriff Walker 's word and went on a hunting trip .
James Carrier , Sylvester 's brother and Sarah 's son , had previously suffered a stroke and was partially paralyzed . He left the swamps and returned to Rosewood . He asked W. H. Pillsbury , the white turpentine mill supervisor , for protection ; Pillsbury locked him in a house but the mob found Carrier , and tortured him to find out if he had aided Jesse Hunter , the escaped convict . After they made Carrier dig his own grave , they fatally shot him .
= = = Evacuation = = =
On January 6 , white train conductors John and William Bryce managed the evacuation of some black residents to Gainesville . The brothers were independently wealthy Cedar Key residents who had an affinity for trains . They knew the people in Rosewood and had traded with them regularly . As they passed the area , the Bryces slowed their train and blew the horn , picking up women and children . Fearing reprisals from mobs , they refused to pick up any black men . Many survivors boarded the train after having been hidden by white general store owner John Wright and his wife , Mary Jo . Over the next several days , other Rosewood residents fled to Wright 's house , facilitated by Sheriff Walker , who asked Wright to transport as many residents out of town as possible .
Lee Ruth Davis , her sister , and two brothers were hidden by the Wrights while their father hid in the woods . On the morning of Poly Wilkerson 's funeral , the Wrights left the children alone to attend . Davis and her siblings crept out of the house to hide with relatives in the nearby town of Wylly , but they were turned back for being too dangerous . The children spent the day in the woods but decided to return to the Wrights ' house . After spotting men with guns on their way back , they crept back to the Wrights , who were frantic with fear . Davis later described the experience : " I was laying that deep in water , that is where we sat all day long ... We got on our bellies and crawled . We tried to keep people from seeing us through the bushes ... We were trying to get back to Mr. Wright house . After we got all the way to his house , Mr. and Mrs. Wright were all the way out in the bushes hollering and calling us , and when we answered , they were so glad . " Several other white residents of Sumner hid black residents of Rosewood and smuggled them out of town . Gainesville 's black community took in many of Rosewood 's refugees , waiting for them at the train station and greeting survivors as they disembarked , covered in sheets . On Sunday , January 7 , a mob of 100 to 150 whites returned to burn the remaining dozen or so structures of Rosewood .
= = = Response = = =
On January 8 , 1923 , a telegram was sent to the US Attorney General in Washington , DC , asking for an investigation ; the reply stated that the federal government had no jurisdiction and referred the matter to state officials . Many people were alarmed by the violence , and state leaders feared negative effects on the state 's tourist industry . Governor Cary Hardee appointed a special grand jury and special prosecuting attorney to investigate the outbreak in Rosewood and other incidents in Levy County . In February 1923 , the all @-@ white grand jury convened in Bronson . Over several days , they heard 25 witnesses , eight of whom were black , but found insufficient evidence to prosecute any perpetrators . The judge presiding over the case deplored the actions of the mob .
By the end of the week , Rosewood no longer made the front pages of major white newspapers . The Chicago Defender , the most influential black newspaper in the U.S. , reported that 19 people in Rosewood 's " race war " had died , and a soldier named Ted Cole appeared to fight the lynch mobs , then disappeared ; no confirmation of his existence after this report exists . A few editorials appeared in Florida newspapers summarizing the event . The Gainesville Daily Sun justified the actions of whites involved , writing " Let it be understood now and forever that he , whether white or black , who brutally assaults an innocent and helpless woman , shall die the death of a dog . " The Tampa Tribune , in a rare comment on the excesses of whites in the area , called it " a foul and lasting blot on the people of Levy County " .
Northern publications were more willing to note the breakdown of law , but many attributed it to the backward mindset in the South . The New York Call , a socialist newspaper , remarked " how astonishingly little cultural progress has been made in some parts of the world " , while the Nashville Banner compared the events in Rosewood to recent race riots in Northern cities , but characterized the entire event as " deplorable " . A three @-@ day conference in Atlanta organized by the Southern Methodist Church released a statement that similarly condemned the chaotic week in Rosewood . It concluded , " No family and no race rises higher than womanhood . Hence , the intelligence of women must be cultivated and the purity and dignity of womanhood must be protected by the maintenance of a single standard of morals for both races . "
Officially , the recorded death toll of the first week of January 1923 was six blacks and two whites . Historians disagree about this number . Some survivors ' stories claim there may have been up to 27 black residents killed , and assert that newspapers did not report the total number of white deaths . Minnie Lee Langley , who was in the Carrier house siege , recalls that she stepped over many white bodies on the porch when she left the house . Several eyewitnesses claim to have seen a mass grave filled with black people ; one remembers a plow brought from Cedar Key that covered 26 bodies . However , by the time authorities investigated these claims , most of the witnesses were dead , or too elderly and infirm to lead them to a site to confirm the stories .
Aaron Carrier was held in jail for several months in early 1923 ; he died in 1965 . James Carrier 's widow Emma was shot in the hand and the wrist and reached Gainesville by train . She never recovered , and died in 1924 . Sarah Carrier 's husband Haywood did not see the events in Rosewood . He was on a hunting trip , and discovered when he returned that his wife , brother James , and son Sylvester had all been killed and his house destroyed by a white mob . Following the shock of learning what had happened in Rosewood , Haywood rarely spoke to anyone but himself ; he sometimes wandered away from his family unclothed . His grandson , Arnett Goins , thought that he had been unhinged by grief . Haywood Carrier died a year after the massacre . Jesse Hunter , the escaped convict , was never found . Many survivors fled in different directions to other cities , and a few changed their names from fear that whites would track them down . None ever returned to live in Rosewood .
Fannie Taylor and her husband moved to another mill town . She was " very nervous " in her later years , until she succumbed to cancer . John Wright 's house was the only structure left standing in Rosewood . He lived in it and acted as an emissary between the county and the survivors . After they left the town , almost all of their land was sold for taxes . Mary Jo Wright died around 1931 ; John developed a problem with alcohol . He was ostracized and taunted for assisting the survivors , and rumored to keep a gun in every room of his house . He died after drinking too much one night in Cedar Key , and was buried in an unmarked grave in Sumner . The sawmill in Sumner burned down in 1925 , and the owners moved the operation to Lacoochee in Pasco County . Some survivors as well as participants in the mob action went to Lacoochee to work in the mill there . W. H. Pillsbury was among them , and he was taunted by former Sumner residents . No longer having any supervisory authority , Pillsbury was retired early by the company . He moved to Jacksonville and died in 1926 .
= = Culture of silence = =
Despite nationwide news coverage in both white and black newspapers , the incident , and the small abandoned village , slipped into oblivion . Most of the survivors scattered around Florida cities and started over with nothing . Many , including children , took on odd jobs to make ends meet . Education had to be sacrificed to earn an income . As a result , most of the Rosewood survivors took on manual labor jobs , working as maids , shoe shiners , or in citrus factories or lumber mills .
Although the survivors ' experiences after Rosewood were disparate , none publicly acknowledged what had happened . Robie Mortin , Sam Carter 's niece , was seven years old when her father put her on a train to Chiefland , 20 miles ( 32 km ) east of Rosewood , on January 3 , 1923 . Mortin 's father avoided the heart of Rosewood on the way to the depot that day , a decision Mortin believes saved their lives . Mortin 's father met them years later in Riviera Beach , in South Florida . None of the family ever spoke about the events in Rosewood , on order from Mortin 's grandmother : " She felt like maybe if somebody knew where we came from , they might come at us " .
This silence was an exception to the practice of oral history among black families . Minnie Lee Langley knew James and Emma Carrier as her parents . She kept the story from her children for 60 years : " I didn 't want them to know what I came through and I didn 't discuss it with none of them ... I just didn 't want them to know what kind of way I come up . I didn 't want them to know white folks want us out of our homes . " Decades passed before she began to trust white people . Some families spoke of Rosewood , but forbade the stories from being told : Arnett Doctor heard the story from his mother , Philomena Goins Doctor , who was with Sarah Carrier the day Fannie Taylor claimed she was assaulted , and was in the house with Sylvester Carrier . She told her children about Rosewood every Christmas . Doctor was consumed by his mother 's story ; he would bring it up to his aunts only to be dissuaded from speaking of it .
In 1982 , an investigative reporter named Gary Moore from the St. Petersburg Times drove from the Tampa area to Cedar Key looking for a story . When he commented to a local on the " gloomy atmosphere " of Cedar Key , and questioned why a Southern town was all @-@ white when at the start of the 20th century it had been nearly half black , the local woman replied , " I know what you 're digging for . You 're trying to get me to talk about that massacre . " Moore was hooked . He was able to convince Arnett Doctor to join him on a visit to the site , which he did without telling his mother . Moore addressed the disappearance of the incident from written or spoken history : " After a week of sensation , the weeks of January 1923 seem to have dropped completely from Florida 's consciousness , like some unmentionable skeleton in the family closet " .
When Philomena Goins Doctor found out what her son had done , she became enraged and threatened to disown him , shook him , then slapped him . A year later , Moore took the story to CBS ' 60 Minutes , and was the background reporter on a piece produced by Joel Bernstein and narrated by African @-@ American journalist Ed Bradley . Philomena Doctor called her family members and declared Moore 's story and Bradley 's television exposé were full of lies . A psychologist at the University of Florida later testified in state hearings that the survivors of Rosewood showed signs of posttraumatic stress disorder , made worse by the secrecy . Many years after the incident , they exhibited fear , denial , and hypervigilance about socializing with whites — which they expressed specifically regarding their children , interspersed with bouts of apathy . Despite such characteristics , survivors counted religious faith as integral to their lives following the attack in Rosewood , to keep them from becoming bitter . Michael D 'Orso , who wrote a book about Rosewood , said , " [ E ] veryone told me in their own way , in their own words , that if they allowed themselves to be bitter , to hate , it would have eaten them up . " Robie Mortin described her past this way : " I knew that something went very wrong in my life because it took a lot away from me . But I wasn 't angry or anything . "
The legacy of Rosewood remained in Levy County . For decades no black residents lived in Cedar Key or Sumner . Robin Raftis , the white editor of the Cedar Key Beacon , tried to place the events in an open forum by printing Moore 's story . She had been collecting anecdotes for many years , and said , " Things happened out there in the woods . There 's no doubt about that . How bad ? We don 't know ... So I said , ' Okay guys , I 'm opening the closet with the skeletons , because if we don 't learn from mistakes , we 're doomed to repeat them ' . " Raftis received notes reading , " We know how to get you and your kids . All it takes is a match " . University of Florida historian David Colburn stated , " There is a pattern of denial with the residents and their relatives about what took place , and in fact they said to us on several occasions they don 't want to talk about it , they don 't want to identify anyone involved , and there 's also a tendency to say that those who were involved were from elsewhere . "
In 1993 , a black couple retired to Rosewood from Washington D.C. They told The Washington Post , " When we used to have black friends down from Chiefland , they always wanted to leave before it got dark . They didn 't want to be in Rosewood after dark . We always asked , but folks wouldn 't say why . "
= = Seeking justice = =
= = = History includes Rosewood = = =
Philomena Goins Doctor died in 1991 . Her son Arnett was , by that time , " obsessed " with the events in Rosewood . Although he was originally excluded from the Rosewood claims case , he was included after this was revealed by publicity . By that point , the case had been taken on a pro bono basis by one of Florida 's largest legal firms . In 1993 , the firm filed a lawsuit on behalf of Arnett Goins , Minnie Lee Langley , and other survivors against the state government for its failure to protect them and their families .
Survivors participated in a publicity campaign to expand attention to the case . Langley and Lee Ruth Davis appeared on The Maury Povich Show on Martin Luther King Day in 1993 . Gary Moore published another article about Rosewood in the Miami Herald on March 7 , 1993 ; he had to negotiate with the newspaper 's editors for about a year to publish it . At first they were skeptical that the incident had taken place , and secondly , reporter Lori Rosza of the Miami Herald had reported on the first stage of what proved in December 1992 to be a deceptive claims case , with most of the survivors excluded . " If something like that really happened , we figured , it would be all over the history books " , an editor wrote .
Arnett Doctor told the story of Rosewood to print and television reporters from all over the world . He raised the number of historic residents in Rosewood , as well as the number who died at the Carrier house siege ; he exaggerated the town 's contemporary importance by comparing it to Atlanta , Georgia as a cultural center . Doctor wanted to keep Rosewood in the news ; his accounts were printed with few changes . According to historian Thomas Dye , Doctor 's " forceful addresses to groups across the state , including the NAACP , together with his many articulate and heart @-@ rending television appearances , placed intense pressure on the legislature ... to do something about Rosewood " . In December 1996 , Doctor told a meeting at Jacksonville Beach that 30 women and children had been buried alive at Rosewood , and that his facts had been confirmed by journalist Gary Moore . He was embarrassed to learn that Moore was in the audience . As the Holland & Knight law firm continued the claims case , they represented 13 survivors , people who had lived in Rosewood at the time of the 1923 violence , in the claim to the legislature .
The lawsuit missed the filing deadline of January 1 , 1993 . The speaker of the Florida House of Representatives commissioned a group to research and provide a report by which the equitable claim bill could be evaluated . It took them nearly a year to do the research , including interviews , and writing . On December 22 , 1993 , historians from Florida State University , Florida A & M University , and the University of Florida delivered a 100 @-@ page report ( with 400 pages of attached documentation ) on the Rosewood massacre . It was based on available primary documents , and interviews mostly with black survivors of the incident . Due to the media attention received by residents of Cedar Key and Sumner following filing of the claim by survivors , white participants were discouraged from offering interviews to the historians . The report used a taped description of the events by Jason McElveen , a Cedar Key resident who had since died , and an interview with Ernest Parham , who was in high school in 1923 and happened upon the lynching of Sam Carter . Parham said he had never spoken of the incident because he was never asked . The report was titled " Documented History of the Incident which Occurred at Rosewood , Florida in January 1923 " . Gary Moore , the investigative journalist who wrote the 1982 story in The St. Petersburg Times that reopened the Rosewood case , criticized demonstrable errors in the report . The commissioned group retracted the most serious of these , without public discussion . They delivered the final report to the Florida Board of Regents and it became part of the legislative record .
= = = Rosewood victims v. the State of Florida = = =
Florida 's consideration of a bill to compensate victims of racial violence was the first by any U.S. state . Opponents argued that the bill set a dangerous precedent and put the onus of paying survivors and descendants on Floridians who had nothing to do with the incident in Rosewood . James Peters , who represented the State of Florida , argued that the statute of limitations applied because the law enforcement officials named in the lawsuit — Sheriff Walker and Governor Hardee — had died many years before . He also called into question the shortcomings of the report : although the historians were instructed not to write it with compensation in mind , they offered conclusions about the actions of Sheriff Walker and Governor Hardee . The report was based on investigations led by historians as opposed to legal experts ; they relied in cases on information that was hearsay from witnesses who had since died . Critics thought that some of the report 's writers asked leading questions in their interviews .
Even legislators who agreed with the sentiment of the bill asserted that the events in Rosewood were typical of the era . One survivor interviewed by Gary Moore said that to single out Rosewood as an exception , as if the entire world was not a Rosewood , would be " vile " . Florida Representatives Al Lawson and Miguel De Grandy argued that , unlike Native Americans or slaves who had suffered atrocities at the hands of whites , the residents of Rosewood were tax @-@ paying , self @-@ sufficient citizens who deserved the protection of local and state law enforcement . While lynchings of individual blacks by mobs around the same time tended to be spontaneous and quickly concluded , the incident at Rosewood was prolonged over a period of several days . Some legislators began to receive hate mail , including some claiming to be from Ku Klux Klan members . One legislator remarked that his office received an unprecedented response to the bill , with a proportion of ten constituents to one opposing it .
In 1994 , the state legislature held a hearing to discuss the merits of the bill . Lee Ruth Davis died a few months before testimony began , but Minnie Lee Langley , Arnett Goins , Wilson Hall , Willie Evans , and several descendants from Rosewood testified . Other witnesses were a clinical psychologist from the University of Florida , who testified that survivors had suffered post @-@ traumatic stress , and experts who offered testimony about the scale of property damages . Langley spoke first ; the hearing room was packed with journalists and onlookers who were reportedly mesmerized by her statement . Ernest Parham also testified about what he saw . When asked specifically when he was contacted by law enforcement regarding the death of Sam Carter , Parham replied that he had been contacted for the first time on Carter 's death two weeks before testifying . The coroner 's inquest for Sam Carter had taken place the day after he was shot in January 1923 ; he concluded that Carter had been killed " by Unknown Party " .
After hearing all the evidence , the Special Master Richard Hixson , who presided over the testimony for the Florida Legislature , declared that the state had a " moral obligation " to make restitution to the former residents of Rosewood . He said , " I truly don 't think they cared about compensation . I think they simply wanted the truth to be known about what happened to them ... whether they got fifty cents or a hundred and fifty million dollars . It didn 't matter . "
Black and Hispanic legislators in Florida took on the Rosewood compensation bill as a cause , and refused to support Governor Lawton Chiles ' healthcare plan until he put pressure on House Democrats to vote for the bill . Chiles was offended , as he had supported the compensation bill from its early days , and the legislative caucuses had previously promised their support for his healthcare plan . The legislature passed the bill , and Governor Chiles signed the Rosewood Compensation Bill , a $ 2 @.@ 1 million package to compensate survivors and their descendants . Seven survivors and their family members were present at the signing to hear Chiles say ,
Because of the strength and commitment of these survivors and their families , the long silence has finally been broken and the shadow has been lifted ... Instead of being forgotten , because of their testimony , the Rosewood story is known across our state and across our nation . This legislation assures that the tragedy of Rosewood will never be forgotten by the generations to come .
Originally , the compensation total offered to survivors was $ 7 million , which aroused controversy . The legislature eventually settled on $ 1 @.@ 5 million : this would enable payment of $ 150 @,@ 000 to each person who could prove he or she lived in Rosewood during 1923 , and provide a $ 500 @,@ 000 pool for people who could apply for the funds after demonstrating that they had an ancestor who owned property in Rosewood during the same time . The four survivors who testified automatically qualified ; four others had to apply . More than 400 applications were received from around the world .
Robie Mortin came forward as a survivor during this time ; she was the only one added to the list who could prove she lived in Rosewood in 1923 , totaling nine survivors who were compensated . Gaining compensation changed some families , whose members began to fight among themselves . Some descendants refused it , while others went into hiding to avoid the press of friends and relatives who came asking for handouts . Some descendants , after dividing the funds among siblings , received not much more than $ 100 each . Later , the Florida Department of Education set up the Rosewood Family Scholarship Fund for Rosewood descendants and ethnic minorities .
= = Rosewood remembered = =
= = = Representation in other media = = =
The Rosewood massacre , the ensuing silence , and the compensation hearing were the subject of the 1996 book Like Judgment Day : The Ruin and Redemption of a Town Called Rosewood by Michael D 'Orso . It won the Lillian Smith Book Award , bestowed by the University of Georgia Libraries and the Southern Regional Council , to authors who highlight racial and social inequality in their works .
The dramatic feature film Rosewood ( 1997 ) , directed by John Singleton , was based on these historic events . Minnie Lee Langley served as a source for the set designers , and Arnett Doctor was hired as a consultant . Recreated forms of the towns of Rosewood and Sumner were built in Central Florida , far away from Levy County . The film version , written by screenwriter Gregory Poirier , created a character named Mann , who enters Rosewood as a type of reluctant Western @-@ style hero . Composites of historic figures were used as characters , and the film offers the possibility of a happy ending . E.R. Shipp in The New York Times suggests that Singleton 's youth and his background in California contributed to his willingness to take on the story of Rosewood . She notes Singleton 's rejection of the image of blacks as victims and portrayal of " an idyllic past in which black families are intact , loving and prosperous , and a black superhero who changes the course of history when he escapes the noose , takes on the mob with double @-@ barreled ferocity and saves many women and children from death " . Singleton has offered his view : " I had a very deep — I wouldn 't call it fear — but a deep contempt for the South because I felt that so much of the horror and evil that black people have faced in this country is rooted here ... So in some ways this is my way of dealing with the whole thing . "
Reception to the film was mixed . Shipp commented on Singleton 's creating a fictional account of Rosewood events , saying that the film " assumes a lot and then makes up a lot more " . The film version alludes to many more deaths than the highest counts by eyewitnesses . Gary Moore believes that creating an outside character who inspires the citizens of Rosewood to fight back condescends to survivors , and he criticized the inflated death toll specifically , saying the film was " an interesting experience in illusion " . On the other hand , in 2001 Stanley Crouch of The New York Times described Rosewood as Singleton 's finest work , writing , " Never in the history of American film had Southern racist hysteria been shown so clearly . Color , class and sex were woven together on a level that Faulkner would have appreciated . "
= = = Legacy = = =
The State of Florida declared Rosewood a Florida Heritage Landmark in 2004 and subsequently erected a historical marker on State Road 24 that names the victims and describes the community 's destruction . Scattered structures remain within the community , including a church , a business , and a few homes , notably John Wright 's . Robie Mortin , the last survivor , died on June 12 , 2010 at age 94 after a brief illness .
Rosewood descendants formed the Rosewood Heritage Foundation and the Real Rosewood Foundation to educate people in Florida and all over the world . The Rosewood Heritage Foundation created a traveling exhibit that tours internationally to share the history of Rosewood and the attacks ; a permanent display is housed in the library of Bethune @-@ Cookman University in Daytona Beach . The Real Rosewood Foundation presents a variety of humanitarian awards to people in Central Florida who help preserve Rosewood 's history . The organization also recognized Rosewood residents who protected blacks during the attacks by presenting an Unsung Heroes Award to the descendants of Sheriff Robert Walker , John Bryce , and William Bryce . Lizzie Jenkins , executive director of the Real Rosewood Foundation and niece of the Rosewood schoolteacher , explained her interest in keeping Rosewood 's legacy current :
It has been a struggle telling this story over the years , because a lot of people don 't want to hear about this kind of history . People don 't relate to it , or just don 't want to hear about it . But Mama told me to keep it alive , so I keep telling it ... It 's a sad story , but it 's one I think everyone needs to hear .
= Dark Fantasy ( song ) =
" Dark Fantasy " is a song by American hip hop recording artist and producer Kanye West from his fifth studio album , My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) . The song serves as the opening track of the album , and was written by West , Ernest Wilson , Jeff Bhasker , Mike Dean and Robert Diggs . It features an opening narrative delivered by rapper Nicki Minaj , and singers Teyana Taylor and Justin Vernon contribute to the song 's hook and provide background vocals . The track is built around a sample of " In High Places " by Mike Oldfield . The song introduces several of the themes presented on the album and features numerous pop culture references , a gospel @-@ inspired production style , and piano @-@ driven composition . The song received acclaim from music critics , who praised the song as a strong opener to My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , complimenting West 's vocal delivery and the song 's production .
Despite not being released as a single , the hype generated by the release of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy caused the song to enter the Billboard Hot 100 at position 60 . It was the opening song of West 's 2011 setlist at the Coachella Music Festival , and was performed with Taylor at the ' Vevo Presents GOOD Music ' musical venue . " Dark Fantasy " was utilized during the opening sequence of West 's short film Runaway , during an extended scene with West driving down an atmospheric forest .
= = Background = =
Like the majority of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , the song was recorded in Oahu , Hawaii . Following several media controversies , West decided to record his next album in a reclusive manner only working with artists he considered himself familiar with . The song features vocals delivered by singer Teyana Taylor , a musician who initially met West at his Glow in the Dark Tour tour in 2007 . West was an admirer of her fashion sense , and the two frequently talked about clothing and designing , to the point when they eventually became friends . West called Taylor down to his recording studio in Hawaii under the pretense of checking out some pieces of clothing designed by Pierre Balmain . While the initial reason for her being there was to look at some clothing for him , she was determined to appear on the album . While at the studio , she purposely hummed loud enough for West to hear her . West was impressed by her singing ability and by the fact she was signed to producer Pharrell Williams , and asked her to do backing vocals on the album . On the recording process of the song , she commented :
" So then he tells me to do ' Dark Fantasy . ' At the time it was pretty empty , just verses . He put me in another room by myself and said , ' Go . ' I came back with a whole intro and chorus . I did all the scratches and the cuts myself with my voice . That ’ s not a DJ thing when you hear my voice go like that . I was so nervous when I played it for Kanye . I hadn ’ t been in the studio for so long . I was so excited to be trying out for that song . Rihanna was there . "
According to Taylor , when the song was being recorded , it was three hours before the album 's deadline when it had to be turned into the record company . West was so impressed with her performance that he signed her to his label GOOD Music , because of issues she was facing with her current label Star Trak Entertainment . Justin Vernon of the group Bon Iver appears on backing vocals of the track and is the first voice heard on the album . West was a fan of Bon Iver 's album For Emma , Forever Ago and invited him down to Hawaii to record with him . While working there , the two became friends and reportedly produced 10 songs during their sessions together . Vernon described the process as highly artistic in nature , stating that the fourteen @-@ hour day recording schedule allowed for a lot of fun and creativity .
The song features production by RZA of the hip @-@ hop group Wu @-@ Tang Clan , who commented that " Dark Fantasy " was one of the many compositions that he and West collaborated on . According to him , West had a " stack of beats " and that he tried to be as productive as possible with so much material already recorded . The style of composition is deeply influenced by producer RZA , who introduces his " bring @-@ the @-@ ruckus " aesthetic to the song production . Nicki Minaj was asked to open the song with a spoken word introduction , a favor she was excited to perform because she was a fan of Jay @-@ Z , a rapper who West was recording with at the time . Minaj described both Jay @-@ Z and West as " icons " , and stated that she was blessed to be working with them .
Producer No I.D. spoke about the history of the beat , and noted that it was offered to both Drake and Jay @-@ Z before West finally decided to use it himself . According to him , producers RZA and Pete Rock had already recorded certain portions of the song , and that him and West recorded the chorus parts . Following that , he mused " then Nicki did the intro and it went crazy . That ’ s one of my favorite records , just because of all the emotions that came with it . ”
= = Composition = =
The song is introduced with a narrative by Minaj , speaking in an English accent , that serves as a retelling of writer Roald Dahl 's poetic rework of " Cinderella " . West begins his verse with the refrain " I fantasized ’ bout this back in Chicago " . It introduces themes referenced on the majority of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , including comments on decadence and hedonism , with West musing how " the plan was to drink until the pain was over / but what ’ s worse , the pain or the hangover ? " . His lyrics on the track contain numerous musical and cultural references , including those to the song " Mercy Mercy Me ( The Ecology ) " , the Lamborghini Murciélago sports car , rapper Nas , fashion designer Phoebe Philo , short story " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " , the band the Kings Of Leon and their song " Sex on Fire " , singers Celine Dion and Leona Lewis , and television character Steve Urkel . The song contains the line " too many Urkels on your team / that 's why your wins low " , a double entendre . The " Winslows " were the family Urkel lived with on the show Family Matters , with the alternative meaning touching upon how his opponents ' " wins are low " . The chorus contains the line " can we get much higher ? " , another inquiry that is brought up during much of the proceeding album . The song samples a portion of " In High Places " by Mike Oldfield , a pop rock song from 1983 from the album Crises .
West raps in a highly melodic manner , almost singing some of his verses , over the brooding production style . The production style has been defined as having several similarities with West 's prior composition styles . AbsolutePunk 's Drew Beringer stated felt that the song sounded like West was " sampling his own source material " on the song , and felt that West embraced a " baroque instrumentation " on the track .
= = Personnel = =
Kanye West - vocals , production
Mike Dean - piano , additional production , mixing
Jeff Bhasker - keyboards , additional production
Chris " Hitchcock " Chorney - cello
Nicki Minaj - background vocals
Justin Vernon - background vocals
Amber Rose - additional vocals
Teyana Taylor - additional vocals
RZA - production
Andrew Dawson - mixing
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Dark Fantasy " received acclaim by critics . The Washington Post 's Chris Richards described the song as having " mutant gospel crescendos " and called it epic in nature . MTV News praised the delivery of Minaj 's verse , calling it structured like a nursery rhyme , musing that it " sets the tone for the song ( which is intense and hallucinatory ) and the album " . Rolling Stone writer Rob Sheffield praising the lyricism , describing it as witty , and wrote " in ' Dark Fantasy , ' West rhymes " mercy , mercy me , that Murcielago " with " diablo , " " bravado " and " My chick in that new Phoebe Philo / So much head , I woke up in Sleepy Hollow . It 's some genius stuff . " David Amidon of PopMatters felt that West 's vocals were " layered a baker ’ s dozen different ways " and described the production as synthetic in nature .
Dan Vidal of URB stated that he enjoyed Minaj 's verse , describing it as a " pseudo @-@ cockney @-@ accented opening narration " and praised the song 's arrangement as " spine @-@ tingling " . David Browne of Time wrote " tracks like ' Dark Fantasy ' and ' So Appalled ' are built on rumbling tanks of pianos and strings that sound as if West is marching into the apocalypse . " Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine stated that the song restored his admiration for West , and that the track lived up to the hype behind it , writing " most of it is rather epic and damn good , especially this track with its classic RZA production and assistance from No I.D .. " J. Tinsley of The Smoking Section commented that the song served as a successful opener , viewing it as a " boisterous firestarter combining sharp lyrics , a spurious Nicki Minaj English accent and an enormous chorus . " Chris Martins of Spin complimented West 's lyricism and use of double entrendres , and mused that the track was the album 's " beyond luxe opener " . Jonah Weiner Slate commented that West pulled off an impressive balancing act , and cited the song as an example of " his marvelous , hungry ear " . Andrew Barber of Complex compared the impact of the beat to that of a cannon , calling the production team of the song a " dream team " , describing the track as powerful in nature .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Due to the hype generated by the anticipation of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , Dark Fantasy debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at 60 , without actually being released as a single . The second week it dropped to 83 , and by the third week it exited the chart . The song performed similarly in Canada , charting at 67 on the Canadian Hot 100 . Other than the four singles released from the album , ( Power , All of the Lights , Monster , and Runaway ) " Dark Fantasy " was the only song off the album to chart . The song debuted at position 10 on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles as reported by Billboard . It also appeared at position 80 on the South Korean Gaon Chart , and at 189 the following week .
= = Marketing = =
At the ' Vevo Presents GOOD Music ' musical presentation , the song was performed by both West and Taylor . The performance began with West 's silhouette pressed against a glowing background , dressed in all black . Taylor joined the performance and sang her portion of the song . During his set at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , West performed " Dark Fantasy " as the opening track .
The song was also featured as the opening track in Runaway , a 35 @-@ minute music video directed by West set to music from My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy . The scene which the track is played during features West driving his MTX Tatra V8 through the forest when he crashes into a meteorite , which according to GQ , paralleled West 's car accident that was the inspiration for " Through the Wire " . The song was used in advertisements for the film The Hangover Part II . Taylor commented that she heard the song performed at a basketball game she was attending , and saw the trailer for Hangover II which featured the song . She reported that she was very excited to see that the song was becoming popular .
Most notably , the song is featured during the farewell montage at the climax of The Hangover Part III , particularly the verse " The plan was to drink until the pain over , but what 's worse the pain or the hangover ? " as it coincidentally relates to the story arc of the trilogy .
= = Chart positions = =
= SMS Zähringen =
SMS Zähringen ( " His Majesty 's Ship Zähringen " ) was third ship of the Wittelsbach class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the German Imperial Navy . Laid down in 1899 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , she was launched on 12 June 1901 and commissioned on 25 October 1902 . Her sisters were Wittelsbach , Wettin , Schwaben and Mecklenburg ; they were the first capital ships built under the Navy Law of 1898 , brought about by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz .
Zähringen saw active duty in the I Squadron of the German fleet for the majority of her career . The ship was rapidly superseded by new " all @-@ big @-@ gun " warships , however , and as a result served for less than eight years before being decommissioned on 21 September 1910 . After the start of World War I in August 1914 , Zähringen was brought back to active duty in the IV Battle Squadron . The ship saw limited duty in the Baltic Sea against Russian forces , though the threat from British submarines forced the ship to withdraw by 1916 .
Zähringen was converted into a target ship in 1917 for the remainder of the war . In the mid @-@ 1920s , Zähringen was heavily reconstructed and equipped for use as a radio @-@ controlled target ship . She served in this capacity until 1944 , when she was sunk in Gotenhafen by British bombers during World War II . The retreating Germans raised the ship and moved it to the harbor mouth where they scuttled it to block the port . Zähringen was broken up in situ in 1949 – 50 .
= = Description = =
Zähringen was 126 @.@ 8 m ( 416 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 8 m ( 74 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 95 m ( 26 ft 1 in ) forward . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines that drove three screws . Steam was provided by six naval and six cylindrical coal @-@ fired boilers . Zähringen 's powerplant was rated at 14 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 13 @,@ 808 ihp ; 10 @,@ 297 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . She had a crew of 30 officers and 650 enlisted men .
Zähringen 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns . The armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all submerged in the hull ; one was in the bow , one in the stern , and the other four were on the broadside . Her armored belt was 225 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) thick in the central portion that protected her magazines and machinery spaces , and the deck was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor plating .
= = Service history = =
Zähringen 's keel was laid on 21 November 1899 , at Friedrich Krupp 's Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel . She was ordered under the contract name " E " , as a new unit for the fleet . The Wittelsbach class was the first battleship class built under the terms of the Navy Law of 1898 , the chief proponent of which was Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz . Zähringen was launched on 12 June 1901 , with her launching speech given by Frederick I , Grand Duke of Baden and head of the House of Zähringen ; his wife , Grand Duchess Louise , christened the ship . Zähringen was commissioned on 25 October 1902 , and began her sea trials , which lasted until 10 February 1903 . She thereafter replaced the battleship Brandenburg in the I Squadron of the Active Fleet .
In 1905 the German fleet was reorganized into two squadrons of battleships . Zähringen was assigned to the I Division of I Squadron , alongside her sisters Wettin and Wittelsbach . The German fleet at that time consisted of another three @-@ ship division in the I Squadron and 2 three @-@ ship divisions in the II Squadron . This was supported by a reconnaissance division , composed of two armored cruisers and six protected cruisers .
The Deutschland @-@ class battleships — the most powerful battleships yet built in Germany — were beginning to enter service by 1907 . This provided the Navy with enough ships to form two full battle squadrons of eight ships each . The fleet was then renamed the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) . On 21 September 1910 , Zähringen was decommissioned and her crew was transferred to the new dreadnought Rheinland , which had recently been completed . In 1912 , Zähringen and her sisters were recommissioned as the III Squadron of the High Seas Fleet to augment the forces available for the annual summer fleet maneuvers in the North Sea . The exercises began on 2 September and were conducted in the area between Wilhelmshaven , Helgoland , and Cuxhaven . While on maneuvers southwest of Helgoland on 14 September 1912 , Zähringen accidentally rammed the torpedo boat G171 . The torpedo boat was cut in half and quickly sank ; six men drowned and a seventh died after being pulled from the sea .
= = = World War I = = =
By 1914 , Zähringen and her sisters were removed from active service and placed in the reserve squadron . However , after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Zähringen and the rest of her class were mobilized to serve in the IV Battle Squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Ehrhard Schmidt . Starting on 3 September , the IV Squadron , assisted by the armored cruiser Blücher , conducted a sweep into the Baltic . The operation lasted until 9 September and failed to bring Russian naval units to battle . In May 1915 , IV Squadron , including Zähringen , was transferred to support the German Army in the Baltic Sea area . Zähringen and her sisters were then based in Kiel .
On 6 May , the IV Squadron ships were tasked with providing support to the assault on Libau . Zähringen and the other ships stood off Gotland in order to intercept any Russian cruisers that might try to intervene in the landings , which the Russians did not attempt . On 10 May , after the invasion force had entered Libau , the British submarines HMS E1 and HMS E9 spotted the IV Squadron , but were too far away to make an attack . Zähringen and her sisters were not included in the German fleet that assaulted the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 , due to the scarcity of escorts . The increasingly active British submarines forced the Germans to employ more destroyers to protect the capital ships .
By 1916 , the increasing threat from British submarines in the Baltic convinced the German navy to withdraw the elderly Wittelsbach @-@ class ships from active service . Zähringen was initially used as a training ship in Kiel . In 1917 , the ship was used to train stokers but then became a target ship .
= = = Reichsmarine and Kriegsmarine = = =
As of April 1919 , Zähringen lay in the harbor in Danzig ; the ship had been decommissioned but retained its armament . According to Article 181 of the Treaty of Versailles , Zähringen and her sisters were to be demilitarized . This would permit the newly reorganized Reichsmarine to retain the vessels for auxiliary purposes . Zähringen was therefore stricken from the navy list on 11 March 1920 and disarmed . She was then used as a hulk in Wilhelmshaven until 1926 .
In 1927 – 28 , the Reichsmarine rebuilt the ship as a radio @-@ controlled target vessel . The ship had its engine system overhauled ; the three @-@ shaft arrangement was replaced by a pair of 3 @-@ cylinder , vertical triple expansion engines . These were supplied with steam by two naval oil @-@ fired , water @-@ tube boilers . The system was designed to be operated remotely via wireless telegraph . The new propulsion system provided a top speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . The superstructure was also cut down and the hull was filled with cork . When the conversion was completed , Zähringen displaced 11 @,@ 800 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 600 long tons ) . While not in use as a target , the ship was manned by a crew of 67 . She served as a target vessel for the Reichsmarine and then the Kriegsmarine , together with the old battleship Hessen .
On 18 December 1944 , the old ship was hit by bombs during an air raid on Gotenhafen and sank in shallow water . She was temporarily refloated and towed to the harbor entrance , where she was scuttled to block the port on 26 March 1945 . The wreck was broken up in situ starting in 1949 ; work lasted until 1950 .
= Stealth game =
A stealth game is a type of video game that tasks the player with using stealth to avoid or overcome antagonists . Games in the genre typically allow the player to remain undetected by hiding , using disguises , and / or avoiding noise . Some games allow the player to choose between a stealthy approach or directly attacking antagonists , perhaps rewarding the player for greater levels of stealth . The genre has employed espionage , counter @-@ terrorism and rogue themes , with protagonists who have been identified as special forces operatives , spies , thieves , ninjas , and assassins . Some games have also combined stealth elements with other genres , such as first @-@ person shooters and even platformers .
Some of the early games emphasizing stealth include Manbiki Shounen ( 1979 ) , Lupin III ( 1980 ) , 005 ( 1981 ) , Castle Wolfenstein ( 1981 ) , Infiltrator ( 1986 ) , Metal Gear ( 1987 ) , and Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake ( 1990 ) . The genre became popular in 1998 , with the mainstream success of Metal Gear Solid as well as Tenchu : Stealth Assassins and Thief : The Dark Project . Tenchu was the first 3D game in the genre , while Metal Gear Solid , released some months later , transformed the relatively obscure Metal Gear series into a highly acclaimed , profitable franchise with numerous sequels , while Thief pioneered 3D stealth games on the PC . These games were followed by other stealth series , such as Hitman and Splinter Cell . Later games in the genre have allowed the player to choose between , or combine , stealth tactics and direct confrontation .
= = Definition = =
Unlike most action games , stealth games challenge the player to avoid alerting enemies altogether . The core gameplay elements of the modern stealth game are to avoid combat , minimize noise , and strike enemies from the shadows . Completing objectives without being detected by any enemy , sometimes referred to as " ghosting " is a common approach to stealth games . Avoiding detection may be the only way to successfully complete a game , but there are usually multiple ways to achieve a goal with different pathways or styles of play . Players can hide behind objects or in shadows , and can strike or run past an enemy when the enemy is facing the other way . If the player attracts the attention of enemies , they usually must hide and wait until the enemies abandon their search . Thus , planning becomes important , as does trial @-@ and @-@ error . However , some stealth games put more emphasis on physical combat skill when the player is spotted . Some games offer a choice between killing or merely knocking out an enemy . When ghosting is optional , or even not well @-@ supported by a game , players may still attempt to avoid combat for moral reasons or as a demonstration of skill .
= = Game design = =
When hiding in the dark is a gameplay element , light and shadow become important parts of the level design . Usually the player is able to disable certain light sources . Stealth games also emphasize the audio design when players must be able to hear the subtle sound effects that may alert enemies to their actions ; noise will often vary as the player walks on different surfaces such as wood or metal . Players who move recklessly will make more noise and attract more attention .
In order for a game to include stealth gameplay , the knowledge of the artificial intelligence ( AI ) must be restricted to make it ignorant to parts of the game world . The AI in stealth games takes into specific consideration the enemies ' reactions to the effects of the player 's actions , such as turning off the lights , as opposed to merely reacting to the player directly . Enemies typically have a line of sight which the player can avoid by hiding behind objects , staying in the shadows or moving while the enemy is facing another direction . Enemies can also typically detect when the player touches them or moves within a small , fixed distance . Overall , stealth games vary in what player actions the AI will perceive and react to , with more recent games offering a wider range of enemy reactions . Often , the AI 's movements are predictable and regular , allowing the player to devise a strategy to overcome his adversaries . Players are often given limited methods of engaging opponents directly in stealth games , either by restricting the player to ineffective or non @-@ lethal weapons , equipping adversaries with far superior equipment and numbers , or providing the player with a limited amount of health that makes most combat scenarios extremely dangerous . Stealth games sometimes overlap with the survival horror genre , in which players are forced to hide from and evade supernatural or occasionally mundane enemies as they attempt to track down the player . Examples of hybrid stealth / horror games include Amnesia : The Dark Descent , Outlast , and the Penumbra video game series .
= = History = =
= = = Early developments : 1979 – 1997 = = =
The first stealth game was Manbiki Shounen ( Shoplifting Boy ) , a PET 2001 personal computer game developed by Hiroshi Suzuki , a 19 year @-@ old Tokyo University student , in October 1979 , and released in November 1979 . Inspired by a 7 / 11 store near his university , the game involves a boy entering a convenience store and attempting to shoplift by stealing " $ " symbols , while avoiding the line @-@ of @-@ sight detection of the owner ; if caught , the player is led away by the police . He presented the game to Space Invaders developer Taito , which used it as inspiration for their similar stealth arcade game , Lupin III ( based on the manga and anime of the same name ) , released in April 1980 . Suzuki developed a Manbiki Shounen sequel , Manbiki Shoujo ( Shoplifting Girl ) , released in November 1980 for the PET 2001 , requiring an installed PCG ( Programmable Character Generator ) module for improved tile map graphics and more realistic movement . The game also featured speech synthesis and joystick support . Manbiki Shounen was later ported to the PC @-@ 6001 in July 1982 . The game was then ported to the FM @-@ 7 in 1983 .
In 1981 , Sega released an arcade game called 005 in which the player 's mission is to take a briefcase of secret documents to a waiting helicopter while avoiding enemy flashlights and use boxes as hiding spots . 005 held the Guinness World Record for being the first stealth game . Castle Wolfenstein , originally available on the Apple II in 1981 , also employed stealth elements as a focus of the gameplay . Players were charged with traversing the levels of Castle Wolfenstein , stealing secret plans and escaping . Players could acquire uniforms to disguise themselves and walk by guards undetected . Beyond Castle Wolfenstein , released in 1984 , included some additions to its predecessor , such as a dagger for close @-@ range kills and a greater emphasis on disguising in enemy uniform. id Software 's technically updated 1992 remake Wolfenstein 3D was originally going to feature some of the original 's stealth gameplay , such as body hiding , but this was cut to make the game faster paced . This Wolfenstein game would ironically pave the way for quite a few later 3D action games , specifically first @-@ person shooters .
Mindscape 's Infiltrator , released in 1986 , combined a flight simulator with a stealth @-@ based " ground mission " . In this ground mission , the protagonist attempts to sneak into enemy territory using false IDs to avoid detection and knock @-@ out gas to incapacitate enemies . The goal of this mission is to photograph secret documents while avoiding alarms .
Hideo Kojima 's Metal Gear , released in 1987 for the MSX2 and the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1988 , utilized stealth elements within an action @-@ adventure framework , and was the first mainstream stealth game to be released on consoles . Since the MSX2 was not available in North America , only the NES version was released there . Metal Gear placed a greater emphasis on stealth than other games of its time , with the player character Solid Snake beginning without any weapons ( requiring him to avoid confrontation until weapons are found ) and having limited ammunition for each weapon . Enemies are able to see Snake from a distance ( using a line @-@ of @-@ sight mechanic ) and hear gunshots from non @-@ silenced weapons ; security cameras and sensors are placed at various locations , and a security alarm sounds whenever Snake is spotted and causes all enemies on screen to chase him . Snake could also disguise himself in enemy uniform or a cardboard box , and use his fists to fight enemies .
The sequel Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake was released in 1990 for the MSX2 . It further evolved the stealth gameplay of its predecessor and introduced most of the gameplay elements present in Metal Gear Solid , including the three @-@ dimensional element of height , allowing players to crouch and crawl into hiding spots and air ducts and underneath desks . The player could also distract guards by knocking on surfaces and use a radar to plan ahead . The enemies had improved AI , including a 45 @-@ degree field of vision , turning their heads left and right to see diagonally , the detection of various different noises , being able to move from screen to screen ( they were limited to a single screen in earlier games ) , and a three @-@ phase security alarm ( where reinforcements are called in to chase the intruder , then remain on the lookout for some time after losing sight of the intruder , and then leave the area ) . The game also had a complex storyline and improved graphics .
= = = Establishing a genre : 1998 – 2002 = = =
Although stealth gameplay had appeared in several games in the 1980s and 1990s , 1998 is seen as a turning point in gaming history because of the release of Metal Gear Solid , Tenchu : Stealth Assassins , and Thief : The Dark Project . The ninja @-@ themed game Tenchu : Stealth Assassins was released several months before Metal Gear Solid , making it the first 3D stealth based @-@ game . The highly anticipated Metal Gear Solid transformed its modestly successful franchise into a large mainstream success . The increased power of the PlayStation console over previous platforms allowed for greater immersion in terms of both story and game environment . Metal Gear Solid has been credited with popularizing the stealth genre . Thief : The Dark Project is also credited as a pioneer of the genre . It was the first stealth game using the first @-@ person perspective , dubbed a " first @-@ person sneaker " , or " sneak @-@ em @-@ up " , and the first to use darkness and shadows as the mode of concealment . Another of Thief 's most noteworthy contributions to the genre was the heavy use of audio cues and ambiance to determine the player 's level of stealth and establish a tense , foreboding atmosphere .
With further releases , many games in the genre have drifted towards action by allowing the option of direct confrontations . The Hitman series , the first installment of which was released in 2000 , allowed this play style , but rewarded the player for stealthy and elaborate assassination of antagonists . Hitman : Codename 47 was also the first 3D game to employ the genre 's device of disguises . No One Lives Forever , an espionage themed parody also released in 2000 , again allowed the player to combine or choose between stealth and overt violence . In 2000 , the first @-@ person action role @-@ playing game Deus Ex also incorporated stealth elements in its gameplay . A USA Today reviewer found " At the easiest difficulty setting , your character is pureed again and again by an onslaught of human and robotic terrorists until you learn the value of stealth . "
The acclaimed Metal Gear series continued with Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty ( PlayStation 2 ; 2001 ) which further evolved the stealth gameplay . It featured an array of new abilities , including " leaping over and hanging off of railings , opening and hiding in storage lockers , " and sneaking up behind enemies to " hold them at gunpoint for items and ammunition . " Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty became the genre 's best selling game with 7 million in sales , followed by Metal Gear Solid with 6 million in sales .
= = = Later developments : 2002 – present = = =
Due to the success of Metal Gear Solid , and to an extent Tenchu and Thief , stealth elements have become increasingly incorporated by a wide range of video games , with numerous action games since then using stealth elements in some way or another . 2002 saw the first installment of the Tom Clancy licensed Splinter Cell series , an attempt at a more realistic game in the vein of Metal Gear . As with Metal Gear , if the player is discovered in Splinter Cell , the guards will often raise a general alarm . This can cause a difficulty spike or even result in automatic mission failure . Splinter Cell was notable for its state of the art graphics , including dynamic lighting and shadows . These effects not only contributed to the atmosphere of the game , but dynamically affected in which areas the player could hide . The 2004 sequel , Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell : Pandora Tomorrow , added a multiplayer component to the stealth genre .
As the genre developed and progressed , stealth gameplay was combined with other genres . Sly Cooper , a cel @-@ shaded game released in 2002 , was a " stealth platformer " , while 2003 's Siren combined the survival horror genre with the stealth genre . In the same year , Manhunt employed a snuff movie theme and allowed the player to kill antagonists with varying levels of violence , dependent on how much time was spent sneaking behind them . It was the first to show visual executions in the genre . The following year , Konami 's Metal Gear Acid combined the stealth gameplay of the Metal Gear series with turn @-@ based strategy and tactical role @-@ playing game elements as well as card battle elements from Konami 's own Yu @-@ Gi @-@ Oh ! games .
In 2004 , Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater ( PlayStation 2 ) introduced camouflage to the genre . Set in a jungle , the game emphasized infiltration in a natural environment , along with survival aspects such as food capture , healing and close @-@ quarters combat . The following year , the updated version Metal Gear Solid 3 : Subsistence introduced an online multiplayer element to the genre . Another 2004 release was The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape From Butcher Bay , based on the Chronicles of Riddick series of movies . The game follows the character of Riddick as he attempts to escape from prison . Action and stealth gaming are combined seamlessly by allowing the character to hide , sneak , or fight his way past most situations . The game was critically acclaimed , and was followed with The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena in 2009 .
In 2007 , Assassin 's Creed employed a social element to the stealth game , where the player is able to hide among crowds of civilians by taking care to blend in . The same year , Crytek 's open world first @-@ person shooter Crysis incorporated stealth elements within its gameplay , as did the multiplayer first @-@ person shooter Team Fortress 2 the same year and the first @-@ person role @-@ playing game Fallout 3 the following year . In 2008 , Metal Gear Solid 4 : Guns of the Patriots ( PlayStation 3 ) introduced a battlezone element , where the stealth gameplay is incorporated into a battlefield fought between two armies , both of which can be infiltrated by Solid Snake . In 2009 , Assassin 's Creed II broadened its predecessor 's elements of stealth by allowing the player to blend among any group of civilians , rather than specific ones . Assassin 's Creed II also allowed the player to distract guards by tossing coins or by hiring thieves and courtesans , and also featured a notoriety level , which made the player more recognizable until they paid off officials or tore down wanted posters . The same year , Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves and Batman : Arkham Asylum incorporated stealth elements in different segments of the games . The multiplayer modes of Aliens vs. Predator in 2010 and Killzone 3 in 2011 also incorporated stealth elements .
The 2012 game Dishonored tried to incorporate stealth elements that were influenced by Thief , such as the importance of lighting and shadows . The developers later abandoned that system citing realism as a factor . The game instead relies on a system of " occlusion @-@ based " stealth , using the vision cones of the enemies , obstacles , and special abilities which determines whether or not the character is visible . Forbes called Dishonored one of the best stealth games of 2012 , along with Hitman Absolution and Mark of the Ninja . Mark of the Ninja puts a twist on the stealth genre in that it is a 2D side @-@ scroller . This posed some unique factors , such as the lack of corners for the character to hide behind , and the visibility presented in a side @-@ scroller ; the developers overcame this by adding ' fog ' that prevents the player from seeing things that the character can not see , visually representing enemy line @-@ of @-@ sight and even visualizing the noise made by the character , including how far that noise travels . After the completion of the game , the player has access to a harder difficulty called " New Game Plus " , which further decreases visibility by adding fog behind the player and removes noise visualizations and enemy line of sight indicators .
= One Fish , Two Fish , Blowfish , Blue Fish =
" One Fish , Two Fish , Blowfish , Blue Fish " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 24 , 1991 . In the episode , Homer consumes a poisonous fugu fish at a sushi restaurant , and is told that he has only 22 hours left to live . He accepts his fate and makes a list of all the things he wants to do before he dies .
The episode was written by Nell Scovell and directed by Wes Archer . It features guest appearances from Larry King , George Takei , Sab Shimono , Joey Miyashima , and Diane Tanaka . The episode was selected for release in a video collection of selected episodes , titled The Last Temptation Of Homer , that was released November 9 , 1998 . The episode features cultural references to songs such as “ Theme from Shaft ” , “ Gypsies , Tramps & Thieves ” , and " When the Saints Go Marching In " . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 1 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
The episode is also notable for its lighthearted use of the Kübler @-@ Ross model of grief , introducing the concept of coping with terminal illness and related issues to more mainstream audiences .
= = Plot = =
Homer takes his family to the new sushi bar , The Happy Sumo . After sampling most of the items on the menu , he tries sushi made from the fish fugu . The chef in charge is having sex with Edna Krabappel , so his apprentice has to slice the fugu , of which certain parts are toxic . He tries to do it carefully , but Homer becomes impatient , only to have it served and become unsure if the poisonous portions have been removed . Homer considers it a treat , but the chef soon returns and believes that the fish has not been prepared correctly and tells Homer that he may have been poisoned . Homer and Marge go to the hospital , where Dr. Hibbert informs Homer that based on a chat he had with the sushi chef , Homer is found out that he has increased likeliness of death and has 22 hours left to live . At night with Marge by his side , he decides not to tell his children about the bad news and makes a list of all the things he wants to do before death .
On his last day , after oversleeping , Homer attempts to do all the things on his list . He has a man @-@ to @-@ man talk with Bart , listens to Lisa play her saxophone , and borrows Ned Flanders 's camcorder to make a video for Maggie that she can look at when she is older . Homer finally reconciles with his father , which takes up far more time than he expects and forces him to give up doing some of the things on his list . After trying to catch up on time he lost doing these things , Homer is arrested for speeding . He calls Barney , who is asked to pay $ 50 to bail him out . After being acquitted , he tells off his boss Mr. Burns and has one last drink at Moe 's Tavern with his friends , causing him to miss dinner with his waiting family . He then hurries home in time to say goodbye to his children and make love to Marge .
At midnight , Homer quietly gets out of bed , visits each family member , who are all asleep , and says goodbye . Feeling glum , he goes to the living room and listens to Larry King read the Bible on tape . The tape plays out to which suddenly his head drops and it appears he has succumbed to the poison . Marge awakens the next morning and is panicked that her husband is not by her side . She runs downstairs and finds Homer , collapsed in the armchair . As she mourns , she realizes that his drool is still warm . She wakes him up and drums in the fact that he is alive and had not been poisoned after all . Homer then prances around in an overjoyed state and vows to live life to its fullest . Back to living his normal life , Homer returns to the couch watching a bowling tournament and eating pork rinds .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Nell Scovell and directed by Wes Archer . In the episode , Bart and Lisa sneak into the sushi bar 's karaoke room and sing the theme song to the 1971 film Shaft , " Theme from Shaft " . The Fox network censors originally did not want the staff to use the song because they thought the lyrics were too obscene to appear on television . In order to prove the censors wrong and show that it could appear on television , the staff dug up footage from an old Academy Awards ceremony at which the song was performed by Isaac Hayes . When the chef of the sushi bar finds out that Homer has been poisoned , he yells at his apprentices in Japanese . The staff wanted the language they spoke to be actual Japanese , so they hired a Japanese actor who translated the lines for them . The episode introduced the character Akira , who has appeared many times later on the show . American actor George Takei provided the voice of Akira . The episode featured many other guest appearances ; Larry King as himself ; Sab Shimono as the sushi bar chef ; Joey Miyashima as Toshiro , the apprentice chef who slices up the fugu ; and Diane Tanaka as hostess of the bar . King 's role was first offered to American singer Bruce Springsteen , but he turned it down . According to showrunner Sam Simon , actor William Shatner also rejected the part .
" One Fish , Two Fish , Blowfish , Blue Fish " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 24 , 1991 . The episode was selected for release in a video collection of selected episodes , titled The Last Temptation of Homer , that was released on November 9 , 1998 . Other episodes included in the collection set were " Colonel Homer " , " Homer Alone " , and " Simpson and Delilah " . The episode was again included in the 2005 DVD release of the Last Temptation of Homer set . It was also released in May 1998 on the seventh volume of the Best of The Simpsons video collection , together with " Bart Gets Hit by a Car " . The episode was later included on The Simpsons season two DVD set ; released on August 6 , 2002 . Scovell , Matt Groening , Al Jean , and Mike Reiss participated in the DVD 's audio commentary .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode name is a parody of One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish by Dr. Seuss . The sushi bar that the Simpson family visits is located on a street called Elm Street , a reference to the A Nightmare on Elm Street film franchise . While waiting for Homer to finish his meal at the sushi bar , Bart and Lisa sneak into the bar 's karaoke room and sing the theme song to the 1971 film Shaft , " Theme from Shaft " by Isaac Hayes . In the karaoke room , a gentleman introduces himself as Richie Sakai , a reference to a producer on The Simpsons with the same name . He proceeds to sing the 1971 song " Gypsies , Tramps & Thieves " by Cher . Homer sings his own version of the gospel hymn " When the Saints Go Marching In " while listening to Lisa playing her saxophone one last time . When Homer arrives at his home after leaving Moe 's Tavern , he hammers on one of the windows of the house and shouts Marge 's name . This is a reference to the 1967 film The Graduate , in which Ben Braddock ( Dustin Hoffman ) does the same and runs to the church , pounds on the window , and yells " Elaine ! Elaine ! " As Homer awaits his death , he listens to Larry King read the Bible on tape .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " One Fish , Two Fish , Blowfish , Blue Fish " finished twenty @-@ seventh in the ratings for the week of January 21 – 27 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 1 , equivalent to thirteen million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that despite a " potentially gimmicky tone " , the episode provided " a lot of fun moments along with a little emotional content as well . The show usually balanced sentimentality cleanly , and that occurred here ; it avoided becoming too syrupy and featured just enough emotion to make an impact . It also contained some great bits , like Bart and Lisa ’ s karaoke performance of the ' Theme from Shaft ' . It also ended on a hilarious and incisive note . " Jacobson 's favorite line of the episode was the sushi restaurant hostess 's " This is our karaoke bar . Now it is empty , but soon it will be hopping with drunken Japanese businessmen . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " Again , a playful dig at racial stereotypes . Homer comes over as a reasonable man who wants to live his last day in style , and the closing twist is easily as good as the farewells leading up to it . " Jeremy Kleinman of DVD Talk said that the episode is " rich with sentimentality and Homer 's expression of love for his family as he fears that his time is up . " He also commented that while all of the chalkboard gags on the show are " funny " , this episode " features a true gem " as Bart writes " I will not cut corners " once and then puts ditto marks below . Ed Potton of The Times wrote : " The writers offer black humour by the bucketload , but the grim reality of Homer 's fate is never in doubt ; his eventual collapse is deeply affecting . A great example of [ the show 's ] fierce satire being offset by a potent emotional core . " Doug Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , said the first half of the episode has " fun skewering Japanese restaurants and such , while the second half is reasonably successful at emphasizing character while sustaining the comedy . "
In a review of the second season , Bryce Wilson of Cinema Blend commented : " The worst moments of this season are merely uninspired , never truly horrible . Slight misses like “ Dancin ' Homer ” , “ One Fish , Two Fish , Blowfish , Blue Fish ” , “ Bart 's Dog Gets an F ” , and “ The War of the Simpsons ” are a bit flat . But even in their lowest points , humor is easy to find . " Jeremy Roebuck of KVUE named this episode , along with " Bart Sells His Soul " , " Homer the Heretic " , " Simpsons Bible Stories " , and " She of Little Faith " , one of the best Simpsons episodes with a religious theme . Dawn Taylor of The DVD Journal thought Homer 's line to Bart , " I want to share something with you , the three little sentences that will get you through life . Number one : ' Cover for me . ' Number two : ' Oh , good idea , boss . ' Number three , ' It was like that when I got here . ' " , was the best line of the episode .
= The American Israelite =
The American Israelite is a Jewish weekly newspaper published in Cincinnati , Ohio . Founded in 1854 as The Israelite and assuming its present name in 1874 , it is the longest @-@ running English @-@ language Jewish newspaper still published in the United States .
The paper 's founder , Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise , and publisher , Edward Bloch and his Bloch Publishing Company , were both very influential figures in American Jewish life . During the 19th century , The American Israelite became the leading organ for Reform Judaism in America . During the early 20th century , it helped geographically dispersed American Jews , especially in the West and the South of the country , keep in touch with Jewish affairs and their religious identity .
= = Founding and early history = =
The first Jewish newspaper published in Cincinnati was the English @-@ language The Israelite , established on July 15 , 1854 . It was also among the first Jewish publications in the nation . It was founded by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise , who became known as the father of Reform Judaism in the United States . Its initial issues were published by Charles F. Schmidt . The paper lost $ 600 in its first year , and although Wise repaid the publisher out of his own funds , Schmidt terminated the relationship . Edward Bloch and his Bloch Publishing Company began to publish the paper with the issue of July 27 , 1855 . Bloch , who was Wise 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , subsequently became known as the dean of American Jewish publishers .
From the start , the newspaper 's motto was יהי אור " Let There Be Light , " and still is . Its two goals were to propagate the principles of Reform Judaism and to keep American Jews , who often lived in small towns singly or in communities of two or three families , in touch with Jewish affairs and their religious identity .
The publication , along with Die Deborah , a German @-@ language supplement that Wise started the following year , soon attracted a large circulation and was influential in helping the nascent Reform movement spread throughout North America . Both Wise and the paper had a reach beyond Cincinnati , and especially to the growing Jewish communities in the American Midwest and South . In 1858 , for instance , the members of Congregation B 'nai Israel in Memphis , Tennessee advertised for their first rabbi in The Israelite , at the same time they advertised for a kosher butcher .
Despite its spread , the early years of The Israelite were a financial struggle . Most subscribers did not pay their bills , the Panic of 1857 adversely affected it , and the paper lost half its subscribers in the South during the Civil War . Bloch travelled east several times in the late 1850s in order to solicit subscriptions and advertising . Wise 's admitted sloppiness in monetary matters did not help either . Nevertheless , the newspaper and Bloch stayed out of bankruptcy and relocated to larger offices twice during this period .
Wise , a prolific writer , published in the editorial columns of The Israelite numerous studies on various subjects of Jewish interest . Besides being the leading organ for American Reform Judaism , it also forcefully defended the civil and religious rights of all Jews . Wise tirelessly expounded his call to the " ministers and other Israelites " of the United States , urging them to form a union which might put an end to the prevalent religious anarchy . In 1873 , twenty @-@ five years after he had first broached the idea , the Union of American Hebrew Congregations was organized at Cincinnati . Another campaign he presented in the columns of The Israelite was the desire for an educational institution , and this eventually led to success in 1875 when the Hebrew Union College opened its doors for the reception of students . Wise also wrote a number of novels , which appeared first as serials in the Israelite .
= = New name and continued influence = =
The Israelite was renamed The American Israelite beginning with the issue of July 3 , 1874 . The goal was to make the name more in consonance with the ideas it represented . Despite the change , the paper continued to cover and advocate for not only American Jews but also Jews around the world . By 1879 , a typical issue had eight pages 28 @-@ by @-@ 42 @-@ inches in size , and a subscription cost $ 4 , or $ 5 if the Die Deborah four @-@ page supplement was included .
Rabbi Wise 's son Leo Wise , who had become business manager for the paper in 1875 , took over as its publisher from 1883 to 1884 , and then he did so again , permanently , in 1888 ( due apparently to some kind of rupture between Leo Wise and Bloch ) . A sister publication , The Chicago Israelite , was started in 1885 . The papers stressed their reputation in trade publications , stating " None but clean advertisements of reputable houses accepted . "
Leo Wise gradually took over the principle editorial functions from his father , but Rabbi Wise remained active on the paper until his death on March 26 , 1900 , writing an editorial for it just a few days before . Ownership then passed to Leo Wise .
By 1900 , The American Israelite , in combination with The Chicago Israelite , claimed a circulation of other 35 @,@ 000 , about 12 @,@ 000 in Ohio and Illinois and the balance spread across almost every other state as well as Canada and Mexico . The publication Printer 's Ink said they had the largest guaranteed circulation of any Jewish newspaper in the U.S. , and it continued to be especially strong in the West and the South . One 1902 book characterized The American Israelite as " the leading Jewish newspaper in the United States and the National Journal of the Jews . "
In the early 20th century , the paper 's short articles were sometimes picked up and run by The New York Times with a credit " From The American Israelite " . In those years , The American Israelite became known for its very strong stance against the new Zionism movement , calling it in 1902 a " pernicious agitation " that would undermine the acceptance of Jews in the countries where they currently resided . Rabbi David Philipson was among the editorial contributors to the paper who used it to oppose Zionism , arguing that Judaism was a religion exclusively , and thus stateless . Other noted contributors to the paper in this era included Rabbi Moses Mielziner and Jewish history scholar Gotthard Deutsch , as well as other prominent rabbis and Jewish thinkers within the country . The paper gave extensive coverage to the goings @-@ on of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations and the Hebrew Union College ( and was sometimes viewed as a publication of them ) , as well as notices of various rabbinical conferences .
Die Deborah was discontinued after Isaac Wise 's death , then resumed for a while . The Chicago Israelite ceased publication in 1920 . Leo Wise edited The American Israelite until his retirement at age 78 in 1928 ( he died in 1933 ) . Another son of Isaac , Isidor Wise , worked as a writer and associate editor for the paper until his death in 1929 .
= = Subsequent history = =
Leo Wise was succeeded as editor and publisher of The American Israelite in 1928 by his half @-@ brother , Rabbi Jonah Wise of New York , who remained in that city and who himself became a long @-@ time leader of American Reform Judaism .
The Jonah Wise arrangement did not last long , and in
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Marmara Region on a total area of 5 @,@ 343 square kilometers ( 2 @,@ 063 sq mi ) . The Bosphorus , which connects the Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea , divides the city into a European , Thracian side — comprising the historic and economic centers — and an Asian , Anatolian side . The city is further divided by the Golden Horn , a natural harbor bounding the peninsula where the former Byzantium and Constantinople were founded . The confluence of the Sea of Marmara , the Bosphorus , and the Golden Horn at the heart of present @-@ day Istanbul has deterred attacking forces for thousands of years and remains a prominent feature of the city 's landscape .
Following the model of Rome , the historic peninsula is said to be characterized by seven hills , each topped by imperial mosques . The easternmost of these hills is the site of Topkapı Palace on the Sarayburnu . Rising from the opposite side of the Golden Horn is another , conical hill , where the modern Beyoğlu district is situated . Because of the topography , buildings in Beyoğlu were once constructed with the help of terraced retaining walls , and roads were laid out in the form of steps . Üsküdar on the Asian side exhibits similarly hilly characteristics , with the terrain gradually extending down to the Bosphorus coast , but the landscape in Şemsipaşa and Ayazma is more abrupt , akin to a promontory . The highest point in Istanbul is Çamlıca Hill , with an altitude of 288 meters ( 945 ft ) . The northern half of Istanbul has a higher mean elevation compared to the south coast , with locations surpassing 200 meters ( 660 ft ) , and some coasts with steep cliffs resembling fjords , especially around the northern end of the Bosporus , where it opens up to the Black Sea .
Istanbul is situated near the North Anatolian Fault , close to the boundary between the African and Eurasian Plates . This fault zone , which runs from northern Anatolia to the Sea of Marmara , has been responsible for several deadly earthquakes throughout the city 's history . Among the most devastating of these seismic events was the 1509 earthquake , which caused a tsunami that broke over the walls of the city and killed more than 10 @,@ 000 people . More recently , in 1999 , an earthquake with its epicenter in nearby İzmit left 18 @,@ 000 people dead , including 1 @,@ 000 people in Istanbul 's suburbs . The people of Istanbul remain concerned that an even more catastrophic seismic event may be in the city 's near future , as thousands of structures recently built to accommodate Istanbul 's rapidly increasing population may not have been constructed properly . Seismologists say the risk of a 7 @.@ 6 @-@ magnitude or greater earthquake striking Istanbul by 2030 is more than 60 percent .
= = = Climate = = =
In the Köppen – Geiger classification system , Istanbul has a borderline Mediterranean climate ( Csa ) , humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) and oceanic climate ( Cfb ) , due to its location in a transitional climatic zone . Since precipitation in summer months , ranges from 20 to 65 mm ( 1 to 3 in ) , depending on location , the city cannot be classified as solely Mediterranean or humid subtropical . Due to its size , diverse topography , maritime location and most importantly having a coastline to two different bodies of water to the north and south , Istanbul exhibits microclimates . The northern half of the city , as well as the Bosporus coastline , express characteristics of oceanic and humid subtropical climates , because of humidity from the Black Sea and the relatively high concentration of vegetation . The climate in the populated areas of the city to the south , located on the Sea of Marmara , is warmer , drier and less affected by humidity . The annual precipitation in the northern half can be twice as much ( Bahçeköy , 1166 @.@ 6 mm ) , than it is in the southern , Marmara coast ( Florya 635 @.@ 0 mm ) . There is a significant difference between annual mean temperatures on the north and south coasts as well , Bahçeköy 12 @.@ 8 ° C ( 55 @.@ 0 ° F ) , Kartal 15 @.@ 03 ° C ( 59 @.@ 05 ° F ) . Parts of the province , that are away from both seas exhibit considerable continental influences , with much more pronounced night @-@ day and summer @-@ winter temperature differences . In winter some parts of the province average freezing or below at night .
Istanbul 's persistently high humidity reaches 80 percent most mornings . Because of this , fog is very common , although more so in northern parts of the city and away from the city center . Dense fog disrupts transportation in the region , including on the Bosphorus , and is common during the autumn and winter months when the humidity remains high into the afternoon . The humid conditions and the fog tend to dissipate by midday during the summer months , but the lingering humidity exacerbates the moderately high summer temperatures . During these summer months , high temperatures average around 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) and rainfall is uncommon ; there are only about fifteen days with measurable precipitation between June and August . The summer months also have the highest concentration of thunderstorms .
Winter is colder in Istanbul than in most other cities around the Mediterranean Basin , with low temperatures averaging 1 – 4 ° C ( 34 – 39 ° F ) . Lake @-@ effect snow from the Black Sea is common , although difficult to forecast , with the potential to be heavy and — as with the fog — disruptive to the city 's infrastructure . Spring and autumn are mild , but often wet and unpredictable ; chilly winds from the northwest and warm gusts from the south — sometimes in the same day — tend to cause fluctuations in temperature . Overall , Istanbul has an annual average of 130 days with significant precipitation , which amounts to 810 millimeters ( 31 @.@ 9 in ) per year . The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded in the city center on the Marmara coast are 40 @.@ 5 ° C ( 105 ° F ) and − 16 @.@ 1 ° C ( 3 ° F ) . The greatest rainfall recorded in a day is 227 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) , and the highest recorded snow cover is 80 centimeters ( 31 in ) .
= = Cityscape = =
The Fatih district corresponds to what was , until the Ottoman conquest , the whole of the city , across from the Genoese citadel of Galata . Those Genoese fortifications were largely demolished in the 19th century , leaving only the Galata Tower , to make way for northward expansion of the city . Galata is now part of the Beyoğlu district , which forms Istanbul 's commercial and entertainment center on Taksim Square .
Dolmabahçe Palace , the seat of government during the late Ottoman period , is located in Beşiktaş , just south of Beyoğlu , across from BJK İnönü Stadium , home to Turkey 's oldest sports club . The main administration building of the Ottoman Empire was the " Sublime Porte " or BaabiAli a huge building in the old City . The former village of Ortaköy is situated within Beşiktaş and gives its name to the Ortaköy Mosque , along the Bosphorus near the First Bosphorus Bridge . Lining the shores of the Bosphorus north of there are yalıs , luxurious chalet mansions originally built by 19th @-@ century aristocrats and elites as summer homes . Farther inland , outside the city 's inner ring road , are Levent and Maslak , Istanbul 's primary economic centers .
During the Ottoman period , Üsküdar and Kadıköy were outside the scope of urban Istanbul , serving as tranquil outposts with seaside yalıs and gardens . During the second half of the 20th century , the Asian side experienced major urban growth ; the late development of this part of the city led to better infrastructure and tidier urban planning when compared with most other residential areas in the city . Much of the Asian side of the Bosphorus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul , accounting for a third of the city 's population but only a quarter of its employment . As a result of Istanbul 's exponential growth during the 20th century , a significant portion of the city is composed of gecekondus ( literally " built overnight " ) , referring to illegally constructed squatter buildings . At present , some gecekondu areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass @-@ housing compounds . Moreover , large scale gentrification and urban renewal projects have been taking place , such as the one in Tarlabaşı ; some of these projects , like the one in Sulukule , have faced criticism . The Turkish government also has ambitious plans for an expansion of the city west and northwards on the European side in conjunction with plans for a third airport and the city 's Olympic bid ; the new parts of the city will include four different settlements with specified urban functions , housing 1 @.@ 5 million people .
Istanbul does not have a primary urban park , but it does have several green areas . Gülhane Park and Yıldız Park were originally included within the grounds of two of Istanbul 's palaces — Topkapı Palace and Yıldız Palace — but they were repurposed as public parks in the early decades of the Turkish Republic . Another park , Fethi Paşa Korusu , is situated on a hillside adjacent to the Bosphorus Bridge in Anatolia , opposite Yıldız Palace . Along the European side , and closer to the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge , is Emirgan Park ; originally a private estate belonging to Ottoman leaders , the 47 @-@ hectare ( 120 @-@ acre ) park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual tulip festival held since 2005 . Popular during the summer among Istanbulites is Belgrad Forest , spreading across 5 @,@ 500 hectares ( 14 @,@ 000 acres ) at the northern edge of the city . The forest originally supplied water to the city and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times survive .
= = = Architecture = = =
Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture , but its buildings reflect the various peoples and empires that have previously ruled the city . Examples of Genoese and Roman architecture remain visible in Istanbul alongside their Ottoman counterparts . Nothing of the architecture of the classical Greek period has survived , but Roman architecture has proved to be more durable . The obelisk erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome of Constantinople is still visible in Sultanahmet Square , and a section of the Valens Aqueduct , constructed in the late 4th century , stands relatively intact at the western edge of the Fatih district . The Column of Constantine , erected in 330 CE to mark the new Roman capital , stands not far from the Hippodrome .
Early Byzantine architecture followed the classical Roman model of domes and arches , but improved upon these elements , as in the Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus . The oldest surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul — albeit in ruins — is the Monastery of Stoudios ( later converted into the Imrahor Mosque ) , which was built in 454 . After the recapture of Constantinople in 1261 , the Byzantines enlarged two of the most important churches extant , Chora Church and Pammakaristos Church . The pinnacle of Byzantine architecture , and one of Istanbul 's most iconic structures , is the Hagia Sophia . Topped by a dome 31 meters ( 102 ft ) in diameter , the Hagia Sophia stood as the world 's largest cathedral for centuries , and was later converted into a mosque and , as it stands now , a museum .
Among the oldest surviving examples of Ottoman architecture in Istanbul are the Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı fortresses , which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city . Over the next four centuries , the Ottomans made an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul , building towering mosques and ornate palaces . The largest palace , Topkapı , includes a diverse array of architectural styles , from Baroque inside the Harem , to its Neoclassical style Enderûn Library . The imperial mosques include Fatih Mosque , Bayezid Mosque , Yavuz Selim Mosque , Süleymaniye Mosque , Sultan Ahmed Mosque ( the Blue Mosque ) , and Yeni Mosque , all of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire , in the 16th and 17th centuries . In the following centuries , and especially after the Tanzimat reforms , Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles . An example of which is the imperial Nuruosmaniye Mosque . Areas around İstiklal Avenue were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical , Renaissance Revival and Art Nouveau styles , which went on to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu — including churches , stores , and theaters — and official buildings such as Dolmabahçe Palace .
= = Administration = =
Since 2004 , the municipal boundaries of Istanbul have been coincident with the boundaries of its province . The city , considered capital of Istanbul Province , is administered by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality ( MMI ) , which oversees the 39 districts of the city @-@ province .
The current city structure can be traced back to the Tanzimat period of reform in the 19th century , before which Islamic judges and imams led the city under the auspices of the Grand Vizier . Following the model of French cities , this religious system was replaced by a mayor and a citywide council composed of representatives of the confessional groups ( millet ) across Istanbul . Beyoğlu was the first area of the city to have its own director and council , with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood . Laws enacted after the Ottoman constitution of 1876 aimed to expand this structure across the city , imitating the twenty arrondissements of Paris , but they were not fully implemented until 1908 , when Istanbul was declared a province with nine constituent districts . This system continued beyond the founding of the Turkish Republic , with the province renamed a belediye ( municipality ) , but the municipality was disbanded in 1957 .
Small settlements adjacent to major population centers in Turkey , including Istanbul , were merged into their respective primary cities during the early 1980s , resulting in metropolitan municipalities . The main decision @-@ making body of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is the Municipal Council , with members drawn from district councils .
The Municipal Council is responsible for citywide issues , including managing the budget , maintaining civic infrastructure , and overseeing museums and major cultural centers . Since the government operates under a " powerful mayor , weak council " approach , the council 's leader — the metropolitan mayor — has the authority to make swift decisions , often at the expense of transparency . The Municipal Council is advised by the Metropolitan Executive Committee , although the Committee also has limited power to make decisions of its own . All representatives on the Committee are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the Council , with the mayor — or someone of his or her choosing — serving as head .
District councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts . They each maintain their own budgets , although the metropolitan mayor reserves the right to review district decisions . One @-@ fifth of all district council members , including the district mayors , also represent their districts in the Municipal Council . All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council , including the metropolitan mayor , are elected to five @-@ year terms . Representing the Justice and Development Party , Kadir Topbaş has been Mayor of Istanbul since March 2004 .
With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions , few responsibilities remain for the provincial government . Similar to the MMI , the Istanbul Special Provincial Administration has a governor , a democratically elected decision @-@ making body — the Provincial Parliament — and an appointed Executive Committee . Mirroring the executive committee at the municipal level , the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary @-@ general and leaders of departments that advise the Provincial Parliament . The Provincial Administration 's duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools , residences , government buildings , and roads , and the promotion of arts , culture , and nature conservation . Hüseyin Avni Mutlu has been Governor of Istanbul Province since May 2010 .
= = Demographics = =
Throughout most of its history , Istanbul has ranked among the largest cities in the world . By 500 CE , Constantinople had somewhere between 400 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 people , edging out its predecessor , Rome , for world 's largest city . Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities , such as Baghdad , Chang 'an , Kaifeng and Merv for the position of world 's most populous city until the 12th century . It never returned to being the world 's largest , but remained Europe 's largest city from 1500 to 1750 , when it was surpassed by London .
The Turkish Statistical Institute estimates that the population of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality was 14 @,@ 377 @,@ 019 at the end of 2014 , hosting 19 percent of the country 's population . Other estimate that at the same time the population within city limits was 14 @,@ 657 @,@ 434 . Then about 97 – 98 % of the inhabitants of the metropolitan municipality were within city limits , up from 89 % in 2007 and 61 % in 1980 . 64 @.@ 7 % of the residents live on the European side and 35 @.@ 3 % on the Asian side . While the city ranks as world 's 7th @-@ largest city proper , it drops the rank to the 24th place as an urban area and to the 18th place as a metro area because the city limits are roughly equivalent to the agglomeration . Today , it forms one of the largest urban agglomerations in Europe , alongside Moscow . The city 's annual population growth of 3 @.@ 45 percent ranks as the highest among the seventy @-@ eight largest metropolises in the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development . The high population growth mirrors an urbanization trend across the country , as the second and third fastest @-@ growing OECD metropolises are the Turkish cities of İzmir and Ankara .
Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century , with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000 . This growth in population comes , in part , from an expansion of city limits — particularly between 1980 and 1985 , when the number of Istanbulites nearly doubled . The remarkable growth was , and still is , largely fueled by migrants from eastern Turkey seeking employment and improved living conditions . The number of residents of Istanbul originating from seven northern and eastern provinces is greater than the populations of their entire respective provinces ; Sivas and Kastamonu each account for more than half a million residents of Istanbul . Istanbul 's foreign population , by comparison , is very small , 42 @,@ 228 residents in 2007 . Only 28 percent of the city 's residents are originally from Istanbul . The most densely populated areas tend to lie to the northwest , west , and southwest of the city center , on the European side ; the most densely populated district on the Asian side is Üsküdar .
= = = Religious and ethnic groups = = =
Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history , but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman Empire . Most of Turkey 's religious and ethnic minorities remain concentrated in Istanbul . The vast majority of people across Turkey , and in Istanbul , are Muslim , and more specifically members of the Sunni branch of Islam . Most Sunnis follow the Hanafi school of Islamic thought , although approximately 10 percent of Sunnis follow the Shafi 'i school . The largest non @-@ Sunni Muslim sect , accounting for 4 @.@ 5 million Turks , is the Alevis ; a third of all Alevis in the country live in Istanbul . Mystic movements , like Sufism , were officially banned after the establishment of the Turkish Republic , but they still boast numerous followers .
The Patriarch of Constantinople has been designated Ecumenical Patriarch since the sixth century , and has subsequently come to be widely regarded as the leader of the world 's 300 million Orthodox Christians . Since 1601 , the Patriarchate has been based in Istanbul 's Church of St. George . Into the 19th century , the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either Greek Orthodox or members of the Armenian Apostolic Church . The headquarters of the Turkish Orthodox Church are located in the city . Because of events during the 20th century — including the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey , a 1942 wealth tax , and the 1955 Istanbul riots — the Greek population , originally centered in Fener and Samatya , has decreased substantially . At the start of the 21st century , Istanbul 's Greek population numbered 3 @,@ 000 ( down from 130 @,@ 000 in 1923 and 260 @,@ 000 according to the Ottoman Census of 1910 of 850 @,@ 000 total ) . There are today between 50 @,@ 000 and 70 @,@ 000 Armenians in Istanbul , down from 164 @,@ 000 in 1913 partly due to the Armenian Genocide . Christians made up half the population of the city in 1910 .
The largest ethnic minority in Istanbul is the Kurdish community , originating from eastern and southeastern Turkey . Although the Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period , the influx of Kurds into the city has accelerated since the beginning of the Kurdish – Turkish conflict with the Kurdistan Workers ' Party ( i.e. since the late 1970s ) . About two to three million residents of Istanbul are Kurdish , meaning there are more Kurds in Istanbul than in any other city in the world . There are other significant ethnic minorities as well , the Bosniaks are the main people of an entire district – Bayrampaşa . The neighborhood of Balat used to be home to a sizable Sephardi Jewish community , first formed during the period of the Spanish Inquisition . Romaniotes and Ashkenazi Jews resided in Istanbul even before the Sephardim , but their proportion has since dwindled ; today , 1 percent of Istanbul 's Jews are Ashkenazi . In large part due to emigration to Israel , the Jewish population nationwide dropped from 100 @,@ 000 in 1950 to 18 @,@ 000 in 2005 , with the majority of them living in either Istanbul or İzmir . Levantines , Latin Christians who settled in Galata during the Ottoman period , played a seminal role in shaping the culture and architecture of Istanbul during the 19th and early 20th centuries ; their population has dwindled , but they remain in the city in small numbers . From the increase in mutual cooperation between Turkey and several African States like Somalia and Djibouti , several young students and workers have been migrating to Istanbul in search of better education and employment opportunities . There is also a small Nigerian , Congolese and Cameroonian and North African community present .
= = Politics = =
Istanbul has voted for the winning party in general elections since 1995 . Since 2002 , the right @-@ wing Justice and Development Party ( AKP ) has won pluralities in every general and local election . The city 's electorate has also voted for the AKP government 's constitutional reforms proposed during the 2007 and 2010 constitutional referenda . Turkish President and former AKP Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was elected Mayor of İstanbul in the 1994 local elections as the Islamist Welfare Party candidate with 25 @.@ 1 % of the vote , winning due to a vote split between the mainstream centrist parties . Conservative parties traditionally find support in older districts with high population densities such as Bağcılar , Fatih , Sultanbeyli and Esenler . The opposition Kemalist center @-@ left Republican People 's Party ( CHP ) , currently the second major political force in both İstanbul and the country , gets most of its support from more rural districts such as Silivri , Çatalca and Sarıyer . Urban districts such as Beşiktaş , Bakırköy , Şişli and Kadıköy have returned strong support for the CHP in past elections . The CHP are generally strongest in the west , where newer residential developments are taking place . İstanbul has 39 districts , more than any other province in Turkey . Since İstanbul is Turkey 's largest city and has usually voted in the same way as the country as a whole , it is largely perceived in Turkish politics that the winning party of an election is essentially decided by İstanbul 's electorate . Political parties thus allocate substantial amounts of electoral campaign funds and to winning control of the İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality . Due to its electoral importance , İstanbul has reported the largest and most serious cases of electoral fraud in recent elections , including the 2014 local elections .
The incumbent mayor of the city is Kadir Topbaş of the AKP , who was first elected in the 2004 local elections and succeeded Ali Müfit Gürtuna of the closed down Welfare Party . He was re @-@ elected in 2009 and 2014 . The leader of the CHP and parliamentary opposition , Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu , ran against Topbaş in the 2009 local elections . He is currently a Member of Parliament for İstanbul . Between 2007 and 2014 , Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was also an MP for İstanbul . For general elections , the city is divided into 3 electoral districts and returns 85 MPs to the Turkish parliament . In the 2014 presidential election , 49 @.@ 83 % of the city 's electorate voted for AKP candidate Recep Tayyip Erdoğan . Although Erdoğan won the most votes in İstanbul , his failure to win above 50 % was seen as significant . Opposition candidate Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu came second with 41 @.@ 08 % and the HDP pro @-@ Kurdish and left @-@ wing candidate Selahattin Demirtaş won a substantial 9 @.@ 09 % . In 2013 and 2014 , large @-@ scale anti @-@ AKP government protests began in İstanbul and spread throughout the nation .
= = Economy = =
With a PPP @-@ adjusted gross domestic product of US $ 301 @.@ 1 billion , Istanbul ranked 29th among the world 's urban areas in 2011 . Since the mid @-@ 1990s , Istanbul 's economy has been one of the fastest @-@ growing among OECD metro @-@ regions . Istanbul is responsible for 27 percent of Turkey 's GDP , with 20 percent of the country 's industrial labor force residing in the city . Its GDP per capita and productivity are greater than their national averages by 70 percent and 50 percent , respectively , owing in part to the focus on high @-@ value @-@ added activities . With its high population and significant contribution to the Turkish economy , Istanbul is responsible for two @-@ fifths of the nation 's tax revenue . That includes the taxes of 37 US @-@ dollar billionaires based in Istanbul , the fifth @-@ highest number among cities around the world .
As expected for a city of its size , Istanbul has a diverse industrial economy , producing commodities as varied as olive oil , tobacco , vehicles , and electronics . Despite having a focus on high @-@ value @-@ added work , its low @-@ value @-@ added manufacturing sector is substantial , representing just 26 percent of Istanbul 's GDP , but four @-@ fifths of the city 's total exports . In 2005 , companies based in Istanbul produced exports worth $ 41 @.@ 4 billion and received imports totaling $ 69 @.@ 9 billion ; these figures were equivalent to 57 percent and 60 percent , respectively , of the national totals .
Istanbul is home to Borsa Istanbul , the sole exchange entity of Turkey , which combined the former Istanbul Stock Exchange , the Istanbul Gold Exchange , and the Derivatives Exchange of Turkey . The former Istanbul Stock Exchange was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866 . During the 19th and early 20th centuries , Bankalar Caddesi ( Banks Street ) in Galata was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire , where the Ottoman Stock Exchange was located . Bankalar Caddesi continued to be Istanbul 's main financial district until the 1990s , when most Turkish banks began moving their headquarters to the modern central business districts of Levent and Maslak . In 1995 , the Istanbul Stock Exchange ( now Borsa Istanbul ) moved to its current building in the İstinye quarter of the Sarıyer district . A new central business district is also under construction in Ataşehir and will host the headquarters of various Turkish banks and financial institutions upon completion .
As the only sea route between the oil @-@ rich Black Sea and the Mediterranean , the Bosphorus is one of the busiest waterways in the world ; more than 200 million tonnes of oil pass through the strait each year , and the traffic on the Bosphorus is three times that on the Suez Canal . As a result , there have been proposals to build a canal , known as Canal Istanbul , parallel to the strait , on the European side of the city . Istanbul has three major shipping ports — the Port of Haydarpaşa , the Port of Ambarlı , and the Port of Zeytinburnu — as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara . Haydarpaşa , situated at the southeastern end of the Bosphorus , was Istanbul 's largest port until the early 2000s . Shifts in operations to Ambarlı since then have left Haydarpaşa running under capacity and with plans to decommission the port . In 2007 , Ambarlı , on the western edge of the urban center , had an annual capacity of 1 @.@ 5 million TEUs ( compared to 354 @,@ 000 TEUs at Haydarpaşa ) , making it the fourth @-@ largest cargo terminal in the Mediterranean basin . The Port of Zeytinburnu is advantaged by its proximity to motorways and Atatürk International Airport , and long @-@ term plans for the city call for greater connectivity between all terminals and the road and rail networks .
Istanbul is an increasingly popular tourist destination ; whereas just 2 @.@ 4 million foreigners visited the city in 2000 , it welcomed 12 @.@ 56 million foreign tourists in 2015 , making it the world 's fifth most @-@ visited city . Istanbul is Turkey 's second @-@ largest international gateway , after Antalya , receiving a quarter of the nation 's foreign tourists . Istanbul 's tourist industry is concentrated in the European side , with 90 percent of the city 's hotels located there . Low- and mid @-@ range hotels tend to be located on the Sarayburnu ; higher @-@ end hotels are primarily located in the entertainment and financial centers north of the Golden Horn . Istanbul 's seventy museums , the most visited of which are the Topkapı Palace Museum and the Hagia Sophia , bring in $ 30 million in revenue each year . The city 's environmental master plan also notes that there are 17 palaces , 64 mosques , and 49 churches of historical significance in Istanbul .
= = Culture = =
Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub , but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara . The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions , especially those originating in Europe , but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital . Much of Turkey 's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul , and by the 1980s and 1990s Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory .
By the end of the 19th century , Istanbul had established itself as a regional artistic center , with Turkish , European , and Middle Eastern artists flocking to the city . Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey 's cultural heart , Istanbul had the country 's primary institution of art until the 1970s . When additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s , artists formerly based in Ankara moved in . Beyoğlu has been transformed into the artistic center of the city , with young artists and older Turkish artists formerly residing abroad finding footing there . Modern art museums , including İstanbul Modern , the Pera Museum , Sakıp Sabancı Museum and SantralIstanbul , opened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city . These museums have yet to attain the popularity of older museums on the historic peninsula , including the Istanbul Archaeology Museums , which ushered in the era of modern museums in Turkey , and the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum .
The first film screening in Turkey was at Yıldız Palace in 1896 , a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris . Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu , with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as İstiklal Avenue . Istanbul also became the heart of Turkey 's nascent film industry , although Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s . Since then , Istanbul has been the most popular location to film Turkish dramas and comedies . The Turkish film industry ramped up in the second half of the century , and with Uzak ( 2002 ) and My Father and My Son ( 2005 ) , both filmed in Istanbul , the nation 's movies began to see substantial international success . Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for several foreign films , including Topkapi ( 1964 ) , The World Is Not Enough ( 1999 ) , and Mission Istaanbul ( 2008 ) .
Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the establishment of the Istanbul Festival , which began showcasing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in 1973 . From this flagship festival came the International Istanbul Film Festival and the Istanbul International Jazz Festival in the early 1980s . With its focus now solely on music and dance , the Istanbul Festival has been known as the Istanbul International Music Festival since 1994 . The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is the Istanbul Biennial , held every two years since 1987 . Its early incarnations were aimed at showcasing Turkish visual art , and it has since opened to international artists and risen in prestige to join the elite biennales , alongside the Venice Biennale and the São Paulo Art Biennial .
= = = Leisure and entertainment = = =
Istanbul has numerous shopping centers , from the historic to the modern . The Grand Bazaar , in operation since 1461 , is among the world 's oldest and largest covered markets . Mahmutpasha Bazaar is an open @-@ air market extending between the Grand Bazaar and the Egyptian Bazaar , which has been Istanbul 's major spice market since 1660 . Galleria Ataköy ushered in the age of modern shopping malls in Turkey when it opened in 1987 . Since then , malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula . Akmerkez was awarded the titles of " Europe 's best " and " World 's best " shopping mall by the International Council of Shopping Centers in 1995 and 1996 ; Istanbul Cevahir has been one of the continent 's largest since opening in 2005 ; Kanyon won the Cityscape Architectural Review Award in the Commercial Built category in 2006 . İstinye Park in İstinye and Zorlu Center near Levent are among the newest malls which include the stores of the world 's top fashion brands . Abdi İpekçi Street in Nişantaşı and Bağdat Avenue on the Anatolian side of the city have evolved into high @-@ end shopping districts .
Istanbul is famous for its historic seafood restaurants . Many of the city 's most popular and upscale seafood restaurants line the shores of the Bosphorus ( particularly in neighborhoods like Ortaköy , Bebek , Arnavutköy , Yeniköy , Beylerbeyi and Çengelköy ) . Kumkapı along the Sea of Marmara has a pedestrian zone that hosts around fifty fish restaurants . The Prince Islands , 15 kilometers ( 9 mi ) from the city center , are also popular for their seafood restaurants . Because of their restaurants , historic summer mansions , and tranquil , car @-@ free streets , the Prince Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists . Istanbul is also famous for its sophisticated and elaborately @-@ cooked dishes of the Ottoman cuisine . However , following the influx of immigrants from southeastern and eastern Turkey , which began in the 1960s , the foodscape of the city has drastically changed by the end of the century ; with influences of Middle Eastern cuisine such as kebab taking an important place in the food scene . Restaurants featuring foreign cuisines are mainly concentrated in the Beyoğlu , Beşiktaş , Şişli and Kadıköy districts .
Istanbul is famous for its nightlife , as well as its historic taverns , a signature characteristic of the city for centuries if not millennia . Along the İstiklal Avenue is the Çiçek Pasajı , now home to winehouses ( known as meyhanes ) , pubs , and restaurants . İstiklal Avenue , originally famous for its taverns , has shifted toward shopping , but the nearby Nevizade Street is still lined with winehouses and pubs . Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have recently been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu 's nightlife , with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs , cafes , and restaurants playing live music . Other focal points for Istanbul 's nightlife include Nişantaşı , Ortaköy , Bebek , and Kadıköy .
= = Sports = =
Istanbul has some of Turkey 's oldest sports clubs . Beşiktaş J.K. , established in 1903 , is considered the oldest of these sports clubs . Due to its initial status as Turkey 's only club , Beşiktaş occasionally represented the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic in international sports competitions , earning the right to place the Turkish flag inside its team logo . Its football team has seen several periods of dominance in national competition . Galatasaray S.K. and Fenerbahçe S.K. have fared better in international competition and share the honor of winning the most Süper Lig championships : 20 and 19 times , respectively . Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have a long @-@ standing rivalry , with Galatasaray based in the European part and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city . Istanbul has seven basketball teams — Anadolu Efes , Beşiktaş , Darüşşafaka , Fenerbahçe , Galatasaray , İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyespor and Büyükçekmece — that play in the premier @-@ level Turkish Basketball Super League .
Many of Istanbul 's sports facilities have been built or upgraded since 2000 to bolster the city 's bids for the Summer Olympic Games . Atatürk Olympic Stadium , the largest multi @-@ purpose stadium in Turkey , was completed in 2002 as an IAAF first @-@ class venue for track and field . The stadium hosted the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final . Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium , Fenerbahçe 's home field , hosted the 2009 UEFA Cup Final three years after its completion . Türk Telekom Arena opened in 2011 to replace Ali Sami Yen Stadium as Galatasaray 's home turf , while Vodafone Arena opened in 2016 to replace BJK İnönü Stadium as the home turf of Beşiktaş , which won the Süper Lig in the same season . All four stadiums are elite Category 4 ( formerly five @-@ star ) UEFA stadiums .
The Sinan Erdem Dome , among the largest indoor arenas in Europe , hosted the final of the 2010 FIBA World Championship , the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships , and the 2011 – 12 Euroleague Final Four . Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010 , Abdi İpekçi Arena was Istanbul 's primary indoor arena , having hosted the finals of EuroBasket 2001 . Several other indoor arenas , including the Beşiktaş Akatlar Arena , have also been inaugurated since 2000 , serving as the home courts of Istanbul 's sports clubs . The most recent of these is the 13 @,@ 800 @-@ seat Ülker Sports Arena , which opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe 's basketball teams . Despite the construction boom , five bids for the Summer Olympics — in 2000 , 2004 , 2008 , 2012 , and 2020 — and national bids for UEFA Euro 2012 and UEFA Euro 2016 have ended unsuccessfully .
Istanbul Park was a stop on the World Touring Car Championship circuit and the European Le Mans Series in 2005 and 2006 , but the track has not seen either of these competitions since then . Between its opening in 2005 and 2011 , Istanbul Park also hosted the annual Turkish Grand Prix ; its future remains uncertain due to financial troubles . The Istanbul Sailing Club , established in 1952 , hosts races , showcases , and events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year . The Turkish Offshore Racing Club also hosts major races , with its most prestigious being its race for the Marine Forces Trophy . Istanbul was also an occasional stop on the F1 Powerboat World Championship circuit , although its last appearance on the Bosphorus was in 2000 .
= = Media = =
Most state @-@ run radio and television stations are based in Ankara , but Istanbul is the primary hub of Turkish media . The industry has its roots in the former Ottoman capital , where the first Turkish newspaper , Takvim @-@ i Vekayi ( Calendar of Affairs ) , was published in 1831 . The Cağaloğlu street on which the newspaper was printed , Bâb @-@ ı Âli Street , rapidly became the center of Turkish print media , alongside Beyoğlu across the Golden Horn .
Today , Istanbul hosts a wide variety of periodicals . Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul , with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions . Istanbul @-@ based Zaman , although only founded in 1986 , is Turkey 's most widely circulated paper , with a weekly distribution of more than one million , twice that of its nearest competitor . Posta , Hürriyet , and Sözcü , which round out the country 's top four papers , are all headquartered in Istanbul , boasting more than 300 @,@ 000 weekly sales each . Hürriyet 's English @-@ language edition , The Hürriyet Daily News , has been printed since 1961 , but the English @-@ language Today 's Zaman , first published by Zaman in 2007 , has overtaken it in circulation . Several smaller newspapers , including popular publications like Habertürk and Milliyet , are also based in Istanbul .
Radio broadcasts in Istanbul date back to 1927 , when Turkey 's first radio transmission came from atop the Central Post Office in Eminönü . Control of this transmission , and other radio stations established in the following decades , ultimately came under the state @-@ run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation ( TRT ) , which held a monopoly on radio and television broadcasts between its founding in 1964 and 1990 . Today , TRT runs four national radio stations ; these stations have transmitters across the country so each can reach over 90 percent of the country 's population , but only Radio 2 is based in Istanbul . Offering a range of content from educational programming to coverage of sporting events , Radio 2 is the most popular radio station in Turkey . Istanbul 's airwaves are the busiest in Turkey , primarily featuring either Turkish @-@ language or English @-@ language content . One of the exceptions , offering both , is Açık Radyo ( 94 @.@ 9 FM ) . Among Turkey 's first private stations , and the first featuring foreign popular music , was Istanbul 's Metro FM ( 97 @.@ 2 FM ) . The state @-@ run Radio 3 , although based in Ankara , also features English @-@ language popular music , and English @-@ language news programming is provided on NTV Radyo ( 102 @.@ 8 FM ) .
TRT @-@ Children is the only TRT television station based in Istanbul . Istanbul is home to the headquarters of several Turkish stations and regional headquarters of international media outlets . Istanbul @-@ based Star TV was the first private television network to be established following the end of the TRT monopoly ; Star TV and Show TV ( also based in Istanbul ) remain highly popular throughout the country , airing Turkish and American series . Samanyolu TV , Kanal D , and ATV are other stations in Istanbul that offer a mix of news and series ; NTV ( partnered with U.S. media outlet MSNBC ) and Sky Turk — both based in the city — are mainly just known for their news coverage in Turkish . The BBC has a regional office in Istanbul , assisting its Turkish @-@ language news operations , and the American news channel CNN established the Turkish @-@ language CNN Türk there in 1999 . The Istanbul @-@ based business and entertainment channel CNBC @-@ e began broadcasting in 2000 .
= = Education = =
Istanbul University , founded in 1453 , is the oldest Turkish educational institution in the city . Although originally an Islamic school , the university established law , medicine , and science departments in the 19th century and was secularized after the founding of the Turkish Republic . Istanbul Technical University , founded in 1773 , is the world 's third @-@ oldest university dedicated entirely to engineering sciences . These public universities are two of just eight across the city ; other prominent state universities in Istanbul include the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University , which served as Turkey 's primary institution of art until the 1970s , and Marmara University , the country 's third @-@ largest institution of higher learning .
Most established universities in Istanbul are backed by the government ; the city also has several prominent private institutions . The first modern private university in Istanbul , also the oldest American school in existence in its original location outside the United States , was Robert College , founded by Christopher Robert , an American philanthropist , and Cyrus Hamlin , a missionary devoted to education , in 1863 . The tertiary element of its education program became the public Boğaziçi University in 1971 ; the remaining portion in Arnavutköy continues as a boarding high @-@ school under the name Robert College . Private universities were officially outlawed in Turkey before the Constitution of 1982 , but there were already fifteen private " higher schools " , which were effectively universities , in Istanbul by 1970 . The first private university established in Istanbul since 1982 was Koç University ( founded in 1992 ) , and another dozen had opened within the following decade . Today , there are at least 30 private universities in the city , including Istanbul Commerce University and Kadir Has University . A new biomedical research and development hub , called Bio Istanbul , is under construction in Başakşehir , and will host 15 @,@ 000 residents , 20 @,@ 000 working commuters , and a university upon completion .
In 2007 , there were about 4 @,@ 350 schools , about half of which were primary schools ; on average , each school had 688 students . In recent years , Istanbul 's educational system has expanded substantially ; from 2000 to 2007 , the number of classrooms and teachers nearly doubled and the number of students increased by more than 60 percent . Galatasaray High School , established in 1481 as the Galata Palace Imperial School , is the oldest high school in Istanbul and the second @-@ oldest educational institution in the city . It was built at the behest of Sultan Bayezid II , who sought to bring students with diverse backgrounds together as a means of strengthening his growing empire . It is one of Turkey 's Anatolian High Schools , elite public high schools that place a stronger emphasis on instruction in foreign languages . Galatasaray , for example , offers instruction in French ; other Anatolian High Schools primarily teach in English or German alongside Turkish . The city also has foreign high schools , such as Liceo Italiano , that were established in the 19th century to educate foreigners .
Kuleli Military High School , along the shores of the Bosphorus in Çengelköy , and Turkish Naval High School , located on one of the Princes ' Islands , are military high schools , complemented by three military academies — the Turkish Air Force , Turkish Military , and Turkish Naval Academies . Darüşşafaka High School provides free education to children across the country missing at least one parent . Darüşşafaka begins instruction with the fourth grade , providing instruction in English and , starting in sixth grade , a second foreign language — German or French . Other prominent high schools in the city include Kabataş Erkek Lisesi ( founded in 1908 ) and Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi ( founded in 1955 ) .
= = Public services = =
Istanbul 's first water supply systems date back to the city 's early history , when aqueducts ( such as the Valens Aqueduct ) deposited the water in the city 's numerous cisterns . At the behest of Suleiman the Magnificent , the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed ; by 1563 , the network provided 4 @,@ 200 cubic meters ( 150 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of water to 158 sites each day . In later years , in response to increasing public demand , water from various springs was channeled to public fountains , like the Fountain of Ahmed III , by means of supply lines . Today , Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a sewage treatment system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration ( İSKİ ) .
The Silahtarağa Power Station , a coal @-@ fired power plant along the Golden Horn , was the sole source of Istanbul 's electricity between 1914 , when its first engine room was completed , and 1952 . Following the founding of the Turkish Republic , the plant underwent renovations to accommodate the city 's increasing demand ; its capacity grew from 23 megawatts in 1923 to a peak of 120 megawatts in 1956 . Capacity declined until the power station reached the end of its economic life and shut down in 1983 . The state @-@ run Turkish Electrical Authority ( TEK ) briefly — between its founding in 1970 and 1984 — held a monopoly on the generation and distribution of electricity , but now the authority — since split between the Turkish Electricity Generation Transmission Company ( TEAŞ ) and the Turkish Electricity Distribution Company ( TEDAŞ ) — competes with private electric utilities .
The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office , the Imperial Post Office , opened near the courtyard of Yeni Mosque . By 1876 , the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the Ottoman Empire had been established . Sultan Abdülmecid I issued Samuel Morse his first official honor for the telegraph in 1847 , and construction of the first telegraph line — between Istanbul and Edirne — finished in time to announce the end of the Crimean War in 1856 . A nascent telephone system began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual telephone exchange became operational in Istanbul in 1909 , the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post , Telegraph , and Telephone . GSM cellular networks arrived in Turkey in 1994 , with Istanbul among the first cities to receive the service . Today , mobile and landline service is provided by private companies , after Türk Telekom , which split from the Ministry of Post , Telegraph , and Telephone in 1995 , was privatized in 2005 . Postal services remain under the purview of what is now the Post and Telegraph Organization ( retaining the acronym PTT ) .
In 2000 , Istanbul had 137 hospitals , of which 100 were private . Turkish citizens are entitled to subsidized healthcare in the nation 's state @-@ run hospitals . As public hospitals tend to be overcrowded or otherwise slow , private hospitals are preferable for those who can afford them . Their prevalence has increased significantly over the last decade , as the percentage of outpatients using private hospitals increased from 6 percent to 23 percent between 2005 and 2009 . Many of these private hospitals , as well as some of the public hospitals , are equipped with high @-@ tech equipment , including MRI machines , or associated with medical research centers . Turkey has more hospitals accredited by the U.S.-based Joint Commission than any other country in the world , with most concentrated in its big cities . The high quality of healthcare , especially in private hospitals , has contributed to a recent upsurge in medical tourism to Turkey ( with a 40 percent increase between 2007 and 2008 ) . Laser eye surgery is particularly common among medical tourists , as Turkey is known for specializing in the procedure .
= = Transportation = =
Istanbul 's primary motorways are the O @-@ 1 , O @-@ 2 , O @-@ 3 and O @-@ 4 . The O @-@ 1 forms the city 's inner ring road , traversing the Bosphorus Bridge , and the O @-@ 2 is the city 's outer ring road , crossing the Fatih Sultan Mehmet ( Second Bosphorus ) Bridge . The O @-@ 2 continues west to Edirne and the O @-@ 4 continues east to Ankara ; the O @-@ 2 , O @-@ 3 , and O @-@ 4 are part of European route E80 ( the Trans @-@ European Motorway ) between Portugal and the Turkish – Iranian border . The two Bosphorus Bridges are currently the only road crossings between the Asian and European sides of Turkey , together carrying 400 @,@ 000 vehicles each day . The dual @-@ deck , 14 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometer ( 9 @.@ 1 mi ) Eurasia Tunnel is currently under construction beneath the Bosphorus , between Fatih and Üsküdar . A third Bosphorus bridge , first considered in the 1990s , may also finally be coming to fruition , as construction of the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge was officially launched in 2013 . Both projects may be completed as early as 2015 , although environmentalist groups worry that the third bridge will endanger the remaining green areas to the north of Istanbul .
Istanbul 's local public transportation system is a complex network of trams , funiculars , metro lines , buses , bus rapid transit , and ferries . Fares across modes are integrated , using the contactless Istanbulkart , introduced in 2009 , or the older Akbil electronic ticket device . Trams in Istanbul date back to 1872 , when they were horse @-@ drawn , but even the first electrified trams were decommissioned in the 1960s . Operated by Istanbul Electricity , Tramway , and Tunnel General Management ( İETT ) , trams slowly returned to the city in the 1990s with the introduction of a nostalgic route and a faster modern tram line , which now carries 265 @,@ 000 passengers each day . The Tünel opened in 1875 as the world 's second @-@ oldest subterranean rail line ( after London 's Metropolitan Railway ) . It still carries passengers between Karaköy and İstiklal Avenue along a steep 573 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 880 ft ) track ; a more modern funicular between Taksim Square and Kabataş began running in 2006 .
The Istanbul Metro comprises three lines ( the M1 and M2 on the European side , and the M4 on the Asian side ) with several other lines ( such as the M3 , M5 , M7 , and M6 Mini @-@ Metro ) and extensions under construction . The two sides of Istanbul 's metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the Marmaray tunnel , inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia . With the Marmaray 's completion , rail use in the city is expected to increase to 28 percent ( from 4 percent ) , behind only Tokyo and New York City . Until then , buses provide transportation within and between the two halves of the city , accommodating 2 @.@ 2 million passenger trips each day . The Metrobus , a form of bus rapid transit , crosses the Bosphorus Bridge , with dedicated lanes leading to its termini . İDO ( Istanbul Seabuses ) runs a combination of all @-@ passenger ferries and car @-@ and @-@ passenger ferries to ports on both sides of the Bosphorus , as far north as the Black Sea . With additional destinations around the Sea of Marmara , İDO runs the largest municipal ferry operation in the world . The city 's main cruise ship terminal is the Port of Istanbul in Karaköy , with a capacity of 10 @,@ 000 passengers per hour . Most visitors enter Istanbul by air , but about half a million foreign tourists enter the city by sea each year .
International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889 , with a line between Bucharest and Istanbul 's Sirkeci Terminal , which ultimately became famous as the eastern terminus of the Orient Express from Paris . Regular service to Bucharest and Thessaloniki continued until the early 2010s , when the former was interrupted for Marmaray construction and the latter was halted due to economic problems in Greece . After Istanbul 's Haydarpaşa Terminal opened in 1908 , it served as the western terminus of the Baghdad Railway and an extension of the Hejaz Railway ; today , neither service is offered directly from Istanbul . Service to Ankara and other points across Turkey is normally offered by Turkish State Railways , but the construction of Marmaray and the Ankara @-@ Istanbul high @-@ speed line forced the station to close in 2012 . New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals , and connect the city 's disjointed railway networks , are expected to open upon completion of the Marmaray project ; until then , Istanbul is without intercity rail service . Private bus companies operate instead . Istanbul 's main bus station is the largest in Europe , with a daily capacity of 15 @,@ 000 buses and 600 @,@ 000 passengers , serving destinations as distant as Frankfurt .
Istanbul has two international airports . The larger is Istanbul Atatürk , 24 kilometers ( 15 mi ) west of the city center . It handled 61 @.@ 3 million passengers in 2015 , making it the third @-@ busiest airport in Europe and the eighteenth @-@ busiest in the world . Sabiha Gökçen International , 45 kilometers ( 28 mi ) southeast of the city center , opened in 2001 to relieve Atatürk . Dominated by low @-@ cost carriers , Istanbul 's second airport has rapidly become popular , especially since the opening of a new international terminal in 2009 ; the airport handled 14 @.@ 7 million passengers in 2012 , a year after Airports Council International named it the world 's fastest @-@ growing airport . Atatürk has also experienced rapid growth , as its 20 @.@ 6 percent rise in passenger traffic between 2011 and 2012 was the highest among the world 's top 30 airports . Because of the traffic at Istanbul 's current airports , a third international airport is planned for the Black Sea coast . Building a new runway at Atatürk Airport was rejected due to the cost involved ; environmental concerns have also been raised with respect to the new airport . Currently under construction , the new international airport will become the largest airport in the world upon the completion of all four stages of the project , with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per year .
= = Sister and twin cities = =
List of twin and sister cities of Istanbul
= James P. Hagerstrom =
Colonel James Philo Hagerstrom ( January 14 , 1921 – June 25 , 1994 ) was a fighter pilot and flying ace of the United States Army Air Forces in World War II and the United States Air Force in the Korean War . With a career total of 14 @.@ 5 victories , he is one of seven pilots to achieve ace status in two different wars .
Born in Cedar Falls , Iowa , Hagerstrom gained an interest in flying at a young age . He left college in 1941 and joined the U.S. Army Air Forces , being posted to New Guinea to fight in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II . There , Hagerstrom mainly escorted bombers with his Curtiss P @-@ 40 Warhawk , shooting down six Japanese aircraft over the course of the war , including four in one morning . After the war , he flew with the Texas Air National Guard . By 1950 he was in command of a fighter squadron that was mobilized to Korea following the outbreak of the Korean War . He later transferred to the United States Air Force and flew in MiG Alley in a North American F @-@ 86 Sabre , scoring 8 @.@ 5 victories over Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 15s .
Returning to the U.S. in 1953 , Hagerstrom remained in the Air Force until his retirement in 1968 , during which he earned a master 's degree in Economics and a law degree . In 1965 he was assigned to Vietnam but did not fly combat missions . After retiring , Hagerstrom traveled the Pacific in a homemade boat with his family , living in various Pacific islands before settling in Mansfield , Louisiana . Hagerstrom died in nearby Shreveport of stomach cancer in 1994 .
= = Early life and education = =
Hagerstrom was born on January 14 , 1921 , in Cedar Falls , Iowa . He was the third son of Edward , an electrician , and Hazel Hagerstrom . He grew up in a small house in Waterloo , Iowa . His interest in aviation began when he sat in the cockpit of a Curtiss JN @-@ 4 biplane at the age of 5 . He " had the thrill of his life " when at thirteen he had a short flight in a Ford Trimotor aircraft .
Hagerstrom built model airplanes as a hobby . For " adrenaline release " , he joined the swimming and wrestling teams at Waterloo West High School . After graduating in January 1939 , he began studying at the University of Iowa in 1941 , where he participated in the Army Reserve Officers ' Training Corps . After a year there , he transferred to the University of Northern Iowa ( then known as Iowa State Teachers College ) , where he helped start an aero club .
= = Military career = =
= = = World War II = = =
In December 1941 , just before the attack on Pearl Harbor , he went to Iowa City , where he enlisted in the U.S. Army Air Force ( USAAF ) Flying Cadet program with a recruiter . On January 17 of the following year , he was sent to Fort Des Moines and soon inducted into the USAAF . Not long after , he and other new inductees went to Minter Field in Bakersfield , California for more physical examinations , and then they went north to Visalia for primary training in January 23 . The class ( which had to wear coveralls due to the lack of standard uniforms ) first trained in Ryan PT @-@ 22 Recruits before moving back to Minter Field for basic flight training in BT @-@ 13 Valiants . Along with his brother Robert , who had also enlisted , Hagerstrom spent about six weeks in basic training . Hagerstrom and his classmates then went to Luke Field near Phoenix , Arizona for advanced flight training in the North American AT @-@ 6 . On July 26 , 1942 , he was commissioned a second lieutenant and received his wings from Brigadier General Ennis Whitehead .
Hagerstrom was then sent to Myrtle Beach Air Force Base in Myrtle Beach , South Carolina and Pinnnelas City Air Base in Florida , flying the Bell P @-@ 39 Airacobra and Curtiss P @-@ 40 Warhawk with the 20th Pursuit Group . In late September he was posted to the 8th Fighter Squadron ( 8th FS ) of the 49th Operations Group and sent to San Francisco , California . After staying at the Mark Hopkins Hotel , he and forty other personnel moved on to Fort Mason , where they boarded the Norweigian ship M / V Torrens along with 1 @,@ 500 other officers and enlisted men comprising Headquarters , 5th Air Force to Hawaii . They did not stay long , however , and set sail again , this time flanked by a naval task force . After an overnight stop at Suva , Fiji , they landed at their destination of Townsville , Queensland , Australia . Initially there was no one there and nothing to do until Brigadier General Paul Wurtsmith , the commander of Fifth Fighter Command , organized a refresher session for the new pilots at Charters Towers Airport . In April 1943 , he and the P @-@ 40 @-@ equipped 8th FS relocated to Dobodura Airfield Complex in New Guinea . Shortly thereafter , he was promoted to first lieutenant .
Hagerstrom first saw combat on April 11 , when he engaged in aerial combat over Oro Bay with several Japanese Zeros , destroying one of them . The 8th FS mainly escorted Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrains dropping supplies to ground troops in the jungle . In late 1943 , the 49th Operations Group was moved to Tsili Tsili Airfield , recently captured from the Japanese and frequently bombed by them . The 8th FS then switched to escorting North American B @-@ 25 Mitchell and Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc attacks but saw little action . They saw more combat protecting the Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers . On October 11 , Hagerstrom led one of two groups of four aircraft to intercept an approaching Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 46 reconnaissance aircraft over Finschhafen . He chased the plane for twelve minutes , flying at 270 miles per hour ( 430 km / h ) before getting within firing range . He shot down the aircraft by causing its left engine to explode , and the plane crashed . After his navigational instruments malfunctioned , he was forced to fly over the Japanese @-@ occupied town of Lae ; fortunately he caught them by surprise and was not shot at . With no fuel to spare , he safely landed at Tsili Tsili Airfield , which was in blackout due to an overhead enemy reconnaissance aircraft . Later that month , heavy rainfall made the airstrip too muddy to allow the Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightnings to take off , and the P @-@ 40 squadrons , including the 8th FS , were relocated 50 miles ( 80 km ) north to Gusap Airfield . Soon after , Hagerstrom contracted malaria and went to Australia to recover for three weeks , after which he returned to his normal duties .
On January 23 , 1944 , Hagerstrom was leading one of four flights of four aircraft in an attempt to assist two P @-@ 38 Lightnings escorting bombers near Wewak . They encountered 10 – 15 enemy aircraft , and he shot down three Zeros ( more likely Nakajima Ki @-@ 43s ) and one Kawasaki Ki @-@ 61 " Tony " , making him an ace . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his " extraordinary heroism " during the engagement . By the end of the war , he flew 170 combat missions and destroyed six enemy aircraft .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
Hagerstrom returned to the U.S. and in June 1945 was discharged from the USAAF . He wanted to complete his studies and soon after he was personally and immediately enrolled at the Iowa State Teachers College by the school 's president at Hagerstrom 's request to return to school . Hagerstrom graduated in 1948 with a degree in economics and subsequently went to Houston , Texas and entered the municipal bonds business . He also joined the 111th Fighter @-@ Bomber Squadron of the Texas Air National Guard , which he and his fellow pilots viewed as the " bottom of the heap " . However , he enjoyed his tenure there and flew the P @-@ 38 and P @-@ 51 Mustang in the 1948 Cleveland Air Races . Hagerstrom was promoted to major and appointed commander of the 111th . In October 1950 , the 111th squadron was federalized and ordered into active duty to serve in the Korean War . He was assigned to the headquarters of the Tactical Air Command , where he persuaded the commander to allow him and some other officers to fly a combat tour in Korea , where the war had been fought since June 1950 . They were allowed to transfer from the Air National Guard into the active @-@ duty Air Force . He was sent to Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada , where he was instructed by William T. Whisner , Jr. in gunnery . He then was named operations officer of the 4th Fighter Group .
= = = Korean War = = =
Hagerstrom , determined to be an ace in two wars , studied MiG @-@ 15 reports , got a silk coat and special glasses that allowed him to see twice as far as normal , and made his own survival kit . He later transferred to the 334th Fighter Squadron of the Fifth U.S. Air Force 's 18th Wing , some members of which ( including Hagerstrom ) were equipped with North American F @-@ 86 Sabres . Hagerstrom got the wing 's first kill of the war on November 21 , 1952 near the Yalu River . The MiG pilot Hagerstrom was shooting at ejected just before his plane exploded , and a piece of that plane was embedded in Hagerstrom 's F @-@ 86 , proving the kill to Kimpo Air Base group commander Royal N. Baker . On December 25 , he got his second kill when the MiG he was chasing at an altitude of 50 @,@ 000 feet ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) spun out of control , and the pilot ejected , most likely dying of exposure to the − 20 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) temperatures . In January 1953 Hagerstrom was transferred to Osan Air Base to help with the transition from propeller P @-@ 38s to jet F @-@ 86s , and by mid @-@ February the wing 's 125 pilots were trained in the F @-@ 86 . On February 25 he was chasing two MiGs when he noticed a third attacking another F @-@ 86 ; he engaged and shot it down flying very low over Mukden , China . Low on fuel , he had just enough fuel to land and park the aircraft .
On March 13 , Hagerstrom and his wingman Elmer N. Dunlap came across two MiGs , the first of which Hagerstrom " shot the daylights out of " . He shot at the second until he ran out of ammunition , and the remaining MiG was leaking fuel and its engine had stopped . Hagerstrom told Dunlap to " finish off " the crippled plane , and the MiG 's pilot bailed over the enemy 's Antung Airfield . That mission gave him a total of 4 @.@ 5 victories , just short of the five kills needed for ace status . On March 27 he sneaked up behind six MiGs and fired on one , but by " sheer ass luck ... it knocked his wing tip off . " He kept up the chase , shooting short bursts , until the pilot ejected right above his own base . On the way home , Hagerstrom destroyed another MiG , bringing the total to 6 @.@ 5 . He became the war 's 28th ace and would be the only from the 18th wing . Before the Air Force sent him back to the U.S. , he got one more MiG on April 13 . The day he left , he unexpectedly went on an impromptu mission , netting his last kill , a sum of 8 @.@ 5 throughout the whole war over 101 missions .
= = = Later work = = =
Hagerstrom remained in the USAF after he returned to the U.S. and was promoted to lieutenant colonel in June 1954 . He commanded a F @-@ 86 squadron at Foster Air Force Base in Victoria , Texas and later headed the 450th Fighter @-@ Day Wing , equipped with the F @-@ 100 Super Sabre . In 1956 , he was transferred to Headquarters , Far East Air Forces in Japan as chief of the fighter branch . During that tour of duty , he briefly returned to Texas as an advisor for the Air National Guard and on April 13 – 14 , 1957 he was honored by the dedication of its new hangar at Ellington Field in Houston as " The James P. Hagerstrom Air National Guard Facility " . Later that spring , he moved to Hickam AFB , Hawaii , when Headquarters , Far East Air Forces ( renamed Pacific Air Forces ) relocated from Japan . In Hawaii he earned a master 's degree in economics and was promoted to the rank of colonel in March 1959 . In 1960 , he left Hawaii for a job with the Air Force Office of Inspector General , Flight Safety Division at Norton Air Force Base in San Bernardino , California .
While at Norton , he studied at Loyola Law School before attending the Industrial College of the Armed Forces , which required him to relocate to Washington , D.C. Shortly thereafter he enrolled at Georgetown University Law Center and completed his studies and earned a Bachelor of Laws degree . His next assignment was as vice commander of the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing at George Air Force Base in Victorville , California . In 1965 , during the Vietnam War , he was posted to Vietnam to work for the Seventh Air Force . There , as director of the combat operations control center at Tan Son Nhut Air Base , he argued with General William Westmoreland over the Air Force 's role in the Military Assistance Command , Vietnam . Hagerstrom proposed that air assets be used against strategic targets in North Vietnam while the Westmoreland insisted that they be used solely in @-@ country to support Army ground operations . Eventually Westmoreland asked the Air Force to remove him from Vietnam . In early 1966 , the Air Force reassigned Hagerstrom to Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base , Thailand where he quickly set up a similar combat operations control center to conduct air interdiction operations against the Ho Chi Minh trail .
= = Retirement and death = =
After he retired from the Air Force in February 1968 , he lectured at the University of Southern California and worked for a law firm in Los Angeles . After that , he and his wife Virginia Lee Jowell and their eight children traveled the Pacific in a homemade boat , living in Hawaii , the Marshall Islands , the Federated States of Micronesia , and Guam . He met his wife in 1944 in Orlando , Florida , where she was a P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt ferry pilot and member of the Women Airforce Service Pilots . In Pohnpei , Hagerstrom practiced law , while his wife taught at a college . They eventually returned to the United States and settled in Mansfield , Louisiana , and after living there for a few years , James Hagerstrom died of stomach cancer on June 25 , 1994 , in nearby Shreveport . On July 26 , he was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Throughout his career , Hagerstrom was credited with 14 @.@ 5 victories , 6 in World War II and 8 @.@ 5 in the Korean war . He is one of seven pilots to achieve ace status flying propellor planes in World War II and jets in the Korean War . The others , George Andrew Davis , Jr . , Gabby Gabreski , Vermont Garrison , Harrison Thyng , and William T. Whisner , Jr . , are all Air Force pilots , as well as John F. Bolt of the U.S. Marine Corps .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Hagerstrom received numerous awards and decorations for his services :
= = = Distinguished Service Cross citation = = =
First Lieutenant ( Air Corps ) James P. Hagerstrom ( ASN : 0 @-@ 727447 ) , United States Army Air Forces , was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy while serving as Pilot of a P @-@ 40 Fighter Airplane in the 8th Fighter Squadron , 49th Fighter Group , FIFTH Air Force , in aerial combat against enemy forces on 23 January 1944 , in the Southwest Pacific . On this date First Lieutenant Hagerstrom shot down four enemy aircraft in a single engagement . First Lieutenant Hagerstrom 's unquestionable valor in aerial combat is in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service and reflects great credit upon himself , the 5th Air Force , and the United States Army Air Forces .
= Douglas MacArthur 's escape from the Philippines =
Douglas MacArthur 's escape from the Philippines began on 11 March 1942 , during World War II , when General Douglas MacArthur and members of his family and staff left Corregidor Island , where his forces had been surrounded by the Japanese . They traveled in PT boats ( patrol torpedo boats ) for two days through stormy seas patrolled by Japanese warships to reach Mindanao . From there , MacArthur and his party flew to Australia in a pair of Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses , ultimately arriving in Melbourne by train on 21 March . In Australia , he made his famous speech in which he declared , " I came through and I shall return " .
MacArthur was a well @-@ known and experienced officer with a distinguished record in World War I , who had retired from the United States Army in 1937 and had become a defense advisor to the Philippine government . He was recalled to active duty with the United States Army in July 1941 , a few months before the outbreak of the Pacific War between the United States and the Empire of Japan , to become commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East ( USAFFE ) , uniting the Philippine and United States Armies under one command .
By March 1942 , the Japanese invasion of the Philippines had compelled MacArthur to withdraw his forces on Luzon to Bataan , while his headquarters and his family moved to Corregidor . The doomed defense of Bataan captured the imagination of the American public . At a time when the news from all fronts was uniformly bad , MacArthur became a living symbol of Allied resistance to the Japanese .
Fearing that Corregidor would soon fall , and MacArthur would be taken prisoner , President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to go to Australia . A submarine was made available , but MacArthur elected to break through the Japanese blockade in PT boats under the command of Lieutenant ( junior grade ) John D. Bulkeley . The staff MacArthur brought with him became known as the " Bataan Gang " . They would become the nucleus of his General Headquarters ( GHQ ) Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) .
= = Background = =
Douglas MacArthur was a well @-@ known and experienced officer . The son of Lieutenant General Arthur MacArthur Jr . , who was awarded the Medal of Honor for his services in the American Civil War , MacArthur had graduated at the top of the United States Military Academy class of 1903 . He was an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to his father from 1905 to 1906 , and to President Theodore Roosevelt from 1906 to 1907 . During World War I he commanded the 84th Brigade of the 42nd ( Rainbow ) Division in the fighting on the Western Front . After the war he served as Superintendent of the United States Military Academy , and as Chief of Staff of the United States Army . He retired from the United States Army in 1937 , and became a field marshal in the Philippine Army .
MacArthur 's job was to advise the Philippine government on defense matters , and prepare the Philippine defense forces when the Philippines became fully independent , which was to be in 1946 . The Philippine Army , almost entirely manned and officered by Filipinos with only a small number of American advisors , was raised by conscription , with two classes of 20 @,@ 000 men being trained each year , starting in 1937 . In addition , there was a regular U.S. Army garrison of about 10 @,@ 000 , half of whom were Filipinos serving in the U.S. Army known as Philippine Scouts . When MacArthur was recalled from retirement in July 1941 to become commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East ( USAFFE ) at the age of 61 , he united the Philippine and United States Armies under one command .
In getting the Philippine Army ready for war , MacArthur faced an enormous task On a visit to the United States in 1937 , MacArthur lobbied the Navy Department for the development of PT boats — small , fast boats armed with torpedoes — for which he believed that the geography of the Philippines , with its shallow waters and many coves , was ideally suited . The nascent Philippine Navy acquired three , known as Q boats , after President Manuel L. Quezon . In August 1941 , the U.S. Navy created Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three , under the command of Lieutenant ( junior grade ) John D. Bulkeley . It was a half @-@ strength squadron , with only six PT boats instead of the normal twelve , numbered 31 to 35 and 41 . It arrived at Manila in September 1941 . It was understood that a fleet consisting of more than PT boats would be required for a successful defense of the Philippines .
As early as 1907 , U.S. naval and military planners had concluded that it would be impractical to repel an invasion of the Philippines . The best that could be hoped for was that the garrison could hold out on the Bataan peninsula until help arrived . In the 1920s it was estimated that they could do so for about 60 days . By the 1930s , the planners had become decidedly pessimistic in view of the increased capability of aircraft , and by 1936 they were agreed that the Philippine should be written off . But in July 1941 , this decision was abruptly reversed , and it became the policy of the U.S. government to defend and hold the Philippines . This was based , at least in part , in the belief that Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers could deter or defeat an invading force .
Soon after the Japanese invasion of the Philippines in 1941 , MacArthur , in accordance with the pre @-@ war plan , declared Manila an open city , and ordered his forces on Luzon to withdraw to Bataan . The Philippine government , the High Commissioner 's office and MacArthur 's USAFFE headquarters moved to Corregidor Island . Although the dependents of U.S. military personnel had been sent back to the United States , MacArthur was , until his recall from retirement , a Philippine government employee , so his family had remained in the Philippines . MacArthur 's wife , Jean MacArthur , and young son , Arthur MacArthur IV , went with him to Corregidor . Arthur celebrated his fourth birthday on Corregidor , on 21 February 1942 . When an aide asked about Arthur 's possible fate , MacArthur replied : " He is a soldier 's son . "
Most of the United States Asiatic Fleet retired to the south of the Philippines . A small force was left behind under the command of Rear Admiral Francis W. Rockwell consisting of the submarine tender USS Canopus , the submarine rescue ship Pigeon , gunboats Oahu , Luzon and Mindanao , minesweepers Finch , Tanager and Quail , five tugboats , three small patrol boats , and the PT boats of Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three . The loss of Manila and the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay meant that fuel and spare parts became scarce . The PT boats relied on Canopus and the floating dry dock USS Dewey for assistance with maintenance . Despite this , Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three continued to patrol . On 17 December , PT @-@ 32 , PT @-@ 34 and PT @-@ 35 rescued 296 survivors from SS Corregidor , which had been carrying refugees to Australia when it struck a mine and sank in Manila Bay . A week later , PT @-@ 33 ran aground while patrolling south of Manila Bay , and was set on fire to prevent her being salvaged by the Japanese . PT @-@ 31 met a similar fate a month later , after its engines failed and it drifted onto a reef . The PT boats attacked enemy barges off Luzon on the night of 23 January 1942 , a small Japanese warship on 1 February , and a small vessel , probably a fishing trawler , on 17 February .
= = Decision = =
= = = Washington = = =
In a message to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington , D.C. , on 11 February , MacArthur announced that he and his family intended to " share the fate of the garrison " . This meant surrender at best ; MacArthur knew that death from artillery fire or an air raid was also likely . Three days later , the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , George C. Marshall , urged MacArthur to send his family away , but MacArthur ignored this part of the message . Singapore , once considered impregnable , fell on 15 February , and in Washington , the possibility that Corregidor would also fall and MacArthur would be taken prisoner was considered . MacArthur was America 's most experienced general , but would be of little use in a prisoner of war camp . Moreover , he had become a living symbol of Allied resistance to the Japanese . The brave but doomed defense of Bataan had captured the imagination of the American public , who saw MacArthur as the only Allied general who knew how to fight the Japanese . Walter R. Borneman noted that :
in a fragile period of the American psyche when the general American public , still stunned by the shock of Pearl Harbor and uncertain what lay ahead in Europe , desperately needed a hero , they wholeheartedly embraced Douglas MacArthur — good press copy that he was . There simply were no other choices that came close to matching his mystique , not to mention his evocative lone @-@ wolf stand — something that always resonated with Americans .
Secretary of State Cordell Hull raised the possibility of MacArthur 's evacuation . Brigadier General Dwight Eisenhower wrote in his diary :
I cannot help thinking that we are disturbed by editorials and reacting to " public opinion " rather than to military logic . " Pa " Watson is certain we must get MacArthur out , as being worth " five Army corps . "
The President considered sending MacArthur to Mindanao to coordinate the defense of the Philippines from there , but another consideration arose . The fall of Singapore sealed the fate of the American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command ( ABDA ) , of which MacArthur 's command was nominally a part . Discussions were held with the British about future command arrangements . A broad agreement was reached that the United States would assume responsibility for the Southwest Pacific . A senior American officer was required , and MacArthur was the obvious choice . On 23 February , MacArthur received a message that had been drafted by the President , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson and Marshall . It read :
The President directs that you make arrangements to leave and proceed to Mindanao . You are directed to make this change as quickly as possible … From Mindanao you will proceed to Australia where you will assume command of all United States troops … Instructions will be given from here at your request for the movement of submarine or plane or both to enable you to carry out the foregoing instructions . You are authorized to take your chief of staff General Sutherland .
= = = Corregidor = = =
MacArthur responded with a request that he might select the time of his departure . " Unless the right moment is chosen for this delicate operation " , he wrote , " a sudden collapse might occur . " " With regard to the actual movement " , he went on , " I deem it advisable to go to Mindanao by combined use of surface craft and submarine , and thence by air , further movement by submarine being too time consuming . " Marshall replied that the President would allow him to choose the time and method of his departure . ABDA was dissolved on 27 February , and MacArthur nominally came under Dutch command , but was ordered to continue communicating directly with the War Department .
MacArthur inspected the PT boat squadron on 1 March . With air cover provided by his four remaining Curtiss P @-@ 40 Warhawks , MacArthur and his wife Jean took a half @-@ hour ride on PT @-@ 41 . Although the sea was tranquil , Jean still felt queasy . Ostensibly , the purpose of MacArthur 's visit was presenting Bulkeley with the Distinguished Service Cross for sinking an " unidentified 5 @,@ 000 @-@ ton enemy ship with torpedoes without serious damage to his ship or casualty to his crew " , but afterwards MacArthur took Bulkeley aside and asked him if it would be possible to make the 600 @-@ mile ( 970 @-@ kilometre ) journey through uncharted waters at night in PT boats . Bulkeley told him that it would be " a piece of cake . "
When some days passed without any further word on the matter , follow @-@ up messages were sent on 6 and 9 March . By 10 March , MacArthur had decided that the Bataan front was not in danger of imminent collapse , and replied that he planned to depart on 15 March , when the submarine USS Permit was scheduled to arrive at Corregidor . Radio broadcasts in the United States calling for MacArthur to be placed in charge in Australia had been picked up by MacArthur 's headquarters in Corregidor , and it had to be assumed that the Japanese had heard them too . There were ominous signs : Japanese surface patrols had been stepped up in the Subic Bay area , and there were reports of Japanese destroyers heading north from the southern Philippines . MacArthur therefore elected not to wait for the Permit , but to leave as soon as possible , by PT boat on the night of 11 March . Major General Jonathan M. Wainwright was left in command on Bataan and Corregidor . " When I get back " , MacArthur told him , " if you 're still on Bataan , I 'll make you a lieutenant general . " Wainwright replied : " I 'll be on Bataan if I 'm still alive . "
Of the decision to depart by PT boat rather than wait for the submarine , Lieutenant Robert B. Kelly , executive officer of Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three , and commander of PT @-@ 34 , later recalled :
Having served with Lieutenant Bulkeley as his second in command on this and a prior assignment , I was privy to much of what transpired during his conferences with General MacArthur during the decision making process . MacArthur 's decision to use the PT boats for the evacuation of his part dramatically emphasized to the American public the overwhelming odds against which the United States was fighting in the Philippines . It evened an old score with the United States Navy . And since he had a tendency towards claustrophobia and did not relish making the trip on a submerged submarine with a commander whom he did not personally know , it provided an acceptable alternative which he elected to exercise .
= = Escape = =
= = = Preparations = = =
Bulkeley and his crews overhauled the PT boats for the voyage . All of the engines had performed hard war service , and had been operated for double the recommended mileage without overhaul . As a result , they were reduced to operating at half speed . Since there were no replacement parts , the gaskets , which normally would have been discarded , had to be carefully cleaned and replaced . Each PT boat would carry twenty 55 @-@ gallon drums of additional fuel on the deck . This reduced the top speed of the boats to about 30 knots ( 56 kilometres per hour ; 35 miles per hour ) . To make room for the passengers , Bulkeley had to leave 32 of his men behind , who would be sent to fight as infantry on Bataan .
MacArthur 's chief of staff , Major General Richard K. Sutherland , drew up the passenger lists . Rockwell and his chief of staff , Captain Herbert Ray , were ordered to accompany MacArthur . They were already under orders to return by submarine , but this was switched to accompanying MacArthur when his date of departure was brought forward . A United States Army Air Corps officer , Major General Harold H. George , was included at the request of the United States Army Air Forces .
MacArthur was accompanied by his family : his wife Jean , four @-@ year @-@ old son Arthur , and Arthur 's Cantonese amah , Ah Cheu . MacArthur later defended his decision to take her instead of an American nurse . " Few people outside the Orient " , he wrote , " know how completely a member of the family an amah can become , and Ah Cheu had been with us since Arthur 's birth . Because of her relationship to my family , her death would have been certain had she been left behind . "
In case a doctor was needed , Major Charles H. Morhouse was summoned from Bataan to accompany the party . The remaining thirteen were members of MacArthur 's staff . They were loyal and experienced , and some of them had been with MacArthur for years . Creating a new staff in Australia would have taken time , while taking his existing one would enable him to commence work soon after arrival in Australia . They would be more valuable there than in the Philippines . Sutherland included two of his own men : his assistant , Lieutenant Colonel Francis H. Wilson , and his stenographer , Master Sergeant Paul P. Rogers . Promoted from private that day , Rogers was the only enlisted man on the list , which he typed . A number of men gave him letters to post .
Because there was no food for the passengers on the PT boats , Jean and MacArthur 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Lieutenant Colonel Sidney L. Huff , packed tins of food into four duffel bags , one for each PT boat . Huff removed the four @-@ star rank number plates from MacArthur 's car so they could be used in Australia , and took a mattress for the MacArthurs to lie on . Stories later circulated that it was full of cash or gold . Other stories had it that furniture from MacArthur 's residence in the Manila Hotel had been loaded on board the PT boats , even , in one version of the story , the piano . In fact , each passenger was limited to one piece of luggage weighing 35 pounds ( 16 kilograms ) or less . Jean took a small suitcase with some clothes . It sported a label from the Hotel New Grand in Yokohama , where she stayed during her honeymoon . Ah Cheu wrapped her possessions in a handkerchief . MacArthur took nothing .
= = = PT boat voyage = = =
Only PT @-@ 41 , which carried MacArthur and his family , departed from Corregidor 's North Dock . The passengers of the remaining boats were taken to Bataan in launches and boarded their PT boats there . While his family boarded , MacArthur spoke to Major General George F. Moore , the commander of the Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays . " George " , he told him , " keep the flag flying . I 'm coming back . "
PT @-@ 41 departed at 19 : 45 on 11 March and joined the other three 15 minutes later . A navy minelayer led the PT boats through the protective minefield in single file . The boats then assumed a diamond formation , with PT @-@ 41 in the lead and PT @-@ 34 bringing up the rear . If attacked by the Japanese , PT @-@ 41 was to flee while the other three boats engaged the enemy . The seas were moderate , but most of the passengers quickly became seasick . MacArthur later recalled :
The weather deteriorated steadily , and towering waves buffeted our tiny , war @-@ weary , blacked @-@ out vessels . The spray drove against our skin like stinging pellets of birdshot . We would fall into a trough , then climb up the steep water peak , only to slide down the other side . The boat would toss crazily back and forth , seeming to hang free in space as though about to breach , and would then break away and go forward with a rush . I recall describing the experience afterward as what it must be like to take a trip in a concrete mixer .
During the night , the four boats became separated . Bulkeley spent time looking for the other three boats , but was unable to find them in the darkness . At dawn he gave up , and headed for one of the alternative hiding places . Kelly 's PT @-@ 34 was the first to reach the rendezvous point , a cove on Tagauayan Island , two hours late at 09 : 30 . There was no sign of the other boats , and Rockwell , in the same boat with Kelly , was far from convinced that Kelly had found the correct island . Some repairs were made , and the boat was refueled by hand pumps from the drums . Two men were posted atop the island 's tallest hill to watch out for the Japanese and the other boats .
PT @-@ 32 , which had only two good engines , had straggled behind the others . Around dawn , Schumacher spotted what appeared to be a Japanese destroyer heading towards him . He jettisoned his fuel drums so he could increase speed and run from it . He ordered his crew to man the .50 @-@ caliber machine guns and get ready to launch torpedoes . Akin prepared to toss a barracks bag filled with code books overboard . However , as the light improved , and the vessel drew closer , another look though the binoculars revealed that it was not a Japanese destroyer at all , but PT @-@ 41 , carrying an angry Bulkeley . Schumacher was ordered to recover the drums he had jettisoned , but this proved to be a time @-@ consuming task , and a dangerous one in broad daylight , and it had to be abandoned after only a few drums were recovered . Bulkeley had his gunners sink the rest . The two boats then hid for the day in a nearby cove .
In the afternoon , PT @-@ 41 and PT @-@ 32 made their way to Tagauayan , where they found PT @-@ 34 . There was a discussion about whether to proceed to Mindanao , or wait for Permit . Bulkeley warned that the seas might even be higher . But , since there was no assurance that the submarine would make it , MacArthur decided to continue , departing in daylight at 18 : 00 so as to be sure to meet their air transport there . Since PT @-@ 32 had no fuel to make Mindanao , its passengers were divided between PT @-@ 41 and PT @-@ 34 . Soon after they had departed , PT @-@ 35 belatedly arrived at rendezvous point . Akers found the crew of PT @-@ 32 there , and discovered that the other two boats had been and gone . He therefore set out for Cagayan de Oro as well .
At 19 : 00 , about an hour after they had left Tagauayan , PT @-@ 34 and PT @-@ 41 spotted a Japanese cruiser . Bulkeley made a sharp turn due west , and headed at top speed , about 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , into the setting sun . Whether because of the high waves , the glare of the sun , or simple inattentiveness , the cruiser did not spot them . After midnight , the weather began to worsen , with heavy swells and sporadic squalls . Kelly later recalled :
Big foaming waves fifteen or twenty feet high thundering over the cockpit , drenching everybody . Our binoculars were full of water and our eyes so continuously drenched with stinging salt that we couldn 't see , in addition to which it was pitch @-@ black . We were making good speed through strange waters with islands all around us . We could see the outlines of the big ones — Negros and Mindanao — very dimly against the horizon through the storm . But there were dozens of small ones and probably hundreds of reefs .
You had to keep one hand in front of your eyes to avoid the slapping force of the water and yet you needed both to hold on .
The Admiral was pretty wrought up . " I 've sailed every type of ship in the Navy except one of these MTBs " , he shouted at me above the wind , " and this is the worst bridge I 've ever been on . I wouldn 't do duty on one of these for anything in the world — you can have them . "
By dawn , the winds and swells had subsided , but the delay caused by the bad weather had slowed the two boats , and they now had to travel across the Mindanao Sea in daylight . Cagayan was sighted shortly after 06 : 30 on 13 March . Although PT @-@ 34 had led all the way from Tagauayan , Kelly now let Bulkeley take the lead , as he had the channel charts . PT @-@ 41 therefore pulled up at the wharf first , with MacArthur on the bow . They were met by Colonel William Morse , an officer on the staff of the Brigadier General William F. Sharp , the commander of U.S. forces on Mindanao . MacArthur told Bulkeley " I 'm giving every officer and man here the Silver Star for gallantry . You 've taken me out of the jaws of death , and I won 't forget it . "
A few hours later , PT @-@ 35 reached Cagayan . Willoughby later recalled :
We were behind schedule and reached the north coast of Mindanao in broad daylight . It was a clear , dazzling day . Fortunately , no Japanese planes cut across the blue sky , though the enemy was known to make regular mail flights from Mindanao to Luzon . We were pretty conspicuous as the hours dragged on .
USS Permit , under the command of Lieutenant Wreford G. Chapple , reached Tagauayan on 13 March , and found PT @-@ 32 . With two of his three engines out of action , Schumacher felt that his boat was no longer seaworthy . He had Chapple destroy the boat with Permit 's deck gun . Chapple then took the fifteen PT @-@ 32 crewmen back to Corregidor . There , eight of the crew were disembarked , while Chapple embarked forty more passengers , thirty @-@ six of them codebreakers . Nonetheless , Chapple was ordered to conduct a regular war patrol , which he did . He finally reached Australia on 7 April . Unaware of this , Bulkeley attempted to locate PT @-@ 32 . Over the next few days he flew over the area as a passenger in various aircraft , including a P @-@ 35 and a P @-@ 40 , in the hope of finding it .
= = = Aircraft = = =
The commander of U.S. Army Forces in Australia , Lieutenant General George H. Brett , received a radiogram from General Marshall in Washington , D.C. , alerting him that MacArthur would be requesting bombers to transport his party from Mindanao to Australia . A subsequent message from MacArthur requested his " most experienced pilots , and the best available planes in top condition " , but the only long @-@ range aircraft that Brett had were Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses of the 19th Bombardment Group which had seen hard service in the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies campaigns . He therefore approached Vice Admiral Herbert F. Leary , the commander of naval forces in the Anzac Area , to ask for a loan of some of twelve newly arrived Navy B @-@ 17s . Leary , who had a reputation for refusing requests unless he could see how the Navy would benefit , turned Brett down .
Brett therefore sent four of the 19th Bombardment Group 's old planes . Two were forced to turn back with engine trouble . One of the others accidentally dumped 300 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 100 litres ; 250 imperial gallons ) of its fuel . The pilot flew on , and nearly made it to Del Monte Field , but , just a few miles from his destination , the fuel tanks ran dry and the engines stopped . The B @-@ 17 crash landed in the sea . Two of the crew were killed , but the rest made it to shore , and thence to Del Monte Field . Only one B @-@ 17 , piloted by Lieutenant Harl Pease , reached Del Monte , and this B @-@ 17 was in poor condition , with no brakes and a faulty supercharger . Sharp ordered it back to Australia before MacArthur arrived . Despite the lack of brakes , Pease made the return trip , carrying sixteen passengers .
Thus , with the arrival of PT @-@ 35 , all of MacArthur 's group had reached Mindanao safely , but there were no aircraft at Del Monte Field to meet them . They were taken to the Del Monte Plantation , where they were lodged in the guest houses , and had breakfast in the clubhouse . MacArthur sent a couple of sharp messages to Brett in Melbourne and Marshall in Washington . On their second day there , a Filipino woman arrived who wanted to speak to MacArthur . Her son was fighting on Luzon , and she had walked 25 miles ( 40 kilometres ) in the hope that the general would have some news about him . He did not , but the fact that she was aware of MacArthur 's presence was disturbing to the party , as the Japanese were only 30 miles ( 48 km ) away , at Davao on the south coast of Mindanao .
Brett went back to Leary , expecting to be turned down again , but this time , Leary gave Brett the aircraft he wanted . " Perhaps " , Brett speculated , " Leary had heard from Washington " . The newly formed 40th Reconnaissance Squadron manned the bombers . One B @-@ 17 turned back , but two made it to Del Monte Field on 16 March , landing in the dark on a runway lit by flares . Lieutenant Frank P. Bostrom , the pilot of the first plane , calculated that everyone could be carried in just two planes if they left most of their baggage behind . They divided into two groups and the two bombers took off at 01 : 30 on 17 March . MacArthur rode in the radio operator 's seat , which did not need to be manned as the aircraft were travelling under radio silence . For most of the passengers , the trip was dark and cold , with only a blanket between them and the metal skin of the aircraft .
As the two planes approached Darwin , word was received that a Japanese air raid was in progress there . The two B @-@ 17s therefore flew on to Batchelor Airfield , where they touched down at 09 : 30 . MacArthur awarded Silver Stars to the crews of the two bombers . Brett 's chief of staff , Brigadier General Ralph Royce , was on hand to greet them , and Brett had sent two Australian National Airways DC @-@ 3s to bring them to Melbourne . However , Jean now refused to fly any further , so MacArthur asked for a motorcade to take them to the nearest railway station , which was at Alice Springs , 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) away . Sutherland had received word of an incoming Japanese air raid , and asked Morhouse to intervene . Morhouse told MacArthur that Arthur , who had suffered badly from seasickness and airsickness , was on an intravenous feed , and could not guarantee that he would survive the trip across the desert . MacArthur then agreed to take the planes to Alice Springs . Sutherland had Huff hurry everyone onto the aircraft , which took off as the air raid siren sounded .
At Alice Springs , the party split up . MacArthur , his family , Sutherland , Morhouse and Huff took a special train that Brett had borrowed from the Australians , while the rest of the staff flew down to Melbourne via Adelaide in the DC @-@ 3s . His famous speech , in which he said , " I came through and I shall return " , was first made at Terowie , a small town in South Australia , on 20 March , where he changed trains . On 21 March , MacArthur 's journey was completed when his train rolled into Spencer Street Station , where he was greeted by the Australian Minister for the Army , Frank Forde .
= = Aftermath = =
Roosevelt issued a public statement on 17 March :
I know that every man and woman in the United States admires with me General MacArthur 's determination to fight to the finish with his men in the Philippines . But I also know that every man and woman is in agreement that all important decisions must be made with a view toward the
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forces of nature without getting bitten , and the fact that he literally saved everyone on the ship by that crystal not shattering was a wonderful , heroic thing and showed you that at heart , Coulson is a heroic man whose actions back up his words . He 'll do whatever it takes for the team , but that person occasionally has to pay a price " . Bell also talked about the cliffhanger involving Simmons being absorbed by the Kree monolith : " When we first started talking about the Monolith , we knew that it needed to present a threat and we needed to demonstrate some of that threat and the promise of more story ... It 's easy to kill a character for shock value or whatever , and we did have a number of deaths this season , but I don 't think they were so much for shock value as the hopefully understandable logic of the characters and the stories . We prefer to leave you with something to talk about , to walk away with . This is something that came up in the room , we talked about what it meant … The idea of getting Fitz and Simmons — who had been one person — to become two whole people , come back together , agree to go on a date , and then have this happen , felt beautifully poetic " .
= = = Casting = = =
All principal cast members from the first season ( Gregg as Phil Coulson , Ming @-@ Na Wen as Melinda May , Brett Dalton as Grant Ward , Chloe Bennet as Skye , Iain De Caestecker as Leo Fitz , and Elizabeth Henstridge as Jemma Simmons ) returned for the second season , and were joined by Nick Blood as Lance Hunter . In December 2014 , main character Skye was revealed to be a version of Daisy Johnson . With the episode " Aftershocks " , Adrianne Palicki , who portrays Bobbi Morse , was upgraded to a principal cast member . Christine Adams , Jaimie Alexander , B.J. Britt , Imelda Corcoran , Dylan Minnette , Ruth Negga , Patton Oswalt , Adrian Pasdar , J. August Richards , and Cobie Smulders also return from the first season , portraying Anne Weaver , Sif , Antoine Triplett , Goodman , Donnie Gill , Raina , The Koenigs , Glenn Talbot , Mike Peterson / Deathlok , and Maria Hill , respectively .
At the San Diego Comic Con in July 2014 , Reed Diamond was announced as portraying Daniel Whitehall . In August , Kyle MacLachlan was cast as Skye 's father , in a recurring role . Initially referred to as " The Doctor " , his character was revealed to be Calvin Zabo in December 2014 . In " Making Friends and Influencing People " , the character of Kara Palamas / Agent 33 was introduced , portrayed by Maya Stojan . She is also portrayed by other cast members , including Ming @-@ Na Wen and Chloe Bennet , when she takes on the appearance of their characters . On October 1 , 2014 , Tim DeKay was cast as Senator Christian Ward , the older brother of principal character Grant Ward , who had previously appeared as a teenager through flashbacks in " The Well " . Jamie Harris , Simon Kassianides , Dichen Lachman , Luke Mitchell , Edward James Olmos , and Henry Simmons also recur as Gordon , Sunil Bakshi , Jiaying , Lincoln Campbell , Robert Gonzales , and Alphonso " Mack " MacKenzie respectively , throughout the season .
Additionally , Hayley Atwell , Kenneth Choi , Henry Goodman , and Neal McDonough reprise their roles from MCU films and Marvel One @-@ Shots as Peggy Carter , Jim Morita , Dr. List , and Timothy " Dum Dum " Dugan , respectively , during the season .
= = = Design = = =
During the season , the producers worked with Glenn Hetrick of Optic Nerve Studios to help create Raina 's Inhuman look , and introduce the Inhumans to the MCU . To get to the final look , the writers spent a lot of time discussing what her transformed look would entail , such as if she would have a nose , or a tail , with series writer Drew Greenberg eventually suggesting thorns . With the design idea in hand , Hetrick and his team began compiling potential designs for the character , looking to the Clive Barker film Nightbreed , specifically the character Shuna Sassi , because " She 's a creature covered in porcupine quills and that image is so strong — it creates such a striking silhouette " . Since Hetrick and his team did not have source material to pull from in the comics , he wanted to " make her feel like the first real Inhuman " and give her face a level of symmetry . When creating the prosthetic makeup , which was done in two weeks , the producers wanted to still be able to see Negga 's eyes , with Bell saying , " Ruth Negga has amazingly expressive eyes and eyebrows . And she gets so much of who Raina is through the eyes . We wanted her to still be able to communicate , we still wanted you to feel her expressions through all of [ the makeup ] . "
For the " real S.H.I.E.L.D. " faction introduced this season , the producers and Marvel decided to create a new S.H.I.E.L.D. logo , to differentiate from the normal one used on the series . This new logo uses the shape of Captain America 's original shield , as opposed to the updated round shape , and has 3 stars on it .
= = = Filming = = =
Production on the season began in late July 2014 , in Culver City , California . Additional photography took place around the world , including in Old San Juan , Puerto Rico for " ... Ye Who Enter Here " and " What They Become " .
= = = Music = = =
To reflect the darker tone of the second season , the standard orchestra was changed from season one , with the low brass and strings expanded , and the woodwind section reduced , " giving [ the orchestra ] added punch and menace . " Composer Bear McCreary 's use of the electric guitar was also reduced for the second season , while his general synth programming was changed from " warm , round tones " to " mangled under heavy distortion " sound .
McCreary introduced a new Hydra theme for the season , explaining that " Last season got pretty musically complicated . I had a theme that associated itself with Centipede , The Clairvoyant , John Garrett and Raina . That theme ultimately functioned like a Hydra Theme . I had a theme for Victoria Hand that , while the audience briefly suspected her , also functioned as the Hydra Theme . I had a [ nother ] theme for Garrett that also acted like the theme for Hydra . It got so complicated ... The answer was obvious : I needed to write a new Hydra Theme , one that could be associated with Dr. Whitehall . " For Hayley Atwell 's appearances as Peggy Carter , McCreary decided to quote the Agent Carter theme composed by Christopher Lennertz for the Agent Carter short film . On using Lennertz 's theme , McCreary said , " I was excited for the opportunity to incorporate his music into my S.H.I.E.L.D. score , because it further cements the Marvel [ Cinematic ] Universe together as a coherent whole ... Chris was thrilled and sent me his scores for reference . " A soundtrack featuring music from the first and second seasons was released by Marvel Music digitally on September 4 , 2015 , and on CD in October 2015 .
= = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = =
Executive producer Maurissa Tancharoen stated the production team was not ruling out creating crossover episodes with Agent Carter or Guardians of the Galaxy during the season , with executive producer Jed Whedon adding that any such episodes would not equal the scale seen in the Captain America : The Winter Soldier crossover from the first season , saying , " In terms of game @-@ changers , [ those episodes are ] hard to beat . " Bell later said Avengers : Age of Ultron " is coming up and we know what 's going on with that and look forward to seeing it , but it 's pretty cool to find ways to tie @-@ in stuff and connect things . " In December 2014 , ABC confirmed the series would tie @-@ in with Avengers : Age of Ultron , with Whedon saying , " You should expect something . The Avengers is the big tent that all the franchises play under . Obviously , we 're included in that . " The episodes " The Frenemy of My Enemy " and " The Dirty Half Dozen " feature " Easter eggs , plot threads and other connective tissue leading into the opening scene of Avengers : Age of Ultron " while " Scars " explores the aftermath of the film .
Talking on how the season would interact with Agent Carter , Bell said , " Here 's what I think is interesting . Agent Carter seems to be about S.S.R. pre @-@ S.H.I.E.L.D. , but about the beginnings of something , and the basic values of that . S.H.I.E.L.D. got blown up last year and what Coulson always wanted was a return to basics , and it gives us an opportunity to return to some of those core values and even physically , some of that S.S.R. stuff has a way of finding its way into our show that could be cool . Anyway we can tie things together , we 're going to try to do it , but it is hard when the stories are 60 years apart . " Several scenes in " Shadows " and " The Things We Bury " are flashbacks featuring Peggy Carter which serve as an introduction to the world of Agent Carter , setting up characters and ideas for that series , including Carter 's belief in the need for " a permanent unit during peacetime " , which will lead to the creation of S.H.I.E.L.D. The episode " Making Friends and Influencing People " names Hydra 's ability to brainwash people as the Faustus Method , named for the character who appears , as Johann Fennhoff , in Agent Carter , played by Ralph Brown .
The season confirms that the blue alien seen in the first season , and a recurring plot point this season , was a member of the Kree race , who play a significant role in Guardians of the Galaxy . Whedon explained that " We obviously showed this body a year ago at around this time . When we were breaking that and sussing out what this arc would be , we had to have a lot of the pieces in place from the get go ... we had to talk to features about what their plans were and where they were going . " When asked whether this counts as the series tie @-@ in to Guardians of the Galaxy , Whedon said " It is a very far away other galaxy , so it 's a little bit harder to have one of them walk into our set , so a direct tie @-@ in is a little bit more challenging , but it 's all one universe , so there 's always opportunity for more . ... In Guardians , we saw parts in our universe that we hadn 't explored yet , so it shows we 're a part of that too . " This storyline also introduces the Inhumans to the MCU , ahead of their own film .
At the end of the season , Bell stated on the way that the season had tied in with the films , " we got to be our own show and tell our own stories in the Marvel Cinematic Universe and do a nice hand off or a tie @-@ in , but neither are incumbent upon the other to be a follow , and I think that 's a great model for us . "
= = Release = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
In June 2014 , Clark Gregg stated he believed the season would be shown in a block of 10 episodes , then breaking for Agent Carter , before airing the remaining 12 . Explaining this decision , Bell said ,
One of our challenges last year was to produce 22 episodes that aired over , what , 40 weeks ? 36 weeks ? Something like that . And the age of re @-@ runs is dead . Re @-@ runs are death , and so you 're trying to commit to the habit of the show and [ viewers ] tune in to something else or a re @-@ run and they 'll get pissed off . They 'll go away . What this allows us to do is minimize repeats . We 're showing ten episodes , and there has to be a gap or two because it 's physically impossible to produce ten shows and get through post production in time , we can 't do that so there 's going to be a Marvel special at some point . But pretty much every week you 're showing up and we 're there , and then instead of a repeat showing up mid @-@ run and losing momentum , Agent Carter comes in and has its own cool stuff , and they 're running eight weeks in a row , then we can come back and run twelve in a row with no interruptions . We 're still producing our show every week but it just gives us time , barely , to finish 22 on schedule . It takes out the need for repeats in the back half .
The season began airing on September 23 , 2014 , on ABC in the United States , and on CTV in Canada , and concluded on May 12 , 2015 . In Australia , the season debuted on September 29 , 2014 , on Seven Network , while Channel 4 in the United Kingdom premiered the season on October 24 , 2014 .
= = = Marketing = = =
At the 2014 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , ahead of the premiere of the season , Marvel Custom Solutions and Lexus released a limited single @-@ issue comic tie @-@ in titled Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. : The Chase , set between the Season 1 episodes " Seeds " and " T.R.A.C.K.S. " , written by George Kitson , and with art by Mirko Colak , Neil Edwards , and Mirco Pierfederici . On October 10 , 2014 , " Face My Enemy " was screened at New York Comic Con.
= = = = " The Art of Evolution " = = = =
For the final twelve episodes of the season , Marvel once again ran the " Art of ... " initiative , in which a different image was released each Thursday before a new episode , depicting a first look at a key event from the upcoming episode , with the season 's title being " The Art of Evolution " . The different artists were once again chosen to create the teaser posters , based on their previous work and how it connected to the themes and emotion of the intended episode . On how what is shown on each poster is chosen , Bell said , " maybe we 'll show [ the artist ] the script or let them watch the episode and let them respond to it emotionally and see what 's interesting to them . And then we have a conversation with them about how we 'd like to portray that , and then we try to lean into the strengths that they have . Some are more graphic , some are more character based , some are more composite , and some are cleaner . And that 's one of the things [ the producers ] really look forward to each week , getting the initial sketches back from the artists and seeing their interpretation . " The art once again appeared as variant covers to select titles published by Marvel Comics in June 2015 .
The poster for " Aftershocks " , created by Gabriele Dell 'Otto , the co @-@ creator of Daisy Johnson , depicts Skye twice , as she is transforming from the Terrigen mist and as the person dealing with her powers , as well as a transformed Raina , Coulson and the S.H.I.E.L.D. logo in the background . For " Who You Really Are " , the producers enlisted Marcos Martín to create the poster , which highlighted Sif 's ( Jaimie Alexander ) return to the show , as well as an " inside look " at S.H.I.E.L.D. as the logo crumbles , with Skye in the center of it , ambiguously leaving the viewer questioning if the logo was crumbling due to Sif 's sword , or Skye 's powers . The third poster , for " One of Us " , was created by Declan Shalvey and Jordie Bellaire . It features muted colors and shows " Coulson surrounded by villains [ from the S.H.I.E.L.D. index ] , and the giant Cal looming over , and [ a bird and ] S.H.I.E.L.D. behind him . " Annie Wu was brought on for the " Love in the Time of Hydra " poster , which shows Grant Ward holding a woman , though depicts her as two ; one drawn in red , the other in blue – " half of that goes to Agent 33 , who has two faces ... And it also goes to the fact that she 's been imitating other people as she did with Agent May . "
" One Door Closes " , an episode focused on Bobbi Morse 's history , received a poster of her with the " real S.H.I.E.L.D. " logo , that " embraced the basics " of four @-@ color printing , utilizing magenta , cyan , black and yellow , while still having layers and complications , much like the character of Morse . The poster was designed by Delicious Design League . The poster for " Afterlife " by Dave Johnson , highlights the divide within S.H.I.E.L.D. and the alliances on each side . With Coulson in the middle , Agents Gonzales , Morse , Mackenzie and Weaver stem from the " real S.H.I.E.L.D. " , while Hunter , Fitz and Simmons stem from the other . " Melinda " ' s poster , by Jenny Frison , mirrored the focus of the episode by prominently featuring an image of May , highlighting her backstory and why she is called " the Cavalry " . Marvel teamed with Nathan Fox on the poster for " The Frenemy of My Enemy " , which depicts Ward , Kara , and Bakshi in " Hydra red " ; Coulson , Hunter , and Fitz in " S.H.I.E.L.D. blue " ; and Deathlok neutral . They are all featured together , just as the season is " starting to put [ all of its plotlines ] together in new combinations in new ways , [ to ] propel us into the last four episodes . "
As alluded to by the episode title , the poster for " The Dirty Half Dozen " , with art by Jake Wyatt , sees the original recruits to Coulson 's S.H.I.E.L.D. team from the first season ( May , Ward , Fitz , Simmons and Skye ) , along with Coulson , together once again , suiting up for a mission together ; it is also the first poster of the " Art of ... " series to feature the episode title on the poster . Marguerite Sauvage provided the poster for " Scars " , which prominently features Jiaying and her scars in a way that the series cannot do with special effects , while also depicting Skye near the former 's stomach to cement the maternal connection between them . For Part One of the season finale , " S.O.S " , Ryan Sook ' s poster hints at Cal 's transformation into the Mr. Hyde persona from the comics , in an homage to traditional comic book covers . For Part Two , artist Joshua Budich brought together all of the main players of the season , divided into Coulson and his team , and those who served as antagonists to them throughout the season ( though not necessarily villains ) , with Skye and some Terrigen crystals in the middle , pointing to Skye 's confused allegiances and the importance of the crystals in the finale .
= = = Home media = = =
The season began streaming on Netflix on June 11 , 2015 , and was released on September 18 , 2015 , on Blu @-@ ray and DVD as an Amazon.com exclusive .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 94 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 2 / 10 based on 17 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. relaxes into itself during its sophomore season , mitigating the show 's growing pains by focusing on characters while amping up narrative thrills . "
Marc Buston for Den of Geek scored the premiere episode 4 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , feeling that the series had finally reached its potential by incorporating Marvel elements such as Creel and Whitehall , while also creating a darker tone and developing the original characters . He specifically highlighted the changes made to Fitz ' character , saying " This lair of tragedy greatly deepens Fitz 's character and gives the comic relief of last season a heartbreaking edge . " James Hunt , also for Den of Geek , gave a positive review as well , stating " The momentum of last season 's finale hasn 't been lost , and indeed , it 's even been added to . Last year I criticised the pilot episode for , above all else , failing to recreate the feel of the Marvel Cinematic Universe . This year , it 's only fair that I praise the season opener for doing exactly that . " Kevin Fitzpatrick at Screen Crush called the premiere " unexpectedly good " , noting that the series " remains as serialized a show as it can over 22 episodes " , introducing new and interesting ideas for the rest of the season , while also setting a high standard for subsequent episodes to meet .
Alan Sepinwall at HitFix called the episode a promising start to the season , " a fairly lively hour in spite of [ a lot of exposition ] , helped by some good casting and smart creative choices " . He was positive about both the changes to the existing characters and the introduction of the new ones , and though he noted that the opening sequence was " itself a piece of brand extension — early promotion for Agent Carter , " he felt that " Links to the rest of the Marvel [ Cinematic U ] niverse are always welcome when they 're in service to the story the show is telling " . Eric Goldman of IGN scored the episode an 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 , praising the visual style , which he called " less glossy " than previous episodes , as well as the introduction of new characters and development of old ones , especially the introduction of Carl Creel and the " nicely done FX showing off his power " . Oliver Sava of A.V. Club graded the episode a ' B- ' , feeling that " With a clearly defined villain and mission statement , this show 's second season is already off to a better start than its first year , but there 's still plenty of room for the series to grow . The scripts could use more energy , the action could be better choreographed , and it could use a huge injection of style for both the visual and audio elements . There 's so much potential in Agents Of S.H.I.E.L.D. ... but the show 's creators aren 't fully exploring it yet . "
At the end of the season , Goldman graded it an 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 , saying the season " found the show much @-@ improved , as it moved faster and delved deeper into the Marvel Cinematic Universe . " Compared to the first season , Goldman felt the " pacing was hugely improved , with storylines no longer taking forever to bubble up again and secrets no longer being kept both from the audience and the characters , " with content from the first season being resolved , while still introducing new plot lines and mysteries to play out over the season . He also praised the characterization improvement and called the season " less restrained " in connecting to its comics roots . While he appreciated the new characters that join the series , specifically MacLachlan 's portrayal of Cal , he felt Triplett was " never fully utilized " , which made his death in the midseason finale less impactful . Additionally , Goldman criticized the tie @-@ in to Age of Ultron , calling it " forced " and distracting from the Inhuman / S.H.I.E.L.D. 2 @.@ 0 storylines . Nick Hogan at TV Overmind rated the season 9 out of 10 stars , calling it , " for the most part , a very enjoyable season of television . " Hogan praised that cast and characters , particularly MacLachlan 's portrayal of Calvin Zabo , saying " He had perhaps the strongest character arc of anyone this season , and it was such a pleasure to watch . " He did criticize some of the story direction , feeling that it took a while for the Inhumans to connect to the rest of the series , and that the way the Age of Ultron tie @-@ in concluded the S.H.I.E.L.D. vs. S.H.I.E.L.D. storyline was " rushed and choppy " .
= = = Analysis = = =
The season 's introduction of the Inhumans and apparent willingness to establish new norms ahead of the films has been highlighted by critics :
Sava felt that having the series introduce the race made Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. " an essential part of Marvel Studios ' bigger plans for the future " , explaining that " the series has become more and more connected to the larger MCU since Captain America : The Winter Soldier , but it 's always been in a reactive role . Stuff happens in the movies , and Agents Of S.H.I.E.L.D. deals with the fallout . Not anymore . This show is making things happen , and these events will clearly impact the future of the MCU because we know there 's an Inhumans movie planned for 2019 . " Sava also mentioned that introducing the Inhumans " on a personal level rather than a cosmic level " via the television series makes " the whole idea a bit easier to swallow " for the general MCU audience .
Merrill Barr of Forbes thought that by not only introducing the Inhumans ahead of the film , but by depicting the spreading of the race throughout the world , was part of the series cementing its " right to exist " apart from the films . Talking about the season finale , Barr said , " S.H.I.E.L.D. does a most excellent job of standing on its own two feet in a way we 've never seen it do before . Come the final frame , all anyone – Marvel fan or otherwise – will be asking is when season three begins . The note the show leaves viewers on is one that will make them realize , perhaps for the first time , that the journey of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is not only worth it now , but perhaps always has been . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= Maya Lahan =
Doctor Maya Lahan is a fictional character from the British espionage television series Spooks , which follows the exploits of Section D , a counter @-@ terrorism division in MI5 . She is portrayed by British actress Laila Rouass . Maya is introduced in the ninth series of the programme as the first love and former girlfriend of John Bateman ( who changed his name to Lucas North ) fifteen years before the events of the series .
Rouass ' involvement in the series was first announced in March 2010 , with her character name revealed later in May . Because Maya was only a background character , Rouass 's role was limited , did not perform any stunts and had time to perform other projects . The actress liked working with Richard Armitage , who played Lucas , as she knew him for some years prior to working on Spooks . The character was met with generally mixed reviews from critics .
= = Role in Spooks = =
= = = Character arc = = =
Maya Lahan was born in York on 20 September 1975 . She became the girlfriend of John Bateman ( Richard Armitage ) whilst attending Leeds University . Maya was once aspired to open her own Tapas bar . When John became stuck in Dakar , he worked with Vaughn Edwards ( Iain Glen ) as a courier in order to get back home , but Maya remained unaware of his activities . Vaughn remembered that during their time , John would talk to him about Maya for hours at a time . However , after he was involved in the bombing of a British Embassy in 1995 , John was forced to leave Maya and murder friend Lucas North , and since started masquerading as him . In the belief that John died , Maya got on with her life , becoming a doctor and enters a relationship with Vaughn ( whom she knows as Michael ) .
Fifteen years later , in the first episode of the ninth series , Vaughn visits Lucas and leaves him with several mementos of his former life , including pictures of him and Maya . Lucas finds the hospital where she works to meet her . However , Maya coldy rejects him , stating she moved on with somebody else , and that she no longer needs him . By the end of the third episode however , Lucas invites her to his home and the two have sex on a kitchen table , thus restarting their relationship . However , over the course of the series , Vaughn has been manipulating Lucas , by giving him Maya back into his life , in order to get his hands on an MI5 file named " Albany " , which contain blueprints for a genetic weapon . To further force Lucas ' hand in getting the file , Vaughn abducts Maya , though he was possibly doing this in order to protect her from Chinese agents who wish to acquire Albany , and threatening to rape then behead Maya should Vaughn fail to deliver . Later , Lucas finds Maya after mortally wounding Vaughn . Having confessed his past crimes to his MI5 superior , Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) , Lucas intends to flee the country with Maya , and agrees to give the Chinese Albany in exchange for money , and new identities for the couple . However , Maya is approached by hired specialist , Alec White ( Vincent Regan ) , who tells her of Lucas 's past crimes . By doing so , Maya turns against Lucas , and attempts to get him to surrender . However , when Beth Bailey ( Sophia Myles ) and Dimitri Levendis ( Max Brown ) arrive , Lucas takes Maya to his car and evades them . When Beth and Demitri open fire , a bullet hits Maya in the torso , and she dies . Because a GPS tracker was placed on Maya , Lucas leaves her body behind .
= = = Characteristics and relationships = = =
Maya is depicted as the first love of Lucas North . Laila Rouass stated " she 's the love of his life and he 's the love of hers . " When he is forced to disappear , it " completely rocks her world . " Armitage meanwhile believed that Maya had an effect with every relationship Lucas had since , and having failed them all , Lucas hangs onto thinking about Maya . When Lucas returns , Maya 's life is turns " upside down , " and she is angry at him because she feels betrayed by him . Armitage stated that Lucas was " just compelled to see her " after looking at photographs of them both together , and really shapes his future . Both characters go on " quite an interesting journey " because Maya moved on with her life without Lucas , and he has to fight to get her to listen to him . However , when they start to restart their relationship , Vaughn gets in the way and " throws water over it . " Rouass believes that Lucas " definitely " trusts Maya without question , and that their relationship is " dynamic and explosive " and makes them " question certain things . " Neither of them can control their relationship , which scares Maya . Iain Glen believed that Maya is also Lucas ' central weakness , and his love for her becomes instrumental to his downfall .
= = Conceptual history = =
In March 2010 , it was announced that Laila Rouass has joined the cast of the ninth series of Spooks , along with Max Brown and Sophia Myles , however at the time Sarah Brandist from the BBC refused to reveal details of the character , including the name , citing " we don 't want to give too much away as intrigue and betrayal are at the heart of the storylines . " Later in May of the same year , co @-@ star Richard Armitage announced Rouass would play a character named Maya , described as " an old flame of Lucas 's , possibly his first love . "
Rouass was acquainted with the series , having viewed the first two series and " dipped in and out of it . " She also stated that Maya is only a background character throughout the series , meaning her role is limited , and does not play a spy or becoming " part of this mafia or that mafia . " Due to her limited appearance , the actress was available to perform other projects , including The Sarah Jane Adventures and Conan the Barbarian , as well as spending the free time with her daughter . Rouass does not participate in any stunt work , but does appear in " a lot of passionate scenes . " Having gotten used to filming sex scenes in Footballers ' Wives , Rouass noticed that while humour was involved in Footballers ' Wives , Spooks was more passionate and very choreographed . In an interview with the Daily Mirror , Rouass recalled one of the scenes ; " there 's one scene where we get together in the kitchen and the director was like , ' Come on , let 's be honest , you haven 't seen each other for years , you 're not going to get all romantic , you 're going to shag her on the table . ' "
Rouass liked working with Armitage during her duration on the series , having met him in Los Angeles a few years prior , as well as Iain Glen , who plays Vaughn Edwards , although she was worried that should " Maya let anything happen to [ Lucas ] I 'll be one of the most hated women in the country . " She also admitted she had " no idea " if her character would be killed off , but said in an interview with Digital Spy , " at the end of the day , you just know what the show 's about . You know there 's a chance that you could go , but you have to embrace that . "
= = Reception = =
The character was met by generally mixed reactions from critics . Nick Bryan of Dork Adore was not convinced of the Lucas and Maya storyline , stating " I keep forgetting she exists whenever she 's off @-@ screen . Vicky Frost of The Guardian had mixed reactions towards the character , writing " let 's hope that Maya turns out to be more than just a device for us to find out about Lucas ' past , " but adds that she is not " holding my breath . " For the finale , Frost criticised the writing behind the line where Maya admits she always believed Lucas ' actions when she was told " seemed almost giddily optimistic . "
= Twilight ( 2008 film ) =
Twilight is a 2008 American adventure film based on Stephenie Meyer 's popular novel of the same name . Directed by Catherine Hardwicke , the film stars Kristen Stewart and Robert Pattinson . It is the first film in The Twilight Saga film series . This film focuses on the development of the relationship between Bella Swan ( a teenage girl ) and Edward Cullen ( a vampire ) , and the subsequent efforts of Edward and his family to keep Bella safe from a coven of evil vampires .
The project was in development for approximately three years at Paramount Pictures , during which time a screen adaptation that differed significantly from the novel was written . Summit Entertainment acquired the rights to the novel after three years of the project 's stagnant development . Melissa Rosenberg wrote a new adaptation of the novel shortly before the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike and sought to be faithful to the novel 's storyline . Principal photography took 44 days and completed on May 2 , 2008 ; the film was primarily shot in Oregon .
Twilight was theatrically released on November 21 , 2008 ; it grossed over US $ 393 million worldwide . It was released on DVD March 21 , 2009 and became the most purchased DVD of the year . The soundtrack was released on November 4 , 2008 . Following the film 's success , New Moon and Eclipse , the next two novels in the series , were produced as films the following year .
= = Plot = =
Seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Isabella " Bella " Swan moves to Forks , a small town on the Washington coast , to live with her father , Charlie . Her mother , Renée , is remarried to a minor league baseball player , and they travel often to attend games . Bella makes several friends at her new high school , but she is intrigued by the mysterious and aloof Cullen siblings . Bella sits next to Edward Cullen in biology class on her first day of school , but he seems to be repulsed by her . After a week of absence from school , Edward comes back and talks to Bella normally . A few days later , Bella is nearly struck by a van in the school parking lot . Edward saves her by instantaneously covering a distance of over 30 feet and putting himself between Bella and the van , stopping it with only his hand and making a conspicuous dent . He subsequently refuses to explain his actions to Bella and warns her against befriending him .
After much research , Bella concludes that Edward is a vampire . He eventually confirms this but says he and the other Cullens only consume animal blood . The pair fall in love , and Edward introduces Bella to his vampire family . Carlisle Cullen , the family patriarch , is a doctor working in Forks . His wife is Esme , and Alice , Jasper , Emmett , and Rosalie are their informally adopted children . Edward and Bella 's relationship is soon put in jeopardy , when three nomadic vampires — James , Victoria , and Laurent — arrive in Forks . James , a tracker vampire with incredible hunting instincts , is instantly intrigued by Edward 's protectiveness over a human , which incites him to hunt Bella for sport . Edward and the other Cullens risk their lives to protect Bella , but James tracks her to Phoenix , where she is hiding with Jasper and Alice . James lures Bella into a trap by falsely claiming that he is holding her mother hostage . James breaks Bella 's leg before biting her wrist , infecting her with vampire venom . After a ferocious fight , Edward subdues James just as the other Cullens arrive . Alice , Emmett , and Jasper destroy James , decapitating and burning him , as Edward sucks the venom from Bella 's wrist , preventing her from turning into a vampire . Upon returning to Forks , Edward accompanies Bella to the high school prom , where he refuses to grant her request that he transform her into a vampire . As the couple dance , they are unaware that James ' mate , Victoria , is secretly watching , plotting revenge for her lover 's death .
= = Cast = =
Main cast
Kristen Stewart as Bella Swan , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old girl who moves to the small town of Forks , Washington from Phoenix , Arizona and falls in love with Edward Cullen , a vampire . Her life is endangered after James , a sadistic vampire , decides to hunt her .
Robert Pattinson as Edward Cullen , a 108 @-@ year @-@ old vampire who was changed in 1918 and still appears to be seventeen . He is Bella 's love interest and eventually falls in love with her . He has the ability to read minds , with the exception of Bella 's , along with superhuman speed .
Secondary cast
Peter Facinelli as Carlisle Cullen , a compassionate 300 @-@ plus @-@ year @-@ old vampire who looks to be in his early 30s . He serves as the town 's physician and is the Cullen family patriarch .
Elizabeth Reaser as Esme Cullen , Carlisle 's vampire wife and the matriarch of the Cullen family .
Ashley Greene as Alice Cullen , Jasper Cullen 's mate , a vampire who can see the future based on decisions that people make .
Kellan Lutz as Emmett Cullen , physically the strongest vampire of the family .
Nikki Reed as Rosalie Hale , Emmett Cullen 's mate , a vampire described as the most beautiful person in the world . She is hostile toward Bella throughout the film , worried that Edward 's relationship with a human puts their clan at risk .
Jackson Rathbone as Jasper Hale , a Cullen family member who can manipulate emotions . He is the newest member of the Cullen family , and thus has the most difficulty maintaining their " vegetarian " diet of feeding only on animal rather than human blood .
Billy Burke as Charlie Swan , Bella 's father and Forks ' Chief of Police .
Cam Gigandet as James Witherdale , the leader of a group of nomadic vampires that intends to kill Bella . He is Victoria 's mate and a gifted tracker , due to his unparalleled senses .
Rachelle Lefèvre as Victoria Sutherland , James ' mate who assists him in hunting Bella .
Edi Gathegi as Laurent Da Revin , the most civilized member of James ' coven .
Sarah Clarke as Renée Dwyer , Bella 's mother who lives in Arizona with her new husband , Phil .
Taylor Lautner as Jacob Black , an old childhood friend of Bella and a member of the Quileute tribe .
Christian Serratos as Angela Weber , one of Bella 's new friends in Forks .
Michael Welch as Mike Newton , one of Bella 's new friends who vies for her attention .
Anna Kendrick as Jessica Stanley , Bella 's first friend in Forks .
Gregory Tyree Boyce as Tyler Crowley , another one of Bella 's classmates , also vying for Bella 's attention . He nearly hits Bella with his van .
Justin Chon as Eric Yorkie , another one of Bella 's classmates who vies for her attention .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Stephenie Meyer 's paranormal romance novel Twilight was originally optioned by Paramount Pictures ' MTV Films in April 2004 , but the screenplay that was subsequently developed was substantially different from its source material . When Summit Entertainment reinvented itself as a full @-@ service studio in April 2007 , it began development of a film adaptation anew , having picked up the rights from Paramount ( who coincidentally had made an unrelated film with the same title in 1998 ) in a turnaround . The company perceived the film as an opportunity to launch a franchise based on the success of Meyer 's book and its sequels . Catherine Hardwicke was hired to direct the film and Melissa Rosenberg was hired to write the script in mid @-@ 2007 .
Rosenberg developed an outline by the end of August , and collaborated with Hardwicke on writing the screenplay during the following month . Rosenberg said Hardwicke " was a great sounding board and had all sorts of brilliant ideas .... I 'd finish off scenes and send them to her , and get back her notes . " Due to the impending Writers Guild of America strike , Rosenberg worked full @-@ time to finish the screenplay before October 31 . In adapting the novel , she " had to condense a great deal . " Some characters from the novel were not featured in the screenplay , whereas some characters were combined into others . " [ O ] ur intent all along was to stay true to the book " , Rosenberg explained , " and it has to do less with adapting it word for word and more with making sure the characters ' arcs and emotional journeys are the same . " Hardwicke suggested the use of voice over to convey Bella 's internal dialogue — since the novel is told from her point of view — and she sketched some of the storyboards during pre @-@ production .
= = = Adaptation from source material = = =
The filmmakers behind Twilight worked to create a film that was as faithful to the novel as they thought possible when converting the story to another medium , with producer Greg Mooradian saying , " It 's very important to distinguish that we 're making a separate piece of art that obviously is going to remain very , very faithful to the book .... But at the same time , we have a separate responsibility to make the best movie you can make . " To ensure a faithful adaptation , Meyer was kept very involved in the production process , having been invited to visit the set during filming and even asked to give notes on the script and on a rough cut of the film . Of this process , she said , " It was a really pleasant exchange [ between me and the filmmakers ] from the beginning , which I think is not very typical . They were really interested in my ideas " , and , " ... they kept me in the loop and with the script , they let me see it and said , ' What are your thoughts ? ' ... They let me have input on it and I think they took 90 percent of what I said and just incorporated it right in to the script . " Meyer fought for one line in particular , one of the most well @-@ known from the book about " the lion and the lamb " , to be kept verbatim in the film : " I actually think the way Melissa [ Rosenberg ] wrote it sounded better for the movie [ ... ] but the problem is that line is actually tattooed on peoples ' bodies [ ... ] But I said , ' You know , if you take that one and change it , that 's a potential backlash situation . ' " Meyer was even invited to create a written list of things that could not be changed for the film , such as giving the vampires fangs or killing characters who do not die in the book , that the studio agreed to follow . The consensus among critics is that the filmmakers succeeded in making a film that is very faithful to its source material , with one reviewer stating that , with a few exceptions , " Twilight the movie is unerringly faithful to the source without being hamstrung by it . "
However , as is most often the case with film adaptations , differences do exist between the film and source material . Certain scenes from the book were cut from the film , such as a biology room scene where Bella 's class does blood typing . Hardwicke explains , " Well [ the book is ] almost 500 pages — you do have to do the sweetened condensed milk version of that .... We already have two scenes in biology : the first time they 're in there and then the second time when they connect . For a film , when you condense , you don 't want to keep going back to the same setting over and over . So that 's not in there . " The settings of certain conversations in the book were also changed to make the scenes more " visually dynamic " on @-@ screen , such as Bella 's revelation that she knows Edward is a vampire — this happens in a meadow in the film instead of in Edward 's car as in the novel . A biology field trip scene is added to the film to condense the moments of Bella 's frustration at trying to explain how Edward saved her from being crushed by a van . The villainous vampires are introduced earlier in the film than in the novel . Rosenberg said that " you don 't really see James and the other villains until to the last quarter of the book , which really won 't work for a movie . You need that ominous tension right off the bat . We needed to see them and that impending danger from the start . And so I had to create back story for them , what they were up to , to flesh them out a bit as characters . " Rosenberg also combined some of the human high school students , with Lauren Mallory and Jessica Stanley in the novel becoming the character of Jessica in the film , and a " compilation of a couple of different human characters " becoming Eric Yorkie . About these variances from the book , Mooradian stated , " I think we did a really judicious job of distilling [ the book ] . Our greatest critic , Stephenie Meyer , loves the screenplay , and that tells me that we made all the right choices in terms of what to keep and what to lose . Invariably , you 're going to lose bits and pieces that certain members of the audience are going to desperately want to see , but there 's just a reality that we 're not making ' Twilight : The Book ' the movie . "
= = = Casting = = =
Kristen Stewart was on the set of Adventureland when Hardwicke visited her for an informal screen test that " captivated " the director . Hardwicke had trouble finding an actor otherworldly enough to play vampire Edward Cullen . Then she got a call about a guy in London . " I looked at a couple pictures and was like , ‘ I ’ m not sure , ’ ? " Hardwicke says . " He had been fired from his last job , he was unemployed , he was in debt . " Pattinson flew to Los Angeles on his own dime to read with Stewart . Shiloh Fernandez , Jackson Rathbone , Ben Barnes , and Robert Pattinson were the final four up for the role of Edward . Hardwicke did not initially choose Robert Pattinson for the role of Edward Cullen , but after an audition at her home with Stewart , he was selected . Hardwicke said , " Kristen was like , ‘ It ’ s got to be Rob ! ’ She felt connected to him from the first moment . That electricity , or love at first sight , or whatever it is . " Hardwicke gave him the part , but he had to make a promise . " You ’ ve got to realize that Kristen is 17 years old , " Hardwicke told him , " She ’ s underage . You ’ ve got to focus , dude , or you ’ re going to be arrested . I made him swear on a stack of Bibles . " Pattinson was unfamiliar with the novel series prior to his screen test but read the books later on . Meyer allowed him to view a manuscript of the unfinished Midnight Sun , which chronicles the events in Twilight from Edward 's point of view . Fan reaction to Pattinson 's casting as Edward was initially negative ; Rachelle Lefèvre remarked that " [ e ] very woman had their own Edward [ that ] they had to let go of before they could open up to [ him ] , which they did . " Meyer was " excited " and " ecstatic " in response to the casting of the two main characters . She had expressed interest in having Emily Browning and Henry Cavill cast as Bella and Edward , respectively , prior to pre @-@ production .
Peter Facinelli was not originally cast as Carlisle Cullen . " [ Hardwicke ] liked me , but there was another actor that the studio was pushing for " , Facinelli said . For unknown reasons , that actor was not able to play the part and Facinelli was selected in his place . The choice of Ashley Greene to portray Alice Cullen was the subject of fan criticism due to Greene being 7 inches ( 18 cm ) taller than her character as described in the novel . Meyer had also stated that Rachael Leigh Cook resembled her vision of Alice . Nikki Reed had previously worked with Hardwicke on Thirteen , which they wrote together , and Lords of Dogtown . Reed commented , " I don 't want to say it 's a coincidence , because we do work well together , and we have a great history . I think we make good work , but it 's more that the people that hire [ Hardwicke ] to direct a film of theirs [ have ] most likely seen her other work . "
Kellan Lutz was in Africa shooting the HBO miniseries Generation Kill when the auditions for the character of Emmett Cullen were conducted . The role had already been cast by the time that production ended in December 2007 , but the actor who had been selected " fell through " ; Lutz subsequently auditioned and was flown to Oregon , where Hardwicke personally chose him . Rachelle Lefèvre was interested in pursuing a role in the film because Hardwicke was attached to the project as director ; there was also " the potential to explore a character , hopefully , over three films " ; and she wanted to portray a vampire . She " thought that vampires were basically the best metaphor for human anxiety and questions about being alive . " Christian Serratos initially auditioned for Jessica Stanley , but she " fell totally in love with Angela " after reading the novels and successfully took advantage of a later opportunity to audition for Angela Weber . The role of Jessica Stanley went to Anna Kendrick , who got the part after two mix @-@ and @-@ match auditions with various actors .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
On a bed in Catherine Hardwicke 's house is where Pattinson kissed Stewart for the first time for the Twilight screen test . " That bed made Pattinson who he is right now , " says Reed . That ’ s also where Hardwicke auditioned Evan Rachel Wood , when she had her get into her bed with Nikki Reed for the film Thirteen . When asked about her lair , Hardwicke says , " MTV came and did an episode in my house filming the bed . It ’ s legendary . " Principal photography took 44 days , after more than a week of rehearsals , and completed on May 2 , 2008 . Similar to her directorial debut Thirteen , Hardwicke opted for an extensive use of hand @-@ held cinematography to make the film " feel real " . Meyer visited the production set three times and was consulted on different aspects of the story ; she also has a brief cameo in the film . Cast members who portrayed vampires avoided sunlight to make their skin pale , though makeup was also applied for that effect , and wore contact lenses : " We did the golden color because the Cullens have those golden eyes . And then , when we 're hungry , we have to pop the black ones in , " Facinelli explained . They also participated in rehearsals with a dance choreographer and observed the physicality of different panthera to make their bodily movements more elegant .
Scenes were filmed primarily in Portland , Oregon . Stunt work was done mainly by the cast . The fight sequence between Gigandet and Pattinson 's characters in a ballet studio , which was filmed during the first week of production , involved a substantial amount of wire work because the vampires in the story have superhuman strength and speed . Gigandet incorporated mixed martial arts fighting moves in this sequence , which involved chicken and honey as substitutes for flesh . Bella , the protagonist , is unconscious during these events , and since the novel is told from her point of view , such action sequences are illustrative and unique to the film . Pattinson noted that maintaining one 's center of gravity is difficult when doing wire work " because you have to really fight against it as well as letting it do what it needs to do . " Lefèvre found the experience disorienting since forward motion was out of her control .
Instead of shooting at Forks High School itself , scenes taking place at the school were filmed at Kalama High School and Madison High School . Other scenes were filmed in St. Helens , and Hardwicke conducted some reshooting in Pasadena , California , in August . Twilight was originally scheduled to be theatrically released in the United States on December 12 , 2008 , but its release date was changed to November 21 after Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince was rescheduled for an opening in July 2009 . Two teaser trailers , as well as some additional scenes , were released for the film , as well as a final trailer , which was released on October 9 . A 15 @-@ minute excerpt of Twilight was presented during the International Rome Film Festival in Italy . The film received a rating of PG @-@ 13 from the Motion Picture Association of America for " some violence and a scene of sensuality " .
= = = Music = = =
The score for Twilight was composed by Carter Burwell , with the rest of the soundtrack chosen by music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas . Meyer was consulted on the soundtrack , which includes music by Muse and Linkin Park , bands she listened to while writing the novels . The original soundtrack was released on November 4 , 2008 , by Chop Shop Records in conjunction with Atlantic Records . It debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200 .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Twilight grossed over $ 7 million in ticket sales from midnight showings alone on November 21 , 2008 . The film is fifth overall on Fandango 's list of top advance ticket sales , outranked only by its sequel the following year , Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith ( 2005 ) , The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , and Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince ( 2009 ) . It grossed $ 35 @.@ 7 million on its opening day . For its opening weekend in the United States and Canada , Twilight accumulated $ 69 @.@ 6 million from 3 @,@ 419 theaters at an average of $ 20 @,@ 368 per theater . The film grossed $ 192 @,@ 769 @,@ 854 in the United States and Canada , and $ 199 @,@ 846 @,@ 771 in international territories for a total of $ 392 @,@ 616 @,@ 625 . Its opening weekend gross was the highest ever of a female @-@ directed film , surpassing that of Deep Impact ( 1998 ) .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Twilight received mixed reviews from critics . Based on 207 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an overall " Rotten " rating of 48 % , with a weighted average score of 5 @.@ 4 / 10 . In describing the critical consensus , it stated : " Having lost much of its bite transitioning to the big screen , Twilight will please its devoted fans , but do little for the uninitiated . " On Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics , it has an average score of 56 from the 37 reviews . New York Press critic Armond White called the film " a genuine pop classic " , and praised Hardwicke for turning " Meyer 's book series into a Brontë @-@ esque vision . " Roger Ebert gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and wrote , " I saw it at a sneak preview . Last time I saw a movie in that same theater , the audience welcomed it as an opportunity to catch up on gossip , texting , and laughing at private jokes . This time the audience was rapt with attention " . In his review for the Los Angeles Times , Kenneth Turan wrote , " Twilight is unabashedly a romance . All the story 's inherent silliness aside , it is intent on conveying the magic of meeting that one special person you 've been waiting for . Maybe it is possible to be 13 and female for a few hours after all " . USA Today gave the film two out of four stars and Claudia Puig wrote , " Meyer is said to have been involved in the production of Twilight , but her novel was substantially more absorbing than the unintentionally funny and quickly forgettable film " . Entertainment Weekly gave the film a " B " rating and Owen Gleiberman praised Hardwicke 's direction : " She has reconjured Meyer 's novel as a cloudburst mood piece filled with stormy skies , rippling hormones , and understated visual effects " .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD in North America on March 21 , 2009 , through midnight release parties , and sold over 3 million units in its first day . It was released on April 6 , 2009 in the UK . Bonus features include about 10 to 12 extended or deleted scenes , montages and music videos , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes interviews , a " making @-@ of " segment , and commentary featuring Hardwicke , Stewart , and Pattinson . The Blu @-@ ray disc edition of the film was released on March 21 , 2009 , in select locations , but was made more widely available at further retailers on May 5 , 2009 . As of July 2012 , the film has sold 11 @,@ 242 @,@ 519 units , earning $ 201 @,@ 190 @,@ 019 .
The film and the next two installments of the Twilight Saga will be rereleased as a triple feature with extended cuts on January 13 , 2015 .
= = = Video game = = =
A movie trivia video game developed by Screenlife and published by Konami for the Wii , Nintendo DS , PC and the iPhone was released alongside the second film .
= = = Accolades = = =
Since its release , Twilight has received numerous nominations and awards . In January 2009 , Carter Burwell was nominated for Film Composer of the Year by the International Film Music Critics Association . Robert Pattinson won Bravo TV 's A @-@ List Award for A @-@ List Breakout . At the 2009 MTV Movie Awards , Pattinson , who was nominated alongside Taylor Lautner , also won an award for Male Breakthrough Performance , " Decode " was nominated for Best Song from a Movie , Twilight won an award for Best Movie , Kristen Stewart won for Best Female performance , Stewart and Pattinson were awarded Best Kiss , and Pattinson and Cam Gigandet won an award for Best Fight . Christian Serratos won a Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a Feature Film : Supporting Young Actress . For the 2009 Teen Choice Awards , held on August 9 , the film and its actors received a combined total of 12 nominations , nine of which the film won . At the 2009 Scream Awards , the film was nominated for nine awards , four of which it won . The film won two ALMA Awards for makeup and hairstyling . It also won the Public Choice Award at the World Soundtrack Awards , where Carter Burwell was also nominated for Composer of the Year . Catherine Hardwicke received a Young Hollywood Award for her directing . In addition , the film was nominated for Best Fantasy Film at the 35th Saturn Awards and two Grammy Awards .
= = Sequel = =
MTV reported in February 2008 that Summit Entertainment intended to create a series of at least three films based on Meyer 's books . The studio had optioned New Moon , the second book in the series , by October 2008 , and confirmed their plans to make a film based on it November 22 , 2008 . Because Catherine Hardwicke had wanted more preparation time than Summit 's schedule for the production and release of the sequel would provide , Chris Weitz was selected to direct it in December 2008 .
= Dylan Thomas =
Dylan Marlais Thomas ( 27 October 1914 – 9 November 1953 ) was a Welsh poet and writer whose works include the poems " Do not go gentle into that good night " and " And death shall have no dominion " ; the ' play for voices ' Under Milk Wood ; and stories and radio broadcasts such as A Child 's Christmas in Wales and Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog . He became widely popular in his lifetime and remained so after his premature death at the age of 39 in New York City . By then , he had acquired a reputation , which he encouraged , as a " roistering , drunken and doomed poet " .
Thomas was born in Swansea , Wales , in 1914 . An undistinguished pupil , he left school at 16 and became a journalist for a short time . Many of his works appeared in print while he was still a teenager ; however , it was the publication of " Light breaks where no sun shines , " in 1934 , that caught the attention of the literary world . While living in London , Thomas met Caitlin Macnamara , whom he married in 1937 . Their relationship was defined by alcoholism and was mutually destructive . In the early part of their marriage , Thomas and his family lived hand @-@ to @-@ mouth , settling in the Welsh fishing village of Laugharne .
Thomas came to be appreciated as a popular poet during his lifetime , and he found earning a living as a writer difficult . He began augmenting his income with reading tours and radio broadcasts . His radio recordings for the BBC during the late 1940s brought him to the public 's attention , and he was frequently used by the BBC as a populist voice of the literary scene .
Thomas first traveled to the United States in the 1950s . This is where his readings brought him a level of fame while his erratic behaviour and drinking worsened . His time in America cemented Thomas 's legend , however , and he went on to record to vinyl such works as A Child 's Christmas in Wales . During his fourth trip to New York in 1953 , Thomas became gravely ill and fell into a coma , from which he never recovered . He died on 9 November 1953 . His body was returned to Wales where he was interred at the village churchyard in Laugharne on 25 November 1953 .
Thomas wrote exclusively in the English language . He has been acknowledged as one of the most important Welsh poets of the 20th century . He is noted for his original , rhythmic and ingenious use of words and imagery . Thomas 's position as one of the great modern poets has been much discussed , and he remains popular with the public .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Dylan Thomas was born on 27 October 1914 in Swansea , the son of Florence Hannah ( née Williams ; 1882 – 1958 ) , a seamstress , and David John Thomas ( 1876 – 1952 ) , a teacher . His father had a first @-@ class honours degree in English from University College , Aberystwyth , and ambitions to rise above his position teaching English literature at the local grammar school . Thomas had one sibling , Nancy ( Nancy Marles 1906 – 1953 ) , who was nine years older . The children spoke only English though their parents were bilingual in English and Welsh , and David Thomas gave Welsh lessons at home . Thomas 's father chose the name Dylan , which could be translated as " son of the sea " , after Dylan ail Don , a character in The Mabinogion . His middle name , Marlais , was given in honour of his great @-@ uncle , William Thomas , a Unitarian minister and poet whose bardic name was Gwilym Marles . Dylan , pronounced ˈ ( Dull @-@ an ) in Welsh , caused his mother to worry he might be teased as the " dull one " . When he broadcast on Welsh BBC , early in his career , he was introduced using this pronunciation . Thomas favoured the Anglicised pronunciation and gave instructions that it should be Dillan / ˈdɪlən / .
The red @-@ brick semi @-@ detached house at 5 Cwmdonkin Drive , in which Thomas was born and lived until he was 19 , had been bought by his parents in the respectable area of the Uplands a few months before his birth . His childhood was spent in Swansea , with summer trips to Carmarthenshire to visit Fernhill , a dairy farm owned by his maternal aunt , Ann Jones , the memory of which is used for the 1945 lyrical poem " Fern Hill " . Thomas had bronchitis and asthma in childhood and struggled with these throughout his life . Thomas was indulged by his mother and enjoyed being mollycoddled , a trait he carried into adulthood and he was skilful at gaining attention and sympathy . Thomas 's formal education began at Mrs Hole 's dame school a private school on Mirador Crescent , a few streets away from his home . He described his experience there in Quite Early One Morning :
Never was there such a dame school as ours , so firm and kind and smelling of galoshes , with the sweet and fumbled music of the piano lessons drifting down from upstairs to the lonely schoolroom , where only the sometimes tearful wicked sat over undone sums , or to repent a little crime — the pulling of a girl 's hair during geography , the sly shin kick under the table during English literature .
In October 1925 , Thomas enrolled at Swansea Grammar School for boys , in Mount Pleasant , where his father taught English . He was an undistinguished pupil who shied away from school , preferring reading . In his first year one of his poems was published in the school 's magazine and before he left he became its editor . During his final school years he began writing poetry in notebooks , the first poem dated 27 April ( 1930 ) , is entitled " Osiris , come to Isis " . In June 1928 Thomas won the school 's mile race , held at St. Helen 's Ground ; he carried a newspaper photograph of his victory with him until his death . In 1931 , when he was 16 , Thomas left school to become a reporter for the South Wales Daily Post , only to leave under pressure 18 months later . Thomas continued to work as a freelance journalist for several years during which time he remained at Cwmdonkin Drive where he continued to add to his notebooks , amassing 200 poems in four books between 1930 and 1934 . Of the 90 poems he published , half were written during these years .
In his free time , he joined the amateur dramatic group at the Little Theatre in Mumbles , visited the cinema in Uplands , took walks along Swansea Bay , and frequented Swansea 's pubs , especially the Antelope and the Mermaid Hotels in Mumbles . In the Kardomah Café , close to the newspaper office in Castle Street , he met his creative contemporaries , including his friend the poet Vernon Watkins . The group of writers , musicians and artists became known as " The Kardomah Gang " . In 1933 , Thomas visited London for probably the first time .
= = = 1933 – 1939 = = =
Thomas was a teenager when many of the poems for which he became famous were published : " And death shall have no dominion " , " Before I Knocked " and " The Force That Through the Green Fuse Drives the Flower " . " And death shall have no dominion " appeared in the New English Weekly in May 1933 . When " Light breaks where no sun shines " appeared in The Listener in 1934 , it caught the attention of three senior figures in literary London , T. S. Eliot , Geoffrey Grigson and Stephen Spender . They contacted Thomas and his first poetry volume , 18 Poems , was published in December 1934 . 18 Poems was noted for its visionary qualities which led to critic Desmond Hawkins writing that the work was " the sort of bomb that bursts no more than once in three years " . The volume was critically acclaimed and won a contest run by the Sunday Referee , netting him new admirers from the London poetry world , including Edith Sitwell and Edwin Muir . The anthology was published by Fortune Press , in part a vanity publisher that did not pay its writers and expected them to buy a certain number of copies themselves . A similar arrangement was used by other new authors including Philip Larkin . In December 1935 Thomas contributed the poem " The Hand That Signed the Paper " to Issue 18 of the bi @-@ monthly New Verse . In 1936 , his next collection Twenty @-@ five Poems , published by J. M. Dent , also received much critical praise . In all , he wrote half his poems while living at Cwmdonkin Drive before moving to London . It was the time that Thomas 's reputation for heavy drinking developed .
In early 1936 , Thomas met Caitlin Macnamara ( 1913 – 1994 ) , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old blonde @-@ haired , blue @-@ eyed dancer of Irish descent . She had run away from home , intent on making a career in dance , and aged 18 joined the chorus line at the London Palladium . Introduced by Augustus John , Caitlin 's lover , they met in The Wheatsheaf pub on Rathbone Place in London 's West End . Laying his head in her lap , a drunken Thomas proposed . Thomas liked to comment that he and Caitlin were in bed together ten minutes after they first met . Although Caitlin initially continued her relationship with John , she and Thomas began a correspondence , and in the second half of 1936 were courting . They married at the register office in Penzance , Cornwall , on 11 July 1937 . In early 1938 they moved to Wales , renting a cottage in the village of Laugharne , Carmarthenshire . Their first child , Llewelyn Edouard , was born on 30 January 1939 .
By the late 1930s , Thomas was embraced as the " poetic herald " for a group of English poets , the New Apocalyptics . Thomas refused to align himself with them and declined to sign their manifesto . He later stated that he believed they were " intellectual muckpots leaning on a theory " . Despite this , many of the group , including Henry Treece , modelled their work on Thomas .
= = = Wartime , 1939 – 1945 = = =
In 1939 The Map of Love appeared as a collection of 16 poems and seven of the 20 short stories published by Thomas in magazines since 1934 . Ten stories in his next book , Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog ( 1940 ) , were based less on lavish fantasy than The Map of Love and more on real @-@ life romances featuring himself in Wales . Sales of both books were poor , resulting in Thomas living on meagre fees from writing and reviewing . At this time he borrowed heavily from friends and acquaintances . Hounded by creditors , Thomas and his family left Laugharne in July 1940 and moved to the home of critic John Davenport in Marshfield , Gloucestershire . There Thomas collaborated with Davenport on the satire The Death of the King 's Canary , though due to fears of libel the work was not published until 1976 .
At the outset of the Second World War , Thomas was worried about conscription and referred to his ailment as " an unreliable lung " . Coughing sometimes confined him to bed and he had a history of bringing up blood and mucus . After initially seeking employment in a reserved occupation , he managed to be classified Grade III , which meant that he would be among the last to be called up for service . Saddened to see his friends going on active service , he continued drinking and struggled to support his family . He wrote begging letters to random literary figures asking for support , a plan he hoped would provide a long @-@ term regular income . Thomas supplemented his income by writing scripts for the BBC , which not only gave him additional earnings but also provided evidence that he was producing essential war work .
In February 1941 , Swansea was bombed by the Luftwaffe in a " three nights ' blitz " . Castle Street was one of many streets that suffered badly ; rows of shops , including the Kardomah Café , were destroyed . Thomas walked through the bombed @-@ out shell of the town centre with his friend Bert Trick . Upset at the sight , he concluded : " Our Swansea is dead " . Soon after the bombing raids , Thomas wrote a radio play , Return Journey Home , which described the café as being " razed to the snow " . The play was first broadcast on 15 June 1947 . The Kardomah Café reopened on Portland Street after the war .
In May 1941 , Thomas and Caitlin moved to London , leaving their son with his grandmother at Blashford in Hampshire . Thomas hoped to find employment in the film industry and wrote to the director of the films division of the Ministry of Information ( MOI ) . After being rebuffed he found work with Strand Films providing him with his first regular income since the Daily Post . Strand produced films for the MOI ; Thomas scripted at least five films in 1942 , This Is Colour ( a history of the British dyeing industry ) and New Towns For Old ( on post @-@ war reconstruction ) . These Are The Men ( 1943 ) was a more ambitious piece in which Thomas 's verse accompanies Leni Riefenstahl 's footage of an early Nuremberg Rally . Conquest of a Germ ( 1944 ) explored the use of early antibiotics in the fight against pneumonia and tuberculosis . Our Country ( 1945 ) was a romantic tour of Britain set to Thomas 's poetry .
In early 1943 Thomas began a relationship with Pamela Glendower , one of several affairs he had during his marriage . The affairs either ran out of steam or were halted after Caitlin discovered his infidelity . In March 1943 Caitlin gave birth to a daughter , Aeronwy , in London . They lived in a run @-@ down studio in Chelsea , made up of a single large room with a curtain to separate the kitchen .
In 1944 , with the threat of German flying bombs on London , Thomas moved to the family cottage in Blaen Cwm near Llangain , where Thomas resumed writing poetry , completing " Holy Spring " and " Vision and Prayer " . In September Thomas and Caitlin moved to New Quay in West Wales which inspired Thomas to pen the radio piece Quite Early One Morning , a sketch for his later work , Under Milk Wood . Of the poetry written at this time , of note is " Fern Hill " , believed to have been started while living in New Quay , but completed at Blaen Cwm in mid @-@ 1945 .
= = = Broadcasting years 1945 – 1949 = = =
Although Thomas had previously written for the BBC , it was a minor source of income and the occurrences intermittent . In 1943 he wrote and recorded a 15 @-@ minute talk entitled " Reminiscences of Childhood " for the Welsh BBC . In December 1944 he recorded Quite Early One Morning ( produced by Aneirin Talfan Davies , again for the Welsh BBC ) but when Davies offered it for national broadcast BBC London turned it down . On 31 August 1945 the BBC Home Service broadcast Quite Early One Morning , and in the three years beginning October 1945 , Thomas made over a hundred broadcasts for the corporation . Thomas was employed not only for his poetry readings , but for discussions and critiques .
By late September 1945 the Thomases had left Wales and were living with various friends in London . The publication of Deaths and Entrances in 1946 was a turning point for Thomas . Poet and critic Walter J. Turner commented in The Spectator , " This book alone , in my opinion , ranks him as a major poet " .
In the second half of 1945 , Thomas began reading for the BBC Radio programme , Book of Verse , broadcast weekly to the Far East providing Thomas with a regular income and bringing him into contact with Louis MacNeice , a congenial drinking companion whose advice Thomas cherished . On 29 September 1946 , the BBC began transmitting the Third Programme , a high @-@ culture network which provided opportunities for Thomas . He appeared in the play Comus for Third Programme , the day after the network launched , and his rich , sonorous voice led to character parts , including the lead in Aeschylus ' Agamemnon and Satan in an adaptation of Paradise Lost . Thomas remained a popular guest on radio talk shows for the BBC who regarded him as " useful should a younger generation poet be needed " . He had an uneasy relationship with BBC management and a staff job was never an option , with drinking cited as the problem . Despite this , Thomas became a familiar radio voice and within Britain was " in every sense a celebrity " .
Thomas visited the home of historian A. J. P. Taylor in Disley . Although Taylor disliked him intensely , he stayed for a month , drinking " on a monumental scale " , up to 15 or 20 pints of beer a day . In late 1946 Thomas turned up at the Taylors ' again , this time homeless and with Caitlin . Margaret Taylor let them take up residence in the garden summerhouse . In May 1949 Thomas and his family moved to his final home , the Boat House at Laugharne purchased for him at a cost of £ 2 @,@ 500 in April 1949 by Margaret Taylor . Thomas acquired a garage a hundred yards from the house on a cliff ledge which he turned into his writing shed , and where he wrote several of his most acclaimed poems . Just before moving into there , Thomas rented " Pelican House " opposite his regular drinking den , Brown 's Hotel , for his parents who lived there from 1949 until 1953 . It was there that his father died and the funeral was held . Caitlin gave birth to their third child , a boy named Colm Garan Hart , on 25 July 1949 .
= = = American tours , 1950 – 1953 = = =
John Brinnin invited Thomas to New York , where in 1950 they embarked on a lucrative three @-@ month tour of arts centres and campuses . The tour , which began in front of an audience of a thousand at the Kaufmann Auditorium of the Poetry Centre in New York , took in about 40 venues . During the tour Thomas was invited to many parties and functions and on several occasions became drunk - going out of his way to shock people - and was a difficult guest . Thomas drank before some of his readings , though it is argued he may have pretended to be more affected by it than he actually was . The writer Elizabeth Hardwick recalled how intoxicating a performer he was and how the tension would build before a performance : " Would he arrive only to break down on the stage ? Would some dismaying scene take place at the faculty party ? Would he be offensive , violent , obscene ? " Caitlin said in her memoir , " Nobody ever needed encouragement less , and he was drowned in it . "
On returning to Britain Thomas began work on two further poems , " In the white giant 's thigh " , which he read on the Third Programme in September 1950 , and the incomplete " In country heaven " . 1950 is also believed to be the year that he began work on ' Under Milk Wood ' , under the working title ' The Town That Was Mad ' . The task of seeing this work through to production was assigned to the BBC 's Douglas Cleverdon , who had been responsible for casting Thomas in ' Paradise Lost ' . Despite Cleverdon 's urges , the script slipped from Thomas 's priorities and in early 1951 he took a trip to Iran to work on a film for the Anglo @-@ Iranian Oil Company . The film was never made , with Thomas returning to Wales in February , though his time there allowed him to provide a few minutes of material for a BBC documentary entitled ' Persian Oil ' . Early that year Thomas wrote two poems , which Thomas 's principal biographer , Paul Ferris describes as " unusually blunt " ; the ribald " Lament " and an ode , in the form of a villanelle , to his dying father " Do not go gentle into that good night " .
Despite a range of wealthy patrons , including Margaret Taylor , Princess Marguerite Caetani and Marged Howard @-@ Stepney , Thomas was still in financial difficulty , and he wrote several begging letters to notable literary figures including the likes of T. S. Eliot . Taylor was not keen on Thomas taking another trip to the United States , and thought that if Thomas had a permanent address in London he would be able to gain steady work there . She bought a property , 54 Delancey Street , in Camden Town , and in late 1951 Thomas and Caitlin lived in the basement flat . Thomas would describe the flat as his " London house of horror " and did not return there after his 1952 tour of America .
Thomas undertook a second tour of the United States in 1952 , this time with Caitlin - after she had discovered he had been unfaithful on his earlier trip . They drank heavily , and Thomas began to suffer with gout and lung problems . The second tour was the most intensive of the four , taking in 46 engagements . The trip also resulted in Thomas recording his first poetry to vinyl , which Caedmon Records released in America later that year . One of his works recorded during this time , A Child 's Christmas in Wales , became his most popular prose work in America . The original 1952 recording of A Child 's Christmas in Wales was a 2008 selection for the United States National Recording Registry , stating that it is " credited with launching the audiobook industry in the United States " .
In April 1953 Thomas returned alone for a third tour of America . He performed a " work in progress " version of Under Milk Wood , solo , for the first time at Harvard University on 3 May . A week later the work was performed with a full cast at the Poetry Centre in New York . He met the deadline only after being locked in a room by Brinnin 's assistant , Liz Reitell , and was still editing the script on the afternoon of the performance ; its last lines were handed to the actors as they put on their makeup . In the wake of the play 's US success , the composer Stravinsky invited Thomas to write a libretto for an opera . Thomas spent the last nine or ten days of his third tour in New York mostly in the company of Reitell , with whom he had an affair . During this time Thomas fractured his arm falling down a flight of stairs when drunk . Reitell 's doctor , Milton Feltenstein , put his arm in plaster and treated him for gout and gastritis .
After returning home , Thomas worked on Under Milk Wood in Wales before sending the original manuscript to Douglas Cleverdon on 15 October 1953 . It was copied and returned to Thomas , who lost it in a pub in London and required a duplicate to take to America . Thomas flew to the States on 19 October 1953 for what would be his final tour . He died in New York before the BBC could record " Under Milk Wood " . Richard Burton starred in the first broadcast in 1954 , and was joined by Elizabeth Taylor in a subsequent film . In 1954 the play won the Prix Italia for literary or dramatic programmes .
Thomas 's last collection Collected Poems , 1934 – 1952 , published when he was 38 , won the Foyle poetry prize . Reviewing the volume , critic Philip Toynbee declared that " Thomas is the greatest living poet in the English language " . Thomas 's father died from pneumonia just before Christmas 1952 . In the first few months of 1953 his sister died from liver cancer , one of his patrons took an overdose of sleeping pills , three friends died at an early age and Caitlin had an abortion .
= = = Death = = =
Thomas arrived in New York on 20 October 1953 to undertake another tour of poetry reading and talks , organised by Brinnin . He was ill , complaining of chest trouble and gout while still in Britain , though there is no record he received medical treatment for either condition . He was in a melancholy mood about the trip and his health was poor , relying on an inhaler to aid his breathing and there were reports that he was suffering from blackouts . His visit to say goodbye to BBC producer Philip Burton , a few days before he left for New York , was interrupted by a blackout . On his last night in London , he had another , in the company of his fellow poet Louis MacNeice . The next day , he visited a doctor for a smallpox vaccination certificate .
His first appearance was planned to be at a rehearsal of Under Milk Wood at the Poetry Centre . Brinnin , who was director of the Poetry Centre , did not travel to New York but remained in Boston to write . He handed responsibility to his assistant , Liz Reitell , who was keen to see Thomas for the first time since their three @-@ week romance early in the year . She met Thomas at Idlewild Airport and was shocked at his appearance , as he " looked pale , delicate and shaky , not his usual robust self . " Thomas told her he had had a terrible week , had missed her terribly and wanted to go to bed with her . Despite Reitell 's previous misgivings about their relationship , they spent the rest of the day and night together . After being taken by Reitell to check in at the Chelsea Hotel , Thomas took the first rehearsal of Under Milk Wood . They then went to the White Horse Tavern in Greenwich Village , before returning to the Chelsea Hotel .
The next day Reitell invited him to her apartment but he declined . They went sight @-@ seeing , but Thomas was unwell and retired to his bed for the rest of the afternoon . Reitell gave him half a grain ( 32 @.@ 4 milligrams ) of phenobarbitone to help him sleep and spent the night at the hotel with him . Two days later , on 23 October , Herb Hannum , a friend from an earlier trip , noticed how sick Thomas looked and suggested an appointment with Feltenstein before the performances of Under Milk Wood that evening . Feltenstein administered injections and Thomas made it through the two performances , but collapsed immediately afterwards . Reitell later said that Feltenstein was " rather a wild doctor who thought injections would cure anything " .
On the evening of 27 October , Thomas attended his 39th birthday party but felt unwell and returned to his hotel after an hour . The next day he took part in Poetry And The Film , a recorded symposium at Cinema 16 , with panellists Amos Vogel , Arthur Miller , Maya Deren , Parker Tyler , and Willard Maas .
A turning point came on 2 November . Air pollution in New York had risen significantly and exacerbated chest illnesses , such as Thomas had . By the end of the month , over 200 New Yorkers had died from the smog . On 3 November , Thomas spent most of the day in bed drinking . He went out in the evening to keep two drink appointments . After returning to the hotel , he went out again for a drink at 2 am . After drinking at the White Horse , a pub he had found through Scottish poet Ruthven Todd , Thomas returned to the Hotel Chelsea , declaring , " I 've had 18 straight whiskies . I think that 's the record ! " The barman , and the owner of the pub who served him , later commented that Thomas could not have imbibed more than half that amount . Thomas had an appointment at a clam house in New Jersey with Todd on 4 November . When phoned at the Chelsea that morning , he said he was feeling ill and postponed the engagement . Later he went drinking with Reitell at the White Horse and , feeling sick again , returned to the hotel . Feltenstein came to see him three times that day , administering the steroid ACTH by injection and , on his third visit , half a grain ( 32 @.@ 4 milligrams ) of morphine sulphate , which affected his breathing . Reitell became increasingly concerned and telephoned Feltenstein for advice . He suggested she get male assistance , so she called upon the painter Jack Heliker , who arrived before 11 pm . At midnight on 5 November , Thomas 's breathing became more difficult and his face turned blue . An ambulance was summoned .
Thomas was admitted to the emergency ward at St Vincent 's Hospital at 1 : 58 am . He was comatose , and his medical notes state that the " impression upon admission was acute alcoholic encephalopathy damage to the brain by alcohol , for which the patient was treated without response " . Caitlin flew to America the following day and was taken to the hospital , by which time a tracheotomy had been performed . Her reported first words were , " Is the bloody man dead yet ? " She was allowed to see Thomas only for 40 minutes in the morning but returned in the afternoon and , in a drunken rage , threatened to kill Brinnin . When she became uncontrollable , she was put in a straitjacket and committed , by Feltenstein , to the River Crest private psychiatric detox clinic on Long Island .
Thomas died at noon on 9 November , still in a coma . A post mortem gave the primary cause of death as pneumonia , with pressure on the brain and a fatty liver as contributing factors .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Rumours circulated of a brain haemorrhage , followed by competing reports that he had been mugged and even that he had drunk himself to death . Later , there was speculation about drugs and diabetes . At the post @-@ mortem , the pathologist found three causes of death – pneumonia , brain swelling and a fatty liver . Despite his heavy drinking his liver showed no sign of cirrhosis .
Dylan 's legacy as the " doomed poet " was cemented with the publication of Brinnin 's 1955 biography Dylan Thomas in America , which focuses on his last few years and paints a picture of him as a drunk and a philanderer . Later biographies are critical of Brinnin 's view , especially his coverage of Thomas 's death . David Thomas in Fatal Neglect : Who Killed Dylan Thomas ? claims that Brinnin , along with Reitell and Feltenstein , were culpable . FitzGibbon 's 1965 biography ignores Thomas 's heavy drinking and skims over his death , giving just two pages in his detailed book to Thomas 's demise . Ferris in his 1989 biography includes Thomas 's heavy drinking , but is more critical of those around him in his final days and does not draw the conclusion that he drank himself to death . Feltenstein 's role and actions have been criticised by many sources , especially his incorrect diagnosis of delirium tremens and the high dose of morphine he administered . Dr B. W. Murphy and Dr C. G. de Gutierrez @-@ Mahoney , the doctors who treated Thomas while at St. Vincents , concluded that Feltenstein 's failure to see that Thomas was gravely ill and have him admitted to hospital sooner , " was even more culpable than his use of morphine " .
Following his death , Thomas 's body was brought back to Wales for burial in the village churchyard at Laugharne . Thomas 's funeral , which Brinnin did not attend , took place at St Martin 's Church in Laugharne on 24 November . Thomas 's coffin was carried by six friends from the village . Caitlin , without her customary hat , walked behind the coffin , with his childhood friend Daniel Jones at her arm and her mother by her side . The procession to the church was filmed and the wake took place at Brown 's Hotel . Thomas 's obituary in The Times was written by fellow poet and long @-@ time friend Vernon Watkins .
His widow , Caitlin , died in 1994 and was buried alongside him . Thomas 's father " DJ " died on 16 December 1952 and his mother Florence in August 1958 . Thomas 's elder son , Llewelyn , died in 2000 , his daughter , Aeronwy in 2009 and his youngest son Colm in 2012 .
Caitlin Thomas 's autobiographies , Caitlin Thomas – Leftover Life to Kill ( 1957 ) and My Life with Dylan Thomas : Double Drink Story ( 1997 ) , describe the destructive effect of alcoholism on the poet and to their relationship . " But ours was a drink story , not a love story , just like millions of others . Our one and only true love was drink " , she wrote and " The bar was our altar " . Biographer Andrew Lycett ascribed the demise of Thomas 's health to an alcoholic co @-@ dependent relationship with his wife , who deeply resented his extramarital affairs . Thomas died intestate with assets to the value of £ 100 .
= = Poetry = =
= = = Poetic style and influences = = =
Thomas ' refusal to align with any literary group or movement has made him and his work difficult to categorize . Although influenced by the modern symbolism and surrealism movement he refused to follow its creed . Instead Thomas is viewed as part of the modernism and romanticism movements , though attempts to pigeon @-@ hole him within a particular neo @-@ romantic school have been unsuccessful . Elder Olson , in his 1954 critical study of Thomas 's poetry , wrote " ... a further characteristic which distinguished Thomas 's work from that of other poets . It was unclassifiable . " Olson continued that in a postmodern age that continually attempted to demand that poetry have social reference , none could be found in Thomas 's work , and that his work was so obscure that critics could not explicate it .
Thomas 's verbal style played against strict verse forms , such as in the villanelle " Do not go gentle into that good night " . His images were carefully ordered in a patterned sequence , and his major theme was the unity of all life , the continuing process of life and death and new life that linked the generations . Thomas saw biology as a magical transformation producing unity out of diversity , and in his poetry sought a poetic ritual to celebrate this unity . He saw men and women locked in cycles of growth , love , procreation , new growth , death , and new life . Therefore , each image engenders its opposite . Thomas derived his closely woven , sometimes self @-@ contradictory images from the Bible , Welsh folklore , preaching , and Sigmund Freud . Explaining the source of his imagery , Thomas wrote in a letter to Glyn Jones : " My own obscurity is quite an unfashionable one , based , as it is , on a preconceived symbolism derived ( I 'm afraid all this sounds wooly and pretentious ) from the cosmic significance of the human anatomy " .
Thomas 's early poetry was noted for its verbal density , alliteration , sprung rhythm and internal rhyme , and he was described by some critics as having been influenced by the English poet Gerard Manley Hopkins . This is attributed to Hopkins , who taught himself Welsh and who used sprung verse , bringing some features of Welsh poetic metre into his work . When Henry Treece wrote to Thomas comparing his style to that of Hopkins , Thomas wrote back denying any such influence . One poet Thomas greatly admired , and who is regarded as an influence , was Thomas Hardy . When Thomas travelled in America , he recited Hardy 's work in his readings .
Other poets from whom critics believe Thomas drew influence include James Joyce , Arthur Rimbaud and D. H. Lawrence . William York Tindall , in his 1962 study , A Reader 's Guide to Dylan Thomas , finds comparison between Thomas 's and Joyce 's wordplay , while he notes the themes of rebirth and nature are common to the works of Lawrence and Thomas . Although Thomas described himself as the " Rimbaud of Cwmdonkin Drive " , he stated that the phrase " Swansea 's Rimbaud " was coined by poet Roy Campbell . Critics have explored the connection between the creation of Thomas 's mythological pasts into his works such as " The Orchards " , which Ann Elizabeth Mayer believes reflects the Welsh myths of the Mabinogion . Thomas 's poetry is notable for its musicality , most clear in " Fern Hill " , " In Country Sleep " , " Ballad of the Long @-@ legged Bait " and " In the White Giant 's Thigh " from Under Milk Wood .
Thomas once confided that the poems which had most influenced him were Mother Goose rhymes which his parents taught him when he was a child :
I should say I wanted to write poetry in the beginning because I had fallen in love with words . The first poems I knew were nursery rhymes and before I could read them for myself I had come to love the words of them . The words alone . What the words stood for was of a very secondary importance ... I fell in love , that is the only expression I can think of , at once , and am still at the mercy of words , though sometimes now , knowing a little of their behaviour very well , I think I can influence them slightly and have even learned to beat them now and then , which they appear to enjoy . I tumbled for words at once . And , when I began to read the nursery rhymes for myself , and , later , to read other verses and ballads , I knew that I had discovered the most important things , to me , that could be ever .
Thomas was an accomplished writer of prose poetry , with collections such as Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog ( 1940 ) and Quite Early One Morning ( 1954 ) showing he was capable of writing moving short stories . His first published prose work was After the Fair , printed in The New English Weekly on 15 March 1934 . Jacob Korg believes that Thomas 's fiction work can be classified into two main bodies , vigorous fantasies in a poetic style and , after 1939 , more straightforward narratives . Korg surmises that Thomas approached his prose writing as an alternate poetic form , which allowed him to produce complex , involuted narratives that do not allow the reader to rest .
= = = As a ' Welsh ' poet = = =
Thomas disliked being regarded as a provincial poet , and decried any notion of ' Welshness ' in his poetry . When he wrote to Stephen Spender in 1952 , thanking him for a review of his Collected Poems , he added " Oh , & I forgot . I 'm not influenced by Welsh bardic poetry . I can 't read Welsh . " Despite this his work was rooted in the geography of Wales . Thomas acknowledged that he returned to Wales when he had difficulty writing , and John Ackerman argues that " His inspiration and imagination were rooted in his Welsh background " . Caitlin Thomas wrote that he worked " in a fanatically narrow groove , although there was nothing narrow about the depth and understanding of his feelings . The groove of direct hereditary descent in the land of his birth , which he never in thought , and hardly in body , moved out of . "
Head of Programmes Wales at the BBC , Aneirin Talfan Davies , who commissioned several of Thomas 's early radio talks , believed that the poet 's " whole attitude is that of the medieval bards . " Kenneth O. Morgan counter @-@ argues that it is a ' difficult enterprise ' to find traces of cynghanedd ( harmony ) or cerdd dafod ( tongue @-@ craft ) in Thomas 's poetry . Instead he believes his work , especially his earlier more autobiographical poems , are rooted in a changing country which echoes the Welshness of the past and the Anglicisation of the new industrial nation : " rural and urban , chapel @-@ going and profane , Welsh and English , Unforgiving and deeply compassionate . " Fellow poet and critic Glyn Jones believed that any traces of cynghanedd in Thomas 's work was accidental , although he felt Thomas consciously employed one element of Welsh metrics ; that of counting syllables per line instead of feet . Constantine FitzGibbon , Thomas 's first in @-@ depth biographer , wrote " No major English poet has ever been as Welsh as Dylan " .
Although Thomas had a deep connection with Wales , he disliked Welsh nationalism . He once wrote , " Land of my fathers , and my fathers can keep it " . While often attributed to Thomas himself , this line actually comes from the character Owen Morgan @-@ Vaughan , in the screenplay Thomas wrote for the 1948 British melodrama The Three Weird Sisters . Robert Pocock , a friend from the BBC , recalled " I only once heard Dylan express an opinion on Welsh Nationalism . He used three words . Two of them were Welsh Nationalism . " Although not expressed as strongly , Glyn Jones believed that he and Thomas 's friendship cooled in the later years as he had not ' rejected enough ' of the elements that Thomas disliked – " Welsh nationalism and a sort of hill farm morality " . Apologetically , in a letter to Keidrych Rhys , editor of literary magazine Wales , Thomas 's father wrote that he was " afraid Dylan isn 't much of a Welshman " . Though FitzGibbon asserts that Thomas 's negativity towards Welsh nationalism was fostered by his father 's hostility towards the Welsh language .
= = Critical reception = =
Thomas 's work and stature as a poet have been much debated by critics and biographers since his death . Critical studies have been clouded by Thomas 's personality and mythology , especially his drunken persona and death in New York . When Seamus Heaney gave an Oxford lecture on the poet he opened by addressing the assembly , " Dylan Thomas is now as much a case history as a chapter in the history of poetry " , querying how ' Thomas the Poet ' is one of his forgotten attributes . David Holbrook , who has written three books about Thomas , stated in his 1962 publication Llareggub Revisited , " the strangest feature of Dylan Thomas 's notoriety @-@ not that he is bogus , but that attitudes to poetry attached themselves to him which not only threaten the prestige , effectiveness and accessibility to English poetry , but also destroyed his true voice and , at last , him . " The Poetry Archive notes that " Dylan Thomas ' detractors accuse him of being drunk on language as well as whiskey , but whilst there 's no doubt that the sound of language is central to his style , he was also a disciplined writer who re @-@ drafted obsessively " .
Many critics have argued that Thomas 's work is too narrow and that he suffers from verbal extravagance . Those that have championed his work have found the criticism baffling . Robert Lowell wrote in 1947 , " Nothing could be more wrongheaded than the English disputes about Dylan Thomas 's greatness ... He is a dazzling obscure writer who can be enjoyed without understanding . " Kenneth Rexroth said , on reading Eighteen Poems , " The reeling excitement of a poetry @-@ intoxicated schoolboy smote the Philistine as hard a blow with one small book as Swinburne had with Poems and Ballads . " Philip Larkin in a letter to Kingsley Amis in 1948 , wrote that " no one can ' stick words into us like pins ' ... like he [ Thomas ] can " , but followed that by stating that he " doesn 't use his words to any advantage " . Amis was far harsher , finding little of merit in his work . In 1956 , the publication of the anthology New Lines featuring works by the British collective The Movement , which included Amis and Larkin amongst its number , set out a vision of modern poetry that was damning towards the poets of the 1940s . Thomas 's work in particular was criticised . David Lodge , writing about The Movement in 1981 stated " Dylan Thomas was made to stand for everything they detest , verbal obscurity , metaphysical pretentiousness , and romantic rhapsodizing " .
Despite criticism by sections of academia , Thomas 's work has been embraced by readers more so than many of his contemporaries , and is one of the few modern poets whose name is recognised by the general public . In 2009 , over 18 @,@ 000 votes were cast in a BBC poll to find the UK 's favourite poet ; Thomas was placed 10th . Several of his poems have passed into the cultural mainstream , and his work has been used by authors , musicians and film and television writers . The BBC Radio programme , Desert Island Discs , in which guests usually choose their favourite songs , has heard 50 participants select a Dylan Thomas recording . John Goodby states that this popularity with the reading public allows Thomas 's work to be classed as vulgar and common . He also cites that despite a brief period during the 1960s when Thomas was considered a cultural icon , that the poet has been marginalized in critical circles due to his exuberance , in both life and work , and his refusal to know his place . Goodby believes that Thomas has been mainly snubbed since the 1970s and has become " ... an embarrassment to twentieth @-@ century poetry criticism " his work failing to fit standard narratives and is thus ignored rather than studied .
= = Memorials = =
In Swansea 's maritime quarter are the Dylan Thomas Theatre , home of the Swansea Little Theatre of which Thomas was once a member , and the former Guildhall built in 1825 and now occupied by the Dylan Thomas Centre , a literature centre , where exhibitions and lectures are held and setting for the annual Dylan Thomas Festival . Outside the centre stands a bronze statue of Thomas , by John Doubleday . Another monument to Thomas stands in Cwmdonkin Park , one of his favourite childhood haunts , close to his birthplace . The memorial is a small rock in an enclosed garden within the park inscribed with the closing lines from Fern Hill .
Thomas 's home in Laugharne , the Boathouse , is a museum run by Carmarthenshire County Council . Thomas 's writing shed is also preserved . In 2004 , the Dylan Thomas Prize was created in his honour , awarded to the best published writer in English under the age of 30 . In 2005 , the Dylan Thomas Screenplay Award was established . The prize , administered by the Dylan Thomas Centre , is awarded at the annual Swansea Bay Film Festival . In 1982 a plaque was unveiled in Poets ' Corner , Westminster Abbey . The plaque is also inscribed with the last two lines of Fern Hill .
In 2014 , to celebrate the centenary of Thomas ' birth , the British Council Wales undertook a year long programme of cultural and educational works . Highlights included a touring replica of Thomas ' work shed , Sir Peter Blake 's exhibition of illustrations based on Under Milk Wood and a 36 @-@ hour marathon of readings which saw the likes of Michael Sheen and Sir Ian McKellen performing Thomas ' work . The Royal Patron of The Dylan Thomas 100 Festival was Charles , Prince of Wales , who made a recording of Fern Hill for the event .
= = List of works = =
The Collected Poems of Dylan Thomas : The New Centenary Edition . Ed. with Introduction by John Goodby . London : Weidenfeld and Nicolson , 2014 .
The Notebook Poems 1930 @-@ 34 , ed . Ralph Maud . London : Dent , 1989 .
Collected Stories , ed . Walford Davies . London : Dent , 1983
Under Milk Wood , ed . Walford Davies and Ralph Maud . London : Dent , 1995
= = = Posthumous film adaptations = = =
1972 : Under Milk Wood , starring Richard Burton , Elizabeth Taylor , and Peter O 'Toole
1987 : A Child 's Christmas in Wales , directed by Don McBrearty .
1992 : Rebecca 's Daughters starring Peter O 'Toole and Joely Richardson
2007 : Dylan Thomas : A War Films Anthology ( DDHE / IWM D23702 – 2006 )
2009 : Nadolig Plentyn yng Nghymru / A Child 's Christmas in Wales , 2009 BAFTA Best Short Film , animation , soundtrack in Welsh and English , Director : Dave Unwin . Extras include filmed comments from Aeronwy Thomas . 5 @-@ 016886 @-@ 088457 .
2014 : Set Fire to the Stars , with Thomas portrayed by Celyn Jones and John Brinnin by Elijah Wood .
= Edinburgh Castle =
Edinburgh Castle is a historic fortress which dominates the skyline of the city of Edinburgh , Scotland , from its position on the Castle Rock . Archaeologists have established human occupation of the rock since at least the Iron Age ( 2nd century AD ) , although the nature of the early settlement is unclear . There has been a royal castle on the rock since at least the reign of David I in the 12th century , and the site continued to be a royal residence until 1633 . From the 15th century the castle 's residential role declined , and by the 17th century it was principally used as military barracks with a large garrison . Its importance as a part of Scotland 's national heritage was recognised increasingly from the early 19th century onwards , and various restoration programmes have been carried out over the past century and a half . As one of the most important strongholds in the Kingdom of Scotland , Edinburgh Castle was involved in many historical conflicts from the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 14th century to the Jacobite Rising of 1745 . Research undertaken in 2014 identified 26 sieges in its 1100 @-@ year @-@ old history , giving it a claim to having been " the most besieged place in Great Britain and one of the most attacked in the world " .
Few of the present buildings pre @-@ date the Lang Siege of the 16th century , when the medieval defences were largely destroyed by artillery bombardment . The most notable exceptions are St Margaret 's Chapel from the early 12th century , which is regarded as the oldest building in Edinburgh , the Royal Palace and the early @-@ 16th @-@ century Great Hall , although the interiors have been much altered from the mid @-@ Victorian period onwards . The castle also houses the Scottish regalia , known as the Honours of Scotland and is the site of the Scottish National War Memorial and the National War Museum of Scotland . The British Army is still responsible for some parts of the castle , although its presence is now largely ceremonial and administrative . Some of the castle buildings house regimental museums which contribute to its presentation as a tourist attraction .
The castle , in the care of Historic Scotland , is Scotland 's most @-@ visited paid tourist attraction , with over 1 @.@ 4 million visitors in 2013 . As the backdrop to the Edinburgh Military Tattoo during the annual Edinburgh International Festival the castle has become a recognisable symbol of Edinburgh and of Scotland and indeed , it is Edinburgh 's most frequently visited visitor attraction - according to the Edinburgh Visitor Survey , more than 70 % of leisure visitors to Edinburgh visited the castle .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ history of the Castle Rock = = =
= = = = Geology = = = =
The castle stands upon the plug of
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s Mount , and published a book entitled What Time Does Edinburgh 's One O 'clock Gun Fire ? . In 2006 Sergeant Jamie Shannon , nicknamed " Shannon the Cannon " , became the 29th District Gunner , and in 2006 Bombardier Allison Jones became the first woman to fire the gun .
= = = Symbol of Edinburgh = = =
The castle has become a recognisable symbol of Edinburgh , and of Scotland . It appears , in stylised form , on the coats of arms of the City of Edinburgh and the University of Edinburgh . It also features on the badge of No. 603 ( City of Edinburgh ) Squadron which was based at RAF Turnhouse ( now Edinburgh Airport ) during Second World War . Images of the castle are used as a logo by organisations including Edinburgh Rugby , the Edinburgh Evening News , Hibernian F.C. and the Edinburgh Marathon . It also appears on the " Castle series " of Royal Mail postage stamps , and has been represented on various issues of banknotes issued by Scottish clearing banks . In the 1960s the castle was illustrated on £ 5 notes issued by the National Commercial Bank of Scotland , and since 1987 it has featured on the reverse of £ 1 notes issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland . Since 2009 the castle , as part of Edinburgh 's World Heritage Site , has appeared on £ 10 notes issued by the Clydesdale Bank . The castle is a focal point for annual fireworks displays which mark Edinburgh 's Hogmanay ( new year ) celebrations , and the end of the Edinburgh Festival in the summer .
= = Geodesy = =
Up to 1891 Edinburgh Castle was the origin ( meridian ) of the 6 inch and 1 : 2500 Ordnance Survey maps of Edinburghshire . After that the Edinburghshire maps were drawn according to the meridian of The Buck in Aberdeenshire .
= Helmichis =
Helmichis ( fl . 572 ) was a Lombard noble who killed his king , Alboin , in 572 and unsuccessfully attempted to usurp his throne . Alboin 's queen , Rosamund , supported or at least did not oppose Helmichis ' plan to remove the king , and after the assassination Helmichis married her . The assassination was assisted by Peredeo , the king 's chamber @-@ guard , who in some sources becomes the material executer of the murder . Helmichis is first mentioned by the contemporary chronicler Marius of Avenches , but the most detailed account of his endeavours derives from Paul the Deacon 's late 8th @-@ century Historia Langobardorum .
The background to the assassination begins when Alboin killed the king of the Gepids in 567 and captured the king 's daughter Rosamund . Alboin then led his people into Italy , and by 572 had settled himself in Verona , which made him vulnerable to the ambitions of other prominent Lombards , such as Helmichis , who was Alboin 's foster @-@ brother and arms @-@ bearer . After Alboin 's death , Helmichis attempted to gain the throne . He married Rosamund to legitimize his position as new king , but immediately faced stiff opposition from his fellow Lombards who suspected Helmichis of conniving with the Byzantines ; this hostility eventually focused around the duke of Ticinum Cleph , supporter of an aggressive policy towards the Empire . Rather than going to war , Helmichis , Rosamund and their followers escaped to Ravenna , the capital of Byzantine Italy , where they were received with full honours by the authorities . Once in Ravenna , Rosamund was persuaded by the Byzantine prefect Longinus to kill Helmichis in order to be free to marry him . Rosamund proceeded to poison Helmichis , but the latter , having understood what his wife had done to him , forced her to drink the cup too , so both of them died . After their deaths , Longinus dispatched Helmichis ' forces to Constantinople , while the remaining Lombards had already found a new king in Cleph .
= = Background = =
The oldest author to write about Helmichis is the contemporary chronicler Marius of Avenches . In his account he mentions that " Alboin was killed by his followers , that is Hilmaegis with the rest , his wife agreeing to it " . Marius continues by adding that , after killing the king , Helmichis married his widow and tried unsuccessfully to gain the throne . His attempt failed and he was forced to escape together with his wife , the royal treasure and the troops that had sided with him in the coup . This account has strong similarities with what is told in the Origo . The Origo would in its turn become a direct source for the Historia Langobardorum .
The background to the assassination begins when Alboin , king of the Lombards , a Germanic people living in Pannonia ( in the region of modern Hungary ) , went to war against the neighbouring Gepids in 567 . In a decisive battle , Alboin killed the Gepid king Cunimund and captured the king 's daughter Rosamund – later marrying her to guarantee the loyalty of the surviving Gepids . The following year , the Lombards migrated to Italy , a territory then held by the Byzantine Empire . In 569 Alboin took Mediolanum ( Milan ) , the capital of northern Italy , and by 570 he had assumed control of most of northern Italy . The Byzantine forces entrenched themselves in the strategic town of Ticinum ( Pavia ) , which they took only after a long siege . Even before taking Ticinum , the Lombards crossed the Apennines and invaded Tuscia . After the fall of Ticinum , Alboin chose Verona as his first permanent headquarters . In this town Alboin was assassinated in 572 and it is in these circumstances that Helmichis ' name is first heard of . Most of the available details are in the Historia Langobardorum .
= = Assassination = =
By settling himself in Verona and temporarily interrupting his chain of conquests , Alboin had weakened his popular standing as a charismatic warrior king . The first to take advantage of this was Rosamund , who could count on the support of the Gepid warriors in the town in her search for an opportunity to avenge the death of her father . To obtain this goal she persuaded Helmichis , spatharius ( arms bearer ) and foster brother of the king , and also head of a personal armed retinue in Verona , to take part in a plot to eliminate Alboin and replace him on the throne . Helmichis persuaded Rosamund to involve Peredeo , described by Paul simply as " a very strong man " , who was seduced through a trick by the Queen and forced to consent to become the actual assassin .
This story is partly in conflict with what is told by the Origo , which has Peredeo acting as an instigator and not as the murderer . In a similar vein to the Origo is the account of Peredeo contained in the Historia Langobardorum Codicis Gothani , where it is added that Peredeo was Alboin 's " chamber @-@ guard " , hinting that in the original version of the story Peredeo 's role may just have been to let in the real assassin , who is Helmichis in Agnellus ' account , as it had been in that of Marius . However , the primary intent of the Historia Langobardorum Codicis Gothani may have been to obtain a more straightforward and coherent narrative by reducing the number of actors in the story , beginning with Peredeo . The disappearance of Peredeo , however , means that the role of Helmichis changes : while Paul presents him as " the efficient conspirator and killer " , with Agnellus he is a victim of a ruthless and domineering queen .
According to historian Paolo Delogu it may be that Agnellus ' narrative better reflects Lombard oral tradition than Paul 's . In his interpretation , Paul 's narrative represents a late distortion of the Germanic myths and rituals contained in the oral tradition . In a telling consistent with Germanic tradition , it would be Helmichis who was seduced by the queen , and by sleeping with him Rosamund would pass Alboin 's royal charisma magically to the king 's prospective murderer . A symbol of this passage of powers is found in Paul 's account of the assassin 's entry : Alboin 's inability to draw his sword represents here his loss of power .
After the king 's death on June 28 , 572 , Helmichis married Rosamund and claimed the Lombard throne in Verona . The marriage was important for Helmichis : it legitimized his rule because , judging from Lombard history , royal prerogatives could be inherited by marrying the king 's widow ; and the marriage was a guarantee for Helmichis of the loyalty of the Gepids in the army , who sided with the queen since she was Cunimund 's daughter .
= = Failure = =
Behind the coup were almost certainly the Byzantines , who had every interest in removing a dangerous enemy and replacing him with somebody , if not from a pro @-@ Byzantine faction , at least less actively aggressive . Gian Piero Bognetti advances a few hypotheses about Helmichis ' motivation for his coup : his reason could have involved a family link to the Lethings , the Lombard royal dynasty that had been dispossessed by Alboin 's father Audoin ; or he may have been related through Amalafrid to the Amali , the leading dynasty of the Goths . Helmichis easily obtained the support of the Lombards in Verona , and he probably hoped to sway all the warriors and Lombard dukes to his side by having Alboin 's only child , Albsuinda , under his control . He may also have hoped for Byzantine help in buying the dukes ' loyalty economically .
Helmichis ' coup ultimately failed because it met strong opposition from the many Lombards who wanted to continue the war against the Byzantines and to confront the regicides . Faced with the prospect of going to war at overwhelming odds , Helmichis asked for help from the Byzantines . The praetorian prefect Longinus enabled him to avoid a land route possibly held by hostile forces , by shipping him instead down the Po to Byzantine @-@ held Ravenna , together with his wife , his Lombard and Gepid troops , the royal treasure and Albsuinda . Bognetti believes that Longinus may have planned to make the Lombards weaker by depriving them of any legitimate heir . In addition , because of the ongoing war , it was hard to assemble all the warriors to elect a new king formally . This plan was brought to nothing by the troops stationed in Ticinum , who elected their duke Cleph king , having it in mind to continue Alboin 's aggressive policy . In contrast , Wolfram argues that Cleph was elected in Ticinum while Helmichis was still making his bid for the crown in Verona .
= = Death = =
Once in Ravenna , Helmichis and Rosamund rapidly became estranged . According to Paul , Longinus persuaded Rosamund to get rid of her husband so that he could marry her . To accomplish this , she made him drink a cup full of poison ; before dying , however , Helmichis understood what his wife had done and forced her to drink the cup too , so they both died . According to Wolfram , there may be some historical truth in the account of Longinus ' proposal to Rosamund , as it was possible to achieve Lombard kingship by marrying the queen , but the story of the two lovers ' end is not historical but legendary . The mutual murder as told by Agnellus is given a different interpretation by Joaquin Martinez Pizarro : he sees Helmichis ' last action as a symbol of how the natural hierarchy of sexes is at last restored , after the queen 's actions had unnaturally modified the proper equilibrium .
At this point , Longinus sent the royal treasure and Albsuinda to Constantinople , the Empire 's capital , together with Helmichis ' forces , which were to become Byzantine mercenaries . This was a common Byzantine strategy , already applied previously to the Ostrogoths , by which large national contingents were relocated to be used in other theatres . These are believed to be the same 60 @,@ 000 Lombards that are attested by John of Ephesus as being active in Syria in 575 against the Persians . As for Albsuinda , the Byzantine diplomacy probably aimed to use her as a political tool to impose a pro @-@ Byzantine king on the Lombards . According to Agnellus , once Longinus ' actions came to the attention of emperor Justin II they were greatly praised , and the emperor gave lavish gifts to his official .
Cleph kept his throne for only 18 months before being assassinated by a slave . An important success for the Byzantines was that no king was proclaimed to succeed him , opening a decade of interregnum and making the Lombards who remained in Italy more vulnerable to attacks from Franks and Byzantines . It was only when faced with the danger of annihilation by the Franks in 584 that the Lombard dukes elected a new king in the person of Authari , son of Cleph , who began the definitive consolidation and centralization of the Lombard kingdom .
= = Early Middle Ages sources = =
Among the surviving Early Middle Ages sources , there are six that mention Helmichis by name . Of these , the only contemporary one is the Chronica of Marius of Avenches , written in the 580s . Marius was bishop of Aventicum , a town located in the western Alps in the Frankish Kingdom of Burgundy . Because of the small distance from Aventicum to the Italian peninsula , the chronicler had easy access to information regarding northern Italy . For this reason , historian Roger Collins considers the Chronica , though short , to be reliable on Italian matters . The remaining sources all come from Italy and were written in later centuries . Two of them were written in the 7th century , the Continuatio Havniensis Prosperi and the Origo Gentis Langobardorum , both anonymous . The Continuatio is a chronicle written around 625 that has reached us in a single manuscript . As its name suggests , it is a continuation of the 5th century chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine . Derived in considerable measure from the Chronica Majora of Isidore of Seville , it blames the Romans for their inability to defend Italy from foreign invaders , and praises the Lombards for defending the country from the Franks . This is the earliest surviving work to name Rosamund , the queen of the Lombards who plays a central role in Helmichis ' attested biography . The other 7th century work , the Origo , is a brief prose history of the Lombards that is essentially an annotated king list , although it begins with a description of the founding myth of the Lombard nation . Giorgio Ausenda believes that the Origo was written around 643 as a prologue to the Edictum Rothari , and continued to be updated till 671 . According to Walter Pohl , the author 's motives are mostly political : the Origo serves to consolidate the Lombards ' national identity by emphasising a shared history . Apart from the origin myth , the only more detailed account is the one concerning the death of Alboin , and thus Helmichis .
For the events surrounding 572 , the most exhaustive source available is Paul the Deacon 's Historia Langobardorum , a history of the Lombard nation up to 744 . The book was finished in the last two decades of the 8th century , after the Lombard Kingdom had been conquered by the Franks in 774 . Because of the apparent presence in the work of many fragments preserved from Lombard oral tradition , Paul 's work has been often interpreted as a tribute to a vanishing culture . Among these otherwise lost traditions stands the tale of Alboin 's death . According to Herwig Wolfram , what Paul deals with is an example of how nationally vital events were personalized to make them easier to preserve in the collective memory . Even later than the Historia Langobardorum , but possibly using earlier lost sources , are the last two primary sources to speak about Helmichis : the anonymous Historia Langobardorum Codicis Gothani and the Liber Pontificalis Ecclesiae Ravennatis written by Andreas Agnellus . The first is a brief Christianizing version of the Origo that was made in the first decade of the 9th century from a Carolingian point of view . The second was written in the 830s by a priest from Ravenna and is a history of the bishops who held the see of Ravenna through the ages . Agnellus ' passage on Alboin and Rosamund is mostly derived from Paul and little else .
= Wolfenstein : The New Order =
Wolfenstein : The New Order is an action @-@ adventure first @-@ person shooter video game developed by MachineGames and published by Bethesda Softworks . It was released on 20 May 2014 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 , and Xbox One . The game is the seventh main entry in the Wolfenstein series and the sequel to 2009 's Wolfenstein . Set in alternative history 1960s Europe in a world where the Nazis won the Second World War , the single @-@ player story follows war veteran William " B.J. " Blazkowicz and his efforts to stop the Nazis from ruling over the world .
The game is played from a first @-@ person perspective and most of its levels are navigated on foot . The story is arranged in chapters , which players complete in order to progress through the story . A morality choice in the prologue alters the game 's entire storyline ; some characters and small plot points are replaced across timelines . The game features a variety of weapons , most of which can be dual wielded . A cover system is also present .
Development began in 2010 , soon after id Software gave MachineGames the rights for the franchise . The development team envisioned Wolfenstein : The New Order as a first @-@ person action @-@ adventure game , taking inspiration from previous games in the series and particularly focusing on the combat and adventure elements . The game attempts to delve into character development of Blazkowicz , unlike its predecessors — a choice from the developers to interest players in the story . They also aimed to portray him in a heroic fashion .
At release , Wolfenstein : The New Order received generally positive reviews , with praise particularly directed at the combat and the narrative of the game . Considered a positive change to the series by critics , it was nominated for multiple year @-@ end accolades , including Game of the Year and Best Shooter awards from several gaming publications . A stand @-@ alone expansion set before the events of the game , titled Wolfenstein : The Old Blood , was released in May 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Wolfenstein : The New Order is an action @-@ adventure shooter game played from a first @-@ person perspective . To progress through the story , players battle enemies throughout levels . The game utilizes a health system in which players ' health is divided into separate sections that regenerate ; if an entire section is lost , players must use a health pack to replenish the missing health .
Players use melee attacks , firearms and explosives to fight enemies , and may run , jump and occasionally swim to navigate through the locations . Melee attacks can be used to silently take down enemies without being detected . Alternatively , players can ambush enemies , which often results in an intense firefight between the two parties .
In combat , a cover system can be used as assistance against enemies . Players have the ability to lean around , over , and under cover , which can be used as a tactical advantage during shootouts and stealth levels . The game gives players a wide variety of weapon options — they can be found on the ground , retrieved from dead enemies , or removed from their stationary position and carried around . Weapon ammunition must be manually retrieved from the ground or from dead enemies . Players have access to a weapon inventory , which allows them to carry as many weapons as they find . With some of these weapons , players have the ability to dual wield , giving them an advantage over enemies by dealing twice as much damage . Players can also customize weapons through the use of upgrades ; for example , a rocket launcher can be attached to the side of an assault rifle , and a laser cannon can be transformed into a wire cutting tool .
= = Plot = =
Three years after the destruction of the Black Sun portal , the Nazis have developed advanced technologies , enabling them to turn the tide against the Allies . At dawn on 16 July 1946 , U.S. special forces operative Captain William " B.J. " Blazkowicz ( Brian Bloom ) , accompanied by pilot Fergus Reid ( Gideon Emery ) and Private Probst Wyatt III ( A.J. Trauth ) , take part in a massive Allied air raid against a fortress and weapons laboratory run by his nemesis , General Wilhelm " Deathshead " Strasse ( Dwight Schultz ) . The three are captured and brought to a human experimentation laboratory where Deathshead forces Blazkowicz to choose who he will gruesomely kill , Fergus or Wyatt , before leaving Blazkowicz and the survivor to die in the laboratory 's emergency incinerator . They escape the laboratory , but Blazkowicz suffers a critical head injury during the escape , rendering him unconscious and putting him in a coma . He is brought to a psychiatric asylum in Poland , where he remains in a vegetative state for 14 years from which he is unable to awake . He is cared for by the asylum 's head nurse Anya Oliwa ( Alicja Bachleda ) and her parents , who run the facility under the Nazi regime . Blazkowicz watches as Anya 's parents are regularly forced to hand patients over to Nazi authorities , who deem them Untermenschen for their mental disabilities .
In 1960 , fourteen years after Blazkowicz ' admission , the Nazis order that the asylum is to be shut down , killing all the patients and executing Anya 's family when they resist . Blazkowicz awakens from his vegetative state as he is about to be executed , killing the extermination squad and escaping the asylum with Anya . Blazkowicz and Anya drive to her grandparents ' farm , where they inform him that the Nazis won the war by forcing the United States to surrender in 1948 , and that the members of the ensuing Resistance were captured . Blazkowicz interrogates a captured officer from the asylum ( he was hidden in the trunk of a car ) , learning that the top members of the Resistance are imprisoned in Berlin before brutally executing him with a chainsaw . Anya 's grandparents smuggle her and Blazkowicz through a checkpoint in Stettin before they travel to Berlin . During the train ride , Blazkowicz and Anya enter into a romantic relationship . When they arrive , Anya helps Blazkowicz break into the prison , where he rescues the person he spared fourteen years prior ( Fergus or Wyatt ) and finds that the Resistance movement is a revived Kreisau Circle led by Caroline Becker ( Bonita Friedericy ) , who was left paralyzed due to her injuries at Isenstadt .
The Resistance execute an attack on a Nazi research facility in London , bombing their base of operations , stealing secret documents and prototype stealth helicopters . The documents reveal the Nazis are relying on reverse @-@ engineered technology derived from an ancient organization known as Da 'at Yichud , which created such inventions as energy weapons , computer AI 's , and super concrete ; however , it is also revealed that someone is tampering with the super concrete 's formula , making it susceptible to mold deterioration . The Resistance discover a match with Da 'at Yichud member Set Roth ( Mark Ivanir ) , who is imprisoned in a forced labor camp . Blazkowicz agrees to go undercover inside the camp and meets Set , who tells him that the Nazis have been using technology made by him and other Jewish scientists to mass @-@ produce and control robots , and offers to help the Resistance in return for the destruction of the labor camp . Blazkowicz finds a battery for a device that controls the camp robots , and him and Set take control of a robot , which they then use to destroy the camp and rescue prisoners .
Set reveals to the Resistance that the Nazis ' discovery of one of the Da 'at Yichud caches , which included advanced technology centuries ahead of its time , is what allowed Germany to surpass the Allies in military might and ultimately win the war . Set agrees to assist the Resistance by revealing the location of one such cache , but states that the Resistance requires a U @-@ boat to access it . Blazkowicz obtains a U @-@ boat , but discovers that it is the flagship of the Nazis ' submarine fleet , and is equipped with a cannon designed to fire nuclear warheads , which requires codes from the Nazi lunar research facility to operate . Blazkowicz uses the technology found in the Da 'at Yichud cache , namely the Spindly Torque — a sphere that destroys the super @-@ concrete — to steal the identity of a Nazi Lunar scientist and infiltrate the Lunar Base . He succeeds at obtaining the codes , but upon returning to earth , he discovers that Deathshead has mounted an assault on the Resistance base , capturing some of the members .
The Resistance use the nuclear codes and the Spindly Torque to mount an assault on Deathshead 's compound . Rescuing the captured resistance prisoners and evacuating them , Blazkowicz makes it to the top of the tower , struggling to Deathshead 's workshop . Inside , Deathshead greets Blazkowicz , revealing to him that he possesses the brain of the soldier that Blazkowicz chose to die , and puts it in a robot . The robot comes alive and assaults Blazkowicz , who defeats it and puts his friend to rest by destroying the brain . Commandeering a larger robot mecha , Deathshead then attacks Blazkowicz , who gets the upper hand and destroys the robot , dragging Deathshead out of it . He repeatedly stabs Deathshead , who pulls out a grenade , which explodes and mauls Blazkowicz . As a gravely wounded Blazkowicz crawls towards a window , he mentally recites The New Colossus as he watches the Resistance survivors boarding a helicopter , alongside Anya and Set . Seeing that they have reached safety , and bleeding heavily from his injuries , Blazkowicz orders the Resistance to fire the nuclear cannon . After the credits , a helicopter is heard approaching .
= = Development = =
After developer MachineGames was founded , the employees all began brainstorming ideas , and pitching them to publishers . In June 2009 , MachineGames owner ZeniMax Media acquired id Software and all of its property , including Doom , Quake and Wolfenstein . Bethesda Softworks , who had previously declined a pitch from MachineGames , suggested that they develop a new game from a franchise acquired by ZeniMax . MachineGames inquired about developing a new game in the Wolfenstein series ; the studio visited id Software , who approved of MachineGames ' request for a new Wolfenstein game . By November 2010 , paperwork was signed , allowing MachineGames to develop Wolfenstein : The New Order . Preliminary development lasted approximately three years .
The existence of Wolfenstein : The New Order was first acknowledged by Bethesda Softworks on 7 May 2013 , through the release of an announcement trailer . Prior to this , Bethesda teased the upcoming project by releasing three images with the caption " 1960 " . Though originally due for release in late 2013 , the game was delayed to 2014 in order for the developers to further " polish " the game . In February 2014 , it was announced that The New Order would launch on 20 May 2014 in North America , on 22 May 2014 in Australia , and on 23 May 2014 in Europe . The Australian and European release dates were later pushed forward , resulting in a worldwide launch on 20 May 2014 . All pre @-@ orders of the game granted the purchaser an access code to the Doom beta , developed by id Software . For the German release of The New Order , all Nazi symbols and references were removed ; it is a criminal offence to display Nazi imagery on toys in Germany . Following the game 's release , MachineGames began developing Wolfenstein : The Old Blood , a standalone expansion pack set before the events of The New Order . It was released in May 2015 .
= = = Gameplay design = = =
The initial inspiration for Wolfenstein : The New Order came from previous games in the franchise . Senior gameplay designer Andreas Öjerfors said that it was the " super intense immersive combat " that defined the previous games , so MachineGames ensured that this elements was included in The New Order . The development team refer to the game as a " first @-@ person action adventure " , naming this one of the unique defining points of the game . " It is the David vs Goliath theme , " Öjerfors explained . " B.J. against a global empire of Nazis . " Öjerfors also acknowledged that many aspects of the game 's narrative are simply exaggerated elements of the Nazi Party : " The larger than life leaders , strange technology , strange experiments . " The team viewed the game as a " dark @-@ roasted blend of drama , mystery , humor . " Creative director Jens Matthies explained that they " take perhaps the most iconic first @-@ person shooter franchise in history and push it into a strange new world . "
Wolfenstein : The New Order is the second game to use id Software 's id Tech 5 engine , after Rage ( 2011 ) . The game utilizes the engine to add a large amount of detail to the game world . The team often found it difficult to develop the game with 1080p resolution at 60 frames per second , particularly on complex environments , but " we always made it work somehow " , said Matthies . He has also said that the main advantages of the engine is the speed and the detailing , while its biggest disadvantage is dynamic lighting ; " on the other hand the static light rendering is really awesome , so you have full radiosity and can do really spectacular @-@ looking things using that , " he added . Senior concept artist Axel Torvenius said that one of the main inspirations for the art design of the game was movies from the 1960s , calling out the James Bond movies . The design for the Nazis in the game was influenced by the aesthetics of the Nazis at the end of the Second World War ; " it 's blended with the style of the 1960s and the fashion ideals of how to express yourself visually , " Öjerfors explained . This viewpoint is also influenced by the element of exaggeration , which is common throughout the game 's design and has been acknowledged by the team as a development inspiration . Character models can be covered in up to a 256k texture ; however , this is not used often in the game on individual characters , due to the difficulty of seeing it from a distance .
Wolfenstein : The New Order only features a single @-@ player mode . The team felt that dividing focus and resources across both a single @-@ player and an online multiplayer mode would be less efficient . When questioned about the lack of an online multiplayer mode , Öjerfors explained that the decision was simple . " If we could take every bit of energy and sweat the studio has and pour all that into the single @-@ player campaign , it gives us the resources to make something very , very cool , compared to if we would also have to divert some of our resources to making multiplayer . " Executive producer Jerk Gustafsson attributed the choice to the style of game the team is familiar with , stating that MachineGames is " a single @-@ player studio " .
= = = Characters and setting = = =
The team attempted to develop characters that offer a unique experience to the game . " The overarching goal for us was about building an ensemble of genuinely interesting characters we wanted to interact with , " said Matthies . They also strived to connect the thoughts and actions of all characters to the human experience , allowing players to know " why a person is doing what they are doing " . Matthies feels that all characters , particularly the allies , contain some dimension of his own personality . " They 're an expression of something that is part of me that I think is interesting to explore , " he said .
The game 's playable character , William " B.J. " Blazkowicz , has been previously featured as the playable protagonist of all Wolfenstein games . When developing the character of Blazkowicz for The New Order , MachineGames considered his appearances in previous games in the series . When doing this , they realised that the character had never really developed at all throughout the games ; " He 's just the guy that you play , " said Pete Hines , Vice President of PR and Marketing for Bethesda . The team discovered that they were interested in exploring his story , which is what they later invested in . One particular scenario that the team envisioned is putting Blazkowicz in situations where he is uncomfortable . Matthies said , " that 's really interesting to me . I love taking things and making them real . " Throughout the game , Blazkowicz communicates some of his inner thoughts through short monologues , many of which reveal that he has been traumatized by some of his experiences . " We always loved the idea of a prototypical action hero exterior juxtaposed with a rich and vulnerable interior psychology , " said Matthies . One of the largest priorities for the team when developing the character of Blazkowicz was to " reveal whatever needs to be revealed to [ Blazkowicz ] and the player " simultaneously ; Matthies felt that , despite the simplicity of this concept , it is rarely used in games . Prior to developing The New Order , the team had primarily worked on games that involved antihero protagonists . However , id Software wished Blazkowicz to be portrayed differently in the game . Matthies said , " It 's really important to [ id ] that BJ is a hero , and not an anti @-@ hero . " The team attempted to develop Blazkowicz into a character that players could relate to , as they felt that players are generally unable to relate to video game protagonists . " The goal is not to have a protagonist that 's so neutral that you can project yourself into them ; the goal is to have a protagonist that is so relatable that you become them , " said Matthies . They also tried to make players become " emotionally in sync " with Blazkowicz , using the morality choice in the game 's prologue to do so .
Wilhelm " Deathshead " Strasse , the game 's main antagonist , has been previously featured as an antagonist of Return to Castle Wolfenstein ( 2001 ) and main antagonist of Wolfenstein ( 2009 ) . For The New Order , the team achieved closure on his story ; to do so in an effective way , they wanted to find an interesting angle to portray him : his personality is full of enthusiasm , and he appreciates life after his near @-@ death experience in the previous game . When developing the Nazis , Matthies states that the team " didn 't want to cartoon @-@ ify them " , instead opting to treat them seriously . Gideon Emery , who portrayed Fergus Reid , auditioned for his role in the game . He described Fergus as " a tough as nails soldier , who gives [ Blazkowicz ] both support and a pretty hard time in the process " . Matthies felt that Fergus is a type of father figure to Blazkowicz , and that he " only gives negative reinforcement " . Conversely , he saw Wyatt as a " sort of son surrogate " , as Blazkowicz is tasked as being his protector and mentor , and that he gives " positive reinforcement " . Max Hass , a seemingly brain @-@ damaged member of the Resistance , was inspired by the character of Garp from John Irving 's novel The World According to Garp . Alex Solowitz portrayed Max in the game . " Max was the most challenging character to cast , which seems counter @-@ intuitive because he 's a pretty simple guy on paper , but it took a tremendous actor to pull that off and a long time to find him , " Matthies said .
A large aspect of the game is the alternative history in which it is set , where the Nazis won the Second World War . The team saw this aspect as an opportunity to create everything at a very large scale , with very little limitations ; " so many things that we can create , and work with , and expand on . So , I never really felt that we were limited , " said Öjerfors .
= = = Music production = = =
Wolfenstein : The New Order makes use of an original score that reflects the alternative universe depicted in the game . " We wanted to identify with different sounds that were kind of iconic , 1960s sounds , and then do our own twist on them to make a sound authentic enough that it felt realistic , " said Hines . In total , eight original songs were included in the game , and an additional three famous songs were reworked from their original version into German , for use in marketing ; the reworked songs cannot appear anywhere in the game , because the owners wish never to associate their work with any Nazi imagery . To promote the original songs , Bethesda created the fictional Neumond Recording Company , along with backstories for some of the fictional bands that play the original songs .
The team placed a high importance on the game 's music . During the game 's development , composer Mick Gordon traveled to Sweden to meet with the team , and spotted the game over three days , partly collaborating with both Fredrik Thordendal and Richard Devine . Gordon expressed the difference in composing the soundtrack for Wolfenstein : The New Order compared to other games ; " usually you sign onto a project and then you 're given a list of 150 battle cues to do , " he said .
When searching for a genre in which the soundtrack would be based upon , the team initially sought inspiration from the music of Richard Wagner , who was posthumously admired by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler . After studying Wagner 's work , the team discovered that it didn 't necessarily fit with the game 's tone . The team then searched for a style of music that would suit the Nazis , ultimately selecting distortion . " There 's lots of analogue distortion types , there 's all sorts of different pedals and valves and things that are really breaking up , " said Gordon . The team also took inspiration from 1960s music , using analogue equipment such as tape machines and reel @-@ to @-@ reel machines . Gordon has said that the soundtrack is " a tribute to all things guitar " . In collaboration with each other , the team of musicians composed over six hours of music which scores the game . Matthies said " A lot of the score features odd time signatures yet it 's all very groovy . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Wolfenstein : The New Order was released to mostly positive reviews . Metacritic calculated an average score of 81 out of 100 based on 23 reviews for the Windows version , and 79 out of 100 based on 18 reviews for the Xbox One version and 73 reviews for the PlayStation 4 version . GameRankings assigned it an average review score of 84 % based on 12 reviews for the Windows version , 82 % based on 17 reviews for the Xbox One version , and 81 % based on 48 reviews for the PlayStation 4 version . Reviewers liked the game 's concept , narrative and combat mechanics .
The combat mechanics of the game received praise . Daniel Hindes of GameSpot felt that the intensity and variety of the combat in the game has granted the series " a breath of fresh air " , and believes that it managed to fulfill his nostalgic expectations from the series . Metro 's David Jenkins said that the combat in the game is the " real deal " , naming it one of the best recent single @-@ player shooter games , while Ryan Taljonick of GamesRadar called it " satisfying " . Simon Miller of VideoGamer.com lauded the game 's shooting and stealth mechanics , naming the former as " solid " . Similarly , GameSpot 's Hindes noted that the stealth was " simple but effective " , and named it one of the best things about the game . Steve Boxer of The Guardian also called out the stealth , calling it " decent " .
Colin Moriarty of IGN considered the narrative and characters one of the best features , stating that it 's where the game " really shines " . Metro 's Jenkins also praised the story , stating that the mix of tones is " bizarre but obviously intentional " . Matt Sakuraoka @-@ Gilman of Computer and Video Games called the narrative " intelligently written , brilliantly voiced and highly polished " . Kotaku 's Mike Fahey felt somewhat divided about the story , initially finding the attempts at emotion too obvious , but ultimately feeling satisfied , calling it " spectacular " . He also praised the characterization of Blazkowicz in the game . GamesRadar 's Taljonick also felt mixed about the game 's characters , finding Blazkowicz interesting , but feeling as though the supporting characters were quite undeveloped , leaving players to forget about them during gameplay . Conversely , Matt Bertz of Game Informer noted that the attempts to give Blazkowicz more depth feel odd in reflection to his brutal actions during other parts of the game . VideoGamer.com 's Miller also felt negatively about the narrative , calling it " awful " . Joystiq 's Ludwig Kietzmann commented on the drastic changes in the narrative 's pacing , feeling that it " dragged down " whenever the player is forced to search for ammunition ; Steven O 'Donnell of Good Game believed otherwise , feeling like he was " gearing up and patching up " after each fight .
The game 's use of an alternative history concept , with the Axis victory in World War II , was commended by many reviewers . IGN 's Moriarty and GameSpot 's Hindes called it " interesting " , with the former naming it one of the standout points of the game . Jason Hill of The Sydney Morning Herald called the concept " absorbing " , while Owen Anslow of The Mirror called it " intriguing " . Destructoid 's Chris Carter felt that the development team " went all the way " and spent a lot of time on the game 's concept .
The graphical design of the game received commentary from reviewers . GameSpot 's Hindes praised the visual design , noting that it accurately captured the time period , while effectively depicting the alternative storyline in which the game is set . Taljonick of GamesRadar stated that the game 's level design contributes to his enjoyment of the shooting sequences . He also praised the size of the levels , enjoying the possibility of participating in a large gunfight " with some sort of plan " . Kotaku 's Fahey praised the level design for similar reasons , admiring the degree of detail in the game . Digital Spy 's Liam Martin shared mixed commentary on the design , noting that the character models are animated well , but the game is " hardly a shining example of next @-@ gen graphical potential " . ABC 's Alex Walker criticized the game 's graphical design , commenting that the developers " focus [ ed ] their attention " on other aspects of the game .
Most critics and commentators shared the opinion that The New Order was better than they were expecting from a Wolfenstein game . Jon Blyth of Official Xbox Magazine called the game an " unexpected gem " , while ABC 's Walker said that he " never expected [ to ] enjoy [ the game ] so much " . The Sydney Morning Herald 's Hill said that the game ensures that the series is " a relevant force again " , while Destructoid 's Carter felt that the game " does wonders for essentially rebooting the franchise without rendering all the previous stories moot " . Edge agreed , calling the developers " brave " .
= = = Sales = = =
Within a week of its release , Wolfenstein : The New Order became the second @-@ best selling game of 2014 in the United Kingdom , behind Titanfall . The game also topped the weekly UK charts in its first week , totaling a quarter of all games sold in the region and accounting for 36 % of revenue . According to MCV , it was the 22nd best @-@ selling game of 2014 in the UK . In the United States , the game was the fourth and seventh best @-@ selling game of May and June 2014 , respectively . The game was also ranked the fifth and fourteenth best @-@ selling digital PlayStation 4 game of May and June 2014 , respectively . In its first week in Japan , the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 versions of the game were placed on the charts at 15th and 8th , respectively , collectively selling over 11 @,@ 000 units . By June 2014 , the game had sold almost 400 @,@ 000 physical units in Europe , equating to over € 21 million .
= = = Awards = = =
Wolfenstein : The New Order received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications . The game won Game of the Year from Classic Game Room , received nominations from the Golden Joystick Awards , Good Game Game Informer , and IGN Australia , and received runner @-@ up from Polygon . It was also placed on various lists of the best games of 2014 : USA Today placed it at 9th , Eurogamer at 10th , and Ars Technica at 6th . The game also received nominations for Best Shooter from The Escapist , The Game Awards , Game Informer , GameTrailers , Hardcore Gamer and IGN . It received nominations signifying excellence in storytelling from The Game Awards , the Golden Joystick Awards , IGN Australia and the SXSW Gaming Awards . It achieved runner @-@ up for Biggest Surprise awards from both Giant Bomb and the readers of Kotaku . It was also nominated for Best PC Game by IGN Australia , receiving runner @-@ up by Kotaku readers . The game was also nominated for Best Multiplatform from Hardcore Gamer , Best Console Game from IGN Australia , and Best PlayStation 3 Game , Best Xbox 360 Game , and Best Xbox One Game from IGN .
= Subway ( Homicide : Life on the Street ) =
" Subway " ( sometimes referred to as " The Accident " ) is the seventh episode of the sixth season of the American police television drama Homicide : Life on the Street , and the 84th episode overall . It first aired on NBC in the United States on December 5 , 1997 . In the episode , John Lange ( Vincent D 'Onofrio ) becomes pinned between a subway train and the station platform . The Baltimore homicide department is informed that Lange will be dead within an hour and Pembleton tries to solve the case while comforting Lange in his final minutes .
" Subway " featured guest star Bruce MacVittie as a man suspected of pushing Lange into the path of the train . The episode was written by James Yoshimura , who co @-@ produced with David Simon . It was directed by Gary Fleder and was the only episode of Homicide : Life on the Street helmed by the feature film director . Yoshimura based " Subway " on an episode of the HBO hidden @-@ camera documentary show Taxicab Confessions , in which a New York City detective described a real @-@ life instance of a man trapped between a subway train and platform .
" Subway " was filmed on location in a Baltimore Metropolitan Transit Authority station . Fleder included cinematic elements that were uncommon in the traditionally naturalistic show . This led to conflicts between Fleder and director of photography Alex Zakrzewski . " Subway " received overwhelmingly positive reviews but ranked number three in its time @-@ slot during its original broadcast , capturing 10 @.@ 3 million viewers but falling behind ABC 's 20 / 20 and CBS 's Nash Bridges .
The episode won a Peabody Award for excellence in television broadcasting and was nominated for two Emmy Awards , one for Yoshimura 's script and one for D 'Onofrio 's guest performance . " Subway " was the subject of a two @-@ hour PBS television documentary , Anatomy of a " Homicide : Life on the Street " , which originally aired on the network on November 4 , 1998 . Screenwriter Vince Gilligan said " Subway " directly influenced an episode of The X @-@ Files that he wrote , which in turn helped inspire the casting of Bryan Cranston in Breaking Bad .
= = Synopsis = =
During an altercation on a crowded subway platform , John Lange ( Vincent D 'Onofrio ) falls against a moving train and is pinned at waist level between a subway car and the edge of the platform . Detectives Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) and Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) arrive to investigate and are told the man 's spinal cord is severed . Although Lange is not feeling much pain , emergency personnel tell the detectives he has less than an hour to live and will die as soon as he is moved . Bayliss questions Larry Biedron ( Bruce MacVittie ) , who was involved with the altercation that led to Lange 's fall . Biedron says he was bumped from behind with Lange , but witnesses give conflicting reports : some say Biedron pushed Lange , some that Lange pushed Biedron , and others say it was an accident . Pembleton tries to talk to Lange , who becomes uncooperative and angry when told he will die .
Lange says his girlfriend , Sarah Flannigan ( Laura MacDonald ) , is jogging by the harbor , so Pembleton sends detectives Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) and Falsone ( Jon Seda ) to look for her . Lewis and Falsone talk about the nature of death while questioning random joggers ; their search effort proves fruitless . Lange tries to convince EMT Joy Tolson ( Wendee Pratt ) to give him painkillers , but she refuses because it will reduce their chances of saving his life , even while she insists he cannot be saved . Pembleton keeps Lange company , despite his initial annoyance at Lange 's bullying and mean @-@ spirited attitude . The emergency personnel plan to use airbags to push the subway train away from the platform , then pull Lange free and rush him to the hospital .
Pembleton and Lange grow closer ; Lange experiences more pain as time passes and switches among remorse , anger , and casual small talk during their conversations . Later , Pembleton holds Lange 's hand to comfort him and confides about his recent stroke . Bayliss grows suspicious when Biedron says he cannot recall his last place of work or when he moved to Baltimore . Biedron eventually admits he had been criminally charged and placed into a psychiatric ward for pushing a man in front of a Chicago subway train for no reason . Biedron is arrested and Bayliss confirms to Pembleton that Lange was pushed ; Pembleton decides not to tell Lange because he does not think it will comfort him , but Lange figures it out for himself by observing their conversation . Lange experiences greater pain and starts to lose consciousness . After saying " I 'm OK " to Pembleton , Lange falls unconscious and the EMTs push the train with the airbags . Lange dies immediately after he is removed . A shocked and disoriented Pembleton leaves the subway and , after staring at Biedron in the back of a police squad car , walks to his vehicle while recalling a line about how sugar maple leaves behave when it rains ( a line that Lange said as he was dying ) . He then drives away with Bayliss . The episode ends with Flannigan jogging past the subway station .
= = Pre @-@ production = =
= = = Conception = = =
James Yoshimura , one of the Homicide : Life on the Street writers and supervising producers , first conceived the story for " Subway " after watching an episode of the HBO series Taxicab Confessions , which features hidden @-@ camera footage of taxi passengers discussing their lives with the drivers . In the episode he saw , a New York Police Department detective discussed an experience in which a man was pushed and trapped between a subway train and station platform . Although the man was initially still alive , the homicide department was called in to investigate because emergency officials said they knew he would eventually die . The detective said the incident was the most upsetting thing he ever saw . He likened the twisting of the body to that of a plastic bag being spun around quickly and turning like a corkscrew , and said when the train was removed and the body was twisted back , " All your guts fall down and in less than a minute , you 're dead . "
Yoshimura first pitched the show to the Homicide : Life on the Street production team in May 1997 at the San Francisco production center of executive producer Barry Levinson . The episode was discussed and well received during a round @-@ table discussion involving Levinson , executive producer Tom Fontana , producer David Simon , supervising producer Julie Martin , and consulting producer Gail Mutrux . During that meeting , Markin suggested that the transit authority should pressure the police to resolve the homicide case quickly and get the trains moving again , an element which Yoshimura eventually added to the script . Levinson suggested ending the episode with the detectives walking back to the surface , then feeling the hum and vibration of the train starting back up under their feet . This suggestion , however , did not appear in the final episode .
Distressed from a long stretch of poor ratings , NBC executives placed pressure on Homicide : Life on the Street producers to improve its viewership and become more popular than its higher @-@ rated time @-@ slot competitor , Nash Bridges . Yoshimura and the other producers , however , decided to continue pushing the envelope with " Subway " because they felt the series needed to maintain its quality and survive . " Subway " had to be greenlighted by NBC before a script could be written and Yoshimura anticipated backlash about the episode . He said , " Every episode , we have trouble with NBC , so this is no different . We 've fought that battle , we 've had five years of that , so it doesn 't matter to us . " However , the executives were surprisingly enthusiastic about the premise . Warren Littlefield , then @-@ president of NBC Entertainment , said his first reaction was " the classic response of a network programmer : ' Oh my God , this is scary ' " , but that he quickly came around to the idea and greenlighted the project .
= = = Writing = = =
In writing the script for " Subway " , Yoshimura wanted the Pembleton character to be confronted with his own mortality , a theme that had continued from the previous season where the character suffered a stroke . Although Pembleton does not typically discuss his own feelings , Yoshimura wanted him to be placed in a situation where he not only discussed death , but where the unique circumstance of Lange 's subway incident would cause Pembleton to confide his stroke experience to an almost complete stranger . From the beginning of the writing process , Yoshimura specifically wanted the Lange character to be mean and unpleasant , rather than the nice and innocent victim more typically portrayed in such television episodes : " Tragedy can happen to jerky people too and I think it 'd be much more interesting to see how that kind of character 's circumstances transcends the typical cliched TV kind of victim . "
Yoshimura wanted Braugher to treat D 'Onofrio like he was " bad luck " and try to keep his distance at first , but gradually come to view him as a person and form a close bond with him by the end of the episode . A New York City firefighter , Tim Brown , was a consultant for most of the technical information in the episode . In addition to helping Yoshimura with the dialogue from medical staff characters , Brown advised Yoshimura on the method of using air bags to push the subway train forward and remove Lange 's body . Yoshimura included conflicting reports from witnesses about how the incident took place , which the writer described as a " Rashomon thing " , in reference to the 1950 Japanese film in which several characters offer differing descriptions of the same murder . " Subway " continued a sixth season trend in which the detectives became more personally involved with the victims , and thus becoming more emotionally drained at their deaths . For example , in the sixth season episode " Birthday " , Falsone interviewed a victim who eventually died at the conclusion of the episode . It was the first television script Attanasio ever wrote .
Yoshimura included a B story of Lewis and Falsone looking for Lange 's girlfriend to provide comic relief and so that the entire episode would not be confined to the subway platform location . Yoshimura wanted the two detectives to also discuss the nature of mortality and death , but deliberately included black humor in their dialogue and made sure the characters did not act " teary @-@ eyed [ or ] philosophical " , because he believed it would be cliched and an inaccurate depiction of how real detectives would behave . Some viewers were offended or startled by the flippant nature of the discussions about death between the two characters . Lange 's girlfriend jogged behind Lewis and Falsone during a scene in which the two detectives were distracted in a discussion . Yoshimura deliberately included this in the episode to create a moment of irony . The line by Falsone to a jogger , " Are you sure you 're not Sarah ? " , and Lewis ' mocking reaction to the question , were both ad @-@ libbed by the actors .
Executive producers Barry Levinson and Tom Fontana reviewed the script after it was finished and made minor suggestions for changes . In the original script , Yoshimura made Pembleton more confrontational with the firefighters and emergency personnel , but this aspect of the script was changed when Fontana suggested it was too distracting . NBC executives indicated they would have preferred Lewis and Falsone find Lange 's girlfriend and bring her back to the subway station before Lange died , but Yoshimura described that scenario as a " typical TV ending " and was vehemently opposed to any such change . Fontana also defended the original ending because he said Pembleton ends up filling the role that Lange 's girlfriend would have filled .
On August 18 , 1997 , four days before shooting on the episode began , NBC censors provided 17 pages of notes to Yoshimura requiring changes regarding violence and language . A typical Homicide : Life on the Street episode usually results in only three or four pages . Yoshimura made several modifications with the help of his writing assistant Joy Lusco , a future writer on Simon 's HBO series The Wire . The changes included removing several instances of the words " ass " and " bitch " from the script . Lange 's line , " Why am I even saying the son of a bitch 's name ? " was changed to " Why am I even saying the twerp 's name ? " , and his line , " Go find another train and throw your miserable stupid ass in front of it " was changed to " throw yourself in front of it " .
= = = Casting and director hiring = = =
Consulting producer Gail Mutrux recommended feature film director Gary Fleder to direct " Subway " because she believed he would provide visually engaging direction without distracting from the story in the script . Other Homicide : Life on the Street producers were not familiar with Fleder . When Mutrux told them the name of one of his previous films , Things to Do in Denver When You 're Dead , Yoshimura became concerned Fleder was " one of these indie kind of guys [ who is ] going to come in and try to reinvent our show " , a problem he had experienced with other directors in the past . After watching Things to Do in Denver When You 're Dead , however , Yoshimura believed Fleder would be perfect to direct " Subway " because he felt Fleder could provide strong visuals to a story that took place in one location , and prevent the script from becoming too static and boring . Upon being offered the job , Fleder thought it would be a challenge due to most of the action being confined to a single set , but accepted the director position based on the strength of Yoshimura 's script : , " The script was terrific . And for me , the big issue from day one was , ' How do I not screw it up ? ' " Yoshimura said feature directors often struggle with Homicide : Life on the Street because they are used to working at a slower and more deliberate pace than the typical eight @-@ day filming period of a single episode . Additionally , Yoshimura said , they have little time to adjust to the regular cast and crew , which he described as a " closed community [ who are ] used to shooting or working a certain way on this show , and then have their rhythms and their patterns and their habits " .
Casting director Brett Goldstein contacted Vincent D 'Onofrio 's agent about playing the part of John Lange , but the agent said D 'Onofrio would never work in television and refused to even suggest the part to the actor . Goldstein remained convinced the actor was right for the role , and mailed the script directly to D 'Onofrio . The actor liked the script and agreed to play the part . The agent later contacted Goldstein a second time and they got into a dispute over how much money D 'Onofrio would be paid . Yoshimura said D 'Onofrio was not the kind of actor he originally envisioned for the part , although he later praised his performance . D 'Onofrio said he was attracted to the part based on the strength of the script and the reputation of Homicide : Life on the Street , although he had never seen the show himself . Fleder , D 'Onofrio and Andre Braugher had only between two and three hours to read the script , discuss the characters and rehearse the material . Braugher said his first reaction to the episode premise was that it was a " horrifying idea " because he thought it would be sensational and end with a clichéd moral , which Braugher said " frankly , nauseated me , the idea of that " . But Braugher said he was extremely satisfied with Yoshimura 's final script .
Bruce MacVittie auditioned for the role of Larry Biedron by mailing a tape of himself performing to the show 's producers . Yoshimura had previously seen MacVittie perform on the New York City stage and thought he was a " wonderful , wonderful actor " . After watching his rehearsal tape , Yoshimura settled on MacVittie for the part not only based on his acting , but on his short physical stature . Yoshimura said , " I 'm watching this tape and I 'm thinking , ' Yeah , this little guy ! Who would suspect this little guy to have these murderous kinds of tendencies . ' " Laura MacDonald was also cast as Lange 's girlfriend Sarah Flannigan based on an audition tape she sent to the show . Wendee Pratt was cast as emergency medical technician Joy Tolson , who works to help Lange throughout the episode but does not get along with him . Yoshimura said he particularly enjoyed Pratt 's performance " because she 's not playing at all sympathetic . This guy 's a pain in her ass . " Shari Elliker , a WBAL ( AM ) disc jockey from the Baltimore area , made a cameo appearance as a witness in the subway .
= = = Preparation = = =
NBC sought permission to film " Subway " in a Baltimore Metropolitan Transit Authority station , but the authority was initially hesitant to allow filming for a script that portrayed their train as the source of a fatal accident . Since it was too late to build a set , co @-@ executive producer Jim Finnerty told Yoshimura to wait before writing the script because of the strong possibility the episode could never be filmed . When Yoshimura insisted on continuing anyway , Finnerty angrily stormed out of the meeting . However , Finnerty was eventually able to convince the authority to allow filming in one of their stations . Yoshimura also sought 300 extras to play firefighters , emergency medical personnel , transit workers and commuters . Finnerty authorized the use of more extras than an episode usually received , but refused to pay for 300 extras , forcing Yoshimura to make minor modifications to the script .
Seven days of pre @-@ production began on August 15 , 1997 . On the first day , Fleder met with Yoshimura and Fontana to discuss the script and the director 's vision for the episode . Fleder suggested modifying the prologue , and storyboarded the introduction that was included in the episode . The new prologue involved commuters coming down to the train station while a street band performed , leading up to the subway accident before the opening credits rolled . The song featured in this prologue , " Killing Time " , was written by Lisa Matthews , the lead singer of the Baltimore @-@ area band Love Riot . Matthews also had a brief cameo on " Subway " as one of the witnesses to Lange 's fall . On August 16 , the show creators scouted out the Johns Hopkins Hospital Metro Subway Station , where the episode was to be filmed . At the request of the authority , the subway was renamed the fictional Inner Harbor station during filming . Fleder himself had only one hour to scout the location with his technical crew . Art director Vincent Peranio created a dummy wall to place in the empty space between two subway cars , making it appear the two trains were one big car . Inside the dummy wall was a space where the actor could stand and appear cut . Stunt coordinator G.A. Aguilar also choreographed the accident that day , and Peranio simulated the accident itself by tying a dummy into the hole in the dummy wall . Peranio originally wanted a stuntman to fall against the moving train , spin and fall into the padded hole in the dummy wall , but the transit authority refused to allow it .
= = Production = =
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was filmed in seven days , starting on August 26 , 1997 . The Baltimore Metropolitan Transit Authority gave permission for filming to take place in one of their subways , but only allowed shooting to take place between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. when the trains were not running . The restrictive hours , short preparation time , confining shooting space and excessive heat due to lack of ventilation created additional stresses to the crew of more than 100 people during the filming of the episode . The tight schedule and lack of rehearsal time was difficult on the actors , but D 'Onofrio said it added " a certain velocity and energy " to the shoot , which made the dialogue from the actors feel less rehearsed and more spontaneous . Yoshimura served as the on @-@ set consulting editor during filming along with fellow producer David Simon , who wrote the book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , from which the series was adapted . The cast and crew shot between seven and nine pages of the script each of the seven production days . Fleder said he was impressed by this pace because he usually shoots between one and two pages per day during his movies , and he said the actors on Homicide : Life on the Street were better prepared and more cooperative than his usual film actors .
Fleder dedicated a great deal of focus to establishing the correct chemistry between Braugher and D 'Onofrio . Fleder said , " The energy between them had to be [ strong ] because they 're carrying the episode . The audience is centered on them and if either of them falters , the whole episode kind of falls apart . " The first day of shooting had to take place outside the subway station , so all outside scenes were shot first . As a result , the final scenes of the film were shot on the first day . Among those scenes were Pembleton leaving the subway in a daze following Lange 's death ; Yoshimura deeply regretted that this was one of the first scenes shot because he felt the performance would have been more moving if Braugher had some previous dramatic interaction with D 'Onofrio .
The stunt simulating Lange 's fall into the subway train was filmed on August 27 , the second production day , and Yoshimura said it was the most challenging part of the shoot . D 'Onofrio and MacVittie had to arrive at the platform just as the subway train was approaching , and their scene had to be reshot several times because the train did not pass the actors on time . The crew also filmed shots of a dummy dressed as Lange being dragged by the train inside the dummy wall , but most of those scenes were not used in the final cut . The remaining five filming days focused primarily on the scenes between Braugher and D 'Onofrio , which Yoshimura and Fleder felt were the most crucial element of the episode . During the filming of the climactic scene with Pembleton and Lange which ends with Lange 's death , several members of the crew reacted emotionally , something Yoshimura said is extremely rare since the crew members typically look at their work as a job and do not become emotionally invested in the story they are filming .
While shooting the first subway scenes , D 'Onofrio 's performance was over @-@ the @-@ top and bombastic . Yoshimura asked him to act a little calmer during the earlier scenes and save the energy for the later scenes , because " if he did go up right away , there was nowhere else for him to go after that " . D 'Onofrio agreed and modified his performance accordingly . Fleder also clashed with MacVittie over his portrayal of the Biedron character . Fleder felt the character appeared too crazy in earlier scenes , and the actor was telegraphing the twist in which MacVittie would turn out to be a murderer . MacVittie approached Yoshimura about the criticism , but Yoshimura agreed with Fleder 's interpretation . After MacVittie toned down the character 's behavior , Fleder said he was extremely pleased with the end result .
Many of the firefighters appearing as extras in " Subway " were Baltimore firefighters . Yoshimura said the firefighters who appeared to be running in the episode were actors , while the real firefighters walked slowly because , based on their real @-@ life experience , they knew there would be no need to rush in a situation involving a fatality . Although power on the railings were turned off during shooting , the crew and producers were not aware that some residual electricity continues to run through the cars even after the tracks have been shut down . At one point during the shooting , D 'Onofrio felt a charge of that electricity run through him and said , " I 'm really feeling something strange here . " The crew initially believed D 'Onofrio to be ad @-@ libbing a line of dialogue in character , but eventually realized he was being electrified . When the Baltimore Metropolitan Transit Authority explained about the residual electricity , the crew installed rubber insulation so D 'Onofrio would not touch the metal of the train and experience any electricity . Fleder was impressed that D 'Onofrio continued with the shoot , and said , " Most actors I worked with would 've left the set at that point . "
= = = Photography = = =
" Subway " was shot by Alex Zakrzewski , the series ' regular director of photography . The episode was staged so that Pembleton is initially keeping his distance from Lange , but gradually moves closer and closer as they begin to bond , and by the end he is sitting next to him and holding his hand . Accordingly , the initial scenes included wider shots with Braugher and D 'Onofrio on the outer edges of the frame , but later scenes included more close @-@ ups of the two sitting together . Although Homicide : Life on the Street typically employs a number of back @-@ and @-@ forth whip pan @-@ style cuts , Fleder asked that the style be modified for this episode . In earlier scenes , Fleder asked for wider long shots to create a sense of setting within the subway station , and as the episode progressed and the story became more intense , he then allowed more close @-@ ups and whip pans . This led to disagreements on the set between Fleder and Zakrzewski , who felt Fleder was trying to being too disruptive and difficult . Fleder said of his behavior , " I have to admit , I 'm not the most charming guy on the set . I 'm just not . When I 'm on the set , I 'm very focused and my humor goes away and I become not so charming . " After the episode was complete , Fleder said he and Zakrzewski settled their differences and were both happy with the final result .
Fleder also asked for stylistic touches on the episode which were inconsistent with the show 's typical emphasis on documentary @-@ style realism . For example , he arranged for red scrim lighting to reflect on the subway car to add an artistic visual touch , even though there was nothing in particular in the subway station that reflected such a light . Upon hearing of the technique , Yoshimura was initially concerned , saying " Oh , he 's getting artsy fartsy with me . " Just before Lange 's death , Fleder included a close @-@ up with Braugher looking directly into the camera , breaking the fourth wall in a way typically forbidden on the show . During an outdoor dialogue scene between Johnson and Seda while the characters were driving in a car , Fleder filmed it by placing the camera outside the car 's front windshield and panning back and forth between the two actors . Unbeknownst to Fleder , all car shots on Homicide : Life on the Street are only allowed to be filmed from inside the car to keep the scene more realistic . As a result of Fleder 's car scene , a memo was circulated to the cast and crew reminding them of this policy and threatening to fire anybody who allowed a scene to be shot through the windshield again .
= = = Editing = = =
The episode was edited by series regular Jay Rabinowitz in a Manhattan NBC facility , with consultation at various times by Fleder , Yoshimura and Tom Fontana . Rabinowitz edited the episode for several days alone , then worked with Fleder for four days , making hundreds of edits to the episode . Yoshimura worked with the editor next and was disappointed with the first cut of the episode that he saw , claiming it needed to be " a lot more frenetic and chaotics at the end , and not so artsy " . Yoshimura also told Rabinowitz the final cut of the episode should place strong emphasis on Braugher because he felt the story is experienced " through his eyes " . During the editing process , Yoshimura originally removed a scene featuring a silhouette of Pembleton riding the escalator out of the subway station after Lange died . Yoshimura felt the shot was too sentimental , but Levinson personally had it placed it back in the episode after Fleder claimed to have " begged " for it to be included . When Fontana first watched the episode , he felt the prologue was too confusing because it was difficult to tell what happened during the accident scene . It was edited so that rather focusing on medium shots of D 'Onofrio and MacVittie , it included a wider shot to establish the presence of a subway train before the accident so viewers would not be so confused .
Audio tracks were mixed with recorded sounds from real subway cars , as well as PA system announcements , to make the episode sound more authentic . In the original episode , Pembleton grabbed Biedron by the collar of his shirt while Biedron sat in the back of a squad car during one of the final scenes . The scene was modified so that Pembleton only looked at Biedron because Yoshimura felt the scene was just as effective without him grabbing Biedron . During the last scene of the episode , in which Lange 's girlfriend jogs by the subway station and ignores the emergency vehicles , Rabinowitz was originally instructed to include a musical score . He tried many different types of music , including rock music , Irish music , classical music , jazz , and piano riffs . When none of the music worked , Fontana suggested including no music at all , and it was agreed the silence was the most effective solution . Fontana said after watching the episode repeatedly during the editing process , he said he liked the final product but doubted he would watch it again for a long time because it was " too emotionally draining " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews and ratings = = =
" Subway " was originally scheduled to air during the 1997 November sweeps season , but lower @-@ than @-@ expected ratings for the three @-@ part sixth season premiere , " Blood Ties " , prompted NBC to move its broadcast date to December 5 and heavily promote it . The strategy also gave the press more time to preview it and generate reviews . Warren Littlefield said , " The feeling was let 's get out of the insanity of the sweeps and say , ' This is a little different ' — hopefully we 'll bring more people to this episode . " During this time , the episode was renamed " The Accident " in some advertising materials .
When all the Nielsen ratings markets were accounted for , " Subway " was listed as having been seen by 10 @.@ 3 million households . It was the third @-@ highest ranked show in its time @-@ slot , behind ABC 's 20 / 20 , which was seen by 17 @.@ 7 million households , and CBS 's Nash Bridges , which was seen by 11 @.@ 9 million . NBC executives had hoped that the extensive promotion and press coverage of " Subway " would help it outperform Nash Bridges and so lift Homicide : Life on the Street above its usual third place in the rankings . When it did not , " Subway " was considered a commercial failure , and helped fuel already existing discussions within NBC on whether to cancel the show .
Reviews were overwhelmingly positive for " Subway " . It was identified by The Baltimore Sun as one of the ten best episodes of the series , with Sun writer Chris Kaltenbach declaring , " Dramas don 't come any better than this . " Kinney Littlefield of The Orange County Register said it was " perhaps the best Homicide episode ever " and praised D 'Onofrio 's performance . USA Today gave the episode its highest rating of four stars . Tom Shales of The Washington Post called it , " a tour de force for D 'Onofrio and Braugher " . Entertainment Weekly writer Bruce Fretts said , " This is as gripping an hour of television as you 're ever likely to see . " Television and literary critic John Leonard said " Subway " was " an artistic experience that is as genuine and accomplished and crafted as you will get anywhere " . David P. Kalat , author of Homicide : Life on the Street : The Unofficial Companion , said of the episode , " Writer James Yoshimura proves that he has not lost his touch , with yet another truly grueling screenplay . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" Subway " won a 1998 Peabody Award for excellence in television broadcasting . The episode also received two Emmy Award nominations during the 50th Primetime Emmy Awards season . James Yoshimura was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series for the episode 's script , and Vincent D 'Onofrio received a nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series . It lost both nominations ; NYPD Blue won the best writing Emmy for the fifth season episode " Lost Israel " , and John Larroquette won the guest actor award for his appearance in " Betrayal " , a second season episode of The Practice . However , Jay Rabinowitz and Wayne Hyde won an International Monitor Award for best editing in a film @-@ oriented television series .
In 2009 , TV Guide ranked " Subway " # 25 on its list of the 100 Greatest Episodes .
= = = Cultural influences = = =
Vincent D 'Onofrio 's character in " Subway " partially inspired the creation of the antagonist played by Bryan Cranston in " Drive " , a sixth season episode of The X @-@ Files , which first aired on November 15 , 1998 . In the episode , Cranston 's character is unpleasant and anti @-@ semitic , but he is dying throughout the episode , and screenwriter Vince Gilligan intended for the audience to sympathize with him despite his unlikeable qualities . Gilligan said this was influenced by " Subway " which he called an " amazing episode " . He said of D 'Onofio 's character : “ The brilliant thing they did in this episode , the thing that stuck with me , was this guy ’ s an asshole , the guy really is unpleasant , and yet at the end ( you ) still feel his humanity . " The casting of Cranston in this role directly led Gilligan to eventually cast him as the lead in his television series Breaking Bad .
= = PBS Documentary " Anatomy of a ' Homicide : Life on the Street ' " = =
WGBH @-@ TV , a Boston @-@ based Public Broadcasting Service station , produced a 75 @-@ minute television documentary about the episode " Subway " called Anatomy of a " Homicide : Life on the Street " . The documentary was written , produced and directed by filmmaker Theodore Bogosian , and was originally broadcast on November 4 , 1998 at 9 p.m. on PBS . The film focused predominantly on James Yoshimura , beginning with his conception of the script and ending with his reaction to the episode 's television broadcast and the ratings numbers . The documentary included a brief featurette about Homicide : Life on the Street and its history of both critical acclaim and low ratings . It also focused on the balance between art and business , with Yoshimura and the other producers trying to produce an intelligent , high quality episode while also capturing high ratings .
The documentary crew put wireless microphones on several of the actors and crew and followed them through the conception , pre @-@ production , filming , editing , screening and reception of " Subway " . Many people involved with the show found the process extremely disruptive . In particular , Fleder said he hates to be photographed and found the camera crew distracting and stressful . Fleder , who agreed to interviews for the documentary but refused to wear a microphone on the set , said of the crew , " To pull off a show like this , a seven @-@ day shoot with this much dialogue and this many shots per day , you have to be really , really focused , and for me the thing with the documentary crew kept pulling away from the focus . "
Rob Owen , television editor of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , said the documentary provided an interesting , entertaining and detailed look behind the scenes of the show . Owen said this was " rare , because TV doesn 't usually reveal details about itself . It 's nice to see PBS pulling back the curtain on its competition , and I wish it happened more often . " Manuel Mendoza of The Dallas Morning News praised it , calling it " a documentary as rare to public TV as Homicide is to commercial television " , but said it " falls short of being definitive " because it cannot address all elements of the series due to its brief running time . Several commentators praised the humorous scene in the documentary where Yoshimura goes line @-@ by @-@ line through his script and replaces curse words based on orders from NBC censors .
= The Secret of the Nagas =
The Secret of the Nagas is the second novel of the Shiva trilogy series by the Indian author Amish Tripathi . The story takes place in the imaginary land of Meluha and narrates how the inhabitants of that land are saved from their wars by a nomad named Shiva . It begins from where its predecessor , The Immortals of Meluha , left off , with Shiva trying to save Sati from the invading Naga . Later Shiva takes his troop of soldiers and travels far east to the land of Branga , where he wishes to find a clue to reach the Naga people . Shiva also learns that Sati 's first child is still alive , as well as her twin sister . His journey ultimately leads him to the Naga capital of Panchavati , where he finds a surprise waiting for him .
Tripathi started writing The Secret of the Nagas while the first part of the trilogy was being released . He relied on his knowledge of geography and history to expand the locations visited in the story . The book was released on 12 August 2011 , and was published by Westland Press . Before its release , the author confessed that many revelations would be present in the book , including the true nature of many characters . Two theatrical trailers were created for showing in multiplex cinema halls , as Tripathi believed that the film @-@ going audience also reads his books , and that would create publicity .
The Secret of the Nagas was in high demand before its release , with 80 @,@ 000 copies pre @-@ ordered . The book quickly reached the top of best @-@ seller listings , selling 95 @,@ 000 copies the first month , before going for a re @-@ print . As of June 2015 , over 2 @.@ 5 million copies of the Shiva Trilogy have been sold at gross retail sales of over ₹ 60 crore ( US $ 8 @.@ 9 million ) . Although the book was commercially successful , The Secret of the Nagas received mixed reviews from critics . While it received praise for its " impressive conception " and story development , it also received criticism for Tripathi 's usage of non @-@ literary language .
= = Plot synopsis = =
The story begins where The Immortals of Meluha ended . Shiva , the fabled savior of the land of Meluha , rushes to save his wife Sati from the Naga , the supposed killer of Shiva 's friend Brahaspati . The Naga escapes , leaving behind coins with strange engravings . After consulting with Sati 's father Daksha and Dilipa , the king of Ayodhya , they come to know that the coin belongs to King Chandraketu , the ruler of the land of Branga in eastern India . Shiva and Sati travel to Kashi , where a community of Brangas inhabit , in order to get more information on the Nagas . They are accompanied in their journey by Shiva 's General Parvateshwar , his associates Nandi and Veerbhadra , Ayurvati the doctor , and Bhagirath and Anandamayi , the prince and princess of Ayodhya . At Kashi , Parvateshwar gets mortally injured while trying to pacify a riot at the Branga community . The Branga leader Divodas administers a medicine on Parvateshwar ; it works and the General is healed , but Shiva comes to know from Ayurvati that it contains herbs which is only available at Panchavati , the capital of the Nagas . He consults with Divodas and comes to know that Branga suffers from a mortal plague , which has led them to ally with the Nagas , in return for benefits . Shiva decides to travel to Branga but Divodas informs him that to reach there special ships need to be made , which would take about six months .
As the ships are prepared Sati gives birth to Kartik , her son with Shiva . The journey to Branga starts , with Sati staying back at Kashi to help the King with a lion attack on the local villagers . When Sati and her soldiers are on the verge of losing against the lions , a group of Naga soldiers led by a man and a woman arrive and assist them in killing the lions . The Naga woman reveals herself to be Kali , Sati 's twin sister . She was denounced by their father Daksha since she was born with deformities , including two extra , functioning hands . The man reveals himself as Ganesh , Sati 's first child , whom she believed to have died at child birth . Since Ganesh was also born with deformities , which led to his face resembling that of an elephant ’ s , Daksha denounced him and lied to Sati . Both Kali and Ganesh are brought back to Kashi by Sati and they wait for Shiva 's arrival .
At Branga , Shiva learns that the only person aware of the medicine recipe is a bandit named Parashuram , who leads a secluded life and kills any man coming near his abode in the jungles . Shiva and his men defeat Parashuram , and to his surprise comes to know that he is a Vasudev , the group of scholars who have been guiding him on his journey . Parashuram is also surprised to see Shiva as the fabled Neelkanth ; in remorse for his actions , he severs his left hand . He gives the recipe of the medicine to the people of Branga and leaves for Kashi with Shiva . At Kashi , Shiva is introduced to Ganesh and Kali by Sati . Shiva recognizes Ganesh as the Naga who tried to attack on Sati and as the killer of Brahaspati . Severely angered , he leaves Sati and takes up residence at the Branga locality . One day , while playing with Kartik at a local park , three lions attack them and Ganesh becomes severely injured while saving Kartik . Shiva forgives him and together with Sati , confronts Daksha , who confesses to murdering Sati 's first husband and denouncing Kali and Ganesh . Daksha blames Shiva for causing distrust between him and Sati , who disgusted with Daksha 's deeds , asks him to leave Kashi and go back to Meluha .
Shiva decides to travel to Panchavati under the guidance of Kali , who is the Naga queen and knows the path through the Dandak Forest to the Naga capital . While traveling they are attacked from the river side by a cache of ships containing the weapons of mass destruction known as Daivi Astra that was once forbidden by Lord Rudra , the legendary supreme ruler of India . After fleeing from the attack and safely reaching Panchavati , Shiva and Sati suspect Daksha to be behind this . Kali takes Shiva to a nearby school in the capital , where she believes that the greatest secret of the Nagas lies . There in a classroom , Shiva finds Brahaspati , perfectly alive and teaching a class .
= = Characters and locations = =
Tripathi believes that " Myths are nothing but jumbled memories of a true past . A past buried under mounds of earth and ignorance . " The book has known characters from Hindu texts as well as those born from Tripathi 's imagination , however the characters from the Hinduism do not inherit all of their classical traits .
Characters
Shiva – The main character in the story . He is a Tibetan immigrant to Meluha and the chief of the Guna tribe . On arriving in Meluha and consuming the Somras ( a potion ) , his throat turns blue making him the Neelkanth of the Meluhan legend , which speaks of the appearance of Neelkanth as a destroyer of evil . The Meluhans end up believing that Shiva would be their saviour .
Sati – A Meluhan princess , she is the daughter of King Daksha . Shiva falls in love with her but could not marry her initially because of a law that considers her to be a Vikarma , an untouchable ; he later marries her going against the law . According to the Meluhans , Vikarmas are people who bear misfortunes in this life due to sins of their past births . Sati is a skilled swords @-@ woman and is very brave since childhood .
Kartik – Shiva 's and Sati 's son
Nandi – A captain in the Meluhan army . A loyal devotee of Shiva , who is often considered for his opinion and suggestions by Shiva .
Veer Bhadra – A captain of Shiva 's army and his close childhood friend . He was later renamed as Veer Bhadra , a title earned by once defeating a tiger singlehandedly .
Bŗihaspati – The chief Meluhan scientist who becomes Shiva 's good friend . Though he does not believe the legend of the Neelkanth , he believes that Shiva is capable of taking Meluha to its new glory .
Daksha – The King of the Meluhans , he is appreciative of every effort that Shiva does to save his country .
Veerini – The Queen of the Meluhans , wife of Emperor Daksha .
Bhagirath – The prince of Ayodhya , who is the target of an assassination plot .
Anandamayi – The princess of Ayodhya . Bhagirath 's sister . A strong @-@ willed woman , Anandamayi courts Parvateshwar as her consort .
Parvateshvar – Head of Meluhan Army and a Suryavanshi , Parvateshvar is critical of Shiva 's ways with the Meluhans , and is a dedicated man to Daksha . He eventually becomes an avid follower of Shiva as he realizes that Shiva could actually lead them to victory and finish Lord Ram 's Unfinished Task .
Ayurvati – The Chief of Medicine , Ayurvati is another intelligent and revered woman , who is capable of curing any disease . She is the first one to realize that Shiva is the " Neelkanth " , their savior .
Kali – Sati 's twin sister who was separated from her after birth , due to their father denouncing her . Kali was born with two extra functioning appendages , hence she was ostracized from society and declared a Naga .
Ganesh – Sati 's first child who was declared dead by her father , as he was born with physical deformities . Ganesh was raised later by Kali , and they created the formidable Naga army .
Races
Suryavanshis – The Suryavanshis are followers of Shri Ram and the Solar Calendar and try to lead a life that is as ideal as possible . The Suryavanshis believe in Satya , Dharma , Maan — truth , duty and honor .
Chandravanshis – The Chandravanshis are followers of the Lunar Calendar . Traditionally the Chandravanshis and Suryavanshis are enemies .
Naga – A cursed race of people who have physical deformities . They are extremely skilled warriors .
Kingdoms
Meluha – The empire of the Suryavanshis , also known as the land of pure life . Meluha is based in the areas of the modern Indian provinces of Kashmir , Punjab , Himachal Pradesh , Delhi , Haryana , Rajasthan , Gujarat and the whole of Pakistan . It also includes parts of eastern Afghanistan .
Swadweep – The empire of the Chandravanshis , also known as the island of the individual . Swadweep comprises the modern Indian provinces of Uttarakhand , Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , Jharkhand , West Bengal , Sikkim , Assam , Meghalaya and all of the country of Bangladesh , besides most parts of Nepal and Bhutan .
Brangaridai ( Branga + hriday ) – The heart of branga ( literal meaning ) or land of the Brangas , situated on the eastern part of India . Shiva travels there with his entourage in search of the recipe for a medicine and to know the truth about the Nagas .
Dandak Forest – Located in the modern Indian province of Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Chhattisgarh , Orissa and Madhya Pradesh , Dandak is a dense and treacherous forest where the Nagas stay , at their capital Panchavati .
Characters and locations adapted as per the books from the series and from the official website .
= = Development and release = =
Tripathi had initially decided to write a book on philosophy , but was dissuaded by his family members , so he wrote a book on Shiva , one of the Hindu gods . Tripathi 's agent decided to publish the book himself . After its release in February 2010 , The Immortals of Meluha went on to become a huge commercial success . It had to be reprinted a number of times to keep up with the demand .
While the first book was being released , Tripathi started work on the second part of the trilogy , then titled The Naga Secret . Tripathi wanted to start the story from exactly where he ended in the first book , with Sati 's fate being revealed . He also wanted to expand the geography of the story , allowing the characters to travel far East of India and also far South to the land of the Nagas , an ancient empire that existed more than five thousand years ago and was filled with eternal wars and the legend of a blue @-@ throated god who would save the world . In an interview with Mumbai Mirror in July 2011 , he clarified that it was difficult for him to do research about the geographical situations of India in 4000 BC in just one year , so he relied on his own knowledge and that of his relatives . " I was an atheist till eight years ago , but I have always been surrounded by relatives with immense faith , so scriptures are something I have inadvertently grown up with and learned " , he added . The mythological and the technical aspects included in the story also came from Tripathi 's habit of reading storybooks on history and ancient technology ; he was helped by his father , who is a scientist . Tripathi quit his job as a banker while writing the book , dedicating his whole time to the book .
Tripathi revealed in an interview with IBN Live that the story would continue from where it ended in the first book . The Secret of the Nagas was edited by Sharvani Pandit , who also edited the first book . Rashmi Pusalkar designed the book cover , which depicted Shiva holding a snake and looking towards the banks of the city of Kashi . The photo was shot by Chandan Kowli , with Sagar Pusalkar standing in as a model for Shiva . The snake was created in CGI with the make @-@ up being done by Prakash Gor . Two trailers were created for promoting the book , one depicting Sati dancing and one showing Shiva drinking the Somras , thus turning his throat blue . The videos were conceptualized and marketed by Sangram Surve and Shalini Iyer of Think Why Not team , who also undertook the advertising of the book . The trailers are planned to be shown alongside films in multiplexes by the end of September or October 2011 . Tri
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eward " skillfully managed the nation 's foreign affairs , avoiding the foreign intervention that would have ensured that the Confederacy would become a separate nation " . Nevertheless , historians , focusing on the battlefields of the Civil War , have given him relatively little attention . Seward has a dozen biographers , while thousands of books focus on Lincoln . According to Crofts , " Seward and Lincoln were the two most important leaders spawned by the intersection of antebellum idealism and partisan politics . Lincoln , of course , will always overshadow Seward . Before 1860 , however , Seward eclipsed Lincoln . "
Lincoln 's assassination helped to seal his greatness , and according to Seward biographer John M. Taylor , to relegate " his associates ... to the status of bit players " . Dozens of biographies extolling Lincoln as the quintessential American were written in the decades after the president 's death , placing Lincoln on a pedestal of public esteem Seward could not climb . Seward realized this even in life ; by one account , when asked to show his scars from the attempt on his life , Seward regretted he had not been martyred along with Lincoln , " I think I deserved the reward of dying there " .
Despite his being an ardent supporter of American expansionism during his time in the Cabinet , only Alaska was added to U.S. territory during Seward 's service as Secretary of State . ( It should be remembered that the purchase of Alaska was not inevitable ; the land had the same latitude as Siberia and was very difficult to farm , while neither gold nor oil nor any other important mineral was discovered there until years after Seward 's death . ) Nevertheless , his influence extended to later American acquisitions . One of his friends , Hamilton Fish , in 1875 signed the trade reciprocity treaty with the Kingdom of Hawaii that eventually led to American annexation of the islands . William Everts , another Seward friend , in 1877 signed a treaty of friendship with the Samoan Islands , laying the groundwork for another American acquisition . A young friend and protege of Seward , Lincoln 's assistant private secretary , John Hay , served as a successor of Seward from 1898 to 1905 , during which time the U.S. acquired Puerto Rico , Guam , American Samoa , the Philippines , and the Panama Canal Zone .
Stahr believes that Seward 's influence is still felt today :
Seward believed not only in territorial expansion but in a commercial and diplomatic empire . He encouraged immigration to the United States , always seeing immigration as a source of strength ; he ... was prepared to back up words with arms ; and he believed that Washington was the natural center for inter @-@ American and international discussion . If he were alive today , he would not be surprised to learn ... that many of the most famous Americans are first- or second @-@ generation immigrants , or that New York City is the world 's financial center , or that the headquarters of the World Bank and the Organization of American States are both in Washington . Seward would not be surprised by these developments : he would be pleased .
= 2008 attacks on Uttar Pradeshi and Bihari migrants in Maharashtra =
The 2008 attacks on Uttar Pradeshi and Bihari migrants in Maharashtra began on 3 February 2008 after violent clashes between workers of two political parties — Maharashtra Navnirman Sena ( MNS ) and Samajwadi Party ( SP ) — at Dadar in Mumbai , capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra . The clashes took place when workers of MNS , a splinter faction formed out of the Shiv Sena ( a major political party of Maharashtra ) , tried to attack workers of SP , the regional party based in Uttar Pradesh , who were proceeding to attend a rally organised by the United National Progressive Alliance ( UNPA ) . Defending his party 's stand , MNS chief Raj Thackeray explained that the attack was a reaction to the " provocative and unnecessary show of strength " and " uncontrolled political and cultural dadagiri ( bullying ) of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar migrants and their leaders " .
In the events leading to these clashes , Raj Thackeray made critical remarks , themed around language politics and regionalism , about migrants from the North Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar , accusing them of spoiling Maharashtrian culture and not mingling with them . At political rallies held across the state , he questioned the loyalty of Bollywood actor Amitabh Bachchan towards Maharashtra , where he attained " fame and popularity " , accusing him of showing " more interest " in his native Uttar Pradesh . He called the celebration of Chhath Puja by North Indian migrants a " drama " and a " show of arrogance " .
On 13 February 2008 , the state government , which was accused of reluctance to take immediate action , ultimately arrested Raj Thackeray and Abu Asim Azmi ( a local SP leader ) on charges of instigation of violence and causing communal disturbance . Although released that same day , a gag order was imposed on both leaders to prevent them from making further inflammatory remarks . Meanwhile , tensions in Maharashtra rose as the news of Raj 's possible arrest , and his subsequent actual arrest , angered his supporters . Incidences of violence against North Indians and their property by MNS workers were reported in Mumbai , Pune , Aurangabad , Beed , Nashik , Amravati , Jalna , and Latur . Nearly 25 @,@ 000 North Indian workers fled Pune , and another 15 @,@ 000 fled Nashik in the wake of the attacks . The exodus of workers caused an acute labour shortage , affecting local industries . Analysts estimated financial losses of ₹ 5 billion ( US $ 74 million ) – ₹ 7 billion ( US $ 104 million ) . Although the violence receded after the arrests of the two leaders , sporadic attacks were reported until May 2008 . After months of lull , on 19 October 2008 , MNS activists beat up North Indian candidates appearing for the all @-@ India Railway Recruitment Board entrance exam in Mumbai . The incident led to Raj 's arrest and fresh violence . Later on 28 October 2008 a labourer from Uttar Pradesh was lynched in a Mumbai commuter train .
The attacks evoked critical reactions from various parts of the country , particularly the Uttar Pradesh and Bihar political leadership . Even Bal Thackeray , Raj 's estranged uncle and chief of the Shiv Sena , who formed his party in 1966 to raise the voice of Marathi manoos ( Marathi people ) , discounted his nephew 's criticism of Bachchan as " stupidity " . In an editorial a month later in Saamna , the Shiv Sena 's political mouthpiece , however , Bal Thackeray wrote that Biharis antagonised local populations wherever they went and were an " unwelcome lot " throughout the country . The media slated Bal 's remarks as an attempt to recapture his party 's sons @-@ of @-@ soil plank , being hijacked by Raj .
= = Background = =
= = = Raj Thackeray 's resignation from Shiv Sena and the formation of MNS = = =
On 9 March 2006 , Raj Thackeray , nephew of Bal Thackeray , quit the Shiv Sena and formed the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena ( MNS ) after being " sidelined " by the chief 's son Uddhav . The Shiv Sainiks ( Shiv Sena members ) who supported Raj 's leadership , in contrast to his cousin Uddhav , joined the MNS . The party was founded on the ideology of being the benefactor of the local Marathi Manoos ( Marathi people ) , an ideology that the party members felt the Shiv Sena had abandoned . Keeping in line with this , Raj has repeatedly demanded special job reservations for locals . A critic of the influx of migrants into the state , especially Uttar Bhartiyas ( literally meaning " North Indians " ) predominantly from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar , he has blamed the large @-@ scale immigration of people from these economically backward states for causing a shortage of jobs for Maharashtrians .
= = = Shiv Sena 's move to appease migrants = = =
The Times of India summarised the cause of MNS 's attacks — " There 's a method in MNS 's madness in attacking north Indians in Mumbai though , howsoever flawed it might be . Raj believes his cousin and Shiv Sena leader Uddhav Thackeray has been wooing the people from Bihar and UP — through a campaign he began back in 2005 with the inclusive call of Mee Mumbaikar — as his party 's vote @-@ bank . Uddhav 's growing popularity with North Indians had been rankling Raj , who is losing ground and political relevance as evident in the MNS 's performance in the last municipal elections . "
= = = Raj 's criticism of Amitabh Bachchan = = =
In January 2008 , targeting Mumbai @-@ resident Amitabh Bachchan at political rallies , Raj asserted that the actor was " more interested " in his native state Uttar Pradesh than Maharashtra . He expressed his disapproval of Amitabh 's inaugurating a girls ' school named after his daughter @-@ in @-@ law , actress Aishwarya Rai Bachchan , at Barabanki in Uttar Pradesh , rather than in Maharashtra . Bachchan was also criticised for choosing to run elections from his native state . On 2 February at a party function at Dharavi in Mumbai , Raj said , " Though he [ Amitabh ] has become a star in Mumbai , his interest is in Uttar Pradesh . That is why he was trying to be an ambassador of UP rather than Maharashtra . That is why though he achieved everything in Mumbai , when it came to elections , Amitabh chose Uttar Pradesh " .
Responding to Raj 's accusations , the actor 's wife and an SP MP Jaya Bachchan said that they ( Bachchans ) were willing to start a school in Mumbai , provided the MNS leader donated the land to build it . She told the media , " I heard that Raj Thackeray owns huge properties in Maharashtra , in Mumbai at Kohinoor Mills . If he is willing to donate land , we can start a school in the name of Aishwarya here " . Amitabh , however , abstained from commenting on the issue .
Bal Thackeray refuted the allegations , saying , " Amitabh Bachchan is an open @-@ minded person , he has great love for Maharashtra , and this is evident on many occasions . The actor has often said that Maharashtra and specially Mumbai has given him great fame and affection . He has also said that what he is today is because of the love people have given him . The people of Mumbai have always acknowledged him as an artiste . It was utter foolishness to make these parochial allegations against him . Amitabh is a global superstar . People all over the world respect him . This cannot be forgotten by anyone . Amitabh should ignore these silly accusations and concentrate on his acting " . According to some reports , Raj 's censure of Amitabh , whom he supposedly admires , stemmed from his disappointment of not being invited to the wedding of Amitabh 's son , Abhishek , despite invitations to his estranged uncle Bal and cousin Uddhav .
On 23 March , Amitabh finally spoke out in an interview with a local tabloid , saying , " Random charges are random ; they do not deserve the kind of attention you wish me to give " . Later on 28 March at a press conference for the International Indian Film Academy , when asked what his take was on the anti @-@ migrant issue , Amitabh said that it is one 's fundamental right to live anywhere in the country and the constitution entitles so . He also stated that he was not affected by Raj 's comments .
= = = Raj 's remarks on Chhath Puja and migrants = = =
In his party speeches , Raj had also reproached North Indian migrants on the celebration of Chhath Puja , a festival popular in Bihar , calling it a " drama " and a " show of arrogance " . He demanded that they must only celebrate Maharashtrian festivals . A petition was filed in the Patna civil court on 8 February against him for his remarks over Chhath Puja . His statements drew flak from leaders of Bihar , especially Indian Railways minister and former chief minister of Bihar , Lalu Prasad Yadav , who challenged that he would come to Mumbai and perform Chhath Puja in front of Raj 's house , also ridiculed Raj saying , " He [ Raj ] is a child in politics " . The Navnirman Sena leader accused migrants of swamping Maharashtra , India 's most industrialised state , in search of jobs .
The MNS chief had also accused migrants of disrespecting the local culture . On 9 February , expressing his stance on newer migrants settling in Mumbai , Raj said , " New immigrants to the city should be denied entry into the city , while those already staying here should show respect to the Marathi ' manoos ' and his culture " .
= = = Clashes between MNS and SP workers = = =
On 3 February 2008 , MNS and SP workers indulged in street fighting after the former tried to attack the latter , who were proceeding to Shivaji Park , Dadar , in Mumbai to attend a rally organised by the United National Progressive Alliance ( UNPA ) , the ruling coalition party of India , of which the SP is a member . The rally was to be addressed by former Uttar Pradesh chief minister Mulayam Singh Yadav and other prominent members of the UNPA and SP . Police arrested 73 MNS and 19 SP workers after these clashes on charges of rioting .
Raj justified his party 's stand as a response to — " provocative and unnecessary show of strength " and " uncontrolled political and cultural dadagiri of the Uttar Pradesh and Bihar migrants and their leaders " — and questioned , " Do political movements need to obey the law ? " On 10 February at a press conference , he issued a statement saying , " What happened in Mumbai in the past one week was only a reaction and if leaders of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar try to demonstrate their strength here , such reactions would recur " .
After the clashes , SP approached the Election Commission demanding de @-@ registration of MNS . SP general secretary whose press conference near Azad Maidan was disrupted by MNS activists on 3 February , Amar Singh petitioned the Commission requesting action against the MNS and its leaders for issuing " veiled as well as open threats " against non @-@ Maharashtrians . However , Mumbai police dismissed a complaint of " criminal intimidation " filed against Raj by Singh as ' false and malicious ' . In his complaint filed at Azad Maidan police station , Singh had alleged that sloganeering MNS men had threatened him by using Thackeray 's name while being whisked away by security personnel from the venue .
= = Attacks = =
= = = February = = =
On 3 February , immediately after clashes with SP , MNS workers assaulted North Indian taxi drivers and vandalised their vehicles in Dadar , Mumbai . The police faced strong criticism for remaining mute spectators as MNS workers assaulted North Indians . A departmental inquiry was instituted against the police inaction . Inspector Motiram Kadam and sub @-@ inspector Deepak Pawar , who were assigned duty at Dadar , were suspended for dereliction of duty . Later , over 25 MNS workers were arrested on charges of rioting . In the night , 150 suspected MNS activists ransacked Pratap talkies in Thane , pulled out the print of the Bhojpuri film " Saiyan se Solah Singaar " and burned it because Bhojpuri is the regional language spoken in the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar . The rioters also damaged the theatre and destroyed the seats . A similar incident was reported in Nashik .
The next day in Mumbai , two motorcycle @-@ borne MNS supporters hurled bottles at Amitabh Bachchan 's bungalow at Juhu . A group of MNS workers barged inside the booking office of the Grant Road railway station , damaged the booking office windows and tore off posters of a newly released Bhojpuri film put up there . Party workers resorted to stone throwing in some parts of Kandivli , a North @-@ Mumbai suburb that has a sizeable North Indian lower middle @-@ class population . In the Central @-@ Mumbai suburb of Bandra , a clash ensued when MNS workers tried to plant party flags at an open market dominated by North Indians .
The offices of Bhojpuri actor Manoj Tiwari and North Indian Congress leader Sanjay Nirupam were stoned by MNS supporters on 5 February . Two days later , a group of 20 to 25 MNS activists forced themselves into the Central Mumbai office of the Bombay Taximen 's Union , where they assaulted office staff and damaged property . In response to the attack , the 55 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Union immediately called for a flash strike . The strike was then called off after R. R. Patil , the Home Minister of Maharashtra , assured the Union of justice and safety . An advocate named Arvind Shukla filed a Public Interest Litigation ( PIL ) seeking directions to the Election Commission to derecognise MNS in view of its " anti @-@ national activities " .
On 8 February , re @-@ invoking the issue of Marathi pride , Maharashtra Navnirman Sena chief Raj Thackeray on hit out at North Indians again , in a special article titled " Majhi bhumika , majha ladha " ( My stand , my struggle ) written by him in the Marathi daily Maharashtra Times , Thackeray said , " Even if the whole world opposes my stand , I and my party will continue the struggle to protect Marathi culture , Maharashtrian people and will trample the goondaism of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar . At this juncture , I feel like asking the Maharashtrian people that if I am voicing your true emotion , then why are you sitting on the fence . Come join me in this struggle . "
On 12 February , MNS workers attacked vendors and shopkeepers from North India in various parts of Maharashtra and destroyed government property to vent their anger against the reported move to arrest Raj . Sporadic violence was reported in Beed and Aurangabad . State @-@ run buses in these areas were stone @-@ pelted , resulting in the arrest of several MNS workers . In Nashik , MNS workers vandalised several shops belonging to North Indians , forcing other shops and business establishments to close down . One shopkeeper was severely beaten and was admitted to Nashik General Hospital . Banks and schools promptly closed after these incidents . Stone pelting by angry mobs was also reported from the city 's Shalimar and Bytco squares , and the Satpur and Ambad industrial areas remained closed . Nashik police detained 26 MNS workers after the violence . Six municipal cooperators were also put under preventive arrest . Additional police pickets were deployed in various parts of the city , including Shalimar and Ambad Chowk , Satpur , Nashik Road , the MNS head office at Mumbai Naka and some of the city suburbs . In Pune , MNS workers pelted stones on state @-@ run buses and attacked a few shop owners in Pune 's Laxmi Road area , prompting shops to shut down to avoid similar attacks .
The Mumbai Police announced its move to put Raj under their custody on 13 February , which created an upsurge of violence in the state and led to two deaths . Attacks on North Indians were reported from Mumbai , Pune , Jalna , Beed , Aurangabad and Latur . Shops , offices and other business establishments were shut down in different parts of Mumbai , as MNS workers threatened violence in case their leader was arrested . Central Mumbai localities were most affected , especially around Dadar and Shivaji Park , the strongholds of both the MNS and the Shiv Sena . The police blocked roads in front of the residence of Raj in the Shivaji Park area . A civic activist named James John was assaulted by suspected MNS workers while he was attempting to photograph them forcing shop owners to down shutters in JB Nagar , Andheri . John suffered two rib fractures and bruises on his lungs . In Nashik , an employee of the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited , a Maharashtrian , died during a stone pelting on state @-@ run buses by MNS supporters . A migrant from Bihar , who was a security guard with a private company at Igatpuri in Nashik district , was killed by a mob .
In Mumbai and Aurangabad , police rounded up more than 400 MNS workers . In Pune and Pimpri @-@ Chinchwad , MNS workers went on a rampage following the arrest of Raj , smashing windows and windscreens of eleven state buses . Thirteen rioters were arrested . They also chopped off both hands of a Bihari hawker sleeping on the streets . He was severely beaten until he fell unconscious . When he gained consciousness the following day , he found himself in a hospital with both hands amputated . The injured , mainly hawkers , were treated at the Nashik Civil Hospital after they were beaten . Shops along Nashik Road closed down after the incident . Incidents of stone pelting on state @-@ run buses were reported from the Nashik Road , Ambad , Ravivar Peth , and Gangapur areas . Bus services were severely curtailed and diverted via Nipani . In Amrawati , MNS workers blocked roads and pelted stones at buses , damaging several vehicles in the process . Though contingents of the Rapid Action Force and the Central Industrial Security Force were deployed in many parts of the state , the police could not control violence by the MNS who adopted hit @-@ and @-@ run methods of attack . More than 200 activists of the MNS were arrested across Nashik . Many activists went underground and coordinated with party activists from undisclosed locations .
= = = March – May = = =
The attacks simmered down after mid @-@ February due to the arrest and imposition of a gag order on Raj . Isolated cases of attacks , however , were reported until April 2008 . On 22 March , six North Indians were beaten up by a group of Holi revellers , suspected to be MNS workers , in Santa Cruz , Mumbai . On the same day , a shop owned by a North Indian was ransacked by a group of 10 – 15 drunken men , who pelted stones and beat his children because they had refused to provide free food . On 29 March , motorcycle @-@ borne assailants damaged at least five taxis owned by North Indians in Central Mumbai . Four people were arrested . Four labourers travelling on the Konkan Kanya Express from Thane to Margao in search of jobs were beaten and looted by some men in Raigad district after being identified as North Indians on 1 April . Then on 30 May , a group of North Indians was injured when a mob of approximately 800 MNS activists attacked them at a meeting organised by the SP and some other North Indians fronts . Five North Indians were critically injured in the attack , and the police arrested 35 MNS activists after the incident .
= = = October = = =
After months of lull in the anti @-@ North Indian offensive , on 19 October 2008 , MNS activists beat up North Indian candidates appearing for the all @-@ India Railway Recruitment Board entrance exam for the Western region in Mumbai . The attack invoked a quick reaction from Lalu Prasad Yadav and his cabinet colleague Ram Vilas Paswan , who too hails from Bihar . Chief minister Nitish Kumar , on the other hand , spoke to his Maharashtra counterpart Vilasrao Deshmukh and urged him to provide protection to the migrants from Bihar . Lalu demanded a ban on the MNS , and described its chief Raj Thackeray as a " mental case " .
Bihar witnessed violent protest after death of Pawan Mahto , a resident of Bara @-@ Khurd village in Nalanda district , in anticipation that he died after being assaulted by MNS activists . However , railway police clarified , based on the CCTV footage , that Pawan had died due to an accident at Andheri station after slipping at a platform .
Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh admitted that his government was responsible for failure in preventing the attacks by MNS on north Indian candidates at Railways examination centres and ordered a probe into the incident , which will also enquire into why the job advertisements where not given in Marathi newspapers . " What has happened is not good . Such incidents take place because of loopholes in the law . One can 't hold only the Home Ministry responsible for it , it is ( entire ) government 's responsibility . Such incidents are affecting the image of the state and I have instructed the DGP to take stern action , " Deshmukh said . However , NCP leader Narayan Rane , wrote a piece in 23 October 2008 , issue of ' Prahar ' , in a city newspaper he owns , pleading that Marathis should get their legitimate share in the central government sector . The Times of India noted , the essay indicates that Rane continues to have a soft spot for MNS chief Raj Thackeray – the two were close friends when Rane was in the Sena . Stating that the Marathis were getting a raw deal in central government jobs such as income tax and the railways , Rane said it was perplexing that of 54 @,@ 000 , only 54 Marathis were summoned for the railway recruitment exams . The railways must give Marathis their legitimate share in employment , Rane said .
On 20 October 2008 , Thackeray was arrested in Ratnagiri after Mumbai police had received a non @-@ bailable warrant issued by a Jamshedpur court against the MNS chief . Raj 's arrest ignited violence by his supporters in large parts of the city forcing it to shut down . Irate supporters went on the rampage torching public transport and telling office goers to return home . Many shops and commercial establishments , especially those run or managed by non @-@ Maharashtrians , chose not to open at all to avoid trouble . Raj , whose MNS workers Sunday attacked non @-@ Maharashtrians appearing for the railway board examination , was brought from Ratnagiri , about 250 km from here , to be produced at the Bandra court , where he was summoned for .
There was mayhem outside the court premises with large crowds gathering around restively and camera crews waiting to capture the trouble . In some places , buses , taxis and autorickshaws were set on fire , in others areas public transport just stayed off the roads . The office of the state Congress spokesperson Sanjay Nirupam was also vandalised .
A North Indian shopkeeper was killed in Bhandup , Mumbai after he refused to shut down his shop when MNS activists protesting Raj 's arrest forced him to do so . Four persons were killed and another seriously injured in a village near Kalyan . Deputy commissioner of police ( rural ) Sanjay Shintre said two North Indians , a member of the Agri community and an MNS worker were killed in a clash between the two communities in Pisavali , 10 km from Kalyan . Earlier , curfew had been imposed in the entire Kalyan area . The situation in Kalyan worsened in the evening as Raj was driven there to a police station lock @-@ up where he was to spend the night before being presented in a court on 22 October . Five outdoor broadcast vans belonging to media houses were damaged by MNS supporters . A cameraman from ETV was injured and had to be admitted to a private hospital . One Kalyan @-@ Dombivli municipal transport bus was set on fire while five bikes were reduced to ashes . Transport services across Kalyan were paralysed . A jewellery shop was also ransacked by MNS supporters . In all one hundred and twenty @-@ five cases of arson , rioting and stonepelting were registered across the state , including in Pune and Marathwada , by early evening , and 2 @,@ 085 people were arrested , state director general of police A N Roy said .
As news about the arrest spread , there was violence in other parts of Maharashtra too . Sporadic incidents of stone pelting at municipal and private buses were reported in the reat of Maharashtra following the arrest of MNS chief Raj Thackeray in Ratnagiri . In Kothrud area , some alleged MNS activists damaged a company 's bus that was taking its employees to workplace . Few Pune Municipal Transport ( PMT ) buses were stoned by miscreants , police said . Meanwhile , police have picked up around 100 MNS activists , including some corporators as a preventive measure . In Nashik , MNS activists set ablaze a truck near PWD minister Chhagan Bhujbal 's farm and also damaged another truck at Vilholi @-@ Phata area , police said . Incidents of stone pelting on MSRTC buses and other vehicles were reported in some areas , they said , adding vehicular traffic on the busy Mumbai @-@ Agra @-@ national highway was disrupted following the protest . Police rounded up 70 MNS activists in Nashik incidents and security was tightened in the city . In Solapur , incidents of stone pelting on state transport buses were also reported . In Nagpur MNS party leaders claimed to have damaged several MSRTC buses .
Angry students in various parts of Bihar damaged railway property and disrupted train traffic , as a protest . The police said the protesters targeted Patna , Jehanabad , Barh , Khusrupur , Sasaram and Purnia railway stations in the morning . The protesting students reportedly set afire two AC bogies of an express train at Barh railway station . They ransacked Jehanabad , Barh , Purnia and Sasaram railway stations . According to the railway police , at least 10 students were detained in the morning and extra security was deployed to control the situation . A 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy was killed when police opened fire on protesters . The child was hit by a stray bullet and died at the scene after police in Rohtas district fired on a mob attacking a train station . A group of 25 people pelted stones on the Maharashtra Bhawan in Khalasi Line , Kanpur , Uttar Pradesh . Constructed in 1928 , the building is owned by the lone trust run by Marathis in Kanpur .
= = = January – May 2009 = = =
On 26 January 2009 , MNS activists attacked North Indian residents of Satpur near Nashik who were paying tribute to the terrorist attacks on Mumbai in 2008 and also celebrating ' Uttar Pradesh Din ' through cultural programmes . Eight of them were arrested . In May 2009 , alleged MNS workers tried to disrupt Patna @-@ born actress Neetu Chandra 's intimate photoshoot with a model in Mumbai , claiming that it promoted lesbianism and chanting " Jai Maharashtra . "
= = Arrests of Raj Thackeray and Abu Asim Azmi = =
Raj Thackeray and SP leader Abu Asim Azmi were booked under Indian Penal Code sections 153 ( wantonly giving provocation with intent to cause riot ) , 153 A ( promoting enmity between groups on the basis of place of birth , residence , etc . ) and 153 B ( imputations , assertions prejudicial to national integration ) on 11 February . The police also applied section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code to both politicians and warned them not to hold any press conferences or rallies in the next seven days . On 13 February , however , police arrested both the leaders . Later that day , a local court granted Raj conditional bail and ordered him not to make any speeches that would inflame public tension . He obtained a release after furnishing a personal bond of Rs . 15 @,@ 000 . Azmi was arrested and taken to the Bhoiwada court in South Central Mumbai and was released on surety of Rs . 10 @,@ 000 .
Raj appealed before the court against the gag order imposed on him , stating that he had to move around different places in Maharashtra for propounding the philosophy of his party and that such an order was an infringement of his ' fundamental rights ' . On 22 February , the court dismissed his appeal to re @-@ track the extension of the gag order passed against him , following which MNS started a signature campaign to get support against the gag order . According to MNS , Maharashtrian actors Nana Patekar and Shreyas Talpade had shown support in opposing the gag order , along with actors Salman Khan and Suneil Shetty . Salman Khan and Suneil Shetty , however , later denied the MNS 's claim . This move by MNS prompted the police to serve a show cause notice to Raj , asking him why the gag order should not be extended .
Over 1 @,@ 800 activists were put under arrest for substantive offences and as a preventive measure since violence had erupted on the streets of Mumbai on 13 February , according to the Joint Commissioner of Mumbai Police ( Law and Order ) , K. L. Prasad .
= = = Expression of displeasure by the Supreme Court = = =
On 22 February , while hearing two Public Interest Litigations , the Supreme Court of India termed the attacks on North Indians in Mumbai by Maharashtra Navnirman Sena activists as " a dangerous trend " . The three @-@ judge bench comprising Chief Justice K G Balakrishnan , and Justices R V Ravindran and Markandey Katju observed ,
" It [ attack on North Indians ] is a very dangerous tendency . What is happening there [ Mumbai ] , we can understand . These [ who were attacked ] are innocent people . We understand the situation there [ in Maharashtra ] and what is happening . This is one country and we will not accept son @-@ of @-@ soil theory . We will not permit Balkanisation of this country . "
The court passed the judgement while hearing two Public Interest Litigations on related issues . While the first , filed by advocate Arvind Shukla , had sought direction to the Election Commission to derecognise Mr Raj Thackeray 's MNS for his controversial remarks against North Indians , the other one , filed by RU Upadhyay , sought protection for the North Indians in Maharashtra and compensation to those who had suffered from the attacks . The court , however , refused to pass any direction on the grounds that the issue was related to the aspect of law and order , and it thus directed the petitioners to have faith in the Bombay High Court and seek further hearing there .
In another apparent rebuff to Raj Thackeray , the Supreme Court asserted that every Indian has the right to settle anywhere in the country . A bench consisting of Justices H K Sema and Markandey Katju remarked ,
" India is not an association or confederation of states , it is a union of state and there is only one nationality that is Indian . Hence every Indian has a right to go anywhere in India , to settle anywhere , and work and do business of his choice in any part of India peacefully . "
The apex court made the observation while upholding the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation 's move to ban the sale of meat in the town during the nine @-@ day " Paryushan festival " observed by the Jain community .
= = Exodus of North Indians from Maharashtra = =
= = = Nashik = = =
The news of Raj 's possible arrest provoked a heightened attack on the North Indians in the industrial town of Nashik in Maharashtra , Raj 's political stronghold . North Indians left the city by buses , trains and private vehicles . Railway officials at Nashik station said that this was the largest crowd using the railroad since the Sinhasta Kumbha Mela in 2003 – 2004 . It was perhaps one of the largest exoduses from a single district in the country ever . Chhagan Bhujbal , Nashik 's guardian minister , reported that 15 @,@ 000 migrant workers had left the city in the aftermath of the violence against North Indians .
= = = Pune = = =
In Pune , an estimated 25 @,@ 000 workers left the city in the wake of the attacks , according to government officials . Pune 's District Guardian Minister Ajit Pawar and Collector Prabhakar Deshmukh held meetings of various people 's representatives to stop the mass departure . They were joined by local Congress MP Suresh Kalmadi , who picketed at Pune railway station to allay fears of those boarding the trains with their family members , carrying their meager belongings .
= = = Effects on local industries = = =
Local industries in Nashik , especially those located in the Ambad Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation area , were affected due to the large @-@ scale departure of migrant workers . According to a report , 40 percent small and medium industries in the Ambad industrial area had been closed down due to the migration . Though the local industries at Nashik are ancillary units , they provide material to big industries such as Mahindra and Mahindra and Crompton Greaves . Losses resulting from the exodus were estimated to be Rs . 500 – 7 billion .
In Pune , where the construction industry was badly hit , some local organisations , working for porters , construction workers and casual labourers , tried to stop the exodus . These organisations set up a National Integration Committee ( NIC ) and charted out confidence @-@ building measures among the migrants in the city . One of the resolutions passed at the meeting was to encourage participation of the North Indians in all festivities in the near future . In fact , ninety percent of the labour force in Pune consists of migrants ; 60 percent of these come from Bihar and UP . It was also feared that the stoppage of construction activities would adversely affect the plans of hosting certain events of the 2008 Commonwealth Youth Games to be held in the city .
On 8 September 2008 , Infosys Technologies announced that 3 @,@ 000 employee positions had been shifted from Pune to Chennai , due to construction delays caused earlier that year by the attacks on North Indian construction workers .
= = Political reactions = =
The attacks evoked severe responses from political parties and their leaders , particularly of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar . Mayawati , the chief minister of Uttar Pradesh , accused the Congress @-@ ruled Maharashtra government of failing to prevent the attacks . She demanded centre intervention to protect the lives and properties of North Indians in the state . Bihar chief minister Nitish Kumar said " Mumbai ujad jayega ( Mumbai will be ruined ) " . In response to the attacks on taxi drivers and vendors , he added , " What will happen in Mumbai if taxis go off the roads ? Mumbai will come to a standstill " . Lalu Prasad Yadav on 5 February 2008 , took up the issue of attacks on North Indians with Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and demanded action against those involved in them . Commenting on Raj Thackeray , Lalu Prasad said , " He is desperate and such type of leader will never be successful in the country . The Government should take action against him and his supporters " .
In the national capital , Delhi , political and social organisations launched street protests and burnt Raj 's effigy , while members of the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) ' s Poorvanchal cell held a demonstration demanding that the dismissal of the Maharashtra government . In Allahabad , SP workers tried to obstruct the movement of trains in protest . In Uttar Pradesh 's capital , Lucknow , Nationalist Congress Party activists burnt an effigy of Raj . In Patna , capital of Bihar , RJD 's youth wing staged a demonstration against Raj and the MNS . Thackeray 's effigies were burnt also in Jamshedpur in the state of Jharkhand .
Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh condemned Raj 's actions and promised to protect migrants from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and at the same time warned SP from hijacking the situation for political mileage . The Nationalist Congress Party , a key member of the ruling coalition in Maharashtra , also criticised Raj Thackeray and said the campaign was a " cheap publicity stunt " . On 6 February 2008 about 200 MNS party workers quit their party and re @-@ joined Shiv Sena , to protest against the MNS 's anti @-@ North Indian agenda .
On 9 March , Congress President Sonia Gandhi declared that there should be no leniency towards those stoking regional and communal passions . " Unity and integrity are the basic conditions for progress of the nation and to fight terrorism . There should be no leniency towards those who seek to discriminate on the basis of religion and region , " Sonia Gandhi said . She asserted that the country belongs to all with equal rights to it , and that it is the responsibility of all to ensure security of life and property of every citizen in any part of the country .
Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha , Lal Krishna Advani of the BJP criticising the attacks commented , " No political party should say or do anything that weakens the country 's unity or undermines the Constitution " . BJP spokesperson Prakash Javadekar alleged that the Congress State government deliberately delayed taking any action when the attacks on North Indians began in Mumbai . He said that he suspected Congress had a strategy to divide Maharashtrian and non @-@ Maharashtrian votes , by creating a feeling of insecurity among non @-@ Maharashtrians in the hope that they would vote for the Congress . He blamed the party for trying to divert people 's attention from more critical problems that Maharashtra faces , such as the agrarian crisis and load shedding . He added , " India is one and every Indian has a right to settle down and work in any part of the country " .
The Communist Party of India demanded stringent action against those inciting violence and asked democratic forces to launch a united struggle against such elements . The party also accused the media , particularly the electronic media , of encouraging anti @-@ national and parochial forces by giving them " undue publicity " . According to a resolution adopted at its 20th national Congress at Hyderabad , no adequate action was against those who indulge in chauvinistic slogans and perpetuate hooliganism , and the ruling Congress @-@ led coalition and the opposition BJP utilised these forces for their local political gains . The resolution also said , " Opportunistic , parochial and chauvinistic " forces like Shiv Sena and MNS have exploited the situation for narrow electoral gains and demanded compensation for those affected by the violence . The resolution stated that in 1966 , Bal Thackeray gave anti @-@ South Indian slogans and now his nephew wants to repeat that experience by giving anti @-@ North Indian slogans . The All India Minorities Front ( AIMF ) threatened to launch a nationwide agitation against Raj if he did not mend his ways and avoid targeting North Indians and non @-@ Maharashtrians .
= = Media coverage and response = =
The anti @-@ North Indian violence was labelled as a ' tirade against North Indians ' by sections of the national media ( The Hindu , The Times of India , Deccan Herald , Hindustan Times , The Economic Times ) and international media ( Khaleej Times ) . The Hindustan Times published a survey on the front page on 15 February , which said that 73 percent of Mumbai believed the insular line of the MNS and its president against North Indians was denting Mumbai 's cosmopolitan image . The Hindustan Times later received a call from the MNS spokesperson Shirish Parkar protesting the findings of the study . Raj blamed the English @-@ language and Hindi @-@ language media of being biased against him and his party . In addition , some held the media responsible of giving Raj undue publicity . According to an SMS / web poll conducted by CNN IBN , 88 percent of the voters were of the opinion that Raj Thackeray was " feeding on media hype " . On 11 February , in Pune , a group of about 15 MNS activists burnt 150 copies of The Week , a weekly magazine in English , in reaction to its cover story on Raj 's controversial utterances , portraying him as Mumbai 's Hitler .
The Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of Outlook , Vinod Mehta , said in a debate on the media 's role in the situation , " Here is a politician [ Raj Thackeray ] propounding an idea that could lead to a civil war in the country . The doctrine had to be challenged and what could the media have done ? While you may argue that some images were in excess , you will also agree we had to report because this fight to the streets " . Ending the debate on a sarcastic note Mehta said , " It 's ridiculous ! The politicians are not responsible , the state government isn 't responsible , police are not to be blamed but media is responsible " .
There is no denying that civic amenities in Mumbai are cracking under the added pressure of a migrant population seeking the riches of India 's commercial capital . The solution cannot be wielding a lathi or a sword . Nor can it be in jingoistic expressions of Marathi pride or North Indian chest thumping . Mumbai will do well to remember how the city came together during the train blasts ( 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings ) . No one asked then , who is a migrant and who is a Maharashtrian . It 's dangerous to solve administrative problems with ethnic quick fixes .
Painter Pranava Prakash did his exhibition titled " Chal Hat Be Bihari " in Jan 2009 in delhi protesting violence against north Indians in Mumbai .
= = = Local vernacular media = = =
The Marathi daily Maharashtra Times editorial on Raj 's arrest said that his arrest was a big farce , from which he emerged with pomp and style . It condemned the violence that resulted after the arrest that forced thousands of migrant workers to uproot themselves from various parts of Maharashtra . Loksatta criticised the television channels for their relentless replay of just two instances to portray the violent impact of his arrest . The edit blamed Hindi channels for making Mumbai look like Gujarat during the 2002 Gujarat riots . Another editor in the same daily also wrote that the " Marathi andolan " ( Marathi demonstration ) will not benefit any party , as the Marathi vote would be divided between the Shiv Sena and MNS . Lokmat , another popular Marathi daily , published a special on a population survey conducted by the Tata Institute of Social Sciences ( TISS ) , according to which , there has been a 21 % decrease in the migrant population in the city since 1961 . The North Indian population , however , witnessed an increase from 12 to 24 percent . Saamna 's editorial asked what wrong Ambadas Bararao , the Maharashtrian man killed in the violence , had committed . The editor of Sakal wrote that although Raj had gained political mileage by taking up the cause of Marathi people , its impact was severe on the migrants , who had to flee the state .
Nikhil Wagle , Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of Lokmat TV , on the day of Raj 's arrest said in an interview with CNBC India that the Mumbai police should have acted against Raj Thackeray and Abu Azmi earlier . He said , " Had they acted , there would have been no violence . I think the police reacted a little late . " He expressed his apprehensions about the Shiv Sena stirring up some trouble to compete with Raj Thackeray as he had put the Sena on the back foot . " Raj Thackeray has stolen the show from Uddhav Thackeray . I think Bal Thackeray will be worried and he will create some trouble . He might give some provocative statements . So , the police have to be observant otherwise it will be a fight between the two brothers and Maharashtra and Mumbai will suffer . "
Indian Express editor Sudheendra Kulkarni 's open letter in Loksatta ( Marathi newspaper owned by The Indian Express ) to Raj Thackeray , in response to Raj 's article in Marathi titled Maazi Bhoomika , Maaza Ladha ( My Stand , My Struggle ) in the Maharashtra Times of 9 February . The letter by Sudheendra which admonished Raj Thackeray for his " hate speech " solicited a response from Raj . A similar open letter was addressed to Raj by journalist Rajdeep Sardesai to Raj deploring his party 's actions in the 19 October 2008 All @-@ India Railway Recruitment Board examination attack .
* Translated in English ( original text in Marathi )
= = Political analysis = =
Political observers commented that the attacks on North Indians by MNS were a " shrewd ploy " of their chief Raj to embarrass the Shiv Sena and usurp its core Marathi constituency . They also felt Raj was trying to gain a political foothold by imitating his uncle and political mentor Bal Thackeray , who had headed the anti @-@ South Indian campaign — " Lungi Bhagao , Pungi Bajao " ( throw out those who wear lungis , celebrate by blowing bugles ) — during the formative years of the Shiv Sena in the 1960s .
Kumar Ketkar , the editor of the Marathi daily Loksatta , said though Raj might have achieved what he wanted , but he may have not anticipated the attention it would get . He said , " He thought the media would gobble it up and just create a small storm that will shift the agenda . But the great Amar Singh and Abu Azmi fuelled the issue by taking him more seriously than what he deserves . The confrontational position aided the MNS volunteers to get into the limelight " . Ketkar also said the Shiv Sena would lose in the scenario commenting , " The Sena tried to woo the North Indians after it realised their value as a vote bank in the 2004 defeat . They realised that the demography of the city had changed within a decade . That is when they decided it was time to please the North Indians . Uddhav started organising Uttar Bharatiya functions . This is the year that he bore the fruits of his efforts . That is why Raj decided to strike at the same sentiment that the Sena played in the past — the Marathi Manoos . "
The author of The Sena Story , Vaibhav Purandare , said Raj resorted to this measure to stem his party 's eroding credibility . He said , " When Raj launched his party , he first started out with an inclusive approach . When he found that it is not working , he had to do something drastic to get back into the limelight . On the other hand , the Sena was actually becoming inclusive . It even began attracting Muslims into its fold . It also began taking up the common man 's issues like farmer suicides and power supply . This is Raj 's attempt to take the Sena 's mass base away to completely embarrass the Sena . And he has succeeded . " Both Ketkar and Purandare , however , agreed that Raj was trying to position himself as Bal Thackeray 's potential successor .
= = = Alleged Congress support for MNS = = =
Shubhangi Khapre of Daily News and Analysis noted in her article titled Forget political will , Raj has state support , stated , " Ever since its birth on 9 March 2006 , MNS has been nurtured by the ruling Congress and Nationalist Congress Party ( NCP ) with an ulterior motive of splitting the Shiv Sena . Ironically , the Sena itself was given a ' protected childhood ' in the late 1960s by the then Congress as a tool to war with the Communist Party of India , which had a strong presence in Mumbai . Not surprisingly , covertly the administration has provided Raj adequate platform to consolidate the political forum through an emotive Marathi plank . The purpose is to split the 26 % Marathi voters in Mumbai , which is rather loyal to the Shiv Sena . The electoral merit of the MNS remains untested but its ability to bond with sons of the soil cannot be cursorily dismissed in Mumbai , Thane , Nashik and Pune . " She further noted , " Under chief minister Vilasrao Deshmukh , the Congress sees a double advantage in the strategy : A proactive MNS will divide Sena voters on the one hand and drive Mumbai ’ s North Indian community — which was being targeted as " outsiders " by the MNS — to Congress ’ s lap . North Indians , who dominate 48 essential services in Mumbai , constitute a sizeable — and hence decisive — vote bank . Forget political will , it is well @-@ calculated political design which has withheld the Democratic Front government from taking stern action against Raj . Or else , how does one explain home minister RR Patil engaging in a telephone conversation urging him to slow down instead of arresting his men indulging in violence on streets ? " She also said , " ( Vilasrao ) Deshmukh is no better . He has often said , " My administration will not tolerate divisive forces . Nobody is above the law " . " She expressed her views in reference to , Bombay High Court on lashing out at the Maharashtra government over the threat given by Maharashtra Navnirman Sena about displaying the Marathi signboard on the shops and establishments in the metropolis . " If you don 't have political will , then give that message to the people that we can not do anything , " Division Bench of Justice J N Patel and K K Tated said dissatisfied about government 's inaction against hooliganism of Maharashtra Navnirman Sena activists . " Why no action has been taken against respondent number six ( Raj Thackeray ) ? Are some people ' untouchable ' for you ? " Justice Patel asked as government failed to file a proper reply regarding the action taken .
Congress leader Hussain Dalwai said , " It 's a sad commentary on the administration which has come to a stage where it requires the high court intervention " . He put the onus of his party 's coalition partner , saying , " Whether it is MNS violence in the signboard or dalit killing at Khairlanji it shows an insensitive administration . The NCP president Sharad Pawar should seriously reflect on the working of the state home department . " Even NCP leaders including Ajit Pawar and Chhagan Bhujbal have told RR Patil and Deshmukh , in the cabinet meet to " either act or shut up " . Suggesting that the Maharashtra government was not keen on taking strong action against MNS chief Raj Thackeray , the NDA on Thursday described as " stage @-@ managed show " the arrest and bail for him in cases of violence against north Indians in the state . BJP MP Shahnawaz Hussain said , " Congress is Raj Thackeray 's event management company and it is trying to project Raj 's arrest as an event instead of making any serious effort to check the violent campaign of MNS against north Indians . There is match @-@ fixing between Raj and the Maharashtra government . The state government deliberately books him under small sections and he gets bail . " Talking on the attacks on North Indian candidates at the All @-@ India Railway Recruitment examinations in Mumbai , Rajya Sabha MP and JD @-@ U national general secretary Shivananda Tiwari also attacked Congress for " promoting " the MNS chief and comparing him with slain Punjab separatist leader Bhindarwale . " Congress party has a mastery in creating ' bhasmasurs ' ( self destructing demons ) . Earlier they created Bhindranwale in Punjab , which killed a Congress Prime Minister . Even this Raj Thackeray is ultimately going to damage Congress , " Tiwari claimed . He also alleged that Maharashtra government arrested Raj to carry out a " formality " and as mild charges were pressed , he got bail soon .
= = Resumption of verbal attacks = =
= = = Raj Thackeray = = =
While still under the gag order , in an interview with the Marathi weekly magazine Lok Prabha of the Indian Express group , Raj was quoted as saying : " We will go with folded hands and ask them [ North Indians ] to leave . If they refuse , then we will raise our hands . " Lok Prabha editor Pravin Tokekar said : " The MNS chief has technically not made any inflammatory statement . Even when he says he and his party would go with folded hands to people asking them to leave and only raise hands if they refuse , he treads the ground gingerly without naming any community or party per se " . On 3 March , at a party function organised by the MNS at Shivaji Park , after the expiry of the gag order , Raj announced , " I have not given up my mission " , thus signalling to his supporters of continuing his stance on the migrant issue .
Then on 3 May , despite legal warnings by the police before his rally , Raj issued a diktat to his supporters to take action whenever they encountered " injustice " . At a rally at Shivaji Park , he said , " That north Indians are living in Mumbai is because of our mercy . Let it be known " . He told MNS leaders to shed their complacence and advised his supporters to " take action " whenever they felt necessary . He warned that North Indians who did not speak Marathi and did not respect Marathi culture would be driven away . Raj dared the police in his speech by saying , " Arrest me for this if you can " . After analysing the speech amidst demand for action against the MNS chief a senior police official quoted it was " difficult to find an explicit threat or provocation " in the text of his speech to initiate strong legal action against him and " it seems he [ Raj ] consulted legal experts before making the speech " .
= = = Bal Thackeray = = =
On 6 March , Bal Thackeray issued an editorial titled Ek Bihari , Sau Bimari ( One Bihari , Hundred illnesses ) in Saamna , Shiv Sena 's political mouthpiece , saying Biharis were " an unwanted lot " in the country . In what was termed as an apparent bid to recapture his party 's Marathi sons of soil plank , which was being hijacked by the MNS leader Raj , Thackeray wrote about Biharis ,
" They [ Biharis ] are not wanted in southern India , Assam and also Punjab and Chandigarh . The Biharis have antagonised local population wherever they had settled . The UP @-@ Bihari MPs have shown their ingratitude towards Mumbai and Maharashtra with an anti @-@ Marathi tirade in Parliament . "
He also denounced Bihari MPs , saying they were " spitting in the same plate from which they ate " by criticising Mumbaikars and Maharashtrians . He also wrote , " They are trying to add fuel to the fire that has been extinguished , by saying that Mumbaikars have rotten brains " . The outburst was apparently in response to MPs from Bihar who had disrupted the proceedings of the Lok Sabha in protest against the attacks on North Indians . Bihar chief minister , Nitish Kumar , upset with the remarks , demanded that the Prime Minister and the Centre intervene in the matter immediately . The Saamna editorial prompted at least 16 Lok Sabha MPs from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh , belonging to the RJD , JD ( U ) , SP and the Congress , to give notice for breach of privilege proceedings against Bal Thackeray . After the matter was raised in the Lok Sabha Speaker Somnath Chatterjee said : " If anybody has made any comment on our members ' functioning in the conduct of business in the House , not only do we treat that with the contempt that it deserves , but also any action that may be necessary will be taken according to procedure and well established norms . Nobody will be spared " .
On 27 March , in protest against Bal Thackeray 's editorial , leaders of Shiv Sena in Delhi resigned citing its " outrageous conduct " towards non @-@ Marathis in Maharashtra and announced that they will form a separate party . Addressing a press conference Shiv Sena 's North India chief Jai Bhagwan Goyal said the decision to leave the party was taken because of the " partial attitude " of the party high command towards Maharashtrians . " Shiv Sena is no different from Khalistan and Jammu and Kashmir militant groups which are trying to create a rift between people along regional lines . The main aim of these forces is to split our country . Like the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena , the Shiv Sena too has demeaned North Indians and treated them inhumanely " , he said .
Evaluating the developments , political observers in Mumbai remarked that the Shiv Sena had been " caught in a bind " by Raj 's campaign as it had in recent years sought to portray an inclusive image to try to woo the significant migrant vote in the Mumbai and Thane region in the run @-@ up to the Assembly elections in 2009 . To balance this strategy , the party had started speaking up for Maharashtrians to remind them that it was the Shiv Sena was the original voice of the local people .
= Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl =
Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl is a 2003 American fantasy swashbuckler film based on the Pirates of the Caribbean attraction at Disney theme parks . It was directed by Gore Verbinski and produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Jerry Bruckheimer . The story follows pirate Captain Jack Sparrow ( Johnny Depp ) and blacksmith Will Turner ( Orlando Bloom ) as they rescue the kidnapped Elizabeth Swann ( Keira Knightley ) from the cursed crew of the Black Pearl , captained by Hector Barbossa ( Geoffrey Rush ) , who become undead skeletons at night .
Jay Wolpert developed a script based on the theme park ride in 2001 , and Stuart Beattie rewrote it in early 2002 . Around that time , producer Jerry Bruckheimer became involved in the project ; he had Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio work on the script , adding the supernatural curse to the storyline . Filming took place from October 2002 to March 2003 in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and on sets constructed around Los Angeles , California .
The world premiere was held at Disneyland Resort in Anaheim , California , on June 28 , 2003 . The film became the first in a series , with two back @-@ to @-@ back sequels , Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End , released in 2006 and 2007 . A fourth film , On Stranger Tides , was released in 2011 and a fifth film , Dead Men Tell No Tales , is scheduled for release in 2017 .
The film received positive reviews from critics and was an unexpected success , grossing over $ 654 million worldwide with many considering it to be the finest film in the series itself . Johnny Depp 's portrayal of Jack Sparrow was universally praised , winning him the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role and earned him nominations for the Academy Award for Best Actor , BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role , and Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . The Curse of the Black Pearl was also nominated for four other Academy Awards and BAFTAs .
= = Plot = =
In the early 18th Century while sailing to Port Royal , Jamaica , Governor Weatherby Swann , his daughter Elizabeth , and Lieutenant James Norrington encounter a burning shipwreck and recover a young boy , Will Turner . Elizabeth discovers a golden pirate medallion around his neck , but keeps it so as to protect him . As boats are launched to scour the wreck , Elizabeth sees a ghost ship vanishing into the fog .
Eight years later , Norrington is promoted to Commodore and proposes to Elizabeth , but her tight corset makes her faint and fall into the sea . Will 's necklace , which she is wearing , casts a summoning spell . Captain Jack Sparrow comes to Port Royal intending to commandeer a ship , and rescues her . Norrington identifies Jack , and a chase ensues . Jack runs into Will , now a blacksmith and talented swordsman . They duel , and Jack is knocked unconscious , and captured and imprisoned .
That night , the Black Pearl , the ship Elizabeth saw as a child , attacks Port Royal in search of the medallion that summoned it . Two pirates capture Elizabeth and take her to meet Captain Barbossa for negotiations . Elizabeth says her last name is Turner , to conceal her identity as the governor 's daughter , but Barbossa takes her as prisoner . Elizabeth tries and fails to kill him , and Barbossa reveals that after his crew took the Aztec treasure of Cortés from Isla de Muerta , they were cursed as immortals , and they appear as skeletons in moonlight . To lift the curse , they need to return all 882 gold pieces and sacrifice the blood of the owner of each piece . Elizabeth 's medallion is the final piece .
Will Turner frees Jack from prison to rescue his love Elizabeth . Jack agrees upon learning Will ’ s surname . The two commandeer the HMS Interceptor , infuriating Norrington , and head for the lawless port of Tortuga to recruit a crew . Among the crew is Jack ’ s friend Joshamee Gibbs . Jack reveals that Will ’ s father Bootstrap Bill Turner was a pirate , which confuses and angers the law @-@ abiding Will . Gibbs tells Will that Jack was captain of the Black Pearl until Barbossa mutinied and marooned him on an island ; Jack escaped and vowed revenge on Barbossa . At Isla de Muerta , Will and Jack witness Barbossa sacrificing Elizabeth 's blood and the final gold piece . However , the curse is not lifted because the medallion did not belong to Elizabeth ; it belonged to Bootstrap Bill , making Will the owner by bloodline . Will rescues Elizabeth and brings her to the Interceptor , while Jack and his crew confront Barbossa aboard the Pearl and get locked in the brig .
The Pearl pursues the Interceptor , taking the crew hostage and destroying the ship . Will makes a deal with Barbossa to let Elizabeth go free in exchange for his blood to lift the curse , but Barbossa exploits a loophole in the agreement and maroons Jack and Elizabeth on the same island Jack was left on before . Elizabeth makes a smoke signal , and Commodore Norrington brings the HMS Dauntless to rescue Elizabeth and arrest Jack . Elizabeth requests Norrington to return for Will , convincing him by accepting his marriage proposal .
That night , the Dauntless arrives at Isla de Muerta . Jack plans to lure the pirates out to be ambushed by the crew of the Dauntless , but the plan goes awry when Barbossa 's crew walks underwater to attack Dauntless . Elizabeth escapes the Dauntless and frees Jack ’ s crew from the brig of the Pearl . However , they refuse to help her rescue Will , so Elizabeth sets out on her own .
Jack seemingly reaches a deal with Barbossa to operate a pirate fleet , but suddenly frees Will and engages in a duel with Barbossa , while Elizabeth and Will fight off Barbossa 's crew . Barbossa eventually stabs Jack , but Jack is revealed to be under the immortal curse as well , having taken and kept a piece of gold from Cortez ’ s chest . He reveals the entire deception as a coup to win back the Pearl . Jack shoots Barbossa , and Will simultaneously drops the final medallion into the chest , with his blood on it . The curse is now lifted , causing Barbossa to become mortal ; Barbossa dies from Jack 's gunshot , and the rest of Barbossa 's crew are captured or killed by the Navy . Jack , Elizabeth , and Will escape the island .
Upon returning to Port Royal , Jack is led to the gallows to be hanged for piracy . Elizabeth diverts Norrington 's attention and Will attempts a rescue , but Will and Jack are surrounded and held at gunpoint . Elizabeth intercedes and declares her love for Will , leaving Norrington crestfallen . Jack dives into the sea and escapes aboard the Black Pearl , which is waiting nearby . Governor Swann pardons Will and gives his blessing for Elizabeth to marry him . Norrington decides to permit Jack and the Pearl " one day 's head start " before initiating pursuit .
In a post @-@ credits scene , Barbossa ’ s pet monkey steals a piece of gold from the chest and regains immortality .
= = Cast = =
See List of Pirates of the Caribbean characters .
Johnny Depp as Captain Jack Sparrow : Rightful captain of the Black Pearl , Jack fell victim of mutiny from his crew under the direction of his first @-@ mate Hector Barbossa . Left for dead , marooned on a deserted island , Sparrow is back in search of his ship and those who betrayed him . The role was originally written especially for Hugh Jackman , thus the name " Jack Sparrow " ; however , he was not well known outside his native Australia , so Disney cast the more famous Depp as Jack . Depp found the script quirky : rather than trying to find treasure , the crew of the Black Pearl were trying to return it in order to lift their curse ; also , the traditional mutiny had already taken place . Initially Sparrow was , according to Bruckheimer , " a young Burt Lancaster , just the cocky pirate . " At the first read @-@ through , Depp surprised the rest of the cast and crew by portraying the character in an off @-@ kilter manner . After researching 18th @-@ century pirates , Depp compared them to modern rock stars and decided to base his performance on Keith Richards , who would later appear as Jack 's father in Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End . Although Verbinski and Bruckheimer had confidence in Depp , partly because it would be Bloom who was playing the traditional Errol Flynn @-@ type , Disney executives were confused , asking Depp whether the character was drunk or gay , and Michael Eisner even proclaimed while watching rushes , " He 's ruining the film ! " Depp answered back , " Look , these are the choices I made . You know my work . So either trust me or give me the boot . "
Geoffrey Rush as Captain Hector Barbossa : The captain of the Black Pearl , since taken over from Sparrow . Barbossa and his crew suffer a curse from Aztec gold that makes them a team of living @-@ dead . Verbinski approached Rush for the role of Barbossa , as he knew he could hint at the subtle complexities of the character while still portraying a simple villainy that would suit the story 's tone .
Orlando Bloom as Will Turner : A blacksmith who teams up with Sparrow in his search for the Black Pearl , in order to rescue the pirate @-@ abducted Elizabeth Swan . Bloom read the script after Geoffrey Rush , with whom he was working on Ned Kelly , suggested it to him .
Keira Knightley as Elizabeth Swann : Governor Swann 's daughter and Will 's love interest ; Swann is taken by the pirate crew of the Black Pearl . Knightley came as a surprise to Verbinski ; he had not seen her performance in Bend It Like Beckham and was impressed by her audition .
Jack Davenport as Commodore James Norrington : A commanding Royal Navy officer at Port Royal , and Elizabeth 's fiancée .
Jonathan Pryce as Governor Weatherby Swann : The royal governor of Port Royal and the father of Elizabeth Swann . In contrast to his strong @-@ willed daughter , he is something of a milquetoast . Both Elizabeth and the Governor sailed from England to the Caribbean eight years prior to Curse of the Black Pearl , along with then Lieutenant James Norrington , presumably when Swann assumed the governor 's post . Swann is a doting father , and he wishes for his daughter to accept Commodore Norrington 's marriage proposal . However , he eventually comes to accept that she truly loves Will Turner . Tom Wilkinson was negotiated with to play the part , but the role went to Pryce , whom Depp idolized .
Kevin McNally as Joshamee Gibbs : Jack Sparrow 's friend and first mate ; he was once a sailor for the Royal Navy .
Zoe Saldana as Anamaria : A female pirate who signs up to join Will Turner and Mr. Gibbs for a chance to confront Jack Sparrow for stealing her ship years before .
Lee Arenberg as Pintel : A pirate aboard the Black Pearl who , with Ragetti ( see below ) , serves as comic relief for most of the film . He and Ragetti dress up as women to provide the distraction that allows the cursed pirates to board the Dauntless near the end of the movie .
Mackenzie Crook as Ragetti : A pirate aboard the Black Pearl , Pintel 's buddy , with a wooden eye that never seems to stay in place .
Damian O 'Hare as Lieutenant Gillette : The second @-@ in @-@ command to Commodore Norrington .
Treva Etienne as Koehler : One of Barbossa 's pirate crew .
Michael Berry Jr. as Twigg : An Irish sailor who is often paired with Koehler
David Bailie as Cotton : A sailor who had his tongue cut out , is now mute and has a macaw to talk for him .
Christopher S. Capp as Mr. Cotton 's Parrot .
Martin Klebba as Marty : A dwarf pirate who also lived in Tortuga until hired by Jack and Will to rescue Elizabeth .
Isaac C. Singleton Jr. as Bo 'sun : The bo 'sun of the Black Pearl , and under Barbossa 's command . He fought with Lieutenant Gillette during the battle of Isla de Muerta .
Giles New as Murtogg : A dutiful but daft Royal Marine . He serves under the command of Commodore Norrington .
Angus Barnett as Mullroy : A dutiful but daft Royal Marine .
Greg Ellis as Lieutenant Theodore Groves : a lieutenant who admires Sparrow , to the ire of Norrington .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
During the early 1990s , screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio began to think of a supernatural spin on the pirate genre . Walt Disney Pictures had Jay Wolpert write a script based on the ride in 2001 , which was based on a story created by the executives Brigham Taylor , Michael Haynes , and Josh Harmon . This story featured Will Turner as a prison guard who releases Sparrow to rescue Elizabeth , who is being held for ransom money by Captain Blackheart .
Disney was unsure whether to release the film in theaters or direct @-@ to @-@ video . The studio was interested in Matthew McConaughey as Sparrow because of his resemblance to Burt Lancaster , who had inspired that script 's interpretation of the character . If they chose to release it direct @-@ to @-@ video , Christopher Walken or Cary Elwes would have been their first choices .
Stuart Beattie was brought in to rewrite the script in March 2002 , because of his knowledge of piracy . When Dick Cook managed to convince producer Jerry Bruckheimer to join the project , he rejected the script because it was " a straight pirate movie . " Later in March 2002 , he brought Elliott and Rossio , who suggested making a supernatural curse – as described in the opening narration of the ride – the film 's plot .
In May 2002 , Gore Verbinski signed on to direct Pirates of the Caribbean . He was attracted to the idea of using modern technology to resurrect a genre that had disappeared after the Golden Age of Hollywood and recalled his childhood memories of the ride , feeling the film was an opportunity to pay tribute to the " scary and funny " tone of it .
Jim Carrey was considered for the part of Jack Sparrow . However , the production schedule for The Curse of the Black Pearl conflicted with Bruce Almighty , which has been one of Carrey ’ s biggest successes . Others considered for the role include Michael Keaton and Christopher Walken . Although Cook had been a strong proponent of adapting Disney 's rides into films , the box office failure of The Country Bears made Michael Eisner attempt to shut down production of Pirates of the Caribbean . However , Verbinski told his concept artists to keep working on the picture , and when Eisner came to visit , the executive was astonished by what had been created .
As recalled in the book DisneyWar , Eisner pondered " Why does it have to cost so much ? " Bruckheimer replied , " Your competition is spending $ 150 million , " referring to franchises like The Lord of the Rings and The Matrix . Eisner concurred , but with the stigma attached to theme @-@ park adaptations , Eisner requested Verbinski and Bruckheimer remove some of the more overt references to the ride in the script , such as a scene where Sparrow and Turner enter the cave via a waterfall .
= = = = Influence of the Monkey Island series of games = = = =
Ted Elliott was allegedly writing a Steven Spielberg @-@ produced animated film adaptation of The Curse of Monkey Island , which was cancelled before its official announcement , three years prior to the release of The Curse of the Black Pearl . This film was allegedly in production at Industrial Light and Magic before being cancelled .
Ron Gilbert , the creator of the Monkey Island series , has jokingly expressed a bitterness towards Pirates of the Caribbean , specifically the second film , for its similarities to his game . Gilbert has also stated that On Stranger Tides , a novel by Tim Powers which was adapted into the fourth film , was the principal source of inspiration for his video games .
= = = Filming and design = = =
Verbinski did not want an entirely romanticized feel to the film : he wanted a sense of historical fantasy . Most of the actors wore prosthetics and contact lenses . Depp had contacts that acted as sunglasses , while Rush and Lee Arenberg wore dulled contacts that gave a sinister feel to the characters . Mackenzie Crook wore two contacts to represent his character 's wooden eye : a soft version , and a harder version for when it protrudes . In addition , their rotten teeth and scurvy skin were dyed on , although Depp did have gold teeth added , which he forgot to remove after filming . Depp also used a genuine pistol which was made in 1760 in London , which the crew bought from a dealer in Connecticut . A number of swords were built for the production by blacksmith Tony Swatton . The crew spent five months creating the cavern in which Barbossa and the Black Pearl crew attempt to reverse their curse , filling it with five feet of water , 882 Aztec coins , and some gold paint on the styrofoam rocks for more impressions of treasure . The crew also built the fortress at Port Royal in Rancho Palos Verdes , California , and Governor Swann 's palace was built at Manhattan Beach . A fire broke out in September 2002 , causing $ 525 @,@ 000 worth of damage , though no one was injured .
The filmmakers chose St. Vincent as their primary shooting location , as it contained the quietest beach they could find , and built three piers and a backlot for Port Royal and Tortuga . Of most importance to the film were the three ships : the Black Pearl , the Dauntless , and the Interceptor . For budget reasons , the ships were built on docks , with only six days spent in the open sea for the battle between the Black Pearl and the Interceptor . The Dauntless and the Black Pearl were built on barges , with computer @-@ generated imagery finishing the structures . The Black Pearl was also built on the Spruce Goose stage , in order to control fog and lighting . The Interceptor was a re @-@ dressed Lady Washington , a full @-@ scale replica sailing ship from Aberdeen , Washington , fully repainted before going on a 40 @-@ day voyage beginning December 2 , 2002 , arriving on location on January 12 , 2003 . A miniature was also built for the storm sequence .
Principal photography began on October 9 , 2002 and wrapped by March 7 , 2003 . The quick shoot was only marred by two accidents : as Jack Sparrow steals the Interceptor , three of the ropes attaching it to the Dauntless did not break at first , and when they did snap , debris hit Depp 's knee , though he was not injured , and the way the incident played out on film made it look like Sparrow merely ducks . A more humorous accident was when the boat Sparrow was supposed to arrive in at Port Royal sank . In October , the crew was shooting scenes at Rancho Palos Verdes , by December they were shooting at Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , and in January they were at the cavern set at Los Angeles . The script often changed with Elliott and Rossio on set , with additions such as Gibbs ( Kevin McNally ) telling Will how Sparrow allegedly escaped from an island – strapping two turtles together with rope made of his back hair – and Pryce was written into the climactic battle to keep some empathy for the audience .
Because of the quick schedule of the shoot , Industrial Light & Magic immediately began visual effects work . While the skeletal forms of the pirates revealed by moonlight take up relatively little screentime , the crew knew their computer @-@ generated forms had to convince in terms of replicating performances and characteristics of the actors , or else the transition would not work . Each scene featuring them was shot twice : a reference plate with the actors , and then without them to add in the skeletons , an aesthetic complicated by Verbinski 's decision to shoot the battles with handheld cameras . The actors also had to perform their scenes again on the motion capture stage . With the shoot only wrapping up four months before release , Verbinski spent 18 @-@ hour days on the edit , while at the same time spending time on 600 effects shots , 250 of which were merely removing modern sailboats from shots .
= = = Music = = =
Verbinski managed the score with Klaus Badelt and Hans Zimmer , who headed 15 composers to finish it quickly . Alan Silvestri , who had collaborated with Verbinski on Mouse Hunt and The Mexican , was set to compose the score , but Bruckheimer decided to go with Zimmer 's team instead , who were frequent collaborators of his productions . Silvestri left the production before recording any material .
= = = Rating = = =
Pirates of the Caribbean was the first film released under the Walt Disney Pictures banner to be rated PG @-@ 13 by the MPAA ; one executive noted that she found the film too intense for her five @-@ year @-@ old child . Nonetheless , the studio was confident enough to add The Curse of the Black Pearl subtitle to the film in case sequels were made , and to attract older children . Verbinski disliked the new title because it is the Aztec gold rather than the ship that is cursed , so he requested the title to be unreadable on the poster .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film was a great success . However , before its release , many journalists expected Pirates of the Caribbean to be a flop . The pirate genre had not been successful for years , with Cutthroat Island ( 1995 ) a notable flop . The film was also based on a theme park ride , and Depp , known mostly for starring in cult films , had little track record as a box office leading man .
Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl opened at # 1 , grossing $ 46 @,@ 630 @,@ 690 in its opening weekend and $ 70 @,@ 625 @,@ 971 since its Wednesday launch . It eventually made its way to $ 654 @,@ 264 @,@ 015 worldwide ( $ 305 @,@ 413 @,@ 918 domestically and $ 348 @,@ 850 @,@ 097 overseas ) , becoming the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2003 . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 50 @.@ 64 million tickets in the US .
Overseas , it dominated for seven consecutive weekends at the box office , tying the record of Men in Black II at the time . Only three movies after that broke the record , its sequel , Dead Man 's Chest , ( with nine consecutive # 1 weekends and ten in total ) , Avatar ( with 11 consecutive # 1 weekends ) and The Smurfs ( with eight consecutive # 1 weekends ) . It is currently the 71st @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film has received mostly positive reviews , with Depp 's performance being universally praised . Rotten Tomatoes reported that 79 % of 206 sampled critics gave the film positive reviews and that it received a rating average of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 . The site 's consensus is that " It may leave you exhausted like the theme park ride that inspired it ; however , you 'll have a good time when it 's over . " At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 63 based on 40 reviews indicating generally favorable reviews . Alan Morrison of Empire felt it was " the best blockbuster of the summer , " acclaiming all the comic performances despite his disappointment with the swashbuckling sequences . Roger Ebert acclaimed Depp and Rush 's performances , with " It can be said that [ Depp 's ] performance is original in its every atom . There has never been a pirate , or for that matter a human being , like this in any other movie ... his behavior shows a lifetime of rehearsal . " However , he felt the film went for too long , a criticism shared by Kenneth Turan 's negative review , feeling it " spends far too much time on its huge supporting cast of pirates ( nowhere near as entertaining as everyone assumes ) and on bloated adventure set pieces , " despite having also enjoyed Depp 's performance .
= = = Accolades = = =
For his performance as Captain Jack Sparrow , Johnny Depp won several awards , including Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role at the 10th Screen Actors Guild Awards , Best Male Performance at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards , and Best Actor at the 9th Empire Awards . Depp was also nominated for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy at the 61st Golden Globe Awards , Best Actor in a Leading Role at the 57th British Academy Film Awards , and Best Actor at the 76th Academy Awards , in which The Curse of the Black Pearl also received nominations for Best Makeup , Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , and Best Visual Effects . Awards won by Curse of the Black Pearl include Best Make @-@ up / Hair at the 57th British Academy Film Awards , Saturn Award for Best Costumes , Golden Reel Award for Sound Editing , two VES Awards for Visual Effects , and the People 's Choice Award for Favorite Motion Picture .
American Film Institute Lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) — Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – Fantasy — Nominated
= = Home media = =
The DVD and VHS editions of the film were released five months after the theatrical release , December 2 , 2003 , with 11 million copies sold in the first week , a record for live action video . It earned $ 235 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 from DVDs as of January 2004 . The DVD featured two discs , featuring three commentary tracks ( Johnny Depp and Gore Verbinski ; Jerry Bruckheimer , Keira Knightley and Jack Davenport ; and the screenwriter team ) , various deleted scenes and documentaries , and a 1968 Disneyland episode about the theme park ride . A special three @-@ disc edition was released in November 2004 .
A PSP release of the film followed on April 19 , 2005 . The high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray Disc version of the film was released on May 22 , 2007 . This movie was also among the first to be sold at the iTunes music store . The Curse of the Black Pearl had its UK television premiere on Christmas Eve 2007 on BBC One at 20 : 30 . It was watched by an estimated 7 million viewers .
= = Sequels = =
The film spun off three sequels , with a fourth sequel set to be released in 2017 . The first two were back @-@ to @-@ back sequels in 2006 and 2007 , Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End , respectively . The third sequel , On Stranger Tides , was released in 2011 . The fourth sequel was revealed to be called , Dead Men Tell No Tales . Production is slated to begin in October 2014 and was scheduled for a summer 2016 release , but was eventually delayed to 2017 . It is to be directed by Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg .
= Night ( book ) =
Night ( 1960 ) is a work by Elie Wiesel about his experience with his father in the Nazi German concentration camps at Auschwitz and Buchenwald in 1944 – 1945 , at the height of the Holocaust toward the end of the Second World War . In just over 100 pages of sparse and fragmented narrative , Wiesel writes about the death of God and his own increasing disgust with humanity , reflected in the inversion of the parent – child relationship , as his father declines to a helpless state and Wiesel becomes his resentful teenage caregiver . " If only I could get rid of this dead weight ... Immediately I felt ashamed of myself , ashamed forever . " In Night everything is inverted , every value destroyed . " Here there are no fathers , no brothers , no friends , " a kapo tells him . " Everyone lives and dies for himself alone . "
Wiesel was 16 when Buchenwald was liberated by the United States Army in April 1945 , too late for his father , who died after a beating while Wiesel lay silently on the bunk above for fear of being beaten too . He moved to Paris after the war and in 1954 completed an 862 @-@ page manuscript in Yiddish about his experiences , published in Argentina as the 245 @-@ page Un di velt hot geshvign ( " And the World Remained Silent " ) . The novelist François Mauriac helped him find a French publisher . Les Éditions de Minuit published 178 pages as La Nuit in 1958 , and in 1960 Hill & Wang in New York published a 116 @-@ page translation as Night .
Fifty years later the book had been translated into 30 languages , and now ranks as one of the bedrocks of Holocaust literature . It remains unclear how much of Night is memoir . Wiesel has called it his deposition , but scholars have had difficulty approaching it as an unvarnished account . The literary critic Ruth Franklin writes that the pruning of the text from Yiddish to French transformed an angry historical account into a work of art .
Night is the first in a trilogy — Night , Dawn , Day — marking Wiesel 's transition during and after the Holocaust from darkness to light , according to the Jewish tradition of beginning a new day at nightfall . " In Night , " he said , " I wanted to show the end , the finality of the event . Everything came to an end — man , history , literature , religion , God . There was nothing left . And yet we begin again with night . "
= = Background = =
Elie Wiesel was born on 30 September 1928 in Sighet , a town in the Carpathian mountains of northern Transylvania , to Chlomo Wiesel , a shopkeeper , and his wife , Sarah , née Feig . The family lived in a community of 10 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 mostly Orthodox Jews . Northern Transylvania had been annexed by Hungary in 1940 , and restrictions on Jews were already in place , but the period Wiesel discusses at the beginning of the book , 1941 – 1943 , was a relatively calm one for the Jewish population .
That changed at midnight on Sunday , 18 March 1944 , with the invasion of Hungary by Nazi Germany , and the arrival in Budapest of SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann to oversee the deportation of the country 's Jews . From 5 April Jews over the age of six had to wear a 10 x 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 8 x 3 @.@ 8 in ) yellow badge on the upper @-@ left side of their coats or jackets . Jews had to declare the value of their property , and were forbidden from moving home , travelling , owning cars or radios , listening to foreign radio stations , or using the telephone . Jewish authors could no longer be published , their books were removed from libraries , and Jewish civil servants , journalists and lawyers were sacked .
As the Allies prepared for the liberation of Europe , the mass deportations began at a rate of four trains a day from Hungary to the Auschwitz concentration camp in Nazi @-@ occupied Poland , each train carrying around 3 @,@ 000 people . Between 15 May and 8 July 1944 , 437 @,@ 402 Hungarian Jews are recorded as having been sent there on 147 trains , most gassed on arrival . The transports comprised most of the Jewish population outside Budapest , the Hungarian capital .
Between 16 May and 27 June , 131 @,@ 641 Jews were deported from northern Transylvania . Wiesel , his parents and sisters — older sisters Hilda and Beatrice and seven @-@ year @-@ old Tzipora — were among them . On arrival Jews were " selected " for the gas chamber or forced labour ; to be sent to the left meant work , to the right , the gas chamber . Sarah and Tzipora were sent to the gas chamber . Hilda and Beatrice survived , separated from the rest of the family . Wiesel and Chlomo managed to stay together , surviving forced labour and a death march to another concentration camp , Buchenwald , near Weimar in Thuringia . Chlomo died there in January 1945 , three months before the 6th Armored Division of the United States Army arrived to liberate the camp .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Moshe the Beadle = = =
Night opens in Sighet in 1941 . The book 's narrator is Eliezer , an Orthodox Jewish teenager who studies the Talmud by day , and by night " weep [ s ] over the destruction of the Temple " . To the disapproval of his father , Eliezer spends time discussing the Kabbalah with Moshe the Beadle , caretaker of the Hasidic shtiebel ( house of prayer ) .
In June 1941 the Hungarian government expelled Jews unable to prove their citizenship . Moshe is crammed onto a cattle train and taken to Poland . He manages to escape , saved by God , he believes , so that he might save the Jews of Sighet . He returns to the village to tell what he calls the " story of his own death , " running from one house to the next : " Jews , listen to me ! It 's all I ask of you . No money . No pity . Just listen to me ! "
When the train crossed into Poland , he tells them , it was taken over by the Gestapo , the German secret police . The Jews were transferred to trucks , then driven to a forest in Galicia , near Kolomaye , where they were forced to dig pits . When they had finished , each prisoner had to approach the hole , present his neck , and was shot . Babies were thrown into the air and used as targets by machine gunners . He tells them about Malka , the young girl who took three days to die , and Tobias , the tailor who begged to be killed before his sons ; and how he , Moshe , was shot in the leg and taken for dead . But the Jews of Sighet would not listen , making Moshe Night 's first unheeded witness .
= = = Sighet ghettos = = =
The Germans arrived in Sighet around 21 March 1944 , and shortly after Passover ( 8 – 14 April that year ) arrested the community leaders . Jews had to hand over their valuables , were not allowed to visit restaurants or leave home after six in the evening , and had to wear the yellow star at all times . Eliezer 's father makes light of it :
The SS transfer the Jews to one of two ghettos , each with its own council or Judenrat . Eleizer 's house on a corner of Serpent Street was in the larger ghetto in the town centre , so his family was able to stay at home , though the windows on the non @-@ ghetto side had to be boarded up .
In May 1944 the Judenrat is told the ghettos will be closed with immediate effect and the residents deported . Eliezer 's family is first moved to the smaller ghetto , but they are not told their final destination , only that they may each take a few personal belongings . The Hungarian police , wielding truncheons and rifle butts , march Eliezer 's neighbours through the streets . " It was from that moment that I began to hate them , and my hate is still the only link between us today . "
= = = Auschwitz = = =
Eliezer and his family are crammed into a closed cattle wagon with 80 others . On the third night one woman , Madame Schächter — Night 's second unheeded witness — becomes hysterical , screaming that she can see flames , until the others beat her . Men and women are separated on arrival at Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau , the reception and extermination camp within the Auschwitz complex . Eliezer and his father are " selected " to go to the left , which meant forced labour ; his mother , Hilda , Beatrice and Tzipora to the right , the gas chamber . Hilda and Beatrice managed to survive .
The remainder of Night describes Eliezer 's efforts not to be parted from his father , not even to lose sight of him ; his grief and shame at witnessing his father 's decline into helplessness ; and as their relationship changes and the young man becomes the older man 's caregiver , his resentment and guilt , because his father 's existence threatens his own . The stronger Eliezer 's need to survive , the weaker the bonds that tie him to other people .
His loss of faith in human relationships is mirrored in his loss of faith in God . During the first night , as he and his father wait in line , he watches a lorry deliver its load of children into the fire . While his father recites the Kaddish , the Jewish prayer for the dead — Wiesel writes that in the long history of the Jews , he does not know whether people have ever recited the prayer for the dead for themselves — Eliezer considers throwing himself against the electric fence .
At that moment he and his father are ordered to go to their barracks . But Eliezer is already destroyed . " [ T ] he student of the Talmud , the child that I was , had been consumed in the flames . There remained only a shape that looked like me . " There follows a passage that Ellen Fine writes contains the main themes of Night — the death of God and innocence , and the défaite du moi , or dissolution of the self , a recurring motif in Holocaust literature :
With the loss of self goes Eliezer 's sense of time : " I glanced at my father . How he had changed ! ... So much had happened within such a few hours that I had lost all sense of time . When had we left our houses ? And the ghetto ? And the train ? Was it only a week ? One night – one single night ? "
= = = Buna = = =
In or around August 1944 Eliezer and his father are transferred from Birkenau to the work camp at Monowitz ( also known as Buna and Auschwitz III ) , their lives reduced to the avoidance of violence and the search for food . " Bread , soup – these were my whole life . I was a body . Perhaps less than that even : a starved stomach . " Their only joy is when the Americans bomb the camp .
God is not lost to Eliezer entirely . During the hanging of a child , which the camp is forced to watch , he hears someone ask : Where is God ? Where is he ? Not heavy enough for the weight of his body to break his neck , the boy dies slowly . Wiesel files past him , sees his tongue still pink and his eyes clear .
Fine writes that this is the central event in Night , a religious sacrifice — the binding of Isaac and crucifixion of Jesus — described by Alfred Kazin as the literal death of God . Afterwards the inmates celebrate Rosh Hashanah , the Jewish new year , but Eliezer cannot take part .
= = = Death march = = =
In January 1945 , with the Soviet army approaching , the Germans decide to flee , taking 60 @,@ 000 inmates on a death march to concentration camps in Germany . Eliezer and his father are marched to Gleiwitz to be put on a freight train to Buchenwald , a camp near Weimar , 350 miles ( 563 km ) from Auschwitz .
Resting in a shed after marching 50 miles ( 80 km ) , Rabbi Eliahou asks if anyone has seen his son . They had stuck together for three years , " always near each other , for suffering , for blows , for the ration of bread , for prayer , " but the rabbi had lost sight of him in the crowd and was now scratching through the snow looking for his son 's corpse . " I hadn 't any strength left for running . And my son didn 't notice . That 's all I know . " Eleizer does not tell the man that his son had indeed noticed his father limping , and had run faster , letting the distance between them grow .
The inmates spend two days and nights in Gleiwitz locked inside cramped barracks without food , water or heat , sleeping on top of one another , so that each morning the living wake with the dead underneath them . There is more marching to the train station and onto a cattle wagon with no roof . They travel for ten days and nights , with only the snow falling on them for water . Of the 100 in Eliezer 's wagon , 12 survive the journey . The living make space by throwing the dead onto the tracks :
= = = Buchenwald , liberation = = =
The Germans are waiting with loudhailers and orders to head for a hot bath . Wiesel is desperate for the heat of the water , but his father sinks into the snow . " I could have wept with rage ... I showed him the corpses all around him ; they too had wanted to rest here ... I yelled against the wind ... I felt I was not arguing with him , but with death itself , with the death he had already chosen . " An alert sounds , the camp lights go out , and Eliezer , exhausted , follows the crowd to the barracks , leaving his father behind . He wakes at dawn on a wooden bunk , remembering that he has a father , and goes in search of him .
His father is in another block , sick with dysentery . The other men in his bunk , a Frenchman and a Pole , attack him because he can no longer go outside to relieve himself . Eliezer is unable to protect him . " Another wound to the heart , another hate , another reason for living lost . "
Begging for water one night from his bunk , where he has lain for a week , Chlomo is beaten on the head with a truncheon by an SS officer for making too much noise . Eliezer lies in the bunk above and does nothing for fear of being beaten too . He hears his father make a rattling noise , " Eliezer . " In the morning , 29 January 1945 , he finds another man in his father 's place . The Kapos had come before dawn and taken Chlomo to the crematorium .
Chlomo missed his freedom by three months . The Soviets had liberated Auschwitz 11 days earlier , and the Americans were making their way towards Buchenwald . Eliezer is transferred to the children 's block where he stays with 600 others , dreaming of soup . On 5 April 1945 the inmates are told the camp is to be liquidated and they are to be moved — another death march . On 11 April , with 20 @,@ 000 inmates still inside , a resistance movement inside the camp attacks the remaining SS officers and takes control . At six o 'clock that evening , an American tank arrives at the gates , and behind it the Sixth Armored Division of the United States Third Army .
= = Writing and publishing = =
= = = Move to France = = =
Wiesel wanted to move to Palestine after his release , but because of British immigration restrictions was sent instead by the Oeuvre au Secours aux Enfants ( Children 's Rescue Service ) to Belgium , then Normandy . In Normandy he learned that his two older sisters , Hilda and Beatrice , had survived .
From 1947 to 1950 he studied the Talmud , philosophy and literature at the Sorbonne , where he was influenced by the existentialists , attending lectures by Jean @-@ Paul Sartre and Martin Buber . He also taught Hebrew , and worked as a translator for the Yiddish weekly Zion in Kamf . In 1948 , when he was 19 , he was sent to Israel as a war correspondent by the French newspaper L 'arche , and after the Sorbonne became chief foreign correspondent of the Tel Aviv newspaper Yedioth Ahronoth .
= = = 1954 : Un di Velt Hot Geshvign = = =
Wiesel wrote in 1979 that he kept his story to himself for ten years . In 1954 he wanted to interview the French prime minister , Pierre Mendès @-@ France , and approached the novelist François Mauriac , a friend of Mendès @-@ France , for an introduction . He writes : " The problem was that [ Mauriac ] was in love with Jesus . He was the most decent person I ever met in that field ... and he was in love with Jesus . ... Whatever I would ask – Jesus . Finally , I said , ' What about Mendès @-@ France ? ' He said that Mendès @-@ France , like Jesus , was suffering ... "
Wiesel started writing on board a ship to Brazil , where he had been assigned to cover Christian missionaries within Jewish communities , and by the end of the journey had completed an 862 @-@ page manuscript . He was introduced on the ship to Yehudit Moretzka , a Yiddish singer travelling with Mark Turkov , a publisher of Yiddish texts . Turkov asked if he could read Wiesel 's manuscript . It is unclear who edited the text for publication . Wiesel wrote in All Rivers Run to the Sea ( 1995 ) that he handed Turkov his only copy and that it was never returned , but also that he ( Wiesel ) " cut down the original manuscript from 862 pages to the 245 of the published Yiddish edition . "
Turkov 's Tzentral Varband fun Polishe Yidn in Argentina ( Central Union of Polish Jews in Argentina ) published the book in 1956 in Buenos Aires as the 245 @-@ page Un di velt hot geshvign ( " And the World Remained Silent " ) . It was the 117th book in a 176 @-@ volume series of Yiddish memoirs of Poland and the war , Dos poylishe yidntum ( Polish Jewry , 1946 – 1966 ) . Ruth Wisse writes that Un di Velt Hot Geshvign stood out from the rest of the series , which survivors wrote as memorials to their dead , as a " highly selective and isolating literary narrative . "
= = = 1958 : La Nuit = = =
Wiesel translated Un di Velt Hot Geshvign into French and in 1955 sent it to Mauriac . Even with Mauriac 's help they had difficulty finding a publisher ; Wiesel said they found it too morbid . Jérôme Lindon of Les Éditions de Minuit , Samuel Beckett 's publisher , agreed to handle it . Lindon edited the text down to 178 pages . Published as La Nuit , a title chosen by Lindon , it had a preface by Mauriac and was dedicated to Chlomo , Sarah and Tzipora .
= = = 1960 : Night = = =
Wiesel 's New York agent , Georges Borchardt , encountered the same difficulty finding a publisher in the United States . In 1960 Arthur Wang of Hill & Wang in New York — who Wiesel writes " believed in literature as others believe in God " — paid a $ 100 pro @-@ forma advance and published that year a 116 @-@ page English translation by Stella Rodway as Night . The first 18 months saw 1 @,@ 046 copies sell at $ 3 each , and it took three years to sell the first print run of 3 @,@ 000 copies , but the book attracted interest from reviewers , leading to television interviews and meetings with literary figures like Saul Bellow .
By 1997 Night was selling 300 @,@ 000 copies a year in the United States . By 2011 it had sold six million copies in that country , and was available in 30 languages . Sales increased in January 2006 when it was chosen for Oprah 's Book Club . Republished with a new translation by Marion Wiesel , Wiesel 's wife , and a new preface by Wiesel , it sat at no . 1 in The New York Times bestseller list for paperback non @-@ fiction for 18 months from 13 February 2006 , until the newspaper decided to remove it . It became the club 's third bestseller to date , with over two million sales of the Book Club edition by May 2011 .
= = = Reception = = =
Reviewers have had difficulty reading Night as an eyewitness account . It has been categorized as a novel , autobiography , autobiographical novel , non @-@ fictional novel , semi @-@ fictional memoir , fictional @-@ autobiographical novel , fictionalized autobiographical memoir and memoir @-@ novel . Ellen Fine described it as témoignage ( testimony ) . Wiesel called it his deposition .
Literary critic Ruth Franklin writes that Night 's impact stems from its minimalist construction . The 1956 Yiddish version , at 865 pages , was a long and angry historical work . In preparation for the French edition , Wiesel 's editors pruned without mercy . Franklin argues that the power of the narrative was achieved at the cost of literal truth , and that to insist that the work is purely factual is to ignore its literary sophistication . Holocaust scholar Lawrence Langer argues similarly that Wiesel evokes , rather than describes :
Franklin writes that Night is the account of the 15 @-@ year @-@ old Eliezer , a " semi @-@ fictional construct , " told by the 25 @-@ year @-@ old Elie Wiesel . This allows the 15 @-@ year @-@ old to tell his story from " the post @-@ Holocaust vantage point " of Night 's readers . In a comparative analysis of the Yiddish and French texts , Naomi Seidman , professor of Jewish culture , concludes that there are two survivors in Wiesel 's writing , a Yiddish and French . In re @-@ writing rather than simply translating Un di Velt Hot Geshvign , Wiesel replaced an angry survivor who regards " testimony as a refutation of what the Nazis did to the Jews , " with one " haunted by death , whose primary complaint is directed against God ... " Night transformed the Holocaust into a religious event .
Seidman argues that the Yiddish version was for Jewish readers , who wanted to hear about revenge , but the anger was removed for the largely Christian readership of the French translation . In the Yiddish edition , for example , when Buchenwald was liberated : " Early the next day Jewish boys ran off to Weimar to steal clothing and potatoes . And to rape German shiksas [ un tsu fargvaldikn daytshe shikses ] . " In the 1958 French and 1960 English editions : " On the following morning , some of the young men went to Weimar to get some potatoes and clothes — and to sleep with girls [ coucher avec des filles ] . But of revenge , not a sign . "
Franklin writes that Oprah Winfrey 's promotion of Night came at a difficult time for the genre of memoir , after a previous book @-@ club author , James Frey , was found to have fabricated parts of his autobiography , A Million Little Pieces ( 2003 ) . She argues that Winfrey 's choice of Night may have been intended to restore the book club 's credibility . Night has a useful lesson to teach , Franklin writes , about the complexities of memoir and memory .
Wiesel tells a story about a visit to a Rebbe , a Hasidic rabbi , he had not seen for 20 years . The Rebbe is upset to learn that Wiesel has become a writer , and wants to know what he writes . " Stories , " Wiesel tells him , " ... true stories " :
= Kerry Bog Pony =
The Kerry Bog Pony is a mountain and moorland breed of pony that originated in Ireland . Possibly descended from the Irish Hobby horse , it originally lived a mainly feral existence in the peat bogs of what is now County Kerry in southwestern Ireland . Local inhabitants used the ponies as pack and cart horses for transporting peat and kelp to the villages . The breed developed physical characteristics including a low weight @-@ to @-@ height ratio and an unusual footfall pattern , which helped it move on soft ground such as peat bogs . The ponies were known for hardiness and an ability to survive in harsh conditions .
War , increasing mechanisation and declines in the local small @-@ farm population almost resulted in the breed 's extinction . In 1994 , a local man found and genetically tested a herd of 20 ponies he used as the foundation stock for rebuilding of the breed . In the early 2000s , the breed was recognised by the Irish Department of Agriculture and Food and the European Commission ; equine passports began to be issued for members of the breed , and small numbers of ponies were exported to the United States . At the same time , Irish and American breed registries were formed . As of 2011 , the registered population is more than 300 ponies .
= = Characteristics = =
Kerry Bog Ponies generally stand 10 to 12 hands ( 40 to 48 inches , 102 to 122 cm ) high . The Irish breed standard calls for mares to stand 10 – 11 hands and stallions and geldings to stand 11 – 12 hands . Their low weight @-@ to @-@ height ratio enables them to walk on wet ground . Their hind feet tend to track outside their front feet , allowing better progress on soft ground . They exhibit a relatively upright pastern and steep hoof angle compared to other breeds , possibly another characteristic that aids their movement in peat bogs . Kerry Bog Ponies are easy keepers , and when feral they lived on low @-@ nutrient heather , sphagnum moss and possibly kelp from the shoreline . Overall , they are muscular and strong and their heads have concave profiles , small ears and large eyes . Their winter coat is long and dense , serving as protection from harsh weather . All solid coat colours are found , including dilute colours such as palomino , and white markings are common . Pinto @-@ coloured animals are not accepted by the Irish registry . The breed is known by enthusiasts for strength , intelligence and athleticism , and generally used for driving , as companion animals and for therapeutic riding programs .
Kerry Bog Ponies are known in Ireland as " hobbies " , possibly derived from the Gaelic practice of obaireacht , or the calling out of " Hup , Hup " to attract a pony back to the farmyard . It is considered one of the mountain and moorland pony breeds from the British Isles . A 2006 study using mitochondrial DNA found that the Kerry Bog Pony is not closely related to the other two native Irish breeds , the Irish Draught and the Connemara pony . It has a rare haplogroup more closely related to other small horse breeds found in western Europe , including the Shetland pony and Icelandic horse . A 2012 study found relationships between the Kerry Bog Pony and the Dartmoor Pony and Exmoor Pony breeds , and a lack of common ancestry with the Welsh Pony , as well as reinforcing the lack of relationship to the Connemara . The study also suggested that the Kerry Bog Pony population had some amount of crossbreeding with other mountain and moorland breeds as part of the initial attempts to increase the population in the 1990s . The Kerry Bog Pony may have been one of several breeds that contributed to the development of the Gypsy Vanner horse ( also known as the
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little entertaining supertrash " that does require one to not think too much about the science to enjoy .
= Thomas C. Hindman =
Thomas Carmichael Hindman , Jr . ( January 28 , 1828 – September 27 , 1868 ) was a lawyer , United States Representative from the 1st Congressional District of Arkansas , and a Major General in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War .
Shortly after he was born in Knoxville , Tennessee , Hindman moved with his family to Jacksonville , Alabama and later Ripley , Mississippi . After receiving his primary education in Ripley , he attended the Lawrenceville Classical Institute ( now known as the Lawrenceville School ) and graduated with honors on September 25 , 1843 . Afterwards , he raised a company in Tippah County for the 2nd Mississippi regiment in the Mexican @-@ American War . Hindman served during the war as a lieutenant and later as a captain of his company . After the war , he returned to Ripley . He studied law , and was admitted to the state bar in 1851 . He then started a law practice in Ripley , before moving it to Helena two years later .
Hindman then served as a member of the Mississippi House of Representatives from 1854 to 1856 . He was elected as the Democratic representative from Arkansas 's 1st congressional district in the Thirty @-@ sixth Congress from March 4 , 1859 , to March 4 , 1861 . He was re @-@ elected to the Thirty @-@ seventh Congress , but declined to serve after the onset of the Civil War and Arkansas 's secession from the Union . Instead , Hindman joined the armed forces of the Confederacy . He commanded the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department , and later raised and commanded " Hindman 's legion " for the Confederate States Army . He was promoted to brigadier general on September 28 , 1861 and later to Major General on April 18 , 1862 . After the war , Hindman avoided surrender to the federal government by fleeing to Mexico City . He worked in Mexico as a coffee planter , and attempted to practice law . After the execution of Maximilian I of Mexico , Hindman submitted a petition for a pardon to President Andrew Johnson , but it was denied . Hindman , nonetheless , returned to his former life in Helena . He became the leader of the " Young Democracy " , a new political organization that was willing to accept the Reconstruction for the restoration of the Union . Unexpectedly , he was assassinated by an unknown individual ( s ) on September 27 , 1868 at his Helena home .
= = Family background = =
Hindman 's parents , Thomas and Sallie Holt , were of English and Scottish ancestry . His maternal ancestors included Major Robert Holt , a successful planter and a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1655 . The Holt family originally came from Halifax County , Virginia before moving to Knoxville . Hindman 's paternal lineage descended from the Carmichael clan in Scotland , some members of which made their way into America after King George II of Great Britain ousted nine hundred Scottish followers of Bonnie Prince Charles to America after the April 16 , 1746 , Battle of Culloden .
One of the descendants of the Carmichael clan , Sarah Carmichael , married Samuel Hindman , a wealthy Pennsylvania merchant in the early 1790s . They then moved to Knoxville , and their youngest son Thomas C. Hindman , Sr. was born on November 10 , 1793 . Family legend claims that Hindman , Sr. was the first white male child born in Knoxville .
Hindman , Sr. was an ensign in the 39th United States Infantry during the War of 1812 . He was promoted to third lieutenant on January 11 , 1814 and to second lieutenant on May 20 of the same year . He fought in the Battle of New Orleans , the final major battle of the war , and served in active duty until he resigned on June 30 , 1816 due to health concerns . After leaving the army , Hindman , Sr. operated a military ferry on the Tennessee River and served as a lieutenant colonel in the 10th Territorial Militia Regiment for the Alabama Territory . In his dealings as a merchant , he met Lewis Ross . Hindman , Sr. was a frequent visitor at the Ross household , and it was there that he met Lewis 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , Sallie Holt . After a brief courtship , the couple was married in Knoxville on January 21 , 1819 . After settling down in Rhea County , Tennessee , their first daughter was born in 1820 . Three more children , Robert , Mary , and Sarah , were born after the family moved to Post Oak Springs . The family moved back to Knoxville in 1827 . Thomas Carmichael Hindman Jr. was born the next year , and Mildred followed in the year after that .
= = Early life = =
The elder Hindman frequently made business trips to Alabama , and even moved the family to Jacksonville , Alabama after buying several lots of land there . Hindman took advantage of the many local business opportunities and was able to provide his family with whatever they needed . Hindman Sr. gained a reputation for honesty with his business associates , which included Cherokee Indian tribes in the area . He became trusted by the Cherokee Nation and was appointed as the sub @-@ agent to the Cherokees by President James Monroe . When President Andrew Jackson was in office , Hindman , Sr. was appointed to the post of United States Agent for the Cherokee Nation . The elder Hindman frequently traveled to Washington D.C. to discuss the interests of the Cherokee Nation and , in 1841 , he was assigned by Acting Secretary of War Albert M. Lea to determine why the Cherokees in North Carolina had rejected the government 's suggestion to join other parts of the tribe in Indian Territory . Hindman spent almost two months unsuccessfully trying to persuade the North Carolina Cherokees to rejoin the rest of their nation further West .
That year , Hindman 's father purchased a new plantation in Ripley , Mississippi . Meanwhile , the younger Hindman attended local schools before leaving for the Lawrenceville Classical Institute in Lawrenceville , New Jersey , the third oldest boarding school in the country . Hindman received a classical education there and graduated with honors on September 25 , 1843 , as the class salutatorian . After spending some time visiting relatives and studying in New York , Hindman went back to Ripley and commenced his law studies under Orlando Davis , a notable local attorney and Whig Party politician .
Meanwhile , Hindman 's father became an active participant in Mississippi politics . He led the state 's Whig Party and served as a member on the executive committee of the local Henry Clay club . In 1845 , he was selected as a delegate to attend a convention in Memphis , Tennessee that promoted transportation and infrastructural projects in the South and West .
= = Participation in the Mexican @-@ American War = =
Soon , the United States Army engaged in fighting at the US @-@ Mexico border . After skirmishes along the Rio Grande between Mexican forces and American forces led by General Zachary Taylor , Congress approved a declaration of war and President James K. Polk called upon the states to draw up 50 @,@ 000 volunteers to be alongside the army . Mississippi newspapers encouraged state residents to join the action . One newspaper , the Holly Springs Guard , proclaimed , " To arms ! To arms ! Ye brave ! Th ' avenging sword unsheathe : March on , march on , all hearts resolved , on [ to ] victory or death . "
Hindman was eager to have the chance of serving his country in war . He enlisted as a Second Lieutenant in company E of the Second Mississippi Infantry . His older brother , Robert , also joined the same unit as a private . Hindman and his fellow infantrymen spent the winter training for battle in Camp McClung . Many soldiers were unprepared for the cold temperatures in January 1847 and , as a result , many died of influenza , pneumonia and " the cold plague " The Second Mississippi Infantry headed off towards the United States – Mexico border in February and reached the mouth of the Rio Grande on February 24 , 1847 , just a day after the Battle of Buena Vista . They continued marching , and the number of dead soldiers escalated . By June 1847 , 167 men had died , 134 had been discharged and 38 had deserted . The infantry later moved to Buena Vista , seven miles ( 11 km ) south of Saltillo , Coahuila , for guard duty . The anticipation of glory for the regiment evaporated amongst the ravages of disease , guerrilla raids and camp duties . In March 1847 , Colonel Charles Clark assigned Hindman the position of appointment as the acting regiment 's adjutant , due to his educational background and writing skills . Hindman 's brother , Robert , who was now a sergeant , suffered from smallpox and was medically discharged on April 23 . Hindman rose to the rank of lieutenant and Post Adjutant by the end of the war in 1848 , but did not see any major action during the remainder of his time with the infantry .
= = Back in Mississippi = =
After returning to Ripley , Hindman continued his law studies under Orlando Davis . A year after the war ended Hindman 's brother , Robert , engaged in a fight with William Falkner because he had thought Falkner tried to block his membership into the Ripley section of the Sons of Temperance . Robert Hindman tried to defend himself , but his gun failed to fire , and Falkner then fatally stabbed him . Falkner was tried for murder , but was acquitted by the jury ruling that he was acting in self @-@ defense . Afterwards , Falkner killed a family friend of the Hindmans , and he again was acquitted in the murder trial . Thomas Hindman and Falkner engaged in a gun fight , but neither man was injured . The tense relationship between Falkner and Hindman culminated in a settlement made by Matthew C. Galloway , who would later become the future editor of the Memphis , Tennessee Appeal .
Hindman himself joined the Ripley chapter of the Sons of Temperance and served as the recording secretary of the local branch . In 1853 , he successfully campaigned for a seat to represent Tippah County in the Mississippi legislature . Hindman 's Mississippi lawmaking career ended when the legislature adjourned in March 1854 .
= = Move to Arkansas = =
By 1854 , Hindman realized that he had little room to maneuver in the crowded Mississippi political arena . Looking across the Mississippi River , Hindman observed that the young and turbulent State of Arkansas was wide open for a well @-@ educated and ambitious politician . Hindman left Mississippi politics when he moved to Helena , Arkansas on March 18 , 1854 .
Hindman threw himself into the political and social scenes in his new home state . In June 1854 , he formed a law partnership with John Palmer , a young Kentucky native who was known as a " distinguished member " of the Helena bar . Hindman became active in civic affairs and plans for Helena 's economic development . At an Independence Day festival in 1854 , he gave a speech about the importance of railroad development in Arkansas . Hindman catapulted himself into the fray by taking a stand against the anti @-@ immigrant and anti @-@ Catholic Know @-@ Nothings , whom he considered " pestilent fanatics " . Hindman and Palmer established a Democratic association designed to stamp out the Know @-@ Nothing threat . During this time , Hindman became close friends with Patrick Cleburne , who would later parallel his course as a Confederate Major General . The two men also formed a business partnership with William Weatherly to buy a newspaper , the Democratic Star , in December 1855 .
Cleburne and Hindman were both wounded by gunshots during a street fight in Helena with Know @-@ Nothing members . After the men recovered , they appeared before a grand jury to respond to any charges brought against them . They were exonerated and , afterwards , went to Hindman 's parents ' house in Mississippi . Hindman received praise for his actions and became a force in Democratic politics after the Know @-@ Nothings were defeated .
In 1856 , Hindman ran for the Congressional seat in his First District , but was defeated by the incumbent , Alfred B. Greenwood , at the Democratic state convention . His gracious withdrawal at the convention to avoid Democratic infighting earned him more notice from the party hierarchy . During this time , Hindman met and courted Mary " Mollie " Watkins Biscoe . Despite her parents ' reluctance , the two were married on November 11 , 1856 , with Patrick Cleburne serving as best man .
In the summer of 1857 , Hindman became editor of the Helena States @-@ Rights Democrat and was the unchallenged leader of the Democratic Party in eastern Arkansas . From this platform , he launched his 1858 Congressional bid . He did not face a serious challenge for the Democratic nomination and he had the backing of newspapers through the state . Editor Richard H. Johnson of the Little Rock True Democrat reminded voters of Hindman 's previous run for the nomination in 1856 and praised him for being a " thorough [ - ] going Democrat " of " marked abilities " . At the state Democratic convention in Batesville , Hindman easily defeated A. M. Wilson and Dandridge McRae . In the general election , Hindman defeated the Republican challenger , William M. Crosby , by a vote of 18 @,@ 255 to 2 @,@ 853 .
= = = Bringing down Arkansas 's political " family " = = =
During his term , Hindman tried to bring unity to the state 's Democratic Party . He turned on the political hierarchy in the state , and political warfare divided the Democratic Party in Arkansas , with the pro @-@ Hindman forces on one side and the forces of the political " family " that had ruled Arkansas since territorial days on the other . He labeled the actions of the " family " as " the most concentrated wrath of the small managers of the caucus and of certain outside high @-@ priests who manage [ d ] them " .
" Family " leaders threatened to block Hindman 's 1860 re @-@ election to Congress . Hindman challenged them and predicted the overthrow of a group he called " the fusionists " and " champions of amalgamation " . The dispute between Hindman and the political family escalated after Hindman charged that the state had been overpaying the True Democrat for public printing . The True Democrat denied the allegations and claimed that Hindman 's motive was out of selfishness , rather than concern . They argued that he wanted printing contracts to be awarded to the Helena State @-@ Rights Democrat and the Little Rock Old Line Democrat , both of which he controlled .
One of the " family " leaders , Elias Nelson Conway , sought to settle the state 's banking situation by starting a plan that would seize the assets of people indebted to the bank , who included Hindman 's father @-@ in @-@ law . Hindman travelled across the state to publicly denounce the proposition . In the 1860 race for governor , Hindman backed Henry Massey Rector , while the " family " candidate was Richard H. Johnson , the editor of the True Democrat . Johnson had been nominated as the Democratic candidate , but Rector announced his candidacy as an independent Democrat . In the gubernatorial election , Rector narrowly defeated Johnson by a vote of 31 @,@ 044 to 28 @,@ 967 . After the election , the editor of the Old @-@ Line Democrat , Thomas C. Peek , proclaimed that the end of the political dynasty of the " family " had come . New issues such as the Civil War were brought to center stage and the " family " never exercised their dominance over state politics again .
= = Civil War = =
As the American Civil War approached , Hindman was an ardent voice for secession and was essentially Arkansas 's most prominent Fire @-@ Eater . When Arkansas voted 65 @-@ 5 to secede from the Union in May 1861 , Hindman was present in the gallery of the convention . With war approaching , Hindman resigned from Congress and recruited a regiment at Helena , which was mustered into Confederate service . He requested the state government for muskets , clothing and ten days of rations so that his men could " fight for our country " . By June 1 , 1861 , Hindman had raised ten companies which would eventually become known as the 2nd Arkansas Infantry , with six companies stationed at Helena and four at Pine Bluff . He lost five companies who refused to leave the state to fight . Afterwards , Hindman followed orders to report to Richmond , Virginia . He began the long journey with his regiment in June . By September 1861 , Hindman was promoted to the rank of brigadier general . He and his regiment were soon active participants in the disastrous Kentucky Campaign , followed soon thereafter by fierce fighting at the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862 , where he was slightly wounded .
After his recovery , Hindman was promoted to the rank of Major General and was appointed commander of the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department to prevent an invasion by the Union troops led by Samuel Curtis . Events in Arkansas had taken a terrible turn for the worse . Most units had been stripped from the state for service east of the Mississippi River . When Hindman arrived in Little Rock , Arkansas , he found that his command was " bare of soldiers , penniless , defenseless , and dreadfully exposed " to the Federal Army that was approaching dangerously from the northwest .
Hindman set to work and issued a series of harsh military edicts , instituting conscription , authorizing guerrilla warfare and requisitioning supplies for the defense of the State . Hindman also commenced a campaign of misinformation designed to mislead Federal authorities about the strength of the state 's defenses . He also diverted Texas troops bound for Virginia for use in the defense of Arkansas . This series of events , combined with harassing tactics , confused the Federal authorities , causing them to fear that they did not have an adequate supply line to conquer the state and soon diverted from a course towards the capital and instead moved to Helena to reestablish a solid supply line .
= = = In charge of " Hindman 's Legion " = = =
Hindman 's edicts , however , raised the ire of the local citizenry and they , and Hindman 's political enemies , demanded that the Confederate leaders in Richmond replace him . By August 1862 , the authorities in Richmond decided to replace him with the well @-@ meaning but incompetent Theophilus H. Holmes . Hindman convinced Holmes to give him a field command in northern Arkansas and he proceeded with a plan to drive out the invader . Hindman aggressively moved into northwest Arkansas and managed to intercept the Federal army while it was divided into two parts . At this moment , however , Hindman 's normally aggressive style gave way to uncharacteristic doubt . Rather than attack the divided pieces of the Federal army , Hindman entrenched himself at Prairie Grove , Arkansas , allowing the Federal forces to recombine and assault him .
Hindman 's position was well selected , but the better equipped and supplied Federal forces wore down the Confederate forces and Hindman was forced to withdraw back towards Little Rock , having missed his chance to destroy the Federal army . After the stalemate at Prairie Grove , Hindman was transferred back across the river and participated in the Battle of Chickamauga alongside his friend Pat Cleburne . After being wounded in the neck at Chickamauga , Hindman and his legion continued to fight along with the Army of Tennessee against General William Tecumseh Sherman in the Atlanta Campaign , across north Georgia from the First Battle of Dalton to the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain , just outside Marietta , Georgia . On July 4 , 1864 , at Kennesaw Mountain he was struck in the eye by a tree limb and fell off his horse . Hindman suffered severe injuries that left him unfit for service on the battlefield . He went to Atlanta and later Macon , Georgia to recuperate from his injuries . Afterwards , Hindman hoped that he would be able to fight after a full recovery . He applied for a transfer to the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department . His request was denied by the Confederate War Department , but Jefferson Davis offered Hindman a leave of absence until he had fully recovered from his " physical disability " . After his leave of absence was approved in August , Hindman set out for Texas . During their journey , Hindman 's second daughter , Sallie , died of an illness near Meridian , Mississippi . Hindman arrived in San Antonio and settled there with his family for the time being . He was honored by military officials and local residents on January 26 , 1865 . By May 1865 , Confederate generals in New Orleans signed a document with Union generals detailing the Confederate terms of surrender . Hindman refused to surrender and , along with many other ex @-@ Confederates , he crossed the Rio Grande into Mexico and sought asylum .
= = Post @-@ war activities = =
Hindman joined Confederate refugees in the Mexican town of Carolota , where he engaged in coffee planting and attempted to practice law . By April 1867 , he was confident enough in the situation at home to return to Arkansas and apply to President Andrew Johnson for a pardon . Hindman 's application was one of the few denied . Nonetheless , he attempted to return to his former life . Politics still called to him and , although ineligible to run for office , he came out against the Reconstruction Constitution , which put him in direct conflict with reconstruction authorities . These authorities revived a treason indictment against him and had him arrested . This did not stop Hindman , who went on the political circuit and had some success building an unlikely coalition of newly freed slaves and Democrats .
= = = Assassination = = =
At around 9 : 30 on the night of September 27 , 1868 , Hindman was assassinated by one or more unknown assailants who fired through his parlor window while he was reading his newspaper with his children . The musket shots hit Hindman in the jaw , throat and hands , and he died eight hours later due to significant blood loss . Before his death , Hindman gave a farewell speech to his neighbors and political supporters , from the porch of his house . With " perfect composure " , Hindman told listeners to " unite their courage and determination to bring peace to the people " . Hindman hinted at the recent political debate with Powell Clayton as a possible motivation for the shooting and said , " I do not know who killed me ; but I can say , whoever it was , I forgive him . " He asked James H. O 'Connor , the husband of Mollie 's stepmother , to " take care of my family and be a protector to my wife and dear little ones " . After O 'Connor accepted , Hindman stated , " I forgive everybody , and hope they will forgive me . " Afterwards , he was too weak to continue speaking , and he sat down on a lounge . He remained there until he died early next morning . The assassination was announced in all major newspapers throughout the state . William Woodruff of the Gazette said Hindman died as an " able and distinguished man " whose " short but splendid career " had a profound impact on Arkansan state politics .
Hindman 's assassins were never caught , and many theories regarding their identities have circulated throughout the years . In 1869 , a white prisoner at the Phillips County jail told officials that he overheard two black inmates , Sip Cameron and Heyward Grant , discussing the crime . Grant supposedly confessed to the crime , saying the murder was part of a larger plot to seek revenge for the killing of Lee Morrison , a black individual from Helena who had been hanged on September 27 , 1868 . Grant 's claims did not fit with the facts of the murder and his statements were dismissed from the investigation . No further leads ever developed , so the case was never reopened . Hindman was buried at Evergreen Cemetery ( later named Maple Hill Cemetery ) in Helena , near the grave of his friend Patrick Cleburne .
= Mortal Kombat II =
Mortal Kombat II ( commonly abbreviated as MKII ) is a competitive fighting game originally produced by Midway Games for the arcades in 1993 . It was later ported to multiple home systems , including the PC , Amiga , Game Boy , Sega Game Gear , Sega Genesis , Sega Saturn , Super Nintendo Entertainment System , and various PlayStation consoles , mostly in licensed versions developed by Probe Entertainment and Sculptured Software and published by Acclaim Entertainment .
Mortal Kombat II was the second game in the Mortal Kombat series , improving the gameplay and expanding the mythos of the original Mortal Kombat , notably introducing more varied Fatality finishing moves and several iconic characters , such as Kitana , Mileena , Kung Lao , Noob Saibot , and the series ' recurring villain , Shao Kahn . The game 's plot continues from the first game , featuring the next Mortal Kombat tournament set in the otherdimensional realm of Outworld , with the Outworld and Earthrealm representatives fighting each other on their way to challenge the evil emperor Shao Kahn .
The game was an unprecedented commercial success and was acclaimed by most critics , receiving many annual awards and having been featured in various top lists in the years and decades to come , but also perpetuating a major video game controversy due to the series ' continuous depiction of graphic violence . Its legacy includes spawning a spin @-@ off game Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks and having the greatest influence on the 2011 reboot game Mortal Kombat , as well as inspiring numerous video game clones .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay system of Mortal Kombat II is an improved version of that from the original Mortal Kombat . There are several changes in standard moves : a crouching punch and turnaround kick are added , low and high kicks have greater differentiation ( be they crouching or standing up ) , the roundhouse kick are made more powerful ( knocking an opponent across the screen , like the game 's uppercut ) , and it is easier to perform a combo due to reduced recovery times for attacks . Returning characters also gained new special moves , including some to be used in mid @-@ air , and the game plays almost twice as fast as the original . However , all playable characters in the game still share most generic attributes ( such as power and jump height ) and all normal moves are also the same between each character .
As with its predecessor , matches are divided into rounds , and the first player to win two rounds by fully depleting their opponent 's life bar is the winner ; at this point the losing character will become dazed and the winner is given the opportunity of using a finishing move . Mortal Kombat II lacks the " Test Your Might " bonus games and point system from the first game , in favor of a consecutive win tally where wins are represented by icons .
The game marked the introduction of multiple Fatalities ( post @-@ match animations of the victorious characters executing their defeated foes ) as well as additional , non @-@ lethal finishing moves to the franchise : Babalities ( turning the opponent into a crying baby ) , Friendships ( a non @-@ malicious interaction , such as dancing or giving a gift to the defeated opponent ) and additional stage @-@ specific Fatalities ( the winner uppercutting his or her opponent into an abyss below , spikes in the ceiling , or a pool of acid in the background ) . Finishing moves cannot be performed neither by nor against the boss and secret characters .
= = Plot = =
Following his failure to defeat Liu Kang in the Mortal Kombat tournament , the evil Shang Tsung begs his master Shao Kahn , supreme ruler of Outworld and the surrounding kingdoms , to spare his life . He tells Shao Kahn that if they hold it in Outworld the invitation for the next Mortal Kombat cannot be turned down , and the Earthrealm warriors must attend . Kahn agrees to this plan and also restores Shang Tsung 's youth . He then extends the invitation to the thunder god and Earthrealm 's protector , Raiden , who gathers his warriors and takes them into Outworld . The new tournament is much more dangerous , as Shao Kahn has the home field advantage , and an Outworld victory will allow him to subdue Earthrealm .
According to the Mortal Kombat series ' canon , Liu Kang won this tournament as well , defeating Shao Kahn and his bodyguard Kintaro . The game 's story mode can be also finished using any other playable character , resulting in different non @-@ canonical endings for each of them .
= = Characters = =
= = = Playable characters = = =
Debuting characters :
Baraka ( played by Richard Divizio ) , a warlord of Outworld 's nomadic Tarkatan race , responsible for the assault on the Shaolin Monastery on the orders of Shao Kahn .
Jackson " Jax " Briggs ( played by John Parrish ) , U.S. Special Forces officer who enters the tournament to rescue his partner Sonya Blade from Outworld .
Kitana ( played by Katalin Zamiar ) , a female ninja who works as a personal assassin in the service of Shao Kahn . She has been suspected of secretly aiding the Earthrealm warriors .
Kung Lao ( played by Anthony Marquez ) , Shaolin monk and close friend of Liu Kang , descendant of the Great Kung Lao ( who was defeated by Goro and Shang Tsung 500 years before the events of MK ) . He seeks to avenge his ancestor and the destruction of the Shaolin temple .
Mileena ( played by Katalin Zamiar ) , twin sister to Kitana who also serves as an assassin for Kahn . Her mission during the tournament is to ensure the loyalty of her sister , but she also has plans of her own .
Returning characters :
Johnny Cage ( played by Daniel Pesina ) , Hollywood actor who joins Liu Kang in his journey to Outworld .
Liu Kang ( played by Ho Sung Pak ) , Shaolin monk who is the reigning champion of Mortal Kombat . He travels to Outworld to seek vengeance for the death of his Shaolin monastery brothers .
Raiden ( played by Carlos Pesina ) , thunder god who returns to Mortal Kombat to stop Kahn 's evil plans of taking Earthrealm for his own .
Reptile ( played by Daniel Pesina ) , Shang Tsung 's personal bodyguard .
Scorpion ( played by Daniel Pesina ) , Hellspawned spectre who returns to the tournament to once again assassinate Sub @-@ Zero .
Shang Tsung ( played by Philip Ahn M.D. ) , the evil sorcerer who convinced Kahn to spare his life after losing the last tournament , with a new plan to appease his master , who in turn restores Tsung 's youth . He also serves as a sub @-@ boss of the game , appearing before Kintaro in the single player mode . As in the first game he is able to morph into any of the playable characters , retaining their moves ( in some versions only the character against whom he is currently fighting ) .
Sub @-@ Zero ( played by Daniel Pesina ) , a male ninja who possesses cryokinesis . Despite apparently being killed in the first tournament , he mysteriously returns , traveling into the Outworld to again attempt to assassinate Shang Tsung .
= = = Non @-@ playable characters = = =
Kintaro ( stop @-@ motion ) , Shao Kahn 's bodyguard , sent by his race to avenge Goro 's defeat . He is the game 's penultimate boss .
Shao Kahn ( played by Brian Glynn , voiced by Steve Ritchie ) , the evil Emperor of Outworld , who wishes to conquer Earthrealm by any means . He is the host of the tournament and the game 's final boss .
The game 's hidden opponents are Jade ( played by Katalin Zamiar ) , a female ninja clad in green ; Noob Saibot ( played by Daniel Pesina ) , a dark @-@ silhouetted ninja who is a " lost warrior " from the first MK game ; and Smoke ( played by Daniel Pesina ) , a male ninja clothed in gray . Sonya and Kano are the only playable characters from the first Mortal Kombat who were not implemented as regular fighters , though they do appear in the background of the Kahn 's Arena stage , chained and on display as his prisoners .
= = Development = =
= = = Game = = =
According to the project 's lead programmer Ed Boon , Mortal Kombat II was " intended to look different than the original MK " and " had everything we wanted to put into MK but did not have time for . " In 2012 , Boon placed creating the game among his best Mortal Kombat memories , recalling : " When we did Mortal Kombat II , we got new equipment and all that stuff , but it was funny because when we started working on Mortal Kombat II , the mania , the hysteria of the home versions of Mortal Kombat I was literally all around us . We were so busy working on the next one , going from seven characters to 12 and two Fatalities per character and all these other things that that consumed every second . " Both the theme and art style of MKII were slightly darker than those of its predecessor , although a more vibrant color palette was employed and the new game had a much richer color depth than the previous game . A new feature was the use of multiple layers of parallax scrolling in the arcade version . The game was made to be less serious with the addition of humorous alternative finishing moves . Some of the considered Fatalities were rejected as too extreme at the time .
Care was taken during the programming process to give the game a " good feel " , with Boon simulating elements such as gravity into the video game design . John Tobias noted that the previous game 's reliance on juggling the opponent in the air with successive hits was an accident , and had been tightened in Mortal Kombat II . Boon said that the reason to not completely remove it in favor of a different system of chaining attacks together was to set the game apart from the competing titles such as Street Fighter and allow for players to devise their own combinations of attacks . At one point , a bonus stage was planned to feature " a bunch of ninjas jumping all over the place and you would swing at them , just like you 're in the middle of a fight in a kung fu movie . " All of the music was composed , performed , recorded and mixed by Dan Forden , the MK series ' sound designer and composer , using the Williams DCS sound system .
= = = Characters = = =
To create the character animations for the game , actors were placed in front of a gray background and performed the motions , which were recorded on videotape ( initially on a standard Hi8 camera , later upgraded to a broadcast @-@ quality , $ 20 @,@ 000 Sony camera ) , which had been upgraded since the development of the first title from standard to broadcast quality . The video capture footage was then processed into a computer , and the background was removed from selected frames to create sprites . Towards the end of the game 's development , they opted to instead use a blue screen technique and processed the footage directly into the computer for a similar , simpler process . The actors were lightly sprayed with water to give them a sweaty , glistening appearance , while post @-@ editing was done on the sprites afterward to highlight flesh tones and improve the visibility of muscles , which Tobias felt set the series apart from similar games using digitized graphics . Animations of Shang Tsung morphing into other characters were created by Midway 's John Vogel using a computer , while hand @-@ drawn animations were used for other parts of the game , such as the Fatalities . For animating Goro and Kintaro , clay sculptures were created by Tobias ' friend Curt Chiarelli and then turned into 12 @-@ inch latex miniatures that were used for stop motion filming . Because of technical restrictions , the actors ' costumes had to be simple and no acrobatic moves such as back @-@ flips could have been recorded ; the hardest moves to perform were some of the jumping kicks .
Several characters ( namely Jade , Kitana , Mileena , Noob Saibot , Reptile , Scorpion , Smoke and Sub @-@ Zero ) were created using the first game 's palette swap technique on just two base models . The game was noted for its " strong female presence , " as it was featuring more than one woman character as it was common in the genre at the time . Due to memory limitations and the development team 's desire to introduce more new characters , two fighters from the original Mortal Kombat , Sonya Blade and Kano , whom Boon cited as the least @-@ picked characters in the game , were excluded , substituted by two palette swaps , Mileena and Reptile . In place of Sonya , two new playable female characters , Kitana and Mileena , were introduced so the game might better compete against Capcom 's Street Fighter II : The World Warrior featuring Chun @-@ Li . Another planned female fighter , based on the real @-@ life kickboxer Kathy Long whom Tobias admired , was omitted due to time constraints . A male bonus character played by Kyu Hwang was also cut from the game .
= = Release = =
The first version of MKII , revision 1 @.@ 4 , " was effectively a public beta test , " featuring few Fatalities and many software bugs ; it also lacked the endings for the characters . It took three subsequent revisions to have the moves and finishing moves finalized and all the bugs corrected , also adding additional content , as development had still been in progress for all that time . The final version was revision 3 @.@ 1 , released in January 1994 .
= = = Marketing and merchandise = = =
In conjunction with the release of the arcade game in 1993 , an official comic book , Mortal Kombat II Collector 's Edition , written and illustrated by Tobias , was released through mail order , describing the backstory of the game in a greater detail . Acclaim Entertainment stated that it " had started Mortal Kombat II with a $ 10 million global marketing campaign " for the home versions . A part of this sum was used to film and air the live @-@ action TV commercial created by David Anderson and Bob Keen . The video featured Scorpion , Sub @-@ Zero , Reptile ( with a notably more @-@ reptilian appearance ) , Kitana , Baraka and Shao Kahn , who were played by the same actors as in the game . The game 's promotional campaign 's tagline was " Nothing ... Nothing can prepare you . " In 2008 , Eurogamer called Mortal Kombat II " a marketing triumph . "
Malibu Comics published a series of Mortal Kombat comic books featuring the characters from both MKII and the original game . Mortal Kombat II : Music from the Arcade Game Soundtrack , an album featuring music from Mortal Kombat II and Mortal Kombat , composed by Dan Forden , could originally only be purchased by ordering it through a limited CD offer , which was posted on the arcade version of the game 's attract mode . Other merchandise for the game included a series of collectible stickers by Panini Group and two different series of action figures ( released in Argentina in 1995 and in the USA in 1999 , respectively ) . Mortal Kombat Kard Game was marketed as " Mortal Kombat II trading cards " .
= = = Home versions = = =
Since 1994 , multiple official ports and emulated versions of Mortal Kombat II were released for a wide variety of home systems , including the 8 @-@ bit ( Game Boy , Master System and Sega Game Gear ) , 16 @-@ bit ( Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) and Sega Genesis ) and 32 @-@ bit ( Sega 32X , PlayStation and Sega Saturn ) consoles , Amiga and PC DOS computers , and the PlayStation Network ( PSN ) . The Game Boy , Game Gear , SNES , and Genesis versions were released simultaneously on September 13 , 1994 , dubbed " Mortal Tuesday " by Acclaim 's marketing . The game was also featured in several compilation releases , including Midway Arcade Treasures 2 for the PlayStation 2 , GameCube and Xbox . Midway Arcade Treasures : Extended Play for the PlayStation Portable , and Mortal Kombat Arcade Kollection for the PSN , Xbox Live Arcade and Steam . A Nintendo DS compilation release was cancelled .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
Mortal Kombat II proved to be an enormous commercial success and even a cultural phenomenon . WMS Industries , owner of Midway Games at the time , reported its 1993 sales in the quarter ending December 31 rose to $ 101 million from $ 86 million and said much of its revenue gain was related to the sale of the arcade version of MKII . By 1996 , the number of arcade machines sold approached 25 @,@ 000 units ; at that time , arcade games that sold 5 @,@ 000 units were considered strong titles ( Midway printed special T @-@ shirts to celebrate 300 machines being manufactured in one day ) and an arcade cabinet cost $ 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 . MKII was considered an arcade game of the year , taking over from the original Mortal Kombat .
On the day of the release of the game 's first four versions for cartridge @-@ based console systems ( Sega 's Genesis and Game Gear and Nintendo 's SNES and Game Boy ) , dubbed " Mortal Friday " ( September 9 , 1994 ) , an unprecedented number of more than 2 @.@ 5 million copies were shipped to be distributed , with the best opening @-@ week sales in video game history at that point . Acclaim 's analysts expected that the number of copies sold would reach at least 2 @.@ 5 million within the first few weeks of release ( at an average retail price of $ 60 ) and the sales to top $ 150 million by end of the year . First @-@ week sales of over $ 50 million managed to surpass the initial box office results of that season 's Hollywood film blockbusters , such as Forrest Gump , True Lies , The Mask and The Lion King . Mortal Kombat II became the world 's best @-@ selling video game ( until it was eclipsed by Donkey Kong Country , released in November 1994 ) and the Genesis version managed to sell 1 @.@ 78 million copies in the United States alone , along with an additional 1 @.@ 51 million American copies of the game for the SNES . By 2002 , estimated gross sales of Mortal Kombat II home video games exceeded $ 400 million . Re @-@ released in 2007 , the PSN version has continued to occupy the service 's top ten monthly sales chart nearly three years later in February 2010 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The initial critical reception of Mortal Kombat II was overwhelmingly positive , with Sega Visions describing the way in which the sequel was directed as " sheer brilliance , " and Nintendo Power calling it " the hottest fighter ever . " Tony Brusgul of The Daily Gazette opined the " incredible " hype surrounding the game was " well deserved , " describing it as " a perfect blend of great graphics , action and violence . " In his review of the arcade release , Rik Skews of Computer + Video Games ( C + VG ) wrote " the only true rival to Street [ F ] ighter II " returned " in a sequel that bites off the head of the original . "
Regarding the Sega Genesis / Mega Drive version , Mark Patterson of C + VG wrote that " Probe has done an incredible job with this conversion . Everything is here , and I mean everything . " Sushi @-@ X of Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) called it " a great translation considering its limitations , " although a reviewer for The Detroit News felt " very disappointed " with this port and recommended the SNES version instead , which C + VG declared " the most perfect coin @-@ op conversion ever . " The four reviewers of EGM hailed the SNES version as a " near @-@ perfect " translation of the arcade game . While commenting that its graphics and sounds are not as good as those of the SNES version , they held the Genesis version to be an outstanding port as well . A reviewer for The Baltimore Sun called the SNES version " the best game I 've ever played - a true translation , " while Patterson noted it was the bloodiest game Nintendo has yet allowed to be released .
About the 32X version , IGN 's Levi Buchanan stated that " if you do not have a SNES , this is the home version of MKII to get . " In contrast , GamePro remarked that the 32X version offered too little improvement over the Genesis version , even failing to correct the control shortcomings , and was technically poor given the 32X 's capabilities .
Regarding the portable console ports , Patterson stated that " no Game Boy owner should go without this " and called the Game Gear version " still the best handheld beat- ' em up " on the market despite all the content that was not present in this version of the game . EGM reviewers concurred that the Game Gear version " has eye @-@ popping graphics , and great control - so much so that you won 't believe this is a portable , " but were less enthusiastic about the Game Boy version . Though they commented that it is better than most fighting games for the system , two of their four reviewers felt that it was not worth getting with the game available on much more powerful platforms .
Critical reception of the Amiga version was also mostly very favorable , including Ed Lawrence of CU Amiga declaring that " every person who own an Amiga has to own Mortal Kombat 2 . In terms of revitalising the Amiga market , this is far more important than any Commodore buy @-@ out could ever be . " In a rare dissenting opinion , Jonathan Nash of Amiga Power called it " a clearly nonsensical title , " recommending to " buy Shadow Fighter instead . " The later PC version was also well @-@ received , with Next Generation stating that " if you like fighting games , this is the best that 's available . "
Reviewing the CD @-@ ROM based Saturn port , EGM commented that the graphics are identical to the arcade version but that there are missing sound effects and " unbearable " slowdown when first performing a special move . They rated it the best home version of the game to date , but felt that with Mortal Kombat II having considerably aged by this point , any port needed to be near arcade perfect to stand out . Next Generation felt that the Saturn version was arcade perfect , but that the Mortal Kombat series as a whole was grossly overrated and lacked any gameplay innovations to make it stand out from other fighting games . They summarized that " if you are a fan of the game ( and you know who you are ) , then the Saturn version is everything you can hope for - an arcade @-@ perfect translation - and yet , there is nothing outside of a flashy presentation and a little gore to recommend this game over a million others just like it . " Scary Larry of GamePro agreed that the Saturn port " duplicates the arcade version perfectly " , but argued that the slowdown and load times make the game frustrating to play . He concluded that the conversion would make a decent holdover until Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 hit the Saturn , but fails to measure up to Mortal Kombat 3 on the PlayStation . Sega Saturn Magazine was extremely disappointed with the final version of the Saturn port , calling it " much worse than any of the versions seen on the cartridge format , " as opposed to the vastly superior pre @-@ release version they had reviewed five months earlier .
= = = Awards = = =
Mortal Kombat II received numerous annual awards from gaming publications . Game Players gave it the titles of " Best Genesis Fighting Game " , " Best SNES Fighting Game " and " Best Overall SNES Game " of 1994 . The staff of Nintendo Power ranked MKII as the second ( SNES ) and fifth ( Game Boy ) " Top Game " of 1994 , while the magazine 's readers voted it to receive the 1995 's Nintendo Power Awards for " Best Tournament Fighter ( all Nintendo platforms ) " and " Best Play Control ( Game Boy ) " , with the game having been nominated by the staff also in the categories " Worst Villain " ( positively , an equivalent of " Best Hero " ) and " Best Overall ( all Nintendo platforms ) " . VideoGames named MKII as the " Best Fighting Game " of 1994 , also awarding it second place in the categories " Best Super NES Game " and " Best Arcade @-@ to @-@ Home Translation " . Other awards included " The Best of the Show ( Super NES ) " for the SCES ' 94 from GamePro and " Bloodiest Game of 1994 " from EGM .
= = = Controversies = = =
As in the case of the first Mortal Kombat game , the content of Mortal Kombat II became the subject of a great deal of controversy regarding violent video games . Nancian Cherry of Toledo Blade wrote that both games had " an army of critics too : people upset by the bone @-@ crunching , blood @-@ spurting , limb @-@ ripping violence depicted on the small screen . " According to IGN , " Mortal Kombat II wore its notoriety as a badge of honor , boasting about it in promotional materials , and even parodying it in @-@ game . " The game was banned in Germany , where MKII was put in the index by the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons ( BPjM ) and all versions of the game except for the Game Boy version were subjected to being confiscated from the nation 's market for violating the German Penal Code by showing excessive violence and cruel acts against representations of human beings . Due to regional censorship , the game was also released with green @-@ colored blood and black @-@ and @-@ white fatality sequences in Japan ; it was at that time a unique occurrence of a western game being censored in Japan , not the reverse . Years later , Boon recalled : " I 've always had the position that the rating system was a good idea and should be put in place . Once Mortal Kombat II came out , there was a rating system in place . We were an M @-@ rated game , and everybody knew the content that was in there , so it became almost a non @-@ issue . " Tobias agreed , saying that they " were content with the M for mature on our packaging . "
There were also some other controversies . In 1994 , Guy Aoki , president of Media Action Network for Asian Americans ( MANAA ) , criticized the game for allegedly perpetuating existing stereotypes of Asians as martial arts experts with the game 's portrayal of several of its characters . Allyne Mills , publicist at Acclaim , responded to this by stating : " This is a fantasy game , with all different characters . This is a martial arts game which comes from Asia . [ sic ] The game was not created to foster stereotypes . " Critical studies professor Marsha Kinder accused the game of " a misogynist aspect to the combat , " alleging that " in MKII , some of the most violent possibilities are against women . Also , their fatality moves are highly eroticised . " Members of Mortal Kombat II cast ( Daniel Pesina , Philip Ahn and Katalin Zamiar , as well as Sonya 's actress Elizabeth Malecki ) , seeking additional royalties for the game 's home ports , sued Midway , Williams , Nintendo of America , Sega of America and Acclaim Entertainment for misuse of their likenesses in an unauthorized way in two different cases in 1996 and 1997 , losing both of them . After that , Pesina ( who sought $ 10 million for his role in both games , after being paid several thousand ) agreed to participate in the BloodStorm advertisement photo shoot attacking Mortal Kombat . He later recalled , " I don 't think [ the ad ] actually upset people at Midway . I think it more upset some of the hardcore Mortal Kombat fans . "
= = = Retrospective = = =
According to IGN 's Leif Johnson , 1994 " was the year of games like Doom and Mortal Kombat II " . Over the following years , multiple publications acclaimed Mortal Kombat II as one of the best video games ever . It was ranked as the 97th top game of all time by the staff of Game Informer in 2001 , as the 38th most important video game of all time by the staff of GamePro in 2007 , and as the 32nd best video game of all time by The Boston Phoenix in 2010 . Featuring it in their 2003 video game hall of fame series , the staff of GameSpot wrote : " Mortal Kombat II was so much better , as a sequel , than it had to be that it absolutely deserves a place in the pantheon of all @-@ time classics . "
Many publications also listed Mortal Kombat II among the best video games of its genre or era . It was ranked as the third best fighting game by the staff of GamePro and the ninth best fighting game of all time by Rich Knight of Cinema Blend in 2008 , as the third top fighting game of all time by Marissa Meli of UGO and the second best 2D fighting game ever made by Robert Workman of GamePlayBook in 2010 , and as the third best fighting game of all time by Peter Rubin of Complex in 2011 . It was also ranked as the 53rd best game on any Nintendo platform by the staff of Nintendo Power in 1997 , featured among the 100 best games of the 20th century by Jakub Kralka of Benchmark in 2009 , and ranked as the tenth best 16 @-@ bit game ever by McKinley Noble of PC World that same year .
The game also received accolades for its various conversions . Mortal Kombat II was included among the ten best arcade games by Wirtualna Polska , and ranked as the fifth top arcade game by the staff of GameTrailers in 2009 , as the 31st top arcade game of all time by the staff of GameSpy in 2011 , and as the sixth best arcade game of the 1990s by Complex in 2013 . Regarding the 16 @-@ bit console versions , MKII was ranked as the fourth best ever Genesis game by Complex and as the 19th best Genesis game by GamesRadar , as well as as the 12th best ever SNES game by Rich Knight of Complex and as the 25th top game for the SNES by Richard George of IGN ; in 1995 , SNES magazine Super Play also ranked it as the best sequel on the platform . In Poland , where the Amiga was the most popular gaming platform of the early 1990s , MKII was ranked as the ninth best ever Amiga game by Michał Wierzbicki of CHIP and as 22nd best Amiga game by PSX Extreme editor @-@ in @-@ chief Przemysław Ścierski .
GamesRadar called it " the point when the series became great . " In 2007 , GamesRadar included four elements of this game - Dan Forden 's " Toasty ! " effect during an uppercut ( also ranked as the 11th funniest moment in video games by Rich Knight of Complex in 2012 ) , Friendship and Babality finishing moves , and the ceiling @-@ spikes Stage Fatality - among the ten greatest things about Mortal Kombat . Reviewing the PlayStation 3 release in 2007 , IGN 's Jeff Haynes stated that " Mortal Kombat II still manages to stand up almost 15 years later as one of the best arcade fighters around . " As late as 2009 , many fans still considered MKII to be the best title in the series . According to a 2011 article by Mike Harradence of PlayStation Universe , the " bigger , bolder and bloodier " game remains " a firm fan favourite among MK aficionados . " That year , IGN 's Richard George wrote that " Mortal Kombat II is considered by many to be the pinnacle of the series " and called it " still one of the most fun 16 @-@ bit fighters to play . " In 2013 , Rich Knight and Hanuman Welch of Complex wrote that " Mortal Kombat II took everything we loved about the original and magnified it by about a million . ( ... ) We still love this game . " That same year , Knight and Gus Turner from the same magazine also ranked it as the sixth best 2D fighting game of all time , stating : " Truth be told , the latest MK has nothing on this one . Nothing . A step up from the original in every way , MK II was , and still is , a solid , violent game that 's an essential title to grab for any serious fan of fighting games . " In 2014 , Kevin Wong of Complex wrote : " Today , we remember Mortal Kombat II for its anarchic spirit : the game was endlessly intriguing and weird , and it had an uneasy atmosphereanything could happen at any given moment . Critics derided Mortal Kombat as meaningless shock value , but its sequel proved those naysayers wrong . Mortal Kombat II was a Flawless Victory : irreverent , hilarious , and horrific in equal measures . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Rumored content = = =
While many games have been subject to urban legends about secret features and unlockable content , these kinds of myths were particularly rampant among the dedicated fan community of Mortal Kombat in connection with Mortal Kombat II . According to GameSpy , " the [ arcade gaming ] community was abuzz about myriad secrets both true and false . " The game 's creators did little to dispel those rumors that included supposed " Nudality " or " Sexuality " finishing moves for Kitana and Mileena , Shang Tsung 's ability to transform into Kano and Goro , and " Hornbuckle " being featured as an additional secret character .
Some of them were eventually implemented in subsequent MK games . Among these rumors to be adapted later were the Animalities ( used in Mortal Kombat 3 and its updates ) and an ability to throw an opponent into the mouth of a tree in the Living Forest stage ( first used in Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks ) . Rumored characters included a red female ninja character ( actually just a glitch that reportedly turned Kitana 's outfit from blue to red ) , who was dubbed " Scarlet " by fans and was officially introduced as Skarlet in 2011 's Mortal Kombat , and the male ninja Ermac that has originated as a glitch in the original game and was teased in MKII before finally becoming playable in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 . A nameless , flaming palette swap of Liu Kang seen far deep in the background of the Pit II stage , initially dubbed as " Torch " by fans , officially debuted in Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance as a secret character Blaze that later became the final boss of Mortal Kombat : Armageddon .
= = = Related titles = = =
Some elements of Mortal Kombat II ( such as the characters of Kitana and Shao Kahn ) are featured in the 1995 film Mortal Kombat . It was , nevertheless , mostly based on the first game .
The plot and characters of the game served as basis for the 2005 spin @-@ off game Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , a beat 'em up title which follows Liu Kang and Kung Lao as they fight their way through Outworld to defeat Shao Kahn . Some of the plot Shaolin Monks , such as the death of Jade , is not compatible with the general Mortal Kombat game series .
The events of Mortal Kombat II , along with the first Mortal Kombat and Mortal Kombat 3 ( including its expansions ) , were later retold in the 2011 fighting game Mortal Kombat , which was as an effective reboot of the series . In it , Raiden uses time travel to revisit the tournaments from the original games in the series in order to change the future in the aftermath of Armageddon . The ladder / arcade mode of this game follows the same order of bosses as in MKII ( with Shang Tsung , Kintaro and Shao Kahn as the final three opponents ) and its controls and Fatality system are most reminiscent of MKII . Classic costumes from MKII were also brought back as alternate outfits for female ninja characters in the PlayStation Vita version .
Mortal Kombat II was to be one of the three games remade in HD in the cancelled fighting game Mortal Kombat HD Arcade Kollection . However , only a simple compilation game titled Mortal Kombat Arcade Kollection was released instead .
= Hoodening =
Hoodening ( / ʊd.ɛnɪŋ / ) , also spelled Hodening and Oodening , is a folk custom found in Kent , a county in south @-@ eastern England . The tradition entails the use of a wooden hobby horse known as a hooden horse which is mounted on a pole and carried by an individual hidden under a sackcloth . Historically , the tradition was restricted to the area of East Kent , although in the twentieth century it spread into neighbouring West Kent . It represents a regional variation of a " hooded animal " tradition that appears in various forms throughout the British Isles .
As recorded from the eighteenth through to the early twentieth centuries , hoodening was a tradition performed at Christmas time by groups of farm labourers . They would form into teams to accompany the horse on its travels around the local area , and although the makeup of such groups varied , they typically included an individual to carry the horse , a leader , a man in female clothing known as a " Mollie " , and several musicians . The team would then carry the hooden horse to local houses and shops , where they would expect payment for their appearance . Although this practice is extinct , in the present the hooden horse is incorporated into various Kentish Mummers plays and Morris dances which take place at different times of the year .
The origins of the hoodening tradition , and the original derivation of the term " hooden " , remain subject to academic debate . An early suggestion was that the term " hooden " was related to the pre @-@ Christian god Woden , and that the tradition therefore originated with pre @-@ Christian religious practices in the Early Medieval Kingdom of Kent , however this approach has not found support from historians or folklorists studying the tradition . Most scholars to have commented on the custom have thought it most likely that the term " hooden " relates to " hooded " , a reference to the sackcloth worn by the individual carrying the horse .
The earliest textual reference to the hoodening tradition comes from the first half of the eighteenth century . A number of scattered references to it appeared over the next century and a half , many of which considered it to be a declining tradition that had become extinct in many parts of Kent . Aware of this decline , in the early twentieth century the folklorist and historian Percy Maylam documented what survived of the tradition and traced its appearances in historical documents , publishing his findings as The Hooden Horse in 1909 . Although deemed extinct at the time of the First World War , the custom was revived in an altered form during the mid @-@ twentieth century , when the use of the hooden horse was incorporated into a number of modern Kentish folk traditions .
= = Description = =
Surviving sources testify to the fact that while there was clear variation in the hoodening tradition as it was practiced by different individuals in different parts of East Kent , it was nevertheless " on the whole remarkably uniform " . The hooden horse , which was at the centre of the tradition , was usually made out of a wooden horse 's head affixed to a pole about four feet long , with a hinged jaw that was moved by a string . This horse was then carried aloft by an individual who was concealed beneath a dark cloth . As part of the hoodening custom , a team of " hoodeners " , consisting of between four and eight men , would carry the horse through the streets . This team included the horse with a " hoodener " operating it , a " Groom " , " Driver " , or " Waggoner " who carried a whip and led the horse by a bridle , a " Jockey " who would attempt to mount the horse , a " Mollie " who was a man dressed as a woman , and one or two musicians . All of the men were farm labourers , usually being those who worked with horses . They performed the custom at Christmas time , and usually on Christmas Eve . The team would arrive at people 's houses where they would sing a song before being admitted entry . Once inside , the horse pranced and gnashed its jaw , while the Jockey attempted to mount it , and the Mollie swept the floor with their broom while chasing any girls present . Sometimes they would sing further songs and carols at this point . Upon being presented with payment , the team would leave to repeat the process at another house .
Hoodening was part of a wider " hooded animal " tradition that the folklorist E. C. Cawte identified as existing in different forms in various parts of Britain . Features common to these customs were the use of a hobby horse , the performance at Christmas time , a song or spoken statement requesting payment , and the use of a team who included a man dressed in women 's clothing .
= = Etymology and origins = =
The folklorist Percy Maylam noted that most nineteenth @-@ century sources describing the tradition had spelled the word as hoden , but that he favoured hooden because it better reflected the pronunciation of the word with its long vowel . He added that " the word ' hooden ' rhymes with ' wooden ' and not with ' sodden ' as some writers appear to think " . Given this pronunciation , Cawte suggested that oodening was a better spelling for the tradition 's name . Maylam also noted that none of the hoodeners with whom he communicated were aware of the etymology of the term , and that similarly they were unaware of the tradition 's historical origins .
One possible explanation for the origin of hooden was that it had emerged as a mispronunciation of wooden , referring to the use of the wooden horse . Maylam was critical of this idea , expressing the view that such a mispronunciation was unlikely to emerge from the Kentish dialect . A second possibility is that the name hooden was a reference to the hooded nature of the horse 's bearer . The historian Ronald Hutton deemed this to be the " simplest " derivation , while folklorists Charlotte Sophia Burne and E. C. Cawte also considered it the most likely explanation . However , Maylam was also critical of this , suggesting that the cloth under which the carrier was concealed was too large to be considered a hood .
In his History of Kent , the antiquarian Alfred John Dunkin suggested that Hodening was a corruption of Hobening , and that it was ultimately derived from the Gothic hopp , meaning horse . Maylam , however , opined that Dunkin 's argument could be " ignored " , stating that it rested on the erroneous assumption that Hodening began with a short vowel .
Maylam concluded that the hoodening tradition was " a mutilated survival " of a form of Morris dance . Noting that some Medieval Morris dancers had incorporated games devoted to the English folk hero Robin Hood into their custom , he suggested that hoodening might have originally been a reference to Robin Hood . This idea was challenged by Burne , who noted that in his legends , Robin Hood was always depicted as an archer rather than a horse @-@ rider , thus questioning how he had come to be associated with the hooden horse . In addition , she noted that the Medieval games devoted to Hood all took place in May rather than at Christmas , as hoodening did . Cawte also criticised Maylam 's argument , noting that there was no evidence of Morris dancing in Kent prior to the twentieth century , and that neither hoodening nor Robin Hood had a particularly close association with the Morris dance to start with .
= = = Possible Early Medieval origins = = =
In 1807 , an anonymous observer suggested that the term hoden was linked to the putative Anglo @-@ Saxon god Woden , and that the tradition might be " a relic of a festival to commemorate our Saxon ancestors landing in Thanet " . In 1891 , it was suggested that the custom had once been known as " Odining " , a reference to the Early Medieval Scandinavian god Odin . The author of this idea further suggested that the custom had begun either with the ritual wearing of the skins of horses sacrificed to Odin , or as an early Christian mockery of such Odinic practices . Maylam noted that he was initially attracted to the idea that the term hodening had derived from Woden – an Old English name that he thought a more likely origin than the Old Norse Odin – but that upon investigating this possibility found " no sufficient evidence " for it . He added that it would seem unlikely that the W would be lost from Woden in the Kentish dialect , citing the example of Woodnesborough , a Kentish village whose name is often interpreted as having derived from Woden and which clearly retains its use of W. Ultimately , he stated that " one feels that the theory is based on inferences and analogies not strong enough for a foundation to carry the building erected on them " . The idea of linking the tradition to Woden was also dismissed as unlikely by both Burne and Cawte .
Believing it likely that the hoodening tradition " substantially pre @-@ dates " its earliest textual appearances , the folklorist Geoff Doel suggested the possibility that it had originated as a Midwinter rite to re @-@ energise the vegetation , as evidence noting that other English winter folk customs , such as the Apple Wassail , have also been interpreted in this manner . Doel also suggested that the use of the horse in the tradition may have some connections to either the use of the white horse as the symbol of Kent , and the use of Hengist and Horsa ( " stallion " and " horse " in Old English ) as prominent characters in the origin myths of the Early Medieval Kingdom of Kent .
= = Regional restrictions = =
Historians have catalogued 33 recorded instances of the hoodening tradition extant in Kent prior to the twentieth @-@ century revival . These are clustered in a crescent shape along the eastern and northern coasts of the county , and all were found within the area historically defined as East Kent , with the tradition being unknown in neighbouring West Kent . More specifically , Maylam noted that there were no records of the tradition having been found west of Godmersham . This region was " a well populated area " during the period in which the hoodeners were active , and Maylam noted that all of the areas in which the tradition were found contained the East Kentish dialect . Cawte analysed the historical distribution of the hoodeners and found that it did not correspond with the areas of early Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement in Kent , and that it similarly did not accord with the county 's coal mining areas . Cawte also stated that " there is no apparent reason why the custom did not spread further afield " .
= = Recorded appearances = =
= = = Early textual references = = =
The oldest known textual reference to hoodening comes from the Alphabet of Kenticisms , a manuscript authored by Samuel Pegge , an antiquary who served as the vicar of Godmersham in Kent from 1731 to 1751 . After Pegge 's death , the manuscript was obtained by Sir Frederic Madden , and after his death it was purchased by the English Dialect Society , who published it in 1876 . In this manuscript , Pegge noted simply that " Hoodening ( huod.ing ) is a country masquerade at Christmas times " , comparing it to Mumming and the Winster Guisers of Derbyshire .
The earliest known textual description of the tradition is provided by a letter that was published in a May 1807 edition of European Magazine . The letter had been written by an anonymous individual who was describing their encounter with the hoodeners on a visit to the Kentish coastal town of Ramsgate in Thanet :
I found they begin the festivities of Christmas by a curious procession : a party of young people procure the head of a dead horse , which is affixed to a pole about four feet in length ; a string is affixed to the lower jaw ; a horse @-@ cloth is also attached to the whole , under which one of the parts gets , and by frequently pulling the string , keeps up a loud snapping noise , and is accompanied by the rest of the party , grotesquely habited , with hand @-@ bells ; they thus proceed from house to house , ringing their bells , and singing carols and songs ; they are commonly gratified with beer and cake , or perhaps with money . This is called , provincially , a Hodening .
Later commenting on this source , Maylam highlighted that its author did not appear to be from Kent and that , from their use of wording , it appeared that they had been told about the tradition by locals but had not actually witnessed it first hand . As such , Maylam suggested that the author may have been wrong in describing the use of a horse 's skull in the Ramsgate tradition , given that both later sources and the hoodeners of his own time all used a wooden model of a horse 's head . At the same time , Maylam noted that the use of a horse 's skull was not impossible , for such skulls had also been used in the hobby horse traditions of other parts of Britain .
The anonymously authored work was repeated almost verbatim in a range of other publications in the coming decades , giving its description far wider exposure . The first printed reference to the hooden horse having a wooden head appeared in Mackenzie E. C. Walcott 's Guide to the Coast of Kent , where he referred to a " curious custom [ which ] used to prevail " in Ramsgate . Maylam later suggested that the Ramsgate hooden horse tradition died out between 1807 and 1838 , for he had interviewed a number of elderly town residents in the early twentieth century and while several were aware that it had once taken place in the town , none could recall it happening in their own lifetime .
= = = Latter nineteenth @-@ century = = =
Many years after the event , the Kentish antiquarian J. Meadows Cooper related that while sitting in a pub on the outskirts of Margate on Boxing Day 1855 he had encountered a party carrying a hooden horse that entered the building . Another local resident , Mrs. Edward Tomlin , later related that as a child she had lived at a house named Updown that was near to Margate , and that she remembered the hooden horse visiting them at Christmas time during the 1850s and up until 1865 . Maylam 's researches also found recollections of a hooden horse which had appeared in Herne and Swalecliffe but which been discontinued in the 1860s , another that was active from Wingate Farm House in Harbledown during the 1850s , and one that had been active at Evington but which had ceased by the 1860s . He found another based at Lower Hardres which had been active from at least the least the 1850s under the leadership of Henry Brazier ; it was subsequently taken over by his son John , until the tradition ended locally in 1892 . In a January 1868 edition of the Kentish Gazette , an anonymous author mentioned that hoodening had taken place in Minster , Swale on the Christmas Eve of 1867 . The author noted that the tradition featured carol singing and the ringing of Handbells , which were accompanied by the appearance of a hooden horse ; they expressed surprise at this latter event because they had thought that the horse was " as extinct as the megatherium " .
In their 1888 Dictionary of the Kentish Dialect , W. D. Parish and W. F. Shaw claimed that Hodening was a term used in Kent to refer to a custom involving the singing of carols , but that in the past Hoodening had been applied to " a mumming or masquerade " involving the hooden horse . They added that they had gained information on this older custom in 1876 from the Reverend H. Bennett Smith of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade , who had in turn learned from a retired farmer in his parish that " the farmer used to send annually round the neighbourhood the best horse under the charge of the wagoner , and that afterwards instead , a man used to represent the horse , being supplied with a tail , and with a wooden figure of a horse 's head , and plenty of horse hair for a mane ... The custom has long since ceased . "
Parish and Shaw did not mention what time of year the tradition took place on or its geographical location . They also made no reference to a sack concealing the person carrying the horse . Doel thought it likely that neither Parish or Shaw had ever seen a hooden horse , and that instead their information was based on older written sources . He also thought it noteworthy that they described the tradition using the past tense , indicating that they considered it to be either dead or dying at the time of writing . However , Maylam believed that the information regarding the decline of the tradition was erroneous , because hoodeners were still active in St. Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade during the early twentieth century and various locals living in the area at the time could recall it taking place in the area back to the 1840s .
In December 1889 , a letter written by a resident of St. Lawrence named Charles J. H. Saunders appeared in The Bromley Record . Saunders stated that he had conversed with many elderly residents of Thanet on the subject of hoodening , and that they informed him that the custom had been discontinued around fifty years previously , after a woman in Broadstairs was so scared by the hooden horse that she died . He added that a horse 's skull was rarely used , " owing to the difficulty procuring one " , and that the wooden head was thus typically used as a replacement . He stated that the hoodening company typically consisted of a " Jockey " who placed himself on the back of the individual carrying the horse , and that it was the " sport " that bystanders attempted to throw him off , resulting in violence . The horse and jockey were also accompanied by two singers , two attendants , and an individual dressed as an " old woman " carrying a broom ; when the company knocked on people 's doors , it was the old woman 's job to sweep the inhabitants feet away with her broom and to chase any girls until being paid off with money or refreshments . He was of the opinion that the custom had been restricted to the Isle of Thanet , noting that locals informed him that it had been carried out in Ramsgate , St. Lawrence , Minster , St. Nicholas , Acol , Monkton , and Birchington . However , contradicting this was a number of letters published in The Church Times in January 1891 which attested to the continuing practice of the hooden horse tradition at both Deal and Walmer .
= = = Percy Maylam 's investigations = = =
Percy Maylam was born into a farming family in 1865 at Pivington Farm in Pluckley , and in 1890 became a solicitor of the Supreme Court before working as a professional solicitor at Canterbury . Married to Kate Pearch , who had been born in Hastings , together they had two sons , Robert and James . Outside of his professional life , Maylam was a keen cricketer , coin collector , and amateur historian , and in 1892 joined the Kent Archaeological Society .
During the 1880s , Maylam came upon the hoodening tradition and began undertaking research into it , searching for textual references to the tradition in books , periodicals , and newspapers , and interviewing those involved in three extant traditions , at St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade , Walmer , and Deal . He expressed the opinion that " in these days Kent possesses so few genuine popular customs of this kind that we cannot afford to be indifferent to those still in existence . This is my excuse for my attempt to record the custom as now existing before it is utterly lost to us . " The period in which Maylam conducted his research was one that was witnessing increased interest in the recording of Britain 's rural folk culture , in particular by members of the professional classes – of which Percy was a member – in part due to the fear that such traditions were rapidly dying out . Such folklore collecting was encouraged by The Folklore Society , with whom Maylam was associated , and also by the widely read book , The Golden Bough , a work of comparative folkloristics authored by the anthropologist James Frazer . Maylam published his research in 1909 as The Hooden Horse , in an edition limited to 303 copies . The book was reviewed in the Folklore journal by Burne , who described it as " an admirable piece of work , careful , thorough , unambitious , and complete in itself " , while Cawte later described it as " unusually good " .
Maylam concluded that at the time , there was only one hooden horse still in active use in Thanet , that stored at Hale Farm in St. Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade , which he noted was brought out each Christmas to visit Sarre , Birchington and St. Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade itself . The members included a man in female garb , known as the Mollie , in their procession , but added that this had not been done for some time and was thus reintroduced for Maylam 's benefit . In his book , Maylam included a photograph of the horse taken at Sarre in 1905 . On Christmas Eve 1906 , Maylam encountered a second hooden horse , this time at Walmer . This horse came into the local hotel tearoom at about 6 @.@ 30 pm , accompanied by two musicians – one playing the tambourine and the other the concertina – and a man named Robert Laming who lead the horse itself . They were wearing ordinary clothes , but informed Maylam that they had once worn smock frocks as part of the tradition . They had no Mollie , and the members could not recall a Mollie ever having been part of their custom . The hotel owner 's daughter placed a gratuity in the horse 's mouth , before the troupe moved on to the local shops , where they were also given gratuities in a similar manner . Maylam talked to the troupe about the tradition , and eventually organised the photographing of the Walmer horse and those who accompanied it in March 1907 .
Maylam also interviewed those involved in the hoodening tradition at Deal , whom he encountered in the summer of 1909 . One elderly gentleman , Robert Skardon , related that his own father had once led the town 's hoodening troupe , in which he personally carried the head , his father the drum , his " Uncle John Beaney " the fiddle , and " old Harry Chorner " the piccolo . For many years they had included a man dressed in woman 's clothing , who was known as a " Daisy " rather than a " Mollie " , but that this had been discontinued . Skardon had given up the tradition many years previously , and the hooden horse itself had come into the possession of Elbridge Bowles of Great Mongeham , who continued to lead a hoodening troupe after Christmas each year , visiting Deal as well as the neighbouring villages of Finglesham , Ripple , Tilmanstone , Eastry , and Betteshanger . Maylam was also informed that at the time of Britain 's involvement in the Second Boer War , the horse had been decorated with military equipment . The fourth hooden horse that Maylam encountered was owned by the men who worked at George Goodson 's farm in Fenland , Word , near Sandwich . They informed him that it had been made by a farm hand in Cleve , Monkton , before being brought to Word when one of the Cleve farm workers relocated there .
Ultimately , Maylam believed that the custom – as a " natural and spontaneous observance " among the people – was clearly going to die out , expressing his hope that the hooden horses could be preserved in Kentish museums and brought out for specially arranged public processions so as to maintain their place in Kentish culture . In later life , Maylam focused his attentions on exploring his family history , privately publishing Maylam Family Records in 1932 , before dying in 1939 . In the century following his death , Maylam 's book on hoodening became difficult to obtain and expensive to purchase , and so to mark the centenary of its first publication , it was republished under the altered title of The Kent Hooden Horse in 2009 by The History Press . Writing an introductory article for the second publication , Doel , a specialist in Kentish folklore , praised Maylam 's book as a " classic study " which was " impressive for its separation of fact from speculation as to the origins and significance of the custom . "
= = = Twentieth @-@ century revival = = =
Writing in 1967 , the folklorist Barnett Field claimed that at some point after Maylam 's book was published , hoodening had " died out . The Horses were hung up in the stables , and when the tractors came , were taken out and burnt on the bonfire . " He noted that the first revival of the custom after the First World War took place at the 1936 Kent District Folk @-@ Dance Festival at Aylesford . A new horse was specially created for this festival , and was modeled on an older example that had been used at Sarre . This new horse was subsequently adopted by the Ravensbourne Morris Men , a Morris troupe based in the West Kentish village of Keston , in 1947 . The Ravensbourne Morris ' hoodening tradition is the earliest known variant of the custom to exist in West Kent , although there are accounts of a hooden horse being located at Balgowan School in the West Kentish town of Beckenham during the 1930s . As the Ravensbourne Morris included former pupils and staff of Balgowan school , there is the possibility that this was the same horse . At the 1945 celebration marking British victory in the Second World War , a horse was brought out in Acol ; this instance has been described as " a kind of missing link between tradition and revival " because the horse had been used as part of the historical hoodening tradition up until the mid @-@ 1920s .
Barnett Field ( 1912 – 2000 ) had been born at Wych Cross in the Ashdown Forest and subsequently educated at Tunbridge Wells . He trained as a banker before working as manager of the Hythe and Folkestone branches of the Westminster Bank until his retirement in 1979 . Field and his wife , Olive Ridley , had a keen interest in folk dances ; she established the Folkestone National Folk Dance Group in 1950 , and he founded the East Kent Morris Men in 1953 . Field constructed a hooden horse for the group to use , based in large part on the Deal horse photographed for Maylam 's book , and unveiled it at the Folkestone celebrations for the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in June 1953 . After this , it came to be used by both the East Kent Morris Men and the Folkestone District National Dance Group 's Handbell Ringers , who took it with them for performances in various parts of continental Europe , including Austria , the Netherlands , Yugoslavia , Sweden , and Czechoslovakia , developing what came to be known as " handbell hoodening " . The Handbell Ringers also brought out the horse to accompany them as they went around in public collecting money for charity at Christmas time .
From 1954 , the horse was also brought out for a Whitsun celebration in which it was paraded from Charing to the village green at Wye . A special service was held in the Charing Church , in which the Morris Men danced in the chancel and through the aisle , while the vicar bridled the horse itself . The horse was also brought out for a July 1956 ceremony in which The Swan Inn , a pub at Wickhambreaux , was officially renamed as The Hooden Horse ; present were the East Kent Morris Men , the Handbell Ringers , and the Ravensbourne Morris Men . This venture led to the groups establishing a new folk custom , " hop hoodening " , which was derived in part from an older hop picking ceremony found in the Weald area . Their new custom involved the different groups joining together on a tour around the villages of East Kent , beginning at Canterbury Cathedral and going through Ramsgate , Cliftonville , and Herne Bay before ending in a barn dance at Wickhambreaux .
In October 1957 , Field was introduced to Jack Laming of Walmer , who as a boy had performed in a hoodening troupe earlier in the century
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and Jordan Shapiro . The same year , it was licensed by the Nevada Gaming Commission , and Adelson became a casino magnate . In the early 1990s , Adelson built the Sands Expo , a 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) convention centre .
In its final years , the Sands became a shadow of its former self — a throwback to the old days - and it ultimately could not compete with the newer and more exciting megaresorts that were being built on the Strip . A 1990s travel guide though stated that the hotel gardens and pool area still retained the ambiance of the classic Sands days . The decision was eventually made by its final owner , Sheldon Adelson , to shut it down and to build a brand new resort . The last dice in the casino was rolled by Bob Stupak just after 6pm on June 30 , 1996 . On November 26 , 1996 , it was imploded and demolished , much to the dismay of longtime employees and sentimentalists . Footage of the demolition also appeared in the closing credits of The Cooler . The climactic plane crash in 1997 's Con Air ended with the aircraft crashing into the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ demolished Sands ' lobby .
On May 3 , 1999 , the new $ 1 @.@ 5 billion megaresort The Venetian opened where the Sands had formerly been , a 35 @-@ story hotel with 3 @,@ 036 rooms , covering an area of 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 m2 ) . It became the largest AAA Five @-@ Diamond landmark in North America .
= = Architecture = =
Wayne McAllister designed the original $ 5 @.@ 5 million Sands Hotel , an exotic @-@ looking terracotta red @-@ painted modern hotel with a prominent porte cochere at the front , surrounded by a zig @-@ zag wall ornamented with tiled planters . The hotel is arguably most associated with its 56 feet ( 17 m ) high sign , made iconic with photographs of the Rat Pack standing underneath it . The name " Sands " , written in elegant italics , featured a 36 feet ( 11 m ) high letter " S " , and the name was sprawled across an egg crate grill , cantilevered from a pillar . The sign was receptive to the light and shadow of the desert , and during night time it was lit up , glowing neon red . It was the tallest sign on the strip for a number of years . Beneath " Sands " was the tagline " A Place in the Sun " , written in smaller capital letters . Below that was the billing of the names of the performers appearing at Sands , very often photographed displaying names such as Frank Sinatra , Dean Martin , Jerry Lewis , Sammy Davis , Jr. and Red Skelton in the late 1950s and early 1960s . Author Alan Hess wrote that the " sleek Modernism of the Sands leaped past the Flamingo to set a higher standard of sophistication for Las Vegas . For the first time , the sign was an integral part of the architectural design " .
The porte @-@ cochère of the hotel featured three great sharp @-@ edged pillars jutting out in front of the glass @-@ fronted building , angling down into the ground , which resembled fins . The two @-@ story glass walled entry was bordered by a wall of imported Italian marble , and above the entrance area was a horizontal plane with copper lights suspended from the beams . Rather than being polished , the marble was unusual in that it was rough and grained . Natural and stained cork was used throughout the building . A.J. Leibling of the The New Yorker described the hotel in 1953 : " The main building of the Sands is a great rectangular hall , with the reception desk in one corner , slot machines along one long wall and a bar and cocktail lounge , complete with Latin trio , along the opposite wall . In the middle is a jumble of roulette and craps tables and 21 layouts . " The casino , of substantial size , was accessed by three sets of terrazzo stairs , and was lit by low @-@ hanging chandeliers . The bar featured bas @-@ reliefs with a Western theme , including cowboys , racing wagons and Joshua trees , designed by Allan Stewart of Claremont College , California . The Garden Room restaurant overlooked the hotel 's pool and landscaped grounds .
The 200 guest rooms of the original hotel were divided into four two @-@ story motel wings , each with fifty rooms , and named after famous race tracks . They were set out in a hacienda style , and surrounded by a half @-@ moon shaped pool . The suites were luxuriously designed . Plush blue carpets and ivory colored chairs with white ceilings were the norm in the early days . An electric tram service , often attended by pretty showgirls , took the guests to their rooms . A 14 @-@ story tower commenced construction in late 1965 , and was opened in 1967 . It existed until November 1996 when it was demolished .
The steam room of the hotel was a place of relaxation and good jest . It became a great place for socializing between the stars after 5 pm , including the Rat Pack , and Jerry Lewis , Steve Lawrence and Don Rickles . On one occasion they were having problems with the TV in the massage room , which was blurry and out of focus . Sinatra yelled " Move back , move back " , and the television was thrown into the pool . Manager Entratter permitted such activities , knowing that if he scolded Sinatra and asked him to pay damages he would not perform at Sands again .
= = = Copa Room = = =
The Copa Room was the showroom of Sands , named after the famed Copacabana Club in New York City . It contained 385 seats , designed in a Brazilian carnival style . Some of the more famed singers like Sinatra , Martin and Davis , Jr. had to sign contracts to ensure that they headline for a given number of weeks a year . Performers were extremely well paid for the period . It was common for some of them to be paid $ 25 @,@ 000 per week , playing two shows a night , six days a week , and once on a Sunday for two to three weeks .
The greatest names in the entertainment industry graced the stage of the Copa Room . Notable performers included Judy Garland , Lena Horne ( one of the first black performers at the hotel , billed as " The Satin Doll " ) , Jimmy Durante , Pat Cooper , Shirley MacLaine , Marlene Dietrich , Tallulah Bankhead , Shecky Greene , Martin and Lewis , Danny Thomas , Bobby Darin , Ethel Merman , Rich Little , Louis Armstrong , Jerry Lee Lewis , Nat King Cole , Robert Merrill , Wayne Newton , Red Skelton , and the " The Copa Girls " . Hollywood celebrities such as Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall , Elizabeth Taylor , Yul Brynner , Kirk Douglas , Lucille Ball and Rosalind Russell were often photographed enjoying the headline acts .
A number of notable albums were recorded in the Copa Room . Among them are Dean Martin 's Live At The Sands - An Evening of Music , Laughter and Hard Liquor , Frank Sinatra 's Sinatra at the Sands , and Sammy Davis , Jr . ' s The Sounds of ' 66 and That 's All ! . The Rat Pack : Live at the Sands , a CD released in 2001 , features Martin , Sinatra and Davis in a live performance at the hotel recorded in September 1963 . Live at the Sands is an album featuring Mary Wilson , formerly of The Supremes . Morrissey 's B @-@ side track , " At Amber " ( 1990 ) , takes place at the Sands Hotel , and recounts its by @-@ then aging and somewhat seedy atmosphere . Much of the musical success of the Copa Room is credited to the room 's band leader and musical conductor Antonio Morelli . Morelli not only acted as the band leader and musical conductor for the Copa Room during the Hotel 's Rat Pack heyday in the 1950s and 1960s , but he also played that role on hundreds of recorded albums by those same entertainers who graced the stage of the Copa . Often the festivities would carry over after hours to Morrelli 's home in Las Vegas , nicknamed " The Morelli House " , which was eventually relocated and sanctioned an historical landmark by the State of Nevada .
= = = Silver Queen Lounge = = =
The Silver Queen Lounge was another performing venue at Sands , with nightly acts starting at 5 : 00 pm and running until 6 : 00 am . It was particularly popular with the emerging rock ' n ' roll crowd . The Sands is where Freddie Bell and the Bell Boys performed the rock ' n ' roll @-@ song " Hound Dog " , seen by Elvis Presley . After Presley saw that performance at The Sands , he decided to record the song himself , and it became a hit for him . Roberta Linn and the Melodaires and Gene Vincent were also regular performers .
= Royal Arms of England =
The Royal Arms of England is a coat of arms first adopted as England 's personal arms by the Plantagenet kings who ruled the country in the late 12th century . They have come to symbolise in the popular mind England ( although historically nations never bore arms , only persons did ) and its monarchs . Its blazon is officially Gules , three lions passant guardant in pale or armed and langued azure , meaning three identical gold lions ( also known as leopards ) with blue tongues and claws , walking and facing the observer , arranged in a column on a red background . Although , the azure tincture of tongue and claws is not cited in many blazons , they are a distinguishing feature of the Arms of England , historically . This coat , designed in the High Middle Ages , has been variously combined with those of France , Scotland , Ireland , Nassau and Hanover , according to dynastic and other political changes affecting England , but has not itself been altered since the reign of King Richard I of England ( 1189 – 1199 ) .
Although in England the heraldic charge refers to lions , the French heralds historically used the term leopard to represent the lion passant guardant , and hence the arms of England , no doubt , are more correctly blazoned , Leopards . Practically , however , the same animal was intended , but different names given according to the position ; in later times the name lion was given to both .
Royal emblems depicting lions were first used by the Norman dynasty , later a formal and consistent English heraldry system emerged during the 12th century . The escutcheon , or shield featuring three lions is traced to King Richard I 's Great Seal of the Realm , which initially used a single lion rampant , or else two lions , but in 1198 , was permanently altered to depict three lions passant , representing Richard I 's triple ( amongst many more ) position as King of the English , Duke of the Normans , and Duke of the Aquitaines . In 1340 , King Edward III of England laid claim to the throne of France and signified his pretence by quartering the Royal Arms of England with the Royal Arms of France . This quartering was adjusted , abandoned and restored intermittently throughout the Middle Ages as the relationship between England and France changed . When the French altered their arms from a seme ' of fleur @-@ de @-@ lys , to only three on an azure field , the English quartering followed suit . After the Union of the Crowns in 1603 , when England and the Kingdom of Scotland entered a personal union , the arms of England and Scotland were combined in what has now become the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom . It appears in a similar capacity to represent England in the Arms of Canada and the Queen 's Personal Canadian Flag . The coat of three lions continues to represent England on several coins of the pound sterling , forms the basis of several emblems of English national sports teams , and endures as one of the most recognisable national symbols of England .
When the Royal Arms is in the format of a heraldic flag , it is variously known as the Royal Banner of England , the Banner of the Royal Arms , the Banner of the King of England , or by the misnomer of the Royal Standard of England . This Royal Banner differs from England 's national flag , St George 's Cross , in that it does not represent any particular area or land , but rather symbolises the sovereignty vested in the rulers thereof .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Lions had previously been used by the Norman dynasty as royal emblems , and Attributed arms have been invented for kings who pre @-@ dated the systematisation of hereditary English heraldry that occurred in the second half of the 12th century . King Henry II of England ( 1133 – 1189 ) had used a coat with a lion on it ; his children experimented with different combinations of lions . King Richard I ( 1189 – 1199 ) used a single lion rampant , or perhaps two lions affrontés , on his first seal , but later used three lions passant in his 1198 Great Seal of England , and thus established the lasting design of the Royal Arms of England . Although King John ( 1199 – 1216 ) had a seal in 1177 , with two lions passant guardant , the three lions passant or on a field gules were used as the Royal Arms ( or King 's Arms ) by Kings John ( 1199 – 1216 ) , Henry III ( 1216 – 1272 ) , Edward I ( 1272 – 1307 ) , and Edward II ( 1307 – 1327 ) .
= = = Development = = =
In 1340 , following the death of King Charles IV of France , Edward III asserted a claim to the French throne through his mother Isabella of France . In addition to initiating the Hundred Years ' War , Edward III expressed his claim in heraldic form by quartering the royal arms of England with the Arms of France . This quartering continued until 1801 , with intervals in 1360 – 1369 and 1420 – 1422 .
Following the death of Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1603 , the throne of England was inherited by the Scottish House of Stuart , resulting in the Union of the Crowns : the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland were united in a personal union under King James VI and I. As a consequence , the Royal Arms of England and Scotland were combined in the king 's new personal arms . Nevertheless , although referencing the personal union with Scotland and Ireland , the Royal Arms of England remained distinct from the Royal Arms of Scotland , until the two realms were joined in a political union in 1707 , leading to a unified Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom .
= = = Union with Scotland and Ireland = = =
On 1 May 1707 , the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to form that of Great Britain ; this was reflected by impaling their arms in a single quarter . The claim to the French throne continued , albeit passively , until it was mooted by the French Revolution and the formation of the French First Republic in 1792 . During the peace negotiations at the Conference of Lille , from July to November 1797 , the French delegates demanded that the King of Great Britain abandon the title of King of France as a condition of peace . The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Under King George III of the United Kingdom , a proclamation of 1 January 1801 set the royal style and titles and modified the Royal Arms , removing the French quarter and putting the arms of England , Scotland and Ireland on the same structural level , with the dynastic arms of Hanover moved to an inescutcheon .
= = = Contemporary = = =
English heraldry flourished as a working art up to around the 17th century , when it assumed a mainly ceremonial role . The Royal Arms of England continued to embody information relating to English history . Although the Acts of Union 1707 placed England within the Kingdom of Great Britain , prompting new , British Royal Arms , the Royal Arms of England has continued to endure as one of the national symbols of England , and has a variety of active uses . For instance , the coats of arms of both The Football Association and the England and Wales Cricket Board have a design featuring three lions passant , based on the historic Royal Arms of England . In 1997 ( and again in 2002 ) , the Royal Mint issued a British one pound ( £ 1 ) coin featuring three lions passant to represent England . To celebrate St George 's Day , in 2001 , Royal Mail issued first – and second @-@ class postage stamps with the Royal Crest of England ( a crowned lion ) , and the Royal Arms of England ( three lions passant ) respectively .
= = Crest , supporters and other parts of the achievement = =
Various accessories to the escutcheon ( shield ) were added and modified by successive English monarchs . These included a crest ( with mantling , helm and crown ) ; supporters ( with a compartment ) ; a motto ; and the insignia of an order of knighthood . These various components made up the full achievement of arms .
= = = Royal crest = = =
The first addition to the shield was in the form of a crest borne above the shield . It was during the reign of Edward III that the crest began to be widely used in English heraldry . The first representation of a royal crest was in Edward 's third Great Seal , which showed a helm above the arms , and thereon a gold lion passant guardant standing upon a chapeau , and bearing a royal crown on its head . The design underwent minor variations until it took on its present form in the reign of Henry VIII : " The Royal Crown proper , thereon a lion statant guardant Or , royally crowned also proper " .
The exact form of crown used in the crest varied over time . Until the reign of Henry VI it was usually shown as an open circlet adorned with fleurs @-@ de @-@ lys or stylised leaves . On Henry 's first seal for foreign affairs the design was altered with the circlet decorated by alternating crosses formy and fleurs @-@ de @-@ lys . From the reign of Edward IV the crown bore a single arch , altered to a double arch by Henry VII . The design varied in details until the late 17th century , but since that time has consisted of a jewelled circlet , above which are alternating crosses formy and fleurs @-@ de @-@ lys . From this spring two arches decorated with pearls , and at their intersection an orb surmounted by a cross formy . A cap of crimson velvet is shown within the crown , with the cap 's ermine lining appearing at the base of the crown in lieu of a torse . The shape of the arches of the crown has been represented differently at different times , and can help to date a depiction of the crest .
The helm on which the crest was borne was originally a simple steel design , sometimes with gold embellishments . In the reign of Elizabeth I a pattern of helm unique to the Royal Arms was introduced . This is a gold helm with a barred visor , facing the viewer . The decorative mantling ( a stylised cloth cloak that hangs from the helm ) was originally of red cloth lined with ermine , but was altered to cloth of gold lined ermine by Elizabeth .
= = = Supporters = = =
Animal supporters , standing on either side of the shield to hold and guard it , first appeared in English heraldry in the 15th century . Originally , they were not regarded as an integral part of arms , and were subject to frequent change . Various animals were sporadically shown supporting the Royal Arms of England , but it was only with the reign of Edward IV that their use became consistent . Supporters fell under the regulation of the Kings of Arms in the Tudor period . The heralds of that time also prochronistically created supporters for earlier monarchs , and although these attributed supporters were never used by the monarchs concerned , they were later used to signify them on public buildings or monuments completed after their deaths , for instance at St. George 's Chapel , in Windsor Castle .
The boar adopted by Richard III prompted William Collingbourne 's quip " The Rat , the Cat , and Lovell the Dog , Rule all England under the Hog " , and William Shakespeare 's derision in Richard III . The red dragon , a symbol of the Tudor dynasty , was added upon the accession of the Henry VII . After the Union of the Crowns , the supporters of the arms of the British monarch have remained as the Lion and the Unicorn , representing England and Scotland respectively .
= = = Garter and motto = = =
Edward III founded the Order of the Garter in about 1348 . Since then , the full achievement of the Royal Arms has included a representation of the Garter , encircling the shield . This is a blue circlet with gold buckle and edging , bearing the order 's Old French motto Honi soit qui mal y pense ( " Shame be to him who thinks evil of it " ) in gold capital letters .
A motto , placed on a scroll below the Royal Arms of England , seems to have first been adopted by Henry IV in the early 15th century . His motto was Souverayne ( " sovereign " ) . His son , Henry V adopted the motto Dieu et mon droit ( " God and my right " ) . While this motto has been exclusively used since the accession of George I in 1714 , and continues to form part of the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom , other mottoes were used by certain monarchs in the intervening period . Veritas temporis filia ( " truth is the daughter of time " ) was the motto of Mary I ( 1553 – 1558 ) , Semper Eadem ( " always the same " ) was used by Elizabeth I ( 1558 – 1603 ) and Anne ( 1702 – 1714 ) , James I ( 1603 – 1625 ) sometimes used Beati pacifici ( " blessed are the peacemakers " ) , while William III ( 1689 – 1702 ) used the motto of the House of Orange : Je maintiendrai ( " I will maintain " ) .
= = As a banner = =
The Royal Banner of England is the English banner of arms and so has always borne the Royal Arms of England — the personal arms of England 's reigning monarch . When displayed in war or battle , this banner signalled that the sovereign was present in person . Because the Royal Banner depicted the Royal Arms of England , its design and composition changed throughout the Middle Ages . It is variously known as the Royal Banner of England , the Banner of the Royal Arms , the Banner of the King of England , or by the misnomer of the Royal Standard of England ; Arthur Charles Fox @-@ Davies explains that it is " a misnomer to term the banner of the Royal Arms the Royal Standard " , because " the term standard properly refers to the long tapering flag used in battle , by which an overlord mustered his retainers in battle " . The archaeologist and antiquarian Charles Boutell also makes this distinction . This Royal Banner differs from England 's national flag , St George 's Cross , in that it does not represent any particular area or land , but rather symbolises the sovereignty vested in the rulers thereof .
When displayed in war or battle , this banner signalled that the sovereign was present in person . Because the Royal Banner depicted the Royal Arms of England , so its design and composition changed throughout the Middle Ages .
= = = In other banners = = =
= = Other roles and manifestations = =
Several ancient English towns displayed the Royal Arms of England upon their seals and , when it occurred to them to adopt insignia of their own , used the Royal Arms , albeit with modification , as their inspiration . For instance , in the arms of New Romney , the field is changed from red to blue . Hereford changes the lions from gold to silver , and in the 17th century was granted a blue border charged with silver saltires in allusion to its siege by a Scottish army during the English Civil War . The town council of Faversham changes only the hindquarters of the three lions to silver . Berkshire County Council bore arms with two golden lions in reference to its Royal patronage and the Norman kings ' influence upon the early history of Berkshire .
The Royal Arms of England features on the tabard , the distinctive traditional garment of English officers of arms . These garments were worn by heralds when performing their original duties — making royal or state proclamations and announcing tournaments . Since 1484 they have been part of the Royal Household . Tabards featuring the Royal Arms continue to be worn at several traditional ceremonies , such as the annual procession and service of the Order of the Garter at Windsor Castle , the State Opening of Parliament at the Palace of Westminster , the coronation of the British monarch at Westminster Abbey , and state funerals in the United Kingdom .
= SS Black Osprey =
SS Black Osprey was a cargo ship for the American Diamond Lines and the British Cairn Line . She was formerly known as SS West Arrow when she was launched for the USSB during World War I. The ship was inspected by the United States Navy for possible use as USS West Arrow ( ID @-@ 2585 ) but was neither taken into the Navy nor ever commissioned under that name .
West Arrow was built in 1918 for the USSB , as a part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort . Information about her early career is largely absent , but by the 1920s , news reports revealed that the ship was sailing on the North Atlantic . By the mid @-@ 1920s , West Arrow was sailing for American Diamond on their cargo service to Rotterdam and Antwerp . In 1935 , American Diamond changed the ship 's name to Black Osprey and the ship continued in Rotterdam service .
After the outbreak of World War II , Black Osprey , still under the registry of the still @-@ neutral United States , was detained twice by British authorities , before the U.S.-established " Neutrality Zone " ended Black Osprey 's Dutch service in late 1939 . Sailing under charter to the Isthmian Line in 1940 , Black Osprey called at various ports in the Pacific Ocean . American Diamond sold Black Osprey to the British Ministry of War Transport in late 1940 . During the ship 's first transatlantic crossing under the British flag , she was sunk by German submarine U @-@ 96 on 18 February 1941 , with the loss of 25 men . The 11 survivors were picked up by a Norwegian ship and landed in at Barry .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the USSB for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Arrow , one of some 24 West ships built by Skinner & Eddy of Seattle , Washington . West Arrow ( Skinner & Eddy No. 12 ) was laid down on 20 September 1917 under the name Jas . G. Eddy , launched as West Arrow on 19 January 1918 , and completed on 26 February 1918 .
The ship was 5 @,@ 802 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 409 feet 5 inches ( 124 @.@ 79 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 2 inches ( 16 @.@ 51 m ) abeam . West Arrow had a steel hull and a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 800 DWT . The ship had a single steam turbine that drove her single screw propeller , and moved the ship at a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) pace .
= = Career = =
West Arrow was inspected by the 13th Naval District of the United States Navy after completion and was assigned the identification number of 2585 . Had she been commissioned , she would have been known as USS West Arrow ( ID @-@ 2585 ) , but the Navy neither took over the ship nor commissioned her .
Little is known of West Arrow 's early career , with almost no information regarding her World War I activities . During that war , many of the West ships carried grain products to the United Kingdom , France , and Italy , but it is not known whether West Arrow did so or not . One early mention of West Arrow in contemporary news accounts is found in The Washington Post , which reported in February 1921 that the cargo ship had delivered 742 " milch cows " to Bremen as a gift from American farmers from Texas and Kansas . The New York Times reported in September 1923 that West Arrow , heading from Liverpool to Boston , had been struck by the White Star Line ocean liner Haverford 1 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) west of Queenstown , Ireland . Haverford , headed from Philadelphia to Liverpool with passengers , struck the cargo ship on the port side , 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) from the bow . A radio dispatch from West Arrow reported that she was proceeding under her own power and was not taking on any water . By March 1926 , West Arrow was sailing for American Diamond Lines in New York – Rotterdam service on a U.S. government @-@ subsidized mail route . In July 1932 , the ship was moved to a new Baltimore – Antwerp route , but by December 1934 was again sailing to Rotterdam .
In 1935 , American Diamond changed the name of West Arrow to Black Osprey , which remained on the Rotterdam route into 1936 . In March of that year , The Wall Street Journal — reporting on a large gold shipment from the United States to Holland — speculated that Black Osprey was the ship that had been selected to carry $ 345 @,@ 000 of gold for export . On 24 March 1938 , Black Osprey was sailing in a dense fog off St. Catherine 's Point on the Isle of Wight when she struck the 311 GRT British cargo ship Chagford , which sank within five minutes . Three of Chagford 's six @-@ man crew were picked up by Black Osprey , whose crew searched in vain for three hours for the other three men . After the fog lifted , the Chagford survivors were transferred to a fishing vessel that landed the crewmen , and Black Osprey resumed her Rotterdam – Philadelphia journey .
= = World War II = =
After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Black Osprey , still registered in the neutral @-@ United States , was seized by British authorities on 6 September and detained at Weymouth . After carefully inspecting the ship for any contraband , the British released the ship after a week . However , on 31 October , the British again seized Black Osprey , and had not yet released her by 8 November , when the U.S. State Department released a list of 40 American ships that had been detained by belligerents .
The United States established a " Neutrality Zone " — a zone where American @-@ flagged ships could not enter — in late 1939 . As a result , American Diamond was unable to continue its Dutch route , and chartered the eight vessels it employed in that service ( which included Black Osprey ) to other U.S. companies . Black Osprey was one of several chartered to the Isthmian Line , and made voyages in the Pacific , calling at ports such as Singapore and Honolulu in 1940 . After a typhoon with winds in excess of 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) hit Wake Island in early October , Black Osprey was diverted through heavy seas to check on the welfare of the 35 men on the island , all found to be safe .
In November , American Diamond sought the permission of the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) , a successor to the USSB , to sell Black Osprey and seven other ships to the British . The USMC granted the permission , and Black Osprey was sold to the Ministry of War Transport for operation by the Cairn Line of Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne , for about $ 50 per deadweight ton , or around $ 440 @,@ 000 .
The deal was completed before Black Osprey 's 10 December sailing from Philadelphia to Baltimore under the British flag . Black Osprey then sailed from Baltimore on 25 January 1941 for Halifax , where she arrived on 30 January . Black Osprey , loaded with a cargo of steel , joined convoy HX 107 that sailed from that port for Liverpool on 3 February . After falling behind in the convoy , Black Osprey was torpedoed by U @-@ 96 under the command of Fregattenkapitän Heinrich Lehmann @-@ Willenbrock at 02 : 27 on 18 February south of Iceland , near position 61 ° 18 ′ N 18 ° 6 ′ W. The ship 's master and 24 crewmen died in the attack . Black Osprey 's 11 survivors were picked up by the Norwegian refrigerated cargo ship Mosdale and landed at Barry .
= Ralph W. Aigler =
Ralph W. Aigler ( February 12 , 1885 – May 24 , 1964 ) was an American law professor at the University of Michigan from 1910 – 1954 , the University 's faculty representative to the Big Ten Conference from 1917 to 1955 , and chairman of Michigan 's Faculty Board in Control of Athletics from 1917 to 1942 . Aigler was a renowned expert on real property law and one of the advisors to the American Law Institute in the drafting of the Restatement of the Law of Property . He is best known , however , for his contributions to the athletics programs at the University of Michigan . Aigler 's contributions included leading Michigan back into the Big Ten Conference , leading the effort to construct Michigan Stadium , Yost Fieldhouse and other facilities , negotiating the Big Ten 's exclusive contract with the Rose Bowl starting in 1946 , hiring Fritz Crisler as football coach and athletic director , and acting as a spokesman for the University and Big Ten for many years on NCAA rules and eligibility issues . He was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1982 .
= = Early years = =
Aigler was born in Bellevue , Ohio , in 1885 . He received an LL.B. degree from the University of Michigan Law School in 1907 . After graduating , he took a job with the Rosenthal & Hammill law firm in Chicago .
= = Law professor = =
Aigler joined the faculty of Michigan 's Law School and served as professor of law until 1954 . He was a renowned expert in the area of property law and was one of the advisors to the American Law Institute in the preparation of the first Restatement of the Law on Property in 1936 . Aigler published at least 123 articles on legal topics including real property , negotiable instruments , trusts , banks and banking , and Constitutional law . He also served as the President of the Association of American Law Schools .
= = Return to the Big Ten Conference = =
In addition to his work as a law professor , Aigler also served as the University 's faculty representative to the Big Ten Conference from 1917 – 1955 , and chairman of Michigan 's Faculty Board in Control of Athletics from 1917 – 1942 . Michigan had left the Big Ten Conference in 1907 , and Aigler led the school back into Conference membership . In June 1917 , The New York Times reported that the Conference 's faculty representatives had voted unanimously to invite Michigan to resume athletic relations with the " Big Nine . " The article noted that " Professor R.W. Aigler , Chairman of Michigan 's Athletic Board of Control " , attended the meeting as Michigan 's representative .
= = Construction of Michigan Stadium and other facilities = =
Aigler was also a leader in the construction of Michigan Stadium . In July 1926 , Aigler was appointed to the Stadium Building Committee , which was empowered " to appoint the General Engineer for the building of the stadium and to let contracts for the excavation , placing of abutments , drainage , etc . , so that work may proceed immediately . " The stadium was built on time and within its budget , and Aigler presented a detailed report on construction costs to the Board in Control of Athletics ; the total cost was $ 1 @,@ 131 @,@ 733 @.@ 36 .
He was also the chairman of the Board in Control of Athletics during the construction of Yost Fieldhouse and the Intramural Building .
= = Spokesman for Michigan and Big Ten athletics = =
Aigler also became the voice of the University , and at times of the Big Ten , on athletics eligibility and rules issues . In 1925 , Aigler defended intercollegiate athletics against charges that they had a negative effect on institutions of higher learning . Aigler said that the harm done by athletics was almost nothing when compared to the evils caused by " common loafing . " " The greatest vice in American college life today is loafing " , said Aigler . " There is no doubt that this far overshadows the harm created by intercollegiate athletics . No one would be more pleased than I to see a Phi Beta Kappa ( honorary scholarship society ) man receive as much recognition by the public as do our leading athletes . But such a condition would be contrary to human nature . Intellectual attainments do not make such an appeal , and that is why athletics are so prominent in colleges and universities today . "
In 1929 and 1930 , with the expulsion of the University of Iowa from the Big Ten for rules violations , Aigler was the spokesman of the Conference . He was also chairman of the Big Ten when Iowa sought reinstatement in 1933 .
When Howard J. Savage of the Carnegie Foundation issued " Bulletin 33 " in January 1930 criticizing recruitment and subsidization of athletes , Aigler challenged the fairness of the report . Aigler charged that Savage had " no intention of being fair and accurate " and accused Savage of questionable tactics in sending Michigan 's president a report of conditions different from the report in the bulletin . Aigler also accused Savage of removing letters from the files of the athletic department to which he was allowed full access . He also argued that the report reflected eastern bias : " In a number of places in the Bulletin the so @-@ called Western Conference ( now the Big Nine ) is referred to and , curiously , almost always with a sort of half veiled sneer . The truth apparently is that the Bulletin was written from the point of view of the Eastern athletic man who has it pretty firmly fixed in mind that , athletically , things are pretty raw in the territory generally West of the Alleghenies . " Aigler later issued a 31 @-@ page report on athletic conditions at Michigan , charging the Carnegie Foundation with " muck @-@ raking . "
When the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools sought to usurp rule @-@ making powers with regard to athletics , Aigler defended the authority and jurisdiction of the Big Ten . He said : " By agreement of the universities constituting the Big Ten for many years the making of rules and administration of athletic affairs , except that of purely local concern , have been delegated to the conference . This conference was a pioneer in athletic reform movements . Its organization has been the model for many years all over the country and its legislation generally has been widely copied . The aim of the conference not only has been to provide uniform eligibility rules , but also to * * * and keep athletic activities in a proper relationship to the main business of the universities . Recently there has been developed in the North Central association a movement to take hold of matters heretofore handled by the conference . "
Aigler came under fire in 1936 for his public statement about moves at the University of Wisconsin to shift oversight of athletics away from the faculty . Aigler issued a statement on behalf of the Big Ten criticizing Wisconsin for establishing a non @-@ faculty governing body . Aigler said , " The evidence before the Conference indicated strongly that the Wisconsin regents for several years have shown a disposition to subordinate faculty desires to the wishes of such outsiders . " In response to Aigler 's charge , one Wisconsin newspaper asked : " Was he Ignorant , or Did he Want Some Publicity ? "
As the long @-@ time chairman of the Board in Control of Athletics , Aigler issued annual reports to the University Senate on the state of the athletics programs . In 1921 , Aigler 's report stated that football was the only sport that paid for itself . In that fiscal year , football generated $ 73 @,@ 766 @.@ 76 " while its expenses were $ 41 @,@ 176 @.@ 10 , leaving a profit of $ 32 @,@ 590 @.@ 66 . " Baseball exceeded its revenues by $ 5 @,@ 000 , and track cost $ 8 @,@ 203 above receipts . According to Aigler 's reports total athletic receipts were $ 148 @,@ 000 against disbursements of $ 155 @,@ 000 . In 1937 , Aigler reported football receipts of $ 153 @,@ 836 @.@ 34 , exceeding disbursements by $ 102 @,@ 683 @.@ 42 . Football was again the only sport to pay for itself , and the profit from football was enough to create an overall profit of $ 50 @,@ 000 from the athletic programs . Aigler referred to the football 's team 's three @-@ year losing streak as a " lesson in humility . "
= = Hiring of Crisler and retirement of Yost = =
Fielding H. Yost became the football coach and then athletic director at the University of Michigan since 1901 . Aigler was also one of the first persons within the University to challenge Yost 's authority . In 1937 , Aigler 's hiring of former Notre Dame head coach Hunk Anderson as assistant football coach was seen as a sign that " the iron hand of Fielding Yost carries less power than it did . " At the time , it was reported : " Prof. Ralph Aigler is said to be rapidly becoming the dominant figure in Michigan 's athletics . "
Charges surfaced in November 1937 that Michigan 's freshman athletes had been subsidized with employment through an Ann Arbor manufacturing concern at a higher rate than other employees , and with funds controlled by alumni . When Aigler was reported to have said that " all freshman athletes at Michigan would be presumed to have been subsidized " , it was perceived to be part of political infighting among those in control of Michigan 's athletic programs .
Harry Kipke was fired as Michigan 's head coach in December 1937 , and Yost and Aigler were authorized to begin interviewing candidates for Kipke 's job . On February 10 , 1938 , Aigler made a public announcement that Fritz Crisler had been hired as Michigan 's new head football coach . Aigler was reported to have hired Crisler without Yost 's knowledge . In fact , the report of Crisler 's hiring was combined with indications that " the impending retirement of Fielding H. Yost as Michigan 's athletic director will be hastened to put Crisler in complete control . " At that point , " it became clear that Yost no longer ran the athletic department . Uncharacteristically , Yost did not raise a ruckus ; instead , he stepped aside graciously . "
The U @-@ M Regents reorganized athletic oversight in 1942 and replaced the Faculty Board of Athletic Control with a new intercollegiate athletics board , and Crisler succeeded Aigler as chairman of the body with ultimate authority to hire and fire coaches . Aigler remained the faculty representative to the Big Ten until 1955 .
= = Opposition to athletic scholarships = =
For many years , Aigler was an outspoken opponent of athletic scholarships . In 1939 , the Michigan Student Senate adopted a resolution favoring tuition scholarships for varsity athletes with at least a " B " average . The resolution was intended to rid college sports of unseemly under @-@ the @-@ table subsidies and to provide a " fair return for services " to the athletes who made possible the " big business " of college sports . Aigler opposed the move , saying : " You can 't give athletic scholarships without aspiring to the sigma of professionalism . . . . Other schools have tried it , and if the practice enjoys widespread continuance , it will prove the doom of collegiate sport . " Aigler argued that scholarships were a form of payment that undermined the concept of the unpaid student athlete . He said : " Those college teams made up of scholarship holders and the like should be grouped with the Giants , Redskins , Bears , etc . , instead of with those teams made up of bona fide college students to whom athletic participation must be secondary . " On another occasion , he urged schools granting athletic scholarships , though " ostensibly amateur " , to " turn square and associate themselves with the Washington Redskins and Green Bay Packers . "
Aigler even proposed that under the monitorship of the NCAA , the non @-@ scholarship colleges and universities should sever athletic relations with institutions refusing to meet the standard . In 1948 , Aigler was one of the drafters and advocates of the NCAA 's " purity " code prohibiting any form of subsidization of student athletes . Aigler later served as the Secretary @-@ Treasurer of the NCAA from 1955 – 1956 . In that role , Aigler eventually relented and worked on the rule changes permitting universities to grant full @-@ ride scholarships to student athletes .
= = Big Ten contract with Rose Bowl = =
Aigler also played an important role in securing the Big Ten 's long @-@ term contract with the Rose Bowl . Prior to the 1947 season , the visiting spot in the Rose Bowl was open to all conferences , and the Big Ten champion only appeared in the Rose Bowl on rare occasions . In November 1946 , Aigler was appointed to a five @-@ person steering committee assigned to negotiate an exclusive contract with the Rose Bowl . The Big Ten approved the exclusive arrangement by a vote of 7 to 2 , with Illinois and Minnesota the only opponents . The relationship was negotiated at meetings between Aigler and the Big Ten steering committee and the Pacific Coast Conference held in Berkeley , California in November 1946 . Aigler traveled to California again in May 1947 with William Reed to negotiate administrative details of the Rose Bowl arrangement with Pacific Coast Conference representative William C. Ackerman . The University of Michigan was the first Big Ten participant in the new Rose Bowl arrangement , defeating the USC Trojans 49 – 0 in the game held on January 1 , 1948 .
Aigler was again part of a five @-@ person committee in 1953 that negotiated the extension of the Big Ten contract with the Rose Bowl . The renewal passed by a vote of 6 – 4 , with Wisconsin , Purdue , and Illinois voting against the deal .
= = Later years and honnors = =
Aigler was presented with an Honorary " M " ( normally reserved for varsity athletes ) by the University of Michigan " M " Club for his contributions to the school 's athletic programs .
In 1955 , Aigler moved to Tucson , Arizona , joined the faculty of the University of Arizona College of Law , and taught a course in bills and notes .
Aigler died in 1964 in at St. Joseph 's Hospital Tucson . He was posthumously inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1982 , as part of the fifth induction class .
= Pied @-@ Noir =
Pied @-@ Noir ( French pronunciation : [ pjenwaʁ ] , Black @-@ Foot ) , plural Pieds @-@ Noirs , is a term referring to Christian and Jewish people whose families had migrated from all parts of the Mediterranean to French Algeria , the French protectorate in Morocco , or the French protectorate of Tunisia , where many had lived for several generations , and who were expelled at the end of French rule in North Africa between 1956 and 1962 . The term usually includes the North African Jews , who had been living there for many centuries but were awarded French citizenship by the 1870 Cremieux decree . More specifically , the term Pieds @-@ Noirs is used for those of European ancestry who " returned " to mainland France as soon as Algeria gained independence , or in the months following .
From the French invasion on 18 June 1830 until its independence , Algeria was administratively part of France ( French departments in 1848 ) and its European population was simply called Algerians or colons ( colonists ) , whereas the Muslim people of Algeria were called Arabs , Muslims or Indigenous .
The term Pieds @-@ Noirs began to be used commonly shortly before the end of the Algerian independence war in 1962 . As of the last census in Algeria , taken on 1 June 1960 , there were 1 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 non @-@ Muslim civilians ( mostly Catholic ) in Algeria ( 10 percent of the total population including 130 @,@ 000 Algerian Jews ) .
During the Algerian War the Pieds @-@ Noirs overwhelmingly supported colonial French rule in Algeria and were opposed to Algerian nationalist groups such as the Front de libération nationale ( FLN ) and Mouvement national algérien ( MNA ) . The roots of the conflict reside in political and economic inequalities perceived as an " alienation " from the French rule as well as a demand for a leading position for the Berber , Arab , and Islamic cultures and rules existing before the French conquest . The conflict contributed to the fall of the French Fourth Republic and the mass exodus of Algerian Europeans and Jews to France .
After Algeria became independent in 1962 , about 800 @,@ 000 Pieds @-@ Noirs of French nationality were evacuated to mainland France while about 200 @,@ 000 chose to remain in Algeria . Of the latter , there were still about 100 @,@ 000 in 1965 and about 50 @,@ 000 by the end of the 1960s .
Those who moved to France suffered ostracism from the Left for their perceived exploitation of native Muslims and some blamed them for the war , thus the political turmoil surrounding the collapse of the French Fourth Republic . In popular culture , the community is often represented as feeling removed from French culture while longing for Algeria . Thus , the recent history of the pieds @-@ noirs has been imprinted with a theme of double alienation from both their native homeland and their adopted land . Though the term rapatriés d 'Algérie implies that they once lived in France , most pieds @-@ noirs were born in Algeria . Many families had lived there for generations , and the Algerian Jews , who were considered pieds @-@ noirs , were as indigenous to Algeria as its Muslim population .
= = Origin of the term = =
The actual origin of the term Pied @-@ noir is unknown and therefore debated . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , it refers to " a person of European origin living in Algeria during the period of French rule , especially a French person expatriated after Algeria was granted independence in 1962 . " The Le Robert dictionary states that in 1901 the word indicated a sailor working barefoot in the coal room of a ship , who would find his feet dirtied by the soot and dust . In the Mediterranean , this was often an Algerian native , thus the term was used pejoratively for Algerians until 1955 when it first began referring to " French born in Algeria . " This usage originated from mainland French as a negative nickname .
There is also a theory that the term comes from the black boots of French soldiers compared to the barefoot Algerians . Other theories focus on new settlers dirtying their clothing by working in swampy areas , wearing black boots when on horseback , or trampling grapes to make wine .
= = History = =
= = = French conquest and settlement = = =
European settlement of Algeria began during the 1830s , after France had commenced the process of conquest with the military seizure of the city of Algiers in 1830 . The invasion was instigated when the Dey of Algiers struck the French consul with a fly @-@ swatter in 1827 , although economic reasons are also cited . In 1830 the government of Charles X blockaded Algeria and an armada sailed to Algiers , followed by a land expedition . A troop of 34 @,@ 000 soldiers landed on 18 June 1830 , at Sidi Ferruch , 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) west of Algiers . Following a three @-@ week campaign , the Hussein Dey capitulated on 5 July 1830 , and was exiled .
In the 1830s the French controlled only the northern part of the country . Entering the Oran region , they faced resistance from Emir Abd al @-@ Kader , a leader of a Sufi Brotherhood . In 1839 Abd al @-@ Kader began a seven @-@ year war by declaring jihad against the French . The French signed two peace treaties with al @-@ Kader , but they were broken because of a miscommunication between the military and the Parisian government . In response to the breaking of the second treaty , Abd al @-@ Kader drove the French to the coast . In reply , a force of nearly 100 @,@ 000 troops marched to the Algerian countryside and forced Abd al @-@ Kader 's surrender in 1847 . In 1848 Algeria was divided into three départements of France , Alger , Oran , and Constantine , thus becoming part of the French state .
The French modeled their colonial system on their predecessors , the Ottomans , by co @-@ opting local tribes . In 1843 the colonists began supervising through Bureaux Arabes operated by military officials with authority over particular domains . This system lasted until the 1880s and the rise of the French Third Republic , when colonization intensified . Large @-@ scale regrouping of lands began when land @-@ speculation companies took advantage of government policy that allowed massive sale of native property . By the 20th century Europeans held 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 hectares ; by 1940 , 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 hectares , about 35 to 40 percent ; and by 1962 it was 2 @,@ 726 @,@ 700 hectares representing 27 percent of the arable land of Algeria . " Settlers came from all over the western Mediterranean region , particularly Italy , France , Spain , and Malta .
= = = Relationship to mainland France and Muslim Algeria = = =
The Pied @-@ Noir relationship with France and Algeria was marked by alienation . The settlers considered themselves French , but many of the Pieds @-@ Noirs had a tenuous connection to mainland France , which 28 percent of them had never visited . The settlers encompassed a range of socioeconomic strata , ranging from peasants to large landowners , the latter of whom were referred to as grands colons .
In Algeria , the Muslims were not considered French and did not share the same political or economic benefits . For example , the indigenous population did not own most of the settlements , farms , or businesses , although they numbered nearly 9 million ( versus roughly one million Pieds @-@ Noirs ) at independence . Politically , the Muslim Algerians had no representation in the Algerian National Assembly and wielded limited influence in local governance . To obtain citizenship , they were required to renounce their Muslim identity . Since this would constitute apostasy , only about 2 @,@ 500 Muslims acquired citizenship before 1930 . The settlers ' politically and economically dominant position worsened relations between the two groups .
= = = The Pied Noir population as part of the total Algerian population = = =
From roughly the last half of the 19th century until independence , the pied @-@ noirs accounted for approximately 10 % of the total Algerian population . Although they constituted a numerical minority , they were undoubtedly the prime political and economic force of the region .
In 1959 , the pieds @-@ noirs numbered 1 @,@ 025 @,@ 000 , and accounted for 10 @.@ 4 % of the total population of Algeria , a percentage gradually diminishing since the peak of 15 @.@ 2 % in 1926 . However , some areas of Algeria had high concentrations of pieds @-@ noirs , such as the regions of Bône ( now Annaba ) , Algiers , and above all the area from Oran to Sidi @-@ Bel @-@ Abbès . Oran had been under European rule since the 17th century , and the population in the Oran metropolitan area was 49 @.@ 3 % European and Jewish in 1959 . In the Algiers metropolitan area , Europeans and Jewish people accounted for 35 @.@ 7 % of the population . In the metropolitan area of Bône they accounted for 40 @.@ 5 % of the population . The département of Oran , a rich European @-@ developed agricultural land of 16 @,@ 520 km ² ( 6 @,@ 378 sq. miles ) stretching between the cities of Oran and Sidi @-@ Bel @-@ Abbès , and including them , was the largest area of pieds @-@ noirs density outside of the cities , with the pieds @-@ noirs accounting for 33 @.@ 6 % of the population of the département in 1959 .
= = = Sephardic Jewish community = = =
Jews were present in North Africa and Iberia for centuries , some since the time when " Phoenicians and Hebrews , engaged in maritime commerce , founded Hippo Regius ( current Annaba ) , Tipasa , Caesarea ( current Cherchel ) , and Icosium ( current Algiers ) . " A tradition told they arrived from Judea after the First Jewish @-@ Roman War ( 66 – 73 AD ) while it is known historically many Sephardi Jews came following the Spanish Reconquista . In 1870 , Justice Minister Adolphe Crémieux wrote a proposal , décret Crémieux , giving French citizenship to Algerian Jews . Thus , the Jews of Algeria came to be considered part of the Pied @-@ Noir community . This advancement was resisted by part of the larger Pied @-@ Noir community . In 1897 a wave of anti @-@ Semitic riots occurred in Algeria . During World War II the décret Crémieux was abolished under the Vichy regime , and Jews were barred from professional jobs between 1940 and 1943 . Citizenship was restored in 1943 . Many Jews fled the country to France in 1962 , alongside most other Pieds @-@ Noirs , after the Algerian War .
= = = Algerian War and exodus = = =
= = = = Algerian War = = = =
For more than a century France maintained colonial rule in Algerian territory . This allowed exceptions to republican law , including Sharia laws applied by Islamic customary courts to Muslim women which gave women certain rights to property and inheritance which they did not have under French law . Discontent among the Muslim Algerians grew after the World Wars , in which the Algerians sustained many casualties . Algerian nationalists began efforts aimed at furthering equality by listing complaints in the Manifesto of the Algerian People , which requested equal representation under the state and access to citizenship , but no equality for all citizens to preserve Islamic precepts . The French response was to grant citizenship to 60 @,@ 000 " meritorious " Muslims . During a reform effort in 1947 , the French created a bicameral legislature with one house for the French citizens and another for the Muslims but made a European 's vote equal seven times a Muslim 's vote . Paramilitary groups such as the Front de Libération nationale ( FLN ) appeared , claiming an Arabo @-@ Islamic brotherhood and state . This led to the outbreak of a war for independence , the Algerian War , in 1954 .
From the first armed operations of November 1954 , ' Pieds @-@ Noirs ' civilians have always been targets for FLN , either by assassination , bombing bars and cinemas and mass massacres , torture and rapes in farms . At the onset of the war , the Pieds @-@ noirs believed the French military would be able to overcome opposition . In May 1958 a demonstration for French Algeria , led by Pieds @-@ Noirs but including many Muslims , occupied an Algerian government building . General Massu controlled the riot by forming a Committee of Public Safety demanding that his acquaintance Charles de Gaulle be named president of the French Fourth Republic , to prevent the " abandonment of Algeria " . This eventually led to the fall of the Republic . In response , the French Parliament voted 329 to 224 to place de Gaulle in power . Once de Gaulle assumed leadership , he attempted peace by visiting Algeria within three days of his appointment claiming " French Algeria ! " but in September 1959 he planned a referendum for Algerian self @-@ determination that passed overwhelmingly . Many French political and military leaders in Algeria viewed this as betrayal and formed the Organisation de l 'armée secrète ( OAS ) that had much support among ' Pieds @-@ Noirs ' . This paramilitary group began attacking officials representing de Gaulle 's authority , Muslims , and de Gaulle himself . The OAS was also accused of murders and bombings nullifying reconciliation opportunities between the communities , while ' Pieds @-@ Noirs ' themselves never believed such reconciliation possible as their community was targeted from the start .
The opposition culminated in 1961 during the Algiers putsch of 1961 , led by retired generals . After this failure , on 18 March 1962 , de Gaulle and the FLN signed a cease @-@ fire agreement , the Évian Accords , and held a referendum . In July , Algerians voted 5 @,@ 975 @,@ 581 to 16 @,@ 534 to become independent from France . This was an occasion for a massacre of ' Pieds @-@ Noirs ' in Oran by a suburban Muslim population . European people were shot , molested and brought to Petit @-@ Lac slaughterhouse where they were tortured and executed .
= = = = Exodus = = = =
The exodus began once it became clear that Algeria would become independent . In Algiers , it was reported that by May 1961 the Pieds @-@ Noirs ' morale had sunk because of violence and allegations that the entire community of French nationals had been responsible for " terrorism , torture , colonial racism , and ongoing violence in general " and because the group felt " rejected by the nation as Pieds @-@ Noirs " . These factors , the Oran Massacre , and the referendum for independence caused the Pied @-@ Noir exodus to begin in earnest .
The number of Pied @-@ Noirs who fled Algeria totaled more than 800 @,@ 000 between 1962 and 1964 . Many Pieds @-@ Noirs left only with what they could carry in a suitcase . Adding to the confusion , the de Gaulle government ordered the French Navy not to help with transportation of French citizens . By September 1962 , cities such as Oran , Bône , and Sidi Bel Abbès were half @-@ empty . All administration , police , schools , justice , and commercial activities stopped within three months after many were told to choose either " la valise ou le cercueil " ( the suitcase or the coffin ) . 200 @,@ 000 Pieds @-@ Noirs chose to remain , but they gradually left through the following decade ; by the 1980s only a few thousand Pieds @-@ Noirs remained in Algeria .
The flight of the Pied @-@ Noirs dwarfed that of the Muslim harkis who had fought on the French side during the Algerian War . Of approximately 250 @,@ 000 Muslim loyalists only about 90 @,@ 000 , including dependents , were able to escape to France and of those who remained many thousands were killed by lynch mobs or executed as traitors by the F.L.N. In contrast to the treatment of the European Pied @-@ Noirs , little effort was made by the French government to extend protection to the harkis or to arrange their organised evacuation .
= = = = Flight to mainland France = = = =
The French government claimed that it had not anticipated that such a massive number would leave ; it believed that perhaps 300 @,@ 000 might choose to depart temporarily and that a large portion would return to Algeria . The administration had set aside funds for absorption of those they called " repatriates " to partly reimburse them for property losses . The administration avoided acknowledging the true numbers of refugees in order to avoid upsetting its Algeria policies . Consequently , few plans were made for their return , and , psychologically at least , many of the Pieds @-@ Noirs were alienated from both Algeria and France .
Many Pieds @-@ Noirs settled in continental France , while others migrated to New Caledonia , Australia , Italy , Spain , the United States , Canada , Israel , and Argentina . In France , many relocated to the south , which offered a climate similar to North Africa . The influx of new citizens bolstered the local economies ; however , the newcomers also competed for jobs , which caused resentment . In some ways , the Pieds @-@ Noirs were able to integrate well into the French community , relative to their Muslim counterparts . Their resettlement was made easier by the economic boom of the 1960s . However , the ease of assimilation depended on socioeconomic class . Integration was easier for the upper classes , many of whom found the transformation less stressful than the lower classes , who had no other capital than all they left in Algeria . Many were surprised that they were often treated as an " underclass or outsider @-@ group " with difficulties to get advancement in their careers . Also , many Pieds @-@ Noirs contended that the money allocated by the government to assist in relocation and reimbursement was insufficient regarding their loss .
Thus , the repatriated Pieds @-@ Noirs frequently felt " disaffected " from French society . They also suffered from a sense of alienation stemming from the French government 's changed position towards Algeria . Until independence , Algeria was legally a part of France ; after independence many felt that they had been betrayed and were now portrayed as an " embarrassment " to their country or to blame for the war .
= = The Song of the Africans = =
The pied @-@ noir community has adopted , as both an unofficial anthem and as a symbol of its identity , Captain Félix Boyer 's 1943 version of Le Chant des Africains ( lit . " The Song of the Africans " ) . This was a 1915 Infanterie de Marine marching song , originally titled C 'est nous les Marocains ( lit . " We are the Moroccans " ) and dedicated to Colonel Van Hecke , commander of the WWI cavalry 7e régiment de chasseurs d 'Afrique ( " 7th African Light Cavalry Regiment " ) . Boyer 's song was adopted by General de Lattre 's First Army ; drawn from units of the Army of Africa and including many pied @-@ noirs . The First Army used it during the World War II liberation campaign in Europe . The music and words were later utilized by the pied @-@ noirs to proclaim their allegiance to France . ( listen to the Chant des Africains )
The " Song of the Africans " was banned as official military music at the end of the Algerian War in 1962 until August 1969 , when the French Minister of Veterans Affairs ( Ministre des Anciens Combattants ) under Georges Pompidou , Henri Duvillard , lifted the prohibition .
= = Notable Pieds @-@ Noirs = =
Louis Althusser , philosopher
Jacques Attali , economist , writer
Paul Belmondo , sculptor , father of the actor Jean @-@ Paul Belmondo
Patrick Bokanowski , filmmaker
Patrick Bruel , singer
Albert Camus , author
Étienne Daho , singer
Jacques Derrida , philosopher
Annie Fratellini , circus clown
Tony Gatlif , filmmaker
Marlène Jobert , actress and author
Alphonse Juin , Marshal of France
Marcel Cerdan , boxer
Jean @-@ François Larios , footballer
Enrico Macias , singer
Jean Pélégri , author
Emmanuel Roblès , author
Yves Saint Laurent , fashion designer
= New Carissa =
MV New Carissa was a freighter that ran aground on a beach near Coos Bay , Oregon , United States , during a storm in February 1999 and subsequently broke apart . An attempt to tow the bow section of the ship out to sea failed when the tow line broke , and the bow was grounded again . Eventually , the bow was successfully towed out to sea and sunk . The stern section remained on the beach near Coos Bay . Fuel on board the ship was burned off in situ , but a significant amount was also spilled from the wreckage , causing ecological damage to the coastline .
The United States Coast Guard performed an investigation and found that captain 's error was the main cause of the wreck ; however , no criminal liability was established and the captain and crew were not charged . There were significant legal and financial consequences for the ship 's owners and insurer .
The stern section remained aground for over nine years . It was dismantled and removed from the beach in 2008 .
= = Vessel = =
New Carissa was a Panamanian @-@ flagged dry bulk freighter optimized for carriage of woodchips . She was owned by the Japanese shipping concern Nippon Yusen Kaisha via a subsidiary , Green Atlas Shipping . The ship 's operator and manager , Taiheiyo Kaiun Co . Ltd. and TMM Co . Ltd. respectively , were also based in Japan . The vessel was built by Imabari Shipbuilding Co. in Japan using an all @-@ steel construction , and was laid down on August 30 , 1989 . The freighter was 195 meters ( 639 ft ) long and 32 meters ( 106 ft ) wide , with a draft of 10 @.@ 8 m ( 35 @.@ 5 ft ) when fully loaded . She had a gross tonnage of 36 @,@ 571 tons , a net tonnage of 16 @,@ 524 tons , and was powered by an 8 @,@ 200 bhp ( 6 @,@ 100 kW ) direct @-@ drive diesel engine . She had a maximum crew complement of 26 sailors , and was in service hauling woodchips ( used for paper pulp production ) . The ship 's home port was Manila , Philippines , and her crew at the time of her grounding consisted entirely of Philippine nationals , commanded by Benjamin Morgado . New Carissa 's protection and indemnity insurance was provided by The Britannia Steam Ship Insurance Association Ltd . The ship 's Certificate of Financial Responsibility , which is required by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and included USD $ 23 million of environmental liability insurance , was provided by Shipowners Insurance and Guaranty Company Ltd . ( SIGCo ) of Hamilton , Bermuda .
= = Grounding = =
On 4 February 1999 , New Carissa was bound for the Port of Coos Bay to pick up a load of wood chips . The ship 's crew was informed by the local bar pilots that weather conditions would prevent the ship ( which was empty at the time ) from entering Coos Bay harbor until the next morning . The captain ordered the ship to drop anchor 1 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) off the coast in order to ride out the storm . The crew used a single anchor to secure the ship . According to a United States Coast Guard review of the incident , the chain used was too short . The short chain and the weather conditions , including winds of 20 – 25 knots ( 37 – 46 km / h ) , caused the ship to drag her anchor . Poor navigational techniques and inadequate watchkeeping led to the crew 's failure to notice that the ship was moving . Once movement was detected , the crew attempted to raise anchor and maneuver away from the shore , but the weather and sea conditions made this difficult . By the time the anchor was raised , the ship had been pushed too close to the shore to recover .
The ship ran aground on the beach 2 @.@ 7 statute miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) north of the entrance to Coos Bay , and attempts to refloat her failed . Two of the five fuel tanks on the ship began to leak fuel onto the beach , eventually spilling approximately 70 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 260 m3 ) of viscous " bunker C " fuel oil and diesel onto the beach and into the water .
Neither the captain nor any of the 22 @-@ man crew was injured in the incident .
= = Rescue and recovery operations = =
Recovery operations began immediately when the grounding was first reported by the ship 's crew . Several factors combined to severely complicate the operation . A Unified Command for the operation , consisting of representatives from the Coast Guard , the State of Oregon , and rescue party operations , was quickly established .
= = = Initial rescue attempts = = =
Initial rescue operations were hampered by inclement weather . Attempts to move New Carissa under her own power failed , and tugboat assistance was not available immediately after the grounding . Only one tugboat was available locally , but she was unable to cross the Coos Bay bar because of safety concerns . It was also uncertain whether or not the locally available tugboat could have successfully rescued New Carissa . The nearest salvage tugboat capable of towing a large ship off a beach , Salvage Chief , was moored at her home port of Astoria , Oregon , 200 statute miles ( 320 km ) to the north , a 24 @-@ hour journey away . Salvage Chief had not sailed in over a year , and it took 18 hours to fuel , provision , and find a crew for the ship . Once mobilized , poor weather in the Astoria area prevented the tugboat from crossing the treacherous Columbia River bar for an additional two days . Salvage Chief did not arrive in the area until 8 February four days after the grounding occurred .
Continued poor weather drove New Carissa closer to the shore . Technical teams from two salvage contractors , Smit International and Salvage Master , had been working with the Coast Guard since February 5 and had drawn up plans to attempt to refloat the vessel , but when cracks in the hull and oil leaks were observed on February 8 , any refloating attempts were precluded by the focus on preventing of a large @-@ scale oil spill . In addition , Salvage Chief , upon her arrival , was unable to reach New Carissa with her tow gear . On 10 February New Carissa suffered major structural failure when the hull breached near the engine room , flooding the engines with seawater ( and thus disabling them ) . The ship 's insurers declared the vessel to be a total loss . As a result , New Carissa was no longer a salvageable vessel ; instead , she had effectively become a shipwreck .
= = = Wreck recovery operations = = =
Since the vessel was no longer seaworthy and could not move under its own power , even if freed from the beach , the focus of the operation changed . Oil from the ship 's fuel tanks continued to pose an environmental hazard , a situation exacerbated by both the ship 's structural failure and continuing pounding from the surf . In order to mitigate the situation , the Unified Command decided to set the fuel tanks on fire in order to burn off the oil . The first attempt was made on February 10 . Napalm and other incendiary devices were used to ignite the fuel , but only one of the diesel tanks was burned effectively . A second attempt was made on February 11 when US Navy explosive experts placed 39 shaped charges to breach the top of the fuel tanks from within the cargo holds . 2 @,@ 280 liters of napalm and nearly 180 kg of plastic explosives were also used to ignite the fuel on board . The ship burned for approximately 33 hours . Additional smaller @-@ scale attempts were made to burn more oil over the next two days , with limited success . The total amount of oil that was burned is estimated to be between 165 @,@ 000 and 255 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 620 and 970 m3 ) . The structural stress caused by the fire , combined with continued severe weather , caused the vessel to break into two sections around midnight on February 11 .
After additional weather @-@ related delays , on February 26 salvors managed to float the 440 – foot ( 132 m ) bow section and began the process of towing it out to sea for disposal . By March 1 , the tugboat Sea Victory had towed the bow from the beach and out to sea , initially followed by an oil skimmer vessel , OSRV Oregon Responder . However , another severe storm forced the skimmer back to port , and when the tug was 50 miles ( 65 km ) off the coast , the tow line broke . The bow section floated for fourteen hours until it ran aground near Waldport , Oregon on March 3 , approximately 80 miles ( 130 km ) to the north of the original grounding site . On March 8 , the bow was again refloated , and by March 11 it was successfully towed 280 miles ( 450 km ) off the coast by Sea Victory and a second tug , Natoma . At this location , the Pacific Ocean is approximately 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) deep . The bow was sunk by two US Navy ships , the destroyer USS David R. Ray and the submarine USS Bremerton . Four hundred pounds ( 180 kg ) of high explosives were attached to the bow and detonated . Sixty @-@ nine rounds of gunfire from David R. Ray 's 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) deck guns then punctured the hull . After 40 minutes , the ship was still afloat with darkness and a storm approaching . To expedite the sinking , Bremerton fired a Mark 48 torpedo at the underside of the ship . Within ten minutes , the bow section flooded and sank stern @-@ first , trapping the remaining oil within .
The stern section remained aground , but did not pose a significant oil spill threat as the majority of the oil on board had already leaked or burned . Some remaining oil that was found on board was skimmed or pumped out manually . In June 1999 , Green Atlas awarded a ship breaking contract to Donjon Marine Co. and Fred Devine Diving and Salvage . Although the two companies were able to remove approximately one @-@ third of the stern , their attempts to dismantle the largest section or tow it to sea were unsuccessful and had to be abandoned over the winter . However , work did not resume in the spring of 2000 , and in 2001 , a salvage expert hired by Green Atlas claimed the stern should not be removed because it would create a dangerous work environment . The state later accused Green Atlas of sabotaging the stern removal effort in order to save money ; a protracted legal battle ensued .
= = Dismantling and removal of stern section = =
Although the initial attempts to dismantle or tow the stern to sea failed , the State of Oregon still intended to see the remainder of the vessel removed from the beach . In 2006 , the state 's lawsuit against the ship 's owners was settled , clearing the legal obstacles that prevented removal and providing the funds necessary to finance the project . Removal plans were complicated by the fact that the stern had become deeply embedded in the sand in the seven years since the wreck , with some portions of the stern estimated to be 20 – 30 feet ( 6 – 9 m ) below the sand line .
A project to remove the stern by dismantling it on the beach was started in June 2008 , after Oregon legislative approval . The dismantling , expected to cost USD $ 18 million , was approved by the State Legislative Emergency Board in September 2006 . The move was originally scheduled for 2007 , but delays in the negotiations pushed the project back a year . Due to weather and surf conditions , the project had to be undertaken during the spring and summer months . Titan Maritime Company , a subsidiary of Crowley Maritime Corporation , signed a USD $ 16 @.@ 4 million contract with the Oregon Department of State Lands . Titan Maritime used large jackup barges , Karlissa A and Karlissa B , for the New Carissa dismantling project . Once the barges were in place , a cable car system was installed to allow the crews and their equipment access to the barges from the beach . The barges allowed the crews to access the wreck from 40 ft ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) above the surf . The crews cut New Carissa into removable pieces and then lifted them to the barges with cranes . The cutting portion of Titan 's plan was largely completed by July 31 , 2008 , and the company then focused on pulling the stern from the sand , a process that was measured in inches . The project 's managing director expressed confidence that the removal deadline of October 1 , 2008 would be met . By September 2008 , Titan had successfully removed the majority of the wreck ; no part of the ship was visible from above the water , and only a few relatively small pieces remained submerged . Karlissa A and Karlissa B were relocated on October 12 , 2008 , and Titan 's shore operations were completely removed by November 2008 .
= = = Debate about removal = = =
Prior to the dismantling project , there was debate by local residents on whether the wrecked stern should be removed . Some local officials believed the stern , which lay on a remote area of the beach , was not a hazard or an eyesore . Arnie Roblan , a state representative from Coos Bay , called the wreck a potential tourist attraction . For some residents , uncertainty remained surrounding Titan 's removal plan , with the worry that the stern would be unable to withstand the force of the hydraulic pullers and that parts of the ship already buried in the sand would be unmovable . The president of the Coos Bay city council expressed concern that the proposed removal operation could cause ecological damage that would not occur if the ship were left on the beach . He further noted that " shipwrecks on the Oregon Coast are part of our history . There are a lot of ways you could better spend the money here . "
Many others argued that the ship should be removed . Louise Solliday , the director of the Oregon Department of State Lands , called the removal of the stern a necessary step to demonstrate that the state is " serious about removing wrecks " . She stated that if the stern were not removed , the argument that the ship is trespassing on state property ( used in the state 's lawsuit against New Carissa owners ) would be undermined should another vessel wreck off the Oregon coast . The sentiment was later echoed by Oregon Secretary of State Bill Bradbury , who also noted that the settlement of the lawsuit with the ship 's owners leaves the state exposed to any liability issues concerning the ship . Many environmentalists , as well as federal biologists and residents of the local community , were concerned about the potential for further ecological damage should the vessel leak any of the fuel oil that remained on board . The editorial board of The Oregonian argued that allowing the stern to remain would send a message that the state is willing to " tolerate permanent damage to its beaches " . The newspaper also rejected the notion that the wreckage should be compared to the Peter Iredale , a sailing ship that wrecked on a beach near Astoria in the early 1900s , and whose remnants are a popular tourist draw .
= = Environmental impact = =
The wreck of New Carissa caused one of the most serious oil spills to affect the state of Oregon , and the worst since a 1984 spill near Longview , Washington that dumped 200 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 760 m3 ) of oil into the Columbia River . As Oregon has no significant oil refinery facilities , oil tankers do not often dock at its ports , making the state relatively safe from oil spills . Analysis conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined that over 3 @,@ 000 shorebirds and seabirds perished . The birds belonged to more than 50 species . Among the birds killed were 262 threatened marbled murrelets and between four and eight endangered western snowy plovers . Harbor seals , fish , and shellfish were also killed or affected . Several beaches were fouled , with tarballs continuing to wash up for more than a month after the wreck .
Despite the loss of marine life , the initial burning of the oil and the successful removal of the bow section prevented what could have been a worse spill . Captain Mike Hall of the Coast Guard stated that " at least 82 percent of the oil on board New Carissa never reached the wildlife or the pristine shoreline of Oregon 's coast " . The environmental impact of the sinking of the bow section was thought to be minimized since it was towed out beyond the continental shelf , into very deep water . Any remaining oil on board is unlikely to have affected marine life since the low temperatures at the bottom of the ocean would have caused it to solidify .
Prior to the stern section 's removal from the beach , environmentalists and local officials were concerned that the remains posed a continuing environmental and safety hazard .
= = Legal aftermath = =
Subsequent litigation proved expensive for the ship 's owners and insurers , and an investigation into the incident delayed most of the crew 's return to their home country .
= = = Litigation = = =
In 2001 , Green Atlas Shipping and its insurer , Britannia Steam Ship Insurance Association , sued the United States for US $ 96 million , claiming negligence on the part of the Coast Guard due to faulty nautical charts . They also alleged failure on the part of the local bar pilots to advise the ship 's crew not to anchor in the area , and that dredging by the United States Army Corps of Engineers had exacerbated the problems with the anchor . The U.S. countersued for US $ 7 million in damages . In 2004 , the two sides reached an agreement in which Green Atlas would pay the U.S. US $ 10 @.@ 5 million to assist with cleanup costs , and the U.S. paid Green Atlas US $ 4 million in settlement of the faulty charts claim . The net result of the settlement was payment of US $ 6 @.@ 5 million to the U.S. Although this was far less than the damages claimed by the U.S. for environmental cleanup and restoration costs , government officials still saw the settlement as a victory since the shipping company was forced to pay for part of the damage . Some Coos County officials were dissatisfied with the settlement , however , stating that it should have instead been paid to local business owners who were negatively impacted by the closure of the beach .
The State of Oregon demanded that the ship 's owners or their insurers remove the ship or pay a US $ 25 million bond to cover the cost of removing the ship and for environmental damages . The state also filed a lawsuit in Coos County , demanding removal , storage fees of USD $ 1 @,@ 500 per day , restoration of the beach , and other unspecified damages . The state alleged negligence on the part of Morgado and also accused Green Atlas shipping of attempting to avoid the expense of the stern dismantling . On November 13 , 2002 , a Coos County jury found the ship 's owners guilty of negligent trespass , and awarded the state US $ 25 million in damages . That sum was placed in escrow , pending appeal . On May 23 , 2006 , a settlement was reached in the appeal ; the state kept US $ 20 million of the US $ 25 million in escrow , plus US $ 2 @.@ 1 million in interest earned on the escrow account . The remaining US $ 5 million was returned to Green Atlas Shipping . Of the US $ 22 @.@ 1 million that the state was awarded in the settlement , US $ 3 @.@ 1 million was used to pay the state 's legal fees . The remaining US $ 19 million was reserved for cleanup , including the removal of the vessel 's stern .
Numerous private parties , including at least one oyster farmer whose beds were contaminated by oil , successfully sued for damages .
= = = Crew investigation = = =
The captain and most of the crew of the ship — all nationals of the Philippines — had to face a U.S. Coast Guard Board of Inquiry , which required them to remain in the United States for several weeks after the wreck . In addition , a federal grand jury investigated the incident for criminal wrongdoing . Captain Morgado refused to answer many of the questions posed at the inquiry , citing his Fifth Amendment rights . The crew was released after their testimony and returned to the Philippines . On September 16 , the Coast Guard issued its findings that captain 's error was the primary cause of the wreck , with the first and third officers of the ship also partly responsible . The investigation found no evidence of criminal wrongdoing , and no charges were filed against any member of the New Carissa crew .
= = In popular culture = =
Portland @-@ based musician Sarah Dougher 's 2000 album The Walls Ablaze included a song titled " The New Carissa " .
= William H. Prescott =
William Hickling Prescott ( May 4 , 1796 – January 28 , 1859 ) was an American historian and Hispanist , who is widely recognized by historiographers to have been the first American scientific historian . Despite suffering from serious visual impairment , which at times prevented him from reading or writing for himself , Prescott became one of the most eminent historians of 19th century America . He is also noted for his eidetic memory .
After an extensive period of study , during which he sporadically contributed to academic journals , Prescott specialized in late Renaissance Spain and the early Spanish Empire . His works on the subject , The History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella the Catholic ( 1837 ) , The History of the Conquest of Mexico ( 1843 ) , A History of the Conquest of Peru ( 1847 ) and the unfinished History of the Reign of Phillip II ( 1856 – 1858 ) have become classic works in the field , and have had a great impact on the study of both Spain and Mesoamerica . During his lifetime , he was upheld as one of the greatest living American intellectuals , and knew personally many of the leading political figures of the day , in both the United States and Britain . Prescott has become one of the most widely translated American historians , and was an important figure in the development of history as a rigorous academic discipline . Historians admire Prescott for his exhaustive , careful , and systematic use of archives , his accurate recreation of sequences of events , his balanced judgments and his lively writing style . He was primarily focused on political and military affairs , largely ignoring economic , social , intellectual , and cultural forces that in recent decades historians have focused on . Instead , he wrote narrative history , subsuming unstated causal forces in his driving storyline .
= = Early life = =
William H. Prescott was born in Salem , Massachusetts on May 4 , 1796 , the first of seven children , although four of his siblings died in infancy . His parents were William Prescott , Jr . , a lawyer , and his wife , née Catherine Greene Hickling . His grandfather William Prescott served as a colonel during the American Revolutionary War .
Prescott began formal schooling at the age of seven , studying under Mr. Jacob Knapp . The family moved to Boston , Massachusetts in 1808 , where his father 's earnings substantially increased . His studies continued under Dr. John Gardiner , rector of Trinity Episcopal Church . As a young man , Prescott frequented the Boston Athenæum , which at the time held the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ volume private library of John Quincy Adams , who was on a diplomatic mission to Russia . In 1832 , Prescott became a trustee of the library , a position he held for 15 years .
Prescott enrolled at Harvard College as a second year student ( sophomore ) in August 1811 , at the age of 15 . He was not considered academically distinguished , despite showing promise in Latin and Greek . Prescott found mathematics particularly difficult , and resorted to memorizing mathematical demonstrations word @-@ for @-@ word , which he could do with relative ease , in order to hide his ignorance of the subject . Prescott 's eyesight degenerated after being hit in the eye with a crust of bread during a food fight as a student , and it remained weak and unstable throughout the rest of his life . Prescott was admitted to the Phi Beta Kappa Society as a senior , which he considered a great personal honor , and graduated from Harvard in 1814 . After a short period of rheumatic illness , he embarked on an extended tour of Europe .
Prescott first traveled to the island of São Miguel in the Azores , where his grandfather and Portuguese grandmother lived . After two weeks , he left for the cooler climate of London , where he stayed with the distinguished surgeon Astley Cooper and the oculist William Adams . Prescott first used a noctograph while staying with Adams ; the tool became a permanent feature of his life , allowing him to write independently in spite of his impaired eyesight . He visited Hampton Court Palace with future American president John Quincy Adams , at the time a diplomat in London , where they saw the Raphael Cartoons . In August 1816 , Prescott traveled to Paris , but later moved on to Italy , where he spent the winter . He returned to Paris in early 1817 , where he chanced to meet the American Hispanist George Ticknor , and made another visit to England . Prescott spent some time in Cambridge , where he saw the manuscripts of Isaac Newton 's works , and returned to the United States in the same year . Prescott 's first academic work , an essay submitted anonymously , was rejected by the North American Review in late 1817 . After a short period of courtship , he married Susan Amory , the daughter of Thomas Coffin Amory and Hannah Rowe Linzee , on May 4 , 1820 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career : The History of Ferdinand and Isabella = = =
In 1821 , Prescott abandoned the idea of a legal career because of the continued deterioration of his eyesight , and resolved to devote himself to literature . Although he initially studied a wide range of subjects , including Italian , French , English and Spanish literature , American history , classics and political philosophy , Prescott came to focus on Italian poetry . Among the works he studied during this period were such classics as Dante 's Divine Comedy and Boccacio 's Decameron . His first published works were two essays in the North American Review — both discussing Italian poetry . The first of these , published in 1824 , was titled Italian Narrative Poetry , and became somewhat controversial after it was heavily criticized in an Italian review by Lorenzo Da Ponte , the librettist of Mozart 's Don Giovanni . Prescott wrote a succinct reply to Da Ponte 's fifty @-@ page argument in the North American Review of July 1825 . Da Ponte published the criticisms as an appendix to his translation of Dodley 's Economy of Human life , which resulted in Prescott noticing them rather late .
Prescott first became interested in the history of Spain after his friend , the Harvard professor George Ticknor , sent him copies of his lectures on the subject . Prescott 's studies initially remained broad , but he started preparing material on Ferdinand and Isabella in January 1826 . His acquaintance Pascual de Gayangos y Arce helped him construct a sizable personal library of historical books and manuscripts concerning the subject . Alexander Hill Everett , an American diplomat in Spain , also provided him with material which was unavailable to Prescott in Boston . However , progress was stalled almost immediately , due to a sudden deterioration in Prescott 's eyesight . Unable to find a reader fluent in Spanish , Prescott was forced to work through Spanish texts with an assistant who did not understand the language . When Alexander Everett heard of this situation , he provided Prescott with the services of George Lunt , who had adequate knowledge of Spanish for the task . However , this could only be a temporary arrangement , and he was replaced by a man named Hamilton Parker , who held the position for a year . Eventually George Ticknor , who was by then in charge of the department of modern literature at Harvard University , found James L. English , who worked with Prescott until 1831 . Among the books studied by Prescott in this period , Ticknor lists Juan Antonio Llorente 's Historia crítica de la Inquisición de España , Andrés Bernadez 's Historia de los Reyes Católicos don Fernando y doña Isabel , Voltaire 's Charles XII and William Roscoe 's Life of Lorenzo de Medici , which were to be the sources on which the History of Ferdinand and Isabella was to be based . In spring 1828 , Prescott visited Washington , where he and Ticknor dined with John Quincy Adams at the White House , and saw Congress in session .
Due in part to his own condition , Prescott was interested in aiding the blind and partially sighted . The Perkins School for the Blind , then known as the New England Asylum , had been founded in Boston , Massachusetts by Samuel Gridley Howe , Thomas Handasyd Perkins and John Dix Fisher and 28 others in 1829 . Prescott involved himself from the very start of the project , becoming a trustee in 1830 . He published an article in support of education for the blind in the North American Review of July 1830 , and helped to raise $ 50 @,@ 000 for the organization in May 1833 .
His work was disturbed in February 1829 by the unexpected death of his eldest daughter Catherine , who was only four years old . This led him to reconsider his position on religion — previously an agnostic , his interest in Christianity was renewed , and having read the Bible , the works of the theologian William Paley as well as more skeptical works such as Hume 's On Miracles , he came to acknowledge the " moral truth " of the gospels , while remaining opposed to the doctrines of orthodox Christianity . Despite this personal tragedy , and his own continued ill health , Prescott had gathered sufficient material to begin drafting the History in October 1829 . At around this time , Prescott read the works of Gabriel Bonnot de Mably , including his historiographical piece De l ’ étude de l ’ histoire . He henceforth aimed to write history to de Mably 's romantic ideal , and on more than one occasion expressed his indebtedness to him . Prescott also encountered Elogia de la Réina Doña Isabel , by his Spanish contemporary Diego Clemencín , which helped shape his views concerning the monarchs ' political roles . Due to further problems with his eyesight , it took him sixteen months to write the first three hundred pages of the History . It was largely finished by 1834 , but Prescott dedicated two years to abridging and redrafting it . He was also briefly engaged in writing a biography of Charles Brockden Brown for Jared Sparks ' Library of American Biography . Prescott was not familiar with American literature , and he based the work on other contemporary biographies of Brown . As a result , the biography has had little academic impact . In 1835 , he took residence in the rural town of Nahant , Massachusetts , due to concerns about his health . He was here accustomed to riding his horses for the purpose of exercise , and he persevered even in sub @-@ zero temperatures . Prescott finished the concluding chapter of the work in July 1836 , and despite the amount of time and effort which he had spent on the work , was at first unsure about publishing it . However , his father argued that refusing to do so would amount to cowardice , and this swayed him . Prescott had previously considered publishing the work in London first , and therefore a printed draft copy of the work was sent to a Colonel Aspinwall for consideration . However , both Longman and Murray , which were at the time the leading British publishers , refused the work , and Prescott decided to postpone .
The History of Ferdinand and Isabella was published on Christmas Day , 1837 by the American Stationery Company , Boston , with a print run of 500 copies . It was dedicated to his father . To the surprise of Prescott and the publisher , the book sold very well — the original print run was insufficient to adequately supply Boston 's bookshops , let alone the whole nation 's . It was first published in London by Richard Bentley in early 1838 . The work received excellent critical reviews , both in America and in Britain , where Henry Vassall @-@ Fox and Robert Southey expressed their admiration of the work . It was also noticed in France , despite the fact that a French translation was not available at the time . Prescott was adamant that his work should not be altered by anyone other than himself , and when he heard that his publishers were considering an abridgement of the History of Ferdinand and Isabella in June 1839 , he produced an abridgement of the work himself , which resulted in the original project 's cancellation . He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in May 1839 .
= = = The Conquest of Mexico = = =
Prescott expressed interest in his correspondence in writing a biography of Molière , and Ticknor records that he sent Prescott " a collection of about 50 volumes " of relevant material . However , after writing to Ángel Calderón de la Barca , a Spanish minister living in Mexico , who was able to provide source material , Prescott started research on what was to become the History of the Conquest of Mexico . He extensively read the works of Wilhelm von Humboldt , who had written on Mesoamerica , and started corresponding with the historian Washington Irving , the Swiss writer Sismondi and the French historian Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry . He also received assistance in collecting sources from a college friend , Middleton , and a Dr. Lembke . In contrast to the lengthy time spent researching the History of Ferdinand and Isabella , Prescott started drafting the History of the Conquest of Mexico in October 1839 . However , Prescott faced difficulties in writing the work which he had not encountered previously . There was relatively little scholarship on Aztec civilization , and Prescott dismissed much of it as " speculation " , and he therefore had to rely almost exclusively on primary sources ( with the exception of Humboldt ) . In particular , he considered Edward King 's theory that the pre @-@ Columbian civilizations were non @-@ indigenous to be fallacious , although he was greatly indebted to him for his anthology of Aztec codices in the Antiquities of Mexico . Prescott also studied Spanish writers contemporary to the conquest , most significantly Torquemada and Toribio de Benavente .
Prescott received three honorary degrees in this period — an honorary doctorate in laws from Columbia University in autumn 1840 , the College of William and Mary in July 1841 and South Carolina College in December 1841 . He also helped Frances Inglis find a publisher for her autobiographical work Life in Mexico . Moreover , Frances Inglis was one of Prescott 's most valuable correspondents during the writing of the " History of the Conquest of Mexico . " She is cited by Prescott five times throughout the text , and is described by him as , " one of the most delightful of modern traveller 's . "
Prescott found it difficult to evaluate Mesoamerican scientific and mathematical achievements , because of his relative ignorance of those subjects . While working in Boston in 1841 , he met George Howard , who was to stay a close friend for the remainder of his life . Prescott worked industriously throughout 1840 – 1842 , and as a result , the work was finished by August 1843 . It was published by Harper & Brothers , New York in December , Bentley issuing the British edition . His elderly father had suffered a stroke in October , which resulted in temporary paralysis , so Prescott spent most of the winter attending him in Pepperell . The History of the Conquest of Mexico was received extremely well , both critically and by the general public , despite Prescott 's fears to the contrary . Those praising the work included George Hillard in the North American Review , George Ticknor Curtis in the Christian Examiner , Joseph Cogswell in the Methodist Quarterly , as well as the Dean of St. Paul 's , Henry Hart Milman .
= = = The Conquest of Peru = = =
In 1844 , Prescott was painted by Joseph Alexander Ames , and also commissioned a bust from Richard Saltonstall Greenough . He was not active in researching for the Conquest of Peru
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until spring 1844 , although he had already decided to write a work concerning Inca civilization while researching pre @-@ Columbian Mexico , and listened to Inca Garcilaso de la Vega 's Comentarios Reales de los Incas . He further studied Pedro Cieza de León 's Crónicas del Perú , the works of Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa and Diego Fernández 's Primera y segunda parte de la Historia del Piru . Prescott 's progress was stalled by the unexpected death of his brother Edward at sea . His daughter Elizabeth was seriously ill , so Prescott and his family traveled to Niagara , which he considered a more healthy environment for her . After her recovery , they returned to Nahant in the summer , where Prescott started drafting the Conquest , and , as was his custom , spent the autumn in Peperell . Prescott 's father died at the age of 82 on December 8 , which deeply upset him . He took a two @-@ month break from writing to support his widowed mother and settle matters concerning his father 's estate . His father left numerous stocks , shares and property that amounted to $ 343 @,@ 736 @.@ 86 , almost all of which was shared between Prescott and his sister . Prescott was elected to the Institut de France in February 1845 , in recognition of his accomplishments as a historian . He took the place of Martín Fernández de Navarrete , who had died the previous year , after a vote was cast . He was also admitted to the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin . In the summer of 1845 , a collection of articles Prescott had published in the North American Review were published as Biographical and Critical Miscellanies by Bentley in octavo , and an edition was also prepared simultaneously by Harper & Brothers in New York . Prescott was writing 12 pages of the work per day in the summer of 1845 , and completed the first two chapters of the Conquest . He used the inheritance from his father to buy a house on Beacon Street in Boston . The building is now a National Historic Landmark , and is also known as the William Hickling Prescott House . Prescott moved into the house during December 1845 , and set himself a year to finish the Conquest of Peru . In March , his eyesight , which had recovered significantly , suddenly deteriorated . Prescott was also suffering from acute dyspepsia and rheumatism , and he travelled to Nahant to " benefit from the sea @-@ air " . This did not prevent him travelling to Washington , where he dined at the White House with President James K. Polk . He was also entertained by John Y. Mason , the former United States Secretary of the Navy , who informed him that a copy of Prescott 's Conquest of Mexico had been placed in the library of every fighting ship . The Conquest of Peru was completed in March 1847 . As with previous works , it was published by Harper & Brothers in the United States and Bentley in Britain . The original US print run was 7 @,@ 500 copies , and the books were sold for $ 1 each . It was translated into Spanish , French , German and Dutch , and sold excellently . As with his previous works , it was also well @-@ received critically .
= = = Research on Philip II = = =
Shortly after the publication of the Conquest of Peru , Prescott turned his mind to writing a history of Philip II of Spain , which he had been contemplating for several years . John Lothrop Motley , who planned to write an independent work on the subject , was aided by Prescott , who gave him access to his library . Although the two corresponded , there seems to have been little collaboration on their respective works . Prescott had started searching for sources as early as 1842 , but a number of difficulties confronted him in his study of Philip II . The principal archives of historical material were held in Simancas , but neither Lembke ( who had collected materials for the Conquest of Mexico ) nor Middleton were able to gain access to them . They had been informed that the library was so disordered as to make productive research impossible , even if access had been gained . However , Lembke , who as a diplomat had been expelled from Spain , made the acquaintance of two wealthy Parisian scholars , Mignet and Ternaux @-@ Compans , who offered him access to their manuscript collections . Furthermore , de Gayangos assisted greatly by locating important documents in the British Museum and in the collection of the bibliomaniac Thomas Phillipps , who owned around 60 @,@ 000 manuscripts . He also borrowed several manuscripts from the archives in Brussels , having received letters from the respected Belgian diplomat Sylvain Van de Weyer in London. de Gayangos became Professor of Arabic literature at the Complutense University of Madrid in late 1842 , and subsequently lent Prescott rare books and manuscripts from the university library . By the summer of 1848 , Prescott had over 300 works on the subject at his disposal , but he continued to have serious problems with his eyesight ; an examination by an oculist confirmed that there was untreatable damage to his retina . Prescott had been commissioned by the Massachusetts Historical Society to write a biography of the scholar John Pickering in 1848 , which he wrote for publication later in that year . Prescott was invited to write a history of the Mexican – American War , but declined , as he was uninterested in writing on contemporary events .
Prescott 's main secondary source for the history was Leopold von Ranke 's Fürsten und Völker von Süd @-@ Europa im sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert , a comprehensive work which included a detailed history of the papacy . Prescott admired Ranke 's empirical historical method , and considered his work to be the best of his predecessors on the subject . He had four copies of the relevant sections of the work reprinted in a large typeface so he could read it without assistance . He had made a broad plan of the work by February 1849 . Prescott started writing the draft on July 26 . At this time , Prescott was a creditor of John White Webster , the chemist and murderer , and he was subsequently involved in his trial .
= = = Visits to Washington and Europe = = =
Prescott visited Washington D.C. in spring 1850 , where he met Zachary Taylor , then President of the United States , as well as numerous other prominent figures , including Henry Bulwer , the British ambassador , and Daniel Webster , the former Secretary of State , who had been a friend of Prescott 's father . Soon afterward , he decided to visit England . He embarked from New York on May 22 , and arrived at Liverpool on June 3 . There he stayed with an old friend , Alexander Smith , and became reacquainted with Mary Lyell , the wife of the geologist Charles Lyell . He traveled with the Lyells to London , where they stayed in Mivart 's Hotel . Prescott was greeted in London , as in Washington , by the most important members of society — he dined with the Foreign Secretary and future Prime Minister Henry Temple , the former Prime Minister Robert Peel , as well as the elderly Duke of Wellington . He went to the races at Ascot , and was presented at court to Queen Victoria . On June 22 , he traveled to Oxford to receive an honorary doctorate in law . In Oxford , he stayed at Cuddesdon Palace , the home of the Bishop of Oxford , Samuel Wilberforce , who was absent because of the christening of the infant Prince Arthur . Prescott met Spencer Compton , the president of the Royal Society , who was also receiving an honorary degree . He left London for Paris , where he arrived on July 20 . Two days later , he traveled to Brussels , where he stayed in Coudenberg , the site of a residence of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , returning to London on July 29 . Traveling north , Prescott visited Alnwick Castle and the ruins of Hulm Abbey in Northumbria . On his arrival in Edinburgh , he met the geologists Adam Sedgwick and Roderick Murchison , whom he accompanied to Inveraray , where he visited Inveraray Castle . Prescott then traveled south , through Staffordshire , where he was entertained by George Sutherland @-@ Leveson @-@ Gower . He embarked for New York on September 14 , arriving on September 27 .
= = = Final works = = =
Prescott spent the winter in Boston , and returned to the composition of his work . He gradually changed the focus of the History , deciding that he was a better writer of history than biography and worked solidly for the next two years , alternating between Boston and Nahant . This period was interrupted only by the marriage of his daughter Elizabeth in early 1852 . Her husband was James Alexander ; they settled in a house near the family home in Pepperell . Prescott 's mother fell ill on May 17 and died soon after , which caused Prescott to fall into a bout of depression that lasted until the winter . He returned to his work , and continued at the pace that he was able through the remainder of 1852 and 1853 , which passed uneventfully . Prescott started to suffer seriously from rheumatism during the former year , and as a result he abandoned his residence at Nahant . He bought a house in the then rural town of Lynn , Massachusetts , where he was visited by Charles Lyell and his family in June 1853 . On August 22 , he finished the second volume of the History . The first two volumes were finished by May 1855 , but not immediately published . Changes in British copyright law and a change of publishers caused Prescott to delay publication until November . Compared to his previous works , the History received little coverage in the press or in academic journals . It was suggested to him at this time that he should write a biography of Charles V , but he declined , as he regarded the work of William Robertson on the subject to be definitive . However , he wrote an appendix to Robertson 's The History of the reign of Charles V in May 1855 ; it was published in December 1856 . Previously uninterested in politics ( although he had predicted the Whig victory in 1840 , ) Prescott supported and voted for the Republican John C. Frémont in the 1856 Presidential election . He continued to work on the third volume of the History until he suffered a stroke on 3 February 1858 . Prescott recovered , but his health was permanently affected , and he decided to temporarily retire from writing . The third volume was therefore published in April , and its scope was more limited than Prescott had originally planned . He worked on the Spanish translation of the Conquest of Mexico , which had been prepared by José Fernando Ramírez and Lucas Alamán .
= = Personal life = =
William H. Prescott and Susan Amory Prescott ( c . 1799 – 1859 ) had four children ; the first , Catherine Prescott ( 23 September 1824 – 1 February 1829 ) died of a childhood illness . William Gardiner Prescott ( 27 January 1826 – 15 August 1895 ) attended Harvard from 1841 to 1844 and worked as a lawyer in Boston . He married Josephine Augusta Peabody on 6 November 1851 , and inherited Headquarters House . William Gardiner 's daughter Catherine Elizabeth Prescott married a Hebert Timmins on 22 February 1887 . Elizabeth ( 27 July 1828 – 24 May 1864 ) married James Lawrence , a distant cousin . The youngest was William Amory ( 25 January 1830 – 13 March 1867 ) .
= = Death and legacy = =
In January 1859 , Prescott decided to resume his work on Philip II , with the goal of writing a final fourth volume . On January 29 , he suffered a second stroke , which resulted in his immediate death . He was buried with his parents in St. Paul 's Church , and his funeral was attended by representatives , among others , of Harvard University , the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Essex Institute .
Prescott 's work has remained popular and influential to the present day , and his meticulous use of sources , bibliographical citations and critical notes was unprecedented among American historians . As the work of an amateur historian , the History of Ferdinand and Isabella was an outstanding achievement , and it arguably was the best English @-@ language work on the subject published until then . The major problems with the work to the modern day historian are not related to the quality of the research or Prescott 's understanding of the period , but rather that his focus is on the major political and military events as opposed to social and economic conditions . It has also been argued that Prescott partially subscribed to the Great Man theory . The Conquest of Mexico has endured more than any other of Prescott 's work : it is regarded as his greatest literary accomplishment . However , modern scholarship agrees that there are problems with Prescott 's characterization of the conquest . David Levin has argued that the Conquest shows " inadequate attention to detail " and remains a broad and general account of events . In contrast to the Conquest of Mexico , the Conquest of Peru has received relatively little modern scholarly attention , perhaps due to some key similarities in style and structure . However , it is generally thought that the work was the authoritative account until the 20th century , and that Prescott used a broader range of source material than any previous writer on the subject . However , the archeological and anthropological aspects of both works have been heavily criticized by historians since the end of the 19th century . Prescott had never visited archeological sites in Mesoamerica and his understanding of Inca and Aztec culture was weak . In defense of Prescott , it has been argued that despite advances in archeological understanding , and a reconceptualization of the nature of pre @-@ Columbian society , the works remain broadly historically accurate , and Prescott 's elaborations on fact were due to a fundamental lack of source material . In contrast , Phillip the Second is considered essentially an inferior piece — it lacks the epic structure and literary merits of Prescott 's other work , and the work has not received more critical attention than other contemporary accounts of the monarch 's life .
There is a popular misconception that Prescott was completely blind , which seems to have stemmed from a misunderstanding of his comment in the preface to The Conquest of Mexico , in which he stated , " Nor have I ever corrected , or even read , my own original draft " . The myth was further propagated by a contemporary New York review of the Conquest , and has been a common theme in popular accounts of his work . Other related embellishments of Prescott 's disability have also occurred — Samuel Eliot Morison , writing in a 1959 article for The Atlantic Monthly , claimed that Prescott had an artificial eye , although there is no evidence to suggest this . It has been argued that Prescott 's biographers have naturally been drawn to romanticize his life due to Prescott 's own romantic style of history .
Four biographies of Prescott have been written . In 1864 , George Ticknor published a biography based on Prescott 's then @-@ unpublished correspondence , to which the later biographers have been greatly indebted . Rollo Ogden 's 1904 account is more a stylistic modernization of Ticknor 's work . Harry Thurston Peck 's 1905 account is considered academically inferior due to its essentially derivative nature . C.G. Gardiner 's 1969 work is considered the definitive critical biography of Prescott , taking into account a wide range of unpublished documents that were unavailable to earlier biographers .
The City of Prescott in Arizona was named in his honor , as was the William H. Prescott House ( Headquarters House ) , which was designated a National Historic Landmark for its association with him . Colegio Anglo Americano Prescott , a school in Arequipa , Peru , also bears his name . Prescott Street , two blocks from Harvard Yard in Cambridge , Massachusetts , is named after him .
= Quagmire 's Dad =
" Quagmire 's Dad " is the 18th episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on May 9 , 2010 . The episode features Quagmire after his father , Dan Quagmire , returns to Quahog and states he is " a woman trapped in a man 's body " . Dan has decided to have sex reassignment surgery to become physically female . Meanwhile , Brian travels to a seminar and , upon returning , has a sexual affair with " Ida , " whom he does not realize is Quagmire 's post @-@ operative father .
The episode was written by Tom Devanney and directed by Pete Michels . It was rated TV @-@ 14 for intensely suggestive dialogue ( D ) , strong coarse language ( L ) and intense violence ( V ) . It received generally mixed reviews , in addition to receiving some criticism for its portrayal of transgenderism , including from the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) and the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 22 million homes in its original unedited airing . The episode featured a guest performance by Wally Wingert , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Quagmire 's Dad " was released on DVD along with ten other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Peter and Joe visit Quagmire and are introduced to his father , Lieutenant Commander Dan Quagmire . Expecting to see the inspiration for Quagmire 's wanton sexual behavior , they are surprised by Dan 's stereotypically gay mannerisms and begin texting each other of how gay Dan is . The following morning , Quagmire invites Peter and Lois to the Naval Ball being held to honor his father , but soon begins arguing with Peter about his father 's sexuality . At the ball that night , members of the Navy bombard Quagmire with compliments about his war @-@ hero father , most of which can be taken as double entendres about Dan 's alleged non @-@ heterosexuality . Concerned that his dad may be gay , Quagmire confronts him and Dan states that he is not gay , but is instead " a woman trapped in a man 's body " and that he plans to have a sex change operation during his stay in Quahog . At first Peter and Lois conflate gender identity and sexual orientation , then at Lois ' suggestion , Peter waits with Quagmire during the operation . The surgery is a success , with Quagmire 's Dad emerging as the newly named Ida Davis , an attractive blond woman . That night , Ida and Quagmire join the Griffins for dinner . As the dinner begins , however , Quagmire becomes frustrated when the Griffins turn the conversation towards Ida 's surgery and other related topics , and storms out of the room . At Quagmire 's home , Quagmire tells Ida that he is not sure he can deal with her new gender identity . Saddened , Ida leaves Quagmire 's home and decides to stay at a nearby Marriott Hotel .
Meanwhile , Brian has been out of town attending a seminar on creating a web series and is unaware of what has transpired . On his way home , Brian stops at the Marriott , meets Ida , and starts having drinks with her . Quickly bonding , they retire to Ida 's room for sex , with Ida leaving first , then Brian after telling the barman to bill the drinks to her room . The next morning , Brian shares his newfound love with Peter and Lois before showing them a picture of Ida on his cellphone . Peter and Lois go into hysterics , while Brian , unaware of Ida 's operation , believes they are just jealous . After Stewie tells him that Quagmire 's father has had a sex change and reveals Ida 's name , Brian realizes that he has had sex with Quagmire 's transsexual father and vomits for 29 uninterrupted seconds before the two of them panic . At the same time , Ida returns to Quagmire 's home and apologizes , and Quagmire returns the favor , reconciling their relationship . Ida tells Quagmire that she met someone , and when she says it was Brian , whom Quagmire despises , he becomes furious . Brian is traumatized after finding out about Ida and , when he hears Quagmire come inside the house , he tries to hide under Peter and Lois ' bed , but Quagmire finds him easily , because Brian 's feet were sticking out from under the bed , and brutally beats him , thus threatening to blow his head off if he goes near Quagmire 's house . Brian gets the final word — " Hey , I fucked your dad . " — and angrily slams the door shut .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was written by Tom Devanney and directed by series regular Pete Michels . It is the second episode of the season Devanney and Michels worked on , the first being " Brian 's Got a Brand New Bag " , before the conclusion of season 8 . The episode saw the introduction of Quagmire 's father , Lieutenant Commander Dan Quagmire , a former officer with the United States Navy who later becomes Ida Quagmire . The character was voiced by main cast member , series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg and Alex Carter working as staff writers for the episode . Composer Ron Jones , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Quagmire 's Dad " . The original design of Ida Quagmire was created by MacFarlane , and designed to resemble English actor Paul Bettany . It was later adapted upon by Pete Michels .
" Quagmire 's Dad " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Wally Wingert guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actor Ralph Garman , and writers Chris Sheridan , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin and John Viener made minor appearances . Recurring guest voice actor Patrick Warburton reprises his role of Joe Swanson .
The bit of Peter and Joe texting each other exists in two versions : one with Peter texting Joe back but was autocorrected , or using the term " phoque " to describe how gay Quagmire 's father is .
= = Cultural references = =
After announcing that his father is being honored by the Navy , Quagmire says his father was his greatest hero growing up . Peter then claims that his own hero while growing up was DC Comics superhero Aquaman , in addition to his alter ego Arthur Curry . When Quagmire introduces his father to Peter and Joe , Nancy Sinatra 's single " These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' " begins playing on Quagmire 's stereo while Dan Quagmire dances down the stairs . Upon emerging from her surgery , Ida asks what Quagmire and Peter think of the operation and Peter , as he had suggested to Quagmire during the surgery , sings the hit single " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves .
= = Reception = =
In a slight decrease from the previous week , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 22 million homes in its original airing , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , Celebrity Apprentice on NBC , and the television film Jesse Stone : No Remorse on CBS . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! in both ratings and total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were generally mixed . Ramsey Isler of IGN noted his enjoyment of Dan Quagmire 's character traits : " I 'll give the writing team credit for this little plot twist , as I 'm sure we were all expecting the elder Quagmire to be even more of a womanizer than his son . " Regarding the episode 's treatment of LGBT issues , Jason Hughes of TV Squad stated , " there 's a gold mine of material to dig into for satire and comedy ; comedy which will likely offend as many people as the real issues do . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the scenes between Quagmire and his father " surprisingly well @-@ done " while noting , " the scenes where the mockery seemed a little too mean @-@ spirited were definitely out of the show 's worst sections of its toolkit " .
The episode was criticized for its portrayal of transgenderism , particularly regarding the way Ida was treated by other characters . Food Ida prepared for the dinner party at the Griffin house was thrown out and Brian 's learning of her sex @-@ reassignment surgery after he had sex with her caused him to " violently " vomit for 30 unbroken seconds . Speaking with LGBT media website AfterElton.com in January 2010 , series creator Seth MacFarlane mentioned the episode in response to concerns over how his animated series have portrayed LGBT characters . " It always distresses me when I hear that the gay community is upset with us , because that 's one group of people I hope would know we 're on their side . I can safely say that the transsexual community will be very , very happy with the ' Quagmire ' episode that we have coming up in a couple of months . It 's probably the most sympathetic portrayal of a transexual [ sic ] character that has ever been on television , dare I say . " In a subsequent review , AfterElton.com writer Brent Hartinger graded the episode negatively . While noting that the episode deserves credit for making important points about transgender people , he found its inclusion of the vomiting scene and Lois and Peter 's transphobic remarks about Ida to be " shockingly insensitive " . Hartinger continued , " Frankly , it 's literally impossible for me to reconcile last night 's episode with MacFarlane 's words , unless I come to the conclusion that the man is pretty much a complete idiot . " The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation , an LGBT media watchdog organization , released a statement about the episode , noting that " GLAAD shares the serious concerns being voiced from members of the community and GLAAD ’ s Entertainment Media Team is addressing these with Fox . Next steps will be decided at that point . " In a September 2010 interview in Details , MacFarlane expressed surprise at the negative reaction , stating " I don 't meet a lot of stupid homosexuals . " He repeated that he still felt Ida was a " very sympathetic portrayal of a transsexual character " . He also defended Brian 's vomiting after discovering he had sex with someone who had undergone sex reassignment surgery noting Brian 's character is heterosexual and " If I found out that I had slept with a transsexual , I might throw up in the same way that a gay guy looks at a vagina and goes , ' Oh , my God , that 's disgusting . ' "
The Parents Television Council , a conservative campaigning group and frequent critic of MacFarlane 's work , named " Quagmire 's Dad " as its " Worst TV Show of the Week " citing Dan Quagmire 's " outrageously stereotyped gay " character , violence and sexual innuendo . The PTC specifically cited the innuendo @-@ laced dialogue throughout the episode , a " straight 30 straight seconds [ sic ] " of vomiting after Brian learns of Ida 's previous identity , Quagmire 's erection while embracing Ida and the violence of the final scene .
= Winter in America =
Winter in America is a studio album by American vocalist Gil Scott @-@ Heron and keyboardist Brian Jackson , released in May 1974 on Strata @-@ East Records . They recorded the album during September to October 1973 at D & B Sound Studio in Silver Spring , Maryland . While Jackson 's piano @-@ based arrangements were rooted in jazz and the blues , their stripped @-@ down production for the album resulted in a reliance on more traditional African and R & B sounds . The subject matter on Winter in America deals with the African @-@ American community and inner city in the 1970s .
The album serves as Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's debut release for Strata @-@ East Records , following a dispute with their former label and departure . It proved to be their sole release for the independent jazz label . Upon its release , Winter in America featured limited distribution in the United States and quickly became rare in print . However , with promotional help from its only single " The Bottle " , it obtained considerably larger commercial success than Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's previous work . The album debuted at number six on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart and ultimately sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
While it was critically overlooked upon its release , Winter in America earned retrospective acclaim from several writers and music critics as Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's greatest work together . Along with its critical recognition , it has been noted by several critics for its influence on derivative music forms such as neo soul and hip hop music , as many artists of the genres have been influenced by Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's lyrical and musical approach on the album . On March 10 , 1998 , Winter in America was reissued on compact disc for the first time in the United States through Scott @-@ Heron 's Rumal @-@ Gia Records .
= = Background = =
After leaving his former label Flying Dutchman Records , Gil Scott @-@ Heron signed with the New York City jazz @-@ based Strata @-@ East label in early 1973 , accompanied by jazz keyboardist and songwriter Brian Jackson , with whom he had worked with on his previous studio albums , Pieces of a Man ( 1971 ) and Free Will ( 1972 ) . While some sources allege this may have been over financial or creative differences , Scott @-@ Heron maintained the switch was due to producer Bob Thiele 's unwillingness to give Jackson co @-@ billing . By the time of their move to Strata @-@ East , Scott @-@ Heron and Jackson had achieved underground notice among R & B and soul music listeners , particularly for the political and social nature of their music 's themes , as well as Scott @-@ Heron 's emphasis on African @-@ American culture and social plight in his compositions . Their musical fusion of jazz , blues , soul and spoken word styles helped them earn some notice among less @-@ mainstream black music listeners at the time .
Social circumstances and musical events preceded Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's signing with Strata @-@ East . After the decline of popularity in traditional jazz forms and the civil rights struggle , which had sought racial equality during the late 1950s and 1960s , black pride and Afrocentric sentiment by many black Americans emerged . During 1970 to 1974 , the Black Panthers organization had been neutralized and pan @-@ Africanism came into vogue . Following the free jazz and avant @-@ garde breakthroughs of Ornette Coleman and John Coltrane , a creative stasis among most jazz musicians set in during the decade that led to an eclecticism where no style or conception of jazz maintained a zeitgeist among players . However , jazz fusion had gained mainstream notice for its stylistic adoption of rock and funk music , despite being the subject of controversy in jazz purist circles . Highlighted by the works of Roy Ayers , Herbie Hancock , and Donald Byrd , jazz @-@ funk also emerged in response to the growing popularity of funk , leading to a trend of funk rhythms among jazz musicians formerly of the hard bop tradition as an attempt to reconnect with their African @-@ American audience . This factored into the popularity of Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's work in the black underground scene , with the former obtaining a reputation as a " street poet " , while his work with Jackson served as an early recording of jazz poetry .
Scott @-@ Heron had looked to expand on his socially conscious , pro black @-@ oriented themes and independently produce a more conceptual album than his previous work had envisioned . Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's search for more creative control over their recordings prompted them to sign with Strata @-@ East Records . Established in 1971 by jazz musicians Charles Tolliver and Stanley Cowell , in response to major record companies ' lack of interest in their recordings , the Strata @-@ East label had become known for signing artists who recorded with diverse styles of jazz music with themes of social consciousness and black nationalism , as well as " minimal but eye @-@ grabbing graphic design " for its releases .
The label had also been known for carrying out the management concept of " condominium " . Originally conceived and penned by Cowell , it gave artists authority and responsibility over their recorded material independently , as well as the ability to assign the master tapes over to the label for distribution . Strata @-@ East artists had more control over their recordings than major labels at the time had offered . Music journalist Kevin Moist later wrote of the label 's " condominium " concept , " The idea was to try and develop an independent cultural space outside of the mainstream that could function self @-@ sufficiently and be genuinely participatory for its members . The goal was to live in an engaged way where art , society , spirituality , and politics could all come together holistically in an integrated existence . That ( sub ) cultural renewal is embodied in the kind of music midwifed by Strata @-@ East . " The label 's philosophy for artist management and recording ethic worked to the advantage of artists such as Gil Scott @-@ Heron and Brian Jackson . Scott @-@ Heron and Jackson were able to release more aesthetically personalized recordings for Strata @-@ East than most mainstream labels would allow .
= = Recording and production = =
To record the album , Jackson suggested a small studio located outside of Washington , D.C. in Silver Spring , Maryland . The sessions took place in September and October 1973 at Silver Spring 's D & B Sound Studios . According to Scott @-@ Heron , the studio 's main room was so small that when the two musicians recorded , Jackson was forced out next to the cooler , playing flute in the studio 's hallway while Scott @-@ Heron sang in the main room . However , Scott @-@ Heron felt comfortable in the small studio . Jose Williams was enlisted as the recording engineer for the album . Williams assisted Scott @-@ Heron and Jackson , who were credited for production under the title Perpis @-@ Fall Music , Inc . , with production , and he engineered the album 's recordings entirely himself .
The recording sessions served as the first production credit for Scott @-@ Heron , Jackson , and Jose Williams . As the third unofficial collaboration between Scott @-@ Heron and Jackson , the album 's recording featured more of Jackson 's input than before . Jackson recounted the experience in an interview for All About Jazz , stating " He had this way with words and I thought to myself , ' People have to hear this stuff ' . What I had to offer was the music and I figured if we can take his words and make this tribal knowledge rhythmic and musical , we can draw people to hear it . "
In contrast to their Flying Dutchman recordings and subsequent Arista recordings , Winter in America utilized a sparse production quality and small number of sessions musicians . A small supporting line @-@ up , featuring drummer Bob Adams and bassist Danny Bowens , contributed on a few cuts . Adams and Bowens , who studied with Scott @-@ Heron at Lincoln University , arrived from the Pennsylvania @-@ based college on the last day of recording on October 15 , 1973 . Scott @-@ Heron and Jackson handled most of the vocals , songwriting , and instrumentation , and they were assisted by Williams with the production .
The September 4 and 5 sessions featured only Jackson and Scott @-@ Heron playing and recording . The limited personnel during these sessions allowed them to rely mostly on traditional African and R & B sounds and influences , along with more creative and artistic control of the project . More than half of the album 's songs were co @-@ written and produced by Jackson . His input also helped solidify his partnership with Scott @-@ Heron , leading to further records together before their split in 1978 .
= = Title and concept = =
The original name of the album was intended to be Supernatural Corner , named after the cover art , but was later changed to Winter in America by Scott @-@ Heron . Both the title and the song " Supernatural Corner " were left off the album , as the name would not be understandable to people who had not seen the house to which the title was alluding . According to Gil Scott @-@ Heron , the original title referred to what appeared to him to be a haunted house in the Logan Circle neighborhood of Washington , D.C. , in which Scott @-@ Heron and Jackson moved into prior to recording in 1973 . The cover artwork features a collage @-@ type painting with oriental graphic designs and a small figure version of whom appears to be Brian Jackson . It was created by Eugene Coles , a friend and colleague of Jackson 's and Scott @-@ Heron 's from the historically black college Morgan State University . Supernatural Corner by Coles was used as the album 's cover art , as Scott @-@ Heron had originally commissioned Coles to design the collage .
The revised title of Winter in America was intended to represent Scott @-@ Heron 's use of the season of winter as a metaphor and concept of his view of the issues facing society during his time . The title was also meant to represent the urban sociological themes featured on the album , which had surfaced on most of Scott @-@ Heron 's previous work . Scott @-@ Heron referred to the title as the " overall atmosphere of the album " , as well as the metaphor for the overall theme of the album . Winter was conceived amid social , economic and political issues in the United States during the early 1970s , including stagflation , the 1973 oil crisis that had great effect during the winter , the 1973 stock market crash , the Watergate scandal , and urban decay . He further elaborated on the social concept of winter and Afrocentricism , as it relates to living during times such as these and how the title reflects on the time itself , in the original LP liner notes :
In a February 2009 interview with Jalylah Burrell of Vibe magazine , Gil Scott @-@ Heron discussed the album 's concept and title , as well as the social and political atmosphere at the time of Winter in America 's recording . In retrospect , he stated " We felt as though we had come across something that people did not understand or did not recognize but that 's the season that we were going into , not for three months but for an extended period of time . A lot of the folks who represented summer and spring and fall had been killed and assassinated . The only season left is winter . ... Bobby Kennedy and Dr. King and John Kennedy , those were folks who represented spring and summer , and they killed them . So we wanted to do an album about where we were . And we weren 't trying to depress people , hell , they were living it , they already knew but we were trying to describe it and were certainly not alone ... we felt as though a part of it was the folks in charge of the political structure . They were snowmen ... "
= = Music and lyrics = =
Similar to his studio debut album Pieces of a Man , Winter in America has Scott @-@ Heron exercising his baritone and deep tenor @-@ singing abilities with some spoken @-@ word elements . The album served as a move into more conventional song structures , in contrast to the Scott @-@ Heron 's debut live album , A New Black Poet - Small Talk at 125th and Lenox ( 1970 ) , which was composed entirely of spoken @-@ word poetry , and the rapping style of his previous album Free Will . According to music writer Karl Keely , Pieces of a Man and Winter in America exhibit further departure by Scott @-@ Heron from his prominent " angry and militant poet " persona . BBC Online writer Daryl Easlea wrote that it " captures Scott Heron at a turning point , largely leaving his heavier raps behind in favour of a floating ambience , with his poetry and song being illuminated by Jackson 's superb instrumentation " . In addition , the album features more themes of social commentary , Afrocentrism and balladry than Pieces of a Man . Winter in America features a more stripped @-@ down production and melancholy mood along with songs that exceeded four minutes , as opposed to Free Will , which was criticized for its brevity and time constraints .
Scott @-@ Heron 's characteristic sound on the album is rooted in the blues , jazz , and soul music . He referred to his mellow fusion of style as " bluesology , the science of how things feel . " Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's compositions for Winter in America incorporate elements of African music , heavy percussion , and chants . They also feature scene @-@ setting , spoken word intros and mystical interludes , which were influenced by the free jazz stylings of contemporary artists such as Pharoah Sanders and Abdullah Ibrahim . Jackson wrote arrangements that tended to be more straight @-@ ahead material , incorporating classic jazz bridges in his compositions . Scott @-@ Heron , as the main lyricist and vocalist , exhibited more pop sensibilities with his compositions and created indelible hooks that were influenced by the black popular music of the time . By combining their distinct approaches to composing , Scott @-@ Heron and Jackson produced a multicultural , diffused sound that evoked the afrobeat and world music style of artists such as Fela Kuti during the African music scene 's popularity .
Winter in America juxtaposes themes of nostalgic hope to the social problems of the early 1970s , particularly in the African @-@ American community and inner cities . Also a prominent theme in Scott @-@ Heron 's lyrics is people 's faith in their culture in a bleak , impoverished environment . The album features Scott @-@ Heron 's examination of maintaining one 's cultural roots in a discouraging environment . Other themes include love , fatherhood , freedom , alcoholism , and political scandal . The themes of social disillusionment and the human condition featured on the album are also depicted on the Winter collage , representing the grim , sullen images of poverty , decay , and death in generally urban areas and ghettos . Created by artist Peggy Harris , the collage was featured on the original LP 's inner sleeve and in the liner booklet of Winter in America 's CD reissue .
The album 's style and themes are exemplified by the bookending track " Peace Go with You , Brother " , with Scott @-@ Heron 's bluesy , jazzy vocals and Afrocentric lyrics accompanied by Jackson 's soulful piano arrangements . It features a dreamy , moody soundscape , produced by Jackson 's Rhodes electric piano , which evokes the In a Silent Way @-@ era jazz of Miles Davis . " Peace Go with You , Brother " has Scott @-@ Heron criticizing the selfishness of certain members of his generation , as well as people for forgetting their common humanity . The song continues to examine the significance of a person 's cultural roots , regardless of where they prove to blossom . " Rivers of My Fathers " is the album 's longest track and features drummer Bob Adams ' swing @-@ style drum rim shots and pianist Jackson ’ s wide , blocky chords , play in a blue @-@ influenced style . Scott @-@ Heron uses the water motif , a common metaphor in African @-@ American culture , to evoke feelings of home and freedom and represent faith , amid the frustrations of a modern black man . As the opening verse and chorus suggest , " Looking for a way out of this confusion / I 'm looking for a sign , carry me home / Let me lay down by a stream and let me be miles from everything / Rivers of my fathers , could you carry me home . " The narrator beseeches the " river " to deliver him home , which is revealed at the last seconds of the song as Scott @-@ Heron silently whispers " Africa " .
The melancholy , nostalgic love song " A Very Precious Time " contains an uplifting timbre of Jackson 's flute with joyful singing by Scott @-@ Heron . While his lyrics depict a requiem to innocence and first love , the song 's general message explores the concept of nostalgia as a means to remain in the present , despite the loss of hope or faith that can be brought on by the struggle of the present as opposed to the past . The tempo of the album is picked up by the opening vamp of " Back Home " , which contains the concept of family and its positive values . " The Bottle " is a commentary on alcohol abuse with a Caribbean beat and flute harmonies by Jackson . It became a popular song played at parties at the time . French music critic Pierre Jean @-@ Critin calls it " an epic song [ ... ] whose infectious groove can still set dance floors alight over thirty years later . " The song 's dance and popular music sensibilities and social message engendered its appeal to listeners following its release as a single . Scott @-@ Heron later said of the single 's success and style , " Pop music doesn 't necessarily have to be shit . " " The Bottle " also addresses problems of drug addiction , abortion , and incarceration , and features Scott @-@ Heron on keyboards . Despite its grim observations , " The Bottle " became a concert favorite and one of Scott @-@ Heron 's most popular songs . It is followed by soulful , low @-@ tempo tracks " Song for Bobby Smith " and " Your Daddy Loves You " ; the latter is an introspective ballad and ode to Scott @-@ Heron 's daughter Gia Louise .
During the October 15 , 1973 session , drummer Bob Adams and bassist Danny Bowens contributed to the tracks " Peace Go with You " , " Rivers of My Fathers " , " Back Home " , and " The Bottle " . Adams , however , was disappointed that " H ² Ogate Blues " was to be left off the album . The song originally served as an opening monologue concerning the Watergate incident used by Scott @-@ Heron at his concerts , and it contains proto @-@ rap and talking blues elements , in which rhythmic speech or near @-@ speech is accompanied by a free melody and strict rhythm . The studio version , which was recorded during the album 's sessions , was not intended to be for the album prior to Adams ' objection , as Scott @-@ Heron said that " nobody outside of Washington seemed to know what the hell I was talking about . " Scott @-@ Heron later revisited the experience in the liner notes of the album 's 1998 reissue . On Adams ' opinion of " H ² Ogate Blues " , he wrote that " His reply was that even if people didn ’ t understand the politics it ’ s still funny as hell . " On the recording , Scott @-@ Heron stated :
The resulting track features sharp criticism by Scott @-@ Heron of then @-@ US president Richard Nixon and his vice @-@ president Spiro Agnew , among other politicians involved in the scandal ; the Watergate incident had yet to reach its conclusion when the song was recorded . Scott @-@ Heron introduces the song with a short speech discussing the blues and referencing current events : " But lately we had Frank Rizzo with the ' Lie Detector Blues ' / We done had the United States government talkin bout the ' Energy Crisis Blues ' " . The final chorus line directly references Nixon and the scandal : " And there are those who swear that 've seen King Richard / Beneath that cesspool – Watergate " . His lyrics range from humor to critical diatribes of political corruption and social issues . It shares lyrical similarities to Stevie Wonder 's anti @-@ Nixon song " You Haven 't Done Nothin ' " ( 1974 ) . The album concludes with a reprisal of the opening track . Music writer Karl Keely said of its significance , " The return of the refrain from ' Peace Go with You Brother ' adds a sense of wholeness to end the record , an idea that the album has travelled through Gil Scott @-@ Heron 's worries , fears , pleasures , hopes , and finally , his pronounced disliking of Richard Nixon , before returning to the opening statement , in the hopes that the record may have made that selfish brother think more about his world and those in it , instead of moving along in a self @-@ imposed bubble . "
The title track , which was not featured on the original LP , was recorded after the album 's release at the suggestion of Peggy Harris , the artist who designed the Winter collage for the inner sleeve of the LP . Initially , Scott @-@ Heron and Jackson meant for Winter in America to lack a title track , which contrasted their previous label 's trend of having their work include title tracks . The album title 's purpose meant only to describe the general theme of Winter in America 's songs . According to Scott @-@ Heron , a title track " separates from the rest of the lyrics , better , or worse or different . " The studio version of " Winter in America " was released on his following album , The First Minute of a New Day ( 1975 ) , while a live version , recorded in 1982 at Washington , D.C. ' s Black Wax Club , was included on the 1998 CD reissue of Winter in America . The song features Scott @-@ Heron 's poetic references and lyrics that portray America in a dystopian state where " democracy is rag @-@ time on the corner " , " the forest is buried beneath the highway " , " robins are perched in barren treetops " , and , in conclusion , " no one is fighting because no one knows what to say . "
= = Release and reception = =
Upon its original stereo LP release in May 1974 , the album had a short supply and distribution due to the Strata @-@ East label 's independent distribution policy of their artists ' releases . Consequently , Winter in America became considered by many fans to be the great " lost " Gil Scott @-@ Heron album , before a proper reissue on compact disc thirty years following its original issue . The album served as the first of their collaborations to have Jackson receive co @-@ billing for a release . Unlike Scott @-@ Heron 's previous albums , Winter in America experienced some commercial success with the help of promotional resources in the form of underground music deejays and club promoters , in spite of the album 's limited distribution . While it did not chart on the U.S. Billboard Pop Albums chart , the album charted on the Top Jazz Albums chart and peaked at number six . Winter in America entered the Top Jazz Albums on June 29 , 1974 and remained there for 40 weeks , until March 29 , 1975 . According to a 1990 Los Angeles Times article on Scott @-@ Heron , the album ended up selling more than 300 @,@ 000 copies .
Winter in America 's only single release , " The Bottle " , soon became an underground and cult hit following its issue . Despite its underground reputation , the song became one of Scott @-@ Heron 's most successful singles , as it reached the number 15 spot on the R & B Singles Chart . According to an article on Scott @-@ Heron for a November 1974 issue of Billboard , the success of the single " has made his most recent album , ' Winter in America ' , a national best @-@ seller and heralds his wide @-@ ranging appeal . " The success of " The Bottle " also helped lead to Jackson 's and Scott @-@ Heron 's following recording contract with Arista Records , which had been established in late 1974 , the label at which they would enjoy further success and a larger amount of commercial notice . Upon signing them , Arista executive Clive Davis said of Scott @-@ Heron in an interview with Rolling Stone , " Not only is he an excellent poet , musician and performer — three qualities I look for that are rarely combined — but he 's a leader of social thought . " Along with approval from Arista executives , Winter in America was well received by the underground music scene , in which Scott @-@ Heron earned the majority of his fan base , and added to Scott @-@ Heron 's reputation as a socially aware and conscious artist .
In retrospective reviews , Winter in America was well received by critics , who cite it as one of Scott @-@ Heron 's best albums . Uncut magazine 's Barney Hoskyns praised the album , calling it an " introspective seasonal offering from black poet @-@ singer and collaborating pianist " . He also lauded its critical content and called it " a masterwork of ghetto melancholia and stark political gravitas " . Ron Wynn of AllMusic wrote of Scott @-@ Heron 's performance , in that he was " at his most righteous and provocative on this album " , while acknowledging Jackson 's contributions as well . BBC Online 's Daryl Easlea called the album " an affecting work " and wrote that its title track " should be played as standard on all modern history courses as a snapshot of the stilted hopes and aspirations in the post Watergate and Vietnam War mid 70s America " . The Washington Post 's Richard Harrington cited " The Bottle " and " H ² Ogate Blues " as " classic Scott @-@ Heron works " in a review of its reissue . Los Angeles Times writer Mike Boehm viewed that its title track " sounded a sad death @-@ knell for ' 60s hopes of transforming change " , while calling it a " wonderful mood piece , capturing what it 's like to feel oppressed in your soul by outer @-@ world events that seem out of control " . Danny Eccleston of Mojo called it an " alloy of Rhodes @-@ laden souljazz with [ Scott @-@ Heron ] ' s razor @-@ sharp beat @-@ poetry " and quipped , " Anger , radicalism , humour and funk from the proto @-@ rapper , thankfully restored to health and liberty . "
Dream magazine columnist Kevin Moist stated that the album " further jazzified his mixture of street poetry , soulful spirit , political commitment , and Black cultural expression . " He also noted the history of the Strata @-@ East label , and summed up Winter in America 's significance , stating " Radically charged but musically mostly stark and low @-@ key , melodic and soulful as hell , sometimes full band flow while at others just voice and piano , all hanging tight under a melancholy cloud of belatedness [ ... ] Thematically , the album reaches back even further than its predecessors in drawing on Black cultural energy as a source of power for facing down the coming political / cultural Ice Age in America . But Scott @-@ Heron was never a one @-@ dimensional ranter , and his pen is as double @-@ edged here as it ever was , slicing into the growing self @-@ destructiveness and sell @-@ out / buy @-@ in tendencies that were fragmenting the Black community , as incisively as it stabs at the jowls of evil in the White House . As badass as it is understated , and really hasn ’ t dated just a little bit . " The Observer called the album a " jazz fusion pillar stone , with a social conscience to boot " . Music writer Karl Keely praised Scott @-@ Heron 's vocal maturity from his previous work , and noted Jackson 's influence for improving and expanding the music 's melodic content . Keely commented that it demonstrates " the evolution of Scott @-@ Heron from politicised poet to soulful singer " .
However , Houston Press writer Paul J. MacArthur expressed a mixed response towards its production quality and called Winter in America the " most dated " of the Scott @-@ Heron reissues . Robert Christgau said with the exception of the danceable " The Bottle " , Scott @-@ Heron " had a better beat and just slightly less melody " when he was reciting in spoken word . In a 1975 article for The Village Voice , he commended the album 's title track as " an evocation of our despondency that is as flawless as it is ambitious " .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Winter in America has been recognized by music writers as one of the prominent examples of early rap , along with the early work of The Watts Prophets and The Last Poets . " The Bottle " was covered by latin soul musician Joe Bataan for his album Afrofilipino ( 1975 ) . Recordings featured on the album , along with other Scott @-@ Heron / Jackson compositions , were sampled by hip hop artists . This further expanded Scott @-@ Heron 's legacy as one of the progenitors of hip hop . The diverse sound and mellow instrumentation featured on the album , referred to by Scott @-@ Heron as bluesology , later inspired neo soul artists in the 1990s and helped solidify Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's legacy in the genre . On Jackson 's legacy , All About Jazz described him as " one of the early architects of the neo @-@ soul " , while citing his early work with Scott @-@ Heron as " an inspirational and musical Rosetta stone for the neo @-@ soul movement " . Pierre Jean @-@ Critin of the French music magazine Vibrations wrote of Scott @-@ Heron and the album , stating " As an artist who conceives his albums as newspapers and similar testimonies , Gil Scott @-@ Heron is one of America 's finest observers and commentators of social reality as well as being one of the most creative and influential figures in African @-@ American music , and this landmark album announced his arrival . "
The album also marked the transition of Scott @-@ Heron from beat poet to singer @-@ songwriter with a full @-@ scale band . He further developed this melodic approach with his following work with Brian Jackson , The First Minute of a New Day ( 1975 ) and From South Africa to South Carolina ( 1976 ) . While the album did not have a direct impact on the black music scene at the time , it proved to become one of the Strata @-@ East label 's most successful LP releases , in terms of sales and appeal to their target audience . While serving as Scott @-@ Heron 's and Jackson 's only album for the independent label , Winter in America helped Strata @-@ East Records achieve considerable notability among other New York City distributors of soul and jazz music during the 1970s , while the latter genre had been viewed by many jazz purists to be in a period of creative confusion and decline . In describing the label and its issued musical works , Dream magazine 's Kevin Moist stated " The diversity and experimentation of the music , plus the great quality of many of those experiments , make it seem like more like a creative golden age in which the dominant idea was new ideas mixing and blending cultural styles and artistic genres or pushing existing styles into new extremes . " According to Nick Dedina of Rhapsody , Winter in America had impact elsewhere , stating " this deeply felt ( and sometimes deeply funky ) album helped break the pioneer of protest jazz @-@ soul and rap to the general public with hit single ' The Bottle ' " .
The album was re @-@ released with previously unreleased bonus material by Scott @-@ Heron 's Rumal @-@ Gia label in 1998 , following a reissue project headed by Scott @-@ Heron after he had received ownership of his 1970s recordings . The record 's significance and influence in music has led to much retrospective favor of it among music writers and critics , as shown in Winter 's rankings in several " best of " publication polls . Winter in America was ranked number 67 on New Nation 's June 2004 list of The Top 100 Black Albums . The album was also listed in the music reference book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die ( 2006 ) . " The Bottle " was later ranked number 92 on NME magazine 's list of The Top 150 Singles of All @-@ Time and was included in Q magazine 's 1010 Songs You Must Own ! publication . The title track was included on music writer Bruce Pollock 's 2005 list of The 7 @,@ 500 Most Important Songs of 1944 @-@ 2000 , and it was ranked number 82 on Blow Up 's list of 100 Songs to Remember .
= = Track listing = =
1998 compact disc reissue bonus tracks .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Winter in America adapted from liner notes .
= = = Musicians = = =
Gil Scott @-@ Heron – vocals , electric piano
Brian Jackson – electric piano , acoustic piano , flute , vocals
Danny Bowens – fender bass
Bob Adams – drums ( traps )
= = = Production = = =
Perpis @-@ Fall Music , Inc . – producer
Jose Williams – engineer
Malcolm Cecil – remastering
Vera Savcic , Adam Shore – reissue exec. producer
Dan Henderson – manager
Eugene Coles – cover painting
Peggy Harris – liner collage
Monique de la Tour / Rumal @-@ Gia , David Lau – reissue art direction
Scott Townsend – reissue design
Tony Cerrante , Gary Price – liner photos
= = Charts = =
U.S. Billboard Music Charts ( North America ) – Winter in America
1974 : Top Jazz Albums – # 6
U.S. Billboard Music Charts ( North America ) – " The Bottle "
1974 : Top R & B Singles – # 15
= = Release history = =
Winter in America was originally released as a 12 " vinyl record , in stereo format only . Released in May 1974 with a limited supply , the record remained out of print for nearly twenty five years in the United States until 1998 , when Scott @-@ Heron acquired ownership of his recordings , with the exception of his material for the Flying Dutchman label . Afterwards , he initiated a reissue project through his own Rumal @-@ Gia label , which had obtained a distribution deal with TVT Records . The compact disc reissue contains bonus tracks , including the live version of the title track , and the original and new liner notes written by Gil Scott @-@ Heron . Prior to this , a German release of Winter in America was issued in 1992 as was a remastered LP in 1996 . However , they did not include these features . Other remasters were also released in Europe , as listed below .
= Maggie Gyllenhaal =
Margalit Ruth " Maggie " Gyllenhaal ( / ˈdʒɪlənhɑːl / ; born November 16 , 1977 ) is an American actress . She is the daughter of filmmakers Stephen Gyllenhaal and Naomi Achs and the older sister of actor Jake Gyllenhaal . She began her film career as a teenager with roles in her father 's films and appeared alongside her brother in the psychological horror film Donnie Darko ( 2001 ) . She garnered critical praise for starring as Lee Holloway in Secretary ( 2002 ) , for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award . For her performance in Sherrybaby ( 2006 ) , she was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama . She also received recognition for starring as Rachel Dawes in The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) . For her performance in the musical @-@ drama Crazy Heart ( 2009 ) , she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress . She subsequently starred in Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang ( 2010 ) , Won 't Back Down ( 2012 ) and Frank ( 2014 ) , for which she was nominated for a BIFA Award .
In 2014 , she made her Broadway debut in a revival of The Real Thing , and also starred in the television BBC miniseries The Honourable Woman . For her performance in the latter she won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for an Emmy Award .
= = Early life = =
Gyllenhaal was born in New York City , the daughter of Naomi Foner Gyllenhaal ( née Achs ) and Stephen Gyllenhaal . Her father is a film director and writer and her mother is a screenwriter . She has one sibling , actor Jake Gyllenhaal . Her father , who was raised in the Swedenborgian religion , is of Swedish and English ancestry , and is a member of the Gyllenhaal family . Her last native Swedish ancestor was her great @-@ great @-@ grandfather Anders Leonard Gyllenhaal , a descendant of Leonard Gyllenhaal , a leading Swedenborgian who supported the printing and spreading of Swedenborg 's writings . Her mother was born in New York City , and is from a Jewish family which emigrated from Russia and Poland . Her mother 's first husband was Eric Foner , a noted historian and history professor at Columbia University . Gyllenhaal has stated that she " grew up mostly Jewish , culturally " , though she did not attend Hebrew school . Her parents married in 1977 , and filed for divorce in October 2008 . The first name on Maggie 's birth certificate is " Margalit " , which she did not discover until 2013 , when she officially changed it to " Maggie " . Margalit ( מרגלית ) is a Hebrew word meaning " pearl " ; some news stories have spelled it " Margolit " .
Gyllenhaal grew up in Los Angeles , and studied at the Harvard – Westlake prep school . In 1995 , she graduated from Harvard – Westlake and moved to New York to attend Columbia University , where she studied literature and Eastern religions .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Gyllenhaal 's first films — her feature film debut at the age of 15 , Waterland ( 1992 ) ; A Dangerous Woman ( 1993 ) ; and Homegrown ( 1998 ) — were directed by her father ; the last two also featured her brother ; they had supporting roles as children . With their mother , she and Jake appeared in two episodes of Molto Mario , an Italian cooking show on the Food Network . After graduating from college , she played supporting roles in films like Cecil B. Demented ( 2000 ) and Riding in Cars with Boys ( 2001 ) . Gyllenhaal later achieved recognition in her own right playing her real brother 's on @-@ screen sister in the indie cult hit Donnie Darko ( 2001 ) .
She made her theatrical debut in the Berkeley Repertory Theatre production of Patrick Marber 's Closer , for which she received favorable reviews . Production started in May 2000 and ended in mid @-@ July of that year . Gyllenhaal has performed in several other plays , including The Tempest , Antony and Cleopatra , The Butterfly Project , and No Exit .
= = = 2002 – 2005 = = =
Gyllenhaal 's break @-@ out role was in the black comedy Secretary ( 2002 ) , a film about two people who embark on a mutually fulfilling BDSM lifestyle . The New York Times critic Stephen Holden noted : " The role of Lee , which Maggie Gyllenhaal imbues with a restrained comic delicacy and sweetness , should make her a star . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote : " Maggie Gyllenhaal , as the self @-@ destructive secretary , is enigmatic and , at moments , sympathetic . " The film received generally favorable reviews , and Gyllenhaal 's performance earned her the Best Breakthrough Performance by an Actress award from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures , her first Golden Globe nomination , and an Independent Spirit Award nomination . Secretary was Gyllenhaal 's first film role which featured full frontal nudity . Although impressed with the script , she initially had some qualms about doing the film , which she believed could deliver an anti @-@ feminist message . Yet after carefully discussing the script with the film 's director , Steven Shainberg , she agreed to join the project . Although insisting Shainberg did not exploit her , Gyllenhaal has said she felt " scared when filming began " and that " in the wrong hands ... even in just slightly less intelligent hands , this movie could say something really weird . " Since then , she is guarded about discussing her role in the film , saying only that " despite myself , sometimes the dynamic that you are exploring in your work spills over into your life . "
She next played a supporting role in the comedy @-@ drama Adaptation . ( 2002 ) , a film that tells the story of screenwriter Charlie Kaufman 's struggle to adapt The Orchid Thief into a film . She later appeared in the unauthorized biography Confessions of a Dangerous Mind ( 2002 ) , part of an ensemble cast that included Sam Rockwell , Drew Barrymore , George Clooney , and Julia Roberts . The movie grossed US $ 33 million worldwide . That same year , she had a small role in the comedy 40 Days and 40 Nights .
In 2003 , she co @-@ starred with Julia Roberts in Mona Lisa Smile in the role of Giselle . In an interview with The Daily Telegraph , she revealed the reason for accepting the role was " to play somebody who feels confident in herself as a sexy , beautiful woman " . The film generated mostly critical reviews , with Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times describing it as " smug and reductive " . Her next roles were in smaller independent films : Casa de los Babys ( 2003 ) , a story about six American women impatiently waiting out their lengthy residency requirements in an unidentified South American country before picking up their adoptive babies , and Criminal ( 2004 ) , a remake of the Argentinian film Nine Queens , with John C. Reilly and Diego Luna . Gyllenhaal plays an honest hotel manager forced to help her crooked brother ( Reilly ) by seducing one of his victims . Gyllenhaal was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 2004 . She starred in the HBO film Strip Search ( 2004 ) , where she portrayed an American student in China suspected of terrorism .
In 2004 , Gyllenhaal returned to theater in a Los Angeles production of Tony Kushner 's Homebody / Kabul as Priscilla , the Homebody 's daughter , who spends most of the play searching for her elusive mother in Kabul , Afghanistan . Kushner gave her the role in Homebody / Kabul on the strength of her performance in Closer . Ben Brantley of The New York Times wrote : " Ms. Gyllenhaal provides the essential bridge between the parts of the play 's title . " John Heilpern of The New York Observer noted that Gyllenhaal 's performance was " compelling " . Viewed as a sex symbol , she was ranked in the " Hot 100 List " by Maxim magazine in 2004 and 2005 .
Gyllenhaal 's next film role was in the 2005 comedy @-@ drama Happy Endings , in which she played an adventuress singer who seduces a young gay musician ( Jason Ritter ) as well as his rich father ( Tom Arnold ) . She recorded songs for the movie 's soundtrack , calling the role the " roughest , scariest acting ever " and adding she is more natural when singing on screen than when acting . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly declared Gyllenhaal 's performance " as wonderfully , naturally slouchy @-@ sexy as her character is artificial " .
= = = 2006 – 2009 = = =
Following Happy Endings , she starred in the 2006 films Trust the Man , Stranger than Fiction , Monster House , World Trade Center , and Sherrybaby . In Trust the Man , featuring Julianne Moore , David Duchovny , and Billy Crudup , she played Elaine , who has been dating Tobey , Crudup 's character , for seven years and has begun to feel that it is time for her to settle down and start a family . The film was critically and financially unsuccessful . Ethan Alter of Premiere felt that the performances by Gyllenhaal and Duchovny were " much more at ease " and concluded with " that 's probably because they 're [ sic ] played these characters many times before " . In Stranger than Fiction , Gyllenhaal played a love interest of Harold Crick , played by Will Ferrell . Her performance in the film received favorable reviews ; Mike Straka of Fox News wrote : " Gyllenhaal has never been sexier in any film before and her interplay with Ferrell will propel her to more A @-@ list films , leaving her indie @-@ darling days behind , no doubt . " She voiced Elizabeth " Zee " in the computer animated horror film Monster House . Gyllenhaal played Allison Jimeno , the wife of Port Authority officer Will Jimeno , in Oliver Stone 's World Trade Center , based on the September 11 attacks in New York City . She regarded this as " one of the films she most enjoyed making " . The film received favorable reviews and proved to be an international success , earning US $ 162 million worldwide .
In Sherrybaby , Gyllenhaal played a young drug @-@ addicted thief trying to put her life in order after prison so she can reconcile with her daughter . During promotion of the film , she noted of her portrayal of the character : " I think she 's in such dire straights [ sic ] that all she has are these kind of naive , fierce hope . And while I was playing the part I was looking for pleasure and hope in everything , even in these really bleak things . And so it was really mostly after I finished the movie that I felt pain . " Her performance in the film was well received : David Germain of the Associated Press wrote , " Gyllenhaal humanizes her so deeply and richly ... that Sherry elicits sympathy even in her darkest and weakest moments " , and Dennis Harvey of Variety called her performance " naturalistic " . For her work , Gyllenhaal earned her second Golden Globe Best Actress nomination and won the Best Actress category award at the 2006 Stockholm International Film Festival .
She appeared in The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , the sequel to Batman Begins ( 2005 ) , in which she replaced Katie Holmes as Assistant District Attorney , Rachel Dawes . Gyllenhaal acknowledged her character was a damsel in distress to an extent , but said director Christopher Nolan sought ways to empower her character , so " Rachel 's really clear about what 's important to her and unwilling to compromise her morals , which made a nice change " from the many conflicted characters she had previously portrayed . The Dark Knight was a financial and critical success , setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America . With revenue of US $ 1 billion worldwide , it became the fourth @-@ highest grossing film of all time , and remains Gyllenhaal 's most commercially successful picture to date . In a Salon review of the film , Stephanie Zacharek called Gyllenhaal 's character " a tough cookie in a Stanwyck @-@ style bias @-@ cut gown " and stated that " the movie feels smarter and more supple when she 's on @-@ screen " . IGN film critic Todd Gilchrist wrote , " Gyllenhaal adds real depth and energy to Rachel Dawes " .
Gyllenhaal played Yelena Andreevna in the Classic Stage Company 's 2009 Off @-@ Broadway production of Anton Chekhov 's Uncle Vanya in New York City . The cast also included Peter Sarsgaard , Mamie Gummer , Denis Leary , and George Foreman . The production , directed by Martin Scorsese , began previews on January 17 and ended its limited run on March 1 . Joe Dziemianowicz of the New York Daily News was less than enthusiastic about her performance , writing : " Gyllenhaal , who was so dynamic as a druggie in the film Sherrybaby , plays Yelena with a slow @-@ mo saunter and monotonous pasted @-@ on smile that makes it seem as if she 's been in Sherry 's stash . " However , Malcolm Johnson of the Hartford Courant was complimentary , noting that she " ultimately blossoms " as the character .
Gyllenhaal agreed to appear in the comedy film Away We Go , where she plays a bohemian college professor who is an old friend of John Krasinski 's character . The film generated broadly mixed reviews , with Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly describing Gyllenhaal 's subplot as " over @-@ the @-@ top " . However , A. O. Scott of The New York Times praised Gyllenhaal and co @-@ star Allison Janney for their performances , writing that " both [ are ] quite funny " . Scott concluded with , " Ms. Gyllenhaal 's line about sex roles in ' the seahorse community ' is the screenplay 's one clean satirical bull 's @-@ eye " . Her next role came in the musical @-@ drama Crazy Heart , in which she played journalist Jean Craddock , who falls for musician Bad Blake , played by Jeff Bridges . The movie received favorable reviews , with Gyllenhaal receiving praise from critics . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone reported that Gyllenhaal was " funny , touching and vital as Jean " and that her part was " conventionally conceived , but Gyllenhaal plays it with a tough core of intelligence and feeling . " Her performance earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress .
= = = 2010 – present = = =
In 2010 , Gyllenhaal appeared in Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang , the sequel to the 2005 film Nanny McPhee . The role required her to speak with an English accent . The feature received mixed reviews , and earned US $ 93 million worldwide . Away from acting , she served as host of the PBS television documentary series Independent Lens . Gyllenhaal also appeared in Hysteria , an independent movie focusing on the creation of the vibrator .
In February 2011 , Gyllenhaal starred in another Anton Chekhov production as the character Masha in Austin Pendleton 's Three Sisters at the Classic Stage Company . The play focuses on the Prozorov sisters ( Gyllenhaal , Jessica Hecht , and Juliet Rylance ) " unlucky in love , unhappy in the provinces and longing to return to Moscow " , as summarized by Bloomberg 's Jeremy Gerard . The off @-@ Broadway production began preview performances on January 12 , with a limited engagement through March 6 .
In the 2012 film Won 't Back Down , she played a parent involved in a parent trigger takeover of her child 's school . She appeared as a Secret Service agent in the action @-@ thriller White House Down ( 2013 ) . In 2014 , she played the title role as an Anglo @-@ Israeli business @-@ woman in the BBC Television series , The Honourable Woman . Also in 2014 she played Hathfertiti in Matthew Barney and Jonathan Bepler 's River of Fundament .
= = Personal life = =
Gyllenhaal began a relationship with actor Peter Sarsgaard , a close friend of her brother Jake , in 2002 . They announced their engagement in April 2006 , and married on May 2 , 2009 , in a small chapel in Brindisi , Italy . They have two daughters , Ramona ( b . 2006 ) and Gloria Ray Sarsgaard ( b . 2012 ) . The family lives in Brooklyn , New York .
= = Activism = =
= = = Politics = = =
Gyllenhaal is politically active . At the 18th Independent Spirit Awards , she spoke out against the Iraq war , stating the reason for the invasion was " oil and imperialism " . In 2005 , Gyllenhaal drew controversy for her statement that the September 11 attacks were " an occasion to be brave enough to ask some serious questions about America 's role in the world ... It is always useful as individuals or nations to ask how we may have knowingly or unknowingly contributed to this conflict . " Gyllenhaal took part in Artists United to Win Without War , a campaign started by Robert Greenwald with the aim of advancing progressive causes and voicing opposition to the Iraq War . She and her brother Jake filmed a commercial for Rock the Vote , and visited the University of Southern California ( USC ) campus to encourage students to vote in the 2004 U.S. presidential election , in which she supported John Kerry . Gyllenhaal supported Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election . She has campaigned on behalf of the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) , an organization her family strongly supports .
In June 2013 , Gyllenhaal and numerous other celebrities appeared in a video showing support for Chelsea Manning .
= = = Charity work = = =
Gyllenhaal is also a supporter of Witness , a non @-@ profit organization that uses video and online technologies to expose human rights violations . She co @-@ hosted a benefit dinner with founder Peter Gabriel in November 2007 . Gyllenhaal helped raise funds for TrickleUp.org , a non @-@ profit organization that helps impoverished people start a micro @-@ enterprise . For one of the fundraisers , Gyllenhaal helped design and promote a necklace that sold for US $ 100 ; all proceeds from sales went to the charity . Since 2008 , Gyllenhaal has been supporting the Hear the World Foundation as ambassador . In her role she is advocating for equal opportunities and better quality of life for people with hearing loss . In October 2008 she hosted a fashion show event called " Fashionably Natural " , which was presented by Gen Art and SoyJoy in Los Angeles . The show featured four up @-@ and @-@ coming designers who worked only with all @-@ natural and eco @-@ friendly fabrics and materials .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= Operation Tungsten =
Operation Tungsten was a Second World War Royal Navy air raid that targeted the German battleship Tirpitz . The operation sought to damage or destroy Tirpitz at her base in Kaafjord in the far north of Norway before she could become fully operational again following a period of repairs .
The British decision to strike Kaafjord was motivated by fears that the battleship , upon re @-@ entering service , would attack strategically important convoys carrying supplies to the Soviet Union . Removing the threat posed by Tirpitz would also allow the Allies to redeploy the capital ships which had to be held in the North Sea to counter her . After four months of training and preparations , the British Home Fleet sailed on 30 March 1944 and aircraft launched from five aircraft carriers struck Kaafjord on 3 April . The raid achieved surprise , and the British aircraft met little opposition . Fifteen bombs hit the battleship , and strafing by fighter aircraft inflicted heavy casualties on her gun crews . Four British aircraft and nine airmen were lost during the operation .
The damage inflicted during the attack was not sufficient to sink or disable Tirpitz , but 122 members of her crew died and 316 were wounded . The German Kriegsmarine decided to repair the battleship , and works were completed by mid @-@ July . The British conducted further carrier raids against Tirpitz between April and August 1944 in the hope of prolonging the period she was out of service , but none were successful . Tirpitz was eventually disabled and then sunk by Royal Air Force heavy bombers in late 1944 .
= = Background = =
The threat Tirpitz had an important influence on British naval strategy during the Second World War . She was commissioned in February 1941 and completed her crew training late that year . At about the same time the German high command decided to station the battleship in Norway ; this deployment was intended to deter a feared Allied invasion of Norway and threaten the convoys which regularly sailed through the Arctic Sea to the Soviet Union . These convoys carried large quantities of war material from ports in the UK and Iceland , and were frequently attacked by the German air and naval units stationed in Norway . Tirpitz arrived in Norway in January 1942 and operated from anchorages located in fjords . While she was operational the Allies had to keep a powerful force of warships with the British Home Fleet to guard against the possibility of a sortie against the Arctic convoys , and capital ships accompanied most convoys part of the way to the Soviet Union .
The British attacked Tirpitz several times during 1942 and 1943 . When the battleship sortied to intercept Convoy PQ 12 on 6 March 1942 HMS Victorious , which formed part of the convoy 's escort , attempted to attack her using torpedo bombers . These aircraft launched twenty torpedoes at the battleship but all missed . On several occasions during 1942 and 1943 bombers from the Royal Air Force and Soviet Air Forces attempted to strike Tirpitz in her anchorages without success . On 23 September 1943 two British X @-@ class midget submarines succeeded in penetrating the defences around the battleship at her main anchorage at Kaafjord in northern Norway during Operation Source , and placed explosive charges in the water beneath her . This attack caused extensive damage to Tirpitz , putting her out of service for six months .
Repairs to Tirpitz were carried out using improvised facilities at Kaafjord as it was considered too risky to attempt to move the damaged warship to Germany . Instead , equipment and work crews were shipped to the fjord from German ports . On the night of 10 / 11 February 1944 , 15 Soviet aircraft attacked the battleship , but did not cause any damage . By 17 March , the repairs to Tirpitz 's armament , machinery and hull were complete , but several minor repair tasks were outstanding . During the period the ship was under repair , Scharnhorst , the only remaining operational German battleship , was sunk on 26 December during the Battle of the North Cape . Following this engagement the Royal Navy stopped deploying battleships to cover convoys travelling to and from the Soviet Union . By this stage of the war the Allies also had large numbers of anti @-@ submarine and anti @-@ aircraft escort ships available , and were able to assign strong forces to protect all of the Arctic convoys . German submarines operating in the Norwegian Sea were rarely able to evade the convoy escorts , and few merchant vessels suffered damage from enemy attack .
The British Government and Royal Navy were concerned about the threat Tirpitz posed once she re @-@ entered service . Allied intelligence tracked the progress of work on the battleship using decrypted German radio signals , photo reconnaissance flights and eyewitness reports from agents in Norway . It was feared the battleship could sortie and attack convoys in the Norwegian Sea or Atlantic Ocean after the repairs were completed . The need to guard against this possibility would also occupy warships needed to support the planned invasion of France . As a result , it was decided in late 1943 to make further attempts to sink the battleship .
Despite Allied concerns , Tirpitz posed only a limited danger to Allied shipping . From late 1943 the battleship was unable to put to sea for crew training due to the threat of Allied attack and fuel shortages . These shortages also meant the Germans were unable to move the battleship between anchorages to make her more difficult to locate and attack .
= = Preparations = =
The options for attacking Tirpitz at Kaafjord were limited . Another submarine @-@ borne raid was considered impractical as intelligence gathered from intercepted radio transmissions and field agents indicated that the battleship 's underwater defences had been improved and more aerial reconnaissance patrols of the region were being flown . The commander of the Royal Air Force 's Bomber Command , Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris , also refused to attempt a heavy bomber raid on Tirpitz on the grounds that the Kaafjord area was beyond the effective range of these aircraft and the battleship 's guns would cause heavy casualties . After these two options were ruled out , the task was assigned to the Home Fleet 's aircraft carriers . At this time the large fleet carriers HMS Furious and Victorious and four smaller escort carriers were ready .
Planning for the raid on Kaafjord began in December 1943 . Vice Admiral Bruce Fraser , the commander of the Home Fleet , was not optimistic about the prospects for success , and had to be persuaded to undertake the operation by First Sea Lord Sir Andrew Cunningham . Fraser gave his second in command , Vice Admiral Sir Henry Moore , responsibility for planning and leading the raid . The operation was initially designated " Operational Thrustful " , but was later renamed " Operation Tungsten " . The attack was originally scheduled for mid @-@ March 1944 , shortly before the time Allied intelligence believed Tirpitz would become operational . However , it was delayed by two weeks while Victorious was fitted with new radars . The British considered cancelling Operation Tungsten in February as Victorious was also needed in the Indian Ocean to counter a build @-@ up of Japanese warships at Singapore . To enable the attack to proceed , the United States Navy agreed to temporarily transfer USS Saratoga to the Eastern Fleet so that Victorious could be retained in the North Sea .
The plans for the raid were centred on two dive @-@ bombing attacks by Fleet Air Arm Fairey Barracuda aircraft . Each of the attacks was to involve 21 Barracudas escorted by 40 fighters ; Vought F4U Corsairs flying from Victorious would provide protection against German aircraft while Grumman F4F Wildcat and F6F Hellcats operating from Furious and the escort carriers HMS Emperor , Pursuer and Searcher were to strafe anti @-@ aircraft batteries near Tirpitz , as well as the battleship herself . Further aircraft flying from Furious and the escort carrier HMS Fencer would protect the fleet against attack by German aircraft or submarines . While carrier aircraft had previously lacked a bomb capable of penetrating a battleship 's thick deck armour , it was hoped that the recently developed 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armour @-@ piercing bomb would be able to pierce at least the first layer of Tirpitz 's armour if they were dropped from an altitude of 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) or higher . The damage caused by such hits was expected to put the battleship out of service . Nine of the Barracudas were to be armed with 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound bombs and a further 22 would each carry three 500 @-@ pound semi @-@ armour @-@ piercing bombs that were capable of penetrating the lightly protected upper decks of the ship if dropped from above 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) . The remaining ten aircraft would be armed with 500- and 600 @-@ pound general @-@ purpose bombs and with anti @-@ submarine bombs intended to inflict casualties among the battleship 's crew and cause underwater damage if they exploded in the water near her hull . The aircraft carrying high @-@ explosive bombs were to initiate the dive bombing of Tirpitz as it was hoped that these weapons would knock out at least some of the battleship 's anti @-@ aircraft guns before the main attack commenced .
The Fleet Air Arm units selected for Operation Tungsten conducted intensive training from February 1944 . A high proportion of the airmen were inexperienced , and the captain of Victorious estimated that 85 per cent of the aircrew embarked on his ship had not previously operated at sea . The training program was centred on Loch Eriboll in northern Scotland which , like Kaafjord , was surrounded by steep hills . Flying from RNAS Hatston in the Orkney Islands , the aircrew practiced manoeuvring around this terrain to familiarise themselves with the tactics needed to avoid German anti @-@ aircraft guns and successfully attack Tirpitz . The Royal Navy drew on intelligence on the defences of Kaafjord to make the exercise range as similar to the conditions around Tirpitz as was possible , and the aircrew were extensively briefed on the locations of German positions . An area the size of the battleship was also marked out on an island in the centre of the loch and repeatedly bombed .
While these preparations were under way , the Allies continued to monitor Tirpitz . In late February the escort carrier HMS Chaser transported photo analysts and the ground crews for a Royal Air Force photo reconnaissance detachment to Vaenga airfield in northern Russia . These personnel were joined by three Supermarine Spitfires fitted for photo reconnaissance work and a single Consolidated PBY Catalina in March . The Spitfires flew regular sorties over Kaafjord and took very detailed photographs of Tirpitz and the nearby anti @-@ aircraft batteries on 12 and 13 March ; after being developed the Catalina flew these images to the UK . Although the German forces in northern Norway detected the Spitfire flights , the Kaafjord area 's defences were not increased or placed on alert . On 16 March eight British , Dutch and Norwegian submarines were directed to take up positions off the Norwegian coast after decrypted German radio messages indicated that Tirpitz may have been preparing to depart Kaafjord for Germany to complete her repairs . A further eight British and Dutch submarines were dispatched on 18 March , but two days later it was concluded that Tirpitz was not about to put to sea and the submarines were diverted to other tasks or ordered back to port . On 21 March British intelligence warned the Admiralty that due to recent Soviet advances on the Eastern Front , the Germans were placing a strong emphasis on disrupting the flow of supplies to the Soviet Union and could dispatch Tirpitz to attack any convoys not escorted by capital ships . In response , Fraser was directed to provide battleship protection for the next Arctic Convoy .
The final decision to undertake Operation Tungsten was made in mid @-@ March on the basis of a decrypted radio message that indicated that Tirpitz was almost ready for combat and would conduct high @-@ speed trials on 1 April . As a result of the delays to the operation , the sailing of the attack force coincided with the departure of Convoy JW 58 for the Soviet Union . It was hoped that if German forces spotted the British fleet it would be assumed that the warships
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were supporting the convoy . As part of the final preparations for the attack a full @-@ scale rehearsal was conducted using the training range at Loch Eriboll on 28 March . From 1 April onwards , the Admiralty received hourly weather reports from a group of Norwegian Secret Intelligence Service agents in Alta , near Kaafjord .
= = Opposing forces = =
The Royal Navy assembled a powerful force for Operation Tungsten . The main striking force was made up of two wings of Barracudas : 8 Wing comprising 827 and 830 Naval Air Squadrons , and 52 Wing with 829 and 831 Naval Air Squadrons . While 8 Wing was normally based on board Furious and 52 Wing on Victorious , Moore chose to station a squadron from each of the wings on each carrier so they could launch simultaneously and go into battle as formed units . The 163 Fleet Air Arm airmen in the attacking units included 28 New Zealanders , three Canadians , two Australians , and one South African ; the remainder were British .
The large number of warships assigned to the operation were initially split into two groups . Force One was personally commanded by Fraser on board the battleship HMS Duke of York , and also included Victorious , the battleship HMS Anson ( with Moore and his staff on board ) , a light cruiser and five destroyers . Force Two was commanded by Rear Admiral Arthur La Touche Bisset and comprised Furious , the four escort carriers , five destroyers and two tankers . It was planned that Force One would initially provide support for Convoy JW 58 and Force Two would sail separately and proceed directly to a point off Norway where it would be joined by Anson and Victorious on 3 April and conduct the raid the next day .
Tirpitz 's anchorage at Kaafjord was protected by anti @-@ aircraft batteries and fighter aircraft . At the time of Operation Tungsten , four batteries of heavy anti @-@ aircraft guns and seven batteries of light guns were located on the shore near the battleship . Several anti @-@ aircraft vessels and destroyers were also usually moored near Tirpitz . The battleship herself was fitted with 68 anti @-@ aircraft guns . Equipment capable of generating an artificial smokescreen to hide Tirpitz from aircraft had also been installed around Kaafjord . The German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) had only a small number of fighters stationed at bases near Kaafjord , and their operations were constrained by a lack of fuel . British intelligence believed that the German fighter force in the area could be rapidly expanded in the event of an emergency . The Luftwaffe typically conducted three reconnaissance flights into the Arctic Sea each day .
= = Attack = =
Force One departed the Home Fleet 's base at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands on 30 March , three days after JW 58 had sailed from Loch Ewe in Scotland . Force Two departed separately later that day . The convoy comprised 49 merchant ships escorted by a powerful force of 33 warships , including two escort carriers . German reconnaissance aircraft located JW 58 on 30 March , and all of the U @-@ boats in the Norwegian Sea were directed to intercept it . The German aircraft did not conduct wider @-@ ranging sorties in search of the convoy 's battleship covering force or other Allied ships . A total of 17 U @-@ boats attacked JW 58 between 1 and 3 April without success ; none of the Allied ships suffered any damage , and the escorts sank four U @-@ boats and shot down six German aircraft during the convoy 's voyage from Scotland to the Soviet Union . JW 58 reached its destination at Kola Bay on 6 April . While several Allied aircraft were lost during the voyage , mostly to flying accidents , all of the ships arrived unscathed .
Owing to a combination of favourable factors , Fraser decided on 1 April to bring the raid on Kaafjord forward by 24 hours . Decrypted German signals indicated that Tirpitz 's trials had been delayed until 3 April , and Fraser hoped that an attack on this date would catch the battleship away from her usual well @-@ protected mooring . Moreover , as JW 58 's escorts were performing well and there was no indication that Tirpitz would sortie into the open sea , Fraser judged that Force One no longer needed to provide support for the transports . Weather conditions were also unusually good for the Norwegian Sea in early Spring and were well suited to flying operations . After the decision to attack was made both tankers and two escorting destroyers detached from Force Two and proceeded to a point 300 miles ( 480 km ) north @-@ west of Kaafjord where they remained to supply any destroyers that ran low on fuel . The rest of Force Two altered course to rendezvous with Force One , and this was achieved at 4 : 20 pm on 2 April . After the two forces met Duke of York , with Fraser on board , and two destroyers sailed to the north @-@ west and took up a position where they would be able to intercept Tirpitz in the event that she had sailed from Kaafjord without being detected . The remainder of the Home Fleet proceeded to the strike 's launching point .
The attack was launched during the early hours of 3 April . All the airmen were woken shortly after midnight , and attended a final briefing from 1 : 15 am . The aircraft to be used in the strike were armed at this time , with all of the bombs being marked with messages for Tirpitz in chalk . The aircrew began boarding their aircraft at 4 : 00 am and flying @-@ off operations started 15 minutes later ; at this time the warships were 120 miles ( 190 km ) from Kaafjord . Ten Corsairs drawn from 1834 and 1836 Naval Air Squadrons were the first aircraft to be launched and were followed by the 21 Barracudas of 8 Wing ; 827 Squadron was launched from Victorious and 830 Squadron departed from Furious . Seven of the Barracudas were armed with a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound bomb , and the remainder carried multiple 500 or 600 @-@ pound weapons . Once the Barracudas were airborne the remaining escort fighters – 30 Wildcats and Hellcats from 800 , 881 and 882 Naval Air Squadrons – were launched . All the aircraft of the first wave were dispatched successfully , and the force completed forming up at 4 : 37 am . Flying conditions remained perfect , and German forces had not detected the British fleet during its approach .
The first wave headed for Norway at low altitude , flying just 50 feet ( 15 m ) above the sea to avoid detection by German radar . The aircraft began to climb to a higher altitude when they reached a point 20 miles ( 32 km ) from the coast , and had reached 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) by the time they made landfall at 5 : 08 am . The force approached Altenfjord from the west , passing over the western end of Langfjord before turning south , then looping to the north and attacking the battleship over the hills on the southern shore of Kaafjord shortly before 5 : 30 am .
The arrival of the British force caught Tirpitz by surprise . While the aircraft had first been picked up by a German radar station shortly after they crossed the Norwegian coastline , the battleship was not immediately warned . At the time of the attack Tirpitz was preparing to sail for her high @-@ speed trials , and her crew were busy unmooring the vessel . Her five protective destroyers had already departed for the trials area in Stjern Sound . The warning from the radar station arrived shortly before the British aircraft appeared over Kaafjord , and the battleship 's crew were still in the process of moving to their battle stations when the attack commenced ; at this time not all of the watertight doors were closed and some damage @-@ control stations were not fully manned .
As planned , the British raid began with Hellcat and Wildcat fighters strafing Tirpitz 's anti @-@ aircraft guns and batteries located on the shore ; this attack inflicted heavy casualties on the battleship 's gunners , disabled her main anti @-@ aircraft control centre and damaged several guns . The fighters also strafed several anti @-@ aircraft ships in Kaafjord . The 21 Barracudas began their attack shortly afterwards , and hit Tirpitz with a general purpose bomb , three 500 @-@ pound semi @-@ armour @-@ piercing bombs and three 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound bombs within 60 seconds . Overall , ten bombs struck the battleship during the first attack . Most of these bombs did not penetrate the ship 's armoured deck as they had been dropped from too low an altitude . Hundreds of members of the ship 's crew died or were wounded ; her commanding officer , Captain Hans Meyer , was among the wounded and another officer assumed command . The battleship also drifted into the western shore of Kaafjord and ran aground , but was quickly refloated . One of 830 Squadron 's Barracudas crashed following the attack with the loss of all three members of its crew . The surviving aircraft of the first wave began landing on the carriers at 6 : 19 am , and all were recovered by 6 : 42 .
The first aircraft of the second wave took to the air at 5 : 25 am . One of 829 Squadron 's Barracudas crashed shortly after take @-@ off , resulting in the deaths of its crew of three , and another aircraft from this squadron was not launched due to engine problems . Only two of the Barracudas in this wave were armed with 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound bombs . As with the first strike , 40 fighters accompanied the torpedo bombers ; these comprised 10 Corsairs from 1834 and 1836 Naval Air Squadrons , all of the 20 Wildcats assigned to 896 and 898 Naval Air Squadrons and 10 Hellcats from 804 Naval Air Squadron . All aircraft were launched by 5 : 37 am , and the force had an uneventful flight to the Kaafjord area . While the German defences were now alert , the artificial smoke screen being generated around Kaafjord was not yet sufficient to hide Tirpitz from view .
The second attack on Tirpitz was similar to the first . It began with Hellcat fighters strafing the anti @-@ aircraft batteries while Wildcats attacked the battleship . The fighters also attacked German ships in Kaafjord and a radio or radio direction finding station . The Barracudas executed their dive bombing attack at 6 : 36 am and struck Tirpitz with a 1 @,@ 600 pound bomb and four 500 @-@ pound bombs within a minute . The German defences at Kaafjord received little warning of the incoming raid , and the smokescreen hid the British aircraft from sight . As a result , the gunners had to fire blindly and only shot down one of the Barracudas ; all three airmen died . The second wave landed on the carriers between 7 : 20 and 7 : 58 am . A damaged Hellcat had to ditch near the Canadian destroyer HMCS Algonquin and one of the Corsairs suffered heavy damage as a result of a landing accident ; both pilots survived .
During the period in which the air strikes were conducted , a force of 25 Wildcat and Supermarine Seafire fighters from 801 , 842 and 880 Naval Air Squadrons provided air defence for the Home Fleet . Nine Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers , which were also operated by 842 Naval Air Squadron , conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols . No threat to the fleet developed , and Corsairs took over air defence duties at the conclusion of the two attacks .
During the early afternoon of 3 April , Moore considered conducting a further raid on Kaafjord the next day . He decided against doing so as the preliminary assessment of photos taken during the attack had concluded that Tirpitz was badly damaged . Moore was also aware that his aircrew were fatigued , and was reluctant to expose them to what would now be alert defences . Accordingly , he ordered that the fleet return to base , and it arrived at Scapa Flow in the afternoon of 6 April . King George VI and Prime Minister Winston Churchill sent congratulatory messages to the fleet , but both Churchill and Cunningham were concerned that Tirpitz could be returned to service . Cunningham also regretted Moore 's decision not to launch a further strike on 4 April .
= = Aftermath = =
The two attacks on Tirpitz largely went to plan . The airmen found the defences and geography at Kaafjord to be very similar to the Loch Eriboll training range , and one of the post @-@ attack reports stated that the operation had been " almost an exercise which they [ the aircrew ] had frequently carried out before " . The official historian of the Royal Navy 's role in the Second World War , Stephen Roskill , also judged that the strikes were " beautifully co @-@ ordinated and fearlessly executed " . The most important discrepancy between the plans for the operation and its execution was that many pilots dropped their bombs below the specified minimum altitude of 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) in an attempt to improve their chances of hitting Tirpitz . The shorter than optimum flight times may have meant that some of the bombs which struck the battleship lacked the necessary velocity to penetrate her deck armour . Nine Royal Navy airmen died during the raid .
Tirpitz 's crew suffered heavy casualties in the attack , but the battleship was not badly damaged . Overall , 122 sailors died and 316 were wounded ; these casualties represented 15 percent of the battleship 's crew . Many of the casualties were anti @-@ aircraft gunners who were killed or wounded by machine @-@ gun fire from the British fighters . While two bombs that exploded in the water near Tirpitz opened holes in her hull and caused flooding , none of the 15 bombs that struck the battleship penetrated her main deck armour belt . As a result , her guns , magazines , and machinery did not suffer serious damage . Most of the damaged areas of the battleship were located in her superstructure and between her armoured decks . The starboard aircraft catapult and crane were destroyed , as were both Tirpitz 's Arado floatplanes . The number two starboard 150 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) gun turret was knocked out , and the number three port 150 mm turret incurred significant damage . The officers ' mess and several galleys were wrecked , and the ship was filled with smoke . Tirpitz 's funnel was also struck by bomb fragments that badly damaged all of the boiler intakes . While the starboard turbine was knocked out by shock damage and two of the boilers were disabled after being contaminated by salt water used for firefighting , the battleship was still capable of steaming within Kaafjord . The British fighters also damaged four patrol craft and a large repair ship ; the captain of an armed trawler died and 13 other sailors on board these vessels suffered wounds . Torstein Raaby of the Allied Secret Intelligence Service group in Alta reported a few hours after the raid , that no civilian casualties had resulted from the attack , and that the local population was " ... extremely impressed by the bombing . " A further report six days after the operation relayed that the Germans estimated that it would take months to repair the damage inflicted on Tirpitz .
The commander of the Kriegsmarine , Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz , directed that the damage caused to Tirpitz during Operation Tungsten be repaired . Although the battleship was no longer capable of operating against Allied convoys for lack of air support , it was considered desirable to retain her in service in order to tie down Allied naval resources . Repair work began in early May after a destroyer transported equipment and workmen to Kaafjord from Germany , and Tirpitz was able to steam under her own power by 2 June . She was capable of undertaking gunnery practice by the end of June , and all repairs were completed in mid @-@ July . During this period the battleship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented by fitting her with additional 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) cannons , modifying the 150 mm guns so they could be used to attack aircraft and supplying anti @-@ aircraft shells for her 380 @-@ millimetre ( 15 in ) main guns . The defences of Kaafjord were also improved during this period . Additional radar stations and observation posts were established , and the number of smoke generators located around Tirpitz was increased .
Following Operation Tungsten , British intelligence assessed that Tirpitz would be repaired within six months . Accordingly , Cunningham directed Fraser on 13 April to launch another attack on the battleship . While Cunningham did not believe that Barracudas could carry weapons capable of sinking Tirpitz , he hoped that further air strikes would increase the period the battleship was out of service and harm her crew 's morale . Fraser initially resisted Cunningham 's order , arguing that the prospects for a successful raid were poor as the Germans would have reinforced the defences around Tirpitz and weather conditions were likely to be worse than those encountered during Operation Tungsten . He eventually relented , and Moore sailed from Scapa Flow on 21 April to attack Kaafjord again . This raid , designated Operation Planet , was called off on 24 April due to bad weather over the target area . Two other attacks , Operation Brawn and Operation Tiger Claw , also had to be cancelled on 15 and 28 May respectively because of adverse weather . Further carrier raids were attempted in July and August after Allied intelligence determined that the repairs to Tirpitz were nearing completion . During Operation Mascot a force of 42 Barracudas and 40 fighters attacked Tirpitz on 17 July , but did not score any hits as the battleship was hidden by a smokescreen . A further four carrier raids were conducted against Kaafjord between 22 and 29 August during Operation Goodwood , but these caused only light damage to the battleship .
In late August it was decided that further Fleet Air Arm attacks should not be attempted as the Germans were now able to cover Tirpitz in smoke before Barracudas could reach the battleship , and these aircraft could not carry bombs large enough to inflict heavy damage . As it was still seen as desirable to destroy Tirpitz , the task was assigned to Bomber Command . On 15 September a force of heavy bombers attacked Kaafjord after refuelling at bases in northern Russia and inflicted irreparable damage on the battleship . Following this raid she was towed to an anchorage near Tromsø to be used as an immobile coastal defence battery . Another heavy bomber attack on 29 October caused only minor damage , and a third raid was mounted on 12 November in which Tirpitz was struck by several Tallboy bombs and capsized with heavy loss of life among her crew .
= Elizabeth I of England =
Elizabeth I ( 7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603 ) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death . Sometimes called The Virgin Queen , Gloriana or Good Queen Bess , the childless Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty .
Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn , his second wife , who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeth 's birth . Anne 's marriage to Henry VIII was annulled , and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate . Her half @-@ brother , Edward VI , ruled until his death in 1553 , bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half @-@ sisters , Elizabeth and the Roman Catholic Mary , in spite of statute law to the contrary . Edward 's will was set aside and Mary became queen , deposing Lady Jane Grey . During Mary 's reign , Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels .
In 1558 , Elizabeth succeeded her half @-@ sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel . She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers , led by William Cecil , Baron Burghley . One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church , of which she became the Supreme Governor . This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England . It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line . She never did , despite numerous courtships . As she grew older , Elizabeth became famous for her virginity . A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits , pageants , and literature of the day .
In government , Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half @-@ siblings had been . One of her mottoes was " video et taceo " ( " I see but say nothing " ) . In religion , she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution . After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570 and released her subjects from obedience to her , several conspiracies threatened her life , all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers ' secret service . Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs , manoeuvring between the major powers of France and Spain . She only half @-@ heartedly supported a number of ineffective , poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands , France , and Ireland . By the mid @-@ 1580s , England could no longer avoid war with Spain . England 's defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history .
Elizabeth 's reign is known as the Elizabethan era . The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama , led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe , and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake . Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short @-@ tempered , sometimes indecisive ruler , who enjoyed more than her share of luck . Towards the end of her reign , a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity . Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer and a dogged survivor in an era when government was ramshackle and limited , and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones . Such was the case with Elizabeth 's rival , Mary , Queen of Scots , whom she imprisoned in 1568 and had executed in 1587 . After the short reigns of Elizabeth 's half @-@ siblings , her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity .
= = Early life = =
Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers , Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard . She was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy . Her mother was Henry 's second wife , Anne Boleyn . At birth , Elizabeth was the heiress presumptive to the throne of England . Her older half @-@ sister , Mary , had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary 's mother , Catherine of Aragon , to marry Anne , with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession . Elizabeth was baptised on 10 September ; Archbishop Thomas Cranmer , the Marquess of Exeter , the Duchess of Norfolk and the Dowager Marchioness of Dorset stood as her godparents .
When Elizabeth was two years and eight months old , her mother was executed on 19 May 1536 . Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession . Eleven days after Anne Boleyn 's death , Henry married Jane Seymour , but she died shortly after the birth of their son , Prince Edward , in 1537 . From his birth , Edward was undisputed heir apparent to the throne . Elizabeth was placed in his household and carried the chrisom , or baptismal cloth , at his christening .
Elizabeth 's first governess or Lady Mistress , Margaret Bryan , wrote that she was " as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life " . By the autumn of 1537 , Elizabeth was in the care of Blanche Herbert , Lady Troy , who remained her Lady Mistress until her retirement in late 1545 or early 1546 . Catherine Champernowne , better known by her later , married name of Catherine " Kat " Ashley , was appointed as Elizabeth 's governess in 1537 , and she remained Elizabeth 's friend until her death in 1565 , when Blanche Parry succeeded her as Chief Gentlewoman of the Privy Chamber . Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages : French , Flemish , Italian and Spanish . By the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544 , Elizabeth could write English , Latin , and Italian . Under Grindal , a talented and skilful tutor , she also progressed in French and Greek . After Grindal died in 1548 , Elizabeth received her education under Roger Ascham , a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging . By the time her formal education ended in 1550 , she was one of the best educated women of her generation . By the end of her life , Elizabeth was also believed to speak Welsh , Cornish , Scottish and Irish in addition to English . The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she " possessed [ these ] languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue " . Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew , Groom of the Privy Chamber and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer .
= = Thomas Seymour = =
Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth 's half @-@ brother , Edward VI , became king at age nine . Catherine Parr , Henry 's widow , soon married Thomas Seymour of Sudeley , Edward VI 's uncle and the brother of the Lord Protector , Edward Seymour , Duke of Somerset . The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea . There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life . Thomas Seymour , approaching age 40 but having charm and " a powerful sex appeal " , engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Elizabeth . These included entering her bedroom in his nightgown , tickling her and slapping her on the buttocks . Parr , rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities , joined in . Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth , and once held her while he cut her black gown " into a thousand pieces . " However , after Parr discovered the pair in an embrace , she ended this state of affairs . In May 1548 , Elizabeth was sent away .
However , Thomas Seymour continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King 's person . When Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548 , he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth , intent on marrying her . The details of his former behaviour towards Elizabeth emerged , and for his brother and the king 's council , this was the last straw . In January 1549 , Seymour was arrested on suspicion of plotting to marry Elizabeth and overthrow the Lord Protector . Elizabeth , living at Hatfield House , would admit nothing . Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator , Sir Robert Tyrwhitt , who reported , " I do see it in her face that she is guilty " . Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549 .
= = Mary I 's reign = =
Edward VI died on 6 July 1553 , aged 15 . His will swept aside the Succession to the Crown Act 1543 , excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession , and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey , granddaughter of Henry VIII 's sister Mary , Duchess of Suffolk . Lady Jane was proclaimed queen by the Privy Council , but her support quickly crumbled , and she was deposed after nine days . On 3 August 1553 , Mary rode triumphantly into London , with Elizabeth at her side .
The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long . Mary , a devout Catholic , was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated , and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass ; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform . Mary 's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry Prince Philip of Spain , the son of Emperor Charles V and an active Catholic . Discontent spread rapidly through the country , and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary 's religious policies .
In January and February 1554 , Wyatt 's rebellion broke out ; it was soon suppressed . Elizabeth was brought to court , and interrogated regarding her role , and on 18 March , she was imprisoned in the Tower of London . Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence . Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels , some of them were known to have approached her . Mary 's closest confidant , Charles V 's ambassador Simon Renard , argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived ; and the Chancellor , Stephen Gardiner , worked to have Elizabeth put on trial . Elizabeth 's supporters in the government , including Lord Paget , convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her . Instead , on 22 May , Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock , where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Sir Henry Bedingfield . Crowds cheered her all along the way .
On 17 April 1555 , Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary 's apparent pregnancy . If Mary and her child died , Elizabeth would become queen . If , on the other hand , Mary gave birth to a healthy child , Elizabeth 's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply . When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant , no one believed any longer that she could have a child . Elizabeth 's succession seemed assured .
King Philip , who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 , acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister @-@ in @-@ law . She was a better ally than the chief alternative , Mary , Queen of Scots , who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the Dauphin of France . When his wife fell ill in 1558 , King Philip sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth . This interview was conducted at Hatfield House , where she had returned to live in October 1555 . By October 1558 , Elizabeth was already making plans for her government . On 6 November , Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir . On 17 November 1558 , Mary died and Elizabeth succeeded to the throne .
= = Accession = =
Elizabeth became queen at the age of 25 , and declared her intentions to her Council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance . The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the mediaeval political theology of the sovereign 's " two bodies " : the body natural and the body politic :
My lords , the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister ; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed , and yet , considering I am God 's creature , ordained to obey His appointment , I will thereto yield , desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me . And as I am but one body naturally considered , though by His permission a body politic to govern , so shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to me , that I with my ruling and you with your service may make a good account to Almighty God and leave some comfort to our posterity on earth . I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel .
As her triumphal progress wound through the city on the eve of the coronation ceremony , she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants , most with a strong Protestant flavour . Elizabeth 's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators , who were " wonderfully ravished " . The following day , 15 January 1559 , Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe , the Catholic bishop of Carlisle , in Westminster Abbey . She was then presented for the people 's acceptance , amidst a deafening noise of organs , fifes , trumpets , drums , and bells .
= = Church settlement = =
Elizabeth 's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars . She was a Protestant , but kept Catholic symbols ( such as the crucifix ) , and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief .
In terms of public policy she favoured pragmatism in dealing with religious matters . The question of her legitimacy was a key concern : although she was technically illegitimate under both Protestant and Catholic law , her retroactively declared illegitimacy under the English church was not a serious bar compared to having never been legitimate as the Catholics claimed she was . For this reason alone , it was never in serious doubt that Elizabeth would embrace Protestantism .
Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England . Elizabeth therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants ; she would not tolerate the more radical Puritans though , who were pushing for far @-@ reaching reforms . As a result , the parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the Protestant settlement of Edward VI , with the monarch as its head , but with many Catholic elements , such as priestly vestments .
The House of Commons backed the proposals strongly , but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the House of Lords , particularly from the bishops . Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time , including the Archbishopric of Canterbury . This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers . Nevertheless , Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Supreme Head , which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear . The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559 . All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office ; the heresy laws were repealed , to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary . At the same time , a new Act of Uniformity was passed , which made attendance at church and the use of an adapted version of the 1552 Book of Common Prayer compulsory , though the penalties for recusancy , or failure to attend and conform , were not extreme .
= = Marriage question = =
From the start of Elizabeth 's reign , it was expected that she would marry and the question arose to whom . She never did , although she received many offers for her hand ; the reasons for this are not clear . Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships , or that she knew herself to be infertile . She considered several suitors until she was about fifty . Her last courtship was with Francis , Duke of Anjou , 22 years her junior . While risking possible loss of power like her sister , who played into the hands of King Philip II of Spain , marriage offered the chance of an heir . However , the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection .
= = = Robert Dudley = = =
In the spring of 1559 , it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend Robert Dudley . It was said that Amy Robsart , his wife , was suffering from a " malady in one of her breasts " and that the Queen would like to marry Dudley if his wife should die . By the autumn of 1559 , several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth 's hand ; their impatient envoys engaged in ever more scandalous talk and reported that a marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England : " There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert " . Amy Dudley died in September 1560 , from a fall from a flight of stairs and , despite the coroner 's inquest finding of accident , many people suspected Dudley of having arranged her death so that he could marry the queen . Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time . However , William Cecil , Nicholas Throckmorton , and some conservative peers made their disapproval unmistakably clear . There were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place .
Among other marriage candidates being considered for the queen , Robert Dudley continued to be regarded as a possible candidate for nearly another decade . Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections , even when she no longer meant to marry him herself . In 1564 , Elizabeth raised Dudley to the peerage as Earl of Leicester . He finally remarried in 1578 , to which the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred towards his wife , Lettice Knollys . Still , Dudley always " remained at the centre of [ Elizabeth 's ] emotional life " , as historian Susan Doran has described the situation . He died shortly after the defeat of the Armada . After Elizabeth 's own death , a note from him was found among her most personal belongings , marked " his last letter " in her handwriting .
= = = Foreign candidates = = =
Marriage negotiations constituted a key element in Elizabeth 's foreign policy . She turned down Philip II 's own hand early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden . For several years she also seriously negotiated to marry Philip II 's cousin Archduke Charles of Austria . By 1569 , relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated , and Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Valois princes in turn , first Henry , Duke of Anjou , and later , from 1572 to 1581 , his brother Francis , Duke of Anjou , formerly Duke of Alençon . This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands . Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time , and wore a frog @-@ shaped earring that Anjou had sent her .
In 1563 , Elizabeth told an imperial envoy : " If I follow the inclination of my nature , it is this : beggar @-@ woman and single , far rather than queen and married " . Later in the year , following Elizabeth 's illness with smallpox , the succession question became a heated issue in Parliament . They urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir , to prevent a civil war upon her death . She refused to do either . In April she prorogued the Parliament , which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566 . Having promised to marry previously , she told an unruly House :
I will never break the word of a prince spoken in public place , for my honour 's sake . And therefore I say again , I will marry as soon as I can conveniently , if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry , or myself , or else some other great let happen .
By 1570 , senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor . William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem . For her failure to marry , Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility . Her silence , however , strengthened her own political security : she knew that if she named an heir , her throne would be vulnerable to a coup ; she remembered that the way " a second person , as I have been " had been used as the focus of plots against her predecessor .
Elizabeth 's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity . In poetry and portraiture , she was depicted as a virgin or a goddess or both , not as a normal woman . At first , only Elizabeth made a virtue of her virginity : in 1559 , she told the Commons , " And , in the end , this shall be for me sufficient , that a marble stone shall declare that a queen , having reigned such a time , lived and died a virgin " . Later on , poets and writers took up the theme and turned it into an iconography that exalted Elizabeth . Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen 's marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alençon .
Ultimately , Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects , under divine protection . In 1599 , she spoke of " all my husbands , my good people " .
= = Mary , Queen of Scots = =
Elizabeth 's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there . She feared that the French planned to invade England and put Mary , Queen of Scots , who was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown , on the throne . Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels , and though the campaign was inept , the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north . When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power , the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth . Mary refused to ratify the treaty .
In 1563 Elizabeth proposed her own suitor , Robert Dudley , as a husband for Mary , without asking either of the two people concerned . Both proved unenthusiastic , and in 1565 Mary married Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley , who carried his own claim to the English throne . The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth . Darnley quickly became unpopular in Scotland and then infamous for presiding over the murder of Mary 's Italian secretary David Rizzio . In February 1567 , Darnley was murdered by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn , Earl of Bothwell . Shortly afterwards , on 15 May 1567 , Mary married Bothwell , arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband . Elizabeth wrote to her :
How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject , who besides other and notorious lacks , public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband , besides the touching of yourself also in some part , though we trust in that behalf falsely .
These events led rapidly to Mary 's defeat and imprisonment in Loch Leven Castle . The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her son James , who had been born in June 1566 . James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant . Mary escaped from Loch Leven in 1568 but after another defeat fled across the border into England , where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth . Elizabeth 's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch ; but she and her council instead chose to play safe . Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England , they detained her in England , where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years .
= = = Mary and the Catholic cause = = =
Mary was soon the focus for rebellion . In 1569 there was a major Catholic rising in the North ; the goal was to free Mary , marry her to Thomas Howard , 4th Duke of Norfolk , and put her on the English throne . After the rebels ' defeat , over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth 's orders . In the belief that the revolt had been successful , Pope Pius V issued a bull in 1570 , titled Regnans in Excelsis , which declared " Elizabeth , the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime " to be excommunicate and a heretic , releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her . Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication . The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament , which were however mitigated by Elizabeth 's intervention . In 1581 , to convert English subjects to Catholicism with " the intent " to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence , carrying the death penalty . From the 1570s missionary priests from continental seminaries came to England secretly in the cause of the " reconversion of England " . Many suffered execution , engendering a cult of martyrdom .
Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look to Mary Stuart as the true sovereign of England . Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne , but from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 ( which caused Mary 's suitor , the Duke of Norfolk , to lose his head ) to the Babington Plot of 1586 , Elizabeth 's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her . At first , Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary 's death . By late 1586 she had been persuaded to sanction her trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot . Elizabeth 's proclamation of the sentence announced that " the said Mary , pretending title to the same Crown , had compassed and imagined within the same realm divers things tending to the hurt , death and destruction of our royal person . " On 8 February 1587 , Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle , Northamptonshire . After Mary 's execution , Elizabeth claimed not to have ordered it and indeed most accounts have her telling Secretary Davidson , who brought her the warrant to sign , not to dispatch the warrant even though she had signed it . The sincerity of Elizabeth 's remorse and her motives for telling Davidson not to execute the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians .
= = Wars and overseas trade = =
Elizabeth 's foreign policy was largely defensive . The exception was the English occupation of Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563 , which ended in failure when Elizabeth 's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port . Elizabeth 's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for Calais , lost to France in January 1558 . Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy . This paid off in the war against Spain , 80 % of which was fought at sea . She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580 , and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets . An element of piracy and self @-@ enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers , over which the queen had little control .
= = = Netherlands expedition = = =
After the occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562 – 1563 , Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585 , when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II . This followed the deaths in 1584 of the allies William the Silent , Prince of Orange , and Francis , Duke of Anjou , and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese , Duke of Parma , Philip 's governor of the Spanish Netherlands . In December 1584 , an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou 's brother , Henry III of France , to counter Spanish domination of the Netherlands . It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France , where the Catholic League was strong , and exposed England to invasion . The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch . The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August 1585 , in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch . The treaty marked the beginning of the Anglo @-@ Spanish War , which lasted until the Treaty of London in 1604 .
The expedition was led by her former suitor , Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester . Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action . Her strategy , to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army , while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester 's arrival in Holland , had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester 's , who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign . Elizabeth on the other hand , wanted him " to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy " . He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor @-@ General from the Dutch States General . Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands , which so far she had always declined . She wrote to Leicester :
We could never have imagined ( had we not seen it fall out in experience ) that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us , above any other subject of this land , would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour ... And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that , all delays and excuses laid apart , you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name . Whereof fail you not , as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril .
Elizabeth 's " commandment " was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State , Leicester having to stand nearby . This public humiliation of her " Lieutenant @-@ General " combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain , irreversibly undermined his standing among the Dutch . The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth 's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers . Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause , Leicester 's own shortcomings as a political and military leader and the faction @-@ ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics were reasons for the campaign 's failure . Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587 .
= = = Spanish Armada = = =
Meanwhile , Sir Francis Drake had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships to the Caribbean in 1585 and 1586 , and in 1587 had made a successful raid on Cadiz , destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise of England : Philip II had decided to take the war to England .
On 12 July 1588 , the Spanish Armada , a great fleet of ships , set sail for the channel , planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands . A combination of miscalculation , misfortune , and an attack of English fire ships on 29 July off Gravelines which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast defeated the Armada . The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants , after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland ( after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the North Sea , and then back south past the west coast of Ireland ) . Unaware of the Armada 's fate , English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester 's command . He invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August . Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress , she addressed them in one of her most famous speeches :
My loving people , we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety , to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery ; but I assure you , I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people ... I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman , but I have the heart and stomach of a king , and of a King of England too , and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain , or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm .
When no invasion came , the nation rejoiced . Elizabeth 's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul 's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle . The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory , both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England . The English took their delivery as a symbol of God 's favour and of the nation 's inviolability under a virgin queen . However , the victory was not a turning point in the war , which continued and often favoured Spain . The Spanish still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands , and the threat of invasion remained . Sir Walter Raleigh claimed after her death that Elizabeth 's caution had impeded the war against Spain :
If the late queen would have believed her men of war as she did her scribes , we had in her time beaten that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old times . But her Majesty did all by halves , and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself , and to see his own weakness .
Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds , Raleigh 's verdict has more often been judged unfair . Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders , who once in action tended , as she put it herself , " to be transported with an haviour of vainglory " .
= = = Supporting Henry IV of France = = =
When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589 , Elizabeth sent him military support . It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563 . Henry 's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II , and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports . The subsequent English campaigns in France , however , were disorganised and ineffective . Lord Willoughby , largely ignoring Elizabeth 's orders , roamed northern France to little effect , with an army of 4 @,@ 000 men . He withdrew in disarray in December 1589 , having lost half his troops . In 1591 , the campaign of John Norreys , who led 3 @,@ 000 men to Brittany , was even more of a disaster . As for all such expeditions , Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders . Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support . In his absence , a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon , north @-@ west France , in May 1591 . In July , Elizabeth sent out another force under Robert Devereux , Earl of Essex , to help Henry IV in besieging Rouen . The result was just as dismal . Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592 . Henry abandoned the siege in April . As usual , Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad . " Where he is , or what he doth , or what he is to do , " she wrote of Essex , " we are ignorant " .
= = = Ireland = = =
Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms , Elizabeth faced a hostile , and in places virtually autonomous , Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies . Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England . In the course of a series of uprisings , Crown forces pursued scorched @-@ earth tactics , burning the land and slaughtering man , woman and child . During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald , Earl of Desmond , in 1582 , an estimated 30 @,@ 000 Irish people starved to death . The poet and colonist Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims " were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same " . Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish , " that rude and barbarous nation " , be well treated ; but she showed no remorse when force and bloodshed were deemed necessary .
Between 1594 and 1603 , Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the Nine Years ' War , a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with Spain , who backed the rebel leader , Hugh O 'Neill , Earl of Tyrone . In spring 1599 , Elizabeth sent Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex , to put the revolt down . To her frustration , he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders . He was replaced by Charles Blount , Lord Mountjoy , who took three years to defeat the rebels . O 'Neill finally surrendered in 1603 , a few days after Elizabeth 's death . Soon afterwards , a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain .
= = = Russia = = =
Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the Tsardom of Russia originally established by her deceased brother . She often wrote to Ivan IV ( " Ivan the Terrible " ) , on amicable terms , though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance . The Tsar even proposed to her once , and during his later reign , asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised . Upon Ivan 's death , he was succeeded by his simple @-@ minded son Feodor . Unlike his father , Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England . Feodor declared his kingdom open to all foreigners , and dismissed the English ambassador Sir Jerome Bowes , whose pomposity had been tolerated by the new Tsar 's late father . Elizabeth sent a new ambassador , Dr. Giles Fletcher , to demand from the regent Boris Godunov that he convince the Tsar to reconsider . The negotiations failed , due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his titles omitted . Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing , half reproachful letters . She proposed an alliance , something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor 's father , but was turned down .
= = = Barbary states , Ottoman Empire = = =
Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the Barbary states during the rule of Elizabeth . England established a trading relationship with Morocco in opposition to Spain , selling armour , ammunition , timber , and metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar , in spite of a Papal ban . In 1600 , Abd el @-@ Ouahed ben Messaoud , the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai Ahmad al @-@ Mansur , visited England as an ambassador to the court of Queen Elizabeth I , to negotiate an Anglo @-@ Moroccan alliance against Spain . Elizabeth " agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco , and she and Mulai Ahmad al @-@ Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish " . Discussions however remained inconclusive , and both rulers died within two years of the embassy .
Diplomatic relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire with the chartering of the Levant Company and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the Porte , William Harborne , in 1578 . For the first time , a Treaty of Commerce was signed in 1580 . Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan Murad III . In one correspondence , Murad entertained the notion that Islam and Protestantism had " much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism , as both rejected the worship of idols " , and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire . To the dismay of Catholic Europe , England exported tin and lead ( for cannon @-@ casting ) and ammunitions to the Ottoman Empire , and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585 , as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy .
= = Later years = =
The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted the fifteen years until the end of her reign . The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on , the tax burden grew heavier , and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war . Prices rose and the standard of living fell . During this time , repression of Catholics intensified , and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders . To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity , she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda . In her last years , mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public 's affection for her .
One of the causes for this " second reign " of Elizabeth , as it is sometimes called , was the changed character of Elizabeth 's governing body , the privy council in the 1590s . A new generation was in power . With the exception of Lord Burghley , the most important politicians had died around 1590 : the Earl of Leicester in 1588 ; Sir Francis Walsingham in 1590 ; and Sir Christopher Hatton in 1591 . Factional strife in the government , which had not existed in a noteworthy form before the 1590s , now became its hallmark . A bitter rivalry arose between the Earl of Essex and Robert Cecil , son of Lord Burghley and their respective adherents , and the struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred politics . The queen 's personal authority was lessening , as is shown in the 1594 affair of Dr. Lopez , her trusted physician . When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique , she could not prevent his execution , although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt .
During the last years of her reign , Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost @-@ free system of patronage , rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war . The practice soon led to price @-@ fixing , the enrichment of courtiers at the public 's expense , and widespread resentment . This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601 . In her famous " Golden Speech " of 30 November 1601 at Whitehall Palace to a deputation of 140 members , Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses , and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions :
Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error , in which , by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen , what thank they deserve , we know , though you may guess . And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects ' hearts , what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality , the thrallers of our people , the wringers of the poor , had not been told us !
This same period of economic and political uncertainty , however , produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England . The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth 's reign , with John Lyly 's Euphues and Edmund Spenser 's The Shepheardes Calender in 1578 . During the 1590s , some of the great names of English literature entered their maturity , including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe . During this period and into the Jacobean era that followed , the English theatre reached its highest peaks . The notion of a great Elizabethan age depends largely on the builders , dramatists , poets , and musicians who were active during Elizabeth 's reign . They owed little directly to the queen , who was never a major patron of the arts .
As Elizabeth aged her image gradually changed . She was portrayed as Belphoebe or Astraea , and after the Armada , as Gloriana , the eternally youthful Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser 's poem . Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic icons that made her look much younger than she was . In fact , her skin had been scarred by smallpox in 1562 , leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics . Her love of sweets and fear of dentists contributed to severe tooth decay and loss to such an extent that foreign ambassadors had a hard time understanding her speech . Sir Walter Raleigh called her " a lady whom time had surprised " . However , the more Elizabeth 's beauty faded , the more her courtiers praised it .
Elizabeth was happy to play the part , but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance . She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Robert Devereux , Earl of Essex , who was Leicester 's stepson and took liberties with her for which she forgave him . She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility . After Essex 's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599 , Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies . In February 1601 , the earl tried to raise a rebellion in London . He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support , and he was beheaded on 25 February . Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events . An observer reported in 1602 that " Her delight is to sit in the dark , and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex " .
= = Death = =
Elizabeth 's senior adviser , William Cecil , 1st Baron Burghley , died on 4 August 1598 . His political mantle passed to his son , Robert Cecil , who soon became the leader of the government . One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a smooth succession . Since Elizabeth would never name her successor , Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret . He therefore entered into a coded negotiation with James VI of Scotland , who had a strong but unrecognised claim . Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and " secure the heart of the highest , to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions " . The advice worked . James 's tone delighted Elizabeth , who responded : " So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same , but yield them to you in grateful sort " . In historian J. E. Neale 's view , Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James , but she made them known with " unmistakable if veiled phrases " .
The Queen 's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602 , when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression . In February 1603 , the death of Catherine Howard , Countess of Nottingham , the niece of her cousin and close friend Catherine , Lady Knollys , came as a particular blow . In March , Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a " settled and unremovable melancholy " . She died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace , between two and three in the morning . A few hours later , Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James VI of Scotland as James I of England .
Elizabeth 's coffin was carried downriver at night to Whitehall , on a barge lit with torches . At her funeral on 28 April , the coffin was taken to Westminster Abbey on a hearse drawn by four horses hung with black velvet . In the words of the chronicler John Stow :
Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets , houses , windows , leads and gutters , that came out to see the obsequy , and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin , there was such a general sighing , groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man .
Elizabeth was interred in Westminster Abbey , in a tomb shared with her half @-@ sister , Mary . The Latin inscription on their tomb , " Regno consortes & urna , hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores , in spe resurrectionis " , translates to " Consorts in realm and tomb , here we sleep , Elizabeth and Mary , sisters , in hope of resurrection " .
= = Legacy and memory = =
Elizabeth was lamented by many of her subjects , but others were relieved at her death . Expectations of King James started high but then declined , so by the 1620s there was a nostalgic revival of the cult of Elizabeth . Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age . James was depicted as a Catholic sympathiser , presiding over a corrupt court . The triumphalist image that Elizabeth had cultivated towards the end of her reign , against a background of factionalism and military and economic difficulties , was taken at face value and her reputation inflated . Godfrey Goodman , Bishop of Gloucester , recalled : " When we had experience of a Scottish government , the Queen did seem to revive . Then was her memory much magnified . " Elizabeth 's reign became idealised as a time when crown , church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance .
The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential . Her memory was also revived during the Napoleonic Wars , when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion . In the Victorian era , the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day , and in the mid @-@ 20th century , Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat . Historians of that period , such as J. E. Neale ( 1934 ) and A. L. Rowse ( 1950 ) , interpreted Elizabeth 's reign as a golden age of progress . Neale and Rowse also idealised the Queen personally : she always did everything right ; her more unpleasant traits were ignored or explained as signs of stress .
Recent historians , however , have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth . Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada , and for successful raids against the Spanish , such as those on Cádiz in 1587 and 1596 , but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea . In Ireland , Elizabeth 's forces ultimately prevailed , but their tactics stain her record . Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs , she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies . She offered very limited aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad .
Elizabeth established an English church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today . Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all practices of Catholic origin from the Church of England . Historians note that in her day , strict Protestants regarded the Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559 as a compromise . In fact , Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish , as Francis Bacon put it , to " make windows into men 's hearts and secret thoughts " .
Though Elizabeth followed a largely defensive foreign policy , her reign raised England 's status abroad . " She is only a woman , only mistress of half an island , " marvelled Pope Sixtus V , " and yet she makes herself feared by Spain , by France , by the Empire , by all " . Under Elizabeth , the nation gained a new self @-@ confidence and sense of sovereignty , as Christendom fragmented . Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent . She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth — a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow . Some historians have called her lucky ; she believed that God was protecting her . Priding herself on being " mere English " , Elizabeth trusted in God , honest advice , and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule . In a prayer , she offered thanks to God that :
[ At a time ] when wars and seditions with grievous persecutions have vexed almost all kings and countries round about me , my reign hath been peacable , and my realm a receptacle to thy afflicted Church . The love of my people hath appeared firm , and the devices of my enemies frustrate .
= = Family tree = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
= Hampton National Historic Site =
Hampton National Historic Site , tours of the buildings are offered Thursday through Sunday . The grounds are open seven days a week , and offer great opportunities for learning and reflection . Located in the Hampton area north of Towson , Baltimore County , Maryland , USA , preserves a remnant of a vast 18th @-@ century estate , including a Georgian manor house , gardens , grounds , and the original stone slave quarters . The estate was owned by the Ridgely family for seven generations , from 1745 to 1948 . The Hampton Mansion was the largest private home in America when it was completed in 1790 and today is considered to be one of the finest examples of Georgian architecture in the U.S. Its furnishings , together with the estate 's slave quarters and other preserved structures , provide insight into the life of late 18th @-@ century and early 19th @-@ century landowning aristocracy . In 1948 , Hampton was the first site selected as a National Historical Site for its architectural significance by the U.S. National Park Service . The grounds were widely admired in the 19th century for their elaborate parterres or formal gardens , which have been restored to resemble their appearance during the 1820s . Several trees are more than 200 years old . In addition to the mansion and grounds , visitors may tour the overseer 's house and slave quarters .
= = History = =
= = = 18th century = = =
The property was originally part of the Northampton land grant given to Col. Henry Darnall ( c . 1645 – 1711 ) , a relative of Lord Baltimore , in 1695 . His heirs sold the land on April 2 , 1745 , to Col. Charles Ridgely ( 1702 – 72 ) , a tobacco farmer and trader . The bill of sale records that the property included " ... houses , tobacco houses ( tobacco barns ) , stables , gardens , and orchards . "
By the late 1750s , Hampton extended to more than 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) and included an ironworks . His son , Capt. Charles Ridgely ( 1733 – 90 ) , expanded the family business considerably to include gristmills , apple orchards , and stone quarries . During the American Revolutionary War , the ironworks was a significant source of income for the Ridgelys , producing cannons and ammunition for the Continental Army . In 1783 , Capt. Ridgely began construction of the main house , Hampton Mansion . He said its concept was inspired by Castle Howard in England , owned by relatives of his mother . When it was completed in 1790 , the Hampton Mansion was the largest private home in the United States .
When Capt. Ridgely died that same year , his nephew , Charles Carnan Ridgely ( 1760 – 1829 ) , became the second master of Hampton . He had 10 @,@ 590 feet ( 3 @,@ 228 m ) of irrigation pipes laid in 1799 from a nearby spring to provide water to the Mansion and the surrounding gardens , which he was extensively developing . Prominent artisans of the time were hired to design geometric formal gardens , which were planted on the Mansion 's grounds between 1799 and 1801 . An avid horseman , Charles Carnan also began raising Thoroughbred horses at Hampton , where he had a racetrack installed . A 1799 advertisement promoted the stud services of his racehorse , Grey Medley . Another of Ridgely 's racehorses , Post Boy , won the Washington City Jockey Club cup .
= = = 19th century = = =
Under Charles Carnan Ridgely , Hampton reached its peak of 25 @,@ 000 acres ( 10 @,@ 117 ha ) in the 1820s . The mansion overlooked a grand estate of orchards , ironworks , coal mining , marble quarries , mills , and mercantile interests . The vast farm produced corn , beef cattle , dairy products , hogs , and horses . More than 300 slaves worked the fields and served the household , making Hampton one of Maryland 's largest slaveholding estates . Six parterres were designed on three terraced levels facing the mansion , planted with roses , peonies , and seasonal flowers . In 1820 , an orangery was built on the grounds .
Charles Carnan Ridgely frequently entertained prominent guests in the Mansion 's 51 ft. x 21 ft . ( 16 m by 6 @.@ 4 m ) Great Hall , such as Charles Carroll of Carrollton , who was a signer of the Declaration of Independence , and Revolutionary War general , the Marquis de Lafayette . Charles Carnan served as governor of Maryland between 1816 – 19 . When Governor Ridgely died in 1829 , he freed Hampton 's slaves in his will .
The Hampton estate was split among various heirs , with his son , John Carnan Ridgely ( 1790 – 1867 ) , inheriting the mansion and 4 @,@ 500 acres ( 18 km2 ) . The ironworks closed and thereafter the Ridgelys ' income was primarily derived from farming , investments , and their stone quarries . John Carnan added plumbing , heating , and gas lighting to the mansion .
Eliza Ridgely ( 1803 – 67 ) , John 's wife and the subject of Thomas Sully 's famous portrait , Lady with a Harp , purchased many artworks and furnishings for the mansion . She was a noted horticulturist and had successively larger and more elaborate gardens cultivated on the grounds , with a large variety of flowers and shrubs grown in the estate 's greenhouses and tended by some of the 60 slaves purchased by John Carnan Ridgely . By the mid @-@ 19th century , the Hampton estate had one of the most extensive collections of citrus trees in the U.S. , along with various exotic trees and plants gathered by Eliza Ridgely during her frequent travels to Europe and the Orient . In the warm months , the potted citrus plants were brought outside and arranged around the terraced gardens , then taken into the heated orangery during the winter . She had one section of the garden planted with colorful red , yellow , pink , and maroon coleus from Asia . In 1859 , Hampton 's fame for lavish style was such that the author of a book on landscaping wrote , " It has been truly said of Hampton that it expresses more grandeur than any other place in America " .
In January 1861 , shortly after the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States , Charles Ridgely ( the son of John Carnan and Eliza Ridgely ) formed the pro @-@ Confederate Baltimore County Horse Guards at Hampton with himself as captain of the militia unit that he described as " states ' rights gentlemen . " One of his militia 's cavalry men , Lieut . John Merryman , was subsequently arrested by the Union Army and imprisoned in May 1861 on a charge of treason , sparking the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case , Ex parte Merryman . As the Civil War raged across the farmlands of Maryland and Pennsylvania at the Battle of Antietam ( 1862 ) and the Battle of Gettysburg ( 1863 ) , the Ridgelys ' Hampton estate remained untouched .
Although Maryland , as a border state , was exempted from Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation , the Maryland General Assembly eliminated slavery in 1864 . With the end of slavery , Hampton began to decline . A number of the former slaves continued to work at Hampton as paid household servants but the Ridgelys had to hire other hands to work the farm . With the deaths of John and Eliza in 1867 , their son Charles became the next master of Hampton . The mansion and the remaining 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) were subsequently inherited upon Charles ' death in 1872 by Captain John Ridgely ( 1851 – 1938 ) . Prominent guests , including Theodore Roosevelt , continued to visit Hampton and enjoy its grounds .
= = = 20th century = = =
As nearby Baltimore grew and local agriculture declined , the Ridgelys found it increasingly difficult to maintain the property . Five of the six parterres were removed and replanted as a grass lawn . Some income was generated by producing cider from the estate 's apple orchards and operating a dairy . In 1929 , Capt. John Ridgely and his son , John Ridgely Jr . , formed the Hampton Development Corporation and sold some of the remaining 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 405 ha ) of land . In 1938 , John Ridgely , Jr . ( 1882 – 1959 ) became the sixth generation of the family to become master of Hampton . His company sold off large portions of the estate to a suburban housing development in the 1930s and 1940s , now known as the fashionable Hampton residential community .
The Hampton Mansion remained in the Ridgely family until 1948 , when John Ridgely Jr. moved to the smaller Farm House on the property and the Mansion was acquired by the Avalon Foundation ( now part of the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation ) . The seventh and last generation of Ridgelys to live at the mansion was his son , John Ridgely III ( 1911 – 90 ) , who , after marrying Lillian Ketchum ( 1908 – 96 ) in the mid @-@ 1930s , continued to reside at the mansion with his wife until they both entered Army service during World War II .
The Hampton Mansion and remaining 43 acres ( 17 ha ) of the Ridgely estate were designated a National Historic Site by the Secretary of the Interior on June 22 , 1948 — the first site to be so selected on the basis of its historical significance and " outstanding merit as an architectural monument " . Hampton Mansion was opened to the public in May 1949 under the care of Preservation Maryland for the next thirty years ( 1949 – 79 ) . Work also began in 1949 to restore four of the site 's six 19th @-@ century parterres . On October 15 , 1966 , Hampton was listed on the National Register of Historic Places . In October 1979 , it was acquired by the National Park Service ( NPS ) , which has operated and managed the estate since . The NPS subsequently acquired additional acreage containing original Ridgely structures , bringing the park to its present 62 @.@ 04 acres ( 25 @.@ 11 ha ) size . In 1998 , the NPS stated its purpose for the historic site :
... to preserve unimpaired the cultural resources of this rare , commercial , industrial , and agricultural estate in the historic Chesapeake region . National events and social change are revealed in the site 's resources and the inter @-@ relationships of the family and workers who lived and labored on the estate as it took shape and changed in the 18th and 19th centuries .
= = = 21st century = = =
As part of the General Management Plan adopted by the NPS in 1998 for the estate 's long @-@ term planning and operation , the NPS began studying the mansion 's security , safety , electrical systems , and environmental issues in 2000 . Critical needs were identified , such as the lack of a fire suppression system and climate control . Conservators of the property 's furnishings and paintings said that the need to stabilize temperature and humidity levels inside the mansion was " urgent due to unacceptable environmental stress " . The NPS finalized plans in 2004 , including an environmental impact assessment , for installation of a modern HVAC system and a concealed fire sprinkler system to protect the historic mansion and its irreplaceable contents from loss by fire .
Starting in January 2005 , the mansion closed for almost three years as it underwent the major restoration project . As part of the 2005 – 07 renovations , the drawing room and two bedchambers were completely refurbished . The drawing room 's furnishings were extensively researched to reflect accurately the Mansion in the 1830 – 60 period . The ornate cupola atop the mansion was restored , including the spherical ornament above the cupola , which was refinished in gold leaf . The Hampton Mansion re @-@ opened to the public on November 30 , 2007 .
The Park Service 's chief ranger for the Hampton National Historic Site said afterwards of the $ 3 million in renovations , " I don 't think the mansion has ever looked better " . " Preservation Maryland " , a statewide preservation advocacy organization , conferred its Stewardship Award in 2007 on the Hampton National Historic Site for refurnishing the mansion 's rooms with historical accuracy while unobtrusively installing the fire suppression and climate control systems .
= = National Park Service management = =
The remaining 62 @.@ 04 @-@ acre ( 25 @.@ 11 ha ) estate , straddling Hampton Lane , is now managed by the National Park Service and open to the public , with ample free parking , a gift shop , and wheelchair accessibility at the mansion . Visitors are provided a guided tour of the mansion , where the original furnishings owned by the Ridgelys may be seen , along with the family 's collection of oil paintings , silverware , and ceramics comprising some 7 @,@ 000 objects . In addition to the mansion itself , visitors may view nine surviving original structures on the grounds built during the 18th to mid @-@ 19th century period :
Farm House – located 1 @,@ 900 feet ( 580 m ) north of the mansion and next to the slave quarters , a portion is believed to predate the Ridgelys ' purchase of the property in 1745 . The Ridgely family lived here while the mansion was being constructed in the 1780s . Thereafter , it was the residence of the farm manager or overseer . After John Ridgely Jr. and his wife Jane vacated the mansion in 1948 , they lived here until their deaths .
Slave quarters – two preserved stone buildings adjacent to the Farm House , now provided with interpretive exhibits on slave life at Hampton . Displayed is a newspaper advertisement by Charles Carnan Ridgely offering a reward for the return of a runaway slave , as well as a Christmas gift list kept from 1841 to 1854 by the daughter of John Carnan and Eliza for the slaves ' children .
Dairy – built of stone before 1800
Mule barn – built of stone c . 1845
Long house / granary
Ash house , wooden log building , and dovecote
Self @-@ guided tours may be made of the grounds during hours when the park is open to the public , including the farm , formal garden , family cemetery , and two stables built of stone for the Ridgely family 's thoroughbred horses . A replica of the original orangery ( built in 1824 ) may also be viewed ( the original wooden orangery , which burned down in 1926 , was reconstructed on the original foundations in 1976 ) . One surviving 34 @-@ foot ( 10 @.@ 4 m ) deep underground icehouse is visible near the mansion and is open to visitors . Among the surviving trees planted by the Ridgelys in the 1820s are a large tulip tree , a European Beech , and Catalpas . A prize Cedar of Lebanon , brought back from the Middle East as a seedling by Eliza Ridgely , is one of the largest in the U.S.
Numerous special events are scheduled throughout the year , such as chamber music concerts and harpsichord performances presented in the mansion 's ornate Great Hall , milking demonstrations at the dairy by costumed milkmaids , carriage rides , hay harvesting by scythe , corn harvesting , blacksmithing demonstrations , and jousting reenactments . The Baltimore Sun reported that Hampton had 35 @,@ 000 visitors in 2008 .
The local community actively supports the site 's preservation through a non @-@ profit friends ' group , " Historic Hampton , " which has assisted the National Park Service in achieving historical accuracy and interpretive potential of the interiors , along with presentation of various activities . In May 2008 , a $ 195 @,@ 000 challenge grant was announced by the National Park Service , matched by an equal amount to be raised by Historic Hampton , for further restoration of the mansion 's interiors . The National Park Service also maintains an on @-@ site archive of Ridgely family papers from 1750 – 1990 for researchers .
= = The Tea Room controversy = =
When the Hampton estate first opened to the public in 1949 , the mansion 's kitchen was converted into a small restaurant . Known as the Tea Room , it was operated by a concessionaire for the next 50 years , serving lunches featuring Hampton Imperial Crab ( backfin lump meat from the blue crab , baked and seasoned with spices ) and other Chesapeake Bay seafood delicacies , served with a glass of sherry . A local newspaper columnist described the Tea Room as " offering gentility ... a fireplace nearly as big as a wall and mullioned windows with sills that are nearly 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) thick . The view is rolling lawns ... "
When the Tea Room was closed by the National Park Service on January 1 , 1999 , officials said they did so because of the potential fire hazard posed by operating a kitchen in the main park building and the possibility of insect or rodent damage to historic items in the mansion , as stated in the General Management Plan adopted by the NPS the previous year . While it " may be a pleasant place to enjoy a meal ... that is clearly less important than the need to preserve Hampton 's buildings , objects and landscapes for future generations , " the Park Service stated . Officials of Preservation Maryland said they were " disappointed " by the restaurant 's closure , saying it helped attract visitors to the historic site . The former chairwoman of the Hampton women 's committee — which raises money for various projects at Hampton — also criticized the decision . Since 2006 , the women 's group has renewed efforts to have the Tea Room reopened , saying it would draw more visitors and repeat business from locals to the park . A Park Service spokesman was quoted as saying in October , 2006 , that " The mansion is not going to be the site of any food operation , " but has made no further comment since then .
= Royal Stag =
Royal Stag , also known as Seagram 's Royal Stag , is a brand of Indian whisky , owned by Pernod Ricard India , and launched in 1995 . It is Pernod Ricard 's best selling brand . It is a blend of Indian grain spirits and imported Scotch malts . It is commonly available in 1 L , 750 ml , 375 ml and 180 ml bottles and also available in 90 ml and 60 ml bottles . The brand is named after a species of deer famous for its antlers , that is also featured in its logo . It is produced in several company @-@ owned as well as bottler @-@ owned distilleries . It is the first Indian whisky brand to not use any artificial flavour .
Pernod Ricard has identified Royal Stag along with Imperial Blue , Blenders Pride , Chivas Regal and 100 Pipers as the company 's five core brands to build its spirits business in India . Royal Stag sold 12 @.@ 3 million cases in 2011 , toppling Absolut Vodka , to become Pernod Ricard 's biggest selling brand in its global portfolio of alcoholic beverages . Royal Stag sold 16 @.@ 1 million cases in 2014 .
= = History = =
Royal Stag was launched in India in 1995 by Canadian liquor giant Seagram . It is named after a deer species known for long antlers . It is the first Indian whisky brand to not use any artificial flavour . The whisky is a blend of Indian grain spirits and imported Scotch malts . Seagram 's global business was jointly acquired by Pernod Ricard and Diageo in December 2000 . The two companies later split Seagram 's business based on the previously announced framework agreement signed between them .
In the calendar year 2001 , Royal Stag was selling over 125 @,@ 000 cases per month and sold approximately 1 @.@ 75 million cases in 2002 . The brand 's annualised sales during the 2004 calendar year crossed 3 million cases , and increased to nearly 4 million cases in 2006 . Royal Stag was ranked second among Indian spirits brands in Impact International 's 2008 list of " Top 100 Brands at Retail Value " with a retail value of US $ 505 million . The brand reported sales of 8 million cases in 2009 and nearly 10 @.@ 6 million cases in 2010 .
Royal Stag sold 12 @.@ 3 million cases in 2011 , toppling Absolut Vodka which sold 11 @.@ 3 million cases , to become Pernod Ricard 's biggest selling brand in its global portfolio of alcoholic beverages .
Pernod Ricard India launched a more premium version of Royal Stag , called Royal Stag Barrel Select in December 2011 . It is priced significantly higher than Royal Stag and positioned between deluxe and premium segment . It is developed by the UK based international branding and packaging consultants CARTILS .
= = Marketing = =
Royal Stag is placed in the deluxe segment of the Indian whisky market and is priced to target the upper middle class aged 25 – 40 years . The brand 's main national competitor , at its price point , is United Spirits Ltd 's McDowell 's No.1 whisky . Royal Stag also faces competition from Radico Khaitan 's 8 PM Royale , Mason & Summers ' " Royal Crown " , United Spirits Ltd 's Royal Mist whiskies and Allied Blenders & Distilleries ( ABD ) ' s Officer 's Choice Black . Pernod Ricard has identified Royal Stag along with Imperial Blue , Blenders Pride , Chivas Regal and 100 Pipers as the company 's five core brands to build its spirits business in India . 5 brands have been divided in 2 categories , Chivas Regal and 100 Pipers come under " lifestyle business " category while rest of brands along with Royal Stag come under India @-@ made foreign liquor ( IMFL ) . It is marketed in 1 L , 750 ml , 375 ml and 180 ml bottles and also available in 90 ml and 60 ml bottles .
Advertising alcoholic beverages is banned in India as per the Cable Television Network ( Regulation ) Amendment Bill , which came into effect on 8 September 2000 . To circumvent the ban liquor manufacturers use surrogate advertising or develop associate properties . Royal Stag uses three themes – Mega Movie , Mega Music and Mega Cricket – to promote the brand . According to Seagram India 's vice @-@ president of marketing Bikram Basu , " We 've developed Royal Stag Mega Cricket and Royal Stag Mega Movies to promote the brand " . Mega Cricket sells cricket gear , and sponsors cricket events , and Basu claims that Mega Movies sponsors " around 8 – 10 national releases of Hollywood movies every year . " The brand often uses cricketers and Bollywood stars in its advertising . The brand 's slogan is : " It 's your life , make it large " .
= = = Brand ambassadors = = =
In 2002 , Seagram signed eight cricketers to endorse Royal Stag , including Harbhajan Singh ( India ) , Marvan Atapattu ( Sri Lanka ) , Wasim Akram ( Pakistan ) , Glenn McGrath ( Australia ) , Jonty Rhodes ( South Africa ) , Mervyn Dillon ( West Indies ) , Stephen Fleming ( New Zealand ) , and Andy Flower ( Zimbabwe ) . The campaign was handled by Ogilvy & Mather . Seagram spent ₹ 2 @.@ 5 crore ( US $ 370 @,@ 000 ) on this promotion . Following this contract , in 2004 , Pakistan Civil Court ruled that Wasim Akram had hurt sentiments of Muslims and was fined 25 @,@ 000 Pakistani rupees ( £ 238 ) and ordered to apologize the nation . While Akram 's lawyer maintained stand that Akram had never appeared in any advertisement of alcoholic product .
In 2006 , a Royal Stag advert featuring Harbhajan Singh without his turban , with his hair tumbling down over his shoulders , outraged orthodox Sikhs , who burnt effigies in the city of Amritsar . Sikh clergy and its representative body , the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee ( SGPC ) demanded an apology from Singh and demanded that Pernod Ricard India withdraw the ad , which the SGPC termed , an " offensive representation which has hurt the feelings of Sikhs . " Singh later apologised saying , " I apologise . In case I have hurt the feelings of my people , it was really not my intention . "
Other cricketers that have featured as brand ambassadors or have appeared in Royal Stag advertising include Gautam Gambhir , Jonty Rhodes , Mahendra Singh Dhoni , Ricky Ponting and Yuvraj Singh .
On 10 February 2012 , Pernod Ricard India announced its signing of iconic Bollywood star Shahrukh Khan as brand ambassador for Royal Stag . The company said that Shahrukh would work in tandem with another Bollywood actor Saif Ali Khan , who had been the brand ambassador since several years . South Indian movie star Mahesh Babu is also one of the brand ambassador of Royal Stag .
In 2014 Pernod Ricard India announced its signing of Bollywood actors Ranveer Singh and Arjun Kapoor as brand ambassadors . General manager of Marketing Raja Banerjee said that , " We firmly believe that the dynamic duo represents the dreams of this country and therefore would reinforce our brand positioning " . However , they maintained that Shah Rukh Khan would continue to promote the brand .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
The Royal Stag brand often sponsors musical and sporting events . It sponsored the Sahara Cup matches in Toronto , Canada from 1996 to 1999 . Under the name " Seagram 's Royal Stag Mega Music " , the brand sponsored a multi @-@ city music tour featuring Strings , along with Saif Ali Khan ( then brand ambassador ) and Indian rock ' n roll band Parikrama in January 2008 . Royal Stag is the title sponsor of the Mirchi Music Awards .
= = Sales = =
In 2002 , Seagram 's Imperial Blue and Royal Stag were emerged as fasted growing brands in domestic market . Royal Stag saw 53 % rise in its sale from 1 @.@ 12 million cases in 2001 to 1 @.@ 75 million case in 2002 . In 2010 , Royal Stag first time crossed the mark of 10 million cases and Pernod Ricard became the first multinational company to cross this mark in India . In 2013 calendar month , Royal Stag first time crossed retail sale worth more than $ 1 billion . It had a total of $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in retail sale . Royal Stag sold 16 @.@ 1 million cases in 2014 and remained the third biggest @-@ selling whisky in India from 2011 behind Officer 's Choice and McDowell 's No.1.
The following table shows the annual sales of Royal Stag :
= Ohio State Route 633 =
State Route 633 ( SR 633 ) is a short north – south state highway in the northeastern portion of the U.S. state of Ohio . Occupying a portion of Lloyd Road , SR 633 has its southern terminus at a signalized intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in Wickliffe . Its northern terminus is also in Wickliffe , but at a signalized intersection with Lakeland Boulevard ( former SR 2 ) , which provides access to current SR 2 freeway by way of a trumpet interchange just to the east . SR 633 was designated in 1946 , and its routing has not changed since .
= = Route description = =
The entirety of SR 633 is located within the city limits of Wickliffe in Lake County . The state route begins at a signalized intersection with US 20 ( Euclid Avenue ) , and travels to the northwest from that point . It is bounded by a commercial real estate on the west side , and some small fields and woods on the east side through the Anderson Road intersection , after which commercial businesses appear on that side , as well . SR 633 then crosses a set of CSX and Norfolk Southern railroad tracks . Just after that crossing , the state highway comes to an end at a signalized intersection with Lakeland Boulevard , just three blocks southwest of a trumpet interchange that connects the SR 2 freeway with Lakeland Boulevard . Lloyd Road continues northwest after SR 633 terminates . It crosses underneath SR 2 a very short distance after the intersection . About 6 @,@ 320 vehicles travel on SR 633 on average every day . For its entire length , SR 633 is a three @-@ lane roadway , featuring one through lane in each direction plus a center @-@ turn lane .
= = History = =
The 1923 Ohio Department of Highways map shows a road running along the corridor of modern SR 2 from Cleveland to Wickliffe , then turning south along the route of Lloyd Road to US 20 in Wickliffe . This routing is designated as a state highway by the 1932 map . On the 1939 map , the northeast @-@ southwest road , now labelled as SR 2 , is extended eastward , but the Lloyd Road section is still designated as a state highway . Starting with the 1946 map , this segment is labelled SR 633 . In approximately 1963 , SR 2 is rerouted onto the Lakeland Freeway , but SR 633 's terminus remains at Lakeland Boulevard .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Wickliffe , Lake County .
= Pancake machine =
A pancake machine is an electrically @-@ powered machine that automatically produces cooked pancakes . It is believed that the earliest known pancake machine was invented in the United States in 1928 . Several types of pancake machines exist that perform in various manners , for both commercial and home use . Some are fully automatic in operation , while others are semi @-@ automatic . Some companies mass @-@ produce pancake machines , and some have been homemade . The Happy Egg Company constructed a novelty pancake machine in 2013 in commemoration of Pancake Day in the United Kingdom .
= = History = =
In 1928 , a man in Portland , Oregon , invented an electric pancake machine that operated by the process of batter being dropped onto a revolving heated flattop grill from a storage cylinder atop the grill . The grill was heated using electricity . The amount of batter dropped was controlled by using controlled amounts of compressed air , which pushed batter out of the storage cylinder . As the batter revolved on the hot grill , the pancake was flipped halfway through the cooking process by a shelf atop the grill . After being flipped , the completed pancake was ejected from the machine upon contact with a gate .
In 1955 in the United States , an automatic pancake machine was developed by Vendo , which used a specially formulated pancake batter mix that was manufactured by the Quaker Oats Company 's Aunt Jemima branch . The Vendo machine could produce pancakes " in less than three minutes . " It was a semi @-@ automatic machine that performed all of the cooking functions except for the pouring of the pancake batter .
In 1956 , four Racine , WI Engineers developed and fabricated two , 5 ' diameter gas burning pancake machines for the annual Pancake Day sponsored by the Kiwanis Club there in Racine .
= = Types and uses = =
Various types of pancake machines exist , such as those that run pancake batter through a heated conveyor inside of a box unit , and those that automatically drop pancake batter onto a flattop grill . Some pancake machines , such as one developed by Crepe @-@ Coer , cook both sides of a pancake simultaneously . Semi @-@ automatic pancake machines also exist , which require some human interaction to function , such as the pouring of batter . Commercial pancake machines may be used in the foodservice industry , in cafeterias and by restaurants , and can serve to reduce the waste of stale pancake batter . Some hotels have pancake machines that guests are allowed to operate . They are also used in other environments in a self @-@ service manner , such as in upscale airport lounges and hotels .
= = Homemade pancake machines = =
Homemade versions of pancake machines have been constructed . An example of a homemade pancake machine is one constructed in 1977 by Ken Whitsett of the Ocala Kiwanis Club in Ocala , Florida , which was used for the organization 's annual pancake day . The Kiwanis machine utilized a hopper filled with pancake batter that was manually dropped onto a revolving griddle . The pancakes were manually flipped and plated when cooking was completed . It required four people for its operation , and could produce between 750 – 1000 pancakes per hour .
= = Companies and brands = =
Commercial and home @-@ consumer pancake machines are mass @-@ produced by some companies in contemporary times .
= = = Commercial products = = =
Commercial pancake machines are typically used in the commercial foodservice and hospitality industries .
ChefStack is a pancake machine brand that can produce 200 pancakes per hour . Individual Pancakes are produced in seconds by this machine . The machine was designed for use in commercial establishments such as cafeterias and convenience stores .
Popcake is a U.S. company that produces Popcake @-@ brand pancake machines . The Popcake machine was invented by Marek Szymanski , and as of July 2014 approximately 7 @,@ 000 of them are used worldwide . This brand has features that allow users to adjust the size , quantity and doneness level of the pancakes produced . Plates of pancakes are produced in around two minutes time by the Popcake machine .
= = = Consumer products = = =
Consumer versions of pancake machines for home use are simpler in operation compared to commercial machines , typically involving a basic griddle and a feature to adjust cooking temperature . Consumer machines are typically countertop @-@ sized small appliances . Brands include the Severin Crepe Maker , the Cuisinart Griddle and Grill , Swan 's Come Dine With Me Party Wok and Pancake Maker , the Roller Grill Single Plate Crepe Machine and the Andrew James Crepe Maker , among others . A review of various consumer machines published in The Daily Mail recommended various machines per situational uses . For example , the Roller Grill Single Plate Crepe Machine was recommended for use with large groups of people and the Severin Crepe Maker was recommended for " technophobes " who prefer a simple design The review recommended the Andrew James Crepe Maker as the overall best value .
In March 2015 in the U.S. , the PancakeBot pancake machine received over $ 141 @,@ 000 on Kickstarter . Its target donation request on the website was $ 50 @,@ 000 . PancakeBot can produce custom pancakes in various designs , which is performed by the use of pancake batter in a bottle that is moved by a programmable machine arm atop the griddle . The machine utilizes custom software to accomplish this .
= = Novelty machines = =
In commemoration of Pancake Day in the United Kingdom , a novelty pancake machine was built by The Happy Egg Company in February 2013 that involved a complex series of steps to automatically produce pancakes from scratch . The machine involves the use of a freshly laid egg from a hen that rolls onto a turntable , which then moves the egg to an area where it is automatically cracked and mixed with other ingredients . After this point , the mixture is poured into a griddle , flipped to cook the other side , and then flipped onto a plate .
= New York State Route 191 =
New York State Route 191 ( NY 191 ) was a 6 @.@ 24 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 04 km ) long state highway located north of Adirondack Park The route was maintained and co @-@ designated by the Clinton County highway department as County Route 23 ( CR 23 ) and headed from an intersection with NY 22 in the hamlet of Sciota within the town of Chazy to a junction with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in the hamlet of Chazy . The route met Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 , also known as the Adirondack Northway ) west of Chazy hamlet .
NY 191 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . The route initially extended from the community of Altona to a ferry landing on Lake Champlain in Chazy Landing , where it connected to Vermont Route F @-@ 2 . The ferry ceased to operate in 1937 , but NY 191 remained unchanged until 1980 when ownership and maintenance of NY 191 was transferred from the state to Clinton County . NY 191 was truncated to its current length following the maintenance swap . The route was decommissioned in July , 2014 .
= = Route description = =
NY 191 began at an intersection with NY 22 and Miner Farm Road ( CR 23 ) in the Clinton County hamlet of Sciota , located within the town of Chazy . The route headed to the northeast as a two @-@ lane county @-@ maintained , state @-@ numbered highway , overlapping with CR 23 and taking on the Miner Farm Road name . East of Sciota , the highway traversed lightly developed areas , serving several residences separated by patches of woodlands . The route eventually began to turn to the southeast , connecting with Angelville Road ( unsigned CR 20 ) in the process . A long stretch of dense forests followed the turn , with little to no development along the highway .
After 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , the road bent back to the east , leaving the woodlands behind as it passed south of the Miner Institute . The research complex leaded to another stretch of isolated homes along NY 191 , centered on the route 's interchange with the Adirondack Northway ( I @-@ 87 ) . Not far from the junction , NY 191 entered the hamlet of Chazy , a small community located on the Little Chazy River . The route bypassed most of Chazy , skirting the northern edge of the hamlet as it headed northeast to a junction with US 9 . NY 191 ended here while CR 23 follows the state @-@ maintained US 9 south into downtown Chazy .
= = History = =
Modern NY 191 is one part of a mostly continuous east – west highway between the hamlets of Altona and Chazy Landing . On September 23 , 1908 , the state assumed maintenance of the part east of the hamlet of Chazy following the completion of a $ 38 @,@ 925 project ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 025 @,@ 169 in 2016 ) to improve a total of 4 @.@ 60 miles ( 7 @.@ 40 km ) of roads in Clinton County . The section west of the hamlet
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0 × 1011 ) galaxies exist in the observable universe . Most of the galaxies are 1 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 parsecs in diameter and usually separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs ( or megaparsecs ) . The space between galaxies is filled with a tenuous gas having an average density of less than one atom per cubic meter . The majority of galaxies are gravitationally organized into associations known as galaxy groups , clusters , and superclusters . At the largest scale , these associations are generally arranged into sheets and filaments surrounded by immense voids .
= = Etymology = =
The origin of the word galaxy derives from the Greek term for the Milky Way , galaxias ( γαλαξίας , " milky one " ) , or kyklos galaktikos ( " milky circle " ) due to its appearance as a " milky " band of light in the sky . In Greek mythology , Zeus places his son born by a mortal woman , the infant Heracles , on Hera 's breast while she is asleep so that the baby will drink her divine milk and will thus become immortal . Hera wakes up while breastfeeding and then realizes she is nursing an unknown baby : she pushes the baby away , some of her milk spills and , produces the faint band of light known as the Milky Way .
In the astronomical literature , the capitalized word " Galaxy " is often used to refer to our galaxy , the Milky Way , to distinguish it from the other galaxies in our universe . The English term Milky Way can be traced back to a story by Chaucer c . 1380 :
" See yonder , lo , the Galaxyë
Which men clepeth the Milky Wey ,
For hit is whyt . "
Certain astronomical objects known as spiral nebula such as M31 would later be recognized as conglomerations of stars when the true distance to these objects began to be discovered , and they would be deemed island universes . However , the word Universe was later understood to mean the entirety of existence , so this expression fell into disuse and the objects instead became known as galaxies .
= = Nomenclature = =
Tens of thousands of galaxies have been catalogued , but only a few have well @-@ established names , such as the Andromeda Galaxy , the Magellanic Clouds , the Whirlpool Galaxy , and the Sombrero Galaxy . Astronomers work with numbers from certain catalogues , such as the Messier catalogue , the NGC ( New General Catalogue ) , the IC ( Index Catalogue ) , the CGCG ( Catalogue of Galaxies and of Clusters of Galaxies ) , the MCG ( Morphological Catalogue of Galaxies ) and UGC ( Uppsala General Catalogue of Galaxies ) . All of the well @-@ known galaxies appear in one or more of these catalogues but each time under a different number . For example , Messier 109 is a spiral galaxy having the number 109 in the catalogue of Messier , but also codes NGC3992 , UGC6937 , CGCG 269 @-@ 023 , MCG + 09 @-@ 20 @-@ 044 , and PGC 37617 .
Because it is customary in science to assign names to most of the studied objects , even to the smallest ones , the Belgian astrophysicist Gerard Bodifee and the classicist Michel Berger started a new catalogue ( CNG @-@ Catalogue of Named Galaxies ) in which a thousand well @-@ known galaxies are given meaningful , descriptive names in Latin ( or Latinized Greek ) in accordance with the binomial nomenclature that one uses in other sciences such as biology , anatomy , paleontology and in other fields of astronomy such as the geography of Mars . One of the arguments to do so is that these impressive objects deserve better than uninspired codes . For instance , Bodifee and Berger propose the informal , descriptive name Callimorphus Ursae Majoris for the well @-@ formed barred galaxy Messier 109 in Ursa Major .
= = Observation history = =
The realization that we live in a galaxy , and that ours is one among many , parallels major discoveries that were made about the Milky Way and other nebulae in the night sky .
= = = Milky Way = = =
The Greek philosopher Democritus ( 450 – 370 BCE ) proposed that the bright band on the night sky known as the Milky Way might consist of distant stars . Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BCE ) , however , believed the Milky Way to be caused by " the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars that were large , numerous and close together " and that the " ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere , in the region of the World that is continuous with the heavenly motions . " The Neoplatonist philosopher Olympiodorus the Younger ( c . 495 – 570 CE ) was critical of this view , arguing that if the Milky Way is sublunary ( situated between Earth and the Moon ) it should appear different at different times and places on Earth , and that it should have parallax , which it does not . In his view , the Milky Way is celestial .
According to Mohani Mohamed , the Arabian astronomer Alhazen ( 965 – 1037 ) made the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way 's parallax , and he thus " determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax , it must be remote from the Earth , not belonging to the atmosphere . " The Persian astronomer al @-@ Bīrūnī ( 973 – 1048 ) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be " a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars . " The Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah ( " Avempace " , d . 1138 ) proposed that the Milky Way is made up of many stars that almost touch one another and appear to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material , citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars as evidence of this occurring when two objects are near . In the 14th century , the Syrian @-@ born Ibn Qayyim proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be " a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars . "
Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars . In 1750 the English astronomer Thomas Wright , in his An original theory or new hypothesis of the Universe , speculated ( correctly ) that the galaxy might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars held together by gravitational forces , akin to the Solar System but on a much larger scale . The resulting disk of stars can be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk . In a treatise in 1755 , Immanuel Kant elaborated on Wright 's idea about the structure of the Milky Way .
The first project to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun was undertaken by William Herschel in 1785 by counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky . He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the Solar System close to the center . Using a refined approach , Kapteyn in 1920 arrived at the picture of a small ( diameter about 15 kiloparsecs ) ellipsoid galaxy with the Sun close to the center . A different method by Harlow Shapley based on the cataloguing of globular clusters led to a radically different picture : a flat disk with diameter approximately 70 kiloparsecs and the Sun far from the center . Both analyses failed to take into account the absorption of light by interstellar dust present in the galactic plane , but after Robert Julius Trumpler quantified this effect in 1930 by studying open clusters , the present picture of our host galaxy , the Milky Way , emerged .
= = = Distinction from other nebulae = = =
A few galaxies outside the Milky Way are visible in the night sky to the unaided eye . In the 10th century , the Persian astronomer Al @-@ Sufi made the earliest recorded identification of the Andromeda Galaxy , describing it as a " small cloud " . In 964 , Al @-@ Sufi identified the Large Magellanic Cloud in his Book of Fixed Stars ; it was not seen by Europeans until Magellan 's voyage in the 16th century . The Andromeda Galaxy was independently noted by Simon Marius in 1612 .
In 1750 , Thomas Wright speculated ( correctly ) that the Milky Way is a flattened disk of stars , and that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate Milky Ways . In 1755 , Immanuel Kant used the term " island Universe " to describe these distant nebulae .
Toward the end of the 18th century , Charles Messier compiled a catalog containing the 109 brightest celestial objects having nebulous appearance . Subsequently , William Herschel assembled a catalog of 5 @,@ 000 nebulae . In 1845 , Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral nebulae . He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae , lending credence to Kant 's earlier conjecture .
In 1912 , Vesto Slipher made spectrographic studies of the brightest spiral nebulae to determine their composition . Slipher discovered that the spiral nebulae have high Doppler shifts , indicating that they are moving at a rate exceeding the velocity of the stars he had measured . He found that the majority of these nebulae are moving away from us .
In 1917 , Heber Curtis observed nova S Andromedae within the " Great Andromeda Nebula " ( as the Andromeda Galaxy , Messier object M31 , was then known ) . Searching the photographic record , he found 11 more novae . Curtis noticed that these novae were , on average , 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within our galaxy . As a result , he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150 @,@ 000 parsecs . He became a proponent of the so @-@ called " island universes " hypothesis , which holds that spiral nebulae are actually independent galaxies .
In 1920 a debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis ( the Great Debate ) , concerning the nature of the Milky Way , spiral nebulae , and the dimensions of the Universe . To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy , Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way , as well as the significant Doppler shift .
In 1922 , the Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik gave a distance determination that supported the theory that the Andromeda Nebula is indeed a distant extra @-@ galactic object . Using the new 100 inch Mt . Wilson telescope , Edwin Hubble was able to resolve the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars and identified some Cepheid variables , thus allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae : they were far too distant to be part of the Milky Way . In 1936 Hubble produced a classification of galactic morphology that is used to this day .
= = = Modern research = = =
In 1944 , Hendrik van de Hulst predicted that microwave radiation with wavelength of 21 cm would be detectable from interstellar atomic hydrogen gas ; and in 1951 it was observed . This radiation is not affected by dust absorption , and so its Doppler shift can be used to map the motion of the gas in our galaxy . These observations led to the hypothesis of a rotating bar structure in the center of our galaxy . With improved radio telescopes , hydrogen gas could also be traced in other galaxies . In the 1970s , Vera Rubin uncovered a discrepancy between observed galactic rotation speed and that predicted by the visible mass of stars and gas . Today , the galaxy rotation problem is thought to be explained by the presence of large quantities of unseen dark matter . A concept known as the universal rotation curve of spirals , moreover , shows that the problem is ubiquitous in these objects .
Beginning in the 1990s , the Hubble Space Telescope yielded improved observations . Among other things , Hubble data helped establish that the missing dark matter in our galaxy cannot solely consist of inherently faint and small stars . The Hubble Deep Field , an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky , provided evidence that there are about 125 billion ( 1 @.@ 25 × 1011 ) galaxies in the observable universe . Improved technology in detecting the spectra invisible to humans ( radio telescopes , infrared cameras , and x @-@ ray telescopes ) allow detection of other galaxies that are not detected by Hubble . Particularly , galaxy surveys in the Zone of Avoidance ( the region of the sky blocked by the Milky Way ) have revealed a number of new galaxies .
= = Types and morphology = =
Galaxies come in three main types : ellipticals , spirals , and irregulars . A slightly more extensive description of galaxy types based on their appearance is given by the Hubble sequence . Since the Hubble sequence is entirely based upon visual morphological type ( shape ) , it may miss certain important characteristics of galaxies such as star formation rate in starburst galaxies and activity in the cores of active galaxies .
= = = Ellipticals = = =
The Hubble classification system rates elliptical galaxies on the basis of their ellipticity , ranging from E0 , being nearly spherical , up to E7 , which is highly elongated . These galaxies have an ellipsoidal profile , giving them an elliptical appearance regardless of the viewing angle . Their appearance shows little structure and they typically have relatively little interstellar matter . Consequently , these galaxies also have a low portion of open clusters and a reduced rate of new star formation . Instead they are dominated by generally older , more evolved stars that are orbiting the common center of gravity in random directions . The stars contain low abundances of heavy elements because star formation ceases after the initial burst . In this sense they have some similarity to the much smaller globular clusters .
The largest galaxies are giant ellipticals . Many elliptical galaxies are believed to form due to the interaction of galaxies , resulting in a collision and merger . They can grow to enormous sizes ( compared to spiral galaxies , for example ) , and giant elliptical galaxies are often found near the core of large galaxy clusters .
Starburst galaxies are the result of a galactic collision that can result in the formation of an elliptical galaxy .
= = = = Shell galaxy = = = =
A shell galaxy is a type of elliptical galaxy where the stars in the galaxy 's halo are arranged in concentric shells . About one @-@ tenth of elliptical galaxies have a shell @-@ like structure , which has never been observed in spiral galaxies . The shell @-@ like structures are thought to develop when a larger galaxy absorbs a smaller companion galaxy . As the two galaxy centers approach , the centers start to oscillate around a center point , the oscillation creates gravitational ripples forming the shells of stars , similar to ripples spreading on water . For example , galaxy NGC 3923 has over twenty shells .
= = = Spirals = = =
Spiral galaxies resemble spiraling pinwheels . Though the stars and other visible material contained in such a galaxy lie mostly on a plane , the majority of mass in spiral galaxies exists in a roughly spherical halo of dark matter that extends beyond the visible component , as demonstrated by the universal rotation curve concept .
Spiral galaxies consist of a rotating disk of stars and interstellar medium , along with a central bulge of generally older stars . Extending outward from the bulge are relatively bright arms . In the Hubble classification scheme , spiral galaxies are listed as type S , followed by a letter ( a , b , or c ) that indicates the degree of tightness of the spiral arms and the size of the central bulge . An Sa galaxy has tightly wound , poorly defined arms and possesses a relatively large core region . At the other extreme , an Sc galaxy has open , well @-@ defined arms and a small core region . A galaxy with poorly defined arms is sometimes referred to as a flocculent spiral galaxy ; in contrast to the grand design spiral galaxy that has prominent and well @-@ defined spiral arms .
It appears the reason that some spiral galaxies are fat and bulging while some are flat discs is because of how fast they rotate .
In spiral galaxies , the spiral arms do have the shape of approximate logarithmic spirals , a pattern that can be theoretically shown to result from a disturbance in a uniformly rotating mass of stars . Like the stars , the spiral arms rotate around the center , but they do so with constant angular velocity . The spiral arms are thought to be areas of high @-@ density matter , or " density waves " . As stars move through an arm , the space velocity of each stellar system is modified by the gravitational force of the higher density . ( The velocity returns to normal after the stars depart on the other side of the arm . ) This effect is akin to a " wave " of slowdowns moving along a highway full of moving cars . The arms are visible because the high density facilitates star formation , and therefore they harbor many bright and young stars .
= = = = Barred Spiral Galaxy = = = =
A majority of spiral galaxies , including our own Milky Way galaxy , have a linear , bar @-@ shaped band of stars that extends outward to either side of the core , then merges into the spiral arm structure . In the Hubble classification scheme , these are designated by an SB , followed by a lower @-@ case letter ( a , b or c ) that indicates the form of the spiral arms ( in the same manner as the categorization of normal spiral galaxies ) . Bars are thought to be temporary structures that can occur as a result of a density wave radiating outward from the core , or else due to a tidal interaction with another galaxy . Many barred spiral galaxies are active , possibly as a result of gas being channeled into the core along the arms .
Our own galaxy , the Milky Way , is a large disk @-@ shaped barred @-@ spiral galaxy about 30 kiloparsecs in diameter and a kiloparsec thick . It contains about two hundred billion ( 2 × 1011 ) stars and has a total mass of about six hundred billion ( 6 × 1011 ) times the mass of the Sun .
= = = = Super Luminous Spiral = = = =
Can have a diameter of 437 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . The Milky Way is about 100 @,@ 000 light @-@ years in diameter . They can have a mass of 340 billion solar masses and generate large amount of ultraviolet and mid @-@ infrared light . They create new stars 30 times faster than the Milky Way .
= = = Other morphologies = = =
Peculiar galaxies are galactic formations that develop unusual properties due to tidal interactions with other galaxies .
A ring galaxy has a ring @-@ like structure of stars and interstellar medium surrounding a bare core . A ring galaxy is thought to occur when a smaller galaxy passes through the core of a spiral galaxy . Such an event may have affected the Andromeda Galaxy , as it displays a multi @-@ ring @-@ like structure when viewed in infrared radiation .
A lenticular galaxy is an intermediate form that has properties of both elliptical and spiral galaxies . These are categorized as Hubble type S0 , and they possess ill @-@ defined spiral arms with an elliptical halo of stars ( barred lenticular galaxies receive Hubble classification SB0 . )
Irregular galaxies are galaxies that can not be readily classified into an elliptical or spiral morphology .
An Irr @-@ I galaxy has some structure but does not align cleanly with the Hubble classification scheme .
Irr @-@ II galaxies do not possess any structure that resembles a Hubble classification , and may have been disrupted . Nearby examples of ( dwarf ) irregular galaxies include the Magellanic Clouds .
An ultra diffuse galaxy ( UDG ) is an extremely @-@ low @-@ density galaxy . The galaxy may be the same size as the Milky Way but has a visible star count of only 1 % of the Milky Way . The lack of luminosity is because there is a lack of star @-@ forming gas in the galaxy which results in old stellar populations .
= = = Dwarfs = = =
Despite the prominence of large elliptical and spiral galaxies , most galaxies in the Universe are dwarf galaxies . These galaxies are relatively small when compared with other galactic formations , being about one hundredth the size of the Milky Way , containing only a few billion stars . Ultra @-@ compact dwarf galaxies have recently been discovered that are only 100 parsecs across .
Many dwarf galaxies may orbit a single larger galaxy ; the Milky Way has at least a dozen such satellites , with an estimated 300 – 500 yet to be discovered . Dwarf galaxies may also be classified as elliptical , spiral , or irregular . Since small dwarf ellipticals bear little resemblance to large ellipticals , they are often called dwarf spheroidal galaxies instead .
A study of 27 Milky Way neighbors found that in all dwarf galaxies , the central mass is approximately 10 million solar masses , regardless of whether the galaxy has thousands or millions of stars . This has led to the suggestion that galaxies are largely formed by dark matter , and that the minimum size may indicate a form of warm dark matter incapable of gravitational coalescence on a smaller scale .
= = Other types of galaxies = =
= = = Interacting = = =
Interactions between galaxies are relatively frequent , and they can play an important role in galactic evolution . Near misses between galaxies result in warping distortions due to tidal interactions , and may cause some exchange of gas and dust . Collisions occur when two galaxies pass directly through each other and have sufficient relative momentum not to merge . The stars of interacting galaxies will usually not collide , but the gas and dust within the two forms will interact , sometimes triggering star formation . A collision can severely distort the shape of the galaxies , forming bars , rings or tail @-@ like structures .
At the extreme of interactions are galactic mergers . In this case the relative momentum of the two galaxies is insufficient to allow the galaxies to pass through each other . Instead , they gradually merge to form a single , larger galaxy . Mergers can result in significant changes to morphology , as compared to the original galaxies . If one of the merging galaxies is much more massive than the other merging galaxies then the result is known as cannibalism . The more massive larger galaxy will remain relatively undisturbed by the merger , while the smaller galaxy is torn apart . The Milky Way galaxy is currently in the process of cannibalizing the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy and the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy .
= = = Starburst = = =
Stars are created within galaxies from a reserve of cold gas that forms into giant molecular clouds . Some galaxies have been observed to form stars at an exceptional rate , which is known as a starburst . If they continue to do so , then they would consume their reserve of gas in a time span less than the lifespan of the galaxy . Hence starburst activity usually lasts for only about ten million years , a relatively brief period in the history of a galaxy . Starburst galaxies were more common during the early history of the Universe , and , at present , still contribute an estimated 15 % to the total star production rate .
Starburst galaxies are characterized by dusty concentrations of gas and the appearance of newly formed stars , including massive stars that ionize the surrounding clouds to create H II regions . These massive stars produce supernova explosions , resulting in expanding remnants that interact powerfully with the surrounding gas . These outbursts trigger a chain reaction of star building that spreads throughout the gaseous region . Only when the available gas is nearly consumed or dispersed does the starburst activity end .
Starbursts are often associated with merging or interacting galaxies . The prototype example of such a starburst @-@ forming interaction is M82 , which experienced a close encounter with the larger M81 . Irregular galaxies often exhibit spaced knots of starburst activity .
= = = Active galaxy = = =
A portion of the observable galaxies are classified as an active galaxy if the galaxy contains an active galactic nucleus . A significant portion of the total energy output from the galaxy is emitted by the active galactic nucleus , instead of the stars , dust and interstellar medium of the galaxy .
The standard model for an active galactic nucleus is based upon an accretion disc that forms around a supermassive black hole ( SMBH ) at the core region of the galaxy . The radiation from an active galactic nucleus results from the gravitational energy of matter as it falls toward the black hole from the disc . In about 10 % of these galaxies , a diametrically opposed pair of energetic jets ejects particles from the galaxy core at velocities close to the speed of light . The mechanism for producing these jets is not well understood .
Seyfert galaxies or quasars , are classified depending on the luminosity , are active galaxies that emit high @-@ energy radiation in the form of x @-@ rays .
= = = = Blazars = = = =
Blazars are believed to be an active galaxy with a relativistic jet that is pointed in the direction of Earth . A radio galaxy emits radio frequencies from relativistic jets . A unified model of these types of active galaxies explains their differences based on the viewing angle of the observer .
= = = = LINERS = = = =
Possibly related to active galactic nuclei ( as well as starburst regions ) are low @-@ ionization nuclear emission @-@ line regions ( LINERs ) . The emission from LINER @-@ type galaxies is dominated by weakly ionized elements . Approximately one @-@ third of nearby galaxies are classified as containing LINER nuclei .
= = = = Seyfert Galaxy = = = =
Seyfert galaxies are one of the two largest groups of active galaxies , along with quasars . They have quasar @-@ like nuclei ( very luminous , distant and bright sources of electromagnetic radiation ) with very high surface brightnesses but unlike quasars , their host galaxies are clearly detectable . Seyfert galaxies account for about 10 % of all galaxies . Seen in visible light , most Seyfert galaxies look like normal spiral galaxies , but when studied under other wavelengths , the luminosity of their cores is equivalent to the luminosity of whole galaxies the size of the Milky Way .
= = = = Quasar = = = =
Quasars ( / ˈkweɪzɑr / ) or quasi @-@ stellar radio sources are the most energetic and distant members of a class of objects called active galactic nuclei ( AGN ) . Quasars are extremely luminous and were first identified as being high redshift sources of electromagnetic energy , including radio waves and visible light , that appeared to be similar to stars , rather than extended sources similar to galaxies . Their luminosity can be 100 times greater than that of the Milky Way .
= = = Luminous infrared galaxy = = =
Luminous Infrared Galaxies or ( LIRG 's ) are galaxies with luminosities , the measurement of brightness , above 1011 L ☉ . LIRG 's are more abundant than starburst galaxies , Seyfert galaxies and quasi @-@ stellar objects at comparable luminosity . Infrared galaxies emit more energy in the infrared than at all other wavelengths combined . An LIRG 's luminosity is 100 billion times that of our Sun .
= = Properties = =
Galaxies have galactic magnetic fields .
= = Formation and evolution = =
Galactic formation and evolution is an active area of research in astrophysics .
= = = Formation = = =
Current cosmological models of the early Universe are based on the Big Bang theory . About 300 @,@ 000 years after this event , atoms of hydrogen and helium began to form , in an event called recombination . Nearly all the hydrogen was neutral ( non @-@ ionized ) and readily absorbed light , and no stars had yet formed . As a result , this period has been called the " dark ages " . It was from density fluctuations ( or anisotropic irregularities ) in this primordial matter that larger structures began to appear . As a result , masses of baryonic matter started to condense within cold dark matter halos . These primordial structures would eventually become the galaxies we see today .
= = = = Early galaxies = = = =
Evidence for the early appearance of galaxies was found in 2006 , when it was discovered that the galaxy IOK @-@ 1 has an unusually high redshift of 6 @.@ 96 , corresponding to just 750 million years after the Big Bang and making it the most distant and primordial galaxy yet seen . While some scientists have claimed other objects ( such as Abell 1835 IR1916 ) have higher redshifts ( and therefore are seen in an earlier stage of the Universe 's evolution ) , IOK @-@ 1 's age and composition have been more reliably established . In December 2012 , astronomers reported that the UDFj @-@ 39546284 is the most distant object known and has a redshift value of 11 @.@ 9 . The object , is estimated to have existed around " 380 million years " after the Big Bang ( which was about 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago ) , is about 13 @.@ 42 billion light travel distance years away . The existence of such early protogalaxies suggests that they must have grown in the so @-@ called " dark ages " . As of May 5 , 2015 , the galaxy EGS @-@ zs8 @-@ 1 is the most distant and earliest galaxy measured , forming 670 million years after the Big Bang . The light from EGS @-@ zs8 @-@ 1 has taken 13 billion years to reach Earth , and is now 30 billion light @-@ years away , because of the expansion of the universe during 13 billion years .
= = = = Early galaxy formation = = = =
The detailed process by which early galaxies formed is an open question in astrophysics . Theories can be divided into two categories : top @-@ down and bottom @-@ up . In top @-@ down theories ( such as the Eggen – Lynden @-@ Bell – Sandage [ ELS ] model ) , protogalaxies form in a large @-@ scale simultaneous collapse lasting about one hundred million years . In bottom @-@ up theories ( such as the Searle @-@ Zinn [ SZ ] model ) , small structures such as globular clusters form first , and then a number of such bodies accrete to form a larger galaxy .
Once protogalaxies began to form and contract , the first halo stars ( called Population III stars ) appeared within them . These were composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium , and may have been massive . If so , these huge stars would have quickly consumed their supply of fuel and became supernovae , releasing heavy elements into the interstellar medium . This first generation of stars re @-@ ionized the surrounding neutral hydrogen , creating expanding bubbles of space through which light could readily travel .
In June 2015 , astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z = 6 @.@ 60 . Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe ( i.e. , at high redshift ) , and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it .
= = = Evolution = = =
Within a billion years of a galaxy 's formation , key structures begin to appear . Globular clusters , the central supermassive black hole , and a galactic bulge of metal @-@ poor Population II stars form . The creation of a supermassive black hole appears to play a key role in actively regulating the growth of galaxies by limiting the total amount of additional matter added . During this early epoch , galaxies undergo a major burst of star formation .
During the following two billion years , the accumulated matter settles into a galactic disc . A galaxy will continue to absorb infalling material from high @-@ velocity clouds and dwarf galaxies throughout its life . This matter is mostly hydrogen and helium . The cycle of stellar birth and death slowly increases the abundance of heavy elements , eventually allowing the formation of planets .
The evolution of galaxies can be significantly affected by interactions and collisions . Mergers of galaxies were common during the early epoch , and the majority of galaxies were peculiar in morphology . Given the distances between the stars , the great majority of stellar systems in colliding galaxies will be unaffected . However , gravitational stripping of the interstellar gas and dust that makes up the spiral arms produces a long train of stars known as tidal tails . Examples of these formations can be seen in NGC 4676 or the Antennae Galaxies .
The Milky Way galaxy and the nearby Andromeda Galaxy are moving toward each other at about 130 km / s , and — depending upon the lateral movements — the two might collide in about five to six billion years . Although the Milky Way has never collided with a galaxy as large as Andromeda before , evidence of past collisions of the Milky Way with smaller dwarf galaxies is increasing .
Such large @-@ scale interactions are rare . As time passes , mergers of two systems of equal size become less common . Most bright galaxies have remained fundamentally unchanged for the last few billion years , and the net rate of star formation probably also peaked approximately ten billion years ago .
= = = Future trends = = =
Spiral galaxies , like the Milky Way , produce new generations of stars as long as they have dense molecular clouds of interstellar hydrogen in their spiral arms . Elliptical galaxies are largely devoid of this gas , and so form few new stars . The supply of star @-@ forming material is finite ; once stars have converted the available supply of hydrogen into heavier elements , new star formation will come to an end .
The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years , and then the " stellar age " will wind down after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years ( 1013 – 1014 years ) , as the smallest , longest @-@ lived stars in our universe , tiny red dwarfs , begin to fade . At the end of the stellar age , galaxies will be composed of compact objects : brown dwarfs , white dwarfs that are cooling or cold ( " black dwarfs " ) , neutron stars , and black holes . Eventually , as a result of gravitational relaxation , all stars will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions .
= = Larger @-@ scale structures = =
Deep sky surveys show that galaxies are often found in groups and clusters . Solitary galaxies that have not significantly interacted with another galaxy of comparable mass during the past billion years are relatively scarce . Only about 5 % of the galaxies surveyed have been found to be truly isolated ; however , these isolated formations may have interacted and even merged with other galaxies in the past , and may still be orbited by smaller , satellite galaxies . Isolated galaxies can produce stars at a higher rate than normal , as their gas is not being stripped by other nearby galaxies .
On the largest scale , the Universe is continually expanding , resulting in an average increase in the separation between individual galaxies ( see Hubble 's law ) . Associations of galaxies can overcome this expansion on a local scale through their mutual gravitational attraction . These associations formed early in the Universe , as clumps of dark matter pulled their respective galaxies together . Nearby groups later merged to form larger @-@ scale clusters . This on @-@ going merger process ( as well as an influx of infalling gas ) heats the inter @-@ galactic gas within a cluster to very high temperatures , reaching 30 – 100 megakelvins . About 70 – 80 % of the mass in a cluster is in the form of dark matter , with 10 – 30 % consisting of this heated gas and the remaining few percent of the matter in the form of galaxies .
Most galaxies in the Universe are gravitationally bound to a number of other galaxies . These form a fractal @-@ like hierarchical distribution of clustered structures , with the smallest such associations being termed groups . A group of galaxies is the most common type of galactic cluster , and these formations contain a majority of the galaxies ( as well as most of the baryonic mass ) in the Universe . To remain gravitationally bound to such a group , each member galaxy must have a sufficiently low velocity to prevent it from escaping ( see Virial theorem ) . If there is insufficient kinetic energy , however , the group may evolve into a smaller number of galaxies through mergers .
Clusters of galaxies consist of hundreds to thousands of galaxies bound together by gravity . Clusters of galaxies are often dominated by a single giant elliptical galaxy , known as the brightest cluster galaxy , which , over time , tidally destroys its satellite galaxies and adds their mass to its own .
Superclusters contain tens of thousands of galaxies , which are found in clusters , groups and sometimes individually . At the supercluster scale , galaxies are arranged into sheets and filaments surrounding vast empty voids . Above this scale , the Universe appears to be the same in all directions ( isotropic and homogeneous ) .
The Milky Way galaxy is a member of an association named the Local Group , a relatively small group of galaxies that has a diameter of approximately one megaparsec . The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are the two brightest galaxies within the group ; many of the other member galaxies are dwarf companions of these two galaxies . The Local Group itself is a part of a cloud @-@ like structure within the Virgo Supercluster , a large , extended structure of groups and clusters of galaxies centered on the Virgo Cluster . And the Virgo Supercluster itself is a part of the Pisces @-@ Cetus Supercluster Complex , a giant galaxy filament .
= = Multi @-@ wavelength observation = =
The peak radiation of most stars lies in the visible spectrum , so the observation of the stars that form galaxies has been a major component of optical astronomy . It is also a favorable portion of the spectrum for observing ionized H II regions , and for examining the distribution of dusty arms .
The dust present in the interstellar medium is opaque to visual light . It is more transparent to far @-@ infrared , which can be used to observe the interior regions of giant molecular clouds and galactic cores in great detail . Infrared is also used to observe distant , red @-@ shifted galaxies that were formed much earlier in the history of the Universe . Water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb a number of useful portions of the infrared spectrum , so high @-@ altitude or space @-@ based telescopes are used for infrared astronomy .
The first non @-@ visual study of galaxies , particularly active galaxies , was made using radio frequencies . The Earth 's atmosphere is nearly transparent to radio between 5 MHz and 30 GHz . ( The ionosphere blocks signals below this range . ) Large radio interferometers have been used to map the active jets emitted from active nuclei . Radio telescopes can also be used to observe neutral hydrogen ( via 21 cm radiation ) , including , potentially , the non @-@ ionized matter in the early Universe that later collapsed to form galaxies .
Ultraviolet and X @-@ ray telescopes can observe highly energetic galactic phenomena . Ultraviolet flares are sometimes observed when a star in a distant galaxy is torn apart from the tidal forces of a nearby black hole . The distribution of hot gas in galactic clusters can be mapped by X @-@ rays . The existence of supermassive black holes at the cores of galaxies was confirmed through X @-@ ray astronomy .
= = = Other references = = =
" Unveiling the Secret of a Virgo Dwarf Galaxy " . ESO . May 3 , 2000 . Archived from the original on 2009 @-@ 01 @-@ 09 . Retrieved January 3 , 2007 .
= Royal Rumble ( 1995 ) =
Royal Rumble ( 1995 ) was the eighth annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on January 22 , 1995 , in the USF Sun Dome located in Tampa , Florida .
The event featured five matches based on scripted storylines and the results were predetermined by the WWF . The main event was the 1995 Royal Rumble match , which Shawn Michaels won after entering first and outlasting the 29 other wrestlers for the first time in WWF history . The event also featured a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship , when Diesel defended the title against Bret Hart . The match was stopped when several other wrestlers interfered and the referee lost control of the match . Two other title matches took place ; Jeff Jarrett won the WWF Intercontinental Championship from Razor Ramon , and The 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Bob Holly won the final match in a tournament that determined the new WWF Tag Team Champions .
Several storylines from Royal Rumble 1995 were carried over to WrestleMania XI , the WWF 's next pay @-@ per @-@ view . Bam Bam Bigelow attacked National Football League Hall of Famer Lawrence Taylor , who was sitting in the crowd ; this set up a match between the two at WrestleMania . Pamela Anderson was at ringside and was supposed to accompany the winner of the Royal Rumble match to his WWF World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania . Although Shawn Michaels won the match , Anderson came to the ring at WrestleMania with Diesel . The Undertaker 's feud with Ted DiBiase 's Million Dollar Corporation also escalated , as DiBiase 's men stole the urn that was said to give The Undertaker his power . Jarrett and Ramon continued to feud for several months , and Bret Hart targeted Bob Backlund because of Backlund 's interference in the WWF World Heavyweight Championship match .
= = Background = =
The storyline behind the WWF World Heavyweight Championship match began in 1994 , when Bret Hart was feuding with his brother Owen . After Owen was unable to win the title , he helped Bob Backlund win the belt from Bret at Survivor Series 1994 . Three days after Survivor Series , Diesel faced Backlund and won the title belt . He agreed to grant a title shot to Bret Hart , who , like Diesel , was also a fan @-@ favorite .
Also at Survivor Series 1994 , Shawn Michaels and Diesel had an argument after Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel in the face . Although the pair held the WWF Tag Team Championship together , Diesel said that he did not want to team with Michaels any longer . The title was vacated , and the WWF held a tournament to determine the new champions . During the tournament , The Smoking Gunns were forced to withdraw when Bart Gunn was injured in a rodeo accident . As a result , the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Bob Holly took their place . The Gunns requested that they get a title shot after the tournament when Bart had recovered . The 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Holly advanced to the finals , as did Ted DiBiase 's team of Bam Bam Bigelow and Tatanka . The match to determine the new champions was scheduled to take place at the Royal Rumble .
The Undertaker had been feuding with DiBiase 's Million Dollar Corporation since his return to the WWF from an injury in August 1994 . During the match between The Undertaker and Yokozuna at Survivor Series 1994 , Irwin R. Schyster , one of DiBiase 's wrestlers , interfered in the match by attacking The Undertaker . The feud between The Undertaker and Schyster escalated when Schyster performed a series of vignettes in which he repossessed such items as tombstones and burial plots from people he claimed had not paid their taxes before dying . During the feud , Schyster was escorted to the ring for his matches by a group of hooded druids .
The feud between Jeff Jarrett and Razor Ramon began in late 1994 when Jarrett challenged Ramon for Ramon 's WWF Intercontinental Championship . They faced each other several times , but Jarrett was unable to win the belt . Jarrett , who portrayed an aspiring country music star , was accompanied to the ring by The Roadie , who often interfered in matches on Jarrett 's behalf .
Although no major feuds were featured in the Royal Rumble match , Baywatch star Pamela Anderson was in attendance at ringside . It was announced that she would accompany the winner of the match during his WWF World Heavyweight Championship title shot at WrestleMania XI .
= = Event = =
Prior to the live pay @-@ per @-@ view broadcast , Buck Quartermaine defeated The Brooklyn Brawler in a dark match . In the first televised match , Razor Ramon defended his WWF Intercontinental Championship against Jeff Jarrett , who was accompanied by The Roadie . Ramon used his strength to dominate the opening of the match . Jarrett gained the momentum with a series of dropkicks and then choked Ramon with a sleeper hold . Ramon ran at Jarrett but was thrown over the top rope . He hit his knee when he landed , and The Roadie then hit Ramon from behind in the knee . Ramon was unable to return to the ring , so Jarrett was awarded the match via countout . Because the championship cannot change hands on a countout , Jarrett challenged Ramon to continue the match . Ramon agreed and nearly pinned Jarrett twice . Jarrett applied the figure four leglock to apply pressure to Ramon 's injured knee . Ramon escaped the hold and attempted to perform the Razor 's Edge . He collapsed under Jarrett 's weight , however , and Jarrett pinned him to win the title .
The Undertaker faced Irwin R. Schyster in the next match . The Undertaker gained the advantage at the beginning and held it until Ted DiBiase called his druids to the ring . When The Undertaker attempted to attack Schyster from the top rope , the druids shook the ropes and caused him to fall . Schyster performed a clothesline to knock The Undertaker out of the ring , where he and the druids attacked The Undertaker . When the match returned to the ring , Schyster was in control . Both men got knocked down , however , and a druid snuck into the ring and rolled Schyster on top of The Undertaker for a pinfall attempt . The Undertaker kicked out and attempted to perform the Tombstone Piledriver . A druid interfered to prevent the move , but The Undertaker performed a chokeslam on Schyster to gain the pinfall victory . After the match , Ted DiBiase called out Corporation member King Kong Bundy to help Schyster attack The Undertaker and steal the urn , which was said to be the source of The Undertaker 's power .
The WWF World Heavyweight Championship match was next , in which Diesel defended the title against Bret Hart . Diesel began the match by clotheslining Hart , but Hart gained the advantage by focusing on injuring Diesel 's knee . He performed the figure four leglock twice before attacking Diesel outside the ring . Diesel regained the advantage by using his size and strength to throw Hart and perform power moves to wear him down . Hart tied Diesel 's legs to the ring post with a piece of tape and kicked him repeatedly . Diesel recovered and performed the Jackknife power bomb on Hart . Before the referee could count the pinfall , Shawn Michaels ran to the ring and attacked Diesel . The referee ordered the match to continue , and the match went back and forth until Hart used the Sharpshooter submission hold to place pressure on Diesel 's injured leg . Owen Hart interfered by attacking Bret , but the match was ordered to continue . Bret Hart and Diesel brawled until Bret rolled Diesel up for a pinfall . The referee was knocked unconscious , and Michaels , Jarrett , and The Roadie came to the ring to attack Diesel . Meanwhile , Owen Hart and Bob Backlund attacked Bret Hart . Because the referee could not control the match , it was declared a draw and Diesel retained his championship .
Bob Holly and the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid faced Bam Bam Bigelow and Tatanka next in the final match of the WWF Tag Team Championship tournament . Tatanka began the match by using his strength against Holly , but Holly soon turned the match around by performing a hurricanrana throw . Bigelow used his strength against his opponents , but the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid performed a hurricanrana on him as well . Bigelow regained the advantage by kicking the Kid in the back of the head and controlled the match until the Kid threw him out of the ring . Bigelow and Tatanka turned the match around again , using power moves to wear down their opponents . At one point , Bigelow held the Kid for Tatanka to attack , but Tatanka accidentally hit Bigelow instead . The match ended in a similar manner , as Tatanka knocked Bigelow off the top rope when Bigelow attempted to perform a moonsault . The 1 – 2 – 3 Kid pinned Bigelow to win the match and the WWF Tag Team Championship . After the match , the crowd heckled Bigelow . He responded by pushing retired NFL player Lawrence Taylor , who was at ring side , laughing about Bigelow 's loss .
In the main event , Shawn Michaels was the first entrant in the Royal Rumble match , while Davey Boy Smith was the second participant . Every 60 seconds , another wrestler entered the match . As Owen Hart made his way to the ring , he was attacked by his brother Bret . As a result of the attack , Owen was quickly eliminated from the match when Smith , his brother @-@ in @-@ law , threw him out of the ring . King Kong Bundy and Mabel , the two biggest competitors in the match , fought until Mabel eliminated Bundy . Lex Luger then entered the match and eliminated Mabel . Bret Hart returned later and attacked Bob Backlund as Backlund was about to enter the match . This enabled Luger to eliminate Backlund quickly , after which Backlund and Bret continued to fight . The final four participants remaining in the ring were Michaels , Smith , Luger , and Crush . Luger attacked Crush but was eliminated by Michaels . Crush then convinced Michaels to work with him but then turned on Michaels by attacking him . Michaels scratched Crush 's eyes , which enabled Smith to eliminate Crush . Michaels and Smith , the first two entrants , were the last two wrestlers remaining . Smith threw Michaels over the top rope and began to celebrate . Michaels , who had only touched the floor with one foot , was not eliminated from the match , however . He attacked Smith from behind and threw him out of the ring to become the first wrestler to win the Royal Rumble after entering first . Michaels celebrated in the ring with Pamela Anderson .
= = Aftermath = =
The day after Royal Rumble , the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid and Bob Holly faced The Smoking Gunns . The Gunns won the match and the WWF Tag Team Championship . By losing the belts after one day , the Kid and Holly tied what was at that time the record for the shortest tag team title reign in WWF history .
Razor Ramon faced Jeff Jarrett at WrestleMania XI in a rematch for the WWF Intercontinental Championship . To counteract The Roadie 's interference , Ramon was accompanied by his friend the 1 – 2 – 3 Kid . Ramon won the match by disqualification but did not win the title . On May 19 , 1995 , Ramon defeated Jarrett in a ladder match to regain the championship , but Jarrett won the belt back three days later .
The Undertaker faced King Kong Bundy at WrestleMania XI . Although The Undertaker won the match , Kama , another member of DiBiase 's Corporation , took possession of the urn and melted it down into a necklace . The Undertaker defeated Kama in dark matches at In Your House 1 and In Your House 2 . They faced each other in a casket match at SummerSlam 1995 , which The Undertaker won to end the feud .
Bret Hart wrestled an " I Quit " match against Bob Backlund at WrestleMania . Hart won the match after the referee determined that Backlund had conceded defeat . Bret 's feud with Owen was not featured again , but the two did not reunite until they formed The Hart Foundation in 1997 with brothers @-@ in law Davey Boy Smith and Jim Neidhart .
Despite Michaels winning the right to be escorted by Pamela Anderson to his WWF World Heavyweight Championship match against Diesel at WrestleMania , Anderson came to the ring with Diesel instead . Michaels 's bodyguard , Sycho Sid , attempted to interfere on Michaels 's behalf but ultimately helped Diesel retain the title . Diesel offered Michaels a rematch , and Michaels told Sid that he would not be needed in the upcoming match . Upset with Michaels , Sid attacked Michaels until Diesel came to Michaels 's rescue . Diesel and Michaels became allies once again and teamed up to win the WWF Tag Team Championship later that year .
Bam Bam Bigelow challenged Lawrence Taylor to a match , which Taylor accepted after initially refusing . Diesel trained Taylor , who beat Bigelow at WrestleMania XI . Embarrassed , Bigelow challenged Diesel to a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . Tatanka was at ringside for the match ; he turned on Bigelow and caused him to lose . Bigelow attacked Tatanka after the match , which led to Sid , a new addition to the Corporation , to come to Tatanka 's defense . This led to a tag team match at King of the Ring 1995 , where Diesel and Bigelow defeated Tatanka and Sid .
= = = Reception = = =
The event was attended by 10 @,@ 000 fans , which is approximately the maximum capacity of the USF Sun Dome . This attendance figure was down from the previous year 's attendance of 14 @,@ 500 , but higher than the following year , when 9 @,@ 600 people attended Royal Rumble 1996 . From the ticket sales , the WWF gained $ 140 @,@ 000 ; again , this was lower than in 1994 but higher than in 1996 . The pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate of 1 @.@ 0 , however , was higher than 1994 's 0 @.@ 9 figure but lower than 1996 's buyrate of 1 @.@ 1 .
Current WWE wrestler Cody Rhodes has stated that Michaels 's win , in which he was the first wrestler to enter the ring in the # 1 position and win the match , is his favorite ending to a Royal Rumble match . Reviewing the event for Online Onslaught , columnist Adam Gutschmidt evaluated the event as acceptable but not exceptional . He found the Royal Rumble match to be the best part of the show , although he claimed that the WWF 's switch to having wrestlers enter every 60 seconds hurt the match . He also found the inconclusive ending to the WWF World Heavyweight Championship match frustrating and rated the match between The Undertaker and Irwin R. Schyster as a " dud " . The event has also been rated by customers at Amazon.com , who have given the event four and a half out of five stars .
Royal Rumble 1995 was released on VHS in North America by Coliseum Video on March 8 , 1995 . It was released in the United Kingdom in VHS format on May 8 , 1995 . The event , packaged together with Royal Rumble 1996 , was also released on DVD in the United Kingdom as part of the WWE Tagged Classics line on April 17 , 2006 . On October 15 , 2007 , WWE released the event in the United Kingdom as part of the Royal Rumble Complete Anthology DVD set .
= = Results = =
= = = Tournament bracket = = =
The tournament was held between December 1994 and January 22 , 1995 . The tournament brackets were :
= = = Royal Rumble entrances and eliminations = = =
A new entrant came out approximately every minute .
Shawn Michaels was the first superstar to win the Royal Rumble from the # 1 entry . Also , it was the first time that the first two entries were the final two in the match .
= Subfossil lemur =
Subfossil lemurs are lemurs from Madagascar that are represented by recent ( subfossil ) remains dating from nearly 26 @,@ 000 years ago ( from the late Pleistocene until the Holocene ) to approximately 560 years ago . They include both living and extinct species , although the term more frequently refers to the extinct giant lemurs . The diversity of subfossil lemur communities was greater than that of present @-@ day lemur communities , ranging from as high as 20 or more species per location , compared with 10 to 12 species today . Extinct species are estimated to have ranged in size from slightly over 10 kg ( 22 lb ) to roughly 160 kg ( 350 lb ) . Even the subfossil remains of living species are larger and more robust than the skeletal remains of modern specimens . The subfossil sites found around most of the island demonstrate that most giant lemurs had wide distributions and that ranges of living species have contracted significantly since the arrival of humans .
Despite their size , the giant lemurs shared many features with living lemurs , including rapid development , poor day vision , relatively small brains , and lack of male dominance . They also had many distinct traits among lemurs , including a tendency to rely on terrestrial locomotion , slow climbing , and suspension instead of leaping , as well as a greater dependence on leaf @-@ eating and seed predation . The giant lemurs likely filled ecological niches now left vacant , particularly seed dispersal for plants with large seeds . There were three distinct families of giant lemur , including the Palaeopropithecidae ( sloth lemurs ) , Megaladapidae ( koala lemurs ) , and Archaeolemuridae ( monkey lemurs ) . Two other types were more closely related and similar in appearance to living lemurs : the giant aye @-@ aye and Pachylemur , a genus of " giant ruffed lemurs " .
Subfossil remains were first discovered on Madagascar in the 1860s , but giant lemur species were not formally described until the 1890s . The paleontological interest sparked by the initial discoveries resulted in an overabundance of new species names , the allocation of bones to the wrong species , and inaccurate reconstructions during the early 20th century . Discoveries waned during the mid @-@ 20th century , although paleontological work resumed in the 1980s and resulted in the discovery of new species and a new genus . Research has recently focused on diets , lifestyle , social behavior , and other aspects of biology . The remains of the subfossil lemurs are relatively recent , with all or most species dating within the last 2 @,@ 000 years . Humans first arrived on Madagascar around that time and likely played a role in the demise of the lemurs and the other megafauna that once existed on the large island . Although hunting and habitat change have been investigated as the primary cause of their extinction , a mosaic of complex interactions between multiple factors is now seen as the ultimate cause of their disappearance . Yet oral traditions and recent sightings by Malagasy villagers are still reported , suggesting either lingering populations or very recent extinctions .
= = Diversity = =
= = = Extinct giant lemurs = = =
Until recently , giant lemurs existed in Madagascar . Although they are only represented by subfossil remains , they were modern forms , having adaptations unlike those seen in lemurs today , and are counted as part of the rich lemur diversity that has evolved in isolation for up to 60 million years . All 17 extinct lemurs were larger than the extant forms , including the largest living lemurs , the indri ( Indri indri ) and diademed sifaka ( Propithecus diadema ) , which weigh up to 9 @.@ 5 kg ( 21 lb ) . The estimated weights for the subfossil lemurs have varied . Techniques used for these weight estimations include the comparison of skull lengths , tooth size , the head diameter of the femur , and more recently , the area of cortical bone ( hard bone ) in long bones ( such as the humerus ) . Despite the variations in the size estimates for some species , all subfossil lemurs were larger than living species , weighing 10 kg ( 22 lb ) or more , and one species may have weighed as much as 160 kg ( 350 lb ) .
All but one species , the giant aye @-@ aye , are thought to have been active during the day . Not only were they unlike the living lemurs in both size and appearance , they also filled ecological niches that no longer exist or are now left unoccupied . Their remains have been found in most parts of the island , except for the eastern rainforests and the Sambirano domain ( seasonal moist forests in the northwest of the island ) , where no subfossil sites are known . Radiocarbon dates for subfossil lemur remains range from approximately 26 @,@ 000 years BP ( for Megaladapis in northern Madagascar at the Ankarana Massif ) to around 500 years BP ( for Palaeopropithecus in the southwest ) .
= = = = Characteristics = = = =
All of the extinct subfossil lemurs , including the smallest species ( Pachylemur , Mesopropithecus , and the giant aye @-@ aye ) , were larger than the lemur species alive today . The largest species were among the largest primates ever to have evolved . Due to their larger size , the extinct subfossil lemurs have been compared to large @-@ bodied anthropoids ( monkeys and apes ) , yet they more closely resemble the small @-@ bodied lemurs . Like other lemurs , the subfossil lemurs did not exhibit appreciable differences in body or canine tooth size between males and females ( sexual dimorphism ) . This suggests that they , too , either exhibited female social dominance or lacked male dominance , possibly exhibiting the same levels of agonism ( aggressive competition ) seen in extant lemurs . Like other lemurs , they had smaller brains than comparably sized anthropoids . Most species also had a unique strepsirrhine dental trait , called a toothcomb , which is used for grooming . Even tooth development and weaning was rapid compared to similarly sized anthropoids , suggesting faster sexual maturity of their offspring . Most subfossil lemurs also had high retinal summation ( sensitivity to low light ) , resulting in poor day vision ( low visual acuity ) compared to anthropoids . This has been demonstrated by the ratio between their relatively small orbits ( eye sockets ) and the relative size of their optic canal , which is comparable to that of other lemurs , not diurnal anthropoids .
Although these traits are shared among both living and extinct lemurs , they are uncommon among primates in general . Two prevailing hypotheses to explain these unique adaptations are the energy frugality hypothesis by Patricia Wright ( 1999 ) and the evolutionary disequilibrium hypothesis by Carel van Schaik and Peter M. Kappeler ( 1996 ) . The energy frugality hypothesis expanded on Alison Jolly 's energy conservation hypotheses by claiming that most lemur traits not only help conserve energy , but also maximize the use of highly limited resources , enabling them to live in severely seasonal environments with low productivity . The evolutionary disequilibrium hypothesis postulated that living lemurs are in the process of evolving to fill open ecological niches left by the recently extinct subfossil lemurs . For example , small nocturnal prosimians are typically nocturnal and monogamous , while the larger living lemurs are generally active both day and night ( cathemeral ) and live in small groups ( gregarious ) . Cathemerality and increased gregariousness might indicate that the larger living lemurs are evolving to fill the role of the giant lemurs , which were thought to be diurnal ( day @-@ living ) and more monkey @-@ like in behavior . Since most giant subfossil lemurs have been shown to share many of the unique traits of their living counterparts , and not those of monkeys , Godfrey et al . ( 2003 ) argued that the energy frugality hypothesis seems to best explain both living and extinct lemur adaptations .
Despite the similarities , subfossil lemurs had several distinct differences from their lemur relatives . In addition to being larger , the subfossil lemurs were more dependent on leaves and seeds in their diet , rather than fruit . They utilized slow climbing , hanging , and terrestrial quadrupedalism for locomotion , rather than vertical clinging and leaping and arboreal quadrupedalism . Also , all but one of them — the giant aye @-@ aye — are assumed to have been diurnal ( due to their body size and small orbits ) , whereas many small lemurs are nocturnal and medium @-@ sized are cathemeral .
Their skeletons suggest that most subfossil lemurs were tree @-@ dwellers , adapted for living in forests and possibly limited to such habitats . Unlike some of the living species , the subfossil lemurs lacked adaptations for leaping . Instead , suspension , used by some indriids and ruffed lemurs , was extensively used in some lineages . Although living lemurs are known to visit the ground to varying extents , only the extinct archaeolemurids exhibit adaptations for semiterrestrial locomotion . Due to the size of the extinct subfossil lemurs , all were likely to travel on the ground between trees . They had shorter , more robust limbs , heavily built axial skeletons ( trunks ) , and large heads and are thought to have shared the common lemur trait of low basal metabolic rates , making them slow @-@ moving . Studies of their semicircular canals confirm this assumption , showing that koala lemurs moved slower than orangutans , monkey lemurs were less agile than Old World monkeys , and sloth lemurs exhibited slow movements like those of lorises and sloths .
= = = = Types = = = =
Sloth lemurs
The sloth lemurs ( family Palaeopropithecidae ) were the most species @-@ rich group of the subfossil lemurs , with four genera and eight species . The common name is due to strong similarities in morphology with arboreal sloths , or in the case of Archaeoindris , with giant ground sloths . They ranged in size from some of the smallest of the subfossil lemurs , such as Mesopropithecus , weighing as little as 10 kg ( 22 lb ) , to the largest , Archaeoindris , weighing approximately 160 kg ( 350 lb ) . Their characteristic curved finger and toe bones ( phalanges ) suggest slow suspensory movement , similar to that of an orangutan or a loris , making them some of the most specialized mammals for suspension . Their day vision was very poor , and they had relatively small brains and short tails . Their diet consisted mostly of leaves , seeds , and fruit , although dental wear analysis suggests they were primarily folivorous seed @-@ predators .
Koala lemurs
The koala lemurs of the family Megaladapidae most closely resemble marsupial koalas from Australia . According to genetic evidence they were most closely related to the family Lemuridae , although for many years they were paired with the sportive lemurs of the family Lepilemuridae due to similarities in their skulls and molar teeth . They were slow climbers and had long forelimbs and powerful grasping feet , possibly using them for suspension . Koala lemurs ranged in size from an estimated 45 to 85 kg ( 99 to 187 lb ) , making them as large as a male orangutan or a female gorilla . They had poor day vision , short tails , lacked permanent upper incisors , and had a reduced toothcomb . Their diet generally consisted of leaves , with some species being specialized folivores and others having a broader diet , possibly including tough seeds .
Monkey lemurs
Monkey lemurs , or baboon lemurs , share similarities with macaques , although they have also been compared to baboons . Members of the family Archaeolemuridae , they were the most terrestrial of the lemurs , with short , robust forelimbs and relatively flat digits . Although they spent a lot of time on the ground , they were only semi @-@ terrestrial , spending time in trees to feed and sleep . They were heavy @-@ bodied and ranged in size from approximately 13 to 35 kg ( 29 to 77 lb ) . They had relatively good day vision and large brains compared with other lemurs . Their robust jaws and specialized teeth suggest a diet of hard objects , such as nuts and seeds , yet other evidence , including fecal pellets , suggests they may have had a more varied diet , including leaves , fruit , and animal matter ( omnivory ) . Dental wear analysis has shed some light on this dietary mystery , suggesting that monkey lemurs had a more eclectic diet , while using tough seeds as a fall @-@ back food item . Within the family , the genus Archaeolemur was the most widespread in distribution , resulting in hundreds of subfossil specimens , and may have been one of the last subfossil lemurs to die out .
Giant aye @-@ aye
An extinct , giant relative of the living aye @-@ aye , the giant aye @-@ aye shared at least two of the aye @-@ aye 's bizarre traits : ever @-@ growing central incisors and an elongated , skinny middle finger . These shared features suggest a similar lifestyle and diet , focused on percussive foraging ( tapping with the skinny digit and listening for reverberation from hollow spots ) of defended resources , such as hard nuts and invertebrate larvae concealed inside decaying wood . Weighing as much as 14 kg ( 31 lb ) , it was between two @-@ and @-@ half and five times the size of living aye @-@ aye . Alive when humans came to Madagascar , its teeth were collected and drilled to make necklaces .
Pachylemur
The only extinct member of the family Lemuridae , the genus Pachylemur contains two species that closely resembled living ruffed lemurs . Sometimes referred to as " giant ruffed lemurs " , they were approximately three times larger than ruffed lemurs , weighing between 10 and 13 kg ( 22 and 29 lb ) . Despite their size , they were arboreal quadrupeds , possibly utilizing more suspensory behavior and cautious climbing than their sister taxon . Their skull and teeth were similar to those of ruffed lemurs , suggesting a diet high in fruit and possibly some leaves . The rest of its skeleton ( postcrania ) was much more robust and their vertebrae had distinctly different features .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
Determining the phylogeny of subfossil lemurs has been problematic because studies of morphology , developmental biology , and molecular phylogenetics have sometimes yielded conflicting results . All studies agree that the family Daubentoniidae ( including the giant aye @-@ aye ) diverged first from the other lemurs at least 60 million years ago . The relationship between the remaining families has been less clear . Morphological , developmental , and molecular studies have offered support for lumping the four sloth lemur genera of the family Palaeopropithecidae with the family Indriidae ( including the indri , sifakas , and woolly lemurs ) . The placement of family Megaladapidae has been more controversial , with similarities in teeth and skull features suggesting a close relationship with family Lepilemuridae ( sportive lemurs ) . Molecular data , instead , indicate a closer relationship to family Lemuridae . Likewise , a relationship between family Archaeolemuridae and family Lemuridae has been suggested , based on morphological and developmental traits , yet molar morphology , the number of teeth in the specialized toothcomb , and molecular analysis support a closer relationship with the indriid – sloth lemur clade . Other subfossil lemurs , including the giant aye @-@ aye and Pachylemur , are more easily placed due to strong similarities with existing lemurs ( the aye @-@ aye and ruffed lemurs , respectively ) .
= = = Living species = = =
Subfossil sites in Madagascar have yielded the remains of more than just extinct lemurs . Extant lemur remains have also been found , and radiocarbon dating has demonstrated that both types of lemur lived at the same time . Furthermore , in some cases living species are locally extinct for the area in which their subfossil remains were found . Because subfossil sites are found across most of the island , with the most notable exception being the eastern rainforest , both paleocommunity composition and paleodistributions can be determined . Geographic ranges have contracted for numerous species , including the indri , greater bamboo lemur , and ruffed lemurs . For instance , subfossil remains of the indri have been found in marsh deposits near Ampasambazimba in the Central Highlands and in other deposits in both central and northern Madagascar , demonstrating a much larger range than the small region on the east coast that it currently occupies . Even the greater bamboo lemur , a critically endangered species restricted to a small portion of the south @-@ central eastern rainforest , has undergone significant range contraction since the mid @-@ Holocene , with subfossil remains from Ankarana Massif in the far north of Madagascar dating to 2565 BCE ± 70 years . Combined with finds from other subfossil sites , data suggests that it used to range across the northern , northwestern , central , and eastern parts of the island . It is unclear whether these locations were wetter in the past or whether distinct subpopulations or subspecies occupied the drier forests , much like modern diversity of sifakas .
In addition to previously having expanded geographic ranges , extant subfossil lemurs exhibited significant variation in size . Researchers have noted that subfossil bones of living species are more robust and generally larger than their present @-@ day counterparts . The relative size of living species may be related to regional ecological factors , such as resource seasonality , a trend that is still observable today , where individuals from the spiny forests are , on average , smaller than individuals from the southwestern succulent woodlands or the dry deciduous forests .
= = Ecology = =
As a group , the lemurs of Madagascar are extremely diverse , having evolved in isolation and radiated over the past 40 to 60 million years to fill many ecological niches normally occupied by other primates . In the recent past , their diversity was significantly greater , with 17 extinct species sharing body proportions and specializations with lorises and various non @-@ primates , such as tree sloths , giant ground sloths , koalas , and striped possums ( genus Dactylopsila ) . Although the diversity of lemur communities today can be as high as 10 to 12 species per region , communities of 20 or more lemur species existed as recently as 1 @,@ 000 years ago in areas that now have no lemurs at all . Just like living species , many of the extinct species shared overlapping ranges with closely related species ( sympatry ) through niche differentiation ( resource partitioning ) . Among all the late Quaternary assemblages of megafauna , only Madagascar was dominated by large primates .
Although anatomical evidence suggests that even the large , extinct species were adapted to tree @-@ climbing , some habitats , including gallery forests and the spiny forests of southern Madagascar , in which they occurred would not have allowed them to be strictly arboreal . Even today , most lemur species will visit the ground to cross open areas , suggesting that the extinct species did the same . Monkey lemurs ( family Archaeolemuridae ) , including Archaeolemur majori and Hadropithecus stenognathus , have been reconstructed as being primarily terrestrial . In contrast , the sloth lemurs ( family Palaeopropithecidae ) were highly arboreal despite the large size of some species .
Species of both extinct and living ( extant ) lemur vary in size based on habitat conditions , despite their differences in niche preference . Within related groups , larger species tend to inhabit wetter , more productive habitats , while smaller sister taxa are found in drier , less productive habitats . This pattern suggests that populations of both living and extinct lemur species had become geographically isolated by differences in habitat and evolved in isolation due to varying primary production within different ecosystems . Thermoregulation may also have played a role in the evolution of their increased body size . Yet despite this pressure to specialize and differentiate , some of the extinct subfossil lemurs , such as Archaeolemur , may have had island @-@ wide distributions during the Holocene , unlike the living lemurs . If this is the case , it may suggest that some larger lemurs might have been more tolerant to regional differences in ecology than living lemurs .
= = = Diet = = =
Research on subfossil lemur diets , particularly in southern and southwestern Madagascar , has indicated that ecological communities have been significantly affected by their recent extinction . Many extinct subfossil lemurs were large @-@ bodied leaf @-@ eaters ( folivores ) , seed predators , or both . Today , leaf @-@ eating along with seed predation is only seen in mid @-@ sized lemurs , and is far less common than it was in the past . Strict folivory is also less common , now found primarily in small lemurs . In certain cases , subfossil lemurs , such as the sloth lemurs and koala lemurs , may have used leaves as an important fallback food , whereas other species , such as the monkey lemurs and the giant aye @-@ aye , specialized on structurally defended resources , such as hard seeds and wood @-@ boring insect larvae . Last , Pachylemur was primarily a fruit eater ( frugivorous ) . Subfossil lemur diets have been reconstructed using analytical tools , including techniques to compare tooth anatomy , structure , and wear ; biogeochemistry ( analysis of isotope levels , like carbon @-@ 13 ) ; and the dissection of fecal pellets associated with subfossil remains .
The diets of most subfossil lemurs , most notably Palaeopropithecus and Megaladapis , consisted primarily of C3 plants , which use a form of photosynthesis that results in higher water loss through transpiration . Other subfossil lemurs , such as Hadropithecus and Mesopropithecus , fed on CAM and C4 plants , which use more water @-@ efficient forms of photosynthesis . Fruit and animal matter was more common in the diets of subfossil lemurs including Pachylemur , Archaeolemur , and the giant aye @-@ aye . In southern and southwestern Madagascar , the subfossil lemurs of the spiny forests generally favored the C3 plants over the more abundant CAM plants , although closely related sympatric species may have fed upon the two types of plants in different ratios , allowing each to divide resources and coexist . Since plants produce defenses against leaf @-@ eating animals , the extensive use of spines by plants in the spiny forests suggest that they evolved to cope with leaf @-@ eating lemurs , large and small .
= = = Seed dispersal = = =
Giant subfossil lemurs are thought to have also played a significant role in seed dispersal , possibly targeting species that did not attract the seed dispersal services of the extinct elephant birds . Biogeochemistry studies have shown that they may have been the primary seed dispersers for the endemic and native C3 trees in the spiny forests . Terrestrial species may even have dispersed seeds for small bushes in addition to tall trees . Seed dispersal can involve passing seeds through the gut ( endozoochory ) or attaching the seeds to the animal 's body ( epizoochory ) , and both processes probably occurred with subfossil lemurs . Seeds from Uncarina species embed themselves in lemur fur , and likely did the same with subfossil lemurs . Seed dispersal biology is known for very few species in the spiny forest , including genera of plants suspected of depending on giant lemurs , such as Adansonia , Cedrelopsis , Commiphora , Delonix , Diospyros , Grewia , Pachypodium , Salvadora , Strychnos , and Tamarindus . For example , Delonix has edible pods that are rich in protein , and Adansonia fruits have a nutritious pulp and large seeds that may have been dispersed by Archaeolemur majori or Pachylemur insignis .
Seed size may be a limiting factor for some plant species , since their seeds are too large for living ( extant ) lemurs . The common brown lemur ( Eulemur fulvus ) can swallow seeds 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) in diameter , while the black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur ( Varecia variegata ) is capable of swallowing seeds up to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . A large lemur , such as Pachylemur , which was more than twice the size of today 's ruffed lemurs , could probably swallow even larger seeds . Seed dispersal limitations tied to megafaunal extinction are exhibited by Commiphora guillaminii . At present , this tree species has a short dispersal distance , but its genetics indicate higher levels of regional gene flow in the past , based on comparisons with a closely related species in Africa that still has its seeds dispersed by large animals .
= = Discovery and research = =
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album In the Court of the Crimson King ( 1969 ) , has been seen as an important link between psychedelia and progressive rock . While some bands such as Hawkwind maintained an explicitly psychedelic course into the 1970s , most bands dropped the psychedelic elements in favour of embarking on wider experimentation . As German bands from the psychedelic movement moved away from their psychedelic roots and placed increasing emphasis on electronic instrumentation , these groups , including Kraftwerk , Tangerine Dream , Can and Faust , developed a distinctive brand of electronic rock , known as kosmische musik , or in the British press as " Krautrock " . Their adoption of electronic synthesisers , along with the musical styles explored by Brian Eno in his keyboard playing with Roxy Music , had a major influence on subsequent development of electronic rock . The incorporation of jazz styles into the music of bands like Soft Machine and Can , also contributed to the development of the emerging jazz rock sound of bands such as Colosseum .
Psychedelic rock , with its distorted guitar sound , extended solos , and adventurous compositions , was an important bridge between blues @-@ oriented rock and the later emergence of the heavy metal genre . Two former guitarists with the Yardbirds , Jeff Beck and Jimmy Page , moved on to form key acts in the new blues rock @-@ heavy metal genre , The Jeff Beck Group and Led Zeppelin , respectively . Other major pioneers of the heavy metal genre had begun as blues @-@ based psychedelic bands , including Black Sabbath , Deep Purple , Judas Priest and UFO .
Psychedelic music also contributed to the origins of glam rock . In 1970 , when Marc Bolan moved away from his psychedelic folk style and formed the rock band T. Rex , he became the first " glam " rock star . From 1971 , David Bowie moved on from his early psychedelic explorations to develop his Ziggy Stardust persona , which incorporated elements of professional make @-@ up , mime and performance into his act . Psychedelic influences lasted a little longer in pop music , stretching into the early 1970s and playing a major part in the creation of Bubblegum pop . Similarly , psychedelic soul continued into the early 1970s , and its sounds were incorporated into funk music and eventually became part of the disco music style .
= = = = Neo @-@ psychedelia = = = =
Neo @-@ psychedelia ( or acid punk ) is a diverse subgenre of alternative / indie rock that originated in the 1970s as an outgrowth of the British post @-@ punk scene . Its practitioners drew from the unusual sounds of 1960s psychedelic music , either updating or copying the approaches from that era . Neo @-@ psychedelia may include forays into psychedelic pop , jangly guitar rock , heavily distorted free @-@ form jams , or recording experiments .
= = = = Hip hop = = = =
Psychedelic hip hop emerged at the end of the 1980s as rappers began to sample mellower grooves , with De La Soul 's debut album 3 Feet High and Rising ( 1989 ) . White rappers Beastie Boys double album Paul 's Boutique ( 1989 ) moved towards a more sophisticated sound that incorporated diverse influences , including Curtis Mayfield and Pink Floyd . In the 1990s there was considerable experimentation and cross @-@ fertilisation between psychedelia and rap . The Jungle Brothers merged hip hop and acid house on " I 'll House You " ( 1990 ) and A Tribe Called Quest used samples of jazz and Lou Reed on " I Left My Wallet in El Segundo " ( 1990 ) . Digital Underground incorporated elements of sex , science fiction and druggy in @-@ jokes of P @-@ Funk into their stage shows , while Arrested Development were influenced by Sly and the Family Stone . Other acts influenced by psychedelia included Digable Planets , Divine Styler and Cypress Hill . P.M. Dawn , an ensemble formed by brothers Attrell and Jarrett Cordes drew on diverse samples of modern pop music from the Beatles , through Sly and the Family Stone to Spandau Ballet . Their Of the Heart , of the Soul and of the Cross : The Utopian Experience ( 1991 ) and The Bliss Album ... ? ( Vibrations of Love and Anger and the Ponderance of Life and Existence ) ( 1993 ) were hits in the US and UK and crossed over into the rave scene . From the late 1990s other artists working in this area included RZA , The Roots , D 'Angelo and Erykah Badu .
= = = = Electronic music = = = =
Rave music may either refer to the late 1980s / early 1990s genres of house , acid house and techno , the first genres of music in the world to be played at raves , or any other genre of electronic dance music that may be played at a rave . The genre " rave " , also known as " hardcore " by early ravers , first appeared amongst the UK acid movement during the late 1980s at warehouse parties and other underground venues , as well as on UK pirate radio stations . The genre would develop into oldschool hardcore , which lead onto newer forms of rave music such as drum and bass and 2 @-@ step , as well as other hardcore techno genres , such as gabber , hardstyle and happy hardcore . In the late 1980s , rave culture began to filter through from English expatriates and disc jockeys who would visit Continental Europe . American raves began in the 1990s in New York City .
= = = = = Acid house = = = = =
Acid house originated in the mid @-@ 1980s in the house music style of Chicago DJs like DJ Pierre , Adonis , Farley Jackmaster Funk and Phuture , the last of which coined the term on his " Acid Trax " ( 1987 ) . It mixed elements of house with the " squelchy " sounds and deep basslines produced by the Roland TB @-@ 303 synthesizer . As singles began to reach the UK the sound was re @-@ created , beginning in small warehouse parties held in London in 1986 – 87 . During 1988 in the Second Summer of Love it hit the mainstream as thousands of clubgoers travelled to mass raves . The genre then began to penetrate the British pop charts with hits for M / A / R / R / S , S 'Express , and Technotronic by the early 1990s , before giving way to the popularity of trance music .
= = = = = Trance = = = = =
Trance music originated in the German techno and hardcore scenes of the early 1990s . It emphasized brief and repeated synthesizer lines with minimal rhythmic changes and occasional synthesizer atmospherics , with the aim of putting listeners into a trance @-@ like state . Derived from acid house and techno music , it developed in Germany and the Netherlands with singles including " Energy Flash " by Joey Beltram and " The Ravesignal " by CJ Bolland . This was followed by releases by Robert Leiner , Sun Electric , Aphex Twin and most influentially the techno @-@ trance released by the Harthouse label , including the much emulated " Acperience 1 " ( 1992 ) by duo Hardfloor . Having gained some popularity in the UK in the early 1990s it was eclipsed by the appearance of new genres of electronic music such as trip hop and jungle , before taking off again towards the end of the decade and beginning to dominate the clubs , with DJs including Paul Oakenfold , Pete Tong , Tony De Vit , Danny Rampling , Sasha , Judge Jules and in the US Christopher Lawrence and Kimball Collins . It soon began to fragment into a number of subgenres , including progressive trance , acid trance , goa trance , psychedelic trance , hard trance and uplifting trance .
= = = = = New rave = = = = =
In Britain in the 2000s ( decade ) , the combination of indie rock with dance @-@ punk was dubbed " new rave " in publicity for The Klaxons , and the term was picked up and applied by the NME to a number of bands , including Trash Fashion , New Young Pony Club , Hadouken ! , Late of the Pier , Test Icicles , and Shitdisco . It formed a scene with a similar visual aesthetic to earlier rave music , emphasizing visual effects : glowsticks , neon and other lights were common , and followers of the scene often dressed in extremely bright and fluorescent coloured clothing .
= Tyson Gay =
Tyson Gay ( born August 9 , 1982 ) is an American track and field sprinter , who competes in the 100 and 200 meters dash . His 100 m personal best of 9 @.@ 69 seconds is the American record and makes him tied for second fastest athlete ever , after Usain Bolt . His 200 m time of 19 @.@ 58 makes him the sixth fastest athlete in that event . He has since received a one @-@ year ban for doping .
Gay has won numerous medals in major international competitions , including a gold medal sweep of the 100 m , 200 m and 4 × 100 m relay at the 2007 Osaka World Championships . This made him the second man to win all three events at the same World Championships , after Maurice Greene ( Usain Bolt duplicated the feat two years later ) . Gay is a four @-@ time U.S. champion in the 100 m .
At the 2008 Olympic Trials , he ran a wind assisted 9 @.@ 68 seconds in the 100 m . Days after he suffered a severe hamstring injury in the 200 m trials and did not win any medals at the Beijing Olympics . His performance of 9 @.@ 71 seconds to win the 100 m silver medal in the 2009 World Championships is the fastest non @-@ winning time for the event .
In July 2013 , it was announced that Gay had tested positive for a banned substance , following which he withdrew from consideration for the World Championships in Moscow . The United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) suspended him until June 23 , 2014 , and stripped him of his silver medal from the 2012 Summer Olympics as a result .
Gay is a two @-@ time winner of the Jesse Owens Award , was the 2007 IAAF World Athlete of the Year , won Best Track and Field Athlete for Track & Field News in 2007 and for ESPY Award in 2008 and 2011 . He has also achieved multiple Men 's season 's best performances in the 100 m and 200 m .
= = Early life = =
Born on August 9 , 1982 in Lexington , Kentucky , Tyson Gay is the only son of Daisy Gay and Greg Mitchell . Athletic prowess was part of his family life ; Gay 's grandmother ran for Eastern Kentucky University and his mother Daisy also competed in her youth , though she was pregnant with her first child by her early teens . Gay 's older sister , Tiffany , was a keen sprinter and had a successful high school career . Tiffany and Tyson Gay , encouraged by their mother , raced at every opportunity , training hard at school and on the hills in their neighborhood . There was strong competition between the two , and Gay later said that his sister 's quick reaction time inspired him to improve .
= = Amateur career = =
Although Gay tended to be a slow starter on the track , he worked hard to improve and broke the Lafayette High School stadium record for the 200 meters . Under the tutelage of Ken Northington , a former 100 yard dash state champion , Gay began working on his technique and rhythm . By his senior year he was a more composed athlete and he focused on the 100 meters , winning the state championship in the event and setting a new championship record of 10 @.@ 60 s . In spite of this , his mother noted that he was not fully applying himself and was taking his abilities for granted . Gay was also not a studious child and he failed to achieve the grades needed to enter a Division I sports college . However , the Kentucky High School State Championships in June 2001 demonstrated his abilities : he won gold in the 100 m , setting a new personal best and state record with 10 @.@ 46 s , a record which stands to this day . In the 200 m he took silver with another new personal best of 21 @.@ 23 s . At a 2001 track event , Gay met trainer Lance Brauman and the college coach convinced him to attend Barton County Community College . It was here that Gay first met Jamaican sprinter Veronica Campbell @-@ Brown , and the two formed a close bond , becoming training partners .
The move to the college in Great Bend , Kansas , marked further progression for Gay : in 2002 his 100 m and 200 m times dropped to 10 @.@ 08 s and 20 @.@ 21 s respectively , albeit with wind assistance . He improved upon his legal personal bests too , recording a 100 m run of 10 @.@ 27 s and 20 @.@ 88 s in the 200 m . He also continued to outstrip the competition , winning the 100 m at the NJCAA National Championship . Returning to the NJCAA event the following year , with the wind in his favour , Gay took bronze in the 100 m with 10 @.@ 01 s and silver in the 200 m with 20 @.@ 31 s . Injuries upset the rest of 2003 for Gay , and his coach Brauman moved on to work as the sprint coach at the University of Arkansas . Gay decided to follow his tutor and he was keen to join the university 's highly successful amateur track and field program ;
= = = National debut = = =
Gay chose to study sociology and marketing , and the university environment gave the 22 @-@ year @-@ old sprinter his first opportunity to compete in NCAA events . In the NCAA Men 's Indoor Track and Field Championship in March , Gay finished fourth in the 60 meters , with 6 @.@ 63 s , and fifth in the closely fought 200 m with a time of 20 @.@ 58 s ( he missed out on second place by only two hundredths of a second ) . The NCAA Men 's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in June proved far more fruitful , however , as Gay became Arkansas ' first 100 m NCAA champion , setting a school record of 10 @.@ 06 s . Furthermore , his efforts in the event helped the Arkansas athletic team win the NCAA Championship .
The results of Gay 's first 2004 US Olympic Trials confirmed his status as a rising contender in the 100 m and 200 m events . Although he did not reach the final of either event , he reached the semis of the highly competitive 100 m and posted a 200 m personal best of 20 @.@ 07 s in the qualifying stages . A hamstring injury due to dehydration prevented Gay from competing in the 200 m final , but he did not see the trials as a missed opportunity , rather a springboard for future events : " I was really focused upon the team , had a great shot , but it was a learning experience — how to take care of my body . " The end of year Track and Field News rankings for United States sprinters showed him to be the eighth fastest 100 m runner and the fourth fastest sprinter over 200 m that year — indicative of his potential , he was younger than all those ranked ahead of him .
In Gay 's final year as an amateur athlete he started well , setting a personal best and school record of 6 @.@ 55 s in the 60 m at the 2005 Championship Series . He helped the University team to another NCAA outdoor victory , setting a new personal best of 19 @.@ 93 s in the 200 m qualifiers and placing third in the finals . Training partner and friend Wallace Spearmon took first place with 19 @.@ 91 s — his time and Gay 's 19 @.@ 93 s were the second and third @-@ fastest 200 m times in the world that year . The pair teamed up for the 4 x 100 m relay , along with Michael Grant and Omar Brown , and won with an Arkansas @-@ record @-@ breaking time of 38 @.@ 49 s . With the NCAA Championships behind him , in June 2005 Gay decided to become a professional athlete , setting his sights on a place in the US 200 m team for the Helsinki World Championships .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Debut season = = =
Upon turning professional , Gay entered the USA Outdoor Championships , where he took silver in the 200 m with 20 @.@ 06 s . He was selected for the 200 m at the 2005 World Championships in Athletics in Helsinki and finished fourth , beaten by three of his compatriots ( Justin Gatlin , Spearmon and John Capel ) . This completed the unprecedented feat of a single nation taking the top four positions at the championship event . Gay formed part of the 4 x 100 m relay team but a poor baton exchange between Mardy Scales and Leonard Scott resulted in disqualification . Later in the month , Gay briefly turned his attentions to the 100 m and scored a season 's best of 10 @.@ 08 s at the Rieti Grand Prix .
He ended the 2005 season on a positive note by winning the gold medal in the 200 m at the World Athletics Final , his first major championship title . His time of 19 @.@ 96 s was his second fastest that year and fourth fastest of any sprinter that season . Although he stated that the quality of the competition and memories of Helsinki had made him nervous beforehand , he went on to beat all three American sprinters he had lost to in the World Championships , becoming the first athlete to beat Gatlin over 200 m that season . It was not only his rival sprinters that would cause future difficulties , however , as Gay 's coach Brauman was indicted for various crimes relating to his time at Barton College and the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville . He had helped athletes gain funds and credits that they were not entitled to . Following Gay 's testimony , the courts ruled that Brauman was guilty and , as a result , Arkansas ' two NCAA titles and all of Gay 's college track times were annulled . None of the athletes were charged with any wrongdoing . Although he was imprisoned for 10 months , Brauman continued to train Gay , periodically updating him with coaching routines and techniques .
= = = Double event sprinter = = =
The 2006 athletics season saw Gay rise to the top of the rankings for the first time and become a genuine contender in the 100 m . He became the 2006 US Outdoor Champion in unfortunate circumstances : Gay originally finished second in 10 @.@ 07 s with a strong headwind , but Justin Gatlin 's first @-@ place finish was later rescinded for use of a banned substance . Gay significantly improved upon his previous 200 m personal best by over two @-@ tenths of a second at the IAAF Grand Prix in Lausanne . However , his time of 19 @.@ 70 s was not enough to beat newcomer Xavier Carter who ran the second fastest time ever with 19 @.@ 63 s . Improvements in the 100 m followed , as he won the Rethymno track meet and set another personal best with 9 @.@ 88 s . Gay scored another sub @-@ 10 second 100 m at the Stockholm Grand Prix , finishing second to Asafa Powell with a 9 @.@ 97 s , and beating Michael Johnson 's British all @-@ comers 200 m record with a 19 @.@ 84 s win in London . Gay continued to improve at the 100 m , revising his personal best to 9 @.@ 84 s at the Zürich Golden League meet , but it was not enough to beat Powell , who equaled his own world record of 9 @.@ 77 s .
Gay 's 200 m performance at the 2006 IAAF World Athletics Final in Stuttgart was the culmination of a highly successful year . He became the World Athletics Final champion with another improved personal best of 19 @.@ 68 s , making him the joint third @-@ fastest 200 m sprinter with Namibian Frankie Fredericks . Gay was pleased that Fredericks was on site to see his best equaled : " To run that time in front of Frankie is a privilege . He 's someone I admire a great deal both as an athlete and as a man . " Gay also won a bronze medal in the 100 m , finishing behind Powell and Scott . However , Gay proved himself over 100 m at the 2006 IAAF World Cup , taking gold with a 9 @.@ 88 s run . At the end of the season , with Gatlin banned from competition , Gay dominated the Track and Field News US 2006 list , having run six of the seven fastest 100 m , with Scott in third , and four of the top six 200 m times ( behind Carter and Spearmon ) . Furthermore , he was the second fastest 100 m runner in the world that year , second only to world record holder Powell . Having proven himself to be adept at both 100 and 200 m , Gay reflected upon his development as a sprinter :
= = = 2007 Osaka World Championships = = =
With Brauman still serving his sentence , Gay began working with a new coach – Olympic gold medalist Jon Drummond . Drummond was renowned for being quick off the mark , and Gay hoped that he could help improve his starting times . Gay aimed to challenge World Record holder Powell 's dominance of the 100 m event , stating : " I want this to be a rivalry . I want to step up to the plate " . His performances backed up his remarks , as he started the 2007 outdoor season with two wind @-@ assisted runs of 9 @.@ 79 s and 9 @.@ 76 s . The latter time was recorded with a wind only 0 @.@ 2 m / s over the allowed limit , and was superior to Powell 's record of 9 @.@ 77 s .
At the US National Championships he equaled his 100 m best of 9 @.@ 84 s while running into the wind . This was a meeting record and the second fastest 100 m time with a headwind after Maurice Greene 's 9 @.@ 82 s run . He followed this with a new 200 m personal best in the finals , again facing an impeding wind . His time of 19 @.@ 62 s was the second fastest ever ; only Johnson 's 19 @.@ 32 s run at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics was faster . Gay was happy with the achievement but noted that the competition was still strong : " I wasn 't thinking about any time . I was trying to get away from Spearmon as fast as I could . " After noting that he was feeling worn out , Gay had a brief recuperation period in preparation for the 2007 World Championships in Osaka , Japan . He returned to the track in Europe and , while weather conditions were poor , he won the 200 m in Lausanne with 19 @.@ 78 s and had wins at 100 m events in Sheffield and London . He relished the opportunity to face Powell at the World Championships : both sprinters were undefeated that year and Gay said that he felt ready for the challenge .
Facing each other for the first time that year , the IAAF described the 100 m final in Osaka as " the season 's most eagerly @-@ anticipated battle " . Gay won with a time of 9 @.@ 85 s , sprinting ahead of Derrick Atkins and third @-@ placed Powell to become the new 100 m world champion . Although this was the American 's first major 100 m title , he remained respectful of Powell :
Gay doubled his gold medal count in the 200 m event . He ran a new championship record time of 19 @.@ 76 s to win a second gold medal , beating Usain Bolt and Spearmon to the post . Bolt was clear to point out that he lost to the better athlete : " I got beaten by the No. 1 man in the world . For the moment , he is unbeatable . " Only Maurice Greene and Gatlin had won the sprint double at the Championships before , but Gay eyed a third gold in the 4 x 100 meters relay . The Americans faced stiff competition from the Jamaican team , which included Powell and Bolt . The Jamaicans set a national record , but it was not enough to beat the United States team , who finished in a world @-@ leading time of 37 @.@ 78 s . Gay won his third gold medal alongside Darvis Patton , Spearmon and Leroy Dixon . The triple @-@ gold haul repeated the feat achieved by Maurice Greene at the 1999 Seville World Championships and Carl Lewis in 1983 and 1987 .
Although Gay had been bullish in victory on the track , the achievement did not change him — he remained humble and appreciative to his rivals . In November he was chosen as the IAAF Male World Athlete of the Year for 2007 and in his acceptance speech he paid tribute to his peers , encouraging Powell to remain focused and saying that he highly regarded the Jamaican . He also dismissed comparisons to his forebears , commenting : " I honestly believe that I need to have the World record like some of the other great sprinters like Carl Lewis , Maurice Greene . I think that sets you apart , having medals and having the World record . " At the end of the season Gay was elected 2007 Men 's Athlete of the Year by Track and Field News ( topping the year 's list as the fastest 100 m and 200 m sprinter ) , and he won the USATF 's Harrison Dillard award as the top US male sprinter .
= = = 2008 Beijing Olympics = = =
Following Brauman 's release from prison , Gay set out preparing for the Beijing Olympics , training with both Brauman and Jon Drummond in the off @-@ season . Returning to competition in May , he continued as he had left off in 2007 : winning the 200 m in Kingston , taking gold in both sprints at the Adidas Track Classic , and finishing second in the 100 m at the Reebok Grand Prix with a 9 @.@ 85 s run . However , Gay now faced a new , emerging challenger in Usain Bolt ; at the latter event Bolt had beaten Gay with a world @-@ record @-@ setting 9 @.@ 72 s . Taking this into consideration , he realized that a world record time would be needed to beat both Bolt and Powell at the Olympics ; Gay aimed to run below 9 @.@ 70 s . With athletes running such quick times , the US Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) sought to counter claims of performance @-@ enhancing drugs use through " Project Believe " , a regular , extensive drugs testing program . The BALCO scandal and the banning of high @-@ profile athletes , including Gatlin and Marion Jones , had damaged the public 's perception of sprinting and the USADA recruited Gay to prove clean athletes could be just as successful .
The favorite for qualification in both the 100 m and 200 m at the US Olympic Trials , Gay put in a strong performance in the heats . After a misjudgement in the first round almost caused him to miss out on qualification , Gay resolved to step up his pace , and he won the 100 m quarter @-@ final with a US record @-@ setting run of 9 @.@ 77 s . Breaking Maurice Greene 's nine @-@ year @-@ old record , this made Gay the third fastest 100 m sprinter ever , after rivals Bolt and Powell . In the final the following day , Gay finished first in a wind @-@ aided 9 @.@ 68 s ( + 4 @.@ 1 m / s ) . This was the fastest ever 100 m time under any conditions , bettering the 9 @.@ 69 s record which Obadele Thompson had set 12 years earlier . The 200 m event was a significant setback for Gay as he suffered a hamstring injury in the qualifiers and was subsequently ruled out of the event for the Olympics . The injury persisted for several weeks and he dropped out of track meetings in order to recover in time for the Olympics .
Gay made his track return in Beijing but his injury had reduced his 100 m medal chances and Bolt and Powell were more favored to win the event . The much anticipated Gay , Bolt and Powell final never materialised , however , as Gay failed to qualify in the semi @-@ finals . Finishing fifth after recording 10 @.@ 05 s , Gay denied that he was still injured , but claimed the hamstring problem had upset his training schedule .
Further disappointment followed as the American 4 x 100 m relay team , with Gay as anchor , failed to qualify for the final . Darvis Patton and Gay failed to pass on the baton in the heat . Gay personally took responsibility for the dropped baton but Patton denied this was true , saying " That 's Tyson Gay . He 's a humble guy , but I know it 's my job to get the guy the baton and I didn 't do that . " After stating his desire to win four Olympic gold medals ( by adding the 400 metres to his repertoire ) earlier in the year , Gay finished the 2008 Olympics without a single medal . Having failed to reach the finals of the 100 m sprint or relay , he reflected upon his failure to make the podium in Beijing : " [ I felt the baton ] then I went to grab it and there was nothing . It 's kind of the way it 's been happening to me this Olympics . "
Gay rounded off the season in Europe , winning in the 200 m at Gateshead , but he had to withdraw from a ÅF Golden League race against Bolt and Powell due to his hamstring injury .
= = = 2009 World silver and US record = = =
Gay returned to competition after the indoor athletics season , recording a new 400 m personal best of 45 @.@ 57 seconds in May . In his first 200 m outing of the season at the Reebok Grand Prix , he set a personal best and meet record of 19 @.@ 58 seconds . This was the third fastest 200 m run ever , after Bolt and Johnson 's world record @-@ setting times . Following a wind @-@ aided ( 3 @.@ 4 m / s ) 100 m run of 9 @.@ 75 s at the US Championships , Gay stated that he could beat the world record if he improved his technique . Record holder Bolt dismissed the challenge , saying that it would be difficult for Gay as " he is more of a 200 m runner " . At the Golden Gala in July , Gay beat Asafa Powell 's 9 @.@ 88 season 's best with a 9 @.@ 77 second run , equaling his own US record . This improved upon Bolt 's previous world leading time of 9 @.@ 86 seconds .
The first event at the 2009 World Championships in August was the 100 m . After two sub @-@ 10 clockings in the preliminary rounds , Gay reached the final , along with Jamaicans Bolt and Powell . He ran a new US record of 9 @.@ 71 seconds in the race , the third @-@ fastest time in history , but even so had to settle for second place , losing his 100 m world title to Bolt , who knocked 0 @.@ 11 seconds off the world record with a run of 9 @.@ 58 seconds .
At the Shanghai Golden Grand Prix , on 20 September 2009 , Gay ran the second @-@ fastest men 's 100 m on record , winning in 9 @.@ 69 seconds , matching Usain Bolt 's winning time at the Beijing Olympics in 2008 . After beating Powell for the sixth time in Daegu , Gay stated that he would reconsider his plans for groin surgery in the off @-@ season as it was mainly a case of resolving discomfort when running , rather than a more serious injury .
= = = 2010 First Diamond League = = =
At the start of the 2010 outdoor season , Gay ran a new 400 m best time of 44 @.@ 89 seconds . This run , which improved upon his previous record by nearly seven tenths of a second , made him the first sprinter ever to run under the significant time barriers in the three sprints – under ten seconds for the 100 m , twenty seconds for the 200 m , and 45 seconds for the 400 m .
At the Great City Games in Manchester , England in May , he set his sights on breaking Tommie Smith 's 44 @-@ year @-@ old world best mark over a 200 m straight . He beat Smith 's time of 19 @.@ 5 by finishing in 19 @.@ 41 seconds – including a first 100 m of 9 @.@ 88 and a first 150 m of 14 @.@ 41 seconds . He suffered from hamstring difficulty after the run but returned to compete at the Prefontaine Classic in Eugene , Oregon in July – his first meeting of the 2010 IAAF Diamond League . Running over 200 m , he finished in 19 @.@ 76 seconds but was beaten to the line by Walter Dix , who returned from a year @-@ long hiatus . A week later he attended the British Grand Prix and , in spite of poor conditions , he gained a victory over his rival Asafa Powell with a 9 @.@ 93 @-@ second run . He set a meet record of 19 @.@ 72 seconds at the Herculis meeting in Monaco later that month , but expressed disappointment with his race execution as Yohan Blake came close to overhauling him at the finish .
The 100 m at the DN Galan meeting in Stockholm saw Gay 's first match @-@ up of the year against Bolt . He surprised the Olympic and World champion with a resounding victory , beating him with 9 @.@ 84 to Bolt 's 9 @.@ 97 seconds . This was only the second time Bolt had lost a 100 m final – the first occurring in July 2008 against Powell ( also at Stockholm Olympic Stadium ) . Gay broke Powell 's stadium record and earned a one carat diamond for the feat . Gay chose not to overstate the significance of the win , acknowledging that Bolt was far from peak fitness : " It feels great to beat Usain but deep down inside I know he is not 100 % . I look forward to beating him when he is " . With Bolt and Powell both out with injuries , Gay won unchallenged at the London Grand Prix the following week , running a world leading time of 9 @.@ 78 seconds despite poor weather . A victory at the Memorial van Damme in 9 @.@ 79 seconds earned him the first Diamond Race Trophy for the 100 m .
= = = 2011 Injury = = =
He opened his 2011 season with a run in the 150 m straight race at Manchester 's Great City Games and timed 14 @.@ 51 seconds ( the second fastest after Bolt 's 2009 run ) . His season 's best run of 9 @.@ 79 sec for the 100 m came in June in Clermont , Florida and ranked it him as the third fastest in the event that year . Gay was defeated by Steve Mullings at the adidas Grand Prix in New York – Mullings failed a doping test later that month and was banned for life . A nagging hip injury led to Gay 's withdrawal from the 2011 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships and in July he underwent acetabular labrum surgery ; almost a year passed until the next time he competed .
= = = 2012 Olympics = = =
Showing readiness for the 2012 Olympic Trials , Gay ran in a low key " B race " at the adidas Grand Prix , running ten seconds flat into a headwind . Gay qualified for the 100 metres at the 2012 Summer Olympics after finishing second at the U.S. Olympic trials with a time of 9 @.@ 86 seconds behind Justin Gatlin . Underlining his return to fitness , he won the 100 m at both the Paris and London legs of the 2012 Diamond League prior to the Olympics .
The 2012 Olympic 100 m final was the fastest ever Olympic race with seven men under ten seconds . Bolt won in 9 @.@ 63 seconds and was followed by Yohan Blake . Gay 's run of 9 @.@ 80 meant that he missed out on a bronze medal by one hundredth of a second to compatriot Justin Gatlin . Gay was visibly upset about his failure to reach the Olympic podium and cried during the post @-@ race interview , saying " I felt like I ran with the field and I just came up short " . The 4 × 100 metres relay final brought Gay his first Olympic medal and an American record time of 37 @.@ 04 seconds alongside Trell Kimmons , Gatlin and Ryan Bailey . Despite equaling the previous world record mark , the Americans took the silver medal behind Jamaica , whose team improved that record by two tenths of a second . In the last two Diamond League 100 m races he ran 9 @.@ 83 as runner @-@ up at the Athletissima meet , where Yohan Blake equalled Gay 's personal best time , and false started at the Weltklasse 100 m series final .
= = = 2013 season and failed drug test = = =
At the beginning of the 2013 season Tyson started off with a world leading time of 9 @.@ 86 seconds at the Jamaican invitational meet . At the 2013 National Championships Gay did not come away from the blocks well , but pulled away from Justin Gatlin to win his 100m semi @-@ final in a windy 9 @.@ 76 seconds . In the final , he again did not start well , but at 70 meters he pulled away to win in a World Leading time , and his 3rd fastest ever , of 9 @.@ 75 seconds with a tail wind of 1 @.@ 1 meters per second . He was .14 seconds ahead of the second place Gatlin , who ran a season best of 9 @.@ 89 seconds .
All of Gay 's 200m runs during the season were wind aided , which meant not only would he need to place in the National Championships , he would need to achieve the " A Standard " of 20 @.@ 52 seconds . In his semi @-@ final , he did surpass the standard with a run of 20 @.@ 07 , although it was another wind aided run . During the replay of the race , it was revealed that Gay had stepped on the line of his inside lane , which would normally result in a disqualification , but it was overlooked and Gay safely advanced to the final . During the final , Gay lead all of the way . He powered down the home straight to win in a World Leading time of 19 @.@ 74 seconds , with a legal tail wind of 1 @.@ 6 meters per second .
On July 14 , 2013 , before the World Championships in Moscow , it was announced that Gay had tested positive for a banned substance in May 2013 . Gay admitted the doping , but blamed it on an unspecified third party : " I basically put my trust in someone and was let down . " Adidas responded by suspending Gay 's sponsorship contract with the sportswear manufacturer . Pending his verdict , he voluntarily withdrew from all competition , including the 2013 World Championships . On May 2 , 2014 , the United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) announced that Gay would be suspended until June 23 , 2014 , and that all his results from July 15 , 2012 until his suspension — including his silver medal from the 2012 Summer Olympics — would be stricken .
= = = 2015 = = =
Tyson returned from his suspension to win the 100m at the Prefontaine Classic .
USA Relays qualified to World and Olympic games at World Relays in Bahamas and won the 4 x 100 meters
In the 2015 World Athletics Championships , Gay , running against Usain Bolt , came only 6th of 9 in the final of the 100m behind Bolt , Justin Gatlin , Trayvon Bromell , Andre de Grasse and Mike Rodgers .
= = Honors = =
He was a 2008 nominee for the Laureus World Sports Award for Breakthrough athlete of the year . He has multiple US National Championship winners in men 's 100 @-@ meter dash titles . He won the 2007 Track & Field athlete of the year award . He won the 2007 IAAF world athlete of the year award . He also won the 2007 USOC sportsman of the year award .
= = Personal life = =
Gay resides in Clermont , a suburb of Orlando , Florida . He has a daughter with Shoshana Boyd , Trinity , who was born around 2001 , and devotes himself to the care of both his own daughter and his niece Destin . While Brauman was in prison for fraud , Gay looked after the coach 's wife and daughter . His mother Daisy married Tim Lowe in 1995 , adding two half @-@ siblings , Seth and Haleigh Lowe , to Gay 's family .
Gay attended the St. John Missionary Baptist Church as a child , and when he returns home he still attends the church services . His beliefs matter to him both on and off the track : " I 'm a religious man , so I really believe in my God @-@ given ability , that I can do the unexpected . I really do believe I can break a record , or come close to it , or win a medal . " He is frequently described as a modest and respectful athlete , standing in direct contrast with previous world @-@ class US sprinters .
Gay has sponsorship deals with Omega SA , McDonald 's and Sega . He spends his spare and free time with his daughter Trinity Gay .
= = Achievements = =
Gay holds the US record in the 100 m with 9 @.@ 69 s , making him the joint second fastest sprinter , along with Yohan Blake , in the history of the event after Usain Bolt . His 19 @.@ 58 s makes him history 's sixth fastest 200 m runner and the USA 's fourth fastest . In 2010 Gay was a member of the fifth @-@ fastest 4 x 100 m relay team in history , running a 37 @.@ 45 s with teammates Trell Kimmons , Wallace Spearmon and Michael Rodgers in Weltklasse Zürich 2010 . His sprint combination of 100 m and 200 m in 9 @.@ 84 s and 19 @.@ 62 s , run over two days in 2007 , was the best ever combo at that time . During the Tom Jones Memorial Classic in Gainesville on April 17 , 2010 Tyson Gay clocked 44 @.@ 89 in the 400 m event and became the first man in history to dip under 10 @.@ 00 in the 100 m , under 20 @.@ 00 in the 200 m and under 45 @.@ 00 in the 400 m . Tyson Gay remains one of only three sprinters to have beaten Usain Bolt in a final since Bolt 's world record runs at the 2008 Olympics , the others being Yohan Blake at the Jamaican Olympic trials , and Justin Gatlin at the 2013 Golden Gala in Rome .
= = = Personal bests = = =
= = = International competitions = = =
* He is a four @-@ time American champion , having won the 100 m title three times ( 2006 to 2008 ) and the 200 m title in 2007 .
* * He was stripped of all his results from the 2012 Olympic Games due to doping violations .
= Forage War =
The Forage War was a partisan campaign consisting of numerous small skirmishes that took place in New Jersey during the American Revolutionary War between January and March 1777 , following the battles of Trenton and Princeton . After both British and Continental Army troops entered their winter quarters in early January , Continental Army regulars and militia companies from New Jersey and Pennsylvania engaged in numerous scouting and harassing operations against the British and German troops quartered in New Jersey .
The British troops wanted to have fresh provisions to consume , and also required fresh forage for their draft animals and horses . General George Washington ordered the systematic removal of such supplies from areas easily accessible to the British , and companies of American militia and troops harassed British and German forays to acquire such provisions . While many of these operations were small , in some cases they became quite elaborate , involving more than 1 @,@ 000 troops . The American operations were so successful that British casualties in New Jersey ( including those of the battles at Trenton and Princeton ) exceeded those of the entire campaign for New York .
= = Background = =
In August 1776 the British army began a campaign to gain control over New York City , which was defended by George Washington 's Continental Army . Over the next two months , General William Howe quickly gained control of New York , pushing Washington into New Jersey . He then chased Washington south toward Philadelphia . Washington retreated across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania , taking with him all the boats for miles in each direction . Howe then ordered his army into winter quarters , establishing a chain of outposts across New Jersey , from the Hudson River through New Brunswick to Trenton and Bordentown on the Delaware River . The occupation of New Jersey by British and German troops caused friction with the local communities and led to a rise in Patriot militia enlistments . As early as mid @-@ December , these militia companies were harassing British patrols , leading to incidents like Geary 's ambush , in which a dragoon leader was killed , and increasing the level of tension in the British and German quarters .
On the night of December 25 – 26 , 1776 , Washington crossed the Delaware and surprised the Trenton outpost the following morning . Over the next two weeks , he went on to win two further battles at Assunpink Creek and Battle of Princeton , leading the British to retreat to northern New Jersey .
= = Disposition of the armies = =
General Washington established his headquarters at Morristown , separated from the coast by the Watchung Mountains , a series of low ridges . He established forward outposts to the east and south of these ridges that served not only as a defensive bulwark against potential British incursions across the hills , but also as launch points for raids . Over the course of January and February , Washington 's Continental Army shrank to about 2 @,@ 500 regulars after Washington 's incentives for many men to overstay their enlistment periods ran out . A large number of militia from New Jersey , New York , and Pennsylvania bolstered these forces , and played a significant role that winter .
The British army was initially deployed from posts as far north as Hackensack to New Brunswick . The garrison , numbering about 10 @,@ 000 , was concentrated between New Brunswick and Amboy , with a sizable contingent farther north , from Elizabethtown to Paulus Hook . Militia pressure in January led General Cornwallis to withdraw most of the northern troops to the shores of the Hudson . The resulting concentration of troops overflowed the available housing , which had been entirely abandoned by its residents , with some of the troops even living aboard ships anchored nearby ; the cramped quarters led to an increase in camp @-@ related illnesses throughout the winter , and morale was low . The area had been heavily plundered during the American retreat in the fall , so there was little in the way of local provisions . The men subsisted largely on rations such as salt pork , but their draft animals required fresh fodder , for which they sent out raiding expeditions .
= = Tactics = =
Early in the winter , Washington sent out detachments of troops to systematically remove any remaining provisions and livestock from convenient access by the British . General Cornwallis sent out small foraging and raiding parties in January . These were met by larger formations ( numbering 300 and up ) of American militia companies , sometimes with Continental Army support , that led on occasion to significant casualties . In one early example , Brigadier General Philemon Dickinson mustered 450 militia and drove off a British foraging expedition in the Battle of Millstone on January 20 . Washington gave his commanders wide latitude in how to act , issuing commands that they were to be " constantly harassing the enemy " , and that they should be aggressive in their tactics . These early successes depended in part on successful intelligence ; one British commander reported being met with force " notwithstanding the Orders were given , but a few hours before the Troops moved . " Even supply convoys bringing provisions from outside the state to the large garrison at New Brunswick were not immune to the American attacks , where the Raritan River and the roads from Perth Amboy offered opportunities for sniping and raiding . Their difficulties led British commanders to change tactics , attempting to lure these militia units into traps involving larger numbers of British regulars .
But even this was not entirely successful , as wily militia and Continental commanders including Continental Army General William Maxwell used superior knowledge of the geography to set even more elaborate traps . In one encounter in late February , British Colonel Charles Mawhood , thinking he had flanked a party of New Jersey militia , suddenly found his advance force flanked by another , larger force . As they were driven back toward Amboy , more and more Americans appeared , ultimately inflicting about 100 casualties . The elite grenadiers of the 42nd Foot , part of Mawhood 's vanguard , were badly mauled in the encounter . A British force of 2 @,@ 000 was repulsed by Maxwell in another well @-@ organized attack a few weeks later .
The ongoing tensions took their toll on the beleaguered British . Johann Ewald , captain of a company of German jägers ( essentially light infantry ) who were often on the front lines , observed that " the men have to stay dressed day and night ... the horses constantly saddled " , and that " the army would have been gradually destroyed through this foraging " . Some forage was provided from New York , but it was never sufficient for the army 's needs . As a consequence , the British were forced to provide many supplies from Europe , at great cost and risk to the Royal Navy .
= = Selected Actions = =
= = = Elizabethtown = = =
A regiment of Waldeck infantry , a few companies of the 71st Foot and a troop of British light dragoons were stationed at Elizabethtown , New Jersey in the winter of 1776 – 1777 . On 5 January 1777 , a British cavalry patrol was ambushed by militia near the town . One trooper was killed and a second was wounded . The next day , about 50 Waldeck infantry emerged from the town with a small escort of light dragoons with instructions to clear the country . Led by Captain Georg von Haacke , the strong patrol was attacked near Springfield by New Jersey militia . In Elizabethtown , the soldiers heard distant gunfire . Hours later the bedraggled British horsemen came back without the foot soldiers . Eight or 10 of the Waldeckers were shot down and the entire party captured by the militia . Ordered to pull back to Amboy , the garrison hurriedly left on 7 January . As the troops evacuated Elizabethtown , the militia attacked the rear guard . In the confused retreat , the Americans captured 100 soldiers , the baggage trains of two regiments , and food supplies .
= = = Chatham , Connecticut Farms and Bonhamtown = = =
On 10 January 1777 , Colonel Charles Scott 's Virginia Continentals captured 70 Highlanders together with their wagons at Chatham , New Jersey . Scott 's brigade was composed of the 4th , 5th and 6th Virginia Regiments . At Connecticut Farms on 15 January , 300 New Jersey militia commanded by Colonel Oliver Spencer attacked 100 German foragers . The Americans killed one enemy soldier and captured 70 more . The following day , 350 Americans set upon a large body of British foragers at Bonhamtown , New Jersey , killing 21 enemy soldiers and wounding 30 or 40 more . American casualties are not given in any of these actions .
= = = Millstone and Woodbridge = = =
At the Battle of Millstone , Brigadier General Philemon Dickinson of the New Jersey militia scored a brilliant success . On 20 January 1777 near Van Nest 's Mill , 400 militia and 50 Pennsylvania riflemen crossed an icy stream and fought a pitched battle with 500 British regulars and three cannons . The British lost 25 casualties , 12 prisoners , 43 wagons , 104 horses , 115 cattle and about 60 sheep . The Americans admitted losses of four or five men . Afterward , the British refused to believe that had been beaten by militia . On 23 January two British regiments were waylaid by Brigadier General William Maxwell near Woodbridge . The 200 New Jersey Continentals inflicted losses of seven killed and 12 wounded while only suffering two men wounded .
= = = Drake 's Farm = = =
On 1 February 1777 , Brigadier General Sir William Erskine , 1st Baronet set up a clever trap . He sent a party of foragers to Drake 's Farm near Metuchen . When Scott 's 5th Virginia tried to gobble up the small party , Erskine rushed his large force into action . Battalions of grenadiers , light infantry , 42nd Foot and Hessians appeared , supported by eight artillery pieces . Instead of fleeing , the Virginians launched a vicious attack which momentarily broke a grenadier battalion . Under intense cannon fire , the American attack was stopped , but the soldiers fought tenaciously until the British fell back toward Brunswick . The Americans admitted 30 to 40 casualties while claiming to have killed 36 British and wounding 100 more . The action was marred by an ugly incident when Lieutenant William Kelly and six other wounded Americans were abandoned during a tactical withdrawal . The frustrated British fell upon the seven helpless men with bayonets and musket butts and slaughtered them all . When the Americans recovered the mangled bodies they were infuriated . Brigadier General Adam Stephen exchanged a series of irate letters with Erskine , who denied all responsibility for the incident .
= = = Spanktown = = =
On 23 February 1777 , Lieutenant Colonel Charles Mawhood was sent with a reinforced brigade to destroy any rebel forces he could catch . He set out with a battalion each of light infantry and grenadiers , plus the 3rd Brigade . The latter formation consisted of the 10th Foot , 37th Foot , 38th Foot and 52nd Foot , recently transferred from the Rhode Island garrison . Near Spanktown , now Rahway , New Jersey , Mawhood found a group of militia herding some livestock covered by a larger body of Americans waiting on a nearby hill . The British officer sent the grenadier company of the 42nd Foot on a wide flanking maneuver . Just as the grenadiers prepared to launch their assault , they were fired on from ambush and routed with the loss of 26 men . At this moment , Maxwell sent his superior force forward to envelop Mawhood 's force . The American force included the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 4th New Jersey Regiments , the 1st and 8th Pennsylvania Regiments , and the German Battalion . Mawhood 's surprised men were hounded all the way back to Amboy , which they reached at 8 : 00 PM . The Americans lost 5 killed and 9 wounded , and claimed to have inflicted 100 casualties . Mawhood admitted losing 69 killed and wounded and 6 missing .
= = Casualty estimates = =
Historian David Hackett Fischer compiled a list that he describes as " incomplete " , consisting of 58 actions that occurred between January 4 and March 21 , 1777 . The documented British and German casualties numbered more than 900 ; a number of the events do not include any casualty reports . Combined with their losses at Trenton and Princeton , the British lost more men in New Jersey than they did during the campaign for New York City . Fischer does not estimate American casualties , and other historians ( e.g. Ketchum and Mitnick ) have not compiled any casualty estimates . Fischer notes that relatively few official reports of American ( either militia or Continental Army ) unit strengths for this time period have survived .
= = Ending = =
The 1777 military campaigns began to take shape in April . General Charles Cornwallis punctuated the winter skirmishes with an attack on the Continental Army outpost at Bound Brook on April 13 . In the Battle of Bound Brook , he very nearly captured its commander , Benjamin Lincoln . Outnumbering the Americans 2 @,@ 000 to 500 , the British scattered the militia but met stubborn resistance from the 8th Pennsylvania Regiment . The British captured three 3 @-@ pound guns and 20 or 30 men and killed six Americans , but the bulk of Lincoln 's force got away . General Washington moved his army from its winter quarters at Morristown to a more forward position at Middlebrook in late May to better react to British moves . As General Howe prepared his Philadelphia campaign , he first moved a large portion of his army to Somerset Court House in mid @-@ June , apparently in an attempt to draw Washington from the Middlebrook position . When this failed , Howe withdrew his army back to Perth Amboy , and embarked it on ships bound for the Chesapeake Bay . Northern and coastal New Jersey continued to be the site of skirmishing and raiding by the British forces that occupied New York City for the rest of the war .
= Hurricane Barbara ( 1953 ) =
Hurricane Barbara was the second named tropical cyclone of the 1953 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming from a tropical wave on August 11 in the southern Bahamas , Barbara moved northward and attained hurricane status the next day . Ultimately peaking with winds corresponding to Category 2 status on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , Barbara moved ashore in eastern North Carolina and curved back out to sea . The storm passed to the southeast of the New England region and dissipated on August 16 . Damage from the hurricane was fairly minor , totaling around $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( 1953 USD , $ 11 @.@ 5 million 2016 USD ) . Most of it occurred in North Carolina and Virginia from crop damage . The hurricane left several injuries , some traffic accidents , as well as seven fatalities in the eastern United States ; at least two were due to electrocution from downed power lines . Offshore Atlantic Canada , a small boat sunk , killing its crew of two .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the days preceding the storm 's formation , a tropical wave moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean . The wave was initially weak as it tracked toward Cuba , but on August 10 , there were indications of a closed circulation center over the eastern portion of the island . The low deepened a bit as it moved northward to a position near Eleuthera Island in the Bahamas on August 11 , at which time the disturbance organized into a tropical storm . The storm intensified throughout the day , and on the morning of August 12 , reconnaissance aircraft found winds of about 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) in the northeastern section of the circulation , although the southwestern portion was still weak and disorganized . It is estimated that Barbara became a hurricane at around 1200 UTC .
Moving north @-@ northwestward , the hurricane continued to mature , and it attained an intensity corresponding to Category 2 status on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale early on August 13 as it approached eastern North Carolina . Shortly thereafter , Barbara reached its peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while located south of Cape Hatteras . The cyclone moved over the Outer Banks of North Carolina overnight , crossing the shore between Morehead City and Ocracoke . It weakened as it progressed northward , and curved eastward out to sea due to a building ridge . It passed just southeast of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England , brushing Cape Cod , Massachusetts as it began to accelerate northeastward .
As Barbara moved toward the Canadian Maritimes , it began to undergo an extratropical transition , completing the transition by late on August 15 just south of Nova Scotia . However , the Canadian Hurricane Centre assessed Barbara as remaining tropical until after it turned northward and struck eastern Nova Scotia on August 16 . At this time , a trough developed to the southeast of the storm , and Barbara later tracked just west of Newfoundland . A new low formed in association with the trough , and as Barbara rapidly headed northward , the developing center moved more slowly . However , the new low quickly gained strength and became the more intense of the two storm systems . Barbara then stalled near Goose Bay and lost its tropical identity , dissipating late on August 16 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Before the hurricane began affecting land , the U.S. Weather Bureau issued northeast storm warnings from Myrtle Beach , South Carolina to Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The agency also advised small boats in the region to remain at port during the storm . Evacuations were ordered for a few islands in the Outer Banks , and several thousand tourists voluntarily left the coastline for safer areas . Overall , about 50 @,@ 000 people evacuated due to the hurricane . Further north , the Coast Guard advised people to avoid swimming along the coast of Long Island .
The lowest pressure on land related to the storm was 988 hPa ( 29 @.@ 19 inHg ) at Coinjock , North Carolina . Wind gusts of up to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) were recorded at Hatteras and Nags Head . Torrential rainfall , unofficially exceeding 9 in ( 0 @.@ 23 m ) at Nags Head , fell across the state and extending northward into Virginia . The maximum rainfall associated with Barbara was 11 @.@ 1 in ( 280 mm ) near Onley along the Eastern Shore of Virginia . Offshore , a freighter rode out the storm after losing power . As the storm passed southeast of New England , winds reached up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) .
Along the coastline , Barbara flooded roads and houses . Strong winds downed trees and power lines , leaving some cities isolated from communication . Some of the downed trees were large and had survived the Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944 . The combination of winds and rainfall left some damage to crops and structures . The storm 's impact along the coast was light to moderate , with monetary damage estimated around $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( 1953 USD , $ 11 @.@ 5 million 2016 USD ) , mostly from the crop damage . Four marines in the Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point were injured , as was a Coast Guard worker . One person died at Wrightsville Beach , North Carolina , after winds blew him off of a pier . A report on the cyclone by the U.S. Weather Bureau indicates that this is the only causality associated with Barbara . However , newspaper articles subsequent to the storm report several more fatalities , with one paper reporting a total of seven deaths ; two of them were from electrocutions . The rainfall from Barbara was blamed for traffic accidents further north in New Jersey and New York City , causing four deaths . There was also an indirect death in New York when a man had a heart attack while securing his boat . In Atlantic City , New Jersey , there was damage to storefronts . Along Nantucket , the hurricane washed several boats ashore , although there was little damage in the region .
In the Grand Banks offshore Atlantic Canada , Barbara sunk a dory , killing two people . Along the Canadian mainland , ships were advised to stay at port during the storm . Barbara produced tropical storm force winds across the region , peaking at 63 mph ( 102 km / h ) when it moved ashore .
= Tom Peterson =
Tom Peterson ( 1930 – July 25 , 2016 ) was an American retailer , pitchman , and television personality from Portland , Oregon . Peterson opened his first store in 1964 , which grew to a regional consumer electronics , home appliance , and furniture chain in the 1970s . His memorable television commercials and unusual promotions made him a widely recognized personality in the Portland area by the 1980s , leading to several cameo appearances in the films of Gus Van Sant .
In the early 1990s , having acquired and been unable to successfully integrate a competing chain of electronics stores , Peterson filed for bankruptcy protection before reemerging as a scaled @-@ down furniture retailer that offered minimal electronics . He continued appearing in his own commercials into the early 2000s , and the store 's final location closed in February 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Peterson was born outside St. Paul , Minnesota , where he grew up on a farm , the son of a federal government worker . He studied business at the University of Minnesota . Peterson met his future wife Gloria , also from the St. Paul area , at a Lutheran church camp at Green Lake in northern Minnesota at the age of 14 . The two were married on September 20 , 1952 .
= = Tom Peterson 's = =
= = = Founding and expansion = = =
Peterson spent ten years working at the Jolly Green Giant Co . , rising to eastern regional manager in charge of 17 food processing plants in the United States and Canada . However , the western regional manager was the son of the company 's president , so in 1963 Peterson obtained a franchise from Muntz television , sold his home for US $ 10 @,@ 000 , which he put into the business , and moved with Gloria to Portland on the advice of friends .
He opened his first store at Southeast 82nd and Foster Road in 1964 . Peterson paid himself a salary of $ 100 a week and $ 50 a week to Gloria , who was the controller of the business . In 1964 , his first year in business , Peterson had revenues of $ 300 @,@ 000 . By 1989 , Peterson was selling $ 30 million per year . It was during this period that Peterson first achieved fame in Portland and throughout the Pacific Northwest .
By the early 1980s , Peterson had become one of the largest home electronics dealerships in Portland , alongside Smith 's Home Furnishings , Stereo Super Stores , Montgomery Ward and Sears . Peterson went on to open stores in Eugene , Gresham , Hillsboro , North Portland and as far away as Spokane , Washington but later closed these stores , citing an inability to offer the personal service by appearing on the floor alongside his sales staff . The Petersons ' children also worked in the business , daughter Kathy as a personnel manager and son Keith as a partner in an affiliated electronics import @-@ export business , operating out of Boston .
= = = Bankruptcy and reorganization = = =
In September 1989 , Peterson outbid two challengers to acquire Stereo Super Stores , whose parent company had filed for bankruptcy the month before , paying $ 940 @,@ 000 plus another million for inventory . The acquisition included a car stereo specialty shop at Mall 205 , Car Stereo East . Peterson continued to operate the franchise 's locations at Jantzen Beach and Washington Square Too without a branding change until March 1991 , when he renamed them Tom Peterson Super Stores , as he did his original home electronics store at 82nd and Foster . Peterson explained that the original stores were performing better than the newly acquired outlets , so he decided to combine them . His other two stores and car specialty store were unaffected .
In August 1991 Peterson closed his Jantzen Beach location and in October filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection , listing liabilities of $ 7 @.@ 5 million owed to 283 creditors on assets of $ 2 @.@ 7 million . He also faced lawsuits from suppliers and AT & T Commercial Finance . At the time of the filing , Peterson said : " I should have listened to my wife . She said , ' Don 't buy Stereo Super Stores . ' She was right . " Peterson said sales shrank 16 percent in the company 's 1991 fiscal year compared to 1990 , and that his business had been in the red every month but one in the 25 months since the buyout . Peterson said at the time : " They should have been called Stereo Stupid Stores . "
Peterson closed his furniture store at 82nd and Foster , consolidating all operations in his two remaining stores , but kept his ads on the air . At Gloria 's suggestion , immediate subsequent television spots referred to the bankruptcy , spelling out the troubles and asking customers to please buy today . A crisis manager took control of operations , leaving Peterson to work the sales floors until the stores closed in March 1992 . Peterson said in 1995 , " The big nationals make it very tough on the regional , like Smith 's , and on the locals , like us . " However , Peterson did not lay all of the blame on national retailers , saying " In life , we are all carpenters of our own crosses . Don 't blame someone else . "
= = = Tom Peterson & Gloria 's Too ! = = =
In September 1992 Peterson reopened for business at his original location , an 11 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 000 m2 ) showroom at 8130 Southeast Foster Road , under the name Tom Peterson & Gloria 's Too ! Peterson 's son @-@ in @-@ law Robert Condon became president , daughter Kathy the store 's accountant and Gloria Peterson resumed duties as chief financial officer . Peterson himself remained the primary public face of the company , and resumed his familiar advertising . Condon raised a portion of the new venture 's seed money from the sale of Tom Peterson memorabilia , having bought hundreds of wristwatches and alarm clocks from the bankruptcy trustee , then reselling them at a profit .
By 1995 Peterson and a staff of 18 were selling $ 5 million worth of household durables per year , having shown a profit in 23 of 25 years . As of 2002 , Peterson was working " part time " 44 hours per week , half of what he once had put in , and booking $ 4 million in sales per year . In the mid @-@ 2000s , the Petersons sold their last remaining property at the corner of Southeast 82nd and Foster and moved the store to a side street a block away , just off 82nd Avenue . The final location closed on February 28 , 2009 .
= = Television advertising = =
Peterson is widely known in Portland for writing and starring in his own low @-@ budget commercials , for his trademark flattop haircut , catch phrases including " Free is a very good price " and referring to his store as " the happy place to buy . " In the 1980s , Peterson was described by Oregonian columnist Margie Boulé as " arguably , the most recognizable man in Portland . "
Peterson 's most famous commercials were his " Wake up ! Wake up ! " spots , which began airing in the mid @-@ 1970s . Peterson borrowed the idea from another retailer in Corpus Christi , Texas . Said Peterson , " Somebody told me about it and I followed it up . Ours was much more successful than theirs . They didn 't have the store owner or a strong personality doing theirs . " Peterson kept his stores open from 11 a.m. to 3 a.m. to accommodate customers inspired by the ad to visit his store late at night . The commercial ran less frequently in the 1980s , and last aired in 1988 .
In 1987 , Peterson experimented with hiring an outside firm to produce a series of commercials , a first in 23 years on the air . The new commercials parodied daytime soap operas , featuring a housewife named Monica whose domestic problems are solved by merchandise from Peterson 's stores .
Of his television spots , Peterson said in 1987 : " It 's probably the best @-@ known commercial in town , but not the best @-@ liked one . " Peterson continued writing and starring in his own commercials into the early 2000s .
= = Special promotions = =
= = = Tom Peterson haircuts = = =
In July 1986 , Peterson offered a free flattop haircut to anyone who attended the opening of his third store at 82nd and Foster . Peterson , who got his first flattop haircut in 1952 , hired three barbers to give haircuts on the floor of his showrooms . They gave about 50 haircuts the first day , and Peterson decided to make the gimmick a weekly event . He continued offering the haircuts for two decades and as of 2002 was still giving away about ten haircuts per week .
= = = Halloween masks = = =
Starting Halloween 1986 , Peterson offered visitors free cardboard masks with his face on it . All 5 @,@ 000 went in a single year . In 1987 , Peterson said , " We thought about doing a better mask , with a more realistic Tom Peterson on it . But then we thought , what if somebody robs a bank wearing one , and the witnesses say , ' It was Tom Peterson ! ' So we 're sticking with the black and white cardboard . "
= = = Alarm clocks = = =
In October 1990 , after he had ceased running the " Wake up ! " TV spots , Peterson debuted an alarm clock in the shape of a television set with his face in the center and voice as the alarm , saying : " Wake up ! Wake up to a happy day ! " Peterson said of the promotion at the time : " If you can put your face in 5 @,@ 000 homes in Portland , it certainly can 't hurt . "
= = = Wristwatches = = =
Peterson has cited as his most successful promotion the Tom Peterson watch , also featuring his face . Peterson said in 1988 : " It particularly went well with college youth . They 're a big thing on campus . I guess it 's kind of a cult thing . " Northwest native Kurt Cobain wore a Tom Peterson wristwatch , as did David Foraker , the attorney representing the creditors in Peterson 's bankruptcy case .
= = = Other promotions = = =
Other Peterson giveaways included hats , T @-@ shirts , cups and coloring books . Peterson also turned a bus into a trolley that traveled a circuit around his parking lots on 82nd and Foster . To mark the tenth anniversary of Tom Peterson & Gloria 's Too ! and the couple 's fiftieth wedding anniversary in September 2002 , Peterson offered customers coffee mugs with photos of Tom and Gloria , fifty years ago and present day .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Film roles = = =
Peterson has made three cameo appearances in the films of Gus Van Sant , and as of 1995 had appeared in more Van Sant films than any other actor . His first was Drugstore Cowboy , in which a Peterson commercial plays on the television . Van Sant later cast Peterson in a non @-@ speaking role as a police chief in My Own Private Idaho and used another Peterson commercial in To Die For . Peterson also appeared in Mr. Holland 's Opus , which was filmed in Portland . Van Sant related to the Los Angeles Times , " So many people responded that I decided to keep using him . " Van Sant and Peterson have used the same video editor , Wade Evans , and Van Sant bought his Magic Chef refrigerator from Peterson .
= = = Celebrity appearances = = =
Peterson served as the best man at a wedding planned by the " Morning Zoo " of radio station KKRZ ( Z @-@ 100 ) FM in 1989 . Professional wrestler Rowdy Roddy Piper officiated . Peterson , who had never met the 24 @-@ year @-@ old groom , called him " a very nice young gentleman . " He also played bongo drums on Where 's the Art ? , a public @-@ access television cable TV show with Stephanie Pierce , proprietor of the 24 Hour Church of Elvis .
= = = Tom Peterson art = = =
Peterson is the subject of several works by Portland artist Norman Forsberg . They include the 1989 painting " Sphinxface " and " Six Toms and a Bob " , pairing Peterson 's face with that of Bob the Weather Cat , then a fixture of KATU local news . Forsberg , on Peterson : " Most pop icons are entertainers or athletes . Whereas he 's someone selling televisions . That says something . "
Peterson 's face was also appropriated by Portland stencil artists who spray @-@ painted graffiti with the caption " Trust Tom " , often modifying pre @-@ existing " Trust Jesus " graffiti by adding Peterson 's name and face .
Tom Peterson ’ s face icon and name appear on several stores in the comic book Boris the Bear # 2 , published by Portland company Dark Horse Comics and created by Portland artist James Dean Smith .
= = = In music = = =
In 1987 , Z @-@ 100 radio personality Dan Clark and musician Roger Sause wrote a song , " I Woke Up with a Tom Peterson Haircut " , which featured a singing part for Peterson . The station sold 5 @,@ 000 copies of the single , donating the proceeds to charity , and continued running the song into the 1990s . On December 14 , 1993 , during a concert Kurt Cobain wore a Tom Peterson shirt .
= = Personal life = =
During his bankruptcy , Peterson started a second business as a motivational speaker , which he continued until 2001 . Peterson lived with his wife in a one @-@ story Craftsman @-@ style home in Happy Valley , Oregon . He was a fan of upland bird hunting , specifically the chukar . In later years , he suffered from Parkinson 's disease . He died on July 25 , 2016 at the age of 86 .
= Beat the Chefs =
Beat the Chefs is an American television cooking game show broadcast by Game Show Network and hosted by Matt Rogers . The series features contestants preparing a home @-@ cooked family recipe , while professional chefs Beau MacMillan , Antonia Lofaso and Jeff Henderson make the same recipe in an upscale restaurant version . The two dishes are then judged by a panel of food critics , who decide the winner . The series premiered on August 23 , 2012 , and aired its last episode on September 13 , 2012 .
= = Format = =
The series features two families , one in each half @-@ hour of the episode , preparing their family recipe while the professional chefs cook a restaurant version of the same meal . The family begins by revealing the dish they have selected to cook to the chefs as well as how longer they think it will take to prepare it . The chefs are then given the same amount of time to create their own version . Once the first cook @-@ off is complete , the second family is brought out , and the procedure is repeated with their own meal . After the second cook @-@ off , the judges reveal the winning dish from each round . If the family 's home cooked meal beats the chefs ' professional version , the family wins $ 25 @,@ 000 ; if the chefs win , the family receives $ 1 @,@ 000 worth of kitchen supplies .
= = Production = =
Production company RelativityREAL had pitched the series to CBS as early as March 2010 ; however , it was not until two years later that Beat the Chefs first appeared at GSN 's upfront presentation in New York City as an original green @-@ lit series on March 21 , 2012 . GSN later put out a one @-@ month casting call from May 25 to June 25 , looking for " great cooks " who had never been " formally trained " . On July 2 , 2012 , GSN announced the series ' premiere date as August 23 , 2012 , right after the premiere of The American Bible Challenge . GSN then released the cast for the series on July 24 , 2012 , announcing former American Idol contestant Matt Rogers as the host of the show . The press release also revealed Beau MacMillan , Antonia Lofaso and Jeff Henderson as the professional chefs , as well as Brad A. Johnson and Christy Jordan as judges . In addition , Johnson and Jordan were joined by a guest judge each episode ; these judges included Eric Roberts , Julie Powell , Richie Palmer , and Melissa Rycroft .
The series premiered on August 23 , 2012 immediately following the premiere of The American Bible Challenge . GSN continued to air one new episode a week until September 13 , 2012 . Although no official cancelation announcement was made , the series has not been seen since then . The show also was not mentioned or discussed in GSN 's most recent upfront presentation and is therefore assumed to be canceled .
= = Reception = =
Beat the Chefs earned mixed reception from critics . Carrie Grosvenor of About Entertainment argued that Rogers was a good fit for the show as host and called the show " enjoyable " , but also claimed that there wasn 't " enough of a focus on the food and preparation " . Meanwhile , Hollywood Junket praised the series , calling it a " guaranteed winning show " while arguing that it had the potential to become " extremely successful " .
The series earned relatively average ratings for GSN 's standards . Despite The American Bible Challenge debuting to record ratings for GSN , Beat the Chefs maintained less than a third of the viewers that tuned in to its lead @-@ in . The series premiere averaged 521 @,@ 000 viewers , compared to the 1 @.@ 73 million viewers who watched The American Bible Challenge . The following week , Beat the Chefs dropped to 357 @,@ 000 viewers , while its lead @-@ out , a sneak peek of GSN 's upcoming revival of Pyramid , earned 443 @,@ 000 viewers .
= Isa ibn Muhanna =
Sharaf ad @-@ Din Isa ibn Muhanna at @-@ Ta 'i , better known as Isa ibn Muhanna ( d . 1284 / 85 ) , was an emir ( commander / prince ) of the Al Fadl , a Bedouin dynasty that dominated the Syrian Desert and steppe during the 13th – 15th centuries . He was appointed amir al @-@ ʿarab ( commander of the Bedouin ) by the Mamluks after their conquest of Syria in 1260 . Isa 's father served the same post under the Ayyubids . His assignment gave him command over the nomadic Arab tribes of Syria and obliged him to provide auxiliary troops in times of war and guard the desert frontier from the Mongol Ilkhanate in Iraq . As part of his emirate , he was granted Salamiyah and Sarmin . He participated in numerous campaigns against the Ilkhanate during Sultan Baybars ' reign ( 1260 – 1277 ) .
In 1379 / 80 , Isa defected from Baybars ' successor , Qalawun , and joined the rebellion of the Mamluk viceroy of Syria , Sunqur al @-@ Ashqar . However , Isa dissuaded Sunqur from joining the Ilkhanids ' army , and was dismissed from his post when Qalawun 's forces suppressed the rebellion . Isa was reinstalled by 1280 , and in the following year , played a decisive role as a commander in the Mamluk victory over the Ilkhanate at the Second Battle of Homs . After his death , Isa was succeeded by his son Muhanna , and throughout the 14th century , Isa 's direct descendants held the office of amir al @-@ ʿarab with occasional interruption .
= = Ancestry = =
Isa 's clan , the Al Fadl , were direct descendants of the Jarrahid ruler of Palestine , Mufarrij ibn Daghfal ( d . 1013 ) , himself a member of the ancient tribe of Tayy ; Isa 's laqab was " Sharaf ad @-@ Din al @-@ Tayyi " , denoting his Tayyid roots . By the early 13th century , the Al Fadl dominated the desert region between Homs in the west to the Euphrates valley in the east and from Qal 'at Ja 'bar southward through central Najd . Isa 's great @-@ grandfather , Haditha ( grandson of the Al Fadl 's progenitor , Fadl ibn Rabi 'ah ) , served as the first amir al @-@ ʿarab ( commander of the Bedouin tribes ) under Ayyubid sultan al @-@ Adil ( r . 1200 – 1218 ) , beginning a tradition of Al Fadl tribesmen being appointed to the office . Isa 's father Muhanna and grandfather Mani ( d . 1232 ) both served the post .
= = Amir al @-@ ʿarab = =
It is not evident in medieval Muslim sources when Muhanna died or when the post of amir al @-@ ʿarab was stripped from him . It is known for certain that prior to the Mamluk conquest of Syria in 1260 , the amir al @-@ ʿarab was Muhanna 's uncle Ali ibn Haditha . The circumstances of Isa 's replacement of Ali are also unclear . In some versions , Isa was appointed by Sultan Qutuz as a reward for his support in the Battle of Ain Jalut against the Mongols in the latter half of 1260 , though the sources indicate that Isa and his Bedouin horsemen refrained from actually participating in the battle . In another version , Qutuz 's successor Baybars appointed Isa as a reward for assisting him during his 1250s exile in Syria ( in this version , Ali was stripped of the title as punishment for denying Baybars refuge ) . In any case , it is known that Baybars issued a diploma confirming Isa as amir al @-@ ʿarab and recognizing his iqtaʿat ( fiefs ) in 1260 / 61 . Among his iqta 'at were half of Salamiyah , which was separated from the iqtaʿ of Hama , and Sarmin . Baybars also entrusted the Al Fadl and the other Bedouin tribes of the Syrian desert and steppe with guarding the Syrian frontier with Mongol Ilkhanid @-@ held Iraq .
= = = Service with Baybars = = =
Isa 's relations with Baybars were generally on good terms , though there were occasional exceptions . Isa accompanied al @-@ Mustansir , the newly @-@ inaugurated Abbasid caliph , on his Mamluk @-@ sponsored campaign to reclaim Iraq from the Mongols in 1260 . However , al @-@ Mustansir was killed en route to Baghdad in a Mongol ambush . The next year , Isa was present in Cairo to bear witness that al @-@ Mustansir 's successor and kinsman , al @-@ Hakim , was indeed a member of the Abbasid line .
Isa 's assignment to the post was opposed by some of his kinsmen from the start . The strongest opposition came from Ahmad ibn Hajji of the Al Mira , relatives of the Al Fadl through their shared ancestor Rabi 'ah ibn Hazim , whose descendants were collectively known as the Banu Rabi 'ah . Ahmad ibn Hajji and his tribe were considered by the historians of their day as the kings of the Arabs ( muluk al @-@ ʿarab ) of the southern Syrian Desert , and Ahmad ibn Hajji led the struggle against Isa for the official post of amir al @-@ ʿarab . Their conflict dissipated as the Mamluks gave the Al Mira virtual independence in the southern desert , while maintaining Isa as amir al @-@ ʿarab . Isa also faced opposition from Ahmad ibn Tahir ibn Ghannam , another distant relative from the Banu Rabi 'ah , and from his Al Fadl kinsman Zamil ibn Ali ibn Haditha . The latter coveted the post , viewing himself as the rightful heir to the office that had been held by his father . In his conflict with Isa , Zamil was defeated , imprisoned , then released after a reconciliation between the chieftains of the Banu Rabi 'ah in 1264 . Ahmad ibn Tahir , whose demand of a share in Isa 's emirate was denied by Baybars , desisted from further opposition when he was given a smaller emirate elsewhere in Syria . In early 1265 , Isa was dispatched by Baybars to lead a raid against Ilkhanid @-@ held Harran as a diversion for a Mamluk expedition aimed at relieving their Anatolian fortress of al @-@ Birah from an Ilkhanid siege ; al @-@ Birah 's defenders withstood the siege and the Ilkhanids retreated in haste with the arrival of Mamluk forces in February .
In 1268 / 69 , Baybars took hostage some of the Bedouin chieftains ' sons as leverage to ensure that their fathers did not defect to the Ilkhanids . That same year , he halved Isa 's annual grant of 130 @,@ 000 silver dirhams . Baybars ' actions backfired when Isa made it apparent that he would defect to the Ilkhanids ; the Bedouin tribes ' defection to the Ilkhanids was a constant possibility and gave Isa considerable leverage with Baybars . News of this turn of events prompted Baybars to secretly rush to Syria from Egypt on 15 September 1270 and secure Isa 's commitment to the Mamluks . He arrived in Hama on 4 October and summoned Isa . During the meeting , Baybars asked Isa whether rumors of his planned defection were true and Isa answered in the affirmative . Afterward , Baybars honored him and and agreed to free the hostages , restore Isa 's grant , and distribute to the Bedouin tribes large amounts of wheat . As a result , Isa swore an oath of loyalty to Baybars and afterward participated in every Mamluk campaign against the Ilkhanids . The first of these campaigns occurred soon after Isa 's meeting with Baybars , when he led raids against the Ilkhanids in Edessa and Harran in southern Anatolia .
In 1273 , Isa led raids against Ilkhanid @-@ held Anbar in western Iraq on orders from Baybars , possibly to divert Ilkhanid forces from an expedition against Syria . The Mongols at Anbar retreated without resistance as Isa advanced . Months later , in March 1274 , Isa 's forces confronted a group of Khafaja Bedouin in Anbar , though there was no conclusive victory after a daylong battle . Isa commanded a contingent of Baybars ' army in the 1277 campaign against the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan . He visited Egypt later that year with Ahmad ibn Hajji , and the two were well @-@ received by Baybars .
= = = Career during Qalawun 's reign = = =
Baybars died in July 1277 and was succeeded by his sons who ruled in name only while Baybars ' closest subordinate , Qalawun , acted as strongman . Qalawun usurped the throne in 1279 and soon after faced a rebellion by his viceroy in Syria , Sunqur al @-@ Ashqar , who was joined by Isa . The Ilkhanids and their Armenian and Georgian allies took advantage of the intra @-@ Mamluk strife and an invitation by Sunqur to invade Syria , and sacked Aleppo . Isa reprimanded Sunqur for inciting the Muslims ' enemies to attack and urged him not to betray Islam in his late age . Isa persuaded Sunqur not to join the Ilkhanids and the latter escaped Qalawun 's advancing army . Isa also sought to evade Qalawun 's troops and barricaded himself in the desert fortress of al @-@ Rahba . He was replaced by his relative Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr as punishment by Qalawun for supporting Sunqur 's revolt . Muhammad 's appointment was likely in name only , and in any case , Isa reconciled with Qalawun by 1280 , when the sultan received him in Cairo .
During the Second Battle of Homs between the Mamluks and the Ilkhanids in October 1281 , Isa commanded the right flank of the Mamluk army . Under his command were the horsemen of Al Fadl , Al Mira and Banu Kilab among other Syrian tribes . During the course of the battle , the Mamluk right held firm against the Ilkhanid right 's assault and then the Mamluk divisions ( excluding Isa 's right flank ) led a joint counterattack against the Ilkhanid right . It was during this counterattack that Isa 's forces mounted a major assault against the Ilkhanid left ending in a rout . Afterward , the Mamluk divisions destroyed the Ilkhanid center and forced the latter 's retreat , resulting in a decisive Mamluk victory . Isa was praised in Mamluk histories of the battle for securing the Mamluk victory . In reward for his performance , he was made the lord of Palmyra in late 1281 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Isa died in May 1284 . He was succeeded by his son Muhanna ibn Isa , who inherited his emirate , and became the lord of the ancient oasis town of Palmyra . For the next quarter century , Muhanna and another of Isa 's sons , Fadl , held the office of amir al @-@ ʿarab with minor interruptions . Isa 's branch of the Al Fadl dynasty , sometimes referred to as " Al Isa " , served the office through much of the 14th century .
= Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy =
Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy ( ディシディア デュオデシム ファイナルファンタジー , Dishidia Dyuodeshimu Fainaru Fantajī , pronounced " Dissidia Duodecim Final Fantasy " ) is a 2011 fighting game published by Square Enix for the PlayStation Portable as part of the Final Fantasy series . It was developed by the company 's 1st Production Department and released in Japan on March 3 , 2011 . The game is both a prequel and remake of Dissidia Final Fantasy , revealing what occurred before the events of its predecessor , and was released on March 22 , 2011 in North America .
The game initially focuses on the twelfth war between the gods Chaos and Cosmos who have summoned several warriors from parallel worlds to fight for them . Upon ending the twelfth cycle , the game remakes the thirteenth war from the original Dissidia Final Fantasy and adds multiple sidestories . Fights in Dissidia 012 were given the ability to counteract enemies ' strongest attacks by using assisting characters , while navigation is now done through a traditional @-@ styled Final Fantasy world map .
Development of the game started in August 2009 with the Square staff wishing to improve the gameplay from the first game to provide players with more entertaining features as well as balance several parts . Dissidia 012 has been well received , with publications calling it one of the best PlayStation Portable games .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay is largely reminiscent of Dissidia Final Fantasy along with a few changes . The game consists primarily of one @-@ on @-@ one battles , taking place on what is known as a battle map where the two characters duel . Players are able to perform two types of attacks : a Bravery attack and an HP attack . Both characters start with a set amount of Bravery points , the number of Bravery points being equivalent to the amount of damage dealt by an HP attack . Thus , the player must perform several Bravery attacks to steal Bravery points from the opponent so as to increase the power of their HP attack , as Bravery attacks do not cause any damage .
= = = Additional mechanics = = =
The mechanics of the battle system include " EX Revenge " and " Assist . " EX Mode functions exactly the same as the first game by collecting EX Cores around the battle map to fill up the EX gauge and transform the character into a more powerful state , which allows players to perform a powerful EX Burst attack should an HP attack land during EX Mode . The Assist system is a new element to the game which allows the player to summon an additional ally into battle to either assist in attacking the enemy or defend from an oncoming attack . It is performed using the Assist Gauge , which is built up by using Bravery Attacks . Both modes are supposed to balance each other , because when an EX Burst is executed , the opponent 's Assist Gauge is reduced to zero .
The three main countering systems are Assist Breaks , EX Breaks and EX Revenge . An Assist Break is performed by attacking the opponent 's Assist character while the player is in EX Mode , causing him / her to be unable to call out the Assist character for a brief period ; this also passes the stage 's Bravery points to the character . An EX Break is performed by stopping an opponent 's EX Mode through the use of an Assist attack which forces the opponent out of EX Mode , additionally passing the stage 's Bravery points to the player . Lastly , EX Revenge occurs when trying to activate EX Mode while being attacked . While in the first game it would simply halt the opponent 's attack , it now slows down time allowing the player to pummel the opponent instead , though it sacrifices the player 's ability to use an EX Burst as it uses up the entire EX Gauge .
= = = Single @-@ player mode = = =
The biggest addition is within the single @-@ player story mode of the game , taking place on a traditional @-@ styled Final Fantasy world map , with players being able to experience a story while exploring a world with scenarios and events taking place as the story progresses . Players traverse the 3D world map with parties consisting of up to five characters , with players being able to interact in conversations with the characters . When roaming the map , players will encounter enemies known as " Manikins " ; when attacked by an enemy , players will be transported to a battle map where battles will take place . There are specially marked shops on the map . The story mode is also party based , similar to the story progression of Final Fantasy VI . In certain scenarios , parties will be predetermined , but in most cases players are free to select their own party . Alongside the game 's new story mode , the game also includes the first game 's story , which has been remade with the 3D world map as well as additional elements added for the new storyline . Tetsuya Nomura , producer and character designer for the game , has said that both storylines played together would result in approximately 60 hours of gameplay .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
The game 's main story revolves around the twelfth cycle of the eternal conflict between the gods Cosmos and Chaos , who have both summoned several warriors from different worlds to fight for them in " World B " , a mirror dimension to the realm of World A. It features the entire cast of the original Dissidia with new and tweaked abilities . The game also introduces nine new playable characters . Six of the new characters are available from the start of the game : Lightning , a former soldier and the protagonist of Final Fantasy XIII ; Vaan , a sky pirate and the protagonist of Final Fantasy XII ; Laguna Loire , the man who appears in Squall 's dreams and the secondary protagonist of Final Fantasy VIII ; Yuna , Tidus 's love interest and female protagonist of Final Fantasy X ; Kain Highwind , Cecil Harvey 's childhood friend and rival from Final Fantasy IV ; and Tifa Lockhart , Cloud Strife 's childhood friend from Final Fantasy VII . The remaining three characters , which can be unlocked through various means of gameplay , are Prishe , a supporting character from Final Fantasy XI ; Gilgamesh , a recurring villain from Final Fantasy V ; and Feral Chaos ( デスペラードカオス , Desuperādo Kaosu ) , an alternate form of Chaos . Final Fantasy VII 's Aerith Gainsborough is available as an assist @-@ only character ( i.e. not fully playable in the game ) through the purchase of Dissidia 012 Prologus Final Fantasy download on the PlayStation Network .
= = = Story = = =
During the twelfth cycle , the war is turning in favor of Chaos . Therefore , Cosmos entrusts her warriors — the Warrior of Light , Lightning , Vaan , Jecht , Yuna , Zidane , Squall , Laguna , Tifa , Bartz , Cecil , Kain , Onion Knight , and Firion — with the task of retrieving the crystals that will help them defeat Chaos . However , Cosmos was not able to foresee Chaos 's forces employing an unworldly army of crystalline soldiers known as Manikins , which pose a threat due to their ability to negate the gods ' power to revive the warriors after they are killed . Believing their defeat to be inevitable , Kain and the Warrior of Light defeat most of their own allies to stop them from fighting the Manikins and return in an upcoming war . Lightning opposes this plan and leads the other active warriors ( Vaan , Yuna , Laguna , Tifa , and Kain ) to stop the Manikins once and for all by sealing the portal from which they emerge . Though they succeed , Cosmos is reduced to a weakened state after using much of her power to diminish the Manikin army when they attempted to kill her and the Warrior of Light , while Lightning and her group succumb to the Manikins ' power and fade away .
From there , the game retells the events of Dissidia Final Fantasy where returning warriors for Cosmos participate in the thirteenth cycle that ends the conflict between the gods . Once completing the thirteenth cycle , the player also has access to the third and final arc " Confessions of the Creator " in which supporting character Shinryu , a powerful entity that absorbs the warriors ' memories and experiences following each cycle , traps Cosmos ' comrade , Cid of the Lufaine , in a nightmare world where cycles as a punishment for saving Cosmos ' warriors from the thirteenth cycle following Chaos ' defeat . The player selects five characters to fight Feral Chaos , a stronger incarnation of Chaos , and save the imprisoned Cid the nightmare world .
In addition to the main story is a set of " Reports , " most of which follow the other warriors who participate in the thirteenth cycle , explaining their roles before and during that cycle . Prominent characters in these reports include warriors of Cosmos — Terra , Cloud and Tidus — who fight for the side of Chaos during the twelfth cycle , and Chaos ' warrior Jecht , who appears on the side of Cosmos , with the reports detailing how these characters came to switch sides . Furthermore , the Reports cover other events as how the Warrior of Light entered the conflict and met Cosmos 's previous warriors Prishe and Shantotto along with Gilgamesh 's misadventures upon stumbling into World B.
= = Development = =
Ideas for a sequel to Dissidia Final Fantasy were already conceived shortly after its release in Japan with producer Tetsuya Nomura wishing to feature Kain Highwind on it . Development of the game started in August 2009 shortly before the release of Dissidia Final Fantasy Universal Tuning , the international version from the prequel . Director Mitsunori Takahashi stated the team wanted the sequel to have more changes than just new characters . This resulted in changes to gameplay features and the inclusion of new ones . The Assist feature was made to add more entertainment to the fights , as well as to act as a counterbalance to the EX Mode that was the strongest area from the first game . This was done in response to feedback commenting that the EX Mode was too powerful in the original game . The world map was created in order to appeal more the RPG fans . Returning characters had their movesets modified to provide the player with new strategies when fighting . One of the most revised ones was Firion due to feedback from players . Since the original Dissidia had a concrete conclusion , the staff decided to make its story a prequel and encourage players to revisit Dissidia once concluding it .
Choosing new characters proved difficult as the staff chose them based on their popularity and fighting styles . The amount of new characters was restricted due to memory limitations . Vaan 's inclusion met several hardships since his Japanese voice actor , Kouhei Takeda , was busy at the time . They decided to replace Takeda with Kenshō Ono as a result of fan response . Battle system director Takeo Kujiraoka made contact with Hiroyuki Ito regarding the character 's design and moves based on his Final Fantasy XII appearances , which was well received by Ito . While designed by Tetsuya Nomura , various of the new alternative outfits the characters were given were based on artworks by Yoshitaka Amano , another designer from the Final Fantasy series .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Three other Square Enix games , Final Fantasy Trading Card Game , Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix , and The 3rd Birthday , give players access to downloadable content in the form of alternate outfits for Vaan , Cloud Strife , and Lightning , respectively . As of June 16 , 2011 , the PlayStation Network has featured downloadable content for Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , including character costumes , avatars , and BGM packs .
= = Music = =
The music for Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy was composed by Takeharu Ishimoto and features multiple rearrangements from previous Final Fantasy themes by other composers . The American band Kidneythieves also sang the second part of the Feral Chaos ' boss theme song , " God in Fire . " Ishimoto wrote the song and requested Kidneythieves ' collaboration with them to which the band stated it was entertaining . On March 3 , 2011 , Square Enix released the Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy Original Soundtrack featuring a total of three discs with the first one having 44 , the second one 20 , and the third one seven .
Tracklist
= = Reception = =
Upon its first week of release Dissidia 012 sold 286 @,@ 117 units in Japan , topping the Media Create 's charts . It has sold 465 @,@ 198 units in Japan as of January 2012 . It has received positive reception . Dissidia 012 was scored a 38 / 40 by Famitsu , composed of a 10 , 9 , 10 , 9 score by the four reviewers , two points higher than the original . PSM3 Magazine UK gave the game an 8 @.@ 2 , calling it an " improvement on the original , with some great Final Fantasy fan service thrown in . " IGN gave the game a 9 @.@ 0 ( one point higher than the original ) , praising the game 's graphics and improved gameplay , but criticizing its story . Game Informer gave the game a 7 , saying the game did not improve any of the battle system problems of the previous game , although the assist system was a good addition , saying it added an extra dimension to what was missing in the first game . GamesRadar listed it as the ninth best PlayStation Portable game commenting on how it uses elements from famous RPGs , while IGN listed it third with comments aimed towards its gameplay .
= USS Aylwin ( DD @-@ 47 ) =
USS Aylwin ( Destroyer No. 47 / DD @-@ 47 ) was the lead ship of Aylwin @-@ class destroyers built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of John Cushing Aylwin , a U.S. Navy officer killed in action aboard Constitution during the War of 1812 .
Aylwin was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in March 1912 and launched in November . The ship was a little more than 305 ft ( 93 m ) in length , just over 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 036 long tons ( 1 @,@ 053 t ) . She was armed with four 4 in ( 100 mm ) guns and had eight 18 in ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes . Aylwin was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 29 @.@ 5 kn ( 33 @.@ 9 mph ; 54 @.@ 6 km / h )
Aylwin failed to make her contracted speed of 29 @.@ 5 kn ( 33 @.@ 9 mph ; 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) in builder 's trials in August 1913 , but was eventually accepted by the U.S. Navy and commissioned in January 1914 . On 6 April , two sailors on board Aylwin died when she suffered an explosion in her No. 1 fire room . Out of commission while repairs were made , Aylwin was recommissioned in May 1915 and joined the Atlantic Fleet . In October 1916 , she was one of several U.S. destroyers sent to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket .
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Aylwin conducted experiments with Reginald Fessenden until January 1918 . She was then sent overseas to conduct anti @-@ submarine patrols from Queenstown , Ireland , and Plymouth . In December , she accompanied light cruiser Chester on an inspection tour of German Baltic ports . Upon returning to the United States at the end of June 1919 , Aylwin was placed in reserve . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in February 1921 . In July 1933 she dropped her name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 47 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in March 1935 and ordered scrapped in April .
= = Design and construction = =
Aylwin was authorized in March 1911 as the lead ship of the four @-@ ship Aylwin class , which was almost identical to the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized at the same time . Construction of the vessel — like her three sister ships — was awarded to William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia which laid down her keel on 7 May 1912 . On 23 November , Aylwin was launched by sponsor Mrs. Joseph Wright Powell , wife of the assistant to the president of the Cramp shipyard . The ship was the second U.S. Navy ship named for John Cushing Aylwin , a U.S. Navy officer killed in action aboard Constitution during the War of 1812 . As built , the destroyer was 305 ft 3 in ( 93 @.@ 04 m ) in length , 30 ft 4 in ( 9 @.@ 25 m ) abeam , and drew 9 ft 5 in ( 2 @.@ 87 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 036 long tons ( 1 @,@ 053 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 235 long tons ( 1 @,@ 255 t ) when fully loaded .
Aylwin had two steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional pair triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each connected to one of the propeller shafts , for cruising purposes . Four oil @-@ burning boilers powered the engines , which could generate 16 @,@ 000 shp ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) , and it was hoped , move the ship at the design speed of 29 @.@ 5 kn ( 33 @.@ 9 mph ; 54 @.@ 6 km / h ) . However , during builder 's trials conducted in July 1913 , Aylwin failed to reach this speed , and was withdrawn from testing . After sister ship Palmer exceeded the design speed in August with a different propeller design , The Washington Post reported that Aylwin 's propellers would be changed to the new design .
Aylwin 's main battery consisted of four 4 in ( 100 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 lb ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 lb ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yd ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) . Aylwin was also equipped with four twin 18 in ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes .
= = Pre @-@ World War I = =
Aylwin was commissioned into the U.S. Navy on 17 January 1914 , under the command of Lieutenant Commander Leigh C. Palmer , the former naval aide of U.S. Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels . Following a short cruise to Cuba , Aylwin conducted operations off the North Carolina coast in April . On 6 April , she and sister ships Benham and Parker were exercising off the North Carolina coast , about 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) off the Diamond Shoals lightship . An explosion ripped through the forward fire room on Aylwin , injuring three men . Benham loaded the three wounded sailors and sped to the naval hospital at Norfolk , Virginia , while Parker took on the remainder of Aylwin 's crew . One of the injured men died on Benham before landfall was made in Virginia ; another died a short time later . The crews of all three destroyers raised $ 250 to help defray funeral expenses for the widow of one of the men .
Aylwin remained afloat but , unmanned , was towed into Norfolk by Parker and U.S. Navy tug Sonoma , arriving on 7 April . According to a report in The Washington Post , Aylwin made it to port with only five hours of buoyancy to spare . The report described the fore deck of the ship as " badly rent and torn up " and noted that two of the destroyer 's four stacks were knocked out of alignment by the blast , with one askew at a 25 ° angle from its normal position . The newspaper speculated that faulty metal in the No. 1 boiler 's mud drum was the cause of the explosion . Although repairs were estimated to take roughly three months , Aylwin was placed out of commission and remained inactive for more than a year at the Norfolk Navy Yard .
She was recommissioned on 25 May 1915 and assigned to the 6th Division , Torpedo Flotilla , Atlantic Fleet . The ship then cruised along the east coast carrying out routine patrols . Prior to the entrance of the United States into World War I , she served on Neutrality Patrols , trying to protect American and neutral @-@ flagged merchant ships from interference by British or German warships and U @-@ boats . In the course of performaing those duties , Aylwin was at Newport , Rhode Island in early October 1916 . At 05 : 30 on 8 October , wireless reports came in of a German submarine stopping ships near the Lightship Nantucket , off the eastern end of Long Island . After an SOS from the British steamer West Point was received at about 12 : 30 , Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves ordered Aylwin and other destroyers at Newport to attend to survivors . The American destroyers arrived on the scene about 17 : 00 when the U @-@ boat , U @-@ 53 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose , was in the process of stopping the Holland @-@ America Line cargo ship Blommersdijk . Shortly after , U @-@ 53 stopped the British passenger ship Stephano . As Rose had done with three other ships , U @-@ 53 had sunk earlier in the day , he gave passengers and crew aboard Blommersdijk and Stephano adequate time to abandon the ships before sinking the pair . At one point , Rose signaled Aylwin requesting that she move out of the way to allow Stephano to be torpedoed , much to the later chagrin of Lord Beresford , who denounced Aylwin 's compliance as " aiding and abetting " the Germans in a speech in the House of Lords . In total , 226 survivors from U @-@ 53 's five victims were rescued by the destroyer flotilla . Aylwin picked up the crew of Stephano and a number of passengers , later transferring them to destroyer Jenkins for return to Newport .
During the early months of 1917 , Aylwin sailed to Cuban waters for winter maneuvers and returned to the Virginia capes area upon America 's entry into World War I.
= = World War I = =
From June 1917 @-@ January 1918 , the destroyer participated in special experimental work with Reginald Fessenden while operating out of Boston , Massachusetts , and Newport , Rhode Island . On 4 January 1918 , Aylwin sailed for Queenstown , Ireland ; and , shortly after her arrival there , began patrolling out of that port . However , shortly thereafter , she was detached to join British forces operating from Portsmouth and Devonport in conducting antisubmarine patrols .
Aylwin remained in European waters following the end of the war . On 26 December 1918 , she sailed in company with light cruiser Chester for an inspection tour of the Baltic ports of Germany . The ships , which , were operating under the auspices of the Inter @-@ Allied Naval Armistice Commission , were to remove any American prisoners of war or citizens discovered in the German ports .
= = Postwar = =
In May 1919 , the base of operations for U.S. destroyers in European waters was shifted from Brest , France , to Antwerp , and Aylwin , arriving there on 22 May , was the first ship to relocated to the Belgian port . The following month , Aylwin returned to Brest , and departed from there for the United States , arriving at New York on 26 June . She then proceeded to the Philadelphia Navy Yard where she was placed in reserve .
Aylwin was decommissioned at Philadelphia on 23 February 1921 . On 1 July 1933 , she dropped the name Aylwin to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 47 . The ship was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 8 March 1935 , and on 23 April was ordered scrapped in accordance with the terms of the London Naval Treaty .
= HMS Euryalus ( 1901 ) =
HMS Euryalus was a Cressy @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy around 1900 . Badly damaged by multiple accidents while fitting out , she was not completed until 1904 . She became flagship of the Australia Station that year and was reduced to reserve upon her return in 1905 . Recommissioned in 1906 , she became a training ship for the North America and West Indies Station before being placed in reserve with the Third Fleet in 1909 .
Recommissioned at the start of World War I , Euryalus was assigned to the 7th Cruiser Squadron . She became flagship of the Southern Force defending the eastern end of the English Channel from any German attack , shortly after the war began . She was present at the Battle of Heligoland Bight a few weeks after the war began , but saw no combat . She was transferred to convoy escort duties in the Bay of Biscay in late 1914 , before being sent to Egypt in early 1915 . Euryalus was then assigned to support British troops during the Gallipoli Campaign by providing naval gunfire . She covered the landing at Cape Helles in April as well as providing fire support during one subsequent British offensive . She became the flagship of the East Indies Station in January 1916 , until relieved in July 1917 . Later that year she began a conversion into a minelayer at Hong Kong , but this was still incomplete when the war ended . Euryalus returned home in 1919 and was sold for scrap the following year .
= = Design and description = =
Euryalus was designed to displace 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 193 t ) . The ship had an overall length of 472 feet ( 143 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 69 feet 9 inches ( 21 @.@ 3 m ) and a deep draught of 26 feet 9 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 21 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 660 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The engines were powered by 30 Belleville boilers . On their sea trials all of the Cressy @-@ class cruisers , except the lead ship , exceeded their designed speed . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 626 t ) of coal and her complement ranged from 725 to 760 officers and enlisted men .
Her main armament consisted of two breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mk X guns in single gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . They fired 380 @-@ pound ( 170 kg ) shells to a range of 15 @,@ 500 yards ( 14 @,@ 200 m ) . Her secondary armament of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns was arranged in casemates amidships . Eight of these were mounted on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . They had a maximum range of approximately 12 @,@ 200 yards ( 11 @,@ 200 m ) with their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells . A dozen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats , eight on casemates on the upper deck and four in the superstructure . Euryalus also carried three 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and two submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes .
The ship 's waterline armour belt had a maximum thickness of 6 inches ( 152 mm ) and was closed off by 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The armour of the gun turrets and their barbettes was 6 inches thick while the casemate armour was 5 inches thick . The protective deck armour ranged in thickness from 1 – 3 inches ( 25 – 76 mm ) and the conning tower was protected by 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of armour .
= = Construction and service = =
Euryalus , named after the Greek hero Euryalus , was laid down on 18 July 1899 by Vickers , Sons & Maxim at their Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness shipyard . She was launched 20 May 1901 in front of 30 @,@ 000 spectators , and christened by Mrs. Douglas Vickers , wife of one of the directors of the company . On 11 June 1901 , the south side of the Ramsden dock at Barrow caught fire , and was practically destroyed before the flames could be extinguished . The recently launched Euryalus was laying alongside this wharf , and the fire set ablaze the teak wood sheathing of the cruiser . Considerable damage was done to the ship before she was hauled from the pier into the middle of the dock , and her completion was severely delayed . Towed to Cammell Laird at Birkenhead for repairs , the ship slipped off the blocks supporting her in drydock and was severely damaged . While on sea trials , she collided with the auxiliary vessel Traveller on 27 June 1903 at Devonport . Euryalus was finally completed on 5 January 1904 , nearly two years after her sister ships .
Upon commissioning she became flagship of the Australia Station before returning home in 1905 . Reduced to reserve upon her arrival , she was sent to the North America and West Indies Station in 1906 , where she served as a boys ' training ship attached to the 4th Cruiser Squadron for the next three years . Euryalus was assigned to the reserve Third Fleet when she returned home in 1909 . At the outbreak of the war in August 1914 , she was assigned to the 7th Cruiser Squadron , tasked with patrolling the Broad Fourteens of the North Sea in support of a force of destroyers and submarines based at Harwich , which protected the eastern end of the English Channel from German warships attempting to attack the supply route between England and France . On 10 August , she became the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Arthur Christian , commander of the Southern Force , formed to command all of the forces defending the eastern end of the Channel . During the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August , the ship was in reserve off the Dutch coast , and saw no action .
On 20 September 1914 , Euryalus and her sisters Aboukir , Cressy and Hogue were on patrol in the Broad Fourteen . Euryalus had to return to port that morning to recoal . Two days later the three remaining cruisers were sunk by the SM U @-@ 9 and Christian was subsequently relieved of his command . As a result of these losses , she , and her sister Bacchante , were transferred to the 12th Cruiser Squadron to escort ships between England and Gibraltar in early October .
Euryalus and Bacchante were transferred to Egypt in late January 1915 to reinforce the defences of the Suez Canal , although the Turkish raid on the Suez Canal had already been repulsed by the time that they arrived in February . Upon arrival Rear @-@ Admiral Richard Peirse , commander of the East Indies Station , hoisted his flag in Euryalus . By this time the preliminary bombardments of the Turkish defences of the Dardanelles had already occurred , and the sisters were transferred north in March as the Turks east of the Canal proved to be reasonably quiet .
Euryalus became the flagship of Rear Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss in April , after he was put in charge of the main landings at Gallipoli . During the landings at Cape Helles on the morning of 25 April , Euryalus transported three companies of the 1st Battalion of the Lancashire Fusiliers and a platoon of the Royal Naval Division , and then provided fire support to the landing after the soldiers were transferred to their boats for the actual landing on Beach ' W ' . She also bombarded Turkish positions during the Second Battle of Krithia on 6 May . A month later , Wemyss hauled down his flag and resumed his original commanding of the Allied base at Mudros . Euryalus received a brief refit at Malta from 30 December 1915 to 20 January 1916 before proceeding to Egypt to reinforce the defences there .
On 15 January 1916 Wemyss , the new Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , East Indies , hoisted his flag aboard Euryalus . From 3 January 1917 through 24 April , she was refitted at Bombay . On 29 June she bombarded the barracks in the Yemeni town of Hodeida together with the troopship RIM Northbrook of the Royal Indian Marine . Rear Admiral Ernest Gaunt relieved Wemyss as commander @-@ in @-@ chief on 20 July 1917 and transferred his flag to Northbrook on 29 August . In early November , the ship dismounted four 6 @-@ inch and four 12 @-@ pounder guns at Bombay before proceeding to Hong Kong . She was paid off there on 20 December to complete her conversion into a minelayer . This was not finished when the war ended , and she returned to Britain to be laid up at the Nore in April 1919 . Euryalus was sold for scrap on 1 July 1920 and broken up in Germany beginning in September 1922 .
= Lazarus ( Travie McCoy album ) =
Lazarus is the debut album by Gym Class Heroes lead singer Travie McCoy , released on June 8 , 2010 . McCoy announced his plans to pursue a solo career in early 2010 , although he insisted that Gym Class Heroes had not broken up . After creating demos of melancholy and low @-@ tempo songs , McCoy decided to abandon his early material and start over , as he claimed the songs were " too personal " . He began to write more uptempo " party anthems " with lyrical themes of overcoming grief . Musically , McCoy draws from various influences on the record , including hip @-@ hop , reggae , and rock . The album contains collaborations from Bruno Mars , Cee Lo Green , and T @-@ Pain , among others .
Upon its release , Lazarus debuted at number 25 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart with sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies . The lead single from the album was " Billionaire " , which peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 . The songs " Need You " and " We 'll Be Alright " have also been released as singles . Critical response to the album has been mixed to positive , with most critics praising the album 's upbeat songs yet criticizing the overabundance of featured collaborations . Gregory Heaney of AllMusic opined that " Even though every track on the album isn ’ t a keeper , it has some solid additions to any summer playlist and will definitely please fans of Gym Class Heroes . " The album has sold more than 74 @,@ 000 copies as of April 2012 .
= = Background = =
In early 2010 , Gym Class Heroes vocalist Travie McCoy announced that he would be pursuing a solo career . He denied rumors that Gym Class Heroes had broken up , asserting that " Since the inception of Gym Class in 1997 , every member has had another musical outlet , if not three or four . This is just another one of those . " McCoy began writing new material while Gym Class was on the road promoting The Quilt ( 2008 ) . He had originally prepared to record an introspective album of " sad and somber " acoustic songs reflective of his state of mind following his breakup with Katy Perry and his addiction to painkillers . However , he decided to scrap his early material and start over , calling it " too personal " and saying " I didn 't want that to be my first look as a solo artist , " comparing the album to Kanye West 's 808s & Heartbreak ( 2008 ) . He relocated to Miami , Florida , to record new material and recover from his addiction , which helped him to create a more upbeat album because he " want [ ed ] to do something positive . " McCoy decided to officially call himself " Travie " on the album instead of Travis ; he explained that he has been called Travie by friends and family for " as long as [ he ] can remember . " He believes that the new name allows listeners to the become " that much closer " to him and to " feel much more comfortable with calling [ him ] Travie and being part of the family . "
= = Recording and production = =
Lazarus was released after being in the works for a year and a half . McCoy calls the album " The longest , I think , I 've spent on a record in my whole career . " He wished to keep the number of collaborations on the album " kinda tight , " but he plans to work with other artists on remixes of the album . Producers on the album include Bruno Mars , T @-@ Pain , The Smeezingtons , The Stereotypes , Lucas Secon , Oligee and Josh Abraham ; Mars , T @-@ Pain and Cee Lo Green provide guest vocals . Lazarus is mainly influenced by hip @-@ hop , although " at the same time , [ his ] love for live instrumentation is still reflected on the record . " " Billionaire " , the album '
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s first single , was the first song McCoy began work on after abandoning the original material for the album . Working on more uptempo music helped put him in a " different headspace " . He also credits his " really awesome friends " and collaborators on the album for helping him recover from his depressed state during the recording process . McCoy felt uncomfortable with his singing voice as he was more accustomed to rapping ; however , T @-@ Pain encouraged him to sing more on the album and overcome his insecurities .
McCoy " took a lot of time " with the track listing of the album to make sure the album was cohesive and felt like a " ride " . He said of the album 's writing process " With any project , I just go in and blindly start writing songs and then find out which way we want to go with it . This one took a bit longer to find the lane . " Despite the album 's long gestation period , McCoy was able to write some of the songs at a very rapid pace . The song " After Midnight " was written , recorded , and mixed in less than a half an hour . He began by recording himself humming the song 's melody and creating a constant loop that repeated throughout the song , and then recorded his verses over the track . McCoy also selected the guest appearances for the album quickly after writing individual parts of songs , choosing artists he felt would work best with the musical style he had in mind . The hook of " Dr. Feel Good " was written by Bruno Mars , and upon hearing Mars sing it , McCoy decided that Cee Lo Green would be a good candidate to sing the hook , as McCoy had idolized Green since his teenage years after listening to him on the song " Git Up , Git Out " from OutKast 's debut album Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik ( 1994 ) .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
With Lazarus , McCoy intended to create an album of mostly uptempo , positive songs . During his time in Miami , he was exposed to EDM genres , which influenced Lazarus ' sound . McCoy stated " If you 're looking for an introspective , in @-@ depth look into my personal life or my deepest emotions , this is definitely not the record . It 's just a record you can put on , turn up , roll the windows down , and drive around to . " He intended to save more personal themes for Gym Class Heroes ' subsequent release , The Papercut Chronicles II ( 2011 ) .
The album 's opening track , " Dr. Feel @-@ Good " , which features Cee Lo Green , has been referred to as a " top @-@ down summer anthem " and features hip @-@ hop beats and funk @-@ inspired guitar riffs . Emily Zemler of Alternative Press opined that " Superbad ( 11 : 34 ) " sounds like " T @-@ Pain covering Linkin Park " . The song was inspired by an inside joke between McCoy and a friend which involved superstition that looking at a digital clock at 11 : 34 is bad luck , as it reads " hell " upside down . He added , " To me , it 's really anthemic and it 's a confidence booster as well . When you listen to this song , it gets you prepared to do anything . " " Billionaire " , the album 's lead single , displays reggae influences ; Gregory Heaney of AllMusic compared the song to Sublime .
" Need You " has been described as an " R & B @-@ tinged pop rocker " comparable to the work of Justin Timberlake . McCoy noted the contrast between the song 's subject matter and musical style , as the song touches upon failed relationships in an uptempo manner and " explodes " as it reaches the chorus . In the same vein of " Need You " , McCoy described " Critical " , featuring Tim William , as " really personal , introspective subject matter put into an upbeat pop song . It 's kind of like a rock song , but at the same time , it has this really shimmery , cute vibe to it . " " Akidagain " features a children 's choir and samples Ahmad 's " Back in the Day " . " We 'll Be Alright " , which McCoy refers to as a " party anthem " , samples " Alright " by Supergrass . He described the album 's closer " Don 't Pretend " as " probably the most personal " song on the album ; during recording of the song , he suffered from allergies and had difficulty breathing , which " added to the emotional vibe of the song " .
= = = Lyrics = = =
McCoy drew from various lyrical inspirations on the album . The subject matter often deals with topics such as partying , personal insecurities , and overcoming grief . McCoy explained that the opening song " Dr. Feel Good " is about " escapism through music " and that it expresses how he felt about recovering from drug addiction and depression . " Superbad ( 11 : 34 ) " is about McCoy 's experiences on the road , considering the song to be his " theme song " . Bruno Mars came up with the lyrical concept for " Billionare " during a trip to London in which he was given £ 250 ( $ 350 ) by his record label to spend for 11 days . He found the amount of money to be insufficient , and explained " We were like , ' Is this the biggest mistake we 've ever made ? We thought we were broke in California ; what are we going to do here ? ' So we 've got no money , and I 'm walking the streets and came up with , ' I wanna be a billionaire , so frickin ' bad . ' " With the song , McCoy intended to avoid " superficial " lyrics in the wake of an economic recession , and added " There ’ s something to sing about here ; if I was in the position to have a ridiculous amount of money , would I be selfish or selfless ? ’ I just took that concept and ran with it . " " Need You " describes a situation in which a person wants to start a new relationship , but still needs time to heal .
" Critical " is an apocalyptic @-@ themed song inspired by natural disasters such as Hurricane Katrina . McCoy explained that the song discusses these subjects in " a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek way . Basically , if the world was to end tonight , fuck it--lets have a beer and watch it all go down . " " Akidagain " is reflective of McCoy 's childhood and pop culture shifts that influenced his life , featuring three verses ; in the first verse , he discusses his early childhood , the second verse is about his teenage years , and the final verse meditates on his life as an adult . " We 'll Be Alright " shares lyrical themes with Michael Jackson 's " Off the Wall " . McCoy says that the song is about " not caring about what people think and just ignoring your insecurities . " McCoy was given the idea for " The Manual " after reading music blogs that were critical of his music . He explained " It 's so easy to get online and lose all your inhibitions and complain and nag about what 's wrong with music . But if you 're going to do that , offer some way to change things . Or make music . A lot of the people aren 't even artists . The title of ' The Manual ' is asking if there is a manual out there on how to do things the right way , then please show it to me and I 'll read it five times over . " " After Midnight " was inspired by the movie Gremlins , and the idea that seeing gremlins after midnight means " trouble " .
= = Packaging and title = =
McCoy chose the name for the album , which is also his middle name , after his experiences in charity work in HIV awareness in South Africa , India , and the Philippines in the summer of 2009 that " really changed [ his ] outlook on life . " Lazarus of Bethany is the subject of a miracle in the New Testament of the Bible in which Jesus restores him back to life after being dead for four days . McCoy said of the name " I never really thought about how synonymous it was with the biblical reference with the fact that my middle name is Lazarus . I feel like I ’ ve been dead and resurrected on many occasions . I went public with a lot of dark things that people usually keep in the closet like drug addiction and what not . " The album was originally titled " The Lazarus Project " , but the name had to be changed due to the 2008 drama film of the same name .
The album 's artwork , designed by Brent Rollins and Alex R. Kirzhner , features a recurring theme of clouds and city skylines . Amber McDonald of The Daily Loaf felt that the artwork accurately portrayed the album 's key themes : " This convincingly fun record is filled with lyrical introspection and , in spite of all its hip @-@ hop , pop @-@ hook , pay @-@ it @-@ forward @-@ ness , there are gray clouds that work to keep the mood of the album realistic and relatable to the worlds of listeners . After all , the album cover art is of a gray backdrop with clouds , not sunshine and blue skies . "
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was released on June 8 , 2010 . McCoy aimed for a June release because he believes that summer is " when most of the memorable music drops . You want music to have a good time to , music to connect to . You wanna play it at the party . "
On April 28 , 2010 , McCoy embarked on the Too Fast For Love tour with Cobra Starship and 3OH ! 3 , featuring a backup band that includes Gym Class Heroes drummer Matt McGinley . He planned to tour extensively to promote the album in order to make the album " a household object — and hopefully not a coaster . " Starting from October 18 , 2010 , McCoy set off on his first solo European headline tour along with Bruno Mars who supported the tour throughout . The majority of dates took place at smaller venues throughout the United Kingdom . On March 17 , 2011 , he began performing throughout the United States and Canada on the Sgt. Schlepper 's Who Needs Hearts Club Band Tour featuring Black Cards .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In early May 2010 , McCoy released " Billionaire " as the album 's lead single , which debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at 92 . The album , released a month later on June 8 , 2010 , debuted at number 25 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart with sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies . On June 26 , 2010 , the album reached the apex of its sales , peaking at number 25 on the Billboard 200 and number 11 on the Billboard Digital Albums charts . On August 21 , 2010 Lazarus was released in Europe and entered the UK Album Charts , peaking at number 69 .
" Billionaire " continued to be successful , peaking at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song was positioned at number six on the Billboard " Songs of Summer 2010 " chart . The next single , " Need You " , was released to mainstream radio on September 14 , 2010 , and peaked at number 36 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart . " We 'll Be Alright " was also released as a single by Pete Wentz on May 17 , 2010 on his blog . However , the single failed to make an impact on any of the Billboard charts .
= = Critical response = =
Reviews of the album were generally mixed to positive . Spin 's Mikael Wood gave the album 3 ½ out of 5 stars and commended its pop @-@ oriented sound , stating " most of Lazarus is so bright you 'll need ( designer ) shades " . Gregory Heaney of AllMusic called " Akidagain " the " real highlight of the album " and stated that " Even though every track on the album isn ’ t a keeper , it has some solid additions to any summer playlist and will definitely please fans of Gym Class Heroes . " Jerry Shriver of USA Today praised the album 's " all @-@ night party gems " and referred to " The Manual " as the album 's " true keeper " and praised the song 's introspective lyrics . Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard agreed with Shriver about " The Manual " , and praised the album 's " relatable themes " further commenting that " The 10 @-@ track album 's inclusion of reggae @-@ influenced beats and dance jams may polarize listeners , but its snappy wordplay and deep introspection will appeal to a wide demographic of music lovers . " Emily Zemler of Alternative Press awarded the album four out of five stars and deemed McCoy 's singing to be " the most engaging thing " about the album : " Not only are the tracks incredibly catchy , but McCoy belts out his choruses like he 's just discovered his voice . "
Nathan Slavik of DJBooth.com called Lazarus a " smile @-@ inducing , high quality hip @-@ pop album from a distinctly creative and original voice " , praising the record 's uptempo yet dark songs . Entertainment Weekly 's Brad Wete gave the album a B + and commended McCoy for keeping with Gym Class 's hip @-@ hop / rock style , calling the album " a summery set that serves as a nice break from Class . " Drew Beringer of AbsolutePunk enjoyed the album 's upbeat songs and noted a departure from McCoy 's earlier work , commenting " Full of summer time jams , it 's hard to imagine this is the same guy who rapped about desolate times and experiences in his band ’ s second album The Papercut Chronicles ( 2005 ) ... This is not a world @-@ beater by any means , but it shows some growth in McCoy as an artist and lets him get out his ideas before recording and releasing the next Gym Class Heroes album . "
However , not all reviews were positive . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone gave the album 2 ½ out of 5 stars , calling his crooning @-@ style rapping " more unctuous than charming " . Blare Magazine criticized the over @-@ abundance of guest appearances and likened the album to " a newborn child forced out of a hip @-@ hop womb by 13 different fathers " , while opining that McCoy still demonstrates musical potential . Mike Diver of the BBC was highly critical of the disc , noting that " McCoy employs too many disparate styles ... for Lazarus to hold any attention for more than a fleeting period . " Although Diver praised Cee Lo Green 's " spotlight @-@ stealing " contribution to " Dr. Feel Good " , he referred to " We 'll Be Alright " as " repulsive " and the reggae stylings of " Billionaire " as " horribly dated " . Andy Gill of The Independent felt that although the disc had songs with potential to be hits such as " Dr. Feelgood " and " We 'll Be Alright " , the remainder of the songs " expose McCoy 's shortcomings " and the album is " unlikely to make him a household name " .
= = Track listing = =
Sample credits
" Akidagain " interpolates " Back in the Day " by Ahmad .
" We 'll Be Alright " contains a sample of " Alright " by Supergrass .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Lazarus adapted from Allmusic .
= = Chart performance = =
= Clarence 13X =
Clarence Edward Smith ( February 22 , 1928 – June 13 , 1969 ) , better known by his assumed names Clarence 13X and Allah , was an American leader and founder of the Five @-@ Percent Nation . He was born in Virginia , and moved to New York City as a young man before serving in the United States Army during the Korean War . After returning to New York , he learned that his wife had joined the NOI and followed her , taking the name Clarence 13X . He served in the group as a security officer , martial arts instructor , and student minister before leaving for an unclear reason in 1963 . He enjoyed gambling , which was condemned by the NOI , and disagreed with the NOI 's teachings that Wallace Fard Muhammad was a divine messenger .
After leaving the NOI , Clarence 13X formed a new group with other former members . He concluded that all black men were divine and took the name Allah to symbolize this status . He rejected the belief in an invisible God , teaching that God could be found within each black man . In his view , women were " earths " that complemented and nurtured men ; he believed that they should be submissive to men . He and a few assistants retained some NOI teachings and pioneered novel interpretations of them . They devised teachings about the meaning of letters and numerals : understanding the meaning of each letter and number was said to provide deep truths about God and the universe . Clarence 13X referred to his new movement as the Five Percenters , referencing a NOI teaching that only five percent of the population knew and promoted the truth about God . One way that he distinguished his group from his previous faith was by rejecting dress codes or strict behavioral guidelines — he allowed the consumption of alcohol , and at times , the use of illegal drugs .
Clarence 13X was shot by an unknown assailant in 1964 but survived the attack . After an incident several months later in which he and several of his followers vandalized stores and fought with police , he was arrested and placed in psychiatric care . He was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia . He referred to himself as " Allah " , which had become his preferred name . He was released from custody after a 1966 ruling by the Supreme Court placed limits on confinement without trial . Although he initially taught his followers to hate white people , he eventually began to cooperate with white city leaders . They gave him funding for a night school , and in return , he tried to prevent violence in Harlem . Clarence 13X was fatally shot in June 1969 ; the identity of his killer is unknown . The mayor of New York City and several other prominent leaders expressed condolences to his followers . Although the Five Percenters faltered in the immediate aftermath of his death , the movement rebounded after new leadership emerged . The group took a non @-@ hierarchical approach to leadership , and no single leader replaced Clarence 13X . He has been held in high regard by Five Percenters , who celebrate his birthday as a holiday .
= = Early life and Nation of Islam = =
Clarence Edward Smith was born on February 22 , 1928 , and raised in Danville , Virginia , with his five brothers and one sister . During his childhood , Virginia was racially segregated , and he witnessed incidents of racism , including a fight between his father and a white man that was sparked by racial tensions . In 1946 , he moved with his mother to New York City , where they settled in Harlem . He attended only two years of high school .
In 1949 , Smith fathered a child , Clarence Jowers , with Willieen Jowers . Although he married a woman named Dora Smith in 1950 , he fathered another child , Otis Jowers , with Willieen in 1951 ; he also had several sons and daughters with Dora . Smith joined the U.S. Army in the early 1950s and was stationed in Korea from 1952 to 1954 , where he served as an infantryman in the Korean War . After returning to the U.S. , he lived in Harlem and served in the United States Army Reserve until 1960 . During his military service , he became skilled in karate .
Dora Smith embraced the Nation of Islam ( NOI ) while her husband was away and he converted after returning to New York . By 1961 , he had registered at Mosque No. 7 and changed his name to Clarence 13X in accordance with NOI practice . Before his conversion , he often smoked marijuana and gambled , activities forbidden by the NOI . After joining the group , he studied the NOI 's doctrines and quickly progressed within their organizational structure , possibly thanks to skills learned in the military . His responsibilities included teaching martial arts and serving on the Fruit of Islam security team . He was also recognized as a skilled speaker and reached the rank of " student minister " at Mosque No. 7 . By 1963 , he had come to the attention of the FBI — informants recorded his presence at rallies led by Malcolm X.
The early 1960s were a turbulent period for the NOI ; unrest was caused by conflicts between leaders Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X. Around that time , Clarence 13X became disenchanted with the organization , although the root of his qualms is not known . NOI members have offered contradictory accounts of the events that caused his exit and whether he left voluntarily . His departure has been variously attributed to doubts about the NOI 's theology , violations of their moral code , objections to the luxurious lifestyles of their senior leadership , or Malcolm X 's distrust of him . Dora Smith elected to stay with the group , prompting the couple 's separation . Before leaving the NOI , Clarence 13X had begun to doubt their teaching that Wallace Fard Muhammad was a divine messenger . He believed that the NOI 's teachings were contradictory because they taught that God is black but encouraged reverence of Fard Muhammad , who was not of exclusively African descent . Clarence 13X concluded that divinity was found in all black men , rather than in a single person . Several times before he left the NOI , he was censured by leadership for these assertions . His friend John 37X elected to leave with him . Malcolm X also left the NOI in 1963 and remained on good terms with Clarence 13X . Clarence 13X did not join Malcolm X 's newly created group , Muslim Mosque , Inc .
= = Founding the Five Percenters = =
After leaving the NOI , Clarence 13X and John 37X continued to study the group 's teachings , sometimes while smoking marijuana . They assumed new names : Clarence 13X took Allah , and John 37X , Abu Shahid . After reading an NOI book with 34 riddles , known as the " Lost @-@ Found Lessons " , John 37X concluded that numbers represented specific concepts , such as knowledge or wisdom . He referred to this system as " living mathematics " . During its development , he was imprisoned on firearms charges . While John 37X was in prison , Clarence 13X taught a system of beliefs he referred to as " supreme wisdom " , which he saw as the core of Islam , to groups of young men . He was assisted by his friend James Howard , with whom he developed a modified version of living mathematics , " supreme mathematics " , and an accompanying doctrine about letters , the " supreme alphabet " . The development of these systems , considered a " divine science " by adherents , may have been influenced by the teachings of Sufism ; like some schools of Sufism , they found esoteric meanings in the alphabet . David Smydra of The Boston Globe compares these teachings to Kabbalah ; Felicia Miyakawa of Middle Tennessee State University sees similarities to Gnosticism and Kemetism .
Clarence 13X developed novel teachings , assigning backronyms to familiar words . He stated that the letters of the word " Allah " stood for " arm , leg , leg , arm , head " , signifying the human body . This was said to prove that humanity held a divine nature . He named parts of the New York area after locations in the Middle East that are significant to Islam : Harlem was referred to as Mecca , and Brooklyn , Medina . Other disaffected NOI members , including some who served the Fruit of Islam , were soon drawn to his burgeoning group . Several people from the NOI who were unwilling to choose between loyalty to Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X also joined ; Clarence 13X incorporated aspects of the theology taught by the feuding leaders . In the group 's early years , some Five Percenters attended NOI events , and Clarence 13X 's theology had much in common with the teachings of the NOI , although there were notable differences . He taught his followers that he was an incarnation of God , and they each were gods . His followers were thus encouraged to look within themselves in their search for God . Clarence 13X taught that there was an inherent greatness in those of African descent not found in Europeans and their descendants , echoing statements made by Elijah Muhammad . He did not enforce the NOI 's strict moral rules : one way that the group appealed to potential converts was by allowing many practices condemned by the NOI , including gambling , alcohol , and drug use . Clarence 13X told his followers to avoid developing addictions but that drug use was not inherently wrong . He strictly forbade the consumption of pork , arguing that pigs were similar to animals that are not eaten in the United States , such as rats and dogs , and hence should not be consumed . Owing to their belief that black men are gods , the group allowed its members to make choices about clothing and most aspects of diet .
Early members of the group often proselytized on street corners for hours , and Clarence 13X 's assistants led classes about the group 's teachings , strictly enforcing study habits . He instructed his followers to memorize his teachings on the significance of numbers and letters . Once they did so , they were said to gain an understanding of profound truths . These lessons were taught in a form that resembled catechisms . Rather than hold services in mosques , they gathered for monthly meetings known as parliaments , which were often held outdoors . Attendees were given wide freedom to speak in a system that Ted Swedenburg of the University of Arkansas has compared to Quaker meetings .
Clarence 13X 's group was initially known as the " Suns of Almighty God Allah " or the " Blood Brothers " . After Malcolm X 's death , the group became known as the " Five Percenters " or the " Five Percent Nation " . The name was drawn from the NOI 's claim to be the five percent of the black community who knew and promoted the truth about God ; Clarence 13X considered his movement to be the five percent of the NOI that still held to truth and integrity . The other 95 percent were said to be unaware of the truth or corrupt . Clarence 13X assembled an inner circle of assistants , nine of whom are referred to by Five Percenters as the " First Born " : they are said to embody his attributes . The assistants were assigned to spread the group 's teachings to younger people , many of whom took African names , including some from non @-@ Islamic societies . Clarence 13X taught Afrocentrism to his disciples and often wore a dashiki ; male Five Percenters members frequently wore tasseled kufis , and female members wore colorful African head wraps . Some Five Percenters supported themselves via drug dealing and petty theft ; others intentionally committed minor legal infractions , hoping to proselytize to others who had been arrested .
Clarence 13X 's followers saw him as a divine messenger and referred to him as " Father Allah " . This elevated him to a higher position than Elijah Muhammad , who had deemed himself the " Messenger of Allah " . Eventually , Clarence 13X stopped identifying himself as a Muslim and spoke out against the reverence of Fard Muhammad , casting him as a " mystery God " . He rejected the idea that God is invisible , which he felt weakened people . He encouraged his followers to learn about and respect other spiritual traditions .
Although female converts were initially referred to as " nurses " , Clarence 13X renamed them " earths " in 1967 . He taught that women were not gods , as he believed that they were created by man and did not possess creative power . In his view , women could nurture , but only men could make children . Women were said to resemble the Earth in their ability to sustain life . Clarence 13X had a patriarchal philosophy , and the Five Percenters were initially overwhelmingly male . He spoke in favor of fathers ' arranging their daughters ' marriages and told women to embody submission by serving their husbands as God . Polygamy or serial monogamy were allowed , and legal marriage was discouraged . Clarence 13X encouraged his followers to have many children and discouraged the use of birth control .
= = Opposition = =
NOI leaders were angry that Clarence 13X freely taught portions of their doctrine that they only revealed to committed members ; although one of their captains repeatedly asked him to stop , he refused . Clarence 13X also experienced conflict within his family : his children did not revere him , and hostility quickly developed between core Five Percenters and some of his sons when Willeen Jowers brought them to visit him .
On December 9 , 1964 , Clarence 13X was shot twice in the torso while at a popular gathering place in the basement of a Harlem tenement . He was brought to Harlem Hospital , where he was treated and released . He later claimed that he died and returned to his body a short time later . In a 2007 study of the Five Percent movement , American journalist Michael Muhammad Knight speculates that this caused his followers to see him as a Christ figure . The identity and motivation of the shooter are unknown ; Knight notes that law enforcement and rival Muslim groups both had a motive to attack Clarence 13X . Some Five Percenters have speculated that the attack was part of a robbery attempt or retaliation for unpaid gambling debts . Clarence 13X 's companions reported that he instructed them not to seek revenge on the shooter and to forswear violence . While recuperating from his wounds , Clarence 13X sought to distinguish his movement from other Islamic movements , abandoning Arabic greetings for English expressions .
The Five Percenters soon attracted attention from media and law enforcement . Local papers published negative coverage of the group , casting them as a violent hate group or a street gang . The New York Amsterdam News reported that Clarence 13X had threatened to kill white children if his group did not receive a government subsidy . In 1965 , the FBI initiated an investigation of his group and may have provided sensationalized rumors to the press . That year , FBI director J. Edgar Hoover deemed Clarence 13X as a " Harlem rowdy " , and feared that he would form ties with more dangerous groups . The FBI developed a detailed file on Clarence 13X ; in 1967 , Hoover described him as a potential threat to the President of the U.S. , and sent a detailed folder about him to the United States Secret Service .
= = Arrest = =
After Malcolm X 's death in 1965 , Clarence 13X mourned his loss but did not attend his funeral . In May 1965 , while visiting the site of Mosque No. 7 , then closed , Clarence 13X and several of his companions were told to leave by a police officer . They left , began to vandalize nearby buildings , and blocked the street near the former headquarters of Muslim Mosque , Inc . More police arrived and subdued Clarence 13X after an altercation , bringing him into custody with several of his followers . After being arrested , he refused to identify himself and was charged with assault and drug possession . About 60 of his followers attended his arraignment , but were removed from the court after shouting " Peace " . Clarence 13X proclaimed his innocence and announced his intent to defend himself in court . He told the judge that he was Allah , and that the city would face grave judgment if he were not released . The judge disregarded his prognostication and set his bail at $ 9 @,@ 500 . At a court date in June , about 50 Five Percenters protested outside the court ; afterwards , several were arrested on charges of making Molotov cocktails . In July , the court sent Clarence 13X to Bellevue Hospital Center for a psychiatric examination . While in the hospital , he made a few disciples and communicated with some followers through a hospital window . Under his instructions , Five Percenters resisted future NOI leader Louis Farrakhan 's attempts to convert them .
Knight states that Clarence 13X 's psychiatric results were not processed for an unusually long time ; he posits that the delay was due to FBI involvement and argues that Clarence 13X was a political prisoner . In November 1965 , Clarence 13X was ruled incompetent to stand trial and committed to the New York State Department of Mental Hygiene , which placed him at the Matteawan State Hospital for the Criminally Insane . After he declared himself Allah and a " Master Gambler " , the doctors concluded that he had schizophrenic reaction , paranoid type with delusions of grandeur ; he faced indefinite commitment . Many Five Percenters and their converts traveled to the hospital to meet with him and receive instruction . He also proselytized to fellow inmates , converting one young white man , who later became a committed follower .
While Clarence 13X was in prison , the Five Percenters continued to proselytize and teach their doctrines . He instructed his followers to adopt names different from those used in the NOI to differentiate their group . After attaining a certain degree of knowledge of the group 's doctrines , members were allowed to adopt the surname " Allah " and sometimes " God " as a first name . This was in recognition of Clarence 13X 's teachings that black men were gods , and that each member should worship himself . His followers often took the name Allah , but would refrain from referring to themselves as such in his presence , in deference to his authority . After a decision ( Pate v. Robinson ) by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1966 , limits were placed on the confinement of mentally ill criminals , causing many to be released . Clarence 13X was consequently released in March 1967 .
= = Cooperation and conflict = =
In mid @-@ 1967 , New York City mayor John Lindsay sought to develop closer ties with leaders of impoverished neighborhoods . Prompted in part by concerns voiced by the New York Police Department ( NYPD ) , the mayor dispatched one of his aides , Barry Gottehrer , to meet with Clarence 13X . Belying his fearsome reputation , Clarence 13X had a congenial meeting with Gottehrer , during which he requested more bus routes and school funding . Clarence 13X subsequently attended a meeting of black leaders at Gracie Mansion , the mayor 's official residence . The city provided buses for Five Percenters to travel to a Long Island park , and with help from the National Urban League , obtained an abandoned storefront for use as a school . It became known as the Allah School in Mecca and aimed to prepare young people for college preparatory schools . Tensions soon formed between the Five Percenters and the school 's overseers ; Clarence 13X desired more control over the curriculum and had difficulty finding qualified teachers . Police regularly visited the school to ensure that the students were not being radicalized . In 1975 , Gottehrer chronicled his friendship with Clarence 13X in The Mayor 's Man . The book was well received by some Five Percenters , who republished portions of it after it went out of print . They have not reprinted the entire book , owing to a passage in which Gottehrer relates that Clarence 13X offered to allow him to sleep with his teenage daughter .
In February 1968 , Lindsay estimated that there were about 500 to 700 Five Percenters . Some of Clarence 13X 's followers attempted to create break @-@ away groups , proclaiming themselves prophets and starting their own movements . They generally retained aspects of Five Percenter doctrine with different emphases .
After the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr. in April 1968 , Lindsay feared that rioting would occur in Harlem . He traveled to the neighborhood to express condolences ; Clarence 13X and his followers were among those who accompanied him as he walked the streets . Clarence 13X also instructed his followers to try to prevent violence and looting . He was commended by the city 's leadership for his efforts , and they subsequently agreed to help him publish a book of Five Percenter teachings and portions of the Quran . Willieen Jowers recalled that Clarence 13X admitted that his previous teachings about racial hatred were wrong around this time . He later described himself as " neither anti @-@ white nor pro @-@ black " and saw some of his white contacts with the city as allies in the advancement of his teachings . His white convert was released from state custody and joined his teacher in Harlem during the February 1969 nor 'easter . He was accepted as a Five Percenter , as Clarence 13X maintained that " civilization " — rather than race — was valued by the group . Clarence 13X made possibly contradictory statements about whether white individuals could be reformed . Contrary to his radical reputation , he endorsed some conservative positions in the late 1960s , including capital punishment , respect for the U.S. flag , and American involvement in Vietnam . He also allowed his supporters to attend Christmas celebrations . Knight notes that these shifts may have been intended to decrease suspicions of law enforcement . Clarence 13X was then allowed to visit a juvenile detention center to speak to young Five Percenters and won some concessions from the institution 's leadership . Some secular black leaders disliked him , owing to his supportive comments about the mayor and neglect of revolutionary rhetoric . On one occasion , he was invited to address an audience of black Marxists , then spoke to them about numerology .
Around 1968 , Clarence 13X fathered a son with a young convert named Gusavia . That year , Gloria Steinem published an article about Clarence 13X in New York magazine . She blamed the NOI for the previous attempt to kill him , arguing that they were angered by his claim to be Allah and thus above Elijah Muhammad . Clarence 13X also received coverage from international media , including a Canadian television program .
= = Death = =
By 1969 , Clarence 13X became very tired and slept little . He feared that he would be killed and instructed his followers to remain strong if he died . On June 12 , he spent time with several of his disciples at their school . He left the school between two and three a.m. on June 13 and then gambled for an hour or two . As was his occasional practice , he traveled to Dora Smith 's house to rest . He was ambushed by three assailants who fatally shot him while he was in the lobby of her apartment building . That morning , several people from the mayor 's office met with his family , and the mayor later visited the Five Percenters ' school to express condolences .
Clarence 13X 's funeral was held four days after his death . It was attended by about 400 people and was followed by a procession through Harlem . His death put the leadership of his movement in question — there was no clear successor . At that time , his followers were primarily teenagers , and several of his top leaders subsequently struggled with drug addiction .
Most local media sources gave Clarence 13X positive coverage in the wake of his death . The Daily News connected his murder with the recent death of NOI activist Charles Kenyetta , casting them as part of a " Muslim War " . The mayor believed that the NYPD told them this and was angered by their claim . Louis Farrakhan denied culpability , maintaining that he had good relations with Clarence 13X . NYPD investigators suspected that he was killed by members of an extortion ring , possibly connected to the Fair Play for Cuba Committee . In August 1969 , an arrest was made in connection with his murder . The suspect denied involvement , and charges were soon dropped . Five Percenters have posited different culprits , including the CIA , the NOI , or a disgruntled follower .
= = Legacy and reception = =
Five Percenter membership plunged after Clarence 13X 's death , but rebounded in 1970 after new leadership emerged and revitalized the group . After his death , the group was not dominated by a single leader . This may have been a result of their teaching that all black men are gods , which rendered authoritarian leadership untenable .
Knight doubts that Clarence 13X set out to build a movement or a culture , but after his death , the movement expanded and gained converts across the United States . Five Percenters have celebrated Clarence 13X 's birthday as a holiday , and minimized the descriptions of his flaws in their accounts of his life . Numerous apocryphal stories from his life have circulated among the group ; some accounts have claimed that he gambled only as a means to reach others with his teachings . He did not leave behind a record of his teachings , and the group had few formalized tenets at the time of his death . In the following decades , the group 's doctrine became more complicated .
Akbar Muhammad of the NOI described Clarence 13X as " confused " , although relations between the Five Percenters and NOI leaders have improved over time . Clarence 13X 's teachings may have influenced the doctrines of Dwight York , founder of the Nuwaubian Nation . York saw Clarence 13X 's teachings as an insufficient , incomplete path .
Lawyer Sidney Davidoff , one of Lindsay 's assistants , deemed Clarence 13X " a little bit snake @-@ oil salesman and a little bit crazy , but no more unstable than anyone else preaching a gospel on the street corner . " Davidoff saw Clarence 13X 's black supremacist teachings as a way to instill confidence in young people . Knight states that Clarence 13X went from a " ' Harlem rowdy ' to [ a ] legitimate community leader " , and Lindsay later cast Clarence 13X 's role in the city as similar to that of Al Sharpton . Mattias Gardell of Uppsala University views Clarence 13X as a " gifted philosopher " .
= Diva ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Diva " is a song by American singer and songwriter Beyoncé . The song was written and produced by Shondrae " Bangladesh " Crawford , Sean Garrett , and Beyoncé herself for her third studio album I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . It was released as the album 's third overall single in the United States alongside the third international single " Halo " . " Diva " is an R & B song , which is set in a hip hop groove , and carries a stuttering beat . Its lyrics deliver messages of independence and female empowerment . The song boasts a beat and a bassline similar to those of another Bangladesh 2008 production , " A Milli " by American rapper , Lil Wayne ; critics coined " Diva " as a " female companion " to the latter .
" Diva " received mixed to positive reviews from critics , who had polarized opinions concerning its affiliation with " A Milli " . Despite being released to rhythmic and urban radios only in the US , the song peaked at number 19 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , topped the US Hot Dance Club Play chart , and attained a high point of number three on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Diva " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Although it was only officially released in the US , the song appeared on the singles charts in Australia , Ireland , the Netherlands , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom .
The accompanying music video for " Diva " was directed by Melina Matsoukas . It shows the singer and backup dancers in a warehouse , and presents a choreography similar to that of her previous single " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ( 2008 ) . Beyoncé also appears in different Thierry Mugler couture pieces . The video received mixed response from critics , who were not pleased by its concept as they believed it portrayed Beyoncé 's alter ego Sasha Fierce ineffectively . It was ranked at number 13 on BET 's Notarized : Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown . Although Beyoncé did not perform the song in any televised appearances , it was a part of her set list on the I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) and her revue show , Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live ( 2012 ) .
= = Background and release = =
" Diva " was written and produced by Beyoncé , Shondrae " Bangladesh " Crawford , and Sean Garrett . According to an interview that Bangladesh gave with Rap @-@ Up , the song was originally intended to be included on the track @-@ listing of his own mixtape after choosing a female artist to contribute vocals to " Diva " . However , he decided to play the song to American R & B singer Keyshia Cole , who liked the beat , but not the whole track . She eventually declined to record the song , but later said she would sing the song , however , this time Beyoncé also wanted it for her then upcoming album . Bangladesh ultimately gave " Diva " to Beyoncé and composed another song for Cole . About one month after the release of I Am ... Sasha Fierce , American R & B singer Ciara , who was working on her third studio album , Fantasy Ride ( 2009 ) , remixed " Diva " , which was supposed to be included on her Fantasy Ride Mixtape .
" Ego " and " Halo " were initially planned for simultaneous release in the US , following the 2008 dual lead singles " If I Were a Boy " and " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . However , the release of " Ego " was scrapped and replaced with " Diva " , which was taken from a different disc of I Am ... Sasha Fierce to " Halo " ; the intention was to demonstrate the concept that Beyoncé has conflicting personalities . " Diva " added to urban contemporary radio and rhythmic contemporary radios playlists , while " Halo " was sent to contemporary hit radio on January 20 , 2009 . In Germany , " Diva " was featured as the B @-@ side to " Halo " single . Upon its release , contemporary music critics noted many similarities between Beyoncé 's " Diva " and Lil Wayne 's 2008 song " A Milli " ; both feature a similar beat produced by Bangladesh . In an interview with MySpace , Beyoncé agreed that " Diva " is the woman 's equivalent to " A Milli " . However , she stated that it was not consciously . " Diva " eventually became to be known as the feminine companion to " A Milli " .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Diva " is an R & B and hip hop song , which is composed in a moderate tempo in the key of E major . It carries a stuttering beat , which is accompanied by a slow @-@ rolling and heavy bass @-@ pumping groove with a jerky rhythm . The song marks a change of direction for Beyoncé ; she raps in candaces over a Roland TR @-@ 808 machine , kick drums , and less instruments than her usual tracks . As stated by Andy Kellman of Allmusic , " Diva " aurally resembles Beyoncé 's own 2006 songs " Freakum Dress " and " Ring the Alarm " . Spence D. of IGN Music further compared its hip hop composition to Missy Elliott 's earlier songs . Adam Mattera of The Observer noted " Diva " could be " a perfect independent women anthem " ; its lyrics reflect a message of courage and determination . Similarly , Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra called the song an " ode to female fabulousness " .
" Diva " features Beyoncé as the female protagonist speaking about being a diva . Chipmunked vocal samples and overdubs aplenty make up the song 's foundation . According to Nick Levine of Digital Spy , Beyoncé 's alter ego Sasha Fierce also salutes her earning power and proclaims herself as the " number one diva in the game " . " Diva " begins with metallic kick drum complemented by Beyoncé 's robotic sly vocal stutters as she sings : " I 'm a , I 'm a , a diva " . She then starts the first verse , chanting the dictionary definition of a diva . She references her millions of dollars , and raps , " I done got so sick and filthy with benjis , I can 't spend it " , channeling her alter ego . After repeating the introductory lines , Beyoncé employs breathy drawls and robotic shouts to chant the chorus , where the lines , " Now diva is a female version of a hustla . Of a hustla . Of a , of a hustla " , are looped . In the second verse , she finds love in the club , where she warns " Better have a six @-@ pack in the cooler ... If you ain ’ t gettin [ g ] money , then you ain 't got nothin [ g ] for me " , and asks , " Where yo Boss at ? " After singing the third verse and the chorus for the third time , Beyoncé adopts her initial chipmunked vocals to end the song , chanting , " I 'm a , I 'm a , a diva " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mixed to positive reviews , with critics either praising or criticizing it being a female companion to " A Milli . " Matos Michaelangelo of The A.V. Club said that " Diva " is a flagrant attempt to write a female version of " A Milli " . Leah Greenblat of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " Diva " can make a good feminine companion to " A Milli " thanks to their use of similar music instruments . " Noting its similarity to " A Milli " , Andy Kellman of Allmusic picked out " Diva " as one of the three standout tracks from the album . J. Freedom du Lac of The Washington Post chose it as one of the best songs on I Am ... Sasha Fierce , calling it a " fun , [ and ] tuneless , gender @-@ twisting play " . Colin McGuire of PopMatters picked " Diva " as the highlight of the album , noting its " Lil Wayne @-@ inspired beat " and describing it as " cheeky " . He further wrote it shows the singer 's " impeccable street side ... with enough attitude to make it work " .
Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune commented that the " menacing rhythm and chanted vocals " on " Diva " , mark the album 's biggest departure . Adam Mazmanian of The Washington Times felt that the song was influenced by Beyoncé 's husband , American rapper Jay @-@ Z as it has a " bad soft @-@ core gangster rap " . He also noted that its contains words that could get an " explicit " sticker by the chain stores . Similarly , Daniel Brockman of The Phoenix remarked that the song is " particularly intriguing " as it progresses through " hard @-@ knockish robbery scenarios " which does not resemble Beyoncé 's clean public image . Stacey Anderson of Spin magazine noted that " Diva " places a " startling , sexy snarl over window @-@ rattling bass " . Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone noted Beyoncé turns out " modal @-@ sounding hooks " over 808 bass on the song . The Village Voice 's Nana Ekua Brew @-@ Hammond described Sasha Fierce as " suffer [ sic ] no such identity crisis , brassy , big @-@ headed , confrontational , and witty ... " , reflected on " Diva " . James Reed of The Boston Globe described " Diva " as a " glitchy , bass @-@ heavy thumper with the most ridiculous chorus of the year " . Reed nevertheless added that the song is " insanely catchy , but then , when you hear something looped incessantly , no matter how mindless , it 's bound to stick " .
Mariel Concepcion of Billboard magazine noted that " Diva " is not something new , nevertheless it manages to be a radio @-@ ready dance song . Alex Thornton of AllHipHop noted that Beyoncé adopts a masculine character on " Diva " and that it is " something decent to bounce to at least " . The Observer 's Adam Mattera described the song as a potential source of inspiration to drag queens , however concluded that it can also leave many persons confused and bewildered . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian , also reviewed the song negatively , stating , " The sonic trickery on the most experimental track , ' Diva ' , isn 't interesting enough to distract you from the absence of a tune . " Spence D. of IGN Music , felt that Beyoncé 's rapping in the song was a " bad idea " and described the song as " awkward , [ and ] horribly dated . " On The Village Voice 's 2009 Pazz & Jop singles list , " Diva " was ranked at number 224 . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the song at number nine on their list of ten best Beyoncé 's songs .
= = Chart performance = =
Initially , " Diva " charted on the Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number five . For the week ending January 3 , 2009 , the song debuted on the main US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 96 , and peaked at number 19 on the issue dated March 7 , 2009 , becoming Beyoncé 's sixteenth top twenty single on the chart . " Diva " reached number one on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart on March 28 , 2009 , giving Beyoncé her ninth number one on the chart . It peaked at number three on the US Hot R & B / Hip Hop Songs chart from the week ending February 14 , 2009 to the week ending March 14 , 2009 . " Diva " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on March 12 , 2009 . As of October , 2012 , it had sold 1 @,@ 037 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US .
Even though " Diva " was only officially released in the US , it managed to chart in other countries . In Australia , the song debuted at number 47 on March 15 , 2009 , becoming the fourth single from the I Am … Sasha Fierce to reach the top fifty of the ARIA Singles Chart. and peaked at number 40 on April 12 , 2009 . In New Zealand , " Diva " entered at number 32 on March 30 , 2009 and peaked at number 26 for two non @-@ consecutive weeks on April 6 , 2009 and April 27 , 2009 . On the UK Singles Chart , " Diva " rose from number 173 to number 73 on the UK Singles Chart on May 17 , 2009 based on downloads alone . The following week , it peaked at number 72 . In the Netherlands , " Diva " debuted at number 94 on the Mega Single Top 100 and peaked at number 73 , based on downloads alone .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
The accompanying music video for " Diva " was shot downtown Los Angeles on November 22 , 2008 , and was directed by Melina Matsoukas , who worked with Beyoncé for several music videos . The music video is conceptually similar to that for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " in the sense that it was filmed in black and white , shows Beyoncé as alter ego Sasha Fierce , who dons her metal glove and performs choreography with two back @-@ up dancers with more formal leotards . Beyoncé wears a Gareth Pugh design in the video , a custom Brian Lichtenberg bodysuit , as well as a couple of vintage Thierry Mugler Haute Couture pieces , including a leather bodice and a reptilia inspired gown . Diana Palkington of Daily Mail wrote that the gown gave Beyoncé a distinct appearance of a mermaid ; it was noted by another writer of the same publication that the same dress was worn by Jennifer Lopez in the past .
In her 2003 music video for " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) , Beyoncé 's husband ( then boyfriend ) Jay @-@ Z throws a lighter on the ground , which ignites a trail of petrol to a car . According to a Daily Mail 's reporter , that particular scene bears resemblance to the climax of " Diva " ' ' s video , where Beyoncé lights a cigar and throws the still lit lighter at a car , prompting it to explode into flames . The same location under a bridge in downtown Los Angeles was chosen for the shoot . The video for " Diva " premiered on the iTunes Store on December 23 , simultaneously with the one for " Halo " . It was included on Beyoncé 's remix album with videography , Above and Beyoncé ( 2009 ) . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the filming of the music also appeared online and it features the scene where Beyoncé throws her cigar in the car .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with a dictionary definition of the word " diva " , before cutting to a parking lot outside of a warehouse . Beyoncé , wearing a pair of " dangle shades " , walks past a car full of mannequin parts into the warehouse . From here , she is accompanied by her two dancers and a variety of high fashion outfits . When she states " Diva 's gettin ' money ... " she waves a fan made of $ 100 bills . During the bridge to the climax , Beyoncé dances on a single light and then during the climax , she is seen very glossy in another wardrobe choice dancing in robotic movements to the beat with gold punctuating the black and white scene . In one scene , Beyoncé is seen dancing robotically in front of a set of gold @-@ tinted mannequins ; while in another , she dances against a wall with two large chains hanging from the ceiling . During the last chorus , Beyoncé is in her last wardrobe change in front of window which is where the paparazzi had taken photos of her . At the end of the song , Beyoncé walks back out to the parking lot . She lights up a cigar and throws the lighter into the car , letting it explode . As she walks away , the intro to " Video Phone " ( a track from I Am ... Sasha Fierce ) plays . The explosion retains its original fiery colors in contrast with the black and white .
= = = Reception = = =
A writer of Rolling Stone described the video as " quite a hot mess " , further comparing the dancers with the ones from the video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . The writer finished the review calling it " a four @-@ minute art @-@ school film unworthy of her Sasha Fierceness " . Jennifer Cady of E ! Online commented that the video was " all about being gritty and edgy , like strutting around a downtown L.A. warehouse in crazy designer fashion and chewing bubblegum . Hard @-@ core style " . Cady further described the dance in the video for " Diva " as " way easier to learn than [ the one ] in ' Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) ' " . However , she chose the C @-@ 3PO @-@ inspired mannequins , the lack of Beyoncé 's robot hand and the " obnoxious camera work or car explosion " as the worst parts of the video . Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Slezak commented : " The video has the production values of the clearance bin at Family Dollar , and yet somehow it works . " Slezak further described the set as a " trunk full of mannequins , Cylon @-@ y fringed sunglasses , and angry @-@ lady dancing on display in the accompanying video " . The video was ranked at number 13 on Black Entertainment Television 's ( BET 's ) Notarized : Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown .
= = Live performances = =
Although Beyoncé did not perform " Diva " on televised appearances , the song was a part of her set list on the I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 @-@ 2010 ) . Eventually , it was included on her 2010 live album , I Am ... World Tour as the twelfth song . The performance of " Diva " during her I Am ... World Tour features Beyoncé performing the song while being backed up by six dancers ( four of which are golden mannequins ) . She sports a leopard print glow @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dark leotard , black trenchcoat , leopard print stockings , high heels and leopard @-@ print sunglasses . She would remove the trenchcoat during the performance . Alice Jones of The Independent felt that " she sings her heart out " during the electro hook of " Diva " . In May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed " Diva " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . Maura Johnston of The Village Voice noted that the song was one of the " dancefloor @-@ fillers " performed during the revue . Rebecca Thomas writing for MTV News , noted that Beyoncé transformed in Sasha Fierce for the performance of the song . On October 7 , 2012 , Beyoncé appeared at Jay @-@ Z 's concert at the Barclays Center and performed " Diva " , " Crazy in Love " and " Young Forever " .
= = Cover versions = =
In 2008 , Ciara recorded a remix of " Diva " for a mixtape of her album Fantasy Ride ( 2009 ) . Alex Newell , Heather Morris , Jenna Ushkowitz and Darren Criss covered the song in the eponymous episode of the fourth season of the American television series Glee which aired on February 7 , 2013 . In a review of the episode , Daniel Sperling of the website Digital Spy , described the performance of the song as one of the " plenty of fierce moments " adding that it was " posy , [ and ] pouty " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Demographic history of Scotland =
The demographic history of Scotland includes all aspects of population history in what is now Scotland . Scotland may have been first occupied in the last interglacial period ( 130 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 BCE ) , but the earliest surviving archaeological evidence of human settlement is of Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer encampments . These suggest a highly mobile boat @-@ using people , probably with a very low density of population . Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements dating from 3500 BCE , and greater concentrations of population . Evidence of hillforts and other buildings suggest a growing settled population . Changes in the scale of woodland indicates that the Roman invasions from the first century CE had a negative impact on the native population .
There are almost no written sources from which to reconstruct the demography of early medieval Scotland . This was probably a high fertility , high mortality society , similar to developing countries in the modern world . The population may have grown from half a million to a million by the mid @-@ fourteenth century when the Black Death reached the country . It may then have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the fifteenth century . Roughly half lived north of the River Tay and perhaps 10 per cent in the burghs that grew up in the later medieval period . Inflation in prices , indicating greater demand , suggests that the population continued to grow until the late sixteenth century , when it probably levelled off . It began to grow again in the relative stability of the late seventeenth century . The earliest reliable evidence suggests a population of 1 @.@ 2 million in 1681 . This was probably reduced by the " seven ill years " of the 1690s , which caused severe famine and depopulation , particularly in the north . The first national census was conducted in 1755 , and showed the population of Scotland as 1 @,@ 265 @,@ 380 . By then four towns had populations of over 10 @,@ 000 , with the capital , Edinburgh , the largest with 57 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
The Highland and Lowland Clearances led to the depopulation of rural areas , but overall the population of Scotland grew rapidly in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries . By 1801 it had reached 1 @,@ 608 @,@ 420 and it grew to 2 @,@ 889 @,@ 000 in 1851 and 4 @,@ 472 @,@ 000 in 1901 . By the beginning of the twentieth century , one in three lived in the four cities of Glasgow , Edinburgh , Dundee and Aberdeen . Glasgow emerged as the largest city , with a population of 762 @,@ 000 by 1901 , making it " the Second City of the Empire " . Despite industrial expansion there were insufficient jobs and between the mid @-@ nineteenth century and the Great Depression about two million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia , and another 750 @,@ 000 to England . The Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population but they provided 15 per cent of the national armed forces , and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead in World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) . With the end of mass migration , the population reached a peak of 5 @,@ 240 @,@ 800 in 1974 . Thereafter it began to fall slowly , moving down to 5 @,@ 062 @,@ 940 in 2000 . There was also a decrease in some urban populations as a result of policies of slum clearance , overspill and relocation to new towns , with the population of Glasgow falling from over a million in 1951 to 629 @,@ 000 in 2001 . Rural areas also saw a loss of population , particularly in the Highlands and Hebrides .
= = Prehistoric and Roman eras = =
At times during the last interglacial period ( 130 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 BCE ) Europe had a climate warmer than today 's , and early humans may have made their way to what is now Scotland , though archaeologists have found no traces of this . Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain , and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable , around 9600 BCE . Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements , and archaeologists have dated a site near Biggar to around 8500 BCE . Numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat @-@ using people making tools from bone , stone and antlers , probably with a very low density of population .
Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements , such as the stone house at Knap of Howar on Papa Westray dating from 3500 BCE , and greater concentrations of population . Although the Roman geographer Ptolemy indicated that there were 19 " towns " in Caledonia , north of the Roman province of Britannia , no clear evidence of urban settlements has been found and these were probably hillforts . There is evidence of over 1 @,@ 000 such forts , most south of the Clyde @-@ Forth line , but the majority seem to have been abandoned in the Roman period . There is also evidence of distinctive stone wheelhouses ( a type of roundhouse , with a circle of stone piers resembling the spokes of a wheel ) and over 400 small underground souterrains ( underground galleries that may have been used to store food ) . Extensive analyses of Black Loch in Fife indicate that arable land spread at the expense of forest from about 2000 BCE until the time of the Roman advance into lowland Scotland in the first century CE , suggesting an expanding settled population . Thereafter , there was regrowth of birch , oak and hazel for some 500 years , suggesting that the Roman invasions had a negative impact on the native population .
= = Middle Ages = =
There are almost no written sources from which to reconstruct the demography of early medieval Scotland . Estimates have been made of a population of 10 @,@ 000 in Dál Riata and 80 – 100 @,@ 000 for Pictland , which was probably the largest region . It is likely that the fifth and sixth centuries saw higher mortality rates due to the appearance of bubonic plague , which may have reduced the population . The examination of burial sites for this period , such as that at Hallowhill , St Andrews , indicates a life expectancy of only 26 to 29 . The known conditions have been taken to suggest it was a high fertility , high mortality society , similar to developing countries in the modern world , with a relatively young demographic profile , and perhaps early childbearing , and large numbers of children born to each woman ( although with high child mortality ) . This would have meant a relatively low ratio of available workers to the number of mouths to feed , which in turn would have made it difficult to produce a surplus that would allow demographic growth and the development of more complex societies .
From the formation of the Kingdom of Alba in the tenth century , to before the Black Death reached the country in 1349 , estimates based on the amount of farmable land suggest that the population may have grown from half a million to a million . Growth was probably punctuated by occasional crises , like the famines recorded in chronicles for 1154 and 1256 . More significant was a series of poor harvests that affected Scotland and most of Europe in the early fourteenth century and widespread famines in 1315 – 16 and in the later 1330s .
Although there is no reliable documentation of the demongraphic impact of the Black Death in Scotland , there are some indications of the immediate effects of the plague . Walter Bower recorded that 24 , about a third , of the canons of St. Andrews died during the outbreak . There are also anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades . If the pattern followed that in England , then the population may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the fifteenth century . Compared with the distribution of population after the later Clearances and the Industrial Revolution , these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom , with roughly half living north of the River Tay .
= = Early modern era = =
Price inflation , which generally reflects growing demand for food , suggests that the population was probably still expanding in the first half of the sixteenth century . Almost half the years in the second half of the sixteenth century saw local or national scarcity , necessitating the shipping of large quantities of grain from the Baltic . Distress was exacerbated by outbreaks of plague , with major epidemics in the periods 1584 @-@ 8 , 1595 and 1597 – 1609 . The population expansion probably levelled off after the famine of the 1590s , as prices were relatively stable in the early seventeenth century . Famine was common , with four periods of famine prices between 1620 and 1625 . The invasions of the 1640s had a profound impact on the Scottish economy , with the destruction of crops and the disruption of markets resulting in some of the most rapid price rises of the century , but population probably expanded in the Lowlands in the period of stability that followed the Restoration in 1660 . There is evidence that there was a different demographic regime operating in the Highlands , where growth probably continued from the early seventeenth century to the late eighteenth century .
Estimates based on hearth tax returns for 1691 indicate a population of around 1 @.@ 2 million . The population may have been seriously affected by the failed harvests ( 1695 , 1696 and 1698 @-@ 9 ) known as the " seven ill years " . The result was severe famine and depopulation , particularly in the north . Starvation probably killed 5 to 15 per cent of the Scottish population , but in areas like Aberdeenshire death rates reached 25 per cent . The famines of the 1690s were seen as particularly severe , partly because famine had become relatively rare in the second half of the seventeenth century , with only one year of dearth ( in 1674 ) , and the shortages of the 1690s were the last of their kind . Between 1650 and 1700 approximately 7 @,@ 000 Scots migrated to America , 10 – 20 @,@ 000 to Europe and England and 60 – 100 @,@ 000 to Ireland . The first reliable figure for the national population is from the census conducted by the Reverend Alexander Webster in 1755 , which showed the inhabitants of Scotland as 1 @,@ 265 @,@ 380 persons .
Unlike in England , where the nucleated village existed relatively early , most of the early modern population of Scotland , in both the Lowlands and Highlands , was housed in small clachans or townships and isolated dwellings . These were unstructured groups of houses , often belonging to between four and six tenants , who were often engaged in common agriculture . As the population expanded , some of these settlements were subdivided to create new clachans and more marginal land was settled , with sheilings ( clusters of huts occupied while summer pasture was being used for grazing ) becoming permanent settlements .
Perhaps 10 per cent of the population lived in the burghs that had grown up in the later medieval period , mainly in the east and south of the country . They perhaps had an average population of 2 @,@ 000 , but many were much smaller than 1 @,@ 000 , and the largest , Edinburgh , probably had a population of over 10 @,@ 000 at the beginning of the period . Edinburgh doubled in size in the century after 1540 , particularly after the plague of 1580 , with most of its population probably coming from a growing reservoir in the surrounding countryside . It also expanded beyond the city walls in suburbs at Cowgate , Bristo and Westport and by 1750 , with its suburbs , it had reached a population of 57 @,@ 000 . The only other towns above 10 @,@ 000 by the end of the period were Glasgow with 32 @,@ 000 , Aberdeen with around 16 @,@ 000 and Dundee with 12 @,@ 000 . By 1600 Scotland had a higher proportion of its population living in larger towns than contemporaneous Scandinavia , Switzerland and most of Eastern Europe : by 1750 in Europe , only Italy , the Low Countries and England were more urbanised than Scotland .
= = Modern era = =
The agricultural revolution changed the traditional system of agriculture which had existed in Lowland Scotland . Thousands of cottars and tenant farmers migrated from farms and smallholdings to the new industrial centres of Glasgow , Edinburgh and northern England . Particularly after the end of the boom created by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars ( 1790 – 1815 ) , Highland landlords needed cash to maintain their position in London society . Whereas rents had often been paid in kind , the landlords turned to money rents . They displaced farmers to raise sheep and downplayed the traditional patriarchal relationship that had historically sustained the clans . This was exacerbated after the repeal of the Corn Laws in the mid @-@ nineteenth century , when Britain adopted a free trade policy , and grain imports from America undermined the profitability of crop production . One result of these changes was the Highland Clearances , by which much of the population of the Highlands suffered forced displacement as lands were enclosed , principally so that they could be used for sheep farming . The clearances followed patterns of agricultural change throughout the United Kingdom , but were particularly notorious as a result of the late timing , the lack of legal protection for year @-@ by @-@ year tenants under Scots law , the abruptness of the change from the traditional clan system , and the brutality of many evictions . The result was a continuous exodus from the land — to the cities , and further afield to England , Canada , America and Australia . The potato famine of the 1840s , caused by potato blight , which devastated the population of Ireland , reached the Highlands in 1846 . Although 150 @,@ 000 people faced disaster , because their food supply was largely potatoes ( with a little herring , oatmeal and milk ) , they were rescued by an effective emergency relief system that stands in dramatic contrast to the failures of relief in Ireland and prevented a major demographic crisis .
By the time of the first decadal census in 1801 , the population was 1 @,@ 608 @,@ 420 . It grew steadily in the nineteenth century , to 2 @,@ 889 @,@ 000 in 1851 and 4 @,@ 472 @,@ 000 in 1901 . While population fell in some rural areas , it rose rapidly in the towns . Aberdeen , Dundee and Glasgow grew by a third or more between 1755 and 1775 and the textile town of Paisley more than doubled its population . Because of the industrial revolution , Scotland was already one of the most urbanised societies in Europe by 1800 . In 1800 , 17 per cent of people in Scotland lived in towns of more than 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants . By 1850 it was 32 per cent and by 1900 it was 50 per cent . By 1900 one in three of the entire population were in the four cities of Glasgow , Edinburgh , Dundee and Aberdeen . Glasgow emerged as the largest city . Its population in 1780 was 43 @,@ 000 , reaching 147 @,@ 000 by 1820 ; by 1901 it had grown to 762 @,@ 000 . This was due to a high birth rate and immigration from the countryside and particularly from Ireland ; but from the 1870s there was a fall in the birth rate and lower rates of migration and much of the growth was due to longer life expectancy . Glasgow was now one of the largest cities in the world , and it became known as " the Second City of the Empire " after London .
Mortality rates were high compared with England and other European nations . Evidence suggests a national death rate of 30 per 1 @,@ 000 in 1755 , 24 in the 1790s and 22 in the early 1860s . Mortality tended to be much higher in urban than rural settlements . The first time these were measured , 1861 – 82 , in the four major cities these were 28 @.@ 1 per 1 @,@ 000 and 17 @.@ 9 in rural areas . Mortality probably peaked in Glasgow in the 1840s , when large inflows of population from the Highlands and Ireland combined population outgrowing sanitary provision and combining with outbreaks of epidemic disease . National rates began to fall in the 1870s , particularly in the cities , as environmental conditions improved . By 1930 – 32 the national rate was 13 @.@ 4 per 1 @,@ 000 , with a rate of 14 @.@ 1 and in rural areas 12 @.@ 8 .
Even with the growth of industry there were not enough good jobs : as a result , from 1841 to 1931 , about two million Scots emigrated to North America and Australia , and another 750 @,@ 000 Scots relocated to England . With a population of 4 @.@ 8 million in 1911 , Scotland sent 690 @,@ 000 men to the First World War , of whom 74 @,@ 000 died in combat or from disease , and 150 @,@ 000 were seriously wounded . Thus , although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population , they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead . While emigration began to tail off in England and Wales after the First World War , it continued apace in Scotland , with 400 @,@ 000 Scots , 10 per cent of the population , estimated to have left the country between 1921 and 1931 . When the Great Depression hit in the 1930s there were no easily available jobs in the US and Canada , and emigration fell to less than 50 @,@ 000 a year , bringing to an end the period of mass migrations that had opened in the mid @-@ eighteenth century . This contributed to the growth of the population , which reached a peak of 5 @,@ 240 @,@ 800 in 1974 . Thereafter it began to fall slowly , moving down to 5 @,@ 062 @,@ 940 in 2000 . There was also a decrease in some urban populations as a result of slum clearance , overspill and relocation to new towns , with the population of Glasgow falling from over a million in 1951 to 629 @,@ 000 in 2001 . Rural areas also saw a loss of population , particularly the Highlands and Hebrides . In the early part of the twenty @-@ first century Scotland saw a rise in its population to 5 @,@ 313 @,@ 600 ( its highest ever recorded ) at the 2011 census .
= South American dreadnought race =
A naval arms race among Argentina , Brazil and Chile — the most powerful and wealthy countries in South America — began in the early twentieth century when the Brazilian government ordered three " dreadnoughts " , formidable battleships whose capabilities far outstripped older vessels in the world 's navies .
In 1904 , the Brazilian Navy found itself well behind the Argentine and Chilean navies in quality and total tonnage ; few ships had been ordered since the fall of the Brazilian emperor Pedro II in 1889 and subsequent naval rebellions in 1891 and 1893 – 94 , while its continental rivals Argentina and Chile had just concluded a fifteen @-@ year naval arms race which filled their navies with modern warships . Rising demand for coffee and rubber brought the Brazilian government a large increase in revenue , and they voted to devote some of the proceeds to address this naval imbalance . They believed that building a strong navy would play an essential role in their goal of making the country an international power .
The Brazilian government ordered three small battleships from the British company Armstrong Whitworth in late 1905 , but the appearance of the revolutionary British warship HMS Dreadnought in 1906 quickly scrapped these plans . Instead , the Brazilians ordered three Minas Geraes @-@ class dreadnoughts — a warship type which quickly became a measure of international prestige , similar to nuclear weapons today . This action focused the world 's attention on the newly ascendant country : newspapers and politicians in the great powers fretted that Brazil would sell the ships to a belligerent nation , while the Argentine and Chilean governments immediately canceled their naval @-@ limiting pact and ordered two dreadnoughts each ( the Rivadavia and Almirante Latorre classes , respectively ) .
Meanwhile , Brazil 's third dreadnought faced a good deal of political opposition due to an economic downturn and the Revolt of the Lash , in which the crews of both of their brand @-@ new battleships mutinied and threatened to fire on Rio de Janeiro if their demands were not met . Despite these pressures , Armstrong successfully held the Brazilians to their contractual obligations . Construction on the new ship , preliminarily named Rio de Janeiro , was halted several times due to repeated design changes . Brazil 's coffee and rubber booms collapsed soon after . Concerned that their ship would be outclassed by larger super @-@ dreadnoughts , they sold the incomplete vessel to the Ottoman Empire in December 1913 .
The First World War marked the end of the naval arms race , as the South American countries found themselves unable to purchase additional warships . The Brazilian government ordered a new battleship , Riachuelo , in May 1914 , but the conflict effectively canceled the ship . The British purchased the two Chilean battleships before they were completed ; one was sold back to Chile in 1920 . Argentina 's two dreadnoughts , having been built in the neutral United States , escaped this fate and were commissioned in 1914 – 15 . Although several South American post @-@ war naval expansion plans called for dreadnoughts , no additional units were constructed .
= = Background : naval rivalry , revolts , and export crops = =
= = = Argentine – Chilean arms race = = =
Conflicting Argentine and Chilean claims to Patagonia , the southernmost region in South America , had been causing tension between the two countries since the 1840s . This tension was heightened in 1872 and 1878 , when Chilean warships seized merchant ships which had been licensed to operate in the disputed area by the Argentine government . An Argentine warship did the same to a Chilean @-@ licensed American ship in 1877 . This action nearly led to war in November 1878 , when the Argentines dispatched a squadron of warships to the Santa Cruz River . The Chilean Navy responded in kind , and war was only avoided by a hastily signed treaty . Each government was distracted in the next few years , Argentina 's with intensified military operations against the indigenous population ( 1870 – 84 ) , and Chile 's with the War of the Pacific ( Guerra del Pacífico , 1879 – 83 ) against Bolivia and Peru . Still , several warships were ordered by both nations : the Chileans ordered a protected cruiser , Esmeralda , while the Argentines contracted for two warships , the central battery ironclad Almirante Brown and protected cruiser Patagonia .
In 1887 , the Chilean government added £ 3 @,@ 129 @,@ 500 to the budget for its fleet , at the time still centered on two aging central battery ironclads , Almirante Cochrane and Blanco Encalada , from the 1870s . They ordered the battleship Capitán Prat , two protected cruisers , and two torpedo boats ; their keels were laid in 1890 . The Argentine government quickly responded with an order for two battleships , Independencia and Libertad , beginning a naval arms race between the two countries . It continued through the 1890s , even after the expensive Chilean Civil War ( 1891 ) . The two countries alternated cruiser orders between 1890 and 1895 , each marking a small increase in capabilities from the ship previous . Argentina escalated the race in July 1895 by buying an armored cruiser , Garibaldi , from Italy . Chile responded by ordering its own armored cruiser , O 'Higgins , and six torpedo boats ; the Argentine government quickly ordered another armored cruiser from the Italian engineering company Ansaldo , and later ordered two more .
The race slowed for a few years after a boundary dispute in the Puna de Atacama region was successfully mediated in 1899 by the American ambassador to Argentina , William Paine Lord , but more ships were ordered by both countries in 1901 . The Argentine Navy bought two more armored cruisers from Italy , and the Chilean Navy replied with orders for two Constitución @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships from British shipyards . The Argentines replied by signing letters of intent with Ansaldo in May 1901 to buy two larger battleships .
The growing dispute disturbed members of the British government , as war looked like a very real possibility , and an armed conflict would disrupt the extensive British commercial interests in the area . Argentina and Chile both imported British @-@ made goods , while the United Kingdom imported large amounts of Argentine grain , most shipped through the River Plate , and Chilean nitrates . The British government mediated negotiations between the two countries through their envoy in Chile . These were successfully concluded on 28 May 1902 with three pacts . The third limited the naval armaments of both countries ; both were barred from acquiring any further warships for five years without giving the other eighteen months ' advance notice . The warships under construction were sold to the United Kingdom and Japan : Chile 's battleships became the former 's Swiftsure class , and Argentina 's armored cruisers the latter 's Kasuga class . It is not clear if the two planned Argentine battleships were ordered , but in any case the plans were quickly scuttled . Capitán Prat , Garibaldi , and Pueyrredón were disarmed with the exception of their main batteries , as there was no crane capable of removing the cruisers ' gun turrets .
= = = Brazilian decline and re @-@ emergence = = =
Brazil 's navy fell into disrepair and obsolescence after an 1889 revolution , which deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II , two naval revolts ( 1891 and 1893 – 94 ) , the Federalist Revolution ( 1893 – 95 ) , and the War of Canudos ( 1896 – 97 ) . The navy had just forty @-@ five percent of its authorized personnel in 1896 , and the only modern armored ships were two small coast @-@ defense vessels launched in 1898 . With such dilapidated defenses , José Paranhos Jr . , the Baron of Rio Branco and Foreign Minister of Brazil , stated " In such conditions , you ... understand how upset I am and all the worries I have . All that still protects [ Brazil ] is the moral force and old prestige still left from [ the Imperial era ] when there was still foresight in this land ... "
Meanwhile , although the Argentine – Chilean agreement had limited their naval expansion , they still retained the numerous vessels built in the interim , so by the turn of the 20th century the Brazilian Navy lagged far behind its Argentine and Chilean counterparts in quality and total tonnage . Brazil 's huge advantage in population — it had almost three times the population of Argentina , close to five times that of Chile , and nearly double of the two combined — led the Brazilian government to believe that it should assume a leading role in naval affairs on the continent .
The late nineteenth and early twentieth century demand for coffee and rubber led to Brazil 's so @-@ called " coffee economy " and " rubber boom . " At the time , it was estimated that seventy @-@ five to eighty percent of the world 's coffee supply was grown in Brazil , particularly in São Paulo , Minas Geraes , and Rio de Janeiro . The resulting profits meant that the Brazilian government collected much more revenue than in previous years . Simultaneously , there was an effort on the part of prominent Brazilian politicians , most notably Pinheiro Machado and Rio Branco , to have the country recognized as an international power . A strong navy was seen as crucial to this goal .
The National Congress of Brazil passed a large naval acquisition program on 14 December 1904 , but it was two years before any ships were ordered or purchased , and while Rio Branco suggested purchasing used warships to fill the gap , nothing came of it . By 1906 , two factions had developed over which types of ships should be ordered . One , supported by the British armament company Armstrong Whitworth ( which eventually received the order ) , favored a navy centered on a small number of large warships . The other , supported by Rio Branco , preferred a larger navy composed of smaller warships . Rio Branco , in support of this measure , stated that " with six small battleships we would be much better . If we lost one or two in combat , there would be still four or five left to fight with . But with three [ larger battleships ] ? With two damaged or destroyed , we would be left with one only . "
At first , the smaller warships faction prevailed . After Law no . 1452 was passed on 30 December 1905 , which authorized £ 4 @,@ 214 @,@ 550 for new warship construction ( £ 1 @,@ 685 @,@ 820 in 1906 ) , three small battleships , three armored cruisers , six destroyers , twelve torpedo boats , three submarines , a collier , and a training ship were ordered . Though the Brazilian government later eliminated the armored cruisers for monetary reasons , the Minister of the Navy , Admiral Júlio César de Noronha , signed a contract with Armstrong Whitworth for the planned battleships on 23 July 1906 .
The British ambassador to Brazil was opposed to the planned naval expansion , even though the orders went to a British company , for its large cost and its negative effects on relations between Brazil and Argentina . He saw it as " an embodiment of national vanity , combined with personal motives of a pecuniary character . " The American ambassador to Brazil was alarmed , and sent a cablegram to his Department of State in September 1906 , warning them of the destabilization that would occur if the situation devolved into a full naval arms race . At the same time , the American government under Theodore Roosevelt tried using diplomatic means to coerce the Brazilians into canceling their ships , but the attempts were dismissed , with the Baron of Rio Branco remarking that caving to the American demands would render Brazil as powerless as Cuba , whose new constitution allowed the American government to intervene in Cuban affairs . The new President of Brazil , Afonso Pena , supported the naval acquisitions in an address to the National Congress of Brazil in November 1906 , as in his opinion the ships were necessary to replace Aquidabã , which unexpectedly blew up that year , and the antiquated vessels composing the current navy .
= = Catalyst : Brazil 's opening salvo = =
After construction began on Brazil 's three new small battleships , the Brazilian government reconsidered their order and chosen battleship design ( something that would happen several more times during the construction of Rio de Janeiro in 1913 ) . This was wrought by the impact of the Battle of Tsushima , which led navies to believe that larger guns were necessary , and the debut of the United Kingdom 's new dreadnought concept , represented by the surprisingly fast construction and commissioning of the eponymous ship in 1906 , rendered the Brazilian ships obsolete before they were completed .
The money authorized for naval expansion in 1905 was redirected to building three dreadnoughts ( with the third to be laid down after the first was launched ) , three scout cruisers ( later reduced to two , which became the Bahia class ) , fifteen destroyers ( later reduced to ten , the Pará class ) , three submarines ( the F 1 class ) , and two submarine tenders ( later reduced to one , Ceará ) . This move was made with the large @-@ scale support of Brazilian politicians , including Pinheiro Machado and a nearly unanimous vote in the Senate ; the navy , now with a large @-@ ship advocate , Rear Admiral Alexandrino Faria de Alencar , in the influential post of minister of the navy ; and the Brazilian press . Still , these changes were made with the stipulation that the total price of the new naval program not exceed the original limit , so the increase in battleship tonnage was bought with the previous elimination of armored cruisers and decreasing the number of destroyer @-@ type warships . The three battleships on which construction had begun were scrapped beginning on 7 January 1907 , and the design for the new dreadnoughts was approved on 20 February . Newspapers began covering the Brazilian warship order in March , and Armstrong laid down the first dreadnought on 17 April . The full order — including all three dreadnoughts and the two cruisers — was reported by the New York Herald , Daily Chronicle , and the Times later that year .
The Brazilian order for what contemporary commentators called " the most powerful battleship [ s ] in the world " came at a time when few countries in the world had contracted for such armament . Brazil was the third country to have a dreadnought under construction , behind the United Kingdom , with Dreadnought and the Bellerophon class , and the United States , with the South Carolina class . This meant that Brazil was in line to have a dreadnought before many of the world 's perceived powers , like France , the German Empire , the Russian Empire , and the Empire of Japan . As dreadnoughts were quickly equated with international status , somewhat similar to nuclear weapons today — that is , regardless of a state 's need for such equipment , simply ordering and possessing a dreadnought increased the owner 's prestige — the order caused a major stir in international relations .
Newspapers and journals around the world speculated that Brazil was acting as a proxy for a stronger country which would take possession of the two dreadnoughts soon after completion , as they did not believe that a previously insignificant geopolitical power would contract for such armament . Many American , British , and German sources variously accused the Americans , British , German , or Japanese governments of secretly plotting to purchase the vessels . The World 's Work remarked :
The question that is puzzling diplomats the world over is why Brazil should want ferocious leviathans of such size and armament and speed as to place them ten to fifteen years in advance of any other nation besides Great Britain . [ ... ] Although Brazil has denied that these are meant for England or Japan , naval men of all nations suspect that they are meant for some government other than Brazil 's . In the event of war , the government which would first be able to secure these vessels … would immediately place the odds of naval supremacy in its favor . England , no matter how many Dreadnoughts she has , would be compelled to buy them to keep them from some lesser power . They bring a new question into international politics . They may be leaders of a great fleet which minor government
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0 October 1910 , and the battleship 's keel laying was delayed further by a labor dispute with the Worshipful Company of Shipwrights , which led to a lockout . During these delays , a new Minister of the Navy , Admiral Marques Leão , was appointed to replace de Alencar — an important development , as the contract stipulated that the design could only proceed with the approval of the new Minister . Again , however , the Brazilian Navy found itself torn between two schools of thought : Leão and others in the navy favored a reversion to the 12 @-@ inch gun , but others , led by the outgoing Minister of the Navy ( de Alencar ) and the head of the Brazilian naval commission in the United Kingdom ( Rear Admiral Duarte Huet de Bacelar Pinto Guedes ) , were strongly in favor of obtaining the ship with the largest armament — in this case , a design drawn up by Bacellar , carrying eight 16 @-@ inch guns , six 9 @.@ 4 @-@ inch guns , and fourteen 6 @-@ inch guns .
D 'Eyncourt , who had departed Brazil in October immediately after the contract was signed , returned in March 1911 to display the various design options available to the Brazilian Navy . Armstrong evidently thought the second faction would prevail , so he also took with him everything needed to close a deal on Bacellar 's design . By mid @-@ March , Armstrong 's contacts in Brazil reported that Leão had convinced the recently elected President Hermes Rodrigues da Fonseca to cancel the design with twelve 14 @-@ inch guns in favor of a smaller ship . The credit may not have laid with Leão alone , though ; da Fonseca was already dealing with multiple issues . Most importantly , he had to deal with the fallout from a large naval revolt in November 1910 ( the Revolt of the Lash ) , which had seen three of the new vessels just purchased by the navy , along with one older coast @-@ defense ship , mutiny against the use of corporal punishment in the navy .
To make matters worse , the dreadnoughts ' expense combined with loan payments and a worsening economy led to growing government debt compounded by budget deficits . By one measure of Brazil 's GDP per capita , income in the country rose from $ 718 in 1905 to a high of $ 836 in 1911 before declining over the next three years to a low of $ 780 in 1914 ( both measured in 1990 international dollars ) . It did not fully recover until after the First World War . At the same time , Brazil 's external and internal debt reached $ 500 and $ 335 million ( respectively , in contemporaneous dollar amounts ) by 1913 , partly through rising deficits , which were $ 22 million in 1908 and $ 47 million by 1912 . In May , the president commented negatively on the new ship :
When I assumed office , I found that my predecessor had signed a contract for the building of the battleship Rio de Janeiro , a vessel of 32 @,@ 000 tons , with an armament of 14 @-@ inch guns . Considerations of every kind pointed to the inconvenience of acquiring such a vessel and to the revision of the contract in the sense of reducing the tonnage . This was done , and we shall possess a powerful unit which will not be built on exaggerated lines such as have not as yet stood the time of experience .
D 'Eyncourt probably avoided proposing any design with 16 @-@ inch guns when he saw the political situation . In meetings with Leão , designs of only ten 12 @-@ inch guns mounted on the centerline were quickly rejected , even though their broadside was as strong as that of the Minas Geraes class , but a design with no less than fourteen 12 @-@ inch guns emerged as the frontrunner . Author David Topliss attributes this to political necessity , as he believed the Minister of the Navy could not validate purchasing a seemingly less @-@ powerful dreadnought than the Minas Geraes class : with larger guns ruled out , the only remaining choice was a larger number of guns .
After numerous requests for design alterations from the Brazilian Navy were accommodated or rejected , a contract was signed for a ship with fourteen 12 @-@ inch guns on 3 June 1911 for £ 2 @,@ 675 @,@ 000 , and Rio de Janeiro 's keel was laid for the fourth time on 14 September . It did not take long for the Brazilian government to reconsider their decision again ; by mid @-@ 1912 , battleships with 14 @-@ inch guns were under construction , and suddenly it seemed that Rio de Janeiro would be outclassed upon completion . Making matters worse , a European depression after the end of the Second Balkan War in August 1913 reduced Brazil 's ability to obtain foreign loans . This coincided with a collapse in Brazil 's coffee and rubber exports , the latter due to the loss of the Brazilian rubber monopoly to British plantations in the Far East . The price of coffee declined by 20 percent and Brazilian exports of it dropped 12 @.@ 5 percent between 1912 and 1913 ; rubber saw a similar decline of 25 and 36 @.@ 6 percent , respectively . The Brazilian Navy later claimed that selling Rio de Janeiro was a tactical decision , so they could have two divisions of battleships : two with 12 @-@ inch guns ( the Minas Geraes class ) , and two with 15 @-@ inch guns .
Armstrong studied whether replacing the 12 @-@ inch guns with seven 15 @-@ inch guns would be feasible , but Brazil was probably already attempting to sell the ship . In the tension building up to the First World War , many countries , including Russia , Italy , Greece , and the Ottoman Empire , were interested in purchasing the ship . While Russia quickly dropped out , Italy and the rival Greeks and Ottomans were all highly interested . The Italians seemed close to purchasing the ship until the French government decided to back the Greeks — rather than allow the Italians , who were the principal naval rivals of the French , to obtain the ship . The Grecian government made an offer for the original purchase price plus an additional £ 50 @,@ 000 , but as the Greeks worked to obtain an initial installment , the Ottoman government was also making offers .
The Brazilian government rejected an Ottoman proposal to swap ships , with Brazil 's Rio de Janeiro going to the Ottomans and Reşadiye going to Brazil , presumably with some amount of money . The Brazilian government would only accept a monetary offer . Lacking this , the Ottomans were forced to find a loan . Fortunately for them , they were able to obtain one from French banker acting independent of his government , and the Ottoman Navy secured the Rio de Janeiro on 29 December 1913 for £ 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 as @-@ is . As part of the purchase contract , the remainder of the ship was constructed with £ 2 @,@ 340 @,@ 000 in Ottoman money . Renamed Sultân Osmân @-@ ı Evvel , it was eventually taken over by the British shortly after the beginning of the First World War , serving with the Royal Navy as HMS Agincourt .
The Argentine government authorized a third dreadnought in October 1912 in case Rio de Janeiro was completed and delivered , but the ship was never named or built .
= = = Riachuelo = = =
After selling Rio de Janeiro , the Brazilian government asked Armstrong and Vickers to prepare designs for a new battleship , something strongly supported by the Navy League of Brazil ( Liga Maritima ) . Armstrong agreed to construct the ship without any further payments from Brazil . They replied with at least fourteen designs , six from Vickers ( December 1913 through March 1914 ) and eight from Armstrong ( February 1914 ) . Vickers ' designs varied between eight and ten 15 @-@ inch and eight 16 @-@ inch guns , with speeds between 22 and 25 knots ( the lower @-@ end ships having mixed firing , the higher using oil ) , and displacements between 26 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 000 long tons ) and 30 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 30 @,@ 000 long tons ) . Armstrong took two basic designs , one with eight and the other with ten 15 @-@ inch guns , and varied their speed and firing .
While most secondary sources do not mention that Brazil ordered a battleship , with the ship 's entry in the warship encyclopedia Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships even remarking that " Brazil had not selected from the four design variations , " the Brazilian government chose what was labeled as Design 781 , the first of the eight 15 @-@ inch designs tendered by Armstrong , which also shared characteristics with the Queen Elizabeth and Revenge classes then being built for the United Kingdom . They placed an order for one ship of this design , to be named Riachuelo , at the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard in Elswick on 12 May 1914 . Some preliminary gathering of materials was completed for a planned keel laying date of 10 September , but the beginning of the First World War in August 1914 delayed plans . Riachuelo was officially suspended on 14 January 1915 and canceled on 13 May 1915 .
= = Decline : instability and public unrest = =
= = = Brazilian naval revolt = = =
In late November 1910 , a large naval revolt , later named the Revolt of the Lash , or Revolta da Chibata , broke out in Rio de Janeiro . The tension was kindled by the racial makeup of the navy 's regular crewmembers , who were heavily black or mulatto , whereas their officers were mostly white . The Baron of Rio Branco commented : " For the recruitment of marines and enlisted men , we bring aboard the dregs of our urban centers , the most worthless lumpen , without preparation of any sort . Ex @-@ slaves and the sons of slaves make up our ships ' crews , most of them dark @-@ skinned or dark @-@ skinned mulattos . "
This kind of impressment , combined with the heavy use of corporal punishment for even minor offenses , meant that relations between the black crews and white officers was tepid at best . Crewmen aboard Minas Geraes began planning for a revolt in 1910 . They chose João Cândido Felisberto , an experienced sailor , as their leader . The mutiny was delayed several times by disagreements among the participants . In a major meeting on 13 November , some of the revolutionaries expressed a desire to revolt when the president would be inaugurated ( 15 November ) , but another leader , Francisco Dias Martins , talked them out of the idea , insisting that their demands would be overshadowed by a perceived rebellion against the political system as a whole . The immediate catalyst for their revolt came on 21 November 1910 , when an Afro @-@ Brazilian sailor , Marcelino Rodrigues Menezes , was brutally flogged 250 times for insubordination . A Brazilian government observer , former navy captain José Carlos de Carvalho , stated that the sailor 's back looked like " a mullet sliced open for salting . "
The revolt began aboard Minas Geraes at around 10 pm on 22 November ; the ship 's commander and several loyal crewmen were murdered in the process . Soon after , São Paulo , the new cruiser Bahia , the coast @-@ defense ship Deodoro , the minelayer República , the training ship Benjamin Constant , and the torpedo boats Tamoio and Timbira all revolted with relatively little violence . The first four ships represented the newest and strongest ships in the navy ; Minas Geraes , São Paulo , and Bahia had been completed and commissioned only months before . Deodoro was twelve years old and had recently undergone a refit . The crews of the smaller warships made up only two percent of the mutineers , and some moved to the largest ships after the revolt began .
Key warships that remained in government hands included the old cruiser Almirante Barroso , Bahia 's sister Rio Grande do Sul , the eight new destroyers of the Pará class . Their crews were in a state of flux at the time : with nearly half of the navy 's enlisted men in Rio at that time in open revolt , naval officers were suspicious of even those who remained loyal to the government . These suspicions were perhaps well @-@ placed , given that radio operators on loyal ships passed on operational plans to the mutineers . Enlisted men on ships that remained in government hands were reduced wherever possible , and officers took over all of the positions that would be involved in direct combat . Further complicating matters were weapon supplies , such as the destroyer 's torpedoes . These could not be fired without firing caps , yet the caps were not where they were supposed to be . When they were located and delivered , they did not fit the newer torpedoes on board the destroyers . The correct caps were fitted only 48 hours after the rebellion began .
Felisberto and his fellow sailors demanded an end to the ' slavery ' being practiced by the navy , most notably the continued use of whipping despite its ban in every other Western nation . Though navy officers and the president were staunchly opposed to any sort of amnesty and made plans to attack the rebel @-@ held ships , many legislators were supportive . Over the next three days , both houses of the Brazilian National Congress , led by the influential senator Ruy Barbosa , passed a general bill granting amnesty to all involved and ending the use of corporal punishment .
In the aftermath of the revolt , the two Brazilian dreadnoughts were disarmed by the removal of their guns ' breechblocks . The revolt and consequent state of the navy , which was essentially unable to operate for fear of another rebellion , caused many leading Brazilians , including the president , prominent politicians like Barbosa and the Baron of Rio Branco , and the editor of the most respected newspaper in Brazil , Jornal do Commercio , to question the use of the new ships and support their sale to a foreign country . The British ambassador to Brazil , W.H.D. Haggard , was ecstatic at Rio Branco 's about @-@ face , saying " This is indeed a wonderful surrender on the part of the man who was answerable for the purchase and who looked upon them as the most cherished offspring of his policy . " Shortly before the vote on the amnesty bill , Ruy Barbosa emphatically outlined his opposition to the ships :
Let me , in conclusion , point out two profound lessons of the bitter situation in which we find ourselves . The first is that a military government is not one whit more able to save the country from the vicissitudes of war nor any braver or resourceful in meeting them than a civil government . The second is that the policy of great armaments has no place on the American continent . At least on our part and the part of the nations which surround us , the policy which we ought to follow with joy and hope is that of drawing closer international ties through the development of commercial relations , the peace and friendship of all the peoples who inhabit the countries of America .
The experience of Brazil in this respect is decisive . All of the forces employed for twenty years in the perfecting of the means of our national defense have served , after all , to turn upon our own breasts these successive attempts at revolt . International war has not yet come to the doors of our republic . Civil war has come many times , armed by these very weapons which we have so vainly prepared for our defense against a foreign enemy . Let us do away with these ridiculous and perilous great armaments , securing international peace by means rather of just and equitable relations with our neighbors . On the American continent , at least , it is not necessary to maintain a ' peace armada ' ; that hideous cancer which is devouring continuously the vitals of the nations of Europe .
In the end , the president and cabinet decided against selling the ships because they feared it would hurt them politically . This came despite a consensus agreeing that the ships should be disposed of , possibly to fund smaller warships capable of traversing Brazil 's many rivers . The executive 's apprehension was heightened by Barbosa 's speech given before the revolt 's end , as he also used the occasion to attack the government , or what he called the " brutal militaristic regime . " Still , the Brazilians ordered Armstrong to cease working towards laying down their third dreadnought , which induced the Argentine government to not pick up their contractual option for a third dreadnought , and the United States ' ambassador to Brazil cabled home to state that the Brazilian desire for naval preeminence in Latin America was quelled , though this proved to be short @-@ lived .
Although the Minas Geraes class remained in Brazilian hands , the mutiny had a clear detrimental effect on the navy 's readiness : by 1912 , an Armstrong agent stated that the ships were in terrible condition , with rust already forming on turrets and boilers . The agent believed it would cost the Brazilian Navy around £ 700 @,@ 000 to address these issues . Haggard tersely commented , " These ships are absolutely useless to Brazil , " a sentiment echoed by Proceedings . Despite the government 's refusal to sell the two Minas Geraes @-@ class ships and subsequent support for acquiring Rio de Janeiro , some historians credit the rebellion , combined with the Baron of Rio Branco 's death in 1912 , as major factors in the Brazilian government 's decision ( which was possibly made by January 1913 , but certainly by September ) to sell the ship to the Ottomans .
= = = Attempted sales = = =
After Rio de Janeiro was purchased by the Ottoman Empire , the Argentine government bowed to popular demand and began to seek a buyer for their two dreadnoughts . The money received in return would have been devoted to internal improvements . Three bills directing that the battleships be sold were introduced into the Argentine National Congress in mid @-@ 1914 , but all were defeated . Still , the British and Germans expressed worries that the ships could be sold to a belligerent nation , while the Russian , Austrian , Ottoman , Italian , and Greek governments were all reportedly interested in buying both ships , the latter as a counter to the Ottoman purchase of Rio de Janeiro .
The New @-@ York Tribune reported in late April that the Argentine government rejected a $ 17 @.@ 5 million offer for Moreno alone , which would have netted them a large profit over the original construction cost of the ships ( $ 12 million ) . The United States , worried that its neutrality would not be respected and its technology would be released for study to a foreign country , put diplomatic pressure on the Argentine government to keep the ships , which it eventually did . Similarly , news outlets reported in late 1913 and early 1914 that Greece had reached an accord to purchase Chile 's first battleship as a counterbalance to the Ottoman acquisition of Rio de Janeiro , but despite a developing sentiment within Chile to sell one or both of the dreadnoughts , no deal was made .
In each of the countries involved in the South American dreadnought arms race , movements arose that advocated the sale of the dreadnoughts to redirect the substantial amounts of money involved toward what they viewed as more worthy pursuits . These costs were rightfully viewed as enormous . After the Minas Geraes class was ordered , a Brazilian newspaper equated the initial purchase cost for the original three ships as equaling 3 @,@ 125 miles of railroad tracks or 30 @,@ 300 homesteads . Naval historian Robert Scheina put the price at £ 6 @,@ 110 @,@ 100 without accounting for ammunition , which was £ 605 @,@ 520 , or necessary upgrades to docks , which was £ 832 @,@ 000 . Costs for maintenance and related issues , which in the first five years of Minas Geraes 's and São Paulo 's commissioned lives was about 60 percent of the initial cost , only added to the already staggering sum of money . The two Rivadavias were purchased for nearly a fifth of the Argentine government 's yearly income , a figure which did not include the later in @-@ service costs . Historian Robert K. Massie rounded the figure to a full quarter of each government 's annual income .
In addition , the nationalistic sentiments that exacerbated the naval arms race gave way to slowing economies and negative public opinions which came to support investing inside the country instead . Commenting on this , the United States ' Minister to Chile , Henry Prather Fletcher , wrote to Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan : " Since the naval rivalry began in 1910 , financial conditions , which were none too good then , have grown worse ; and as time approaches for the final payment , feeling has been growing in these countries that perhaps they are much more in need of money than of battleships . "
= = Aftermath : post @-@ war expansions = =
The First World War effectively ended the dreadnought race , as all three countries suddenly found themselves unable to acquire additional warships . After the conflict , the race never resumed , but many plans for post @-@ war naval expansions and improvements were postulated by the Argentine , Brazilian , and Chilean governments .
The Brazilians modernized Minas Geraes , São Paulo , and the two cruisers acquired under the 1904 plan , Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul , between 1918 and 1926 . This was sorely needed , as all four ships were not ready to fight a modern war . Although the Brazilian government intended to send São Paulo overseas for service in the Grand Fleet , both it and Minas Geraes had not been modernized since entering service , meaning they were without essential equipment like modern fire control . Maintenance on the two ships had also been neglected , which was most clearly illustrated when São Paulo was sent to New York for modernization : fourteen of its eighteen boilers broke down , and the ship required the assistance of the American battleship Nebraska and cruiser Raleigh to continue the voyage . The two cruisers were in " deplorable " condition , as they were able to steam at a top speed of only 18 knots ( 21 mph ; 33 km / h ) thanks to a desperate need for new condensers and boiler tubes . With repairs , though , both participated in the war as part of Brazil 's main naval contribution to the conflict .
The Brazilian Navy also made plans to acquire additional ships in the 1920s and 30s , but both were sharply reduced from the original proposals . In 1924 , they contemplated constructing a relatively modest number of warships , including a heavy cruiser , five destroyers , and five submarines . In the same year , the newly arrived American naval mission , led by Rear Admiral Carl Theodore Vogelgesang , tendered a naval expansion plan of 151 @,@ 000 tons , divided between battleships ( 70 @,@ 000 ) , cruisers ( 60 @,@ 000 ) , destroyers ( 15 @,@ 000 ) , and submarines ( 6 @,@ 000 ) . The United States ' State Department , led by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes and fresh from negotiating the Washington Naval Treaty , was not keen on seeing another dreadnought race , so Hughes quickly moved to thwart the efforts of the mission . Only one Italian @-@ built submarine , Humaytá , was acquired during this time .
By the 1930s , the international community believed that the bulk of the Brazilian Navy was " obsolete " and were old enough to no longer be " considered effective . " Still , Minas Geraes was modernized a second time at the Rio de Janeiro Naval Yard from June 1931 to April 1938 . Plans to give similar treatment to São Paulo were dropped due to the ship 's poor material condition . During the same period , the Brazilian government looked into purchasing cruisers from the United States Navy but ran into the restrictions of the Washington and London Naval Treaties , which placed restrictions on the sale of used warships to foreign countries . The Brazilians eventually contracted for six destroyers from the United Kingdom . In the interim , a plan to lease six destroyers from the United States was abandoned after it was met with strong opposition from both international and American institutions . Three Marcilio Dias @-@ class destroyers , based on the American Mahan class , were laid down in Brazil with six minelayers , all of which were launched between 1939 and 1941 . Though both programs required foreign assistance and were consequently delayed by the war , all nine ships were completed by 1944 .
In the 1920s , nearly all of the major warships of the Argentine Navy were obsolete ; aside from Rivadavia and Moreno , the newest major warship had been constructed at the end of the nineteenth century . The Argentine government recognized this , and as part of holding on to their naval superiority in the region , they sent Rivadavia and Moreno to the United States in 1924 and 1926 to be modernized . In addition , in 1926 the Argentine Congress allotted 75 million gold pesos for a naval building program . This resulted in the acquisition of three cruisers ( the Italian @-@ built Veinticinco de Mayo class and the British @-@ built La Argentina , twelve destroyers ( the Spanish @-@ built Churruca class and the British @-@ built Mendoza / Buenos Aires classes ) , and three submarines ( the Italian @-@ built Santa Fe class ) .
Chile began to seek additional ships to bolster its fleet in 1919 , and the United Kingdom eagerly offered many of its surplus warships . This action worried nearby nations , who feared that a Chilean attempt to become the region 's most powerful navy would destabilize the area and start another naval arms race . Chile asked for Canada and Eagle , the two battleships they ordered before the war , but the cost of converting the latter back to a battleship was too high . Planned replacements included the two remaining Invincible @-@ class battlecruisers , but a leak to the press of the secret negotiations to acquire them caused an uproar within Chile itself over the value of such ships . In the end , Chile only bought Canada and four destroyers in April 1920 — all ships that had been ordered from British yards by the Chilean government before 1914 but were purchased by the Royal Navy after the British entered the First World War — for relatively low prices . Canada , for instance , was sold for just £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , less than half of what had been required to construct the ship .
Over the next several years , the Chileans continued to acquire more ships from the British , like six destroyers ( the Serrano class ) and three submarines ( the Capitan O 'Brien class ) . Almirante Latorre was modernized in the United Kingdom from 1929 to 1931 at the Devonport Dockyard . A recession and a major naval revolt then led to the battleship 's de facto inactivation in the early 1930s . In the late 1930s , the Chilean government inquired into the possibility of constructing an 8 @,@ 600 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 8 @,@ 700 t ) cruiser in the United Kingdom , Italy , Germany , or Sweden , but this did not lead to an order . A second plan to acquire two small cruisers was dropped with the beginning of the Second World War . Soon after the attack on Pearl Harbor , the United States attempted to purchase Almirante Latorre , two destroyers , and a submarine tender , probably because the Chilean Navy had a reputation for keeping its ships in top @-@ quality condition , but the offer was rejected .
During the Second World War , the three major South American navies found themselves unable to acquire major warships ; they were only able to do so again after the conflict , when the United States and United Kingdom had many unnecessary or surplus warships . The war had proved the obsolete status of battleships , so the South American navies were seeking cruisers , destroyers , and submarines , yet they ran into political difficulties in acquiring anything larger than Flower @-@ class corvettes and River @-@ class frigates . They were only able to acquire them when the Red Scare began to strongly affect American and international politics . One of the deals reached under the Mutual Defense Assistance Act ( 1949 ) sold six American light cruisers to Argentina , Brazil , and Chile in January 1951 . While this bolstered the navies of important South American allies of the United States , which would be treaty @-@ bound to assist the United States in any war , naval historian Robert Scheina argues that the American government also used the opportunity to significantly affect the traditional naval rivalry among the three countries . The warships sold unilaterally changed the naval outlook of all three nations , leading them to accept parity ( as opposed to the Argentine pre @-@ war stipulation that its fleet be equal to Brazil 's and Chile 's combined ) .
The venerable dreadnoughts of South America soldiered on for a short time after the war . The US Navy 's All Hands magazine reported in a series of 1948 articles that all save São Paulo and Almirante Latorre were still in active service ; the former had been decommissioned and the latter undergoing repairs . With the influx of the modern cruisers , frigates , and corvettes , the battleships were quickly sold for scrap . The Brazilian Navy was the first to dispose of its dreadnoughts , the oldest in the world by that time . São Paulo was sold for scrap in 1951 but sank in a storm north of the Azores while under tow . Minas Geraes followed two years later and was broken up in Genoa beginning in 1954 . Of the Argentine dreadnoughts , Moreno was towed to Japan for scrapping in 1957 , and Rivadavia was broken up in Italy beginning in 1959 . Almirante Latorre , inactive and unrepaired after a 1951 explosion in its engine room , was decommissioned in October 1958 and followed Moreno to Japan in 1959 .
= = Ships involved = =
= = Images = =
= = Endnotes = =
= 1949 Florida hurricane =
The 1949 Florida hurricane was the second recorded storm and the strongest and most intense tropical cyclone of the 1949 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the most intense tropical cyclone to affect the United States during the season , with a minimum central pressure of 954 mbar ( 28 @.@ 18 inHg ) at landfall . The cyclone originated from an easterly wave near the Leeward Islands , and it rapidly intensified to a hurricane near the Bahamas . It strengthened to a major hurricane northwest of Nassau , Bahamas , and it struck West Palm Beach , Florida as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds near 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) and peak gusts near 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) above the surface . It turned north over the Florida peninsula , and it transitioned to an extratropical low pressure area over New England . The tropical cyclone inflicted $ 52 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( 1949 USD ) in damage , most of which was incurred in the state of Florida . It was the costliest storm of the season .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 23 , a moderate tropical storm developed 200 miles ( 323 km ) east of Sint Maarten . Operationally , the system was treated as an easterly wave until it moved through the Bahamas . It is believed that the system originated near the Cape Verde islands . On August 24 , the tropical storm passed north of the Leeward Islands and San Juan , Puerto Rico , and then strengthened to a minimal hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds on August 25 . Subsequently , it strengthened rapidly , and the cyclone was noted as " well developed " when it passed near Nassau with 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) winds on the morning of August 26 . At the time , it was the equivalent of a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm strengthened further over the Gulf Stream , and it moved ashore over the city of West Palm Beach as a strong Category 4 hurricane around 7 : 20 p.m. EDT . The city 's airport reported calm conditions from 7 : 20 – 7 : 40 p.m. , and the minimum central pressure of 954 mbar ( 28 @.@ 18 inHg ) was measured at the site . Peak gusts were recorded at 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) before the anemometer blew away . A maximum sustained wind of 153 mph ( 246 km / h ) was reported from the Jupiter Inlet Light station prior to the loss of the anemometer ; although conditions were slightly more severe after the reading , reliable estimates are unavailable . The Atlantic hurricane database lists the cyclone as a strong Category 4 hurricane at landfall . The wind reading is the basis for the Category 4 designation in the Atlantic hurricane database , although a reduction from the anemometer 's elevated location lends credence to the concept of a weaker system . Originally , the system was designated as a Category 3 hurricane in the state of Florida , based on the minimum central pressure reading of 954 mbar ( 28 @.@ 18 inHg ) ; this pressure corresponds to the original classification of a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . However , modern analysis applies Saffir @-@ Simpson rankings based on maximum sustained wind speeds . The 1949 Florida hurricane will be eventually reanalyzed by the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project , which may find a weaker hurricane in Florida . The central pressure of 954 mbar ( 28 @.@ 18 inHg ) is unusually high for a strong Category 4 hurricane ; the reanalysis project has discovered that hurricanes erroneously featured stronger winds than the typical pressure / wind relationship in the 1940s – 1960s , unlike subsequent hurricanes in the 1970s – 1980s . The evidence suggests wind speeds may have been overestimated for hurricanes in the 1940s – 1960s .
Inland , the hurricane moved over the northern portion of Lake Okeechobee , following a similar path as the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane . On August 27 , the hurricane recurved over the Florida peninsula , and then weakened to a Category 1 hurricane northeast of Tampa . The system diminished to a tropical storm near Cedar Key , and it entered southern Georgia during the morning of August 28 . The system passed over the Carolinas as a weak tropical storm , and it was operationally noted as a " weak disturbance " at the time . The cyclone passed through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England on August 29 ; it became extratropical over New Hampshire . On August 31 , the extratropical low was last detected over the western North Atlantic Ocean .
= = Preparations = =
On August 25 , the northern Bahamas were advised to initiate hurricane precautions , and a hurricane warning was issued for the islands . South Floridians were encouraged to closely monitor the progress of the storm . On August 26 , hurricane warnings were released from Miami to Vero Beach ; officials decided to cancel proposed evacuations of the Lake Okeechobee region , as the presence of the Herbert Hoover Dike was expected to prevent flooding .
= = Impact = =
In the Bahamas , the cyclone produced 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) wind gusts on Bimini . Damages in the Bahamas are unknown .
In Florida , the hurricane produced hurricane @-@ force gusts from Miami Beach to Saint Augustine . The majority of the state experienced sustained winds of at least 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The strongest winds of 100 @-@ 126 mph ( 161 @-@ 203 km / h ) were observed in the Lake Okeechobee region , while unofficial wind gusts reached 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) at Stuart . Additionally , Vero Beach reported sustained winds of 97 mph ( 156 km / h ) and peak gusts of 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) . The minimum central pressure near Lake Okeechobee was 956 mbar ( 28 @.@ 24 inHg ) at Canal Point . Palm Beach , Jupiter , and Stuart experienced the most severe damage from the storm in south Florida ; hundreds of homes , apartment buildings , stores , and warehouse buildings lost roofs and windows . Interior furnishings were blown through broken glass into the streets . Overall , the storm caused two deaths and $ 52 million in damage , mostly in Florida .
Trees and power lines were knocked down in Miami . Five homes were destroyed in Delray Beach . The " negro section " of Boynton Beach suffered $ 10 @,@ 000 in damage . Tides lashed the coast , with the worst impact between Lake Worth and Palm Beach . Much of the island of Palm Beach was covered with power lines , trees , broken glass , sand , and other debris . Between Joseph E. Widener 's mansion in Palm Beach and the Lake Worth casino , several washouts were reported . Along State Road 704 ( Royal Palm Way ) , many royal palm trees were toppled . At the Society of the Four Arts , several trees were uprooted and the library garden was ruined . The radio antenna at the town hall collapsed , damaging the roof , police and firefighters barracks , the door to the fire station , and a car . Palm Beach suffered approximately $ 2 @.@ 6 million in damage . In Lake Worth , a total of about 400 people stayed at six shelters in the area during the storm . Between 300 and 400 homes were impacted by the storm , with most of the effects limited to broken roofs , shattered windows , and water damage . One home was completely demolished . This does not include the number of homes deroofed in the " negro quarters " . Additionally , a trailer was overturned and " rolled over and over like a rubber ball " . Many plate @-@ glass windows broke in the business district , while a filling station on State Road 802 was destroyed .
In West Palm Beach , cars were overturned in the interior of a dealership as winds shattered windows .
Tides reached 12 feet ( 144 in ) above normal at Belle Glade and Clewiston , but the Herbert Hoover Dike remained intact , protecting the area from severe flooding . Minimal erosion occurred in some locales .
Water entered many homes in Palm Beach and Martin counties . Snakes and mosquitoes infested many residences . Precipitation totals of 8 @.@ 18 , 7 @.@ 10 , and 9 @.@ 51 inches ( 242 mm ) were measured at Belle Glade , Okeechobee , and St. Lucie Lock , respectively . Radio towers were toppled in Lake Worth and Belle Glade .
Severe damage was received by 40 percent of Stuart 's residences and commercial structures , and 90 percent required repairs . A church , baseball park , and ice company was destroyed in the area 's black neighborhoods . Many flimsy buildings were destroyed in the neighborhoods . Three portions of the Jensen causeway near Sewall 's Point were ripped away . A hangar and beacon was destroyed at the local airport in Martin County . 500 people were homeless in Stuart . A water mark of 8 @.@ 5 feet ( 102 in ) was recorded on the St. Lucie River near Stuart .
The cyclone inflicted heavy citrus losses , and one @-@ third of the trees were uprooted in many groves . Agricultural losses reached $ 20 million ( 1949 USD ) , including 14 million boxes of fruit . Wind gusts of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) affected Clermont , and numerous central Florida communities reported severe damage from the winds . The observation station at Archbold Biological Station reported peak wind gusts of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) ; the town of Sebring reported 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) gusts , which caused damage to trees and severe structural damage to buildings . Estimations of property damage reached $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1949 USD ) in the town , and local citrus groves estimated losses near $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( 1949 USD ) . Buildings received considerable damage in the Lake Placid area , and telegraph , telephone , rail , and bus services were disrupted . Flooding affected Georgia and the Carolinas , although the rains alleviated drought conditions in Maryland , Pennsylvania , New York , and New England . Charleston , South Carolina reported a wind gust of 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) , and power lines were damaged . In Maryland , damage was minimal , although trees were prostrated and electrical services were down . Two people were killed in Florida , but advance warnings prevented a higher death toll .
= Wave 1 =
Wave 1 is the third extended play released under synthwave musician Seth Haley 's pseudonym Com Truise . Haley described his releases as Com Truise as parts of a story about the world 's first " Synthetic Astronaut " on his adventure to a planet , and Wave 1 is where he lands on a kind @-@ of replica of Earth . Musically , Haley had to get inspiration from several artists as this part of the story is also where the music starts to change .
The EP is a combination of styles including synth soul , drum and bass , synth funk and electro , and retains the bright and danceable vibe from Com Truise 's debut album Galactic Melt ( 2011 ) . Promoted with two pre @-@ EP track releases , a music video for the track " Subsonic " and a February – March 2014 tour , the EP was issued on the Ghostly International label in February 2014 to generally positive reviews , with critics praising the record 's creativity . Commercially , it also landed in the top ten of the American Billboard Dance / Electronic and Heatseekers album charts .
= = Background and composition = =
In a June 2013 Twitter post , Seth Haley said he wrote Wave 1 without knowing it was a reflection of how he was living in the few months of his life before . He started taking care of his health , suffered through an ended relationship , and relocated to Brooklyn . He said that despite not usually revealing his personal life publicly , he said in an interview that when he makes his music , : " it 's always just there , and it happens , but I don 't focus on it . My music 's all based on this story about an android that travels to this other planet . So I 'm not really writing about myself , but then I realized I have been all along . It 's all been about me . "
Maintaining the bright and danceable feel from Com Truise 's 2011 debut studio album Galactic Melt and garnering more of a melodic approach than previous releases of the project , Wave 1 is a combination of synth soul , drum and bass , synth funk , electro , and , in the words of a Pitchfork Media reviewer , " fussy 80s computer @-@ pop " . Seth Haley has described the character of Com Truise as the first ever " Synthetic Astronaut " , and each release under the name shows the next part in this voyage to a planet . Wave 1 is a part of the story where he lands on a sort @-@ of replica of Earth , and Haley thought there was " something eerie about it , something familiar but something peculiar as well . " Because this was also meant to be a part of the story where the music starts changing , he had taken inspiration from several acts including New Order and Prince to have a much broader range of tempos and styles in each track .
= = Tracks = =
The opener " Wasat " sets the scene of the story , starting with a short , atmospheric prelude before it moves into " an uptempo , hypercolor groove " . The " VHS @-@ quality dubstep " track " Mind " is where the record gets suspenseful , as the drums " threaten " to become , but doesn 't entirely become , a fully developed hard @-@ hitting four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor beat . These two tracks were described by a Spectrum Culture critic as " a practice in coalescence ; taking a moment to take shape and then defying one another ’ s difference until they too find their peaceful plane of existence . " The most melodic track on the EP , " Declination " , as well as probably the " most straightforwardly melodic " cut in Com Truise 's discography as of the release of the EP , " glides into your headphones like a starship slipping down out of hyperspace " , featuring vocals of Joel Ford from the projects Ford & Lopatin , Airbird and Young Ejecta . As a reviewer analyzed , the track opens as " spine @-@ tingling sci @-@ fi dissonance " before turning into a 1980s @-@ esque new wave song .
Wave 1 decreases its tensions on " Subsonic " , which goes through several " movements " of slow @-@ building , evocative sounds , including a " hell of a squelchy bass " , that the press release analogized to be " soundtracking " the creation of new stars . This evocative vibe continues into " Valis Called ( Control ) " , its title referencing the works of one of the considered " gods of this retro synth phenomenon " Phillip K. Dick , followed by the " futuristic R & B " song " Meserere Mei " , a track consisting of broken drum beats and spiky synth sounds . The Jamie xx @-@ style title track of Wave 1 calmly ends the EP as the lead melody drifts far away into several " zipping " sci @-@ fi textures and " clustered percussion . "
= = Promotion and release = =
The lead single for Wave 1 was " Declination " , released on December 3 , 2013 . On January 23 , 2014 , " Subsonic " premiered on the website of Spin magazine , which announced the EP 's track list and a North American tour promoting the record that lasted from February 11 to March 15 . The EP was officially distributed on the Ghostly International label on February 18 . On April 14 , Vice magazine 's electronic music channel Thump premiered the video for " Subsonic " . Directed by Hans Lo , Thump summarized that the video " jacks us into a William Gibson novel , leading us through the gridded passages of the Information Superhighway . "
= = Critical reception = =
Wave 1 received generally positive reviews upon its release ; the EP holds a weighted mean of an aggregate 69 out of 100 from Metacritic based on six reviews , indicating that , according to the site , the album 's critical reception was favorable in general . Daniel Sylvester of Exclaim ! called the EP " looser , more focused and much more imaginative " that Com Truise 's past work , writing that while the artist has yet to make " a truly transcendent piece of art , Wave 1 shows the young beatmaker in transition , fearlessly searching for his definitive sound . " Similarly , Sputnikmusic reviewer hyperion praised Wave 1 for making a unique new sound with the chillwave palette instead of having limits from the genre , assuming that it could 've been the peak of the microgenre if the record 's other songs were as good as " Valis ( Called Control ) " and " Subsonic " . Mark Jenkins reviewed it for The Washington Post , and mainly highlighted its unpredictable melodic and rhythmic moments , while Pat Levy , reviewing for Consequence of Sound , honored Haley for getting out of his comfort zone while still having the same sounds and style of his past records . Pitchfork Media 's Paul Thompson liked the EP as " a mostly welcome return , " but criticized its focus of having perfectly @-@ detailed sound instead of new musical ideas .
In more mixed reviews , Derek Staples , writing for the site Spectrum Culture , wrote that with Wave 1 , the artist was starting to lose his " inventive edge " in trying to recreate the same sound of his past releases for nostalgic purposes . A NME critic praised the sounds on the EP , but called it more " disjointed " and " disorienting " than his past albums due to its " abrasive " and glitchy sound and lack of a " steady groove . " A reviewer for the magazine XLR8R wrote that Wave 1 may interest listeners , but also was a indication Com Truise 's creativity may decline with releases in his later career .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Seth Haley .
= = Credits and Personnel = =
Source :
Songwriting , production , artwork – Com Truise
Vocals on " Declination " – Joel Ford
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= ( I Can 't Make It ) Another Day =
" ( I Can 't Make It ) Another Day " is a song by American recording artist Michael Jackson featuring Lenny Kravitz , released on the posthumous album Michael which has sold 6 @.@ 5 million globally . Initially leaked as a 90 @-@ second snippet , it was referred to as " Another Day " . Shortly after the leak , singer @-@ songwriter Lenny Kravitz confirmed that he had produced and composed " Another Day " ; he stated that although he did not leak the song , he would like to have the full version of the song — in which he also features — officially released . Kravitz later referred to the song as " ( I Can 't Make It ) Another Day " on Facebook prior to the release of the Michael album . The song was recorded for the album Invincible , but dropped from the final track list . It was later re @-@ written and re @-@ titled " Storm " , a collaboration between Kravitz and rapper Jay @-@ Z which is featured on the former 's 2004 album Baptism .
Shortly after the leak , both Jackson 's estate and record label , Sony Music Entertainment , revealed that they were in the process of removing " Another Day " from the Internet for copyright reasons . Despite successful attempts , the song has continued to be re @-@ uploaded to the Internet and listened to thousands of times . " Another Day " is the second Jackson track to be posthumously leaked , as it follows " A Place with No Name " , which was unofficially released on July 16 , 2009 .
= = Background = =
In June 2009 , singer Michael Jackson died at the age of 50 following cardiac arrest . Three weeks after Jackson 's death , celebrity news website TMZ.com ( who were the first media outlet to report his death ) obtained a 24 @-@ second snippet of a song entitled " A Place with No Name " , and released it on the Internet . At the time of the leak there were news reports that there was a " vast vault " and " dozens and dozens " of unreleased Jackson songs that could be issued for several years to come . The curator of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , Jim Henke , commented that any future Jackson releases would receive a significant amount of attention , stating , " What we have seen happen in the last three weeks is that the albums that are out here right now are selling in amazing numbers . I think we are going to see amazing interest in any released Michael Jackson material that will come out in the future or a year from now on . "
After Jackson 's death , rock musician Lenny Kravitz wrote a letter about the late singer that was published by AOL Music 's website Spinner.com. In it he spoke of collaborating with Jackson on an unspecified song : " I got to work with Michael on a track that has not been released and it was the most amazing experience I 've had in the studio . He was funny . Very funny and we laughed the whole time . " Kravitz added , " He was a beautiful human being . "
On December 10 , 2010 , the song was officially released on the posthumous album Michael . It features more vocals and instrumentation .
= = Leak and music = =
A 90 @-@ second snippet of a song called " Another Day " was leaked onto the Internet on January 2 , 2010 . It features the vocals of Michael Jackson and Winnipeg Free Press stated the song originated from TMZ.com. At the beginning of the leaked snippet , two DJs , one calling himself Kels , are name @-@ checked . The full song is said to feature both Jackson and Kravitz , with the Huffington Post insisting that while the latter does not appear on the snippet of " Another Day " , the song is a duet between the two musicians .
Gil Kaufman of MTV spoke of the snippet 's composition , proclaiming that it had a " thumping R & B beat and soaring strings " . She stated that " the tune rides a grinding R & B beat " as Jackson sings in a " plaintive falsetto " : " My life has taken me beyond the planets and the stars / And you 're the only one that could take me this far / I 'll be forever searching for your love . " Kaufman noted that Jackson became more forceful during the chorus , when he sang , " You 're the one that makes me strong / I can 't make it another day / You 're the fire that keeps me warm / I can 't make it another day . " The journalist also noted the lyrical and melodical similarities between " Another Day " and " Storm " , which features Kravitz singing , " I walked away but I was wrong / You 're the one that keeps me strong / You 're the fire that keeps me warm / How will I get through this storm ? "
= = Response = =
The song had not been intended for release and Jackson 's record label Sony Music Entertainment gained the support of the late entertainer 's estate and its lawyers in their endeavor to have the track removed from the Internet on the basis of copyright infringement . Some of their attempts at removal were successful , though individuals continued to upload the audio , one clip garnering 20 @,@ 000 views within hours .
Following the leak , Kravitz discussed the song in a video he uploaded to the social networking site Twitter . He confirmed that he had written , produced and played instruments on the song , as well as record it with Jackson . Kravitz stated that he was not responsible for the unofficial release , as his copy " has been locked up in a vault " . He noted that the two DJs on the snippet were not involved in the recording process , stating , " I don 't know what their purpose is , but that person has nothing to do with the track . " Kravitz reflected that working with Jackson had been " one of the most amazing musical experiences " that he had ever had . " It was done by two people who had respect for each other and who love music — that was it . " The singer @-@ songwriter concluded that " Another Day " had not been mixed or completed but added that he hoped the full song would be released and heard " the way me and Michael intended it to be " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said the song " galvanizes him further " , yielding the album ( Michael ) ' s " most genuinely fierce moment " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe review the song as " a faint echo of vintage rock @-@ oriented Jackson tracks such as Dirty Diana and Beat It " . , " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone also draw a comparasion with this song and Dirty Diana . Jason Lipshutz with Gail Mitchell and Gary Graff from Billboard said the song developed an industrial rock groove that was a bit reminiscent of Nine Inch Nails , " Jackson bellows on the chorus , as guitars envelop his voice and Kravitz repeats the song title like a lullaby , " . "
Negative reviews came from Alexis Petridis of The Guardian , he said " of exactly the standard you might expect from a track that failed to make the cut for his worst solo album . " Huw Jones of Slant Magazine thought the song " a gutless rock track with dull guest spots from Lenny Kravitz . "
= = = David Grohl controversy = = =
Although Dave Grohl is credited as having played drums on the track " ( I Can 't Make It ) Another Day " , Grohl himself claimed in the November 2011 issue of The Red Bulletin that he does not perform on the track . According to Grohl , Lenny Kravitz asked him to play on the song but neither Kravitz nor Michael Jackson contacted him after he had recorded his drums and the version of the song that appears on Michael does not feature his playing . Grohl called the fact that he was credited in the album notes despite not playing on the record " not cool " .
= = Personnel = =
Written and produced : Lenny Kravitz
Co @-@ produced : Michael Jackson
Lead and Background vocals : Michael Jackson
Background vocals : Lenny Kravitz
12 @-@ String Electric Guitar : Craig Ross
Electric Guitar , Bass , Mini Moog , String and Horn Samples , Timpani , Gong : Lenny Kravitz
Drum Programming and Noise : David Barron and Lenny Kravitz
Synthesizer Programming : David Baron
Programming : Craig Ross
Mixed : Lenny Kravitz
Arranged : Lenny Kravitz
Studio Technician and Additional Synthesizer Programming : Alex Alvarez
= Carrington Moss =
Carrington Moss is a large area of peat bog near Carrington in Greater Manchester , England . It lies south of the River Mersey , approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) south @-@ west of Manchester , and occupies an area of about 1 @,@ 100 acres ( 450 ha ) . The depth of peat varies between 17 and 20 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 and 6 @.@ 1 m ) .
Originally an unused area of grouse moorland , the moss was reclaimed in the latter half of the 19th century for farming and the disposal of Manchester 's waste . A system of tramways was built to connect it with the Manchester Ship Canal and a nearby railway line . During the Second World War the land was used as a Starfish site and in the latter half of the 20th century , a large industrial complex was built along its northern edge . More recently , several sporting facilities have been built on Carrington Moss .
Today , the land is still used for farming and several nature reserves have been established within its bounds . Parts of Carrington Moss are accessible to the public over several rights of way .
= = History = =
A History of Flixton , Urmston , and Davyhulme ( 1898 ) claims that the name Carrington might be derived from the Goidelic Celtic root Cathair , a fortress , but a more recent theory is that it derives from an Anglicised form of a Scandinavian personal name . A Carrington Hall , seat of the Carrington family ( descended from William de Caryngton ) once existed to the north of Carrington Moss , at the junction formed by the modern @-@ day A6144 and B5158 roads . The word moss , first used during the 15th century , forms part of the local name for a lowland peat bog , " mosslands " . Today the term is also used to describe former bogs that have been converted to farmland .
= = = 19th century = = =
Manchester 's population increased by more than 150 % between 1831 and 1851 . This placed considerable pressure on the city 's ability to dispose of refuse , exacerbated during the 1870s by a gradual switch from the older cesspit methods of sewage disposal to pail closets . These needed to be emptied regularly and by the 1880s , night soil accounted for about 75 % of Manchester 's 200 @,@ 000 long tons ( 200 @,@ 000 t ; 220 @,@ 000 short tons ) of refuse .
Along with parts of Moss Side and Withington , in 1885 Bradford , Harpurhey and Rusholme became part of the City of Manchester . To cope with the extra demands placed on the area 's refuse disposal systems , Manchester Corporation began to look for disposal sites . A number of locations were considered , including one on Deeside and another in Nottinghamshire , but Carrington Moss was chosen due to the nature of its land and its accessibility . Therefore , in 1886 , the corporation bought the Carrington Moss Estate — an area of grouse moorland — from Harry Grey , 8th Earl of Stamford .
The purchase was part of the corporation 's ultimately unsuccessful plan to retain the pail closet system ( now superseded by the water closet ) , and followed a public scandal created by the daily dumping of 30 – 60 tons of human faeces into the Medlock and Irwell rivers , at Holt Town sewage works . It paid about £ 38 @,@ 000 ( £ 4 million as of 2016 ) , for the site , but the bog 's depth , between 17 and 20 feet or 5 @.@ 2 and 6 @.@ 1 metres deep pushed the total development cost to almost £ 94 @,@ 000 ( £ 9 million as of 2016 ) . The 1 @,@ 101 @-@ acre ( 446 ha ) estate included 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) of wild mossland , 209 acres ( 0 @.@ 85 km2 ) of partly cultivated mossland , 282 acres ( 1 @.@ 14 km2 ) of mossland under cultivation and 10 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 m2 ) of incomplete roads . A number of brick buildings were included , along with Asphodel Farm and Ash Farm , both with wooden farmhouses . The corporation rented 700 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 km2 ) of land in small holdings to local farmers and kept 400 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) for itself .
The bog 's virgin moss was cultivated and drainage channels cut through at regular intervals , the first step in the area 's reclamation . This drainage caused the characteristically convex Moss to sag noticeably ; some residents of Dunham Town commented that they could see parts of Carrington previously obscured by the moss . A network of tramways and roads was constructed using clinker and other materials brought from the city . Drains were laid and the land cleared of scrub . A water supply was also installed . Some of the more dangerous buildings were demolished , while others were either repaired or replaced .
Refuse was loaded from a number of locations and was first transported along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation , until that waterway was closed on 11 November 1888 . For several years until the completion of its replacement , the Manchester Ship Canal , the corporation was reliant on Manchester 's local railway network . Refuse was loaded at the corporation 's Water Street Depot on to Cornbrook sidings and in waggons to Carrington on a junction from the Cheshire Lines Committee 's ( CLC ) Glazebrook to Stockport Tiviot Dale line . The canal company installed a temporary dock on the new canal , although this was considered impractical and was rarely used . A more permanent arrangement was made several years later . New railway sidings were also built ; once complete , refuse was loaded from near Oldham Road railway station and the corporation 's Water Street Depot . It was then transported along the Ship Canal to a newly built wharf , and thereafter , by tramway across the moss .
Once delivered , refuse was normally placed in heaps and allowed to dry before being put into the ground . The naturally acidic water was a perfect receptacle for the contents of pail closets , rich in urea and nitrogen . Bacteria quickly broke the refuse down into ammonium compounds and free ammonia , which neutralised the soil 's acidity and created ammonium nitrate — an essential fertiliser for arable land .
By the 1890s , over 70 @,@ 000 long tons of excrement annually were being disposed of on the moss . The land was a useful source of income for Manchester ; for the year ending 31 March 1900 the estate made a profit of £ 777 5s 2d ( by comparison , the larger Chat Moss made £ 2 @,@ 591 13s 4d ) . Its success helped persuade Manchester Corporation to purchase 2 @,@ 583 acres of nearby Chat Moss in 1895 . By 1897 , 37 @,@ 082 long tons of nightsoil , 587 long tons of sweepings and litter and 11 @,@ 673 long tons of cinders were being sent to Carrington . Various crops were grown on the land , including wheat , oats , potatoes and carrots . A variety of ornamental shrubs , including rhododendrons , were grown in a nursery and used in the parks and gardens of Manchester .
= = = 20th century = = =
By the 1930s , extensive use of the water closet meant that the amount of night soil being delivered to Carrington Moss had dropped significantly . During this period , the majority of refuse placed on the Moss came from ash bins , although some was from slaughterhouses and lairage facilities . In 1923 , manure of only moderate value was being delivered , supplemented by sulphate of potash , sulphate of ammonia , and super @-@ phosphates . Altrincham Sewage Farm ( visible on the above map ) was used to flood the surrounding fields with sewage water . To the west , a series of disused marl @-@ pits formed Timperley Sewage Beds , a further source of manure .
Carrington Wharf had fallen out of use by 1934 and with the advent of the Second World War , five miles ( 8 km ) of railway were lifted and all the waggons scrapped . At the Ministry of Supply 's request , much of the infrastructure supporting both Carrington Moss and Chat Moss was sold . The sidings at Carrington continued to be used by the CLC for waggon storage , but Carrington Wharf was subsumed in 1946 by the construction of Carrington Power Station . During the war , the moss became one of four sites in Manchester used as a Starfish site — decoy targets for enemy aircraft . Operational control was the responsibility of RAF Balloon Command . The site contained an air raid shelter for the operational crew and several combustible devices used to simulate fires and lights . The site was activated in December 1940 but closed several years later , following a reduction in enemy aircraft attacks and lack of manpower .
In 1948 , the estate was valued at £ 82 @,@ 615 . In the year ending March 1971 , it produced an income of £ 20 @,@ 268 . By that time the entire Moss had been fully reclaimed ; 872 @.@ 785 acres ( 3 @.@ 53204 km2 ) of cultivated land , 39 @.@ 012 acres ( 157 @,@ 880 m2 ) of roads and plantations , and 30 @.@ 140 acres ( 121 @,@ 970 m2 ) of ' industrial area ' were available for use . The principal land uses were dairy , arable farming , and glasshouse culture . No refuse was delivered for the year ending March 1971 , and the Moss had by that time taken a total of 1 @,@ 305 @,@ 822 tons of refuse .
The estate was leased on 1 October 1968 to Shell Chemicals , who in 1957 had purchased a propylene oxide plant along the moss 's northern edge . Shell had built an ethylene oxide plant in 1958 and began to produce polyether polyols the following year . Council housing was built nearby , at Carrington and Partington , for workers and their families . By 1985 the Shell plant had a turnover of about £ 200M and employed 1 @,@ 150 people , but a major restructuring of the business reduced the workforce to less than 500 by 1986 . By 1994 , four distinct plants operated on the 3 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 14 km2 ) site , producing a range of chemicals , and materials including polystyrene , polyethylene and polypropylene . In 2005 it was reported that Shell would close their polyols and ethoxylates units , a decision which came into effect in 2007 . The estate is currently managed by chartered surveyors Bell Ingram .
Manchester United opened their Trafford Training Centre training ground and Academy in 2000 , on land formerly owned by Shell . Bury F.C. ' s Carrington Training Centre , formerly occupied by Manchester City F.C. , is located nearby . Because of the Moss 's history as a dumping ground for waste , bottle diggers often frequent the area . Several rights of way cross the land , and a horse @-@ riding school operates in the area .
= = Geography and ecology = =
At 53 ° 25 ′ 14 ″ N 2 ° 23 ′ 16 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 42056 , 2 @.@ 38778 ) , 65 @.@ 6 feet ( 20 @.@ 0 m ) above sea level , Carrington Moss lies along the southern edge of the Lancashire Plain , an area of Bunter sandstones overlaid with marls laid down during the Late Triassic period . These rocks are themselves overlaid by a layer of boulder clay deposited during the last ice age , about 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The combination of the flat topography and the underlying clay resulted in extensive peat bogs developing along the Mersey Valley , and overflowing beyond the valley . Along with large parts of Chat Moss and Holcroft Moss , Carrington Moss began to form during the Flandrian period from 7100 to 5000 BP .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Carrington Moss is a lowland raised bog . The area drains slowly , which slows the decomposition of plant life and leads to the accumulation of peat . Over thousands of years this raises the level of peat and forms a gently sloping dome ( hence , raised ) . Such areas support a wide range of flora and fauna ; Sphagnum balticum , a medium @-@ sized bog moss , was recorded on Carrington Moss in the 1880s , although locally it is now presumed to be extinct . Lancashire- or bog asphodel ( Narthecium ossifragum ) , white beak @-@ sedge ( Rhynchospora alba ) , cranberries , bog @-@ rosemary ( Andromeda polifolia ) , and the cotton sedge have also been recorded . In 1923 species of trees recorded by E. Price Evans for the Journal of Ecology included English oak ( Quercus robur ) , and common ash ( Fraxinus excelsior ) . Undergrowth included common hazel ( Corylus avellana ) , blackberry ( Rubus fruticosus ) , and European holly ( Ilex aquifolium ) . Several species of ground vegetation included creeping soft grass ( Holcus mollis ) , common bluebell ( Hyacinthoides non @-@ scripta ) , common foxglove ( Digitalis purpurea ) , dog 's mercury ( Mercurialis perennis ) , iris ( Iris pseudacorus ) , mad @-@ dog weed ( Alisma plantago @-@ aquatica ) , and cat @-@ o ' -nine @-@ tails ( Typha latifolia ) .
Birch Moss Covert is a small woodland containing birch , alder and willow trees , as well as various species of flora and fauna . The small mammal population includes the wood mouse ( Apodemus sylvaticus ) , which attract both kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus ) and sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus ) . Foxes , stoats , weasels , and badgers , are often seen . The area is part of Shell 's estate , covering about 15 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land managed by the Cheshire Wildlife Trust . The trust also manages a small nature reserve located within Manchester United 's training ground . This provides a habitat for a number of species including the red admiral butterfly ( Vanessa atalanta ) , meadow pipit ( Anthus pratensis ) , and grey partridge ( Perdix perdix ) . Carrington Moss is home to the only recorded pairs of breeding grey partridge in Trafford . Six pairs of Eurasian bullfinch ( Pyrrhula pyrrhula ) were recorded in 2003 . The reduction in the population of these and similar birds is attributed to modern farming methods , the loss of broad hedgerows , and the lack of winter stubble . Action for Nature in Trafford has therefore included the site in its Biodiversity Action Plan . The group intends to develop Carrington Moss as a home for other species , such as reed bunting ( Emberiza schoeniclus ) . Stigmella continuella ( a species of moth occurring in southern and north @-@ west England ) has been observed in the area .
= Canons of page construction =
The canons of page construction are a set of principles in the field of book design used to describe the ways that page proportions , margins and type areas ( print spaces ) of books are constructed .
The notion of canons , or laws of form , of book page construction was popularized by Jan Tschichold in the mid to late twentieth century , based on the work of J. A. van de Graaf , Raúl M. Rosarivo , Hans Kayser , and others . Tschichold wrote , “ Though largely forgotten today , methods and rules upon which it is impossible to improve have been developed for centuries . To produce perfect books these rules have to be brought to life and applied . ” Kayser 's 1946 Ein harmonikaler Teilungskanon had earlier used the term canon in this context .
Typographers and book designers apply these principles to this day , with variations related to the availability of standardized paper sizes , and the diverse types of commercially printed books .
= = Van de Graaf canon = =
The Van de Graaf canon is a historical reconstruction of a method that may have been used in book design to divide a page in pleasing proportions . This canon is also known as the " secret canon " used in many medieval manuscripts and incunabula .
The geometrical solution of the construction of Van de Graaf 's canon , which works for any page width : height ratio , enables the book designer to position the text body in a specific area of the page . Using the canon , the proportions are maintained while creating pleasing and functional margins of size 1 / 9 and 2 / 9 of the page size . The resulting inside margin is one @-@ half of the outside margin , and of proportions 2 : 3 : 4 : 6 ( inner : top : outer : bottom ) when the page proportion is 2 : 3 ( more generally 1 : R : 2 : 2R for page proportion 1 : R ) . This method was discovered by Van de Graaf , and used by Tschichold and other contemporary designers ; they speculate that it may be older .
The page proportions vary , but most commonly used is the 2 : 3 proportion . Tschichold writes " For purposes of better comparison I have based his figure on a page proportion of 2 : 3 , which Van de Graaf does not use . " In this canon the text area and page size are of same proportions , and the height of the text area equals the page width . This canon was popularized by Jan Tschichold in his book The Form of the Book .
Robert Bringhurst , in his The Elements of Typographic Style , asserts that the proportions that are useful for the shapes of pages are equally useful in shaping and positioning the textblock . This was often the case in medieval books , although later on in the Renaissance , typographers preferred to apply a more polyphonic page in which the proportions of page and textblock would differ .
= = Golden canon = =
Tschichold 's " golden canon of page construction " is based on simple integer ratios , equivalent to Rosarivo 's " typographical divine proportion . "
= = = Interpretation of Rosarivo = = =
Raúl Rosarivo analyzed Renaissance books with the help of a drafting compass and a ruler , and concluded in his Divina proporción tipográfica ( " Typographical Divine Proportion " , first published in 1947 ) that Gutenberg , Peter Schöffer , Nicolaus Jenson and others had applied the golden canon of page construction in their works . According to Rosarivo , his work and assertion that Gutenberg used the " golden number " 2 : 3 , or " secret number " as he called it , to establish the harmonic relationships between the diverse parts of a work , was analyzed by experts at the Gutenberg Museum and re @-@ published in the Gutenberg @-@ Jahrbuch , its official magazine . Ros Vicente points out that Rosarivo " demonstrates that Gutenberg had a module different from the well @-@ known one of Luca Pacioli " ( the golden ratio ) .
Tschichold also interprets Rosarivo 's golden number as 2 : 3 , saying :
In figure 5 the height of the type area equals the width of the page : using a page proportion of 2 : 3 , a condition for this canon , we get one @-@ ninth of the paper width for the inner margin , two @-@ ninths for the outer or fore @-@ edge margin , one @-@ ninth of the paper height for the top , and two @-@ ninths for the bottom margin . Type area and paper size are of equal proportions . ... What I uncovered as the canon of the manuscript writers , Raul Rosarivo proved to have been Gutenberg 's canon as well . He finds the size and position of the type area by dividing the page diagonal into ninths .
The figures he refers to are reproduced in combination here .
= = = John Man 's interpretation of Gutenberg = = =
Historian John Man suggests that Gutenberg 's Bible page was based on the golden ratio ( commonly approximated as the decimal 0 @.@ 618 or the ratio 5 : 8 ) , and that the printed area also had that shape . He quotes the dimensions of Gutenberg 's half @-@ folio Bible page as 30 @.@ 7 x 44 @.@ 5 cm , a ratio of 1 : 1 @.@ 45 , close to Rosarivo 's golden 2 : 3 ( 1 @.@ 5 ) but not to the golden ratio 1 @.@ 618 .
= = = Tschichold and the golden section = = =
Building on Rosarivo 's work , contemporary experts in book design such as Jan Tschichold and Richard Hendel assert as well that the page proportion of the golden section ( 21 : 34 ) has been used in book design , in manuscripts , and incunabula , mostly in those produced between 1550 and 1770 . Hendel writes that since Gutenberg 's time , books have been most often printed in an upright position , that conform loosely , if not precisely , to the golden ratio .
These page proportions based on the golden section or golden ratio , are usually described through its convergents such as 2 : 3 , 5 : 8 , and 21 : 34 .
Tschichold says that common ratios for page proportion used in book design include as 2 : 3 , 1 : √ 3 , and the golden section . The image with circular arcs depicts the proportions in a medieval manuscript , that according to Tschichold feature a " Page proportion 2 : 3 . Margin proportions 1 : 1 : 2 : 3 . Text area in accord with the Golden Section . The lower outer corner of the text area is fixed by a diagonal as well . " By accord with the golden section , he does not mean exactly equal to , which would conflict with the stated proportions .
Tschichold refers to a construction equivalent to van de Graaf 's or Rosarivo 's with a 2 : 3 page ratio as " the Golden Canon of book page construction as it was used during late Gothic times by the finest of scribes . " For the canon with the arc construction , which yields a text area ratio closer to the golden ratio , he says " I abstracted from manuscripts that are older yet . While beautiful , it would hardly be useful today . "
Of the different page proportions that such a canon can be applied to , he says " Book pages come in many proportions , i.e. , relationships between width and height . Everybody knows , at least from hearsay , the proportion of the Golden Section , exactly 1 : 1 @.@ 618 . A ratio of 5 : 8 is no more than an approximation of the Golden Section . It would be difficult to maintain the same opinion about a ratio of 2 : 3 . "
Tschichold also expresses a preference for certain ratios over others : " The geometrically definable irrational page proportions like 1 : 1 @.@ 618 ( Golden Section ) , 1 : √ 2 , 1 : √ 3 , 1 : √ 5 , 1 : 1 @.@ 538 , and the simple rational proportions of 1 : 2 , 2 : 3 , 5 : 8 and 5 : 9 I call clear , intentional and definite . All others are unclear and accidental ratios . The difference between a clear and an unclear ratio , though frequently slight , is noticeable . ... Many books show none of the clear proportions , but accidental ones . "
John Man 's quoted Gutenberg page sizes are in a proportion not very close to the golden ratio , but Rosarivo 's or van de Graaf 's construction is applied by Tschichold to make a pleasing text area on pages of arbitrary proportions , even such accidental ones .
= = Current applications = =
Richard Hendel , associate director of the University of North Carolina Press , describes book design as a craft with its own traditions and a relatively small body of accepted rules . The dust cover of his book , On Book Design , features the Van de Graaf canon .
Christopher Burke , in his book on German typographer Paul Renner , creator of the Futura typeface , described his views about page proportions :
Renner still championed the traditional proportions of margins , with the largest at the bottom of a page , ' because we hold the book by the lower margin when we take it in the hand and read it ' . This indicates that he envisioned a small book , perhaps a novel , as his imagined model . Yet he struck a pragmatic note by adding that the traditional rule for margin proportions cannot be followed as a doctrine : for example , wide margins for pocket books would be counter @-@ productive . Similarly , he refuted the notion that the type area must have the same proportions as the page : he preferred to trust visual judgment in assessing the placement of the type area on the page , instead of following a pre @-@ determined doctrine .
Bringhurst describes a book page as a tangible proportion , which together with the textblock produce an antiphonal geometry , which has the capability to bind the reader to the book , or conversely put the reader 's nerve on edge or drive the reader away .
= Michael Johnson ( fighter ) =
Michael Julian Johnson ( born June 4 , 1986 ) is an American mixed martial artist who competes in the lightweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship . A professional MMA competitor since 2008 , Johnson mostly competed in his regional circuit , before signing onto the Ultimate Fighting Championship to appear on The Ultimate Fighter : Team GSP vs. Team Koscheck . As of July 18 , 2016 , he is # 10 in the official UFC lightweight rankings .
= = Background = =
Born in St. Louis , Missouri , Johnson was raised as the youngest of three siblings . Johnson began fighting at the age of 10 , after his father 's fatal heart attack . The incident made Johnson want to exert his anger physically . Johnson later said , " I lost something , a huge part of me .... Fighting was my way of not dealing with my dad 's passing . Now that I think of it , of course , it was the wrong thing to do , especially putting all that burden on my mom having to deal with it . " Athletic , Johnson was a three @-@ sport varsity athlete at Marquette High School in Chesterfield , Missouri . Johnson later received a full scholarship to play football at Central Methodist University , but transferred after one year to Meramec Community College where he was one of the top NJCAA wrestlers in the country .
= = Mixed martial arts career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Johnson is a former Midwest Fight League and Xtreme Cage Fighting Champion who won those titles in July 2008 and October 2009 respectively .
= = = The Ultimate Fighter = = =
Johnson then signed onto the Ultimate Fighting Championship circuit to appear on The Ultimate Fighter : Team GSP vs. Team Koscheck .
Johnson 's entry onto the show was , in part , due to his persistence in attending tryouts for the show . After making the final interview round of The Ultimate Fighter : Team Nogueira vs. Team Mir , Johnson was told that he wasn 't the right fit for the show . Johnson then tried out for the ninth season of the show , before finally becoming accepted onto the twelfth season after telling the producers , " I 've been getting tired of chasing you [ expletive ] around the country . I 'm here ; I 'm not going to go anywhere . If you guys don 't pick me , I 'm going to try out again . " Finally , Johnson was signed .
Johnson 's first fight took place on the debut episode of the season , where he faced unbeaten Pablo Garza . Johnson scored a unanimous decision victory , which moved him into the house .
In the second episode , both St @-@ Pierre and Koscheck had Johnson at the top of their lists when it came time to select fighters . During the team selection process however , St @-@ Pierre created a fake list which did not have Johnson among his top selections , and subtly showed it to Koscheck to fool him into believing it . This seemed to manipulate Koscheck into picking Marc Stevens , as he may have believed he could take Johnson later . This allowed St @-@ Pierre to choose Johnson with the second overall pick .
Johnson competed in his preliminary round matchup against Aaron Wilkinson in the third episode . After some early striking exchanges in the first round , Wilkinson was able to take Johnson down and utilise ground @-@ and @-@ pound punches and elbows . In the second round , Johnson landed an early superman punch , as well as a takedown . After takedowns were achieved by both men , Johnson stuffed a final attempt and took the second round on the judges scorecards . In the sudden victory round , Johnson attacked quickly , which allowed him to end the fight via a rear naked choke .
In episode 8 , Team GSP had to pick which team members would fight each other ( considering they had 5 members in the quarter @-@ finals ) . St. Pierre asked each member to pick the fighter they wanted to fight . Johnson and Alex Caceres picked each other and a fight was scheduled . Johnson won by unanimous decision after two rounds , earning himself a spot in the semi @-@ finals .
In the final round , Johnson faced the one remaining Team Koscheck member , Nam Phan . In a back @-@ and @-@ forth fight , Johnson scored takedowns . The consensus after the fight was that Johnson won the opening round , and Phan the second . The third was in dispute however , with each fighter 's coach convinced they had won the round . Johnson was declared the winner via split decision .
= = = Ultimate Fighting Championship = = =
Johnson made his UFC debut in the The Ultimate Fighter : Team GSP vs. Team Koscheck Finale against Jonathan Brookins . That fight determined the winner of The Ultimate Fighter 12 . After an impressive first round , Johnson lost rounds two and three — and subsequently the fight — via unanimous decision , leaving him the runner @-@ up .
Johnson was looking to take a fight outside of the UFC before returning to the promotion . The fight was to headline the North American Fighting Championship card against Jim Bleau . However , after obtaining a UFC fight , Johnson pulled out of the NAFC bout to focus his training on the UFC bout . Johnson faced Edward Faaloloto on June 26 , 2011 at UFC on Versus 4 and won the fight via TKO in the first round .
Johnson faced Paul Sass on October 1 , 2011 at UFC on Versus 6 . He lost the fight via submission in the first round .
Johnson was expected to face Cody McKenzie on January 28 , 2012 at UFC on Fox 2 . However , McKenzie was forced out of the bout with an injury and replaced by Shane Roller . Johnson defeated Roller by unanimous decision , with all three judges scoring the bout 29 @-@ 28 .
Johnson faced Tony Ferguson on May 5 , 2012 at UFC on Fox 3 , replacing an injured Thiago Tavares . He won the fight via unanimous decision .
Johnson was expected to face Danny Castillo on September 1 , 2012 at UFC 151 . However , after UFC 151 was cancelled , Johnson / Castillo was rescheduled and took place on October 5 , 2012 at UFC on FX 5 . After almost being finished in the first round , Johnson survived and came back to win via KO at 1 : 06 into the second round . Johnson was awarded Knockout of the Night honors for his performance .
Johnson fought Myles Jury on December 29 , 2012 at UFC 155 . He lost the fight via unanimous decision .
Johnson faced Reza Madadi on April 6 , 2013 at UFC on Fuel TV 9 . Despite almost finishing Madadi with a head kick in the first round , he eventually succumbed to the wrestling of Madadi and lost the fight via submission in the third round .
Johnson faced Joe Lauzon on August 17 , 2013 at UFC Fight Night 26 . He won the fight via unanimous decision after outstriking Lauzon for all three rounds .
Johnson faced Gleison Tibau on December 28 , 2013 at UFC 168 . He won the fight in impressive fashion ; winning via knockout in the second round .
Due to an injury to Ross Pearson , Johnson stepped in to face Melvin Guillard at UFC Fight Night 37 . Johnson won the fight via unanimous decision .
Johnson was expected to face Josh Thomson on July 26 , 2014 at UFC on Fox 12 . However , on July 11 , the UFC announced he had been pulled from the bout . It was later revealed that Johnson was pulled from the bout and would not compete during the remainder of 2014 following his arrest regarding a domestic dispute in Palm Beach County , Florida in April 2014 .
Johnson faced Edson Barboza on February 22 , 2015 at UFC Fight Night 61 . He won the bout by unanimous decision .
A bout with Benson Henderson was initially linked as the event headliner for The Ultimate Fighter 21 Finale on July 12 , 2015 . Although never officially announced by the UFC , the bout between Henderson and Johnson will not take place at this event .
Johnson faced Beneil Dariush on August 8 , 2015 at UFC Fight Night 73 . He lost the fight by split decision . Every mainstream MMA media outlet polled by MMA Decisions scored the fight as decision victory for Johnson .
Johnson faced Nate Diaz on December 19 , 2015 at UFC on Fox 17 . He lost the fight by unanimous decision . Both participants were awarded Fight of the Night honors .
A rematch with Tony Ferguson was expected to take place on March 5 , 2016 at UFC 196 . However , on January 27 , it was announced that Johnson withdrew from the bout due to injury .
Johnson is expected to face Dustin Poirier on September 17 , 2016 at UFC Fight Night 94 .
= = Personal life = =
Johnson trained at Springfield Fight Club , which is an affiliate of Gracie Barra based in Springfield , Missouri . Johnson also worked there as the assistant mixed martial arts coach .
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ultimate Fighting Championship
Fight of the Night ( One time )
Knockout of the Night ( One time )
Xtreme Cage Fighting
XCF Lightweight Championship ( One time )
Midwest Fight League
MFL Lightweight Championship ( One time )
= = Mixed martial arts record = =
= = = Mixed martial arts exhibition record = = =
= Netherlands Antilles at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
A delegation from the Netherlands Antilles competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . It was the fifteenth and final appearance of the Netherlands Antilles at the Olympic Games , as the territory was to be dissolved before the 2012 Summer Olympic games in London , during which the IOC decided that Dutch Antillean athletes would participate independently under the Olympic flag .
The Netherlands Antilles ' delegation was composed of three athletes participating in three different sports : Rodion Davelaar in swimming , Philip Elhage in shooting , and Churandy Martina in track and field . Neither Davelaar or Elhage continued past the qualification rounds , but Martina reached the finals for the 100m and 200m dashes . Martina scored fourth place in the 100m dash and second place in the 200m dash ( the latter behind Usain Bolt ) , but was disqualified after a controversial American @-@ led protest .
= = Background = =
The appearance of the Netherlands Antilles at the Beijing Olympics marked its thirteenth and final appearance . The Netherlands Antilles had consistently appeared at the Summer Olympics since the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki , Finland , excluding two Olympic games that had been boycotted due to Soviet incursions in other countries . Churandy Martina was the flagbearer for the Netherlands Antilles at the closing and opening ceremonies for the 2008 Olympics .
Issues regarding debt and revenue @-@ sharing within the Netherlands Antilles eventually led to the dissolution of the territory and its division as constituent islands Curaçao and Sint Maarten claimed a status of autonomy similar to that of Aruba , while the islands Bonaire , Saba , and Sint Eustatius were absorbed directly into the Netherlands . Thus , the 2008 Summer Olympics served as the final Olympics games in which the Netherlands Antilles participated as a territory . The future of the Dutch Antillean athletes to participate in the 2012 Summer Olympics in London were cast into doubt as a result . As residents of the Netherlands Antilles hold Dutch passports , IAAF General Secretary Pierre Weiss remarked all former Dutch Antillean athletes should immediately become eligible to represent the Netherlands in the Netherlands Antilles ' stead . Ultimately , however , the IOC decided in its 123rd session upon three items : that former Dutch Antillean athletes would compete independently under the Olympic flag ; that recognition for the Netherlands Antilles ' Olympic Committee was to be withdrawn ; and that a temporary administrative structure would serve in the Dutch Antillean NOC 's place until after the 2012 London games , directly supervised and supported by the IOC .
= = Athletics = =
Churandy Martina was the only Dutch Antillean to participate in track and field in the 2008 Beijing Olympics . He participated in two events : The 100m dash and the 200m dash .
= = = 100 m dash = = =
On 14 August , Martina completed round one of qualifications for the 100m dash at 10 @.@ 35 seconds . This placed Martina at first in his heat ( Heat 10 ) . He ranked twenty @-@ seventh in the round , tying with Walter Dix from the United States and Andrew Hinds from Barbados . In round two on 14 August , Martina ran the 100m dash in 9 @.@ 99 seconds , tying for second with Richard Thompson of Trinidad and Tobago , and falling behind Usain Bolt of Jamaica by 0 @.@ 07 seconds . Martina advanced because of his score , and was first in his heat on 15 August , running 9 @.@ 99 seconds . Churandy Martina advanced to semifinals and ran the 100m dash in 9 @.@ 94 seconds , scoring third in his heat ( behind Thompson and Jamaica 's Asafa Powell ) and fourth overall ( also behind Bolt ) . He also ranked fourth in the finals , falling 0 @.@ 02 seconds short of bronze medalist Walter Dix 's time . Consequently , he did not medal in the event .
= = = 200 m dash = = =
Martina ranked third in his heat in the 17 August qualifications for the 200m dash , finishing the event in 20 @.@ 78 seconds and falling behind Azerbaijan 's Ramil Guliyev and Nigeria 's Obinna Metu . Overall , Martina ranked in twenty @-@ fourth place , but advanced . During round two of qualifications on 17 August , Martina ran the 200m dash in 20 @.@ 42 seconds , second place in the heat before Antigua and Barbuda 's Brendan Christian . In round two , Martina ranked tenth place , tying with the United States ' Shawn Crawford . Martina ran the 200m in 20 @.@ 11 seconds during semifinals , ranking first in his heat and second overall behind Usain Bolt . He then advanced to the finals round .
Martina 's participation in the 200m finals round was controversial . Martina came in second place to Usain Bolt , completing the event in 19 @.@ 82 seconds over Usain Bolt 's world @-@ record breaking performance of 19 @.@ 30 seconds . However , when American would @-@ be bronze medalist Wallace Spearmon was disqualified for running outside of his lane , the American coaches reviewed video records of the race and found that Martina had done the same . The United States filed a protest against the Netherlands Antilles . The Dutch Antillean Olympic committee argued that the challenge was invalid , having been filed after the 30 @-@ minute post @-@ race deadline , but Martina was disqualified from receiving the silver medal anyway . Shawn Crawford of the United States , who originally finished the race in fourth place , was given the silver medal , and Walter Dix was given the bronze medal in place of Spearmon .
Shortly after the 2008 Olympics , Crawford competed against Martina again in a meet in Zurich , Switzerland . At a hotel during the course of the meet , Crawford left the silver medal for Martina , believing that Martina deserved the medal more than he .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
= = Shooting = =
Philip Elhage was the only Dutch Antillean to participate in shooting events at the 2008 Summer Olympics . He participated in the 10m air pistol . During 9 August , the 10m air pistol event was held in Beijing , with forty @-@ nine competitors . Elhage scored 566 @.@ 0 , ranking forty @-@ fifth . Elhage scored the same as Yusuf Dikec from Turkey . Overall , Elhage 's score fell 122 @.@ 2 short of Pang Wei of China , who won the gold medal in the event .
Men
= = Swimming = =
Rodion Davelaar was the only Dutch Antillean athlete to participate in swimming in the 2008 Summer Olympics . He participated in the 50m freestyle . He was the recipient of a 2008 IOC Olympic Scholarship , which provided Davelaar with training facilities , a specialized coach and insurance . Additionally , the Scholarship covered costs for lodging , checkups , and Davelaar 's entry for and participation in qualification competitions for the 2008 Olympics .
During the 14 August preliminaries , Davelaar swam the 50m freestyle in 24 @.@ 21 seconds . He ranked second in Heat 6 , falling behind Yellow Yei Yah of Nigeria by 0 @.@ 21 seconds . Overall , Davelaar ranked fifty @-@ seventh out of ninety @-@ seven swimmers . Davelaar 's time was 2 @.@ 75 seconds slower than French swimmer Amaury Leveaux during his performance in the 14 August preliminaries , who ranked first and set an Olympic record in the preliminary session . Davelaar did not advance past the 14 August preliminaries .
Men
= Loin Like a
|
Very Long
|
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boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) , which had been organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 4 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom ( including the English Channel ) , were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .
UB @-@ 4 kicked off operations for the new flotilla when she departed on her first patrol on 9 April . The following day , she sank the first ship credited to the Flanders Flotilla . The 5 @,@ 940 @-@ ton British @-@ flagged Harpalyce , which had been chartered by the American Commission for Relief in Belgium , was headed for Norfolk , Virginia , United States , in ballast after delivering relief supplies to Rotterdam . UB @-@ 4 came upon the steamer between Harwich and the Hook of Holland and pulled to within about 100 yards ( 91 m ) . Despite the fact that the ship had a pass of safe @-@ conduct from Germany , was marked with the words " Belgian Relief " on her side , and was flying a white flag with the same wording , Gross torpedoed the vessel without warning . Harpalyce sank in about five minutes , which allowed no time to launch any of the lifeboats . The Dutch steamers Elisabeth and Constance , and the American steamer Ruby picked up survivors . Herbert Hoover , head of the relief committee , reported that his organization 's charter of the ship ended after delivery of the cargo in Rotterdam , but expressed disbelief that the ship could have been the victim of a torpedo attack , given the " distinct assurance " that ships engaged in the relief effort " would not be molested " . Harpalyce 's master and 14 others from the 44 @-@ man crew died in the attack . Harpalyce was the largest ship sunk by UB @-@ 4 during her career .
UB @-@ 4 's followed up the sinking of Harpalyce by sinking the Greek ship Ellispontos , a steamer of 2 @,@ 989 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Ellispontos was en route to Montevideo from Amsterdam when sunk by Gross and UB @-@ 4 on 17 April . Although German U @-@ boats sank over 100 @,@ 000 tons of shipping in each of May and June , UB @-@ 4 did not contribute to those totals . She did add one ship to the 98 @,@ 000 @-@ ton tally for July when she sank the Belgian ship Princesse Marie Jose and her load of coal on 29 July . The 1 @,@ 954 @-@ ton steamer had sailed from Dunston and was headed to Bordeaux when sunk 1 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ; 1 @.@ 7 mi ) from the Shipwash Lightship off Harwich .
= = = Sinking = = =
On 14 August , the 59 @-@ ton British fishing smack Bona Fide was stopped by a U @-@ boat , boarded , and sunk with explosives 35 nautical miles ( 65 km ; 40 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Lowestoft . According to the website Uboat.net , this attack was likely by UB @-@ 4 , because she was operating in the area on her fourteenth patrol . Regardless of the identity of Bona Fide 's attacker , UB @-@ 4 did approach a group of smacks in the vicinity the next day , but unbeknownst to UB @-@ 4 's commander , Gross , one of the fishing vessels was actually a British decoy ship .
The decoy or Q @-@ ship was His Majesty 's Armed Smack Inverlyon , a smack that had been outfitted with a concealed 3 @-@ pounder ( 47 mm ) gun . Around 20 : 20 , UB @-@ 4 drew within 30 yards ( 27 m ) of Inverlyon and Gross , on the conning tower of UB @-@ 4 , shouted out commands to Inverlyon 's crew in German . After waiting until the right moment , Ernest Jehan , a Royal Navy gunner in command of Inverlyon , ordered the White Ensign raised and gave the command to open fire . A burst of three rounds from the 3 @-@ pounder scored hits on the conning tower , the second destroying part of the bridge and sending Gross into the water . UB @-@ 4 , with no one at the helm , drifted behind Inverlyon , and when clear , the 3 @-@ pounder fired another six shots into the hull of UB @-@ 4 at point blank range . All the while small arms fire from Inverlyon 's crew peppered the submarine . The U @-@ boat began going down by the bow , becoming nearly vertical before disappearing below the surface . A member of Inverlyon 's crew attempted the rescue of one crewman from UB @-@ 4 , but was unable to reach him before he went under , meeting the same fate as the other thirteen crewmen .
As UB @-@ 4 went down , her hulk fouled the Inverlyon 's nets — which had been deployed to keep up the appearance of a real fishing boat — essentially anchoring Inverlyon in place . The Q @-@ ship 's crew , not having a wireless set on board , sent word of the encounter with another smack , and followed up by releasing messenger pigeons the following morning , requesting instructions on what to do with UB @-@ 4 . The thought of salvaging the snagged U @-@ boat was rejected , so the nets were cut , freeing UB @-@ 4 to sink to the bottom . UB @-@ 4 's wreck lies at position 52 ° 43 ′ N 2 ° 18 ′ E. Jehan was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for the sinking of UB @-@ 4 , and the crewmen of Inverlyon split the submarine bounty paid by the Admiralty .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= Sam & Max : Freelance Police =
Sam & Max : Freelance Police was a graphic adventure computer game developed by LucasArts from 2002 until its cancellation in 2004 , and the final game in the company 's adventure game era . Freelance Police was originally intended for release for Windows in early 2004 as a sequel to the 1993 title Sam & Max Hit the Road . The game was based on the characters Sam and Max : an anthropomorphic dog and " hyperkinetic rabbity thing " who debuted in a 1987 comic book series created by Steve Purcell . Freelance Police was announced in August 2002 , and showcased at the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) in 2003 . Like its predecessor , Freelance Police was designed as a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game , but used a 3D game engine in place of the SCUMM and GrimE engines used in older LucasArts adventure games . The project 's development was led by Michael Stemmle , one of the original designers for Sam & Max Hit the Road , while Steve Purcell assisted in developing the game 's plot and providing artistic direction .
Although the game 's development appeared to be proceeding towards completion without difficulty , LucasArts abruptly canceled production of Freelance Police in March 2004 , citing economic and market conditions . The game 's cancellation was received poorly by fans of the series , Steve Purcell , and the video game industry media . Many journalists viewed this move as a culmination in the decline of the adventure game genre . LucasArts later terminated its adventure game development , and many of the Freelance Police design team left to create Telltale Games and continue development of such adventure games . Steve Purcell moved the Sam & Max franchise to Telltale Games in 2005 , prompting a revival of Sam & Max video games .
= = Overview = =
Sam & Max : Freelance Police was designed by LucasArts as a graphic adventure game and sequel to the 1993 title Sam & Max Hit the Road . The game was to feature 3D computer graphics rendered in real @-@ time . The game engine contained elements from other LucasArts games , including those from Gladius , RTX Red Rock , Full Throttle : Hell on Wheels and Star Wars : Obi @-@ Wan . Graphical features such as shaders , bump maps and lightmaps were used to give a 3D effect to 2D textures in the game . Little was revealed of the gameplay , other than that Freelance Police would not follow the same control scheme used in 3D LucasArts adventures Grim Fandango and Escape from Monkey Island , but would return to point @-@ and @-@ click mechanics used in the 2D LucasArts games . As in Sam & Max Hit the Road , Freelance Police would contain a mixture of optional and compulsory minigames , 19 in total . The game was designed so that the player character could not die or reach a dead end .
Few details were revealed about the game 's plot . In a January 2004 interview , lead designer Michael Stemmle provided a rough outline : the game 's story was " really six stories , loosely held together by a thrilling über @-@ plot " . Each individual story contained a separate case for the Freelance Police , taking place in a variety of environments , including a space station and a neopagan bacchanal , and featuring " freakish bad guys " . Stemmle stated that the intention was to keep the " über @-@ plot " concealed for a while , but noted that it contained " all the barely plausible grandeur that fans have come to expect from Sam and Max " . Steve Purcell , the creator of Sam & Max , assisted in the development of both the plot and the artistic direction , producing concept art of various characters and locales . Besides the return of the title characters , only one other character , Flint Paper , was confirmed for the game . Described by Stemmle as " the Freelance Police 's rough ' n ' tumble private detective neighbour " , Paper is briefly featured in Sam & Max comics and makes an offstage appearance in Sam & Max Hit the Road . Stemmle had Paper planned for a " critical role " in the game 's plot .
Due to the nature of the story , LucasArts considered releasing the game in episodic fashion and using digital distribution , an option favored by the development team but opposed by the management division , who preferred the more traditional methods of retail distribution . Post @-@ release bonus content was also considered ; Stemmle remarked that such content would include new power @-@ ups , minigames and " maybe even entirely new interactive Sam & Max cases [ the player ] can download " .
= = Development = =
The development of a sequel to Sam & Max Hit the Road was announced by LucasArts on August 27 , 2002 . In their press release , LucasArts president Simon Jeffery stated that " the Sam & Max sequel , much like the recently announced Full Throttle II , perfectly complements LucasArts ' renowned adventure game legacy and lends further support to the company 's commitment to investing in and developing more of our original properties " . LucasArts revealed no additional details at the time beyond a projected release in the first quarter of 2004 . The game was officially announced for Windows at the Electronic Entertainment Expo convention on May 12 , 2003 , where the full title Sam & Max : Freelance Police was revealed . LucasArts reaffirmed the projected early 2004 release date at the convention . The game 's trailer was also presented at E3 , reintroducing the characters and confirming that the original voice actors for Sam and Max , Bill Farmer and Nick Jameson respectively , were set to reprise their roles . Over the following months , several minor media releases were made , revealing new information regarding the game 's developmental direction and graphical style . The game 's release was highly anticipated by journalists in the video game industry , who published various previews and interviews with the development team , particularly with lead designer Michael Stemmle , one of the original designers of Sam & Max Hit the Road .
In August 2003 , LucasArts halted production on the Full Throttle adventure game sequel Hell on Wheels , leading the magazine Hyper to speculate that Freelance Police might suffer a similar fate . LucasArts reassured the media that Freelance Police was still in production and was nearing completion , reiterating that the game would be released in 2004 . Media coverage continued ; for example , PC Gamer US ran an interview with Stemmle as a cover story in February 2004 . However , on March 3 , 2004 , LucasArts abruptly announced the cancellation of Freelance Police . In a short press release , LucasArts ' Acting General Manager , Mike Nelson , stated that " after careful evaluation of current market place realities and underlying economic considerations , we 've decided that this was not the appropriate time to launch a graphic adventure on the PC " .
The reaction to the game 's cancellation was overwhelmingly negative . Commentators in the industry media felt that the decision was representative of the diminishing relevance of adventure games , with many concluding that LucasArts was moving to maintain its position with low risk Star Wars @-@ themed titles instead of the adventure games that had brought them success in earlier years . Freelance Police 's cancellation is often cited as the culmination of the adventure genre 's decline . The decision came so suddenly that some magazines accidentally published favorable previews of the game after LucasArts ' announcement . A fan web site named " Save Sam and Max " presented a petition of 32 @,@ 000 signatures to LucasArts conveying the fans ' disappointment . Steve Purcell , the creator of the Sam & Max franchise , stated that he was disappointed by LucasArts ' decision :
According to Stemmle , the cancellation decision was prompted by the report of an external marketing analysis group hired by LucasArts , which claimed that the European market for adventure games " had simply disappeared . Not shrunk , not cratered , just ... disappeared " . A newly established German company , Bad Brain Entertainment , claimed to have entered negotiations with LucasArts to acquire the game , although nothing resulted from these talks . LucasArts subsequently dismissed many of the designers involved with developing their adventure games , and in 2006 stated that they did not intend to return to the adventure genre until the next decade . Some of the former Freelance Police development team formed Telltale Games in June 2004 to continue developing the sort of adventure games that LucasArts no longer wished to produce . Telltale Games later unsuccessfully attempted to buy the rights to Freelance Police from LucasArts , which would have enabled the team to finish developing the game . When the LucasArts license expired in mid @-@ 2005 , Purcell took the franchise to Telltale Games , where it was developed into an episodic series of games . However , very little of the work done on Freelance Police was carried over by the developers to Telltale Games ; LucasArts still held onto the game 's assets and Telltale was wary about using similar design patterns . The new series debuted in October 2006 with Sam & Max Save the World .
= 6955 kHz =
" 6955 kHz " is the sixth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . It first aired on November 11 , 2010 in the United States . The third season spent much of its time alternating between the prime and parallel universes , and " 6955 kHz " was set in the former . The storyline followed the Fringe team 's investigation into a numbers station that mysteriously gave its listeners amnesia , a case that ultimately ties to a doomsday device .
The episode was written by story editors Robert Chiappetta and Glen Whitman , and was directed by Joe Chappelle . Its broadcast took place on the Fox network , and according to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 4 @.@ 8 million viewers tuned in . Reviews of the episode ranged from positive to mixed , as some reviewers disagreed about the introduction of a " First People " mythology .
= = Plot = =
Fauxlivia , Olivia Dunham 's doppelgänger from the parallel universe , continues to pose as Olivia as part of the Fringe division . The Fringe team is brought in on a case where several people , part of an online group attempting to decode the information sent by a numbers station , have been stricken with amnesia . They discover the station broadcasting the signal , finding its workers killed and a strange box connected to the broadcast equipment . They identify fingerprints on the box of a Joseph Feller , but his current location is unknown . Walter attempts to decipher the workings of the box , while giving hope to some of the affected people that they will get their memories back in time .
Peter discovers that the rare book shopkeeper , Edward Markham ( Clark Middleton ) , was part of the online group but did not listen that night . Edward provides his theory of the numbers stations to Peter and Fauxlivia : that it is a signal left by the " First People " , an advanced civilization that existed before a mass extinction event . He provides them with a book about the First People . As they return the book to Walter , Peter notices numbers in the astrological charts in the book are the same as the broadcast numbers . They give the book to Astrid , a skilled decoder , along with copious volumes of data from biotechnology corporation Massive Dynamic about the numbers stations .
Later , the crash of a small commuter aircraft is attributed to a similar signal from a numbers station , and when Fringe division identifies the source , they find a second box . Taking the box to Walter , Peter identifies one of the electronic components as rare , and engages his contacts to find Feller 's address from its purchase . Fauxlivia feigns returning to headquarters to instead travel to Feller 's apartment , warning him that Fringe is onto him , but he insists on continuing his job . She throws him out the window as the Fringe team arrives , killing him and revealing him to be a shapeshifter . Fauxlivia claims she killed the man in self @-@ defense .
Meanwhile , Astrid has decoded the numbers as a series of geographical coordinates . The closest one is in Milton , Massachusetts , the site of where a mysterious box was found ( " The Box " ) . Teams are quickly sent to the other sites given across the globe , and they discover many more parts of what Walter and Peter believe to be the same doomsday machine that Walternate , Walter 's doppelgänger , has already constructed in the parallel universe , and which the First People book claims can destroy or create universes . Fauxlivia later communicates this finding to the parallel universe through the typewriter shop , and is ordered to initiate " phase two " .
The episode ends in the parallel universe where Olivia , having broken Walternate 's conditioning making her believe herself to be Fauxlivia , is told that no further tests are needed . A vision of Peter warns Olivia that her usefulness to Walternate has ended and her life is in danger .
= = Production = =
" 6955 kHz " was written by story editors Robert Chiappetta and Glen Whitman , while frequent Fringe collaborator Joe Chappelle served as the director . Leading up to the episode 's broadcast , actress Anna Torv revealed in an official Fox interview that " [ The next ] episode is all about these co @-@ ordinates that keep getting broadcast on the radio . This is all ... a ploy to get Walter and Peter working on Walternate 's machine . " Chappelle also added that Fauxlivia would be working " to protect Walternate 's plan ... These pirate broadcasts are created on the other side ... by Walternate , to help him in his plans with our universe . "
The episode featured performances by guest actors Kevin Weisman , Mark Acheson , Minh Ly , Paula Lindberg , Tyler McClendon , and Vincent Tong ; previous guest stars Ryan McDonald and Clark Middleton returned as scientist Brandon Fayette and rare bookseller Edward Markham , respectively .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " 6955 kHz " , with the intention of having " students learn about information encoding , which is [ the ] process of converting a piece of information into another form or representation . "
Torv later remarked in a DVD special featurette that " this episode is actually a nice one because I think she 's kind of starting to look at these people as more than just a project . I think she ’ s starting to think about who they are "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its first American broadcast on November 11 , 2010 , " 6955 kHz " was watched by an estimated 4 @.@ 8 million viewers , earning a 2 @.@ 9 / 5 rating for all households and 1 @.@ 7 / 5 for adults 18 to 49 . Fringe and its lead @-@ in show Bones helped Fox place third for the night in a tie with NBC . Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings by 53 percent among adults , resulting in a rise from 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 6 . This number tied with the NBC series The Event as the largest increase of the week in time @-@ shifting viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received positive to mixed reviews . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , critic Ken Tucker noted and appreciated that " many key details were provided by characters who don ’ t often serve that function " , such as with Broyles and the numbers stations . He called it " a terrific , almost Astrid @-@ centric episode . " Los Angeles Times writer Andrew Hanson enjoyed the episode 's many puzzles and expressed appreciation for the " First People " revelation as well as Walternate 's " long con " concerning the doomsday device . Hanson was skeptical that Peter had not yet figured out Fauxlivia 's true identity , but praised Anna Torv 's performance ( " Anyone who doubted [ her ] acting chops in the first couple of seasons should be eating their words " ) .
Like Andrew Hanson , A.V. Club 's Noel Murray called the introduction of the First People " a masterstroke on the part of the Fringe writers " . Murray graded the episode with a B + , explaining it " was a strange Fringe for me . The dialogue was often painfully expository , with liberal doses of ADR to make sure that we viewers didn ’ t miss any of the massive amounts of significant information we need to understand as the story moves forward ... And yet the episode was also funky and philosophical in the way I like my Fringe to be , using the plot and even the setting to put across more than just pieces of the series ’ mythology . "
Fearnet critic Alyse Wax wrote " This episode made my brain hurt . And I mean that in the nicest way possible . They were throwing a lot of weird shit at us . It was great because I feel like we are finally getting answers , like we will finally get some closure , and just maybe get rid of the Red universe stiffs . This episode was so ridiculously dense I am sure I missed some of the deeper scientific facts . I got the gist of it , though , and frankly , I much prefer these jam @-@ packed episodes . I like when the puzzle pieces start falling into place . It 's calming . " SFScope 's Sarah Stegall believed the episode " start [ ed ] out interestingly enough " , but unlike other reviewers , she was very critical of the First People mythology , stating " This is where my disbelief not only stopped being suspended , it got up and walked out of the room ... I still don 't like the premise of the evolution of an entire hominid species that left not one single solitary fossil behind . It 's more like fantasy than science fiction . " Stegall praised Torv 's acting as she plays " two people very subtly , very convincingly " , and concluded her review by commenting she will continue to watch the series because she trusts the writers will " supply us with plausible answers from time to time " , but is " losing some respect for it " .
= U2 3D =
U2 3D is a 2007 American @-@ produced 3D concert film featuring rock band U2 performing during the Vertigo Tour in 2006 . The film contains performances of 14 songs , including tracks from How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb ( 2004 ) , the album supported by the tour . The concert footage includes political and social statements made during the shows . It is the band 's second feature film , following their 1988 rockumentary Rattle and Hum . Among several cinematic firsts , U2 3D was the first live @-@ action digital 3D film .
The project was created to experiment with a new type of 3D film technology pioneered by producer Steve Schklair . After considering shooting American football games in 3D , Schklair 's company 3ality Digital decided to create a concert film with U2 . The band were hesitant to participate , but agreed to the project mainly as a technological experiment rather than a profit @-@ making venture . Although set in Buenos Aires , U2 3D was shot at seven concerts across Latin America , and two in Australia . The film 's complex setup involved shooting with up to 18 3D cameras simultaneously and capturing the footage digitally .
After a premiering out of competition at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival , U2 3D showed at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival and had its limited theatrical release in late January 2008 , followed by its wide release the following month . The film was distributed by National Geographic Entertainment and was only released in IMAX 3D and digital 3D theaters . It peaked at number 19 at the United States box office , and earned over $ 22 million internationally , ranking as one of the highest @-@ grossing concert films . It received widely positive reviews , with critics praising the 3D technology and innovation . U2 3D won several awards , and its reception convinced some of the creators that the project marked a paradigm shift in filmmaking .
= = Synopsis = =
U2 3D depicts a U2 concert in Buenos Aires during the band 's Vertigo Tour . In the beginning of the film , a voice is heard chanting " everyone " in a crowd @-@ filled stadium , followed by fans running through the venue . U2 begin the concert with " Vertigo " , followed by ten more songs in the main set . Images are shown throughout the concert on the stage 's LED display . Political and social statements are made during some songs , including " Sunday Bloody Sunday " — during which the word " coexista " is spelled out on @-@ screen through various religious symbols — and " Miss Sarajevo " , during which an excerpt from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is read aloud by a narrator . The main set ends with " One " , after which the group leave the stage . They return for an encore and perform " The Fly " , during which a succession of words and phrases appear on the stage 's LED display and are superimposed into the film . U2 end the show with " With or Without You " and leave the stage for the final time . As the closing credits begin , a live performance of " Yahweh " is heard as animations from the stage 's LED display are shown . U2 reappear on stage in a post @-@ credits scene performing the end of the song .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
In 2001 , producers Jon and Peter Shapiro created a 2D IMAX concert film titled All Access , which featured live performances of several musicians . Due to the difficulty of using conventional IMAX film stock that had to be replaced every three minutes of shooting , the Shapiros wanted to use digital technology for their next project , which could easily be upscaled to the IMAX format without loss of quality . Noting how 3D films out @-@ performed 2D films , they also wanted their next project to be in the IMAX 3D format . While looking for a new digital 3D technology medium , the Shapiros met producer Steve Schklair , founder of Cobalt Entertainment in 2000 . Schklair had recently developed a digital 3D filming technique known as " active depth cut " , which allowed for smooth cuts between shots that would normally not line up when filmed in 3D . This was done using motion control photography and real @-@ time image processing to create a realistic 3D experience without subjecting the viewer to excessive motion sickness or eye strain . It was intended to be an inexpensive and effective way to shoot live events such as concerts or sports . With the help of John and David Modell , former owners of the Baltimore Ravens American football team , the digital 3D technology was tested at several National Football League ( NFL ) games in the 2003 season , including Super Bowl XXXVIII . Cobalt showed the footage to the NFL , hoping to create an NFL @-@ based 3D IMAX film . While waiting for a response , the Shapiros proposed the idea of creating a 3D concert film for IMAX theaters . Although All Access had showcased several artists , the Shapiros now wanted to focus on a single act , and being U2 fans , suggested the band as a potential subject . Schklair felt U2 would be a good choice for the film due to their large concert setups and their constant movement while performing , both of which would provide good depth of field for 3D effects .
The Modells ' collaboration with U2 for the film was facilitated by their involvement with the band in researching LED display technology in 1997 for use at Ravens Stadium at Camden Yards . At the time , the only giant LED display in existence was being used by U2 on their PopMart Tour . To learn about the technology , David Modell toured with U2 on @-@ and @-@ off for a period of six months . During that time , he befriended Catherine Owens , who served as the group 's art director since their 1992 Zoo TV Tour .
Unable to contact U2 manager Paul McGuinness , Peter Shapiro instead proposed the idea to Owens . The latter was researching art content for the upcoming Vertigo Tour and thought the concept could be used to show 3D video as part of U2 's concerts . Shapiro explained that the technology was not that developed and simply wanted to document the tour itself in 3D , but Owens was not interested in making a film of the band , fearing it would interfere with the tour , so she declined the offer . After Shapiro showed Owens the 3D footage of the NFL games , Owens expressed interest in directing the proposed film , despite having no previous experience . According to bassist Adam Clayton , U2 were not interested in making another concert film , but Owens " pushed it down [ their ] throats " . Once the band viewed the test shots , frontman Bono expressed interest in the project and convinced his band @-@ mates to commit . Since U2 had already experimented with video technology in the past , they were interested in the project as a technological experiment rather than a means to make profit , and as a means to share the live experience with fans who could not afford concert tickets .
Pre @-@ production for U2 3D officially started in early 2004 , and the production was handled by 3ality Digital , a company formed from Schklair 's Colbalt Entertainment and his partnership with the Modells and the Shapiros . Midway through the year , Bono agreed to let the 3ality Digital crew record test footage , which was accomplished using a single 3D camera at one of U2 's Vertigo Tour concerts in Anaheim , California in March 2005 . U2 were dissatisfied with their 1988 rockumentary feature film , Rattle and Hum , which mixed backstage footage and interviews with concert performances . The filmmakers decided that U2 3D would only have concert footage . The producers originally wanted to shoot in Los Angeles where all the filming equipment was located , but Owens and the band decided they needed a more enthusiastic audience . U2 ultimately chose to film in five cities in Latin America from February to March 2006 , believing their absence from the region for eight years would foster an energetic atmosphere . The only one of the eight Latin American shows that was not shot was the first in Monterrey , Mexico . The project enabled U2 to share the outdoor stadium concerts with audiences in the US , where the band only performed at indoor arenas on the Vertigo Tour .
= = = Filming = = =
U2 3D 's production featured the first 3D multiple @-@ camera setup and was shot using every digital 3D camera and recording deck in existence . The crew had two days to set up the filming equipment before each concert , which required running optical fiber cables and hooking up an electrical generator to supply power at each venue . The filming equipment consisted of nine custom @-@ built 3D rigs . The project 's large scale prompted 3ality Digital to work with director James Cameron — their chief competitor at the time . 3ality used their own 3flex TS1 camera rigs for filming , in addition to five Fusion 3D rigs , designed by Cameron and camera operator Vincent Pace . A total of 18 Sony CineAlta HDC @-@ F950 cameras were used for filming , with two cameras on each rig . The cameras were fitted with Zeiss digital zoom lenses , making U2 3D the first 3D film shot using a zoom lens . One of the Fusion 3D camera rigs was used as a Spydercam and became the first 3D aerial camera . The cameras on each rig were spaced eye @-@ distance apart to create a 3D effect in post @-@ production . Using a beam splitter mounted to the camera rig , one camera shot through a 50 / 50 mirror , while the other shot the image reflected from that mirror . Each rig weighed an average of 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) . All of the concert footage was shot with twin @-@ camera setups , except for the two Melbourne shoots , where a single CineAlta camera with a Steadicam was also used to capture close @-@ ups . The cameras captured high @-@ definition video onto HDCAM SR recording decks , which enabled the crew to capture an entire concert .
Five crew members were required to work on each rig simultaneously to ensure that the focus on both cameras were synchronized . After one camera was destroyed when a concert security guard tossed buckets of water onto the audience , the crew waterproofed the remaining cameras . Due to Owens ' limited directing experience prior to production , some of the filming in South America was directed by Mark Pellington , who previously worked with U2 on the " One " music video . Pellington was not involved in post @-@ production , leaving Owens responsible for the remaining aspects of the project , including creative direction and editing .
The concerts were filmed in a style which Owens described as " very unorthodox " ; no storyboards or shooting scripts were used to ensure footage of U2 's performances was improvised . Instead of being directed , U2 performed each of their concerts as usual , with the filming crew capturing footage in real time for the full 2 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ hour concerts . The shoots were planned such that the band 's performance and the audience 's view was uninterrupted . To avoid capturing other camera rigs in the footage , the crew would either film from the back of the stage , or alternate each night between shooting left @-@ to @-@ right and right @-@ to @-@ left . Several shows were edited together to create one performance ; therefore , U2 were required to wear the same clothes every night to maintain continuity . Additional spotlights were focused on the audience during filming , and the lighting was dimmed on the stage 's LED display . 110 microphones were used to record the concert audio , which included microphones placed on the main stage and around the two B @-@ stages to record the band , and microphones placed throughout the venue to record the audience .
Principal photography began in February 2006 , under the supervision of the 3D cinematographer Peter Anderson ; two shows were filmed in Mexico City to capture medium shots during a practice run for the crew to learn the choreography of U2 's performances . The crew captured additional medium shots using two camera setups at the two São Paulo concerts , and captured overhead footage of drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. using a single camera setup at the show in Santiago . During preparations for the Buenos Aires concerts , U2 performed a 10 @-@ song set without an audience , so that the crew could capture close @-@ up footage using a wide @-@ angle lens ; doing so in @-@ concert would have interfered with the show . Owens dubbed the session the " phantom shoot " . During the Buenos Aires shows , all nine camera setups were used , capturing shots of U2 from the B @-@ stages . The Buenos Aires shoot was the largest of the project , requiring a crew of 140 people .
In March 2006 , the remaining Vertigo Tour concerts were postponed when the daughter of guitarist The Edge fell ill . During the interim , footage from the seven filmed shows was edited together , prompting the crew to request additional wide shots from the back of the stadium and close @-@ ups of the band members . When the tour was on its fifth leg in November 2006 , an additional two shows were filmed in Melbourne to capture the extra footage . At the time , the songs appearing in the final cut of the film had already been selected and therefore only specific songs from the concerts were filmed .
= = = Editing = = =
Post @-@ production began in February 2006 and occurred concurrently with ongoing principal photography . Editor Olivier Wicki led post @-@ production , working closely with Owens ; the two had previously collaborated on the " Original of the Species " music video . Over 100 hours of footage were filmed , featuring performances of 26 different songs . To appeal to a mainstream audience , 14 tracks were chosen for the final cut , including 12 of U2 's singles and two non @-@ singles from How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb , the album that the Vertigo Tour supported . When selecting songs for the project , the crew had to ensure that the performances of each track fit with one another . U2 wanted to include " Mysterious Ways " and " Until the End of the World " , but they were left out since Owens felt that those songs were out of place with the rest of the film . She stated that the main focus of the film was based upon U2 's relationship with one another and with their audience , and the challenge of selecting the songs was to create a narrative within the band 's performance . Although " City of Blinding Lights " opened most shows on the tour , " Vertigo " was selected as the opening song of U2 3D . Other tracks that were performed at most of the filmed concerts that did not make the final cut include " Bullet the Blue Sky " , " Elevation " , " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " , " Original of the Species " , and " Zoo Station " . " With or Without You " was chosen as the last song before the closing credits , although it closed only one concert on the tour .
After the songs were selected , the footage was edited in 2D for eight months in New York City . Video post @-@ production continued in Burbank , California at 3ality Digital 's 3D production facility , which opened prior to the completion of shooting . Wicki worked with 3ality Digital to create the 3D and computer @-@ generated effects . Footage from the nine filmed concerts , mostly from the Buenos Aires shows , was edited together with the footage from the " phantom shoot " . Although the Mexico City shows were practice runs , footage from those concerts was used , including a scene where Bono reaches out to the camera during " Sunday Bloody Sunday " . Because the crew felt the Melbourne audience lacked the energy of the Latin America crowds , most of the footage from the Melbourne concerts was not used except for some close @-@ ups of Mullen .
Creating the 3D effect involved taking the edited 2D footage for the right eye and matching it up with footage for the left eye . Editing the Melbourne footage that used only a single camera involved a separate process to create 3D effects , known as " virtual second eye perspective " . Several software programs were used to convert footage from 2D to 3D . The primary editing software , 3action , was developed at 3ality Digital during principal photography . It allowed the post @-@ production team to change convergence points in each shot , and to create multiple convergence points . Left @-@ eye and right @-@ eye footage was assembled on separate layers , then edited together with color grading added , and eventually output in a 3D stereoscopic format for review .
U2 developed a style of editing in their previous concert films that involved fast cutting between shots , which Owens wanted to retain in U2 3D . Because fast cutting in 3D would lead to motion sickness or eye strain , the film was edited to incorporate dissolves of at least four frames between shots . Many of the transitions were created by layering several frames of footage on top of one another into composite images . Each of the layered frames featured a different depth of field to enhance the 3D effects , and up to five images were layered together in a single shot . This made U2 3D the first 3D film to feature composite images with more than two layers , and the first to be edited specifically to prevent the viewer from experiencing motion sickness or eye strain . Software did not exist at the time to layer the 3D images , so new software had to be developed . Because the project was captured in high @-@ definition video , each frame used nearly 20 megabytes of data on 3ality Digital 's servers , and the entire film used almost a petabyte ( 1015 bytes ) . The 3D editing process took longer than Owens expected , and consequently , the project went over budget , costing $ 15 million to produce . Video editing took 17 months , and the final film was cut to a length of 85 minutes — seven shorter than originally announced .
Audio editor Carl Glanville worked on the soundtrack , mixing the audio into a 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix with audio engineer Robbie Adams in New York City . Video footage was compiled into files by Wicki , which were given to Glanville for compiling the soundtrack . Glanville and Adams said the audio editing was difficult mainly because the selection of video footage was limited , as only one to two cameras angles were captured at most of the shows . Further , the lyrics and music from the song performances differed slightly each night . To avoid lip sync and instrumental sync issues , the editors had to use the exact audio that was recorded during each shot . Mixing the vocals required that Glanville layer the audio recorded from the stage microphones with that from the audience microphones and to add a short delay between the two to compensate for any echos or delay that occurred in the venue . The sound from the subwoofer channel was mixed inside two IMAX theaters in Los Angeles to ensure the volume of low @-@ end frequencies was consistent with the rest of the soundtrack . The edited video footage featured 10- to 20 @-@ second @-@ long shots , in contrast to the shorter shots usually found in concert films . Extended gaps were added between songs to slightly slow down the pace of the film . All audio and video footage used was recorded live in concert , with no added overdubs . Following post @-@ production , U2 3D became the first live @-@ action film to be shot , posted , and exhibited entirely in 3D , the first live @-@ action digital 3D film , and the first 3D concert film .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Marketing = = =
The trailer for the film was released and first screened at the ShoWest trade show in March 2007 , along with footage of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " . Clips from the " Vertigo " and " The Fly " performances were featured in the trailer , which was edited by creative director John Leamy , who also designed the wordmark logo and title sequence for U2 3D . The film poster , which featured a collage of images from the film , won Leamy an award for best poster art at the Giant Screen Cinema Association 's annual international conference in 2008 . The trailer was shown in 3D theaters before Meet the Robinsons , the only 3D film released in theaters in early 2007 .
Originally scheduled for the third quarter of 2007 , the film 's release was delayed when a distributor could not be found . In October 2007 , National Geographic Cinema Ventures ( NGCV ) , the entertainment division of the National Geographic Society , announced that U2 3D would be the division 's first major international release . Two days after the announcement , NGCV was combined into the newly created National Geographic Entertainment , a new unit within the society featuring various entertainment divisions . National Geographic CEO John M. Fahey , Jr. stated that U2 3D was chosen as the new unit 's first release because they felt that U2 is " a band of the world " and " world music is something the Geographic as an institution is really interested in " . National Geographic chose Best Buy as the film 's American sponsor , and offered passes to select members of the retailer 's loyalty program to view U2 3D before its wide release . U2 3D was promoted through the internet , print , radio , television , on a JumboTron in Times Square , and as a sponsor on NASCAR 's # 19 Best Buy Dodge stock car driven by Elliott Sadler .
= = = Initial screenings = = =
U2 were committed to preserving the film 's 3D format and decided to only release it in digital 3D . To help promote this film format , U2 3D was first screened at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival on May 19 , 2007 . It was one of nine films to be screened out @-@ of @-@ competition at the 2007 festival , and was the first live @-@ action 3D film shown at Cannes . Following a brief song performance by U2 at the festival , the film was screened at midnight inside the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès . At the time , the 3D post @-@ production process was incomplete ; therefore , a shortened , 56 @-@ minute version of the title was screened , featuring nine of the completed version 's 14 songs . The completed version premiered at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival on January 19 , 2008 at the Ellen Eccles Theatre . The theater incorporated a customized sound system designed especially for the premiere with new Dolby 3D technology , which John Modell referred to as " the most high tech film screening that 's ever been done in history . "
= = = Releases and box office = = =
U2 3D was slated to be screened only in IMAX theaters , but the large increase in the number of digital 3D theaters following post @-@ production prompted the filmmakers to expand the release to include those cinemas . Two different types of polarized 3D glasses were used for the IMAX 3D and digital 3D showings . The IMAX 3D version of the film used glasses with one lens polarized horizontally and one polarized vertically , while the digital 3D version used glasses with two circularly polarized lenses . John Modell described the IMAX version as a " more immersive experience " , and stated that the digital 3D version features more vivid colors .
On January 23 , 2008 , U2 3D was released into IMAX theaters in the United States and Canada for its initial limited release . It grossed over $ 960 @,@ 000 in the US during its opening weekend after playing in 61 theaters , and ranked at number 20 at the box office . The IMAX release took place much earlier than the film 's wide release , as many IMAX theaters had booked The Spiderwick Chronicles , which was released on February 15 . U2 3D was U2 's second feature film , following 1988 's Rattle and Hum , and the third concert film from the Vertigo Tour , following the direct @-@ to @-@ video concert films Vertigo 2005 : Live from Chicago and Vertigo 2005 : Live from Milan .
The wide release was originally scheduled for February 15 , 2008 , but the date was pushed back one week when Walt Disney Pictures decided to extend its release of the 3D concert film Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus : Best of Both Worlds Concert , which was initially scheduled to be in theaters for only one week . Instead , on February 15 , U2 3D had a second limited release in select theaters in the US with RealD 3D technology . The film 's European premiere took place on February 20 at the Jameson Dublin International Film Festival , followed by its international wide release on February 22 . The first week of the wide release was the highest @-@ grossing week of its theatrical run , grossing over $ 1 million at 686 theaters in the US and ranking at number 19 at the box office . Comparing the box office performance of Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus , The Spokesman @-@ Review 's online magazine Spokane7 said U2 3D was " failing miserably " . Three weeks into its wide release , U2 3D was playing in less than 100 theaters throughout the US . At the time , it had grossed less than $ 6 @.@ 6 million , while Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus — still playing in many theaters since its February 1 release — had brought in over $ 60 million .
Prior to its Japan premiere in February 2009 , U2 3D grossed $ 20 million in box office revenue . A re @-@ release in the US took place in 2009 to coincide with the release of U2 's studio album , No Line on the Horizon , followed by re @-@ releases in Brazil and Spain in 2011 and 2015 , respectively , prior to U2 's concert tours in those countries . In addition to re @-@ releases , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame celebrated the opening of its new theater in October 2009 by featuring screenings of U2 3D at its museum . The film 's box office run in the US ended August 26 , 2010 , bringing its total domestic gross to $ 10 @,@ 363 @,@ 341 , after showing for 947 days . The film 's distributors stated there was no predetermined limit to the length of the title 's run , and the overall length would be determined by box office sales . Due to an open @-@ ended theatrical run , total worldwide box office gross sources vary ; website Box Office Mojo reported a worldwide gross of $ 22 @.@ 7 in December 2010 , while magazine BoxOffice and website The Numbers list grosses of $ 23 @.@ 4 million and $ 26 @.@ 2 million , respectively .
For its genre , U2 3D was successful and set several box office records . The film became the highest grossing documentary to be eligible for an Oscar nomination at the 81st Academy Awards . U2 3D set a record in Ireland for the highest screen average of any film playing during its opening weekend , and it took in almost € 90 @,@ 000 at eight theaters during its first three days . In February 2011 , Forbes ranked U2 3D as the fifth highest grossing concert film , earning $ 14 million more than Rattle and Hum , which ranked at number seven .
U2 control the ancillary rights to U2 3D along with their record label Universal Music Group , and they have stated that additional rights such as those for a home video release will not be optioned until home video technology can meet the same digital 3D standards as cinema . Owens said in a 2007 interview that there were plans to release the film to a 3D home video format , however , the press release for the 2015 Spain re @-@ release stated that U2 3D has been licensed exclusively for theatrical release , and will not be distributed in television , internet , or other home video formats .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Based on 87 reviews by critics , Rotten Tomatoes gave U2 3D a 93 % approval rating , and ranked it the fourth @-@ best reviewed film in wide release from 2008 . The website assigned it an average score of 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , with a consensus that U2 3D was " an exhilarating musical experience at the price of a movie ticket " . At Metacritic — which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics — the film received an average score of 83 , based on 19 reviews , which translates to " universal acclaim " on the website 's rating scale . The film received positive reviews from Toronto Star and Variety following its 56 @-@ minute premiere at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival when the final 85 @-@ minute cut was months away from completion . Critics from publications such as the Irish Independent , The New Zealand Herald , Reno News & Review , Toronto Star , and USA Today said that the film 's 3D experience was " even better than the real thing " — a reference to U2 's song of the same name . Reviews by Rolling Stone and Total Film stated the film seemed to appeal to fans and non @-@ fans of U2 alike , just as the filmmakers had intended .
U2 3D was praised by Variety for its straightforward concert footage , compared to the interviews and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage included in Rattle and Hum . In an episode of the TV series At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper , Michael Phillips called the film " a genuine eye @-@ fill " and Richard Roeper described it as " spectacular " . The New York Times designated U2 3D as a " Critics ' Pick " and stated in the review that the film was " the first IMAX movie that deserves to be called a work of art " . U2 3D appeared on many critics ' lists of the top ten films released in 2008 including The Austin Chronicle , OhmyNews International , Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , The Sydney Morning Herald , and River Cities ' Reader . The film was also ranked by Complex and Empire as one of the best 3D films . Bono was satisfied with the outcome of the film and said his favorite sequence was the performance of " Miss Sarajevo " . When interviewed about the PopMart Tour in 2009 , Bono said that the PopMart : Live from Mexico City video was the best project U2 had done from an audio and visual perspective , and was " [ e ] clipsed only by U2 3D " . The Edge was pleased that the footage did not show any of the distress he felt from his daughter 's illness during filming .
However , the film received more critical reviews . The A.V. Club graded it a B − and stated that U2 's performance was less thrilling than the 3D effects . Online magazine FilmSlash criticized The New York Times ' statement about U2 3D being the first IMAX art film , stating that some of the first IMAX titles were " experimental works of art " . Music critic Joel Selvin wrote in the San Francisco Chronicle that seeing U2 on the big screen was " more distracting than illuminating " , and Time Out London criticized Bono 's political statements , stating he " should refrain from ramming his preachy political meanderings down our throats and let the music do the talking " . The Daily Telegraph favored Rattle and Hum over U2 3D and called U2 's performance " unexciting " , criticizing how " the cameras , not the band , are doing all the work " . The Guardian , which gave a rating of one out of five stars , claimed that U2 appeared to be " four conceited billionaires who are further up themselves than ever " .
= = = Recognition and legacy = = =
U2 3D was recognized favorably after its release , earning several awards . In 2008 , it earned three awards , including " Best Film Produced Non @-@ Exclusively for the Giant Screen " at the Giant Screen Cinema Association 's 2008 Achievement Awards , " Best Musical Film " at Los Premios MTV Latinoamérica 2008 , and the Pioneer Award for Film & Television at the 2008 3D Film and Interactive Film Festival . In February 2009 , the film received the award for " Outstanding Visual Effects in a Special Venue Project " from the Visual Effects Society ( VES ) at the 7th Annual VES Awards .
The extensive use of technology during production was featured as the cover story in the December 2007 issue of the high @-@ definition video magazine HDVideoPro , a month before the premiere of U2 3D . Its usage of evolutionary technology led to Catherine Owens being selected as a featured guest speaker at the SIGGRAPH 2008 conference , which took place several months after the film 's release . After U2 3D received praise from fans , critics , and the film industry , several of the filmmakers stated that they felt it helped create a paradigm shift in cinema history , due to the technological advancements used in the production . The film 's use of new technology inspired English rock band Muse to increase the production values for their 2013 release Live at Rome Olympic Stadium , which became the first concert film shot in 4K resolution .
Following the success of U2 3D , 3ality Digital continued to pioneer 3D projects . After previously experimenting with filming American football games in 3D , 3ality Digital successfully broadcast the first live 3D NFL game in December 2008 . In 2009 , 3ality Digital aired the first live 3D sports broadcast available to consumers , the first 3D television advertisement , and the first 3D episode of a scripted television program . U2 show director Willie Williams recruited U2 3D director of photography Tom Krueger to design the photography and video coverage for the band 's 2009 – 2011 U2 360 ° Tour . Krueger directed their subsequent concert film , U2 360 ° at the Rose Bowl , which was released in 2010 .
= = Setlist = =
All titles written by U2 , except " Miss Sarajevo " ( co @-@ written with Brian Eno ) .
" Vertigo "
" Beautiful Day "
" New Year 's Day "
" Sometimes You Can 't Make It on Your Own "
" Love and Peace or Else "
" Sunday Bloody Sunday "
" Bullet the Blue Sky "
" Miss Sarajevo " / U.N. Declaration of Human Rights
" Pride ( In the Name of Love ) "
" Where the Streets Have No Name "
" One "
Encore
" The Fly "
" With or Without You "
Closing credits
" Yahweh "
= Hedwig Potthast =
Hedwig Potthast ( 5 February 1912 – 1997 ) was the private secretary and mistress of Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler with whom she had two children .
Born in 1912 , Potthast began as Himmler 's secretary in 1936 and by 1938 she was his lover . She resigned from her duties in 1941 , and subsequently had two children with Himmler , a boy and a girl . After the war , Potthast married and lived out the rest of her life outside the public eye . In post @-@ war interviews , she refrained from answering questions about Himmler 's involvement in war crimes committed by the Nazis and her own knowledge of them . She died in 1997 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Hedwig Potthast was born on 5 February 1912 in Cologne , North Rhine @-@ Westphalia as the daughter of a local businessman . After her final Abitur exams at secondary school , she trained as a secretary qualified in foreign languages . At the end of her training in 1928 , Potthast worked in Koblenz .
= = = Relationship with Himmler = = =
Through Kurt Baron von Schröder , one of the founders of the Freundeskreis der Wirtschaft ( " Circle of Friends of the Economy " ) , she met Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler . In 1934 , she was employed at Gestapo headquarters at Prinz @-@ Albrecht @-@ Straße in Berlin . Then from early 1936 to early 1941 , Potthast was Himmler 's private secretary , and in this function was particularly responsible for Himmler 's sponsorship and giving of awards .
Himmler and Potthast confessed their love for each other at Christmastime in 1938 . At first they tried to keep it platonic , but they fell into an adulterous relationship . Himmler 's wife since 1928 and mother of their daughter , Margarete Himmler , found out about Himmler 's relationship with Potthast at some time in February 1941 . She felt humiliated and bitter , and Potthast 's parents rejected the extramarital relationship . Potthast first took up residence in Grunewald and from 1943 she lived in Brückentin , near the estate of Oswald Pohl , because she was a friend of his wife , Eleonore . Lina Heydrich , wife of Himmler 's right @-@ hand man Reinhard Heydrich , and Gerda Bormann , spouse of Martin Bormann , were also counted among her friends . Later she lived in Berchtesgaden , Bavaria .
Potthast had two children with Himmler . Helge , a son born 15 February 1942 in the Hohenlychen Sanatorium , and Nanette @-@ Dorothea , a daughter born 20 July 1944 in Berchtesgaden . That same year , Himmler borrowed 80 @,@ 000 Reichmarks from the Nazi Party Chancellery and had a house built for Potthast near Berchtesgaden .
Little is known about the overall relationship between Himmler and Potthast . The couple most likely saw each other only rarely due to Himmler 's activity in his numerous offices . Presumably , neither Potthast nor Himmler 's wife were informed of his " secret work " . Potthast 's relationship with Himmler ended during the spring of 1945 , — they met for the last time in mid @-@ March 1945 , after which they shared daily telephone calls up until 19 April 1945 .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
When World War II in Europe ended , Potthast was in Achensee , Austria and , after learning of the death of Himmler on the radio on 23 May 1945 , went into hiding , living temporarily with Eleonore Pohl in Rosenheim , Upper Bavaria . In June / July 1945 , she was arrested there by members of the U.S. Army and interrogated for several days in Munich . Margarete and Himmler 's daughter , Gudrun Burwitz , did not learn of her half @-@ siblings until after the war . When she tried to make contact with them , Potthast refused . She lived in Theissendorf and kept in contact with the family of Himmler 's older brother , Gebhard , as well as Himmler 's former close confidant , Karl Wolff , until the 1950s .
= = = Final years = = =
Potthast later remarried and took on her new husband 's name . Her son struggled with ailments throughout his life and stayed with her ; her daughter became a physician . In a 1987 interview with former Der Spiegel editor Peter @-@ Ferdinand Koch , Potthast remained silent about Himmler 's responsibility for Nazi war crimes . She died in 1997 , aged 85 , in Baden @-@ Baden , Baden @-@ Württemberg .
= = = Printed = = =
Himmler , Katrin ( 2007 ) . The Himmler Brothers . London : Pan Macmillan . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 330 @-@ 44814 @-@ 7 .
Longerich , Peter ( 2012 ) . Heinrich Himmler : A Life . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 959232 @-@ 6 .
= = = Online = = =
" Himmler , Heinrich Luitpold " . World War II Gravestone . Retrieved 1 June 2015 .
" The Nazi Party : Women of the Third Reich " . Jewish Virtual Library . Retrieved 1 June 2015 .
= Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector =
The Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector , also known as the Atlantic City Expressway Connector or simply the Brigantine Connector , is a highway connector in Atlantic City , New Jersey . It connects the Atlantic City Expressway with Route 87 , which leads into Brigantine , a beach resort along the Atlantic Ocean . The connector is 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) long and is maintained by the South Jersey Transportation Authority . It is considered to be a state highway and is assigned the route number Route 446X ; however , the route number is unsigned . The connector consists of lettered exits from A to I in south to north order and features 10 bridges and 15 ramps throughout its length .
The Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector was initially planned in 1995 to provide a direct connection between the Atlantic City Expressway and the Brigantine area . Construction of the road was completed in 2001 at a total cost of $ 330 million ( equivalent to $ 441 million in 2016 ) . Before the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector was planned , Mirage Resorts president Steve Wynn acquired a piece of land near the northern end of the proposed connector and planned for a direct exit ramp to a proposed casino called Le Jardin . Donald Trump , the chief executive officer of Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts , who owned the nearby Trump Marina ( now Golden Nugget ) , took legal action against the state for the proposed ramp to Wynn 's casino . Despite the legal concerns , construction on the connector began in 1998 . Wynn 's proposed casino , Le Jardin , was canceled following the acquisition of Mirage Resorts by MGM Grand Inc . , which , as the MGM Mirage company , proposed the Borgata casino . Meanwhile , Trump 's casino received a direct ramp from the connector .
= = Route description = =
The Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector begins near the eastern terminus of the Atlantic City Expressway on the western edge of the Atlantic City coast . The speed limit is 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) for its entire length . The entire route of the Connector is located within the city of Atlantic City , New Jersey , and features 10 bridges and 15 ramps throughout its duration . Exits are lettered based on their ramp letter designation , which range from Ramps A – I , skipping Ramp C. Ramp D east and west are two entrance @-@ only ramps , and Ramp I is north of the Connector 's terminus on Route 87 . Despite its sequential lettering , Ramp H merges from the Connector prior to Ramp G. The Connector is 2 @.@ 3 mi ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) long , from the Atlantic City Expressway interchange to the northbound Connector 's merge with Route 87 towards Brigantine , New Jersey . The Atlantic City Expressway is unsigned as Route 446 , and the Connector has the route number 446X . According to the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) , Route 446X is 1 @.@ 98 mi ( 3 @.@ 19 km ) long , measured from the Atlantic City Expressway interchange to the at @-@ grade intersection with U.S. Route 30 via Ramp E. The remainder of the Connector past Ramp E toward Route 87 is not included by NJDOT as part of the route nor calculated in its total mileage .
The Connector begins from Exit 1 on the Atlantic City Expressway , and heads north along the edge of the coast . In the southbound direction , Ramp A leads towards the Downbeach and Midtown sections of the city via Mississippi Avenue , prior to merging onto the Expressway westbound . The Connector has an at @-@ grade intersection with the Atlantic City Line , adjacent to the city 's Rail Terminal . Following the railroad , Ramp B west and B south provide access to Bacharach Boulevard and the Atlantic City Convention Center in both directions on the Connector , prior to a 1 @,@ 957 ft ( 596 m ) long tunnel , which runs parallel to the Penrose Canal . Upon emerging from the tunnel , Ramp D west feeds traffic southbound on the Connector from Route 87 south , and Ramp D east feeds traffic northbound on the Connector from US 30 east . The southbound direction of the Connector begins at the Route 87 crossing , which is followed by Ramp E , a two @-@ way ramp towards US 30 with an intersection at Route 187 . The Connector continues northbound with Ramp F , which leads back to Ramp E westbound , acting as a U @-@ turn to the Connector southbound for traffic that entered from Ramp D east . The northbound Connector then branches off with Ramp H towards Renaissance Pointe , Borgata , and The Water Club , followed by Ramp G towards Farley Marina and Golden Nugget ( formerly Trump Marina ) via Huron Avenue . The Connector merges onto Route 87 northbound toward Brigantine near milepost 2 @.@ 3 , at which Ramp I provides access to Harrah 's from Route 87 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The connector road between the Atlantic City Expressway and the marina district was first proposed in 1964 by the Atlantic City Planning Board . The project was called the " Route 30 Connector " and was to connect the end of the Expressway with U.S. Route 30 . The main purpose of the road was to lessen congestion in Midtown Atlantic City , and provide easier access to the uptown and marina districts , as well as the neighboring city of Brigantine , New Jersey . Due to a lack of funds and environmental concerns about construction near the adjacent wetlands , the connector project remained dormant until 1990 when plans for the road were included report by the city 's Transportation Executive Council . Following the release of the report , engineering and planning for the road began , as well as environmental study by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection , to determine the project 's feasibility . A transportation official , at the time , stated that if the project was approved , construction would not begin for at least four to five years .
The following year , a new report was released stating that the Route 30 Connector project was feasible . The proposed Connector was to be one mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) long , and would be constructed as an elevated highway above the wetlands . Construction cost was estimated at $ 80 million , half of which could be paid for by making the Connector a toll road . The new report also identified US 30 as an important roadway for reducing city traffic , as it carried the least amount of traffic and had the greatest capacity out of the city 's three major entering highways , the other two being the Expressway and the Black Horse Pike ( US 40 / US 322 ) .
= = = Planning and construction = = =
In 1995 , a tunnel was proposed as part of the Connector , traveling underneath Horace J. Bryant Drive ; however , the idea was rejected by Mayor James Whelan and the City Council as it would have displaced many homes in the area . The same year , Mirage Resorts president Steve Wynn proposed a new casino resort in the marina district , and stated that resort would not be built unless there was better access to the site . Additional plans were later researched , and six different plans were proposed . The plans included the tunnel underneath Horace J. Bryant Drive , a tunnel underneath the adjacent Penrose Canal , two alternative tunnel locations , the elevated highway above the wetlands , and the improvement of existing streets to direct traffic through the city . Transportation officials determined all of the plans , except for the first two tunnel proposals , to have significant drawbacks .
After the tunnel proposal was rejected , it was once again proposed in February 1996 after Wynn officially announced plans for the new resort . The City of Atlantic City requested bids for the sale of the property in the northern section of the city near the marina , which at one time served as the city 's landfill . Wynn won the bid against Donald Trump , chief executive officer of the Trump Organization . As disputes over the tunnel construction continued , Mirage Resorts announced they were given the options of purchasing the properties required for building the tunnel . Mirage Resorts deemed building the proposed " off @-@ island connector " as " virtually impossible " , stating how permits would be difficult to obtain with a land @-@ based alternative available , and the tunnel was determined to be the best option for construction of the Connector . The tunnel was designed to have as little impact on the surrounding environment as possible , with both portals on opposite ends of the community . The design included both portals on opposite ends of the community , with landscaping added between the construction site and adjacent homes . Deliveries of raw materials would take place by barge and construction vehicles would not be traveling via any local streets . Mirage subsidiary president Richard " Skip " Bronson referred to the project as " the nicest tunnel you 've never seen . " Some opponents described the project as an effort to destroy a stable , middle @-@ class African @-@ American community , while others supported the project as a means of lessening traffic and creating jobs at the new Mirage casino .
Wynn had intentions of constructing a new casino project on the property , known as Le Jardin , with an exit ramp from the connector leading directly to his new property . The exit to Le Jardin was referred to as a " driveway " to the casino , which caused Trump to take legal action against the state , as he felt that the easy access to Wynn 's new property would create an unfair business advantage against Trump Marina , a Trump @-@ owned property in the same area . The proposal for the grade crossing of New Jersey Transit 's Atlantic City Line initially drew criticism from both the Delaware Valley Association of Rail Passengers and the Federal Railroad Administration because of the high amount of road and railroad traffic that would pass through the crossing . However , it was built because it was $ 24 million cheaper than building a grade @-@ separated crossing and would allow for an interchange with Bacharach Boulevard .
In 1997 , Governor Christine Todd Whitman approved the project , and construction began on November 4 , 1998 . After construction on the freeway began , Wynn 's interests were purchased by MGM Grand Inc . , thus creating the MGM Mirage company , and plans for Le Jardin were canceled . Despite the fact that Le Jardin was canceled and MGM Mirage 's new casino , Borgata , was not scheduled to open until 2003 , Trump still fought against the project 's plans to build the exit directly to the new casino . Eventually , in January 2000 , Trump dropped his case after an exit ramp leading to the Trump Marina was added to the project .
Very little land and property was displaced by the project . Following the construction , the land formerly housing nine residential properties displaced during construction were leveled and turned into a park . A warehouse was reduced in size to make way for the project , as well as the relocation of Atlantic City Electric power lines leading to a substation . A promenade as part of Trump Marina was leveled to make way for new ramps , in which 37 ornamental lampposts which were dismantled were later shipped to the Tuckerton Seaport in nearby Tuckerton , which opened in 2000 .
= = = Opening = = =
On July 27 , 2001 , the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector was completed after a 32 @-@ month construction period . The grand opening ceremony was open to the public , which featured various festivities , including a pedestrian tunnel walk . However , the connector was not opened to traffic until four days later due to a last @-@ minute failure of the tunnel communications system . Although the connector itself was open to traffic , the exit ramps leading to the Borgata were still under construction along with the resort itself , and the ramps did not open up until October 2003 . The total cost of the project was $ 330 million ( equivalent to $ 441 million in 2016 ) and was funded by various state @-@ operated agencies , while one @-@ third of the cost was privately funded by MGM Mirage .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Atlantic City , Atlantic County .
= Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) =
" Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " is the debut song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her debut studio album , Saxobeats ( 2011 ) . The track was written by Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi , and produced by Prodan . It was first released in Romania in 2009 . Following the international success of Stan 's 2010 single " Mr. Saxobeat " , " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " was re @-@ released in Canada , Germany , and the United States in 2011 . The music video for " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " features Stan and other female dancers dancing to the song in front of a purple backdrop ; interspersed scenes portray Stan licking a lollipop . She herself described the song as " club @-@ friendly " and as featuring " funny lyrics " , while music critics praised it for being a " catchy pop song " and a " club sensation " . Commercially , the single peaked at number 18 on her native Romanian Top 100 .
= = Background , composition and reception = =
Before being signed to a record label , Stan participated in various music @-@ related contests , including the Mamaia Music Festival . In 2009 , she was discovered by Romanian producers and songwriters Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi at a karaoke bar . They offered her a record deal with their own label , Maan Records , through which she also released a promotional single called " Show Me The Way " . During one of Stan 's televised performances on Romanian TV show Acces Direct , she explained that " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " was produced " just for fun " after she arrived from a club one night . When interviewed by Urban.ro while premiering Saxobeats , Stan confessed that she expected positive and negative reception for the song , also saying that it emphasised more her image than her vocal abilities .
While Stan said that the track was " club @-@ friendly " and features " funny lyrics " , German magazine Klatsch Tratsch named it a " catchy pop song " . Celeste Rhoads , writing for AllMusic , praised " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " during his review for Saxobeats , calling it a " club sensation " along with 2011 singles " Mr. Saxobeat " and " Get Back ( ASAP ) " . Mike Schiller from PopMatters described the production of the track " generic " and its lyrics " crude " , while wishing " that it had been conveniently forgotten about [ on the album ] " .
= = Impact and promotion = =
The song reached number 18 on Stan 's native Romanian Top 100 , being extensively broadcast by domestic radio stations there . It also impacted mainstream radio stations from the United States in early 2010 . Meanwhile , the music video for " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " garnered 25 million views on YouTube a short time . Following this , various labels from the United Kingdom , Ireland , Canada , Czech Republic , Russia , Italy , France , Israel and the United States asked for license to release the song through their means . In order to promote the single , Stan was invited to perform the recording on various native TV shows , with her as well embarking on a tour in her native Romania . She also provided a live performance of the single during the 2012 Après Ski Hits event in Germany , and sang the song during the concert tours that promoted Saxobeats .
A low @-@ budget accompanying music video for " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " was posted onto Maan Studio 's YouTube channel on 22 December 2009 and filmed by Andrei Nemirschi in a restaurant . The whole clip portrays Stan and two fellow female dancers performing in front of a purple backdrop . It commences with Stan asking herself which sweets she likes the most , with the words " candy " , " chocolate " and " ice cream " appearing on the screen . Following this , the other females are presented wearing white underwear until one of them is shown with a saxophone . Next , Stan is shown blowing a bubble with bubble gum and , after she further dances to the song , the clip ends with the screen displaying the phrase " param pam pam " and finally becoming dark . Scenes interspersed through the main video portrayed Stan seductively licking a lollipop . The clip was not received well by the audience . Spanish @-@ language music station Los 40 Principales named the video for " Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " as one of Stan 's best clips ever .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) [ Radio Edit ] − 3 : 55
Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) [ Club Edit ] − 4 : 12
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Saxobeats and The Collection .
Maan Studio – recording studio
Marcel Prodan – songwriter , producer
Andrei Nemirschi – songwriter , photography , director
Alexandra Stan – lead vocals
= = Charts = =
= = Release = =
= = = Process = = =
" Lollipop ( Param Pam Pam ) " was released as Stan 's debut recording in her native Romania in late 2009 , charting early in the following year . After the international success of her breakthrough single " Mr. Saxobeat " ( 2011 ) , it was also made available for digital download on iTunes Store through Ultra Records on 31 May 2011 in Canada and the United States . In Germany , the single was launched digitally on 9 September 2011 through Prime Music , within the period of the release of its parent record , Saxobeats ( 2011 ) .
= = = History = = =
= California State Route 149 =
State Route 149 ( SR 149 ) is a short state highway that helps to connect Oroville and Chico through rural Butte County . Connecting State Route 70 at Wicks Corner with State Route 99 east of Durham , it forms part of the primary north – south highway through the eastern Sacramento Valley , a Focus Route of the Interregional Road System . SR 149 was formerly part of the Oroville @-@ Chico Highway ; the majority of the latter was merged into other routes . In the mid @-@ 1970s , the highway was reallocated onto a newer two @-@ lane alignment . The route is also part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , and a project to widen the two @-@ lane road to a four @-@ lane expressway was completed in late 2008 , removing the bottleneck from the Oroville @-@ Chico highway .
= = Route description = =
State Route 149 begins at Wicks Corner as a divided highway , at an interchange with SR 70 several miles north of Oroville . This is the north end of the State Route 70 freeway , which passes through a gap between the Campbell Hills and South Table Mountain on its way from Oroville . SR 149 heads northwest across gently rolling terrain before descending into the valley of the Dry Creek . As it begins to climb out of the valley , SR 149 ends at an interchange with SR 99 . The latter highway continues the corridor northwest to Chico , quickly dropping back into the Butte Creek valley . The route is a divided highway with four lanes .
= = History = =
By the late 1910s , a " natural prairie road " linked Oroville to State Highway Route 3 southeast of Chico , following the present Table Mountain Boulevard , Openshaw Road , and Oroville @-@ Chico Highway to Midway ( Route 3 ) . The primary route between these two cities was the all @-@ state highway route , following Route 21 ( now SR 162 ) west from Oroville to Route 3 near Richvale . Butte County dedicated a newly improved Oroville @-@ Chico Highway on July 4 , 1926 ; it became part of the state highway system in 1933 as the northern portion of the Woodland @-@ Chico Route 87 . ( The rest of Route 87 became part of Sign Route 24 , which turned east at Oroville along present State Route 70 , in 1934 . )
In the 1950s and 1960s , about three @-@ quarters of the Oroville @-@ Chico Highway was absorbed by other routes . A new two @-@ lane alignment of U.S. Route 99E ( Legislative Route 3 , now SR 99 ) between east of Richvale and Chico opened in the mid @-@ 1950s , using part of the Oroville @-@ Chico Highway south of Durham Dayton Highway and bypassing the remainder to the junction south of Chico . In the early 1960s , U.S. Route 40 Alternate ( Legislative Route 21 , now SR 70 ) was relocated due to the damming of Lake Oroville across its old alignment . The bridge over the West Branch Feather River northwest of the dam opened in August 1962 , resulting in US 40 Alt. using the Oroville @-@ Chico Highway ( which was relocated to a new four @-@ lane freeway alignment ) south of Wicks Corner . The remainder , which was never part of a sign route , became Route 149 in the 1964 renumbering .
SR 149 was relocated onto a new two @-@ lane alignment in the mid @-@ 1970s , leaving behind Openshaw Road . Caltrans began studies for interchanges at each end in September 1992 . The California Transportation Commission approved funding for four @-@ laning SR 149 in April 1994 and the two interchanges in May 1996 , with construction to begin in 1998 and cost $ 47 million . Due to state budget problems and the need to study environmental impacts , the project was repeatedly pushed back ; these impacts and inflation had more than doubled the cost to $ 120 million in 2004 . In particular , an endangered species of meadowfoam was discovered on the south embankent , forcing a redesign . Construction began in September 2005 on a new freshwater marsh near the State Route 70 intersection to replace beaver ponds in the path of the highway , and it was completed in March 2006 .
Ground was broken for the highway project in April 2006 , with major construction beginning in May . Caltrans estimated completion in late 2009 for the completion of the four @-@ lane expressway , including a new directional interchange at each end , at which State Route 70 and State Route 99 will exit and enter to the right of the main Oroville @-@ Chico movement . Most access was closed , with Shippee Road providing the sole at @-@ grade crossing of the expressway , and an overcrossing near State Route 70 giving access to local property . Shippee Road was relocated to the southeast , allowing for the future construction of an interchange . In addition , State Route 70 was relocated to the west between SR 149 and State Route 191 , and local access on State Route 99 between SR 149 and the Durham Dayton Highway interchange was replaced by frontage roads . The entire project was completed in November 2008 , at a cost of $ 125 million .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Butte County .
= Al Gore =
Albert Arnold " Al " Gore Jr . ( born March 31 , 1948 ) is an American politician and environmentalist who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton . Chosen as Clinton 's running mate in their successful 1992 campaign , he was reelected in 1996 . At the end of Clinton 's second term , Gore was the Democratic Party 's nominee for President in 2000 . After leaving office , Gore remained prominent as an author and environmental activist , whose work in climate change activism earned him ( jointly with the IPCC ) the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .
Gore was an elected official for 24 years . He was a Congressman from Tennessee ( 1977 – 85 ) and from 1985 to 1993 served as one of the state 's Senators . He served as Vice President during the Clinton administration from 1993 to 2001 . In the 2000 presidential election , in what was one of the closest presidential races in history , Gore won the popular vote but lost in the Electoral College to Republican George W. Bush . A controversial election dispute over a vote recount in Florida was settled by the U.S. Supreme Court , which ruled 5 – 4 in favor of Bush .
Gore is the founder and current chair of the Alliance for Climate Protection , the co @-@ founder and chair of Generation Investment Management and the now @-@ defunct Current TV network , a member of the Board of Directors of Apple Inc . , and a senior adviser to Google . Gore is also a partner in the venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers , heading its climate change solutions group . He has served as a visiting professor at Middle Tennessee State University , Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism , Fisk University , and the University of California , Los Angeles . He served on the Board of Directors of World Resources Institute .
Gore has received a number of awards including the Nobel Peace Prize ( joint award with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , 2007 ) , a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album ( 2009 ) for his book An Inconvenient Truth , a Primetime Emmy Award for Current TV ( 2007 ) , and a Webby Award ( 2005 ) . Gore was also the subject of the Academy Award @-@ winning ( 2007 ) documentary An Inconvenient Truth in 2006 . In 2007 he was named a runner @-@ up for Time 's 2007 Person of the Year .
= = Early life and education = =
Gore was born in Washington , D.C. , the second of two children of Albert Gore Sr. , a U.S. Representative who later served as a U.S. Senator from Tennessee , and Pauline ( LaFon ) Gore , one of the first women to graduate from Vanderbilt University Law School . Gore is partly descended from Scots @-@ Irish immigrants who first settled in Virginia in the mid @-@ 17th @-@ century , and moved to Tennessee after the Revolutionary War . His older sister Nancy LaFon Gore , who was born in 1938 , died of lung cancer in 1984 .
During the school year he lived with his family in The Fairfax Hotel in the Embassy Row section in Washington D.C. During the summer months , he worked on the family farm in Carthage , Tennessee , where the Gores grew tobacco and hay and raised cattle .
Gore attended St. Albans School , an independent college preparatory day and boarding school for boys in Washington , D.C. , from 1956 to 1965 , a prestigious feeder school for the Ivy League . He was the captain of the football team , threw discus for the track and field team , and participated in basketball , art , and government . He graduated 25th in his class of 51 , applied to only one college , Harvard , and was accepted .
= = Personal life = =
Gore met Mary Elizabeth " Tipper " Aitcheson from the nearby St. Agnes School at his St. Albans senior prom in 1965 . Tipper followed Gore to Boston to attend college ; and on May 19 , 1970 , shortly after Tipper graduated from Boston University , they married at the Washington National Cathedral .
They have four children — Karenna Gore ( b . 1973 ) , Kristin Carlson Gore ( b . 1977 ) , Sarah LaFon Gore ( b . 1979 ) , and Albert Arnold Gore III ( b . 1982 ) .
In early June 2010 , shortly after purchasing a new home , the Gores announced in an e @-@ mail to friends that after " long and careful consideration " , they had made a mutual decision to separate . In May 2012 , it was reported that Gore started dating Elizabeth Keadle of California .
= = Harvard , the Vietnam War , journalism , and Vanderbilt ( 1965 – 76 ) = =
= = = Harvard = = =
Gore enrolled in Harvard College in 1965 , initially planning to major in English and write novels but later deciding to major in government . On his second day on campus , he began campaigning for the freshman student government council and was elected its president .
Although he was an avid reader who fell in love with scientific and mathematical theories , he did not do well in science classes in college and avoided taking math . His grades during his first two years put him in the lower one @-@ fifth of the class . During his sophomore year , he reportedly spent much of his time watching television , shooting pool , and occasionally smoking marijuana . In his junior and senior years , he became more involved with his studies , earning As and Bs . In his senior year , he took a class with oceanographer and global warming theorist Roger Revelle , who sparked Gore 's interest in global warming and other environmental issues . Gore earned an A on his thesis , " The Impact of Television on the Conduct of the Presidency , 1947 @-@ 1969 " , and graduated with an A.B. cum laude in June 1969 .
Gore attended college during the era of anti @-@ Vietnam War protests . Though he was against that war , he disagreed with the tactics of the student protest movement , thinking it silly and juvenile to take anger at the war out on a private university . He and his friends did not participate in Harvard demonstrations . John Tyson , a former roommate , recalled that " We distrusted these movements a lot .... We were a pretty traditional bunch of guys , positive for civil rights and women 's rights but formal , transformed by the social revolution to some extent but not buying into something we considered detrimental to our country . " Gore helped his father write an anti @-@ war address to the Democratic National Convention of 1968 but stayed with his parents in their hotel room during the violent protests .
= = = Military service = = =
When Gore graduated in 1969 , his student deferment ended and he immediately became eligible for the military draft . His father , a vocal anti @-@ Vietnam War critic , was facing a reelection in 1970 . Gore eventually decided that the best way he could contribute to the anti @-@ war effort was to enlist in the Army , which would improve his father 's reelection prospects . Although nearly all of his Harvard classmates avoided the draft and service in Vietnam , Gore believed if he found a way around military service , he would be handing an issue to his father 's Republican opponent . According to Gore 's Senate biography , " He appeared in uniform in his father 's campaign commercials , one of which ended with his father advising : ' Son , always love your country . ' Despite this , Gore Sr. lost the election .
Gore has said that his other reason for enlisting was that he did not want someone with fewer options than he to go in his place . Actor Tommy Lee Jones , a former college housemate , recalled Gore saying that " if he found a fancy way of not going , someone else would have to go in his place . " His Harvard advisor , Richard Neustadt , also stated that Gore decided , " that he would have to go as an enlisted man because , he said , ' In Tennessee , that 's what most people have to do . ' " In addition , Michael Roche , Gore 's editor for The Castle Courier , stated that " anybody who knew Al Gore in Vietnam knows he could have sat on his butt and he didn 't . "
After enlisting in August 1969 , Gore returned to the anti @-@ war Harvard campus in his military uniform to say goodbye to his adviser and was " jeered " at by students . He later said he was astonished by the " emotional field of negativity and disapproval and piercing glances that ... certainly felt like real hatred " .
Gore had basic training at Fort Dix from August to October , and then was assigned to be a journalist at Fort Rucker , Alabama . In April 1970 , he was " Soldier of the Month " .
His orders to be sent to Vietnam were " held up " for some time and he suspected that this was due to a fear by the Nixon administration that if something happened to him , his father would gain sympathy votes . He was finally shipped to Vietnam on January 2 , 1971 , after his father had lost his seat in the Senate during the 1970 Senate election , becoming one " of only about a dozen of the 1 @,@ 115 Harvard graduates in the Class of ' 69 who went to Vietnam . " Gore was stationed with the 20th Engineer Brigade in Bien Hoa and was a journalist with The Castle Courier . He received an honorable discharge from the Army in May 1971 .
Of his time in the Army , Gore later stated , " I didn 't do the most , or run the gravest danger . But I was proud to wear my country 's uniform . " He also later stated that his experience in Vietnam " didn 't change my conclusions about the war being a terrible mistake , but it struck me that opponents to the war , including myself , really did not take into account the fact that there were an awful lot of South Vietnamese who desperately wanted to hang on to what they called freedom . Coming face to face with those sentiments expressed by people who did the laundry and ran the restaurants and worked in the fields was something I was naively unprepared for . "
= = = Vanderbilt and journalism = = =
Gore was " dispirited " after his return from Vietnam . NashvillePost.com noted that , " his father 's defeat made service in a conflict he deeply opposed even more abhorrent to Gore . His experiences in the war zone don 't seem to have been deeply traumatic in themselves ; although the engineers were sometimes fired upon , Gore has said he didn 't see full @-@ scale combat . Still , he felt that his participation in the war was wrong . "
Although his parents wanted him to go to law school , Gore first attended Vanderbilt University Divinity School ( 1971 – 72 ) on a Rockefeller Foundation scholarship for people planning secular careers . He later said he went there in order to explore " spiritual issues " , and that " he had hoped to make sense of the social injustices that seemed to challenge his religious beliefs . "
In 1971 , Gore also began to work the night shift for The Tennessean as an investigative reporter . His investigations of corruption among members of Nashville 's Metro Council resulted in the arrest and prosecution of two councilmen for separate offenses .
In 1974 , he took a leave of absence from The Tennessean to attend Vanderbilt University Law School . His decision to become an attorney was a partial result of his time as a journalist , as he realized that , while he could expose corruption , he could not change it . Gore did not complete law school , deciding abruptly , in 1976 , to run for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives when he found out that his father 's former seat in the House was about to be vacated .
= = Congress and first presidential run ( 1976 – 93 ) = =
Gore began serving in the U.S. Congress at the age of 28 and stayed there for the next 16 years , serving in both the House ( 1977 – 85 ) and the Senate ( 1985 – 93 ) . Gore spent many weekends in Tennessee , working with his constituents .
= = = House and Senate = = =
At the end of February 1976 , U.S. Representative Joe L. Evins unexpectedly announced his retirement from Congress , making the Tennessee 's 4th congressional district seat , to which he had succeeded Albert Gore Sr. in 1953 open . Within hours after The Tennessean publisher John Seigenthaler Sr. called him to tell him the announcement was forthcoming , Gore decided to quit law school and run for the House of Representatives :
Gore 's abrupt decision to run for the open seat surprised even himself ; he later said that ' I didn 't realize myself I had been pulled back so much to it . ' The news came as a ' bombshell ' to his wife . Tipper Gore held a job in The Tennessean 's photo lab and was working on a master 's degree in psychology , but she joined in her husband 's campaign ( with assurance that she could get her job at the Tennessean back if he lost ) . By contrast , Gore asked his father to stay out of his campaign : " I must become my own man , ' he explained . ' I must not be your candidate . "
Gore won the 1976 Democratic primary for the district with " 32 percent of the vote , three percentage points more than his nearest rival " , and was opposed only by an independent candidate in the election , recording 94 percent of the overall vote . He went on to win the next three elections , in 1978 , 1980 , and 1982 , where " he was unopposed twice and won 79 percent of the vote the other time . " In 1984 , Gore successfully ran for a seat in the U.S. Senate , which had been vacated by Republican Senate Majority Leader Howard Baker . He was " unopposed in the Democratic Senatorial primary and won the general election going away " , despite the fact that Republican President Ronald Reagan swept Tennessee in his reelection campaign the same year . Gore defeated Republican senatorial nominee Victor Ashe , subsequently the mayor of Knoxville , and the Republican @-@ turned @-@ Independent , Ed McAteer , founder of the Christian right Religious Roundtable organization that had worked to elect Reagan as president in 1980 .
During his time in Congress , Gore was considered a " moderate " ( he once referred to himself as a " raging moderate " ) opposing federal funding of abortion , voting in favor of a bill which supported a moment in silence in schools , and voting against a ban on interstate sales of guns . In 1981 , Gore was quoted as saying with regard to homosexuality , " I think it is wrong " , and " I don 't pretend to understand it , but it is not just another normal optional life style . " In his 1984 Senate race , Gore said when discussing homosexuality , " I do not believe it is simply an acceptable alternative that society should affirm . " He also said that he would not take campaign funds from gay rights groups . Although he maintained a position against homosexuality and gay marriage in the 1980s , Gore said in 2008 that he thinks " gay men and women ought to have the same rights as heterosexual men and women ... to join together in marriage . " His position as a moderate ( and on policies related to that label ) shifted later in life after he became Vice President and ran for president in 2000 .
During his time in the House , Gore sat on the Energy and Commerce and the Science and Technology committees , chairing the Science Committee 's Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations for four years . He also sat on the House Intelligence Committee and , in 1982 , introduced the Gore Plan for arms control , to " reduce chances of a nuclear first strike by cutting multiple warheads and deploying single @-@ warhead mobile launchers . " While in the Senate , he sat on the Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs , the Rules and Administration , and the Armed Services Committees . In 1991 , Gore was one of ten Democrats who supported the Gulf War .
Gore was one of the Atari Democrats who were given this name due to their " passion for technological issues , from biomedical research and genetic engineering to the environmental impact of the " greenhouse effect . " On March 19 , 1979 , he became the first member of Congress to appear on C @-@ SPAN . During this time , Gore co @-@ chaired the Congressional Clearinghouse on the Future with Newt Gingrich . In addition , he has been described as having been a " genuine nerd , with a geek reputation running back to his days as a futurist Atari Democrat in the House . Before computers were comprehensible , let alone sexy , the poker @-@ faced Gore struggled to explain artificial intelligence and fiber @-@ optic networks to sleepy colleagues . " Internet pioneers Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn noted that ,
as far back as the 1970s , Congressman Gore promoted the idea of high @-@ speed telecommunications as an engine for both economic growth and the improvement of our educational system . He was the first elected official to grasp the potential of computer communications to have a broader impact than just improving the conduct of science and scholarship [ ... ] the Internet , as we know it today , was not deployed until 1983 . When the Internet was still in the early stages of its deployment , Congressman Gore provided intellectual leadership by helping create the vision of the potential benefits of high speed computing and communication .
Gore introduced the Supercomputer Network Study Act of 1986 . He also sponsored hearings on how advanced technologies might be put to use in areas like coordinating the response of government agencies to natural disasters and other crises . "
As a Senator , Gore began to craft the High Performance Computing Act of 1991 ( commonly referred to as " The Gore Bill " ) after hearing the 1988 report Toward a National Research Network submitted to Congress by a group chaired by UCLA professor of computer science , Leonard Kleinrock , one of the central creators of the ARPANET ( the ARPANET , first deployed by Kleinrock and others in 1969 , is the predecessor of the Internet ) . The bill was passed on December 9 , 1991 , and led to the National Information Infrastructure ( NII ) which Gore referred to as the " information superhighway . "
After joining the U.S. House of Representatives , Gore held the " first congressional hearings on the climate change , and co @-@ sponsor [ ed ] hearings on toxic waste and global warming . " He continued to speak on the topic throughout the 1980s . In 1990 , Senator Gore presided over a three @-@ day conference with legislators from over 42 countries which sought to create a Global Marshall Plan , " under which industrial nations would help less developed countries grow economically while still protecting the environment . "
= = = First presidential run ( 1988 ) = = =
Gore campaigned for the Democratic Party nomination for President of the United States against Joe Biden , Gary Hart , Dick Gephardt , Paul Simon , Jesse Jackson , and Michael Dukakis ( who eventually won the Democratic nomination ) . Gore carried seven states in the primaries , finishing third overall .
Although Gore initially denied that he intended to run , his candidacy was the subject of speculation : " National analysts make Sen. Gore a long @-@ shot for the Presidential nomination , but many believe he could provide a natural complement for any of the other candidates : a young , attractive , moderate Vice Presidential nominee from the South . He currently denies any interest , but he carefully does not reject the idea out of hand . " At the time , he was 39 years old , making him the " youngest serious Presidential candidate since John F. Kennedy . "
CNN noted that , " in 1988 , for the first time , 12 Southern states would hold their primaries on the same day , dubbed " Super Tuesday " . Gore thought he would be the only serious Southern contender ; he had not counted on Jesse Jackson . " Jackson defeated Gore in the South Carolina Primary , winning , " more than half the total vote , three times that of his closest rival here , Senator Albert Gore Jr. of Tennessee . " Gore next placed great hope on Super Tuesday where they split the Southern vote : Jackson winning Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , Mississippi and Virginia ; Gore winning Arkansas , North Carolina , Kentucky , Nevada , Tennessee , and Oklahoma . Gore was later endorsed by New York City Mayor Ed Koch who made statements in favor of Israel and against Jackson . These statements cast Gore in a negative light , leading voters away from Gore who received only 10 % of the vote in the New York Primary . Gore then dropped out of the race . The New York Times said that Gore also lost support due to his attacks against Jackson , Dukakis , and others .
Gore was eventually able to mend fences with Jackson who supported the Clinton @-@ Gore ticket in 1992 and 1996 , and campaigned for the Gore @-@ Lieberman ticket during the 2000 presidential election . Gore 's policies changed substantially in 2000 , reflecting his eight years as Vice President .
= = = Son 's 1989 accident and first book = = =
On April 3 , 1989 , as the Gores and their six @-@ year @-@ old son Albert were leaving a baseball game , Albert ran across the street to see his friend and was hit by a car . He was thrown 30 feet ( 9 m ) , and then traveled along the pavement for another 20 feet ( 6 m ) . Gore later recalled : " I ran to his side and held him and called his name , but he was motionless , limp and still , without breath or pulse [ ... ] His eyes were open with the nothingness stare of death , and we prayed , the two of us , there in the gutter , with only my voice . " Albert was tended to by two nurses who happened to be present during the accident . The Gores spent the next month in the hospital with Albert . Gore also commented : " Our lives were consumed with the struggle to restore his body and spirit . " This event was " a trauma so shattering that [ Gore ] views it as a moment of personal rebirth " , a " key moment in his life " which " changed everything . "
In August 1991 , Gore announced that his son 's accident was a factor in his decision not to run for president during the 1992 presidential election . Gore stated : " I would like to be President [ ... ] But I am also a father , and I feel deeply about my responsibility to my children [ ... ] I didn 't feel right about tearing myself away from my family to the extent that is necessary in a Presidential campaign . " During this time , Gore wrote Earth in the Balance , a text which became the first book written by a sitting U.S. Senator to make the New York Times bestseller list since John F. Kennedy 's Profiles in Courage .
= = = 1992 presidential election = = =
Gore was initially hesitant to accept a position as Bill Clinton 's running mate for the 1992 United States presidential election , but after clashing with the George H. W. Bush administration over global warming issues , he decided to accept the offer . Clinton stated that he chose Gore due to his foreign policy experience , work with the environment , and commitment to his family .
Clinton 's choice was criticized as unconventional because rather than picking a running mate who would diversify the ticket , Clinton chose a fellow Southerner who shared his political ideologies and who was nearly the same age as Clinton . The Washington Bureau Chief for The Baltimore Sun , Paul West , later suggested that , " Al Gore revolutionized the way Vice Presidents are made . When he joined Bill Clinton 's ticket , it violated the old rules . Regional diversity ? Not with two Southerners from neighboring states . Ideological balance ? A couple of left @-@ of @-@ center moderates . [ ... ] And yet , Gore has come to be regarded by strategists in both parties as the best vice presidential pick in at least 20 years . "
Clinton and Gore accepted the nomination at the Democratic National Convention on July 17 , 1992 . Known as the Baby Boomer Ticket and the Fortysomething Team , The New York Times noted that if elected , Clinton and Gore , at ages 45 and 44 respectively , would be the " youngest team to make it to the White House in the country 's history . " Theirs was the first ticket since 1972 to try to capture the youth vote . Gore called the ticket " a new generation of leadership " .
The ticket increased in popularity after the candidates traveled with their wives , Hillary and Tipper , on a " six @-@ day , 1 @,@ 000 @-@ mile bus ride , from New York to St. Louis . " Gore also debated the other vice presidential candidates , Dan Quayle , and James Stockdale . The Clinton @-@ Gore ticket beat the Bush @-@ Quayle ticket , 43 % -38 % .
= = Vice Presidency and second presidential run ( 1993 – 2001 ) = =
= = = Vice Presidency = = =
Al Gore served as Vice President during the Clinton Administration . Clinton and Gore were inaugurated on January 20 , 1993 . At the beginning of the first term , Clinton and Gore developed a " two @-@ page agreement outlining their relationship . " Clinton committed himself to regular lunch meetings , recognized Gore as a principal adviser on nominations , and appointed some of Gore 's chief advisers to key White House staff positions [ ... ] Clinton involved Gore in decision @-@ making to an unprecedented degree for a Vice President . Through their weekly lunches and daily conversations , Gore became the president 's " indisputable chief adviser . "
Gore had a particular interest in reducing " waste , fraud , and abuse in the federal government and advocated trimming the size of the bureaucracy and the number of regulations . " During the Clinton Administration , the U.S. economy expanded , according to David Greenberg ( professor of history and media studies at Rutgers University ) who said that " by the end of the Clinton presidency , the numbers were uniformly impressive . Besides the record @-@ high surpluses and the record @-@ low poverty rates , the economy could boast the longest economic expansion in history ; the lowest unemployment since the early 1970s ; and the lowest poverty rates for single mothers , black Americans , and the aged . "
According to Leslie Budd , author of E @-@ economy : Rhetoric or Business Reality , this economic success was due , in part , to Gore 's continued role as an Atari Democrat , promoting the development of information technology , which led to the dot @-@ com boom ( c . 1995 @-@ 2001 ) . Clinton and Gore entered office planning to finance research that would " flood the economy with innovative goods and services , lifting the general level of prosperity and strengthening American industry . " Their overall aim was to fund the development of , " robotics , smart roads , biotechnology , machine tools , magnetic @-@ levitation trains , fiber @-@ optic communications and national computer networks . Also earmarked [ were ] a raft of basic technologies like digital imaging and data storage . " Critics claimed that the initiatives would " backfire , bloating Congressional pork and creating whole new categories of Federal waste . "
During the election and his term as Vice President , Gore popularized the term Information Superhighway , which became synonymous with the Internet , and he was involved in the creation of the National Information Infrastructure . Gore first discussed his plans to emphasize information technology at UCLA on January 11 , 1994 , in a speech at The Superhighway Summit . He was involved in a number of projects including NetDay ' 96 and 24 Hours in Cyberspace . The Clinton – Gore administration also launched the first official White House website in 1994 and subsequent versions through 2000 . The Clipper Chip , which " Clinton inherited from a multi @-@ year National Security Agency effort " , was a method of hardware encryption with a government backdoor . It met with strong opposition from civil liberty groups and was abandoned by 1996 .
Gore was also involved in environmental initiatives . He launched the GLOBE program on Earth Day ' 94 , an education and science activity that , according to Forbes magazine , " made extensive use of the Internet to increase student awareness of their environment " . In 1998 , Gore began promoting a NASA satellite ( Deep Space Climate Observatory ) that would provide a constant view of the Earth , marking the first time such an image would have been made since The Blue Marble photo from the 1972 Apollo 17 mission . During this time , he also became associated with Digital Earth .
Gore negotiated and strongly supported the Kyoto Protocol to reduce greenhouse gasses , but said upon his return that the administration would not submit the treaty to the Senate for ratification
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until it was amended to include " meaningful participation by key developing nations " , The Senate had previously passed unanimously ( 95 – 0 ) the Byrd – Hagel Resolution ( S. Res. 98 ) , which declared opposition to any greenhouse gas treaty which would limit US emissions without similar limits on third @-@ world countries such as China . The Clinton administration left office three years later without having submitted the treaty for ratification .
In 1996 , Gore became involved in a finance controversy over his attendance at an event at the Buddhist Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights , California . In an interview on NBC 's Today the following year , Gore said , " I did not know that it was a fund @-@ raiser . I knew it was a political event , and I knew there were finance people that were going to be present , and so that alone should have told me , ' This is inappropriate and this is a mistake ; don 't do this . ' And I take responsibility for that . It was a mistake . " In March 1997 , Gore had to explain phone calls which he made to solicit funds for the Democratic Party for the 1996 election . In a news conference , Gore stated that , " all calls that I made were charged to the Democratic National Committee . I was advised there was nothing wrong with that . My counsel tells me there is no controlling legal authority that says that is any violation of any law . " The phrase " no controlling legal authority " was criticized by columnist Charles Krauthammer , who stated : " Whatever other legacies Al Gore leaves behind between now and retirement , he forever bequeaths this newest weasel word to the lexicon of American political corruption . " Robert Conrad Jr. was the head of a Justice Department task force appointed by Attorney General Janet Reno to investigate Gore 's fund @-@ raising controversies . In Spring 2000 , Conrad asked Reno to appoint an independent counsel to continue the investigation . After looking into the matter , Reno judged that the appointment of an independent counsel was unwarranted .
During the 1990s , Gore spoke out on a number of issues . In a 1992 speech on the Gulf War , Gore stated that he twice attempted to get the U.S. government to pull the plug on support to Saddam Hussein , citing Hussein 's use of poison gas , support of terrorism , and his burgeoning nuclear program , but was opposed both times by the Reagan and Bush administrations . In the wake of the Al @-@ Anfal Campaign , during which Hussein staged deadly mustard and nerve gas attacks on Kurdish Iraqis , Gore cosponsored the Prevention of Genocide Act of 1988 , which would have cut all assistance to Iraq . The bill was defeated in part due to intense lobbying of Congress by the Reagan @-@ Bush White House and a veto threat from President Reagan . In 1998 , at a conference of APEC hosted by Malaysia , Gore objected to the indictment , arrest and jailing of President Mahathir Mohammad 's longtime second @-@ in @-@ command Anwar Ibrahim , a move which received a negative response from leaders there . Ten years later , Gore again protested when Ibrahim was arrested a second time , a decision condemned by Malaysian foreign minister Datuk Seri Dr Rais Yatim .
Soon afterwards , Gore also had to contend with the Lewinsky scandal , involving an affair between President Clinton and an intern , Monica Lewinsky . Gore initially defended Clinton , whom he believed to be innocent , stating , " He is the president of the country ! He is my friend [ ... ] I want to ask you now , every single one of you , to join me in supporting him . " After Clinton was impeached , Gore continued to defend him stating , " I 've defined my job in exactly the same way for six years now [ ... ] to do everything I can to help him be the best president possible . "
= = = Second presidential run ( 2000 ) = = =
There was talk of a potential run in the 2000 presidential race by Gore as early as January 1998 . Gore discussed the possibility of running during a March 9 , 1999 , interview with CNN 's Late Edition with Wolf Blitzer . In response to Wolf Blitzer 's question : " Why should Democrats , looking at the Democratic nomination process , support you instead of Bill Bradley " , Gore responded :
I 'll be offering my vision when my campaign begins . And it will be comprehensive and sweeping . And I hope that it will be compelling enough to draw people toward it . I feel that it will be . But it will emerge from my dialogue with the American people . I 've traveled to every part of this country during the last six years . During my service in the United States Congress , I took the initiative in creating the Internet . I took the initiative in moving forward a whole range of initiatives that have proven to be important to our country 's economic growth and environmental protection , improvements in our educational system .
Former UCLA professor of information studies Philip E. Agre and journalist Eric Boehlert argued that three articles in Wired News led to the creation of the widely spread urban legend that Gore claimed to have " invented the Internet " , which followed this interview . In addition , computer professionals and congressional colleagues argued in his defense . Internet pioneers Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn stated that " we don 't think , as some people have argued , that Gore intended to claim he ' invented ' the Internet . Moreover , there is no question in our minds that while serving as Senator , Gore 's initiatives had a significant and beneficial effect on the still @-@ evolving Internet . " Cerf would later state : " Al Gore had seen what happened with the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956 , which his father introduced as a military bill . It was very powerful . Housing went up , suburban boom happened , everybody became mobile . Al was attuned to the power of networking much more than any of his elective colleagues . His initiatives led directly to the commercialization of the Internet . So he really does deserve credit . " In a speech to the American Political Science Association , former Republican Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Newt Gingrich also stated : " In all fairness , it 's something Gore had worked on a long time . Gore is not the Father of the Internet , but in all fairness , Gore is the person who , in the Congress , most systematically worked to make sure that we got to an Internet , and the truth is -- and I worked with him starting in 1978 when I got [ to Congress ] , we were both part of a " futures group " — the fact is , in the Clinton administration , the world we had talked about in the ' 80s began to actually happen . " Finally , Wolf Blitzer ( who conducted the original 1999 interview ) stated in 2008 that : " I didn 't ask him about the Internet . I asked him about the differences he had with Bill Bradley [ ... ] Honestly , at the time , when he said it , it didn 't dawn on me that this was going to have the impact that it wound up having , because it was distorted to a certain degree and people said they took what he said , which was a carefully phrased comment about taking the initiative and creating the Internet to — I invented the Internet . And that was the sort of shorthand , the way his enemies projected it and it wound up being a devastating setback to him and it hurt him , as I 'm sure he acknowledges to this very day . "
Gore himself would later poke fun at the controversy . In 2000 , while on the Late Show with David Letterman he read Letterman 's Top 10 List ( which for this show was called , " Top Ten Rejected Gore – Lieberman Campaign Slogans " ) to the audience . Number nine on the list was : " Remember , America , I gave you the Internet , and I can take it away ! " In 2005 when Gore was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award " for three decades of contributions to the Internet " at the Webby Awards he joked in his acceptance speech ( limited to five words according to Webby Awards rules ) : " Please don 't recount this vote . " He was introduced by Vint Cerf who used the same format to joke : " We all invented the Internet . " Gore , who was then asked to add a few more words to his speech , stated : " It is time to reinvent the Internet for all of us to make it more robust and much more accessible and use it to reinvigorate our democracy . "
Gore formally announced his candidacy for president in a speech on June 16 , 1999 , in Carthage , Tennessee , with his major theme being the need to strengthen the American family . He was introduced by his eldest daughter , Karenna Gore Schiff . In making the speech , Gore also distanced himself from Bill Clinton , who he stated had lied to him . Gore was " briefly interrupted " by AIDS protesters claiming Gore was working with the pharmaceutical industry to prevent access to generic medicines for poor nations and chanting " Gore 's greed kills . " Additional speeches were also interrupted by the protesters . Gore responded , " I love this country . I love the First Amendment [ ... ] Let me say in response to those who may have chosen an inappropriate way to make their point , that actually the crisis of AIDS in Africa is one that should command the attention of people in the United States and around the world . " Gore also issued a statement saying that he supported efforts to lower the cost of the AIDS drugs , provided that they " are done in a way consistent with international agreements . "
Gore faced an early challenge by former New Jersey senator Bill Bradley . Bradley was the only candidate to oppose Gore and was considered a " fresh face " for the White House . Gore challenged Bradley to a series of debates which took the form of " town hall " meetings . Gore went on the offensive during these debates leading to a drop in the polls for Bradley . Gore eventually went on to win every primary and caucus and , in March 2000 even won the first primary election ever held over the Internet , the Arizona Presidential Primary . By then , he secured the Democratic nomination . , On August 13 , 2000 , Gore announced that he had selected Senator Joe Lieberman of Connecticut as his vice presidential running mate . Lieberman became " the first person of the Jewish faith to run for the nation 's second @-@ highest office . " Many pundits saw Gore 's choice of Lieberman as further distancing him from the scandals of the Clinton White House . Gore 's daughter , Karenna , together with her father 's former Harvard roommate Tommy Lee Jones , officially nominated Gore as the Democratic presidential candidate during the 2000 Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles , California . Gore accepted his party 's nomination and spoke about the major themes of his campaign , stating in particular his plan to extend Medicare to pay for prescription drugs and to work for a sensible universal health @-@ care system . Soon after the convention , Gore hit the campaign trail with running mate Joe Lieberman . Gore and Bush were deadlocked in the polls . Gore and Bush participated in three televised debates . While both sides claimed victory after each , Gore was critiqued as either too stiff , too reticent , or too aggressive in contrast to Bush .
= = = = Recount = = = =
On election night , news networks first called Florida for Gore , later retracted the projection , and then called Florida for Bush , before finally retracting that projection as well . Florida 's Republican Secretary of State , Katherine Harris , eventually certified Florida 's vote count . This led to the Florida election recount , a move to further examine the Florida results .
The Florida recount was stopped a few weeks later by the U.S. Supreme Court . In the ruling , Bush v. Gore , the Justices held that the Florida recount was unconstitutional and that no constitutionally valid recount could be completed by the December 12 deadline , effectively ending the recounts . This 7 – 2 vote ruled that the standards the Florida Supreme Court provided for a recount were unconstitutional due to violations of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment , and further ruled 5 – 4 that no constitutionally valid recount could be completed by the December 12 deadline . This case ordered an end to recounting underway in selected Florida counties , effectively giving George W. Bush a 537 vote victory in Florida and consequently Florida 's 25 electoral votes and the presidency . The results of the decision led to Gore winning the popular vote by approximately 500 @,@ 000 votes nationwide , but receiving 266 electoral votes to Bush 's 271 ( one District of Columbia elector abstained ) . On December 13 , 2000 , Gore conceded the election . Gore strongly disagreed with the Court 's decision , but in his concession speech stated that , " for the sake of our unity as a people and the strength of our democracy , I offer my concession . "
The 2000 election is the subject of a 2008 made @-@ for @-@ TV movie directed by Jay Roach , produced by , and starring Kevin Spacey called Recount . It premiered on the HBO cable network on May 25 , 2008 .
= = Post Vice Presidency = =
After maintaining an informal public distance for eight years , Bill Clinton and Gore reunited for the media in August 2009 after Clinton arranged for the release of two journalists who were being held hostage in North Korea . The two women were employees of Gore 's Current TV .
= = = Criticism of Bush = = =
Beginning in late 2002 , Gore began to publicly criticize the Bush administration . In a September 23 , 2002 , speech given before the Commonwealth Club of California , Gore criticized President George W. Bush and Congress for the rush to war prior to the outbreak of hostilities in Iraq . He compared this decision to the Persian Gulf War ( which Gore had voted for ) stating , " Back in 1991 , I was one of a handful of Democrats in the United States Senate to vote in favor of the resolution endorsing the Persian Gulf War [ ... ] But look at the differences between the resolution that was voted on in 1991 and the one this administration is proposing that the Congress vote on in 2002 . The circumstances are really completely different . To review a few of them briefly : in 1991 , Iraq had crossed an international border , invaded a neighboring sovereign nation and annexed its territory . Now by contrast in 2002 , there has been no such invasion . " In a speech given in 2004 , during the presidential election , Gore accused George W. Bush of betraying the country by using the 9 / 11 attacks as a justification for the invasion of Iraq . The next year , Gore gave a speech which covered many topics , including what he called " religious zealots " who claim special knowledge of God 's will in American politics . Gore stated : " They even claim that those of us who disagree with their point of view are waging war against people of faith . " After Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , Gore chartered two planes to evacuate 270 people from New Orleans and criticized the Bush administration 's response to the hurricane . In 2006 , Gore criticized Bush 's use of domestic wiretaps without a warrant . One month later , in a speech given at the Jeddah Economic Forum , Gore criticized the treatment of Arabs in the U.S. after 9 / 11 stating , " Unfortunately there have been terrible abuses and it 's wrong [ ... ] I do want you to know that it does not represent the desires or wishes or feelings of the majority of the citizens of my country . " Gore 's 2007 book , The Assault on Reason , is an analysis of what Gore refers to as the " emptying out of the marketplace of ideas " in civic discourse during the Bush administration . He attributes this phenomenon to the influence of television and argues that it endangers American democracy . By contrast , Gore argues , the Internet can revitalize and ultimately " redeem the integrity of representative democracy . " In 2008 , Gore argued against the ban of same @-@ sex marriage on his Current TV website , stating , " I think that gay men and women ought to have the same rights as heterosexual men and women to make contracts , have hospital visiting rights , and join together in marriage . " In a 2009 interview with CNN , Gore commented on former Vice President Dick Cheney 's criticism of the Obama administration . Referring to his own previous criticism of the Bush administration , Gore stated : " I waited two years after I left office to make statements that were critical , and then of the policy [ ... ] You know , you talk about somebody that shouldn 't be talking about making the country less safe , invading a country that did not attack us and posed no serious threat to us at all . "
While Gore has criticized Bush for his Katrina response , he has not spoken publicly about his part in the evacuation of 270 patients on September 3 & 4 , 2005 , from Charity Hospital in New Orleans to Tennessee . On September 1 , Gore was contacted by Charity Hospital 's Neurosurgeon Dr. David Kline , who had operated on his son Albert , through Greg Simon of FasterCures . Kline informed Gore and Simon of the desperate conditions at the hospital and asked Gore and Simon to arrange relief . On Gore 's personal financial commitment , two airlines each provided a plane with one flight latter underwritten by Larry Flax . The flights were flown by volunteer airline crews and medically staffed by Gore 's cousin , retired Col. Dar LaFon , and family physician Dr. Anderson Spickard and were accompanied by Gore and Albert III . Gore used his political influence to expedite landing rights in New Orleans .
= = = Presidential run speculation = = =
Gore was a speculated candidate for the 2004 Presidential Election ( a bumper sticker , " Re @-@ elect Gore in 2004 ! " was popular ) . On December 16 , 2002 , however , Gore announced that he would not run in 2004 . Despite Gore taking himself out of the race , a handful of his supporters formed a national campaign to draft him into running . One observer concluded it was " Al Gore who has the best chance to defeat the incumbent president " , noting that " of the 43 Presidents , only three have been direct descendents of former Presidents : " John Quincy Adams , Benjamin Harrison , and George W. Bush , that " all three won the office only after ... anomalies in the Electoral College " , that the first two were defeated for re @-@ election in a populist backlash , and finally that " the men who first lost to the presidential progeny and then beat them " ( i.e. Andrew Jackson and Grover Cleveland ) " each won a sort of immortality--having his image placed on a unit of US currency " , and that Gore should answer this call of history . The draft movement , however , failed to convince Gore to run .
The prospect of a Gore candidacy arose again between 2006 and early 2008 in light of the upcoming 2008 presidential election . Although Gore frequently stated that he had " no plans to run " , he did not reject the possibility of future involvement in politics which led to speculation that he might run . This was due in part to his increased popularity after the release of the 2006 documentary , An Inconvenient Truth . The director of the film , Davis Guggenheim , stated that after the release of the film , " Everywhere I go with him , they treat him like a rock star . " After An Inconvenient Truth was nominated for an Academy Award , Donna Brazile ( Gore 's campaign chairwoman from his 2000 campaign ) speculated that Gore might announce a possible presidential candidacy during the Oscars . During the 79th Academy Awards ceremony , Gore and actor Leonardo DiCaprio shared the stage to speak about the " greening " of the ceremony itself . Gore began to give a speech that appeared to be leading up to an announcement that he would run for president . However , background music drowned him out and he was escorted offstage , implying that it was a rehearsed gag , which he later acknowledged . After An Inconvenient Truth won the Academy Award for Best Documentary , speculation increased about a possible presidential run . Gore 's popularity was indicated in polls which showed that even without running , he was coming in second or third among possible Democratic candidates Hillary Clinton , Barack Obama , and John Edwards . Grassroots draft campaigns also developed with the hope that they could encourage Gore to run . Gore , however , remained firm in his decision and declined to run for the presidency .
Interest in having Gore run for the 2016 Presidential election arose in 2014 and again in 2015 , although he did not declare any intention to do so .
= = = Involvement in presidential campaigns = = =
After announcing he would not run in the 2004 U.S. presidential election , Gore endorsed Vermont governor Howard Dean in December 2003 , weeks before the first primary of the election cycle . He was criticized for this endorsement by eight Democratic contenders particularly since he did not endorse his former running mate Joe Lieberman ( Gore preferred Dean over Lieberman because Lieberman supported the Iraq War and Gore did not ) . Dean 's campaign soon became a target of attacks and eventually failed , with Gore 's early endorsement being credited as a factor . In The New York Times , Dean stated : " I actually do think the endorsement of Al Gore began the decline . " The Times further noted that " Dean instantly amplified his statement to indicate that the endorsement from Mr. Gore , a powerhouse of the establishment , so threatened the other Democratic candidates that they began the attacks on his candidacy that helped derail it . " Dean 's former campaign manager , Joe Trippi , also stated that after Gore 's endorsement of Dean , " alarm bells went off in every newsroom in the country , in every other campaign in the country " , indicating that if something did not change , Dean would be the nominee . Later , in March 2004 , Gore endorsed John Kerry and gave Kerry $ 6 million in funds left over from his own unsuccessful 2000 bid . Gore also opened the 2004 Democratic National Convention .
During the 2008 primaries , Gore remained neutral toward all of the candidates which led to speculation that he would come out of a brokered 2008 Democratic National Convention as a " compromise candidate " if the party decided it could not nominate one . Gore responded by stating that these events would not take place because a candidate would be nominated through the primary process . When Senator Barack Obama became the presumptive Democratic nominee for president on June 3 , 2008 , speculation began that Gore might be tapped for the vice presidency . On June 16 , 2008 ( a week after Hillary Clinton had suspended her campaign ) , Gore endorsed Obama in a speech given in Detroit , Michigan which renewed speculation of an Obama @-@ Gore ticket . Gore stated , however , that he was not interested in being Vice President again . On the timing and nature of Gore 's endorsement , some argued that Gore waited because he did not want to repeat his calamitous early endorsement of Howard Dean during the 2004 Presidential Election . On the final night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention , shortly before Obama delivered his acceptance address , Gore gave a speech offering his full support . Such support led to new speculation after Obama was elected President during the 2008 Presidential election that Gore would be named a member of the Obama administration . This speculation was enhanced by a meeting held between Obama , Gore , and Joe Biden in Chicago on December 9 , 2008 . However , Democratic officials and Gore 's spokeswoman stated that during the meeting the only subject under discussion was the climate crisis , and Gore would not be joining the Obama administration . On December 19 , 2008 , Gore described Obama 's environmental administrative choices of Carol Browner , Steven Chu , and Lisa Jackson as " an exceptional team to lead the fight against the climate crisis . "
Gore repeated his neutrality eight years later during the Democratic presidential primaries of 2016 until endorsing Hillary Clinton on July 25 , 2016 , the first day of the that year 's Democratic National Convention .
= = = Environmentalism = = =
= = = = Overview = = = =
Gore has been involved with environmental issues since 1976 , when as a freshman congressman , he held the " first congressional hearings on the climate change , and co @-@ sponsor [ ed ] hearings on toxic waste and global warming . " He continued to speak on the topic throughout the 1980s , and is still prevalent in the environmental community . He was known as one of the Atari Democrats , later called the " Democrats ' Greens , politicians who see issues like clean air , clean water and global warming as the key to future victories for their party . "
In 1990 , Senator Gore presided over a three @-@ day conference with legislators from over 42 countries which sought to create a Global Marshall Plan , " under which industrial nations would help less developed countries grow economically while still protecting the environment . " In the late 1990s , Gore strongly pushed for the passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which called for reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . He was opposed by the Senate , which passed unanimously ( 95 – 0 ) the Byrd – Hagel Resolution ( S. Res. 98 ) , which stated the sense of the Senate was that the United States should not be a signatory to any protocol that did not include binding targets and timetables for developing as well as industrialized nations or " would result in serious harm to the economy of the United States " .
In 2004 , he co @-@ launched Generation Investment Management , a company for which he serves as Chair . A few years later , Gore also founded The Alliance for Climate Protection , an organization which eventually founded the We Campaign . Gore also became a partner in the venture capital firm , Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers , heading that firm 's climate change solutions group . He also helped to organize the Live Earth benefit concerts .
In 2013 , Gore became a vegan . He had earlier admitted that " it 's absolutely correct that the growing meat intensity of diets across the world is one of the issues connected to this global crisis -- not only because of the [ carbon dioxide ] involved , but also because of the water consumed in the process " and some speculate that his adoption of the new diet is related to his environmentalist stance . In a 2014 interview , Gore said " Over a year ago I changed my diet to a vegan diet , really just to experiment to see what it was like . ... I felt better , so I 've continued with it and I 'm likely to continue it for the rest of my life . "
= = = = Criticism = = = =
Gore 's involvement in environmental issues has been criticized . For example , he has been labeled a " carbon billionaire " and accused of profiting from his advocacy ; a charge which he has denied , by saying , among other things , that he has not been " working on this issue for 30 years ... because of greed " . A conservative Washington D.C. think tank , and a Republican member of Congress , among others , have claimed that Gore has a conflict @-@ of @-@ interest for advocating for taxpayer subsidies of green @-@ energy technologies in which he has a personal investment . Additionally , he has been criticized for his above @-@ average energy consumption in using private jets , and in owning multiple , very large homes , one of which was reported in 2007 as using high amounts of electricity . Gore 's spokesperson responded by stating that the Gores use renewable energy which is more expensive than regular energy and that the Tennessee house in question has been retrofitted to make it more energy @-@ efficient .
Data in An Inconvenient Truth have been questioned . In a 2007 court case , a British judge said that while he had " no doubt ... the film was broadly accurate " and its " four main scientific hypotheses ... are supported by a vast quantity of research " , he upheld nine of a " long schedule " of alleged errors presented to the court . He ruled that the film could be shown to schoolchildren in the UK if guidance notes given to teachers were amended to balance out the film 's one @-@ sided political views . Gore 's spokeswoman responded in 2007 that the court had upheld the film 's fundamental thesis and its use as an educational tool . In 2009 , Gore described the British court ruling as being " in my favor . "
In the late 1980s and 1990s , Gore was criticized for his involvement in asking the EPA for less strict pollution controls for the Pigeon River .
Organizations including People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) criticized Gore for not advocating vegetarianism as a way for individuals to reduce their carbon footprint . Gore agreed that meat production contributes to increased carbon emissions , but did not want to " go quite as far as ... saying everybody should become a vegetarian " . He said that although he was not a vegetarian , he had " cut back sharply " on his consumption of meat .
When asked by Bjørn Lomborg to debate whether spending on health and education should take priority over limiting carbon emissions , Gore responded that he would not debate because the " scientific community has gone through this chapter and verse . We have long since passed the time when we should pretend this is a ' on the one hand , on the other hand ' issue . . . . It 's not a matter of theory or conjecture . "
= = Awards and honors = =
Gore is the recipient of a number of awards , including the Nobel Peace Prize ( together with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) in 2007 , a Primetime Emmy Award for Current TV in 2007 , a Webby Award in 2005 and the Prince of Asturias Award in 2007 for International Cooperation . He also starred in the 2006 documentary An Inconvenient Truth , which won an Academy Award for Best Documentary in 2007 and wrote the book An Inconvenient Truth : The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It , which won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album in 2009 .
President Obama praised Gore for advancing the cause of peace .
= = Selected publications = =
= Business routes of U.S. Route 131 =
There are six business routes of US Highway 131 in the state of Michigan , and previously there was one bypass route . All of the business routes are former sections of US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) . These former sections of the mainline highway , along with the necessary connecting roads , allow traffic to access the downtowns business districts of cities bypassed by sections of US 131 built since the 1950s . The extant business loops connect to Constantine , Three Rivers , Kalamazoo , Grand Rapids , Big Rapids , Cadillac , and Manton . The former bypass route in Grand Rapids allowed traffic to bypass that city 's downtown at a time when US 131 still ran through the heart of the city .
= = Constantine = =
Business US Highway 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) is a business loop running through downtown Constantine . It starts south of the village in Constantine Township near some farm fields and runs northward . The highway passes a mobile home park and a couple of businesses before veering northwesterly on Washington Street through a residential neighborhood on the south side of Constantine . Bus . US 131 crosses the St. Joseph River and then turns northeasterly on Broad Street . The loop runs parallel to the banks of the river as the highway exits the northern side of the village . Bus . US 131 ends in Constantine Township where it intersects the northern end of the Constantine Bypass .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) has been studying a freeway upgrade for US 131 through St. Joseph County for several years . In late 2005 , MDOT decided not to pursue an upgrade of the highway , but rescinded that decision in April 2006 under political pressure in the state . The department began building a two @-@ lane bypass west of Constantine . The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials , which is in charge of US Highway numbering assignments and routings , approved the relocation of the US 131 designation out of Constantine on November 16 , 2012 . The group 's Special Committee on U.S. Route Numbering also approved the creation of a business route for the old highway through town . The bypass opened on October 30 , 2013 , and the business route designation was put into service that day .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in St. Joseph County .
= = Three Rivers = =
Business US Highway 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) is a three @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) business loop running through downtown Three Rivers . It follows M @-@ 60 ( Michigan Avenue ) eastward from a commercial district on the main highway into downtown . Bus . US 131 / M @-@ 60 passes through a residential neighborhood and crosses the Rocky River near its confluence with the St. Joseph River . On the east side of the river , the business loop turns north @-@ northwesterly onto Main Street , separating from M @-@ 60 at an intersection that also features M @-@ 86 . Bus . US 131 ( Main Street ) passes several more businesses and turns due north through a residential area . Near the northern terminus , the business loop passes a handful of businesses before ending at an intersection with US 131 on the north side of town .
The Three Rivers Bypass opened in the middle of 1953 , and the former route of the highway through downtown was redesignated as the business loop at that time .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Three Rivers , St. Joseph County .
= = Kalamazoo = =
Business US Highway 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) is an almost 10 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 km ) business loop running through downtown Kalamazoo . The southern end of the highway is at an interchange for exit 36 along US 131 west of downtown Kalamazoo in Oshtemo Township . Bus . US 131 runs concurrently with Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) eastward along the five @-@ lane Stadium Drive through a commercial area north of Asylum Lake . Near the campus of Western Michigan University , BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 131 turns northeasterly along the edge of the campus . Northeast of Waldo Stadium and the campus , the street name changes to Michigan Avenue . BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 131 merges with M @-@ 43 at the intersection with Main Street , and Michigan Avenue turns eastward as a one @-@ way , four @-@ lane street into downtown Kalamazoo . This intersection also marks the western end of the one @-@ way pairing of Michigan Avenue ( eastbound ) and Kalamazoo Avenue ( westbound ) , using Michikal Street to connect the two southbound . The two directions of traffic are separated by three blocks as they travel through downtown . At the one @-@ way pairing of Park Street ( northbound ) and Westnedge Avenue ( southbound ) , Bus . US 131 turns north – south ; south of this complex of intersecting one @-@ way streets , Westnedge and Park carries M @-@ 331 , an unsigned highway . Westnedge and Park run two blocks apart on four @-@ lane streets and pass through residential areas north of downtown . North of town , Westnedge curves northeasterly to run next to Park , and the two streets form the opposing two @-@ lane carriageways of a freeway . This freeway runs north and then turns westward . There is a half folded diamond interchange for Douglas Avenue . West of that interchange , the freeway turns northwesterly , passing between suburban residential subdivisions before terminating at a partial interchange with US 131 . At this endpoint , northbound Bus . US 131 traffic must enter northbound US 131 , and only southbound US 131 traffic has access to the southbound direction of the business loop .
On December 7 , 1959 , the I @-@ 94 / US 12 freeway opened on the south side of Kalamazoo , and US 12 was shifted to follow the new freeway . The former route through downtown Kalamazoo and along Stadium Drive was redesignated Bus . US 12 . The next year , it was renumbered BL I @-@ 94 . In 1963 , the US 131 freeway opened on the northwest side of Kalamazoo . US 131 followed M @-@ 43 eastward from the end of the freeway into the downtown area to reconnect to its original routing along Westnedge and Park . The next year , another section of US 131 opened southwest of Kalamazoo , and US 131 was rerouted out of downtown completely . The freeway section north of downtown opened in 1964 , and Bus . US 131 was designated along it into downtown and along BL I @-@ 94 back out to the US 131 freeway west of downtown . Later in 1965 , Kalamazoo and Michikal avenues were transferred to state jurisdiction to set up the one @-@ way pairing east – west through downtown . Kalamazoo and Michikal are then signed as southbound Bus . US 131 from Westnedge Avenue to Stadium Drive while Main Street and Michigan Avenue continued to serve northbound traffic only between Stadium Drive and Park Street .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Kalamazoo County . All exits are unnumbered .
= = Grand Rapids bypass = =
Bypass US Highway 131 ( Byp . US 131 ) was a bypass route around downtown Grand Rapids . The highway followed 28th Street eastward from the intersection with US 131 ( Division Street ) south of downtown . From this starting point eastward , it ran concurrently with Byp . US 16 and Byp M @-@ 21 . M @-@ 37 also followed 28th Street at the time eastward from the intersection at Kalamazoo Avenue . At the intersection with East Beltline and Broadmoor avenues in Paris Township ( now Kentwood ) , Byp.US 16 / Byp . US 131 / Byp.M @-@ 21 turned northward to follow East Beltline , and M @-@ 37 turned southward on Broadmoor . The bypass route continued northward through Grand Rapids Township . At the intersection with US 16 / M @-@ 50 ( Cascade Road ) , Byp . US 16 ended , and Byp . M @-@ 21 ended less than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) north of that at the intersection with M @-@ 21 ( Fulton Street ) . North of the intersection with Fulton Street , Byp . US 131 was the only designation along East Beltline Avenue at the time . The highway ran northward into Plainfield Township , and it terminated at an intersection with US 131 at Plainfield Avenue and Northland Drive just south of the Grand River .
By 1945 , Byp . US 131 , along with the other various bypass routes , was designated along the Grand Rapids beltline system , replacing M @-@ 114 . Byp . US 131 followed the south beltline ( 28th Street ) and East Beltline Avenue between Division Avenue and Plainfield Avenue , allowing north – south traffic to bypass downtown Grand Rapids . In late 1949 , M @-@ 37 was rerouted onto 28th Street between Kalamazoo and East Beltline / Broadmoor avenues . Then in 1953 , US 131 was rerouted onto the beltlines to replace its bypass route ; the former mainline through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 131 .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Kent County .
= = Grand Rapids business loop = =
Business US Highway 131 ( BUS US 131 ) is a 2 @.@ 4 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) business loop running through downtown Grand Rapids . The southern end is at a partial interchange with US 131 south of the S @-@ Curve near the Grand River . Only northbound traffic on US 131 can directly access the business loop at this interchange , running northward on a long ramp that connects to Ottawa Avenue at an intersection with Cherry Street . Bus . US 131 follows Ottawa Avenue northward between parking lots , and after one block , it turns eastward onto Oakes Street immediately south of the Van Andel Arena . The business loop travels three blocks along Oakes Street past commercial properties before turning northward onto Division Street . As the highway runs along Division Street , it passes the various businesses , the campuses of Kendall College of Art and Design and Grand Rapids Community College . It also passes under Michigan Avenue at the base of the hill that makes up the Medical Mile . Immediately north of the Michigan Avenue overpass , Bus . US 131 passes under Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) without an interchange . Division Street here runs at the base of Belknap Hill through an area of the city dominated by industrial @-@ type properties . North of an intersection with Coldbrook Street , the business loop switches to Plainfield Avenue and turns northeasterly . One block later , Bus . US 131 turns westward onto Leonard Street . The business loop follows Leonard for a few blocks and then crosses the Grand River . On the western bank of the river , Bus . US 131 meets its parent highway at exit 87 and terminates . The streets that carry the business loop have either two or four lanes with an additional center turn lane .
The designation was created when US 131 was rerouted on the Grand Rapids beltline system in 1953 . Previously , a Bypass US 131 ( BYP US 131 ) designation was used on the beltline system following 28th Street and East Beltline Avenue . After the change , the former mainline through downtown on Division Street and Plainfield Avenue was redesignated Bus . US 131 , and the mainline US 131 replaced Byp . US 131 . In 1961 , the US 131 freeway was extended northward to the west of downtown , and between 28th Street and the downtown exit , it was initially designated as part of Bus . US 131 . In December 1962 , the I @-@ 296 / US 131 freeway was completed west of downtown . Afterwards , Bus . US 131 was truncated on its southern end to the modern exit 84B interchange on the south side of downtown . At the same time , the northern end was also truncated , using Coldbrook Street and Monroe Avenue to Leonard Street to connect back to the freeway .
In 1986 , the city and state transferred jurisdiction over some streets at the northern end of the business loop , smoothing out the routing of the northern end of Bus . US 131 and eliminating some extra turns between Plainfield Avenue and Leonard Street . The construction of the Van Andel Arena in 1995 and 1996 severed the connection from southbound Bus . US 131 to US 131 . This gap was rejoined with the reconstruction of the " S @-@ Curve " in 1999 .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Grand Rapids , Kent County .
= = Big Rapids = =
Business US Highway 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) is a 6 @.@ 9 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 @.@ 1 km ) business loop running through downtown Big Rapids . The southern end of the highway is at an interchange with US 131 and M @-@ 20 west of downtown in Big Rapids Township . At this interchange , M @-@ 20 leaves the freeway to run concurrently eastward with the business loop along the four @-@ lane Perry Street into town . Bus . US 131 / M @-@ 20 passes several commercial properties on the western edge of Big Rapids before crossing the city limits . South of Perry Street in the city is part of the campus of Ferris State University , including Katke Golf Course ; the north side of the street contains various businesses . At the intersection with State Street , Bus . US 131 / M @-@ 20 turns northward toward downtown Big Rapids , passing the northern end of the FSU campus . North of campus , the business loop passes through residential neighborhoods . At the intersection with Maple Street immediately west of downtown , M @-@ 20 turns easterly and separates from Bus . US 131 . North of the downtown area , State Street ends , and the business loop follows Northland Drive parallel to the Muskegon River . On the northern edge of the city , the highway passes Roben – Hood Airport before exiting town as a two @-@ lane road . Running in a rural area in Big Rapids Township , the business loop turns westward onto 19 Mile Road . Bus . US 131 ends at an interchange with US 131 and County Road B @-@ 96 .
In 1983 with the extension of the US 131 freeway west of Big Rapids to the interchange with 19 Mile Road , the former route of US 131 through Big Rapids on State Street and Northland Drive north of Perry Street was designated as a business loop , using M @-@ 20 ( Perry Street ) to connect back to the freeway on the southern end . At the time , 19 Mile Road between the freeway Northland Drive was used by the mainline to connect to its pre @-@ existing routing north of Big Rapids to Reed City . The US 131 freeway was completed north of 19 Mile Road in 1986 , and Bus . US 131 was extended over the 19 Mile Road portion of US 131 to connect with its parent route at exit 142 northwest of Big Rapids .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Mecosta County .
= = Cadillac = =
Business US Highway 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) is a 5 @.@ 60 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 01 km ) business loop running through downtown Cadillac . The southern end is at an interchange with US 131 / M @-@ 55 in Clam Lake Township south of Cadillac , and the business loop runs northward along Mitchell Street away from the freeway , passing several businesses and the Maple Hill Cemetery . North of the cemetery , Mitchell Street descends a hill through a residential neighborhood south of downtown . At Howard Street , the business loop turns northwesterly into downtown near Lake Cadillac . North of downtown , Mitchell Street turns more northerly and passes the Wexford County Civic Center . At the intersection with Boon Road next to the Wexford County Airport , Bus . US 131 turns eastward onto Boon Road to connect back to the freeway in Haring Township . The business loop has at least four lanes , two in each direction , and some segments also feature a center turn lane .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) started construction of a freeway bypass of Cadillac in 1999 . With the completion of the southern half of the bypass in 2000 , M @-@ 55 was rerouted out of town along the new freeway . Once the northern half of the bypass was completed on October 30 , 2001 , US 131 was rerouted out of town along the new highway to the end of the freeway where it joined the old alignment north of town . Mitchell Street through downtown Cadillac was redesignated as Bus . US 131 .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Wexford County .
= = Manton = =
Business US Highway 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) is a 5 2 ⁄ 3 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 1 km ) business loop running through downtown Manton . The business loop starts at an interchange with US 131 and M @-@ 42 east of downtown Manton in Cedar Creek Township . Bus . US 131 runs concurrently with M @-@ 42 for about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) westerly into town along a roadway with a travel lane in each direction separated by a center turn lane . At the intersection with Michigan Avenue ( Old US 131 ) , M @-@ 42 terminates and Bus . US 131 turns northward onto Michigan Avenue . The business loop runs through downtown Manton before exiting the northern end of town . North of Manton , the turn lane is eliminated , and the surrounding landscapes are dominated by farm fields broken by intermittent patches of forest . Bus . US 131 curves northwesterly before returning to a due northward course . As the business loop approaches northern end of the freeway mainline in Liberty Township , it curves northeasterly to meet it at an at @-@ grade intersection .
With the completion of the Manton Bypass in 2003 , US 131 was rerouted out of downtown Manton . The former route through town was designated Bus . US 131 , using M @-@ 42 to connect back to the freeway east of town .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Wexford County .
= USS West Alsek ( ID @-@ 3119 ) =
USS West Alsek ( ID @-@ 3119 ) was a cargo ship in the United States Navy during World War I. She had been built as SS West Alsek for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) as part of the West boats , cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States . She sailed on two voyages for the U.S. Navy before she was decommissioned after the Armistice .
West Alsek was selected for a test program by the addition of coal pulverizers — units that crushed coal and mixed it with air for injection into the boilers . She became the first steamship to cross the Atlantic ocean depending solely on pulverized coal . Test results showed that she sailed faster and used less coal than before the conversion . West Alsek was later abandoned by the USSB and scrapped in 1933 .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Alsek , named , in part , after the Alsek River in Alaska . West Alsek was one of some 24 West ships built by Skinner & Eddy of Seattle , Washington .
West Alsek ( Skinner & Eddy No. 22 , USSB No. 87 ) was launched on 4 May 1918 and delivered to the United States Navy upon completion later in the month . West Alsek was built in a total of 78 working days , 92 calendar days , and was tied with three other ships for tenth place on a list of the ten fastest constructed ocean @-@ going vessels compiled in 1920 . Skinner & Eddy received a $ 25 @,@ 000 bonus for completing the ship early .
The ship was 5 @,@ 637 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 409 feet 5 inches ( 124 @.@ 79 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) abeam . West Alsek had a steel hull and a mean draft of 24 feet 2 inches ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) . She displaced 12 @,@ 226 t , and had a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 529 DWT . The ship had a single triple @-@ expansion steam engine powered by three coal @-@ fired boilers that generated 2 @,@ 700 horsepower ( 2 @,@ 000 kW ) and drove her single screw propeller , and moved the ship at a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ) pace .
= = Military career = =
USS West Alsek ( ID @-@ 3119 ) was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) on 4 June with Lieutenant Commander J. S. Gibson , USNRF , in command . West Alsek took on an initial load of 7 @,@ 067 tons of flour and departed the Pacific Northwest on 15 June . After transiting the Panama Canal , she reached New York on 16 July . On 1 August , West Alsek joined Convoy HB @-@ 8 with West Bridge , United States Army cargo transport Montanan , and 13 other ships for France .
Escorted by armed yacht Noma , destroyers Burrows and Smith , and French cruiser Marseillaise , the convoy was some 500 nautical miles ( 900 km ) west of its destination of Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer by the end of the day on 15 August . At sundown , shortly before 18 : 00 , one of three torpedoes from German submarine U @-@ 90 struck Montanan , while another torpedo from U @-@ 107 hit West Bridge , which was already adrift with engine trouble . Meanwhile , West Alsek and the other surviving ships of the convoy continued on and arrived at Verdon @-@ sur @-@ mer on 18 August .
After unloading her cargo of flour and returning to the United States , West Alsek next sailed on 27 October in convoy to Quiberon and Nantes . West Alsek unloaded her cargo in Nantes from 15 November — four days after the Armistice — to 30 December . Sailing for New York on that date , West Alsek arrived there on 19 January 1919 . She was decommissioning on 27 January and returned to the USSB .
= = Civilian career = =
Little is known about West Alsek 's subsequent civilian career until early 1929 . In February of that year , West Alsek , still under USSB ownership , was selected for the addition of pulverized coal @-@ fired boilers for testing purposes . Coal pulverizers would take coal — often cheaper , inferior grades normally unsuitable for marine use — and grind them into coal dust . This dust would then be mixed with air and automatically injected into the boilers without the need for hand @-@ feeding . West Alsek entered the Todd Brooklyn shipyard to undergo the conversion in late February .
Upon completion of the conversion work , West Alsek was taken out for trials over two passes on a 16 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 30 km ) course on 19 June . Representatives from the USSB , the Navy Department , the United States Coast Guard , the Cunard Line , and Todd and other shipbuilders were on board — some 125 guests in all . The ship cruised at an average of 12 @.@ 7 knots ( 23 @.@ 5 km / h ) , some 1 @.@ 5 knots ( 2 @.@ 8 km / h ) faster than she had ever steamed .
After returning her guests to New York , West Alsek sailed to Baltimore , Maryland , for operation by the Oriole Line . She sailed for Cardiff , becoming the first ship depending only on pulverized coal to cross the Atlantic , and back to Baltimore on 18 August . Early results showed that in addition to making the transatlantic crossings about 10 % faster than she had before , West Alsek used about 30 % less coal during the voyage . West Alsek continued to be a test platform for assessing the pulverized coal system during a voyage to Glasgow , her second for the Oriole Line .
No information on West Alsek 's career after the coal pulverizing tests is available , but it is known that she was abandoned by the USSB , and scrapped in the fourth quarter of 1933 .
= Richard Hawes =
Richard Hawes ( February 6 , 1797 – May 25 , 1877 ) was a United States Representative from Kentucky and the second Confederate Governor of Kentucky . He was part of the politically influential Hawes family . His brother , uncle , and cousin also served as U.S. Representatives , and his grandson Harry B. Hawes was a member of the United States Senate .
Hawes began his political career as an ardent Whig and was a close friend of the party 's founder , Henry Clay . When the party declined and dissolved in the 1850s , Hawes became a Democrat , and his relationship with Clay cooled .
At the outbreak of the Civil War , Hawes was a supporter of Kentucky 's doctrine of armed neutrality . When the Commonwealth 's neutrality was breached in September 1861 , Hawes fled to Virginia and enlisted as a brigade commissary under Confederate general Humphrey Marshall . When Kentucky 's Confederate government was formed in Russellville , Hawes was offered the position of state auditor , but declined . Months later , he was selected to be Confederate governor of the Commonwealth following George W. Johnson 's death at the Battle of Shiloh .
Hawes and the Confederate government traveled with Braxton Bragg 's Army of Tennessee , and when Bragg invaded Kentucky in October 1862 , he captured Frankfort and held an inauguration ceremony for Hawes . The ceremony was interrupted , however , by forces under Union general Don Carlos Buell , and the Confederates were driven from the Commonwealth following the Battle of Perryville . Hawes relocated to Virginia , where he continued to lobby President Jefferson Davis to attempt another invasion of Kentucky .
At the end of the war , the Confederate government of Kentucky in exile ceased to exist , and Hawes returned to his home in Paris , Kentucky . He swore an oath of allegiance to the Union , and was allowed to return to his law practice . He was elected county judge of Bourbon County , a post he held until his death in 1877 .
= = Early life = =
Richard Hawes was born on February 6 , 1797 near Bowling Green , Caroline County , Virginia . He was one of eleven children born to Richard and Clara [ a ] Walker Hawes . The Haweses were a political family ; Richard 's brother , Albert Gallatin Hawes , nephew , Aylett Hawes , and cousin , Aylett Hawes Buckner , all served in the U.S. House of Representatives . In 1810 , the family moved to Kentucky , settling in Fayette County , near Lexington . Part of Hawes 's early education was obtained through the Jessamine County school conducted by Samuel Wilson .
On November 13 , 1818 , Hawes married Hetty Morrison Nicholas of Lexington . He pursued classical studies at Transylvania University , then studied law under Robert C. Wickliffe . Hawes and Wickliffe became law partners upon the former 's admission to the bar in 1818 . Due to overcrowding of the bar in Lexington , Hawes moved to Winchester in 1824 . While there , he became part owner of a rope and bagging factory with Benjamin H. Buckner .
= = = Political career = = =
Hawes began his political career in 1828 when he was elected as a Whig to represent Clark County , Kentucky in the Kentucky House of Representatives . As a member of the state militia , Hawes saw limited service in the Black Hawk War in 1832 , and returned to his position in the Kentucky House in 1834 . He was an unsuccessful candidate for U.S. Representative in 1834 , but was elected to represent Henry Clay 's " Ashland District " three years later , serving from March 4 , 1837 to March 3 , 1841 . He then moved to Paris , Kentucky in 1843 and continued the practice of law .
Hawes was once close friends with Clay , though the friendship between them cooled when Hawes supported Zachary Taylor instead of Clay for president in 1848 . When the Whig Party dissolved in the 1850s , Hawes became a Democrat , supporting presidential candidates James Buchanan in 1856 and John C. Breckinridge in 1860 .
Though alarmed by the election of Abraham Lincoln in the election of 1860 , Hawes was an opponent of secession , supporting instead the idea of armed neutrality . In May 1861 , Hawes , Breckinridge , and Kentucky governor Beriah Magoffin represented the Southern Rights viewpoint at a convention to decide Kentucky 's course in the Civil War . He attended another such convention in September 1861 . Neither convention produced a conclusive decision .
A July 1861 address to the people of Bourbon County , authored by Hawes and other like @-@ minded Democrats , blamed Republicans for starting the Civil War , denounced the coercion of states to remain in the Union , and warned that the Lincoln administration would fight to end slavery . The address called for an end to the war , recognition of the Confederate States of America as a sovereign nation , and equitable distribution of the national debt and federal property .
= = = Military service = = =
When Kentucky 's neutrality was breached in September 1861 , Hawes fled to Virginia to escape imprisonment by Federal authorities . While there , he enlisted as a brigade commissary under Confederate general Humphrey Marshall and was given the rank of major . Though his ability to obtain supplies for Marshall 's brigade was commendable given the difficult conditions , his age ( 64 ) and lack of military experience lessened his value to Marshall 's unit , and his predilection for jumping the chain of command and communicating directly with Confederate Secretary of War Judah P. Benjamin put him at odds with Marshall personally .
In November 1861 , the self @-@ appointed members of the Confederate state sovereignty convention in Russellville , Kentucky appointed Hawes state auditor of the Commonwealth 's Confederate government , but he declined in order to continue his military service . However , he wrote President Davis on January 25 , 1862 to inform him that he was traveling to Bowling Green , Kentucky at Confederate Governor George W. Johnson 's request in order to assist Johnson in administering the state government . He resigned his military commission two days later , but his departure for Bowling Green was delayed when he was stricken with typhoid fever .
= = Confederate Governor of Kentucky = =
Governor Johnson was killed while participating in the Battle of Shiloh . Following the resolutions of the Russellville Convention , the provisional Confederate government 's ten legislative councillors selected Hawes to succeed Johnson as governor . ( Under these provisions , the councillors could not select one of their own . ) He joined the leaderless and nomadic shadow government , which had been traveling with the Army of Tennessee , in Corinth , Mississippi , and took the oath of office on May 31 . The army 's leader , General Braxton Bragg , had been considering an invasion of Kentucky . On August 27 , Hawes was dispatched to Richmond , Virginia to favorably recommend this action to President Jefferson Davis , but Davis was non @-@ committal . Bragg and Edmund Kirby Smith proceeded with the invasion nonetheless , while the leaders of Kentucky 's Confederate government remained in Chattanooga , Tennessee , awaiting Hawes 's return . They departed on September 18 , and caught up with Bragg and Smith in Lexington , Kentucky on October 2 .
Bragg , desiring to enforce the Confederate Conscription Act in the Commonwealth , decided to install the provisional government in the recently captured state capital of Frankfort . The ceremony took place on October 4 , 1862 . Humphrey Marshall gave the opening remarks , then General Bragg introduced Governor Hawes . Hawes delivered a lengthy inaugural address in which he declared , " It is now a truth and a fact that the late Union cannot be restored . " He promised to call a convention to provide for a permanent government as soon as such a convention was feasible , and denounced the Union 's goal of freeing the slaves . In the celebratory atmosphere of the inauguration ceremony , however , the Confederate forces let their guard down , and were ambushed and forced to retreat by Union general Don Carlos Buell . Hawes later denied ever taking the oath of office , and became a vocal critic of Bragg .
Displaced from their home state , the legislative council dispersed to places where they could make a living or be supported by relatives until Governor Hawes called them into session . Scant records show that , on December 30 , 1862 , Hawes summoned the council , auditor , and treasurer to his location at Athens , Tennessee for a meeting on January 15 , 1863 . Hawes unsuccessfully lobbied President Davis to remove Hawes 's former superior , Humphrey Marshall , from command . On March 4 , he told Davis by letter that " our cause is steadily on the increase " and assured him that another foray into the Commonwealth would produce better results than the first had .
The government 's financial woes also continued . Hawes was embarrassed to admit that neither he nor anyone else seemed to know what became of approximately $ 45 @,@ 000 that had been sent from Columbus to Memphis , Tennessee during the Confederate occupation of Kentucky . Another major blow was Davis 's decision not to allow Hawes to spend $ 1 million that had been secretly appropriated in August 1861 to help Kentucky maintain its neutrality . Davis reasoned that the money could not be spent for its intended purpose , since Kentucky was now a part of the Confederacy .
By 1864 , Hawes had joined his sister at the small Virginia settlement of Nelly 's Ford . His wife and daughter joined him there . This location was only 100 miles ( 160 km ) from Richmond , allowing Hawes to travel easily to the Confederate capital for audiences with President Davis . Records show that as late as September 16 , 1864 , Hawes still maintained hope for another military advance into Kentucky . In the summer of 1864 , Colonel R. A. Alston of the Ninth Tennessee Cavalry requested Governor Hawes 's assistance in investigating crimes allegedly committed by General John Hunt Morgan during his unauthorized raid into Kentucky . Hawes never had to act on the request , however , as Morgan was suspended from command on August 10 and killed by Union troops on September 4 , 1864 .
= = Later life and death = =
Hawes remained at Nelly 's Ford until May 1865 . Finally satisfied that it was safe to return to Kentucky , Hawes arrived in Paris to find his home had been burned by Union troops . Four of Hawes 's sons served in the Confederate Army , including brigadier general James Morrison Hawes ; only three sons returned home from the war . [ b ] On September 18 , 1865 , Hawes took an oath of allegiance to the United States , and was allowed to return to his previous career as a lawyer .
In 1866 , he was elected county judge of Bourbon County . His most notable ruling in this capacity was to nullify the apprenticeship contracts of the Freedmen 's Bureau in Kentucky . Hawes based this decision on the fact that the Bureau 's powers extended only to states that had been part of the rebellion , which Kentucky had not . Hawes was also chosen master commissioner of the circuit court in 1866 . In 1871 , Hawes was mentioned as a possible candidate for governor of Kentucky . In 1876 , he helped frame his party 's response to the disputed Hayes – Tilden presidential election . Hawes died in Paris , Kentucky on May 25 , 1877 and was interred in Paris Cemetery .
= Hearts and Souls =
" Hearts and Souls " is the fifth episode of the sixth season and 115th overall of the American crime drama NYPD Blue . " Hearts and Souls " originally aired in the United States on ABC on Tuesday November 24 , 1998 , at 9 : 30 pm Eastern time as a 90 @-@ minute special . The episode was directed by Paris Barclay and written by Steven Bochco , David Milch , Bill Clark and Nicholas Wootton . It was the culmination of months of public speculation on the method of closure that would be employed to write Jimmy Smits 's critically acclaimed Bobby Simone character out of the regular cast and clear the way for Smits ' replacement , Rick Schroder . " Hearts and Souls " was a critical and commercial success , achieving both high ratings and positive critical feedback and is now regarded as one of the greatest television episodes in television history . It marked the second high @-@ profile replacement of the partner for lead character , Detective Andy Sipowicz , played by Dennis Franz .
At the 51st Primetime Emmy Awards , this episode won awards for Direction for Paris Barclay and Guest Actress for Debra Monk as well as a nominations in Writing for Steven Bochco , David Milch , Bill Clark and Nicholas Wootton . Barclay also won a Directors Guild of America Award . The episode also won an Eddie Award and a Banff Rockie Award as well as a Cinema Audio Society Award nomination .
This was Smits ' last regular appearance as Simone , although he returned for one scene in an episode during the twelfth season . The episode highlights his rapid and mysterious physical demise , which has culminated in his need for a heart transplant . Many emotional portrayals are included to represent the feelings of loved ones , friends and colleagues when someone that they care about is suddenly in dire medical need . In another storyline , the episode simultaneously highlights the stress that can be caused when alcoholism afflicts a family through a critically acclaimed guest appearance by Debra Monk as the ex @-@ wife of Sipowicz .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a special five @-@ minute extended " Previously on NYPD Blue " segment that retraces Simone 's ( Jimmy Smits ) whole character history . The final portion of the prolog presents Lt. Arthur Fancy 's ( James McDaniel ) prior episode persuasion of a police widow to directly donate her husband 's heart to give Simone a chance to live . The regular portion of the episode begins after the completed heart transplant . The episode focuses on whether Simone 's heart transplant was successful . It starts ten days after the heart transplant with his anticipated hospital release . Simone 's recovery is hampered by an internal chest infection , which leaves him weakened . The doctors attempt diagnosis of the infection and weakness , which appear to be minor , with tests . Tensions run high in the department from almost the beginning of the episode . Greg Medavoy ( Gordon Clapp ) has a scene where his verbal aggression with a citizen complainant provides a respite and represents the frustration and helplessness of Simone 's friends and colleagues . James Martinez ' ( Nicholas Turturro ) generally good manners are also tested . Sipowicz displays deep emotions to his wife ADA Sylvia Costas ( Sharon Lawrence ) . The doctors differ in their opinions of which treatment to use . One advises Simone and wife Diane Russell ( Kim Delaney ) to pursue surgery , while another advises natural progression . Sipowicz 's ( Dennis Franz ) ex @-@ wife Katie ( Debra Monk ) catches him offguard by appearing at the station drunk and asking for his help . She is preparing a pro se defense against DWI charges , but when Sipowicz is about to respond with assistance , she slips away . The personal turmoil drags him away from his compassionate watch . When he is distracted , Simone 's health deteriorates to the point where his demise seems imminent . Dr. Carreras suggests ending the suffering , while Dr. Swan disagrees , but Carreras believes his sentiment is masking office politics that govern how statistics are attributed to various departments . Russell is conflicted on which doctor to take advice from . Sipowicz manages his wife 's crisis by negotiating agreed Alcoholics Anonymous meetings . After Simone receives his last rites , his colleagues say their goodbyes , while Simone dreams aloud of his mentor Patsy Farrara . In Simone 's waking dream , Patsy acts as a medium , helping Simone transition out of life . In the end , with his wife Russell by his side , Simone fades away , and the screen fades to white ( as opposed to black ) .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
After one season on NYPD Blue , David Caruso decided to leave his role as Detective John Kelly and pursue a movie career when he was unable to secure a salary increase from $ 80 @,@ 000 ( US $ 127 @,@ 723 in 2016 dollars ) per episode to $ 100 @,@ 000 ( US $ 159 @,@ 654 ) . At the time , Caruso had a pending Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series nomination for the 46th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1994 . Meanwhile , ABC was enduring the odd combination of high ratings , high critical praise and largescale network affiliate boycotts of its breakthrough use of nudity and profanity on public television that forced it to offer discounted advertising rates in spite of its success . Smits , who had left his Emmy Award @-@ winning role as Victor Sifuentes on L.A. Law in 1991 , was signed as a replacement on August 18 , 1994 . Caruso would continue in his role for the first four episodes of the second season , and Smits replaced him in a new role in episode 5 in November . Smits originally hoped to sign with the show for three years , while ABC sought a more standard five @-@ year contract .
In April 1998 , toward the end of the fifth season , Smits told Liz Smith that he would only perform in a handful of episodes in the sixth season in order to smoothly transition his character 's departure . Smits declined interviews and made a written statement , but show creator Steven Bochco noted that Smits had come to the decision several weeks before he announced it . Smits earned five consecutive Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series nominations as well as three nominations for Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama for the Simone role . Smits , who earned the Golden Globe Award at the 53rd Golden Globe Awards in 1996 for the role , stated that " I accomplished what I sought to do - to prove I can act - and now it 's time to seek another course . "
In mid @-@ June 1998 , rumors surfaced that Rick Schroder would replace Smits . The following week , Schroder was officially announced as the replacement . By late September , the buildup the Smits ' departure was set to commence with the first episode of season 6 , on October 20 . On October 7 , ABC announced that Smits would be stabbed in the opening episode of the season . The week before the season premiere , Mark Tinker revealed that Smits would be written out in the fifth episode of the season and Schroder would enter in the subsequent episode . Bochco revealed that National Enquirer and other gossip tabloids had offered to pay for details about the storyline . The five @-@ week story arc was scheduled so that the final three weeks were in the November sweeps with Schroder 's debut marking the final week of the sweeps . When the network decided to pre @-@ empt the show on Election Night ( November 3 ) , the final episode was moved back to the second last night of sweeps .
The first week stabbing was regarded as similar to the Murder of Jonathan Levin . ABC sent the media the first two episodes prior to the season 6 premiere . In the first episode , Smits is both stabbed and inadvertently cut by his dentist . Based on the first two episodes , Dave Matheny and Neal Justin of the Star Tribune determined that Simone would endure a worsening mysterious illness . In the third episode of the arc , Smits was hospitalized and in need of a heart transplant . The fourth episode was a buildup to impending heart surgery as he struggles with cardiomyopathy .
= = = Writing = = =
In April , Bochco stated that he did not intend to kill off Smits ' character , Simone . On L.A. Law , Smits had returned to the show for critically acclaimed guest appearances during sweeps episodes after leaving his regular role . Whether Smits ' character would overlap with Schroder 's character on screen was undetermined when Schroder was announced in June , but at the time Season 6 production was scheduled to commence on August 10 , 1998 . As of mid @-@ July , Smits ' departing episode was not scheduled to film until September .
On the eve of the season 6 premiere , NYPD Blue executives assured the public that Smits ' storyline would not be irreversible . However , this led to doubt among critics who did not feel it was possible to have a sensible storyline that retained the services of Kim Delaney in the role of Simone 's wife Detective Diane Russell . A humorous piece in Newsweek described the general consensus as " He 's gonna die . He looks like he 's dying ... If he dies , it 's easy to keep his wife ( played by Kim Delaney ) on the show . " In addition , his castmates noted that their characters would grieve . However , some sources , such as National Public Radio 's Noah Adams and Robert Siegel , read into the fact that " Network publicity speaks of Simone 's departure , not his demise ... "
= = = Filming = = =
In late August , Schroder participated in a New York City Police Department ride @-@ a @-@ long to prepare for his role . Season 6 production began the week of September 5 . David Milch , who had had multiple angioplasties influenced the storyline so that it would represent " the alienation and disempowerment that almost everyone feels in a hospital , without demonizing the hospital " . Milch employed his brother , who is a doctor , as a consultant . He explained to his hometown newspaper , The Buffalo News , that the five @-@ story arc was chosen because a surprise event would not have worked in this media age with the audience 's expectation of the character 's departure . According to Kim Delaney , during the filming of this episode the cast was repeatedly breaking down emotionally as if they were experiencing a personal death in the family .
The 90 @-@ minute special extended into the Sports Night time slot that preceded NYPD Blue during the 1998 – 99 United States network television season . Smits appeared in the November 9 , 2004 " The Vision Thing " episode in his only return guest performance .
= = Cast = =
Jimmy Smits as Det . Bobby Simone
Dennis Franz as Det . Andy Sipowicz
James McDaniel as Lt. Arthur Fancy
Nicholas Turturro as Det . James Martinez
Sharon Lawrence as A.D.A. Sylvia Costas
Gordon Clapp as Det . Greg Medavoy
Kim Delaney as Det . Diane Russell
Andrea Thompson as Det . Jill Kirkendall
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards and ratings = = =
In 2009 , TV Guide created TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All @-@ Time , with this episode ranked number 30 . Ron Epstein of Variety named it as the best of the 261 episodes of the series on March 1 , 2005 on the day of the series ' final episode . Director Paris Barclay won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series and a Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing - Drama Series for his work in this episode . Debra Monk won Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for this episode . Jane Kass won an American Cinema Editors Eddie Award in the category Best Edited One @-@ Hour Series for Television for this episode . Steven Bochco Productions won a Banff Rockie Award for the Best Continuing Series at the Banff Television Festival for this episode . Elmo Ponsdomenech ( re @-@ recording mixer ) , J. Stanley Johnston ( re @-@ recording mixer ) and Joe Kenworthy ( production mixer ) were nominated for a Cinema Audio Society Award for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Television Series . Steven Bochco , David Milch , Bill Clark and Nicholas Wootton were nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the episode , while the other four nominees in the category were episodes of The Sopranos .
The episode finished second to 60 Minutes ( 23 @.@ 56 million ) for the week ending November 29 with a Nielsen Media Research estimated viewership of 22 @.@ 10 million . It was the largest overall viewership in three years for the series and the best 18 @-@ 49 demographic rating in two years .
= = = Critical commentary = = =
= = = = Buildup = = = =
Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe noted that the buildup to the finale added intrigue at the cost of cliche . John Levesque of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer said " the whole six @-@ episode arc strikes me as a B or B @-@ minus effort that got bogged down in one character and gave us all @-@ too @-@ familiar subplots that were lacking in imagination . " Phil Rosenthal of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times described the arc as a " lingering exit " . Associated Press Television critic Frazier Moore found the entire story arc to be " a dramatic and fitting farewell for the character - and a proud performance by Smits " . The Buffalo News describes the arc as " a brilliant five @-@ episode story line " .
= = = = Episode = = = =
Dusty Saunders of Rocky Mountain News described the farewell episode as " Unforgettable " , praising several acting performances . Of Simone ( Smits ) , he described his performance as " spellbinding " noting his " Particularly effective " and metaphorical scenes with his pigeons in addition to saying " Smits is not the first TV actor to portray a character , lying in bed , facing death . Such scenes are as common as headache relief commercials . However , Smits ' compassionate portrayal is as realistic as weekly TV drama gets . " He described Russell ( Delaney ) as " ... superb Tuesday night , displaying both helpless agony and feisty determination . " Although he praised her role as a wife , he noted that as a detective her dealings with her partner Det . Jill Kurkendall ( Andrea Thompson ) were cliched . He noted that Greg Medavoy 's ( Gordon Clapp ) " ... frustration epitomizes the concern of the precinct crew as it monitors Bobby 's Simone 's battle for life . " He noted that Sipowicz ' ( Franz ) storyline with his first wife , Katie ( Monk ) " ... provides a needed diversion from the hospital room drama . "
Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer 's Levesque claimed the finale had its ups and downs . He describes the Sipowicz subplot as the only " viable " one in the episode , stating that Monk 's performance had " a frantic loneliness that almost brings the show back to its dark , gritty @-@ streets realism " . He claims this performance is tempered by the dramatic , but unrealistic " overwrought behavior " of Simone 's fretful colleagues . He summarized the episode as " well written ( by Nicholas Wootton ) and generally well acted , with several characters having to experience a range of emotions " , but was most disappointed in Delaney 's performance as Russell .
The Chicago Sun @-@ Times 's Rosenthal described the episode as " wrenching " and a " powerful piece " . He says the focus of the episode is whether Simone 's transplant took and that the episode downplayed policework , while highlighting the interpersonal . He noted that the performance made Simone an Emmy Award favorite . He notes that a lot of emotions are displayed by Simone 's colleagues and that the episode also has a meaningful secondary storyline in which Sipowicz shows volatility in the face of " Simone 's uncertain health and the reappearance of his alcoholic ex @-@ wife " . Kevin Newman of ABC 's Good Morning America described the finale as " very touching " and noted that Smits , himself , claimed to have warned his own mother not to watch because it would be " too emotional " . The Associated Press ' Moore described the episode as " moving " .
Immediately before the finale , The Boston Globe 's Gilbert praised the episode as " one of the series ' most memorable " and " a highly emotional and yet restrained 90 minutes , with a satisfying resolution " . He describes the special introduction as " a nice touch " . He commends the writers for focusing the episode on " medical themes " rather than " crime investigation " . He praises Delaney 's performance over a range of emotions . He describes Monk 's Katie Sipowicz " a prisoner of grief for their late son " . He notes that Smits ends his NYPD Blue tenure with " grace and power " .
The Buffalo News describes the finale as a " heart @-@ pounding resolution " , noting that the final moment between Sipowicz and Simone was " also emotional despite its simplicity " . They note that the medical ethics consideration outdoes ER . They note that the " acting is uniformly excellent " , praising Smits in particular for conveying emotion without much dialogue as well as Delaney for " capturing Diane 's anxiety and heartache " . They praise the pigeon scenes ' ability to complement to the symbolic achievement of the episode that lives up to its billing .
Monica Collins of the Boston Herald said the episode " lives up to the hype " with " high melodrama " that offset " graceful , gutsy storytelling " . She lauded the script , which delved into " the politics of medicine " . The episode demonstrates the emotions of several relationships . Sipowicz endured heartfealt suffering due to the friendship that had grown beyond his imagination , while his ex @-@ wife needed his emotional support and connections regarding her legal situation . He says Delaney had " an incredible performance " as " a perfect picture of pain and panic " , while Smits " ... goes out with dignity , with a performance that 's all heart ... "
= Havørn Accident =
The Havørn Accident ( Norwegian : Havørn @-@ ulykken ) was a controlled flight into terrain of a Junkers Ju 52 aircraft into the mountain Lihesten in Hyllestad , Norway on 16 June 1936 at 07 : 00 . The aircraft , operated by Norwegian Air Lines , was en route from Bergen to Tromsø . The pilots were unaware that they were flying a parallel to the planned course , 15 to 20 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 to 12 @.@ 4 mi ) further east . The crew of four and three passengers were all killed in what was the first fatal aviation accident in Norway . The aircraft landed on a shelf on the mountain face . A first expedition found four bodies , but attempts to reach the shelf with the main part of the aircraft and three more bodies failed . A second party was sent out two days later , coordinated by Bernt Balchen and led by Boye Schlytter and Henning Tønsberg , saw the successful salvage of the remaining bodies .
= = Accident = =
The air service between Bergen and Tromsø was started by Norwegian Air Lines on 7 June 1936 . It was operated with Havørn , a Junkers Ju 52 , registration LN @-@ DAE , which had been bought from Deutsche Lufthansa . On 16 June 1936 at 06 : 30 Central European Time , the flight departed from the water aerodrome in Sandviken , Bergen . On board was a crew of four and three passengers , and a load of 13 bags of 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) of post .
The aircraft 's captain was Ditlev Pentz Smith . Aged 27 , he had started flying for the Norwegian Army Air Service in 1930 , and later become a civilian pilot for Widerøe . He was considered one of the country 's most renowned pilots and was active with competition flights . He was assisted by First Officer Erik Storm , aged 32 , who had a background from the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service . The reserve pilot was Peter Ruth Paasche , aged 21 , and the radio operator was Per Erling Hegle , aged 28 and a trained mechanic . All four had been chosen to regularly fly the Bergen – Tromsø route . The three passengers were Inspector Sven Svensen Løgit , Consul Wilhelm Andreas Mejdell Dall and journalist Harald Wigum of Bergens Tidende .
The weather report , which had been delivered orally by meteorologist @-@ on @-@ duty of the Forecasting Division of Western Norway at the airport , stated wind from southeast at 5 to 15 kilometers per hour ( 3 to 9 mph ) , overcast and clouds down to 200 meters ( 700 ft ) , although it could be even lower certain places . The visibility was 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) . The last radio contact between the aircraft and the airport in Bergen was at 06 : 54 , when Hegle reported clouds at 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 ft ) elevation and between 4 and 10 kilometers ( 2 and 6 mi ) visibility . He reported that the aircraft held a course towards Krakhellesundet , which was procedure during such weather conditions , and that the aircraft was south of Sognesjøen .
However , the aircraft was not where the pilots thought it was — instead it was 15 to 20 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 to 12 @.@ 4 mi ) further east . Eyewitnesses reported that after it had crossed Sognefjorden , it had changed course westward and started to ascend . At 07 : 00 , a loud crash was heard , although there were no eyewitnesses to the crash itself . The aircraft had followed a parallel , but more eastern , course and had hit Lihesten , a mountain rising up from Lifjorden , at 600 meters ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) above mean sea level . The aircraft caught fire and was highly visible from the surrounding area . Parts of the aircraft fell to the foot of the mountain , and the wreckage was scattered across the base of the mountain . The controlled flight into terrain was the first fatal aviation accident in Norway .
= = Salvage and investigation = =
Several locals rushed to the foot of the mountain , and at 08 : 30 , Sheriff Kaare Bredvik arrived at the scene . Two corpses were found immediately , but were so scorched that they could not be identified until at hospital . There were rumors of survivors as movement had been spotted on the mountain side . Bredvik had difficulty communicating with his superiors in Sogn Police District , and had to contact them via Bergen . From there , the press was also alerted , and several locals became ad hoc correspondents . The home of Deputy Mayor Hans A. Risnes was used as a base of operations . However , searching was made difficult by the lack of any radio connection at the foot of the hill . Eventually a " shouting relay " was created , allowing messages to be sent effectively . A party of experienced mountaineers , who had many times succeeded at getting sheep down from shelves , attempted to reach the wreck , which was located on a shelf 100 meters ( 300 ft ) above the foot . Despite three attempts the first day , they did not succeed at reaching the aircraft .
Chief of Police Alf Reksten arrived in the afternoon and took over responsibility . Later , the ship Mira , belonging to Bergen Steamship Company ( BSD ) , arrived with two doctors , two nurses , material from the Red Cross , specialist police officers , fire fighters , representatives from the airline and Norway Post , and journalists . The sister aircraft Najaden arrived later in the afternoon with relatives of the deceased and journalists ; its main objective was to search for survivors , but there was no possibility for it to land on the mountain and so could not help with the salvaging . Later a Widerøe aircraft arrived as well , which transported DNL 's technical director Bernt Balchen , Captain Eckhoff , who worked for the aviation authorities , and Gjermundson from the insurance company . The three , along with Reksten and Bredvik , became the investigation commission .
After Balchen had investigated the accident site from the plane , a party of five climbers started at 18 : 00 to climb the mountain side . When they reached the shelf , they found two bodies , a large amount of post and parts from the plane , including a wing . The bodies were sent down the mountain side . They then attempted to climb further up to the main wreck where the last three bodies were presumed to be , but this was deemed too dangerous by Balchen , and the operation terminated . Mira returned to Bergen at 02 : 00 . The following day , four people attempted to climb down the mountain face to reach the wreck . Magnus Nipen was lowered 50 meters ( 160 ft ) , but it was impossible to descend the remaining 70 to 80 meters ( 230 to 260 ft ) . Balchen concluded that it was impossible to reach the aircraft , and returned to Oslo the same afternoon .
However , the locals were determined to reach the aircraft : Magnus Kolgrov , along with Robert and Bernt Porten , who along with two others descended a further 30 meters ( 100 ft ) . Although they were able to salvage two post bags , they were not able to reach the wreck . The operation took ten hours . From then , the police stationed an officer at the top of the mountain , both to hinder theft and to enforce a climbing ban .
In a letter to the editor in Aftenposten on 17 June , submitted by Robert M. Steen , it was suggested that reaching the ledge would be a suitable challenge for the mountaineering association Norsk Tindeklub . The newspaper contacted the club , and offered to cover all expenses . The club sent Boye Schlytter and Henning Tønsberg to Bergen , where they joined forces with police officer Hermann Heggenes and photographer and firefighter Alf Adriansen . The expedition was led by Balchen , arriving with the BSD vessel Vulcanus . Arne Næss , Jr. had just used bolts to climb the Dolomites , and these had been lent to Tønsberg . As such , it was the first time bolts were used for climbing in Norway .
They started the ascent at 19 : 00 and reached the first shelf about two hours later . Here , a field radio was stationed . Later the same evening , they reached the main shelf where the aircraft body lay . Although finding the remaining bodies , the team only salvaged some post , concluding that it would be too difficult for them to take down the bodies . They were down again at 01 : 30 . At 10 : 00 on 20 June , the team again ascended the mountain . Bernt Porten climbed halfway up at least a dozen times , taking water up and bringing down bodies wrapped in tarpaulin . All three bodies and the climbers were down again at 21 : 00 .
= = Aftermath = =
The airline offered compensation to the locals , but this was rejected in a letter date 27 June , in which the locals collectively stated that they were just happy to help . In a Council of State on 21 August , Schlytter , Tønsberg , Robert Porten and Heggenes were awarded the Medal for Heroic Deeds . The medals were presented in a ceremony at Hotel Continental , Oslo some days later .
In early 1937 , news surfaced that the widow and father of Erik Storm filed a lawsuit against the Norwegian Air Lines . The father , Major B. Storm , stated that his goal was " rehabilitation of my son as well as compensation " . The family had received NOK 45 @,@ 000 of insurance money , but reportedly wanted more , and also desired to have the airline take the responsibility for the accident . The family sent a formal petition to the Parliament of Norway asking for further accident investigation , but after acquiring statements from the Chief of Police of Sogn and the Riksadvokaten and cycling the case through Ministry of Defence , the Parliament declared that no action should be taken . In addition , the lawsuit was dropped , after the airline reached an " agreement " with Storm 's family , and had a letter publicly printed in which Storm was cleared of all responsibility for the accident .
On 23 May 1937 , a group of four climbers descended the face on a different route and were able to find a golden ring and a golden watch , which they sent to the airline . The found some body parts which they offered to recover for 500 Norwegian krone , but this was rejected . Heggenes stated that these were parts which had been buried by the previous expedition .
To replace the aircraft , DNL bought another Ju @-@ 52 , named Falken , used from Lufthansa . Parts from the wreck are on display at Flyhistorisk Museum , Sola . On 14 June 2008 , a memorial was erected halfway up the mountain , with 200 people attending the ceremony .
= 2001 German Grand Prix =
The 2001 German Grand Prix ( formally the LXIII Großer Mobil 1 Preis von Deutschland ) was a Formula One motor race held on 29 July 2001 at the Hockenheimring , Baden @-@ Württemberg , Germany . It was the twelfth round of the 2001 Formula One season and the 63rd German Grand Prix . The 45 @-@ lap race was won by Williams driver Ralf Schumacher after starting from the second position . Rubens Barrichello finished second for Ferrari with BAR driver Jacques Villeneuve third .
Juan Pablo Montoya started from pole position alongside Ralf Schumacher . Michael Schumacher , the eventual Drivers ' Champion started fourth , behind Mika Häkkinen of McLaren . The race was marked by an airborne accident going into the first corner involving Michael Schumacher and Luciano Burti for Prost , which caused the track to be scattered with shreds of carbon fibre and the race restarted as a result . Both Williams drivers retained their positions at the end of the first lap , with Michael Schumacher passing Häkkinen for third . Over the course of the race , Montoya extended a considerable lead over Ralf Schumacher . Montoya lost the lead on lap 24 when an issue with a refulling rig caused him to be stationary for more than 20 seconds . Ralf Schumacher thus inherited the lead and held it to win his third victory of the season .
As a consequence of the race , Michael Schumacher retained his points advantage in the Drivers ' Championship over nearest rival David Coulthard as both drivers retired from the event . Ralf Schumacher moved ahead of Barrichello to take over third position . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari retained their lead , while Williams reduced the deficit to McLaren by ten points , with five races of the season remaining . This was the last Grand Prix to be held on the former Hockenheimring circuit ; the race was held on a shorter reconfigured track from 2002 .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams with two drivers each . The teams ( also known as constructors ) were Ferrari , McLaren , Williams , Benetton , BAR , Jordan , Arrows , Sauber , Jaguar , Minardi and Prost .
Going into the race , Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers ' Championship with 84 points , ahead of David Coulthard on 47 points and Rubens Barrichello with 34 points . Ralf Schumacher was fourth on 31 points , and Mika Häkkinen was fifth on 19 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading with 118 points , forty @-@ eight ahead of second place team McLaren . Williams were third on 46 points , while Sauber with 19 points , and Jordan on 15 points contended for fourth place . Ferrari , McLaren and Williams had so far secured all eleven victories of the season . Championship drivers Barrichello and Juan Pablo Montoya had secured second place podium finishes , while Nick Heidfeld , Jacques Villeneuve and Eddie Irvine had all achieved third place podium finishes .
After the British Grand Prix on 15 July , eight teams conducted mid @-@ season testing at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza between 17 – 20 July to prepare for the upcoming German Grand Prix at the Hockenheimring . Ricardo Zonta set the fastest times on the first day , ahead of McLaren test driver Alexander Wurz . Michael Schumacher lost control of the rear @-@ end of his car at the Seconda Variante chicane , causing him to slide along the barriers and his car rested in the tyre barriers . Testing was suspended for one hour for the barriers to be repaired . Ferrari later found the crash occurred by a broken diffuser from riding on the kerbs which created a loss of downforce under braking . Michael Schumacher took a medical check and was declared fit to race . Ralf Schumacher was fastest on the second day where it was held in wet weather conditions during the afternoon . Sauber and BAR went to Circuit Ricardo Tormo for three days where aerodyamic and set @-@ up testing was undertaken . Coulthard was scheduled to join Wurz during the session but withdrew because of food poisoning . Irvine was quickest on the third and final days of testing . Arrows elected not to perform any testing and concentrated on work on aerodynamics at their headquarters at Leafield .
There was one driver change heading into the race . Having been in one of the Jordan cars since the first race of the season in Australia , Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen was sacked by his team and was replaced by Jordan 's third driver Zonta . Frentzen announced he would take legal action against Jordan and team principal Eddie Jordan said that Frentzen 's management was not happy with Jordan 's current performance but denied rumours that a heated row occurred . The Schumacher brothers were sympathic towards Frentzen who felt unhappy about the manner in which he was sacked . Irvine came to Jordan 's defence and said that he believed the decision was influenced by problems Jordan had with 1996 World Champion Damon Hill who had similar poor performances like Frentzen . In an interview with The Sunday Independent in 2005 , Jordan later claimed that Frentzen was sacked because engine supplier Honda wanted Japanese driver Takuma Sato to race for Jordan in 2002 and to retain Honda 's engine supply . During the week of the race , the organisers of the German Grand Prix signed an extension to continue hosting the event at the Hockenheimring until 2008 with an option for a further five years .
Some teams made modifications to their cars in preparation for the Grand Prix . Williams , Jaguar , Ferrari , Sauber and Prost all brought updated front wings . Ferrari also introduced a new underfloor and brought more powerful versions of their V10 engines for qualifying and the race . Williams installed extra cooling on their cars to combat high temperatures in qualifying . Minardi planned to introduce a new revision to their cars aerodynamic package which included a new engine cover , a titanium gearbox and rear suspension geometry . The team decided to only test the gearbox during the first free practice session .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and two on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour . The third and final practice sessions were held on Saturday morning and lasted 45 minutes . The Friday practice sessions were held in dry and hot weather conditions . Barrichello set the fastest time in the first practice session , a 1 : 41 @.@ 953 , which was three @-@ tenths of a second quicker than Pedro de la Rosa of Arrows . Coulthard was third fastest despite going off the circuit at the Clark chicane . Michael Schumacher went off at the Senna chicane en route to recording the fourth quickest lap , ahead of Ralf Schumacher . Häkkinen , Montoya , Irvine , Giancarlo Fisichella and Jarno Trulli rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session . In the second practice session , Irvine was running quicker by setting the fastest time of the day of 1 : 41 @.@ 424 , ahead of Montoya in second . Häkkinen was third quickest , in front of Barrichello in fourth . Michael Schumacher took fifth place , running wide at the circuit 's chicanes which prevented him from setting a quicker lap. de la Rosa , Coulthard , Jean Alesi , Trulli and Ralf Schumacher , who collided with the tyre barrier at the Sudkurve corner , followed in the top ten .
The weather remained hot and dry for the Saturday practice sessions . Michael Schumacher was the quickest driver in the third practice session , with a time of 1 : 39 @.@ 937 . Barrichello was second quickest , almost half a second slower than Michael Schumacher . The two Williams drivers were third and fourth ; Ralf Schumacher ahead of Montoya . Coulthard secured the fifth fastest time , two @-@ tenths of a second faster than teammate Häkkinen in sixth . Heidfeld , Villeneuve , Irvine and Kimi Räikkönen rounded out the top ten . Benetton driver Jenson Button did not set a time . In the final practice session , Ralf Schumacher was the quickest driver with a lap of 1 : 39 @.@ 188 , almost three @-@ tenths of a second ahead of Montoya . Michael Schumacher was unable to improve his time from the previous session and was third fastest . He was ahead of Häkkinen in fourth , Heidfeld in fifth and Barrichello in sixth . Irvine was seventh with Panis in eighth . Coulthard , who beached his McLaren in the gravel trap at Agip corner , took ninth and Trulli completed the top ten ahead of qualifying .
Saturday 's afternoon qualifying session lasted for an hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session , the 107 % rule was in effect , which necessitated each driver set a time within 107 % of the quickest lap to qualify for the race . The session was held in dry and hot weather conditions ; the air temperature ranged between 30 and 33 ° C ( 86 and 91 ° F ) and the track temperature was between 34 and 41 ° C ( 93 and 106 ° F ) . Montoya clinched his first pole position of his Formula One career , with a time of 1 : 38 @.@ 117 . Although he was pleased with his starting position , he was surprised at his team 's performance in qualifying ; Montoya lost two tenths of a second in the second sector and found time in the stadium section . He was joined on the front row of the grid by teammate Ralf Schumacher who recorded a lap 0 @.@ 019 seconds slower than Montoya who displaced Schumacher from pole during the middle of qualifying . It marked the first time since the 1997 British Grand Prix that both Williams cars started on the front row . Häkkinen qualified third and praised the handling of his car for his good performance . Michael Schumacher secured fourth and was disappointed not to be ahead of the two McLarens . Coulthard started fifth having suffered from bilstering on his tyres and conserved his tyre use by abandoning his final qualifying run . Barrichello managed sixth having been unable to improve his time because of a spin . Behind the leading six , the two Sauber cars were seventh and eighth , Heidfeld qualifying in front of Räikkönen , with both drivers having their cars modified helping them to run faster ( Heidfeld adjusted his set @-@ up while Räikkönen raised his ride height for his third run ) .
De la Rosa and Irvine qualified in ninth and eleventh positions respectively for Jaguar ; the pair were separated by Trulli in the Jordan who 's engine failed on his third run and was unable to return to the pit lane to use his team 's spare car . The three drivers were ahead of Villeneuve in the faster of the two BAR 's , who in turn , qualified in front of teammate Panis ; both drivers struggled to find grip throughout the one @-@ hour period . Alesi qualified in 14th position , more than four tenths of a second in front of Prost teammate Luciano Burti ; the latter spun off in the circuit 's stadium section which caused a yellow flag to be shown . The two were split by Zonta in the slower Jordan car who rode a kerb at the Senna chicane on his third run of the session which lost him time and he encountered traffic . The Benetton cars filled the ninth row of the grid with Fisichella 17th and Button 18th ; the latter 's car had a change of gearbox and pulled to the side of the track with an expired engine . Behind them , the Arrows drivers managed to qualify in 18th and 19th ; Enrique Bernoldi qualifying ahead of Jos Verstappen . Bernoldi improved his car 's handling although his potential best run was disrupted because of Button 's engine failure and Verstappen spun on his final timed lap . The times were completed by Fernando Alonso and Tarso Marques in the Minardis .
= = = Race = = =
The drivers took to the track at 09 ; 30 CEST ( UTC + 2 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up session . It took place in dry weather conditions . Both Williams drivers maintained their good place from qualifying ; Ralf Schumacher had the fastest time , 1 : 42 @.@ 621 . Montoya finished with the second fastest time . Coulthard was third quickest , and Michael Schumacher completed the top four , one @-@ tenth of a second behind Ralf Schumacher . Alonso spun at the Sudkurve corner and skated across the gravel trap towards the tyre barriers .
The weather conditions on the grid were dry before the race ; the air temperature was 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) and the track temperature 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) . The race started at 14 : 00 local time . A total of approximately 100 @,@ 000 spectators attended the race . As the drivers were preparing to start the formation lap , both Minardis were in the pit lane due to technical difficulties . Both Alonso and Marques initially started from the pit lane . Both Williams drivers maintained first and second positions going into the first corner . Further back , Michael Schumacher slowed with an issue with his gear selection , which resulted in drivers being forced to swerve to avoid him . Burti was unable to view the Ferrari as Panis was blocking his view and hit the rear of Schumacher 's car , launching Burti into the air and he rolled over the top on Bernoldi 's car and narrowly landed on Verstappen 's Arrows . Burti 's car lost one of its wheels , landing of Bernoldi 's Arrows which resulted in a broken engine cover and rear wing for Bernoldi . Burti 's car bounced across the gravel trap and came to a rest on the tyre barriers at Nordkurve corner . The race was red @-@ flagged as strands of carbon fibre were scattered across the track and marshals were needed to clear the debris .
Burti and Michael Schumacher cars had been damaged beyond repair , both were thus required to race their team 's spare cars . The Minardi cars were able to undergo further repairs and both drivers were able to start on the grid for the restart . Barrichello 's rear wing was replaced after Häkkinen made contact with him , for which the McLaren driver apologised . At the restart , Montoya and Ralf Schumacher again held their positions , while Häkkinen led the Ferraris and his teammate Coulthard going into the first corner . Further down the field , de la Rosa lost control of his Jaguar as he braked late going into the entry to the Clark chicane and hit the Sauber of Heidfeld . Michael Schumacher clinched third place from Häkkinen heading into the same area . Going into the stadium section , Barrichello passed Coulthard on the outside for fifth position . Verstappen made the best start of the field , moving from 20th to eleventh by the end of the first lap , while Button made up five positions over the same distance . As the drivers completed the first lap , Montoya led by 1 @.@ 4 seconds from Ralf Schumacher , who was followed in turn by Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Barrichello , Coulthard , Räikkönen , Irvine , Trulli , Villeneuve , Verstappen , Zonta , Button , Panis , Bernoldi , Fisichella , Burti , Alesi , Alonso and Marques .
Montoya began to gradually pull away from Ralf Schumacher . Bernoldi passed Fisichella to take 14th place on lap two . Barrichello overtook Häkkinen at the Ostkurve corner to move into third one lap later . Further down the field , Button lost 13th position when he was passed by Panis on the same lap . On lap five , Panis made up a further position as he overtook Zonta for twelfth , while Bernoldi passed Button to take 14th . Barrichello moved into second position after he overtook Michael Schumacher at the Senna chicane on lap six . On the same lap , Zonta went into the rear of Verstappen 's car , causing the Jordan driver to lose his front wing . Verstappen fell behind Panis after the collision . Zonta made a pit stop for repairs , but retired after driving one exploratory lap . Verstappen made his pit stop and rejoined at the back of the field . Alesi passed Burti to move into 15th position on lap nine , and Panis overtook teammate Villeneuve for tenth place one lap later . On the tenth lap , Panis attempted to overtake Trulli for ninth by taking the inside line , but was unable to complete the manoveure . Panis again tried to pass Trulli but by taking the outside line on the next lap , although he could not excute the pass because of a lack of straightline speed . During the twelfth lap , Panis made his third attempt at passing Trulli and managed to get ahead of the Italian . Trulli pulled into the slipstream of Panis , and attempted to reclaim the position but spun at the Ostkurve corner , and fell to 17th .
Häkkinen retired from the race when he slowed and later pulled to the side of the track with fluid leaking from his engine on lap 14 . His retirement allowed Räikkonen to move into the first points @-@ scoring position of sixth . By lap 15 , Montoya had a lead of 8 @.@ 3 seconds over Ralf Schumacher , who in turn was 3 @.@ 3 seconds in front of Barrichello . Michael Schumacher was a further 9 @.@ 2 seconds behind his Ferrari teammate , but was drawing ahead of Coulthard in fifth . Barrichello and Panis were the first drivers to make scheduled pit stops on lap 16 . The Ferrari and Williams teams were employing different pit stop strategies – the Ferrari were planning a two stop strategy for Barrichello whereas the Williams team were only planning for one stop . Räikkonen slowed on track with an driveshaft failure but managed to return to the pit lane and retire on the same lap , while Irvine retired with an misfiring engine . Two laps later , Burti lost tenth position after he spun and was passed by Trulli and Panis . Barrichello attempted to get past Coulthard for fourth position on lap 19 , but Coulthard moved onto a defensive line to keep the position . Montoya continued to pull away from Ralf Schumacher — setting the race 's fastest lap of 1 : 41 @.@ 808 on lap 20 — to maintain his first position after his one and only pit stop . Barrichello was able to overtake Coulthard at the Agip corner on the same lap .
Montoya made his top on lap 22 . However , his pit stop proved problematic : the signal lights at his pit box stopped working , causing the Williams refuller to switch to the fuel rig for Ralf Schumacher and Montoya remained stationary for 20 seconds longer than usual . Montoya was also fuelled for longer than his team planned . Ralf Schumacher thus inherited the lead with Michael Schumacher behind him and Montoya re @-@ emerged in fourth place . One lap later , Michael Schumacher took his pit stop and he came out with a fuel pressure problem which meant he pulled to the side of the main straight and retired . Burti spun off and beached his car in the gravel trap at Nordkurve on the same lap . Ralf Schumacher made his pit stop on lap 24 and rejoined with a 10 @-@ second advantage . Villeneuve , Button and Alonso all followed Ralf Schumacher into the pit lane on the same lap . Alonso encountered a problem when leaving his pit box : the Minardi refuelling valve had a problem , and his car 's afterburner remained on , though the flames extinguished themselves when Alonso accelerated out of the pit lane . Montoya pulled over to the side of the track on lap 25 , with smoke billowing from his engine , and retired . Fisichella made a pit stop from fourth on lap 26 and re @-@ emerged in fifth behind Villeneuve . Marques retired from the race with a gearbox problem on the same lap . Coulthard made a pit stop on lap 27 and immediately became the race 's next retirement when he acclerated away from his pit box with a blown engine . The resulting event meant he pulled to the side of the circuit . Panis made his pit stop on lap 31 and came out behind Button and Alesi . Barrichello became the final driver to make a scheduled pit stop on the 32nd lap .
At the completion of lap 33 , with the scheduled pit stops completed , the race order was , Ralf Schumacher , Barrichello , Villeneuve , Fisichella , Button , Alesi , Panis , Trulli , Bernoldi , Verstappen and Alonso . Trulli became the final retirement after he stopped at the side of the circuit because his car developed a hydraulic pump issue on lap 35 . Ralf Schumacher began to reduce his pace by lap 37 but managed to lap quicker than Barrichello . He received a pit board three laps later which advised him to refill his car 's fluids . Fisichella went off the circuit on lap 43 while he was catching Villeneuve , and both Arrows drivers avoided a collision for eighth position . With his closest challenger over 46 seconds behind , Ralf Schumacher crossed the finish line on lap 45 to secure his third victory of the season in a time of 1 ' 18 : 17 @.@ 873 , at an average speed of 146 @.@ 240 miles per hour ( 235 @.@ 350 km / h ) . Barrchello finished in second 46 @.@ 1 seconds behind , ahead of Villeneuve in third , Fisichella in fourth , Button fifth , and Alesi rounded out the points @-@ scoring positions in sixth . Panis in seventh was the final driver on the lead lap , with Bernoldi , Verstappen and Alonso the last of the classified finishers . The attrition rate was high , with ten of the twenty @-@ two starters finishing the race .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in the subsequent press conference . Ralf Schumacher said that it was " a great feeling " when he asked to describe how he felt by winning his " home " Grand Prix . He also revealed that he had brakes issues during the start of the race and that he was ensuring that his engine would last the full race distance . Barrichello said that he was " happy " with finishing in second and revealed that before the race he believed that he would finish no higher than third . Villeneuve stated that he was " surprised " that he achieved a podium position . Furthermore , he believed that more work was undertaken to improve his car than his previous third place in the Spanish Grand Prix .
Both Benetton drivers managed to finish both their cars in the points for the first time in the season . Fisichella said he was " very happy , for Jenson and myself " and thanked members of his team for his result . Button believed that his team 's good result was because of improved changes to the balance on his Benetton . He later revealed that he removed his water bottle tube from his mouth which caused water to spray on his face under braking . The result lead to Benetton technical director Mike Gascoyne to describe the race as " a useful kick @-@ start before the final races of the season " and said Benetton would ensure that the result was not " a one @-@ off " . Alesi described the weekend as " a very important one for the team " because of his sixth @-@ place finish .
Montoya admitted to feeling disappointed after the race , having been leading until his only pit stop on lap 22 . The Williams driver stated : " I am so disappointed I cannot find the words to describe how I feel . Up to the pit stop the race was going perfectly for me . " Williams technical director Patrick Head was not happy with the refulling rigs supplied by the Federation Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) . One of the rigs was sent back to manufacturer Intertechnique who said they could not find any issues with the system . Michael Schumacher , placed fourth before his retirement from a fuel pressure problem on lap 23 , shared similar feelings to Montoya : " I am not too disappointed as the situation in the championship remains the same and there is one less race to go . It was a shame not to finish the race and pick up a further six points . "
After the crash between himself and Burti on the first lap , Michael Schumacher said that although he saw Burti in his rear @-@ view mirrors , he did not know which line he wanted to take and he could not take avoiding action because of his gear selection problem . Burti said that the accident " looked worse on TV " and that he stated his spin on lap 18 was caused because his left arm was aching from the crash . Coulthard questioned the decision to stop the race by saying : " Accidents or injury off the track is not normally a reason to stop the race . There 's lots of races that would have benefited from being red @-@ flagged to give people a show . " He also said he felt consistency was needed but accepted that the organisers had the final say on stopping a race . Villeneuve also agreed with Coulthard 's view . A spokesman for the FIA confirmed and defended the red @-@ flag decision and they said it was shown to prevent a larger accident . Michelin Motorsport Director Pierre Dupasquier agreed with the view of the FIA and stated he was concerned about cars hitting the strands of debris and catching a puncture .
The race result meant that Michael Schumacher still retained his lead in the Drivers ' Championship , ahead of Coulthard . Race winner Ralf Schumacher , on 41 points , moved into the third place and Barrichello 's second @-@ place resulted in him being relegated to fourth . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's failure to score points , resulted in Ferrari extending their lead to be fifty @-@ six points in front . Williams retained third on 56 points , but were ten points closer to McLaren , with five races of the season remaining . This was the final Formula One event to be held at the high @-@ speed configuration of the Hockenheimring circuit ; the circuit was shortened by 1 @.@ 5 miles which was used starting from the 2002 season .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Vishal Bhardwaj =
Vishal Bhardwaj ( born 4 August 1965 ) is an Indian film director , screenwriter , producer , music composer and playback singer . He is known for his work in Hindi cinema , and is the recipient of a Filmfare Award and seven National Film Awards in four categories .
Bhardwaj made his debut as a music composer with the children 's film Abhay ( The Fearless ) ( 1995 ) , and received wider recognition with his compositions in Gulzar 's Maachis ( 1996 ) . He received the Filmfare RD Burman Award for New Music Talent for the latter . He went on to compose music for the films Satya ( 1998 ) and Godmother ( 1999 ) . For the latter , he garnered the National Film Award for Best Music Direction . Bhardwaj made his directorial debut with the children 's film Makdee ( 2002 ) , for which he also composed the music . He garnered critical acclaim and several accolades for writing and directing the Indian adaptations of three tragedies by William Shakespeare : Maqbool ( 2003 ) from Macbeth , Omkara ( 2006 ) from Othello , and Haider ( 2014 ) from Hamlet . He has also directed the caper thriller Kaminey , the black comedy 7 Khoon Maaf ( 2011 ) , and the satire Matru Ki Bijlee Ka Mandola ( 2013 ) .
In addition , Bhardwaj produces films under his banner VB Pictures . He has co @-@ written and produced the films Ishqiya ( 2010 ) , its sequel Dedh Ishqiya ( 2014 ) , and the semi @-@ biographical thriller Talvar ( 2015 ) , among others . He has composed the musical score for each of his directorial and production ventures , and frequently collaborates with the lyricist Gulzar . He is married to playback singer Rekha Bhardwaj .
= = Personal life = =
Bhardwaj was born on 4 August 1965 , in Chandpur village , near Bijnor , Uttar Pradesh . His mother Satya Bhardwaj , was a homemaker , and father Ram Bhardwaj , was a sugarcane inspector . His father also wrote poetry and lyrics for Hindi films . He and his family lived in Najibabad until he completed class fifth in school . They later moved to Meerut , where he used to play cricket for the states under @-@ 19 team . He could not pursue cricket because the day before a tournament , his thumb broke during a practise session . He had an elder brother , who struggled for years in Mumbai to become a film producer and later died of a heart attack . He composed a song at the age of seventeen . After hearing it , his father discussed it with music director Usha Khanna . She used it for the film Yaar Kasam ( 1985 ) . Bhardwaj later moved to Delhi to pursue his graduation at the Hindu College , University of Delhi . He met his wife and playback singer Rekha Bhardwaj during the college annual function ; where she was a year senior to him . He is also an avid tennis player .
= = Career = =
Bhardwaj started playing harmonium for friends who were ghazal singers . After few years , he took up a job with a music company called CBS in Delhi . He later came to Mumbai to become a music composer , he took to directing films only to create the opportunity to compose music . His interest in film direction kindled after watching Quentin Tarantino 's Pulp Fiction ( 1994 ) , and Krzysztof Kieślowski 's television series The Decalogue , during a film festival in Thiruvananthapuram .
= = = Music composer = = =
In 1995 , Bhardwaj made his debut as a music composer for the children 's film Abhay ( The Fearless ) . He then went on to compose music for Fauji ( 1995 ) , and Sanshodhan ( 1996 ) . In 1996 , he served as the music director for Gulzar 's Maachis ( 1996 ) , for which he received the Filmfare RD Burman Award for New Music Talent . The film depicted the transformation of boys into terrorists during the Punjab insurgency in Punjab in the 1980s . The soundtrack composed by Bhardwaj became an anthem for the politically restive college youth at that time . He later collaborated with him on TV serials such as Alice in Wonderland and Gubbare . His further projects included Betaabi ( 1997 ) , Tunnu Ki Tina ( 1997 ) , Satya ( 1998 ) and Hu Tu Tu ( 1999 ) . At the 46th National Film Awards , Bhardwaj received the National Film Award for Best Music Direction for his critically acclaimed score in Godmother ( 1999 ) . In 2010 , he composed the music for his production venture Ishqiya , which garnered him his second National Film Award for Best Music Direction . He also composed music for Jungle Book Shōnen Mowgli , the Hindi dubbed version of the anime adaptation of Rudyard Kipling 's original collection of stories , The Jungle Book . Apart from feature films , Bhardwaj has provided music for music albums such as : Sunset Point ( 2000 ) , Ishqa Ishqa ( 2002 ) and Barse Barse ( 2011 ) . He frequently collaborates with Gulzar .
= = = Writer and director = = =
Bhardwaj made his directorial debut with the horror film Makdee ( 2002 ) , starring Shabana Azmi , Makarand Deshpande and Shweta Prasad . The film tells the story of twin young girls and an alleged witch in a mansion . It was screened in the Critics ' Week ( Spotlight on India ) section at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival .
Bhardwaj had read a short version of William Shakespeare 's Macbeth and wanted to turn it into a gangster film . He had seen Akira Kurosawa 's Throne of Blood ( 1957 ) , which was also inspired by Macbeth . It inspired Bhardwaj to make it into a feature film . He then started working with Abbas Tyrewala to adapt the play . Bhardwaj then came up with its film adaptation Maqbool ( 2003 ) , starring Pankaj Kapur , Irrfan Khan and Tabu ; it was set against the backdrop of Mumbai underworld . The film was screened at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival and at the 2003 Toronto Film Festival . Sita Menon of Rediff.com in her review called it " .. a visual gallery that is an intelligent blend of dark , tragic overtones and comic , satirical undertones . " CNN @-@ IBN listed Maqbool as " one of the 100 greatest Indian films of all time " in a 2013 list . In 2010 , Film critic Raja Sen mentioned it in " The Top 75 Hindi Films of the Decade " list .
In 2006 , Bhardwaj again adapted Shakespeare 's tragedy Othello , as Omkara . Set against the backdrop of the political system in Uttar Pradesh , the film had Ajay Devgan as the titular character . It premiered at the 6th Marrakech International Film Festival , and was screened at the Cairo International Film Festival . At the 54th National Film Awards , Bhardwaj received the Special Jury Award for the film . Omkara met with critical acclaim , but was a box @-@ office disappointment . It however opened to positive box @-@ office response in North America and the United Kingdom .
Bhardwaj 's next project was the children 's film , The Blue Umbrella ( 2005 ) , based on Ruskin Bond 's novel of the same name . It won the National Film Award for Best Children 's Film in 2005 . His followup was Blood Brothers ( 2007 ) , a short @-@ film on HIV / AIDS , with a run time of 13 minutes . It tells the story of a young
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be considered debts of the deceased 's family . However , a cockfight , known as bulangan londong , is an integral part of the ceremony . As with the sacrifice of the buffalo and the pigs , the cockfight is considered sacred because it involves the spilling of blood on the earth . In particular , the tradition requires the sacrifice of at least three chickens . However , it is common for at least 25 pairs of chickens to be set against each other in the context of the ceremony .
There are three methods of burial : the coffin may be laid in a cave or in a carved stone grave , or hung on a cliff . It contains any possessions that the deceased will need in the afterlife . The wealthy are often buried in a stone grave carved out of a rocky cliff . The grave is usually expensive and takes a few months to complete . In some areas , a stone cave may be found that is large enough to accommodate a whole family . A wood @-@ carved effigy , called Tau tau , is usually placed in the cave looking out over the land . The coffin of a baby or child may be hung from ropes on a cliff face or from a tree . This hanging grave usually lasts for years , until the ropes rot and the coffin falls to the ground .
In the ritual called Ma 'Nene , that takes place each year in August , the bodies of the deceased are exhumed to be washed , groomed and dressed in new clothes . The mummies are then walked around the village .
= = = Dance and music = = =
Torajans perform dances on several occasions , most often during their elaborate funeral ceremonies . They dance to express their grief , and to honour and even cheer the deceased person because he is going to have a long journey in the afterlife . First , a group of men form a circle and sing a monotonous chant throughout the night to honour the deceased ( a ritual called Ma 'badong ) . This is considered by many Torajans to be the most important component of the funeral ceremony . On the second funeral day , the Ma 'randing warrior dance is performed to praise the courage of the deceased during life . Several men perform the dance with a sword , a large shield made from buffalo skin , a helmet with a buffalo horn , and other ornamentation . The Ma 'randing dance precedes a procession in which the deceased is carried from a rice barn to the rante , the site of the funeral ceremony . During the funeral , elder women perform the Ma 'katia dance while singing a poetic song and wearing a long feathered costume . The Ma 'akatia dance is performed to remind the audience of the generosity and loyalty of the deceased person . After the bloody ceremony of buffalo and pig slaughter , a group of boys and girls clap their hands while performing a cheerful dance called Ma 'dondan .
As in other agricultural societies , Torajans dance and sing during harvest time . The Ma 'bugi dance celebrates the thanksgiving event , and the Ma 'gandangi dance is performed while Torajans are pounding rice . There are several war dances , such as the Manimbong dance performed by men , followed by the Ma 'dandan dance performed by women . The aluk religion governs when and how Torajans dance . A dance called Ma 'bua can be performed only once every 12 years . Ma 'bua is a major Toraja ceremony in which priests wear a buffalo head and dance around a sacred tree .
A traditional musical instrument of the Toraja is a bamboo flute called a Pa 'suling ( suling is an Indonesian word for flute ) . This six @-@ holed flute ( not unique to the Toraja ) is played at many dances , such as the thanksgiving dance Ma 'bondensan , where the flute accompanies a group of shirtless , dancing men with long fingernails . The Toraja have indigenous musical instruments , such as the Pa 'pelle ( made from palm leaves ) and the Pa 'karombi ( the Torajan version of a jaw harp ) . The Pa 'pelle is played during harvest time and at house inauguration ceremonies .
= = Language = =
The ethnic Toraja language is dominant in Tana Toraja with the main language as the Sa 'dan Toraja . Although the national Indonesian language is the official language and is spoken in the community , all elementary schools in Tana Toraja teach Toraja language .
Language varieties of Toraja , including Kalumpang , Mamasa , Tae ' , Talondo ' , Toala ' , and Toraja @-@ Sa 'dan , belong to the Malayo @-@ Polynesian language from the Austronesian family . At the outset , the isolated geographical nature of Tana Toraja formed many dialects between the Toraja languages themselves . After the formal administration of Tana Toraja , some Toraja dialects have been influenced by other languages through the transmigration program , introduced since the colonialism period , and it has been a major factor in the linguistic variety of Toraja languages .
A prominent attribute of Toraja language is the notion of grief . The importance of death ceremony in Toraja culture has characterized their languages to express intricate degrees of grief and mourning . The Toraja language contains many terms referring to sadness , longing , depression , and mental pain . Giving a clear expression of the psychological and physical effect of loss is a catharsis and sometimes lessens the pain of grief itself .
= = Economy = =
Prior to Suharto 's " New Order " administration , the Torajan economy was based on agriculture , with cultivated wet rice in terraced fields on mountain slopes , and supplemental cassava and maize crops . Much time and energy were devoted to raising water buffalo , pigs , and chickens , primarily for ceremonial sacrifices and consumption . Coffee was the first significant cash crop produced in Toraja , and was introduced in the mid 19th century , changing the local economy towards commodity production for external markets and gaining an excellent reputation for quality in the international market .
With the commencement of the New Order in 1965 , Indonesia 's economy developed and opened to foreign investment . In Toraja , a coffee plantation and factory was established by Key Coffee of Japan , and Torajan coffee regained a reputation for quality within the growing international specialty coffee sector Multinational oil and mining companies opened new operations in Indonesia during the 1970s and 1980s . Torajans , particularly younger ones , relocated to work for the foreign companies — to Kalimantan for timber and oil , to Papua for mining , to the cities of Sulawesi and Java , and many went to Malaysia . The out @-@ migration of Torajans was steady until 1985 @.@ and has continued since , with remittances sent back by emigre Torajans performing an important role within the contemporary economy .
Tourism commenced in Toraja in the 1970s , and accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s . Between 1984 and 1997 , a significant number of Torajans obtained their incomes from tourism , working in and owning hotels , as tour guides , drivers , or selling souvenirs . With the rise of political and economic instability in Indonesia in the late 1990s — including religious conflicts elsewhere on Sulawesi — tourism in Tana Toraja has declined dramatically . Toraja continues to be a well known origin for Indonesian coffee , grown by both smallholders and plantation estates , although migration , remittances and off @-@ farm income is considered far more important to most households , even those in rural areas .
= = Tourism and Cultural Change = =
Before the 1970s , Toraja was almost unknown to Western tourism . In 1971 , about 50 Europeans visited Tana Toraja . In 1972 , at least 400 visitors attended the funeral ritual of Puang of Sangalla , the highest @-@ ranking nobleman in Tana Toraja and the so @-@ called " last pure @-@ blooded Toraja noble . " The event was documented by National Geographic and broadcast in several European countries . In 1976 , about 12 @,@ 000 tourists visited the regency and in 1981 , Torajan sculpture was exhibited in major North American museums . " The land of the heavenly kings of Tana Toraja " , as written in the exhibition brochure , embraced the outside world .
In 1984 , the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism declared Tana Toraja Regency the prima donna of South Sulawesi . Tana Toraja was heralded as " the second stop after Bali " . Tourism was increasing dramatically : by 1985 , a total number of 150 @,@ 000 foreigners had visited the Regency ( in addition to 80 @,@ 000 domestic tourists ) , and the annual number of foreign visitors was recorded at 40 @,@ 000 in 1989 . Souvenir stands appeared in Rantepao , the cultural center of Toraja , roads were sealed at the most @-@ visited tourist sites , new hotels and tourist @-@ oriented restaurants were opened , and an airstrip was opened in the Regency in 1981 .
Tourism developers have marketed Tana Toraja as an exotic adventure — an area rich in culture and off the beaten track . Western tourists expected to see stone @-@ age villages and pagan funerals . Toraja is for tourists who have gone as far as Bali and are willing to see more of the wild , " untouched " islands . However , they were more likely to see a Torajan wearing a hat and denim , living in a Christian society . Tourists felt that the tongkonan and other Torajan rituals had been preconceived to make profits , and complained that the destination was too commercialized . This has resulted in several clashes between Torajans and tourism developers , whom Torajans see as outsiders .
A clash between local Torajan leaders and the South Sulawesi provincial government ( as a tourist developer ) broke out in 1985 . The government designated 18 Toraja villages and burial sites as traditional tourist attractions . Consequently , zoning restrictions were applied to these areas , such that Torajans themselves were barred from changing their tongkonans and burial sites . The plan was opposed by some Torajan leaders , as they felt that their rituals and traditions were being determined by outsiders . As a result , in 1987 , the Torajan village of Kété Kesú and several other designated tourist attractions closed their doors to tourists . This closure lasted only a few days , as the villagers found it too difficult to survive without the income from selling souvenirs .
Tourism has also transformed Toraja society . Originally , there was a ritual which allowed commoners to marry nobles ( puang ) and thereby gain nobility for their children . However , the image of Torajan society created for the tourists , often by " lower @-@ ranking " guides , has eroded its traditional strict hierarchy . High status is not as esteemed in Tana Toraja as it once was . Many low @-@ ranking men can declare themselves and their children nobles by gaining enough wealth through work outside the region and then marrying a noble woman .
At least 25 cyclist teams from 20 countries will join " Tour de Toraja " in early 2012 . The cycling event efforts to promote the province 's tourism mainly Toraja area .
= Shenandoah ( band ) =
Shenandoah is an American country music group founded in Muscle Shoals , Alabama in 1984 by Marty Raybon ( lead vocals , acoustic guitar ) , Ralph Ezell ( bass guitar , backing vocals ) , Stan Thorn ( keyboards , backing vocals ) , Jim Seales ( lead guitar , backing vocals ) , and Mike McGuire ( drums , background vocals ) . Thorn and Ezell left the band in the mid @-@ 1990s , with Rocky Thacker taking over on bass guitar ; Keyboardist Stan Munsey joined the line up in 1995 . The band split up in 1997 after Raybon left . Seales , Munsey , Thacker and McGuire reformed the band in 2000 with lead singer Brent Lamb , who was in turn replaced by Curtis Wright and then by Jimmy Yeary . Ezell rejoined in the early 2000s , and after his 2007 death , he was replaced by Mike Folsom . Raybon returned to the band in 2014 . That same year , Jamie Michael replaced the retiring Jim Seales on lead guitar .
Shenandoah has released nine studio albums , of which two have been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . The band has also charted twenty @-@ six singles on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts , including the Number One hits " The Church on Cumberland Road , " " Sunday in the South " and " Two Dozen Roses " from 1989 , " Next to You , Next to Me " from 1990 , and " If Bubba Can Dance ( I Can Too ) " from 1994 . The late 1994 @-@ early 1995 single " Somewhere in the Vicinity of the Heart , " which featured guest vocals from Alison Krauss , won both artists a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal .
= = History = =
Lead guitarist Jim Seales and drummer Mike McGuire formed Shenandoah in 1984 as a house band in Muscle Shoals , Alabama , with bass guitarist Ralph Ezell and keyboardist Stan Thorn , as well as lead singer Marty Raybon , who had been in his father 's bluegrass band since childhood called American Bluegrass Express , as well as Heartbreak Mountain . Before that , Seales , Thorn , McGuire and Ezell were session musicians . McGuire invited songwriting friend Robert Byrne to one of the session band 's shows . Byrne then invited them into his recording studio to record a demo , which he then pitched to Columbia Records ' CBS Records division . The band first wanted to assume the name The MGM Band , a name which was rejected for legal reasons . CBS suggested Rhythm Rangers and Shenandoah as possible names , and Raybon chose the latter because he thought that the name Rhythm Rangers " sounded like an amateur band . "
= = = 1987 – 1990 : Shenandoah and The Road Not Taken = = =
In 1987 , Shenandoah released its self @-@ titled debut studio album , which Byrne and Rick Hall produced . This album accounted for the band 's first two charting singles in " They Don 't Make Love Like We Used To " and " Stop the Rain " . The latter was the band 's first Top 40 country hit , peaking at number 28 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles ( now Hot Country Songs ) charts . John Bush of Allmusic wrote that this album " leaned a little close to the pop @-@ schmaltz they later rebelled against . "
The Road Not Taken was the band 's second album , released in 1988 . This album 's first two singles — " She Doesn 't Cry Anymore " , previously found on Shenandoah , and " Mama Knows " — brought the band to the Top Ten for the first time . After these singles came three consecutive Billboard number @-@ one hits : " The Church on Cumberland Road " , " Sunday in the South " and " Two Dozen Roses " . " The Church on Cumberland Road , " with its two @-@ week run at Number One , marked the first time in country music history that a country music band 's first number @-@ one single spent more than one week at the top . This song was originally recorded by its one of its three writers , former Rockets and Billy Hill member Dennis Robbins as the B @-@ side to his 1987 single " Two of a Kind , Workin ' on a Full House " ; Garth Brooks would later reach number one in 1991 with a rendition of the latter song . Byrne co @-@ wrote " Two Dozen Roses " with Mac McAnally , a veteran songwriter and session musician who has recorded both as a solo singer and as a member of Jimmy Buffett 's Coral Reefer Band . The last single from The Road Not Taken , " See If I Care " , reached number 6 on Billboard and number one on Gavin Report . On January 22 , 1991 , The Road Not Taken earned a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . Tom Roland of Allmusic gave The Road Not Taken four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , with his review saying , " The songs mix the day @-@ to @-@ day struggles of everyday @-@ Joe with a steady respect for love , personal roots , and family . " In the wake of The Road Not Taken 's success , the band played 300 shows in 1989 .
= = = 1990 – 1992 : Extra Mile and lawsuits = = =
The band achieved its biggest hit in 1990 with the three @-@ week number @-@ one single " Next to You , Next to Me . " Written by then @-@ solo singers Robert Ellis Orrall and Curtis Wright , this was the first of five singles from Shenandoah 's third album , Extra Mile . " Ghost in This House , " " I Got You " ( co @-@ written by Teddy Gentry of the band Alabama ) and " The Moon Over Georgia " all peaked in the Billboard top ten between late 1990 and mid @-@ 1991 , with the latter two reaching number one on Gavin Report ; " When You Were Mine , " the fifth single , stopped at number 38 on Billboard in 1991 . Also that year , the band won the Academy of Country Music 's Vocal Group of the Year award .
Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly gave Extra Mile a B rating , saying that it was " unflinchingly commercial " but adding that " the band goes beyond Alabama 's jingoistic flag @-@ waving and Restless Heart 's vapid mood @-@ brighteners to showcase intelligent ballads and jaunty rhythm numbers . " An uncredited review in the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette said that the band " proved that no matter how overcrowded the field is , there 's always room for quality . " Extra Mile earned a gold certification in the United States .
Following the release of Extra Mile , a band from Tennessee threatened to sue Shenandoah over the use of the name Shenandoah . After a financial settlement was made with the Tennessee band , four other bands all filed lawsuits over Shenandoah 's name . The lawsuits depleted the money earned by the band on the road , which led to Raybon asking the label to pay one @-@ third of their legal costs . The label refused , and Shenandoah filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in early 1991 after paying more than $ 200 @,@ 000 on court settlements . Although the lawsuits allowed Shenandoah to keep its name , the bankruptcy filing terminated the contract with Columbia after a 1992 Greatest Hits package . The label 's officials then filed a lawsuit against the band , claiming that it had tried to void its agreement with the label . After Shenandoah 's departure , there were no other bands on Columbia 's Nashville division ; as a result , producer Larry Strickland assembled three musicians to create a new band called Matthews , Wright & King in an attempt to keep a commercially successful band on the label .
= = = 1992 – 1994 : Long Time Comin ' and Under the Kudzu = = =
In 1992 , the band had moved to RCA Records Nashville , releasing Long Time Comin ' on it that year . This album was produced by Byrne and Keith Stegall , a former solo singer best known for producing Alan Jackson 's albums . " Rock My Baby " ( another Curtis Wright co @-@ write ) led off the single releases , reaching number 2 on Billboard and Radio & Records and number 1 on Gavin Report . After it came the top 30 hits " Hey Mister ( I Need This Job ) " and " Leavin 's Been a Long Time Comin ' " , whose music video featured a guest appearance by Eddy Arnold . The band was nominated as Vocal Group of the Year at the Academy of Country Music again in 1992 . Long Time Comin ' received a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating from the Chicago Tribune , whose Jack Hurst said that it was " an excellent brand of rural @-@ toned blue @-@ collar music . " Nash gave a B- rating in Entertainment Weekly , where she said that the album had a more country pop @-@ oriented sound than its predecessors , but commended the " sincerity " of Raybon 's voice and the themes of " family and friendship . "
Under the Kudzu , Shenandoah 's second RCA album , followed in 1993 . It was produced by Don Cook , who was also Brooks & Dunn 's producer at the time . " Janie Baker 's Love Slave " , written by " Burning Love " writer Dennis Linde , was a top 15 Billboard hit from the album early that year . Next came " I Want to Be Loved Like That " , which peaked at number three on Billboard , number two on Gavin Report and number one on Radio & Records . The album also included the band 's fifth and final Billboard number @-@ one hit , " If Bubba Can Dance ( I Can Too ) " , which Raybon and McGuire wrote with veteran Nashville songwriter Bob McDill after seeing a television commercial for line dancing instructions . " I 'll Go Down Loving You , " the last single from the album , spent eleven weeks on the Billboard charts and peaked at number 46 , thus becoming the band 's first single to miss the Top 40 since " They Don 't Make Love Like We Used To " in 1987 . Michael Corcoran of The Dallas Morning News called Under the Kudzu " their strongest album to date " , and Jack Hurst gave it three stars , saying , " Shenandoah carries most of this album with impassioned vocals rather than superior song content . "
= = = 1994 – 1995 : In the Vicinity of the Heart and collaborations = = =
Columbia 's parent company Sony Music Entertainment released ten of the band 's Columbia songs in a Super Hits compilation in May 1994 , which was certified gold in 2002 . Shenandoah also collaborated with country and bluegrass singer Ricky Skaggs on the 1994 Keith Whitley tribute Keith Whitley : A Tribute Album , recording a cover version of Whitley 's " All I Ever Loved Was You " . Later in 1994 , the band left RCA for Liberty Records , then the name for the Nashville division of Capitol Records . RCA gave Liberty the master recordings for a nearly @-@ completed album , to which Liberty added " Somewhere in the Vicinity of the Heart " , a song featuring guest vocals from bluegrass musician Alison Krauss . Liberty released the album in November 1994 as In the Vicinity of the Heart , with the number seven @-@ peaking title track also serving as the first single release . This song was also Krauss ' first top 40 country hit , and its success helped boost sales of her album Now That I 've Found You : A Collection .
Vicinity became the band 's fastest @-@ selling album , and the first 175 @,@ 000 copies were distributed with prepaid telephone cards which included an 800 number that could be called to receive a greeting from the band members . The album also produced the band 's last Top Ten hit in " Darned If I Don 't ( Danged If I Do ) . " Originally the B @-@ side to " Somewhere in the Vicinity of the Heart , " this song was co @-@ written by Ronnie Dunn ( of Brooks & Dunn ) and songwriter Dean Dillon , best known for co @-@ writing several of George Strait 's singles . " Heaven Bound ( I 'm Ready ) " ( another Dennis Linde song ) and " Always Have , Always Will , " peaking at numbers 24 and 40 , were the last two releases from the album . Jim Ridley gave the album a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating in New Country magazine , citing the vocal performances on the title track and " I Wouldn 't Know " as standouts , but saying that the rest of the album did not take any risks .
Raybon released a solo gospel music album for Sparrow Records in July 1995 , and in October of the same year , that label released a multi @-@ artist country @-@ gospel album entitled Amazing Grace — A Country Salute to Gospel , to which the band contributed a rendition of " Beulah Land . " Shenandoah also covered The Beatles ' " Can 't Buy Me Love " on the mid @-@ 1995 album Come Together : America Salutes The Beatles . " Somewhere in the Vicinity of the Heart " won Shenandoah and Krauss won the 1995 Grammy Award for Best Country Vocal Collaboration and the Country Music Association award for Vocal Event , and " Darned If I Don 't " was nominated for Grammy Award for Best Country Vocal by a Duo or Group the same year .
= = = 1995 – 1996 : Now and Then and Shenandoah Christmas = = =
Stan Thorn and Ralph Ezell left in late 1995 and early 1996 , respectively , with Rocky Thacker unofficially replacing Ezell , and songwriter / keyboardist Stan Munsey replacing Thorn . During this time , Liberty Records was renamed Capitol Records Nashville . The band 's first album for Capitol , 1996 's Now and Then , comprised re @-@ recordings of eight Columbia singles , the original recording of " Somewhere in the Vicinity of the Heart " , and five new songs . Among these new songs was the album 's only single , " All Over but the Shoutin ' , " which peaked at number 43 on Billboard .
Nash gave this album an A- rating in Entertainment Weekly , saying that Raybon 's voice " beautifully capture [ s ] the rites of passage in Small Town , USA . " Larry Stephens of Country Standard Time also reviewed the album favorably , saying , " The familiar hits on this album have all been re @-@ recorded , but they 've lost none of their familiar and loved sound , " while Allmusic critic William Ruhlmann gave it two stars out of five and referred to it as a " stopgap . "
Shenandoah 's first Christmas music album , Shenandoah Christmas , was released in September 1996 , also on Capitol . Except for the original song " There 's a Way in the Manger , " it comprised acoustic renditions of popular Christmas songs . It received a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating from Allmusic , whose critic Thom Owens said that none of the renditions were " particularly noteworthy . "
= = = 1997 : Departure of Marty Raybon and disbanding of Shenandoah = = =
Marty Raybon and his brother Tim recorded one album as the Raybon Brothers for MCA Nashville Records in mid @-@ 1997 . They charted within the top 40 on both the country and Billboard Hot 100 charts with a rendition of the Bob Carlisle song " Butterfly Kisses , " followed by the number 64 country release " The Way She 's Lookin ' . " Marty continued to tour with Shenandoah until the end of the year , when the remaining members disbanded and he sold the naming rights . In 2000 , he released a second solo album and charted his only solo country chart hit , the number 63 " Cracker Jack Diamond . " Raybon remained a solo artist , while Thorn self @-@ released a solo jazz album titled In a Curious Way in 2001 .
= = = 2000 – present : Reunion and Shenandoah 2000 = = =
Seales , McGuire , Munsey and Thacker reunited as Shenandoah in 2000 , with two new members : lead singer Brent Lamb , and guitarist / vocalist Curtis Wright . Before joining Shenandoah , Wright had been a member of the Super Grit Cowboy Band in the 1980s , then a solo artist and one @-@ half of the duo Orrall & Wright with Robert Ellis Orrall . Wright also wrote " Next to You , Next to Me " and " Rock My Baby " , collaborating with Orrall on the former . In 2000 , the new lineup recorded the band 's next album , Shenandoah 2000 , under the Free Falls label . It produced the band 's last chart single in the number 65 " What Children Believe . " Jolene Downs of About.com gave this album a positive review , saying that it was a " very strong country album " and " a slightly different sound from the original group , but not bad at all . " The band toured small venues in 2001 to promote it .
Lamb left in 2002 , with Wright succeeding him on lead vocals and original bassist Ralph Ezell later re @-@ joining . In 2006 , Shenandoah released the album Journeys on the Cumberland Road label . Ezell died of a heart attack on November 30 , 2007 , and Mike Folsom succeeded him on bass guitar . Also , Wright left the band to join a re @-@ established Pure Prairie League , and songwriter Jimmy Yeary took over as lead singer . In April 2009 , the lineup of Yeary , Folsom , McGuire , Munsey and Seales performed a benefit concert in Muscle Shoals , in which Wright and Raybon also participated .
Yeary and McGuire co @-@ wrote a song entitled " You Never Know " as a tribute to Ezell . Darryl Worley recorded this song on his 2009 album Sounds Like Life , saying that he considered it " dead @-@ on " for him . Shenandoah has continued to tour in 2009 and 2010 with Yeary on lead vocals , mostly playing at community festivals and county fairs . Yeary engaged country @-@ gospel singer Sonya Isaacs ( of The Isaacs ) in November 2009 . They have since become married and had one son in 2011 . He has also written songs for other artists , including " In Another World " by Joe Diffie , " Why Wait " by Rascal Flatts , " Summer Thing " by Troy Olsen , " I 'm Gonna Love You Through It " by Martina McBride , and " I Drive Your Truck " by Lee Brice . Yeary left in 2011 , with Doug Stokes taking over on lead vocals , and Chris Lucas ( Roach ) on bass .
In August 2014 , Marty Raybon re @-@ joined as lead singer of the band , replacing Doug Stokes . At the time of his rejoining , the band consists of Raybon , McGuire , Munsey , and bassist Chris Lucas , later replaced by Paul Sanders . In October , Jamie Michael replaced the retiring Jim Seales on lead guitar .
= = Musical styles = =
The band 's sound is defined by country , bluegrass and gospel influences . John Bush of Allmusic calls Shenandoah " one of the first groups to rebel against the urban cowboy image of the ' 80s and lead the way to the new traditionalism of the ' 90s . " Marty Raybon 's vocals have been described as " blend [ ing ] the soulfulness of rhythm and blues with the lonely intensity of great country music . " Alanna Nash wrote that the band 's work relies on " sentimental lyrics revolving around the Southern experience , " and said that Shenandoah " forged its very commercial reputation on a soulful gospel @-@ and @-@ bluegrass blend , with lead singer Marty Raybon 's searing sincerity making even the tritest songs about small @-@ town Southern values and attitudes memorable . " Logan Smith of the St. Petersburg Times said that the band has " woven together a highly polished sound built around precision musicianship and pristine harmonies , very much a hybrid of Raybon 's bluegrass roots . " Writing for the Associated Press , Joe Edwards cited the variety of sounds on the band 's second album , referring to " The Church on Cumberland Road " as a " spirited up @-@ tempo , " also making note of the Southern imagery in " Sunday in the South " and the " truest country music tradition " of the ballad " She Doesn 't Cry Anymore . "
= = Band members = =
= = = Current = = =
Paul Sanders - bass , backing vocals ( 2014 @-@ present )
Mike McGuire ( born December 28 , 1958 ) – drums , backing vocals ( 1984 – 1997 , 2000 – present )
Stan Munsey – keyboards ( 1995 – 1997 , 2000 – present )
Marty Raybon – lead vocals , acoustic guitar ( 1984 – 1997 , 2014 – present )
Jamie Michael - lead guitar , backing vocals ( 2014 @-@ present )
= = = Former = = =
Chris Lucas ( Roach ) - bass guitar ( 2011 – 2014 )
Ralph Ezell – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1984 – 1996 , 2002 – 2007 ; died 2007 )
Mike Folsom – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 2007 – 2011 )
Brent Lamb – lead vocals ( 2000 – 2002 )
Jim Seales ( born March 20 , 1954 ) – lead guitar , backing vocals ( 1984 – 1997 , 2000 – 2014 )
Doug Stokes – lead vocals ( 2011 – 2014 )
Rocky Thacker – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1996 – 1997 , 2000 – 2002 )
Stan Thorn – keyboards , backing vocals ( 1984 – 1995 )
Curtis Wright – lead and backing vocals , acoustic guitar ( 2000 – 2007 )
Jimmy Yeary – lead vocals , acoustic guitar ( 2007 – 2011 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Shenandoah ( 1987 )
The Road Not Taken ( 1989 )
Extra Mile ( 1990 )
Long Time Comin ' ( 1992 )
Under the Kudzu ( 1993 )
In the Vicinity of the Heart ( 1994 )
Shenandoah Christmas ( 1996 )
Shenandoah 2000 ( 2000 )
Journeys ( 2006 )
= = = Billboard number @-@ one hits = = =
" The Church on Cumberland Road " ( 2 weeks , 1989 )
" Sunday in the South " ( 1 week , 1989 )
" Two Dozen Roses " ( 1 week , 1989 )
" Next to You , Next to Me " ( 3 weeks , 1990 )
" If Bubba Can Dance ( I Can Too ) " ( 1 week , 1994 )
= = Awards = =
= Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life =
Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life ( 智代アフター ～ It 's a Wonderful Life ～ , Tomoyo Afutā ~ It 's a Wonderful Life ~ ) is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Key released on November 25 , 2005 for Windows PCs . The game is a spin @-@ off of Key 's earlier all ages game Clannad . Key later released versions of Tomoyo After without the erotic content , and the game was ported to the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation Portable , Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 under the title Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life CS Edition ; CS stands for " consumer software " . The story follows the lives of Tomoya Okazaki , a young man who recently graduated from high school , and his close friend Tomoyo Sakagami as they start to see more of each other in a romantic relationship .
The gameplay in Tomoyo After follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios with courses of interaction , and focuses on the appeal of the title character Tomoyo . Being a spin @-@ off of Clannad , where Tomoyo is one of the game 's heroines , Tomoyo After provides an expansion of Tomoyo 's story after the events of Clannad and is written by Jun Maeda and Leo Kashida . The art was done by Fumio , as opposed to Itaru Hinoue who had done the art in Clannad . The game ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 twice more afterwards . A manga adaptation illustrated by Yukiko Sumiyoshi , under the title Tomoyo After : Dear Shining Memories , was serialized in Fujimi Shobo 's Dragon Age Pure in 2007 . Unlike the game which is told from Tomoya 's point of view , the manga is told from Tomoyo 's perspective . A single tankōbon volume was released in Japan in December 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
Tomoyo After is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Tomoya Okazaki . Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story 's narrative and dialogue . Tomoyo After follows a branching plot line with multiple endings ; depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and make different choices to bring the plot in an alternate direction . In the adult versions of the game , there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Tomoya and Tomoyo having sex . Later , Key released versions of Tomoyo After without the erotic content . Additional gameplay in Tomoyo After is a minigame called " Dungeons & Takafumis " , which gives the player chances to play in a role @-@ playing video game setting . " Dungeons & Takafumis " becomes available to play after the game is completed once .
= = Plot and characters = =
Tomoyo After 's story revolves around Tomoya Okazaki ( 岡崎 朋也 , Okazaki Tomoya , voiced by : Yūichi Nakamura ( all ages Windows , PSP , PS3 , Xbox 360 ) , Yūichi Nitta in the role @-@ playing mode only ) , the male protagonist from Clannad , and Tomoyo Sakagami ( 坂上 智代 , Sakagami Tomoyo , voiced by : Ryōko Tanaka ) , one of the main heroines of the same game and the title character of Tomoyo After . Tomoya has already completed his first year of being a full @-@ fledged member of society ; he works as a garbage collector and a repairman . Initially , he is living in an apartment alone , as opposed with living with his father Naoyuki Okazaki ( 岡崎 直幸 , Okazaki Naoyuki , voiced by : Shunsuke Tani ) with whom he does not get along well . Tomoya still has a close friendship with Tomoyo , who has her story expanded upon than what was seen in Clannad . She has stayed in touch with Tomoya and they are starting to see more of each other in a romantic relationship .
The story takes place a month after the events of Clannad during summer vacation after Tomoya has graduated from high school ; he is still in the same town Clannad was set in . One day it is discovered that Tomoyo has a younger half @-@ sister named Tomo Mishima ( 三島 とも , Mishima Tomo , voiced by : Akari Sasaki ) who had been living with her mother . Tomo , a young kindergartner , is the illegitimate child of Tomoyo 's father and another woman named Yūko Mishima ( 三島 有子 , Mishima Yūko , voiced by : Soyo Asaki ) . Tomo moves into Tomoya 's apartment due to her mother 's psychological problems which greatly affected the young girl . Tomoyo loves her half @-@ sister very much and takes care of her constantly since she has always had a weakness for children .
Tomoyo also has a younger brother named Takafumi Sakagami ( 坂上 鷹文 , Sakagami Takafumi , voiced by : Keiko Suzuki ) who is very skilled with computers . He installs a personal computer in Tomoya 's room , and then comes to live in the apartment . Takafumi has an ex @-@ girlfriend named Kanako ( 河南子 , voiced by : Keiko Suzuki ) with a foul mouth and who is excessively sarcastic , whose surname is not revealed . She is not happy that her mother remarried and thus does not like to live at home . She too comes to live in Tomoya 's apartment . She has a cameo appearance roughly eighteen minutes into episode six of the Clannad anime series . A central theme in the story is the ties between families , much like in Clannad .
= = Development = =
After releasing Clannad , Jun Maeda decided to make a game based on Tomoyo 's scenario from Clannad . Maeda handled the game 's planning and scenario , and Leo Kashida , a new member of the team , accompanied him . As opposed to Itaru Hinoue who was the character designer and art director for Clannad , Fumio was the art director for Tomoyo After , while Hinoue helped Fumio with the character design . As such , characters who appeared in Clannad such as Tomoya and Tomoyo look similar but visibly different from when in Clannad . Maeda also composed the music for the game along with Key 's signature composers Shinji Orito and Magome Togoshi .
When Tomoyo After was ported to the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) , improvements to the game were included . This edition 's scenario was expanded by the original staff after the removal of the adult content consisting of sex scenes . Yūto Tonokawa wrote some of the additional story for Takafumi and Kanako . With the added scenario and visuals combined , the PS2 edition is 1 @.@ 5 times longer than the Windows edition . In the original version , the entire cast excluding Tomoya Okazaki , had full voice acting ; this was not changed for the PlayStation 2 version . Added support was included so as to make the visuals on the television sharper than in the past with visual novels played on a consumer console rather than on a computer screen . The PS2 version also reduced flickering of the picture , reducing eyestrain .
= = = Release history = = =
Tomoyo After was released as an adult game on November 25 , 2005 as a limited edition version , playable on Windows PCs as a DVD , and as a bonus came bundled with the visual novel 's original soundtrack . The manufacturing of the adult version has since been suspended . An updated all ages version compatible for Windows Vista PCs was released by Key on July 31 , 2009 in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box ; this version contains the additional scenario from the PS2 version , and features full voice acting , including Tomoya . The version of Tomoyo After available in Key 10th Memorial Box was re @-@ released on April 30 , 2010 with updated compatibility for Windows 7 PCs under the title Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life Memorial Edition . Key released an updated version titled Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life Perfect Edition on September 26 , 2014 for Windows . The Perfect Edition contains the additional content featured in the consumer ports as well as the adult content from the original version . Tomoyo After was released in English on July 1 , 2016 .
The first consumer console port of the game was released for the PS2 on January 25 , 2007 by Prototype under the title Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life CS Edition ; CS stands for " consumer software " . An all ages version playable on FOMA mobile phones was released on May 29 , 2008 by Prototype through VisualArt 's Motto , but did not include the role @-@ playing video game " Dungeons & Takafumis " . A PlayStation Portable version of the CS Edition , along with full voice acting including Tomoya , was released on March 19 , 2009 by Prototype . An Xbox 360 version of the CS Edition was released by Prototype on September 22 , 2010 . A PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) version of the CS Edition was released by Prototype on July 29 , 2012 as a limited edition originally sold only at the VisualArt 's Daikanshasai event held that day in commemoration of the 20th anniversary of VisualArt 's . The PS3 version has subsequently been sold at three other events : at Comiket 83 between December 29 – 31 , 2012 , at the 2013 Tokyo Game Show between September 21 – 22 , and at the Character1 exhibition on May 1 , 2016 to raise money for victims of the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes , totaling ¥ 272 @,@ 506 . A downloadable version of the PS3 release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on May 29 , 2013 . A version playable on Android devices was released on February 27 , 2013 , but did not include " Dungeons & Takafumis " .
= = Related media = =
= = = Manga = = =
A manga adaptation , illustrated by Yukiko Sumiyoshi and titled Tomoyo After : Dear Shining Memories , was serialized in Fujimi Shobo 's shōnen manga magazine Dragon Age Pure between April 20 and October 20 , 2007 . The story is based on the visual novel version that preceded it , though instead of the story being told from Tomoya 's point of view , the manga is told from Tomoyo 's perspective . A single tankōbon volume was released in Japan on December 8 , 2007 containing four chapters .
= = = Music = = =
The visual novel has two main theme songs : the opening theme " Light colors " and the ending theme " Life is like a Melody " , both sung by Lia . The Tomoyo After Original Soundtrack , bundled with the original release of Tomoyo After , was released on November 25 , 2005 bearing the catalog number KSLA @-@ 0020 ; it was re @-@ released on April 27 , 2007 . The soundtrack contains 21 tracks composed , arranged , and produced by Jun Maeda , Shinji Orito , Magome Togoshi , Yuki Shimizu , Miu Uetsu ( Maiko Iuchi ) , and Kazuya Takase of I 've Sound . A piano arrange album was released on December 29 , 2005 titled Piano no Mori which contains five tracks from Tomoyo After and five from Clannad . Each of the albums were released on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label .
= = Reception = =
According to a national ranking of how well bishōjo games sold nationally in Japan , the original Tomoyo After Windows release premiered at number one in the rankings . This game stayed on the charts for a month longer , ranking in at 35 and 36 . Tomoyo After for Windows was the eighth most widely sold game of 2005 on Getchu.com. In 2006 , the Japanese gaming magazine PC News reported that the PS2 version of Tomoyo After was the fourth @-@ highest selling bishōjo game of 2005 with 49 @,@ 226 units sold .
= Mother India =
Mother India is a 1957 Indian Hindi @-@ language epic drama film , directed by Mehboob Khan and starring Nargis , Sunil Dutt , Rajendra Kumar , and Raaj Kumar . A remake of Khan 's earlier film Aurat ( 1940 ) , it is the story of a poverty @-@ stricken village woman named Radha ( Nargis ) who , in the absence of her husband , struggles to raise her sons and survive against a cunning money @-@ lender amidst many troubles . Despite her hardship , she sets a goddess @-@ like moral example of an ideal Indian woman .
The title of the film was chosen to counter American author Katherine Mayo 's 1927 polemical book Mother India , which vilified Indian culture . Allusions to Hindu mythology are abundant in the film , and its lead character has been seen as a metonymic representation of a Hindu woman who reflects high moral values and the concept of what it means to be a mother to society through self @-@ sacrifice . Mother India metaphorically represents India as a nation in the aftermath of independence , and alludes to a strong sense of nationalism and nation @-@ building . While some authors treat Radha as the symbol of women empowerment , others see her cast in female stereotypes . The Oedipal elements between Radha and her son Birju have also been discussed by authors . The film was shot in Mumbai 's Mehboob Studios and in the villages of Maharashtra , Gujarat , and Uttar Pradesh states . The music by Naushad introduced Western classical music and Hollywood @-@ style orchestra to Hindi cinema .
The film was the most expensive Hindi cinema ( Bollywood ) production and earned the highest revenue for any Hindi film at that time . Adjusted for inflation , Mother India still ranks among the all @-@ time Indian box office hits . It was released in India amid fanfare in October or November 1957 , and had several high @-@ profile screenings , including one at the capital New Delhi attended by the country 's president and prime minister . Mother India became a definitive cultural classic and is regarded as one of the best films in Indian and world cinema . It was India 's first submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1958 , where it got the nomination and lost the award by just one vote . The film won the Filmfare Best Film Award for 1957 , and Nargis and Khan won the Best Actress and Best Director awards respectively .
= = Plot = =
The film is set in 1957 , the present day at the time of shooting . When construction of an irrigation canal to the village is completed , Radha ( Nargis ) , considered to be the " mother " of the village , is asked to inaugurate the canal . She remembers her past , when she was newly married .
The wedding between Radha and Shamu ( Raaj Kumar ) is paid for by Radha 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , who borrows the money from the moneylender Sukhilala . The conditions of the loan are disputed , but the village elders decide in favour of the moneylender , after which Shamu and Radha are forced to pay three quarters of their crop as interest on the loan of ₹ 500 ( valued at about US $ 105 in 1957 ) . While Shamu works to bring more of their rocky land into use , his arms are crushed by a boulder . Ashamed of his helplessness ( being without arms ) and humiliated by Sukhilala for living on the earnings of his wife , Shamu decides that he is of no use to his family and permanently leaves Radha and their three sons , walking to his own probable death by starvation . Soon after , Radha 's youngest son and her mother @-@ in @-@ law die . A severe storm and the resulting flood destroys houses in the village and ruins the harvest . Sukhilala offers to save Radha and her sons if she trades her body to him for food . Radha vehemently refused his offer , but had to also lose her infant ( her fourth son ) to the atrocities of the storm . Although the villagers begin initially to evacuate the village , they decide to stay and rebuild it , persuaded by Radha .
Several years later , Radha 's two surviving children , Birju ( Sunil Dutt ) and Ramu ( Rajendra Kumar ) , are young men . Birju , embittered since childhood by the demands of Sukhilala , takes out his frustrations by pestering the village girls , especially Sukhilala 's daughter , Rupa . Ramu , by contrast , has a calmer temperament and is married soon after . Birju 's anger finally becomes dangerous and , after being provoked , he attacks Sukhilala and his daughter and steals Radha 's kangan ( marriage bracelets ) that were pawned with Sukhilala . He is chased out of the village and becomes a bandit . Radha promises Sukhilala that she will not let Birju cause harm to Sukhilala 's family . On Rupa 's wedding day , Birju returns with his gang of bandits to exact his revenge . He kills Sukhilala and kidnaps Rupa . When he tries to flee the village on his horse , Radha , his mother , shoots him . He dies in her arms . The film returns to 1957 ; Radha opens the gate of the canal and its reddish water flows into the fields .
= = Cast = =
Nargis as Radha , the heroine and an archetypal Indian woman
Sunil Dutt as Birju , Radha 's rebellious younger son , who turns into a bandit
Rajendra Kumar as Ramu , Radha 's elder son , who follows his mother 's path of virtuousness
Raaj Kumar as Shamu , Radha 's husband
Kanhaiyalal as Sukhilala " Lala " , a cunning money @-@ lender
Jilloo Maa as Sundar @-@ Chachi , the mother @-@ in @-@ law of Radha
Kumkum as Champa , the wife of Ramu
Chanchal as Rupa , Sukhilala 's daughter
Sheela Naik as Kamala , a family friend
Mukri as Shambu , a family friend , and Kamala 's husband
Azra as Chandra , daughter of a schoolmaster of the village
Sajid Khan as a young Birju
Surendra as a young Ramu
= = Production = =
= = = Title = = =
The title Mother India was inspired by American author Katherine Mayo 's 1927 polemical book of the same name , in which she attacked Indian society , religion and culture . Written against the Indian demands for self @-@ rule and independence from British rule , the book pointed to the treatment of India 's women , the untouchables , animals , dirt , and the character of its nationalistic politicians . Mayo singled out the rampant and fatally weakening sexuality of its males to be at the core of all problems , leading to masturbation , rape , homosexuality , prostitution , venereal diseases , and , most importantly , premature sexual intercourse and maternity . The book created an outrage across India , and it was burned along with her effigy . It was criticised by Mahatma Gandhi as a " report of a drain inspector sent out with the one purpose of opening and examining the drains of the country to be reported upon " . The book prompted over fifty angry books and pamphlets to be published to highlight Mayo 's errors and false perception of Indian society , which had become a powerful influence on the American people 's view of India .
Mehboob Khan had the idea for the film and the title as early as 1952 , five years after India 's independence ; in October that year , he approached the import authorities of the Indian government to seek permission for importing raw stocks for the film . In 1955 , the ministries of External Affairs and Information @-@ and @-@ Broadcasting learned of the title of the forthcoming film and demanded that the director send them the script for review , suspicious that it was based on the book and thus a possible threat to national interest . The film team dispatched the script along with a two @-@ page letter on 17 September 1955 saying :
There has been considerable confusion and misunderstanding in regard to our film production Mother India and Mayo 's book . Not only are the two incompatible but totally different and indeed opposite . We have intentionally called our film Mother India , as a challenge to this book , in an attempt to evict from the minds of the people the scurrilous work that is Miss Mayo 's book .
= = = Script = = =
Khan was inspired by American author Pearl S. Buck and her books The Good Earth ( 1931 ) and The Mother ( 1934 ) ; he also saw the film The Good Earth ( 1937 ) , directed by Sidney Franklin . The Mother chronicled the life of a Chinese woman , including her married life and lonely struggle after being abandoned by her husband . Aspects of Mother India , such as moneylenders , toiling on land , and rearing children through hardship were part of the story . Khan originally drew upon these influences in making his 1940 film Aurat , the original version of Mother India . Khan bought the rights of Aurat from the production company National Studios for ₹ 35 @,@ 000 ( valued at about US $ 7 @,@ 350 in 1957 ) . Stylistic elements of Mother India show similarities with Vsevolod Pudovkin 's Soviet silent film Mother ( 1926 ) ; Our Daily Bread ( 1934 ) , directed by King Vidor ; and films of Alexander Dovzhenko . Certain imagery in the film , such as " happy farmers , sickles in their hand , smiling from behind ripening crops " , resemble posters by Soviet constructivist artists .
The script of Aurat was devised by Wajahat Mirza , based upon a story by Babubhai Mehta . For Mother India , it was reworked by Mirza and the young screenwriter S. Ali Raza . Apart from Mehboob Khan , Mirza and Raza , prominent screenwriters Aghajani Kashmeri , Zia Sarhadi , Akhtar Mirza , music director Naushad , assistant director Chimankant Desai and many others were consulted . The dialogue , reworked by Mirza and Raza , mixed vernacular Hindi with its literary counterpart .
The script was intentionally written in a way that promoted the empowerment of women in Indian society ( including the power to resist sexual advances ) and the maintenance of a sense of moral dignity and purpose as individuals ; this was contrary to what Mayo had claimed in her book . These themes , present in Aurat , were further developed with a strong sense of nationalism and nation @-@ building , utilising characters personifying abstract qualities such as " beauty and goodness , wealth and power , poverty and exploitation , community spirit " .
= = = Casting = = =
Nargis was the director 's first choice for the role of Radha , and despite only being aged 26 at the time , she played the role of the new wife , young single mother and an aged mother of two sons . Nargis — the reigning queen of Hindi cinema at the time — had started her career in a leading role with Khan 's Taqdeer ( 1943 ) and acted under his direction in Humayun ( 1945 ) and Andaz ( 1949 ) too . Mother India is generally regarded as Nargis 's best performance and was her last major film , before retirement after marriage .
Khan had wanted to cast Sabu Dastagir , a Hollywood star of Indian origin , as Birju . Dastagir travelled to India from Los Angeles , stayed in a hotel in Mumbai ( then known as Bombay ) and received a retainer . However , delays and obstacles in beginning shooting and getting a work permit for Dastagir led to his dismissal from the project . Dilip Kumar , an established actor in the Hindi film industry , had originally expressed an interest in playing Birju , which Khan found agreeable ; Dilip Kumar agreed to play Shamu as well . However , Nargis objected that the public would not accept their casting as mother and son because she had done several romantic films alongside him . Sunil Dutt — with the experience of just one film — was finally cast , after Mukri , a comedian in the film , introduced him to Khan . Sajid Khan , the actor who portrayed the young Birju , was unknown at the time , and was from a poor family from the Mumbai slums . Sajid 's salary in the film was ₹ 750 . He was later adopted by Mehboob Khan . Subsequently , Raaj Kumar was cast as Shamu and Rajendra Kumar as Ramu . Mother India was the first successful film and a turning point in the careers of Dutt , Raaj Kumar and Rajendra Kumar .
Before principal photography began , Nargis and Raaj Kumar familiarised themselves with farming practices such as ploughing the fields , reaping and sowing , and cotton picking . The extras in the song and dance sequences of the film were from local dance groups in villages where the shooting took place instead of the usual ones from Mumbai .
= = = Filming = = =
The initial filming for Mother India began unexpectedly , even before the script and cast were finalised . In 1955 , parts of Uttar Pradesh suffered from major flooding . Cinematographer Faredoon Irani travelled to flood @-@ afflicted districts to shoot generic flood scenes . The scheduled principal photography started in 1955 with a budget of ₹ 20 – 25 lakh ( approximately US $ 420 @,@ 000 – 525 @,@ 000 in 1957 ) . However , the budget increased to ₹ 35 – 40 lakh ( approximately US $ 735 @,@ 000 – 840 @,@ 000 in 1957 ) by the end of the filming because of the outdoor sessions and cast and crew 's salaries . This budget , a record at the time , was surpassed by Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam in 1960 .
Several indoor scenes for the film were shot in 1956 at Mehboob Studios in Bandra , Mumbai . Khan and Irani attempted to shoot frequently on location to make the film as realistic as possible . Locations included various villages in Maharashtra , Gujarat ( Maharashtra and Gujarat together formed Bombay State then ) and Uttar Pradesh . The film was shot in 35mm . Contemporary cinematographer Anil Mehta has noted the mastery of Irani 's cinematic techniques in shooting the film , including his " intricate tracks and pans , the detailed mise en scène patterns Irani conceived , even for brief shots — in the studios as well as on location " . The film took about three years to make , from early organisation , planning , and scripting to completion of filming . In a November 1956 interview , Nargis described the film shoot and her role as the most demanding of her career . Mother India was shot in Gevacolor , later converted to Technicolor . It was shot mostly using the sync sound technique , which was common at the time ; some scenes were dubbed .
For shooting the flood scene , a farmer agreed to flood 500 acres ( 200 ha ) of his land . In the exodus scene following the flood , 300 bullock carts , 200 farmers and many horses , tractors and ploughs were used . Gayatri Chatterjee writes about the popular belief that all these were made available by villagers without reimbursement , in her book . However , account ledgers of the production revealed that the villagers were paid . There was a protracted scene in the film in which Radha runs between burning haystacks in search for her son Birju , a renegade bandit , who was hiding there . The fire scene was shot in Umra area of Surat , Gujarat , by burning bales of hay . Nargis and Dutt acted in the fire scene without doubles . On 1 March 1957 , an accident occurred during the fire scene when the wind direction changed and the fire grew out of control , trapping Nargis . She was saved by Dutt , who quickly grabbed a blanket , plunged inside , and rescued her . Shooting halted temporarily as both had sustained injuries . Dutt was hospitalised for the burns and Nargis helped nurse him , at Khan 's place in Billimora . Nargis — a popular actress at the time — fell in love with Dutt , who was in early stages of his film career and played her son in the film ; they married on 11 March 1958 . Nargis wished to marry soon after the film , but Khan protested that real @-@ life marriage of the onscreen mother @-@ son would be disastrous for the film . Owing to their relationship , Nargis also found it difficult to perform a scene where she beat Dutt with a lathi .
= = Themes = =
Various authors identify the character of Radha with Hindu mythological goddesses and characters , such as Radha ( the lover of the god Krishna , personifying love and romance ) , Sita ( the divine heroine of the Hindu epic Ramayana , personifying high moral value ) , Savitri ( representing great morality and loyalty to husband ) , Draupadi ( personifying duty and morality ) , Dharti @-@ mata ( earth @-@ mother goddess ) and Lakshmi ( Hindu goddess of prosperity ) . Besides these gentle goddesses , the character of Radha has shades of more ferocious warrior goddesses like Durga and Kali . Film scholars have compared the mild @-@ mannered , obedient son Ramu with the god Rama of the epic Ramayana , and the romantic outlaw Birju — a name of Krishna — with the god Krishna , known for his transgressions . Shamu ( another name of Krishna ) , Radha 's husband who leaves her , is also equated with Krishna , who left his lover Radha in mythological accounts . The title Mother India and Radha 's character are described to be allusions not only to the Hindu Mother Goddess , but also to Bharat Mata ( literally " Mother India " ) , the national personification of India , generally represented as a Hindu goddess .
According to professor Nalini Natarajan of the University of Puerto Rico , Nargis 's Mother India is a metonymic representation of a Hindu woman , reflecting high Hindu values , with virtuous morality and motherly self @-@ sacrifice . Film scholar Jyotika Virdi wrote that Mother India could also be seen as a metaphor of the trinity of mother , God , and a dynamic nation . Vijay Mishra , in his 2002 book Bollywood Cinema : Temples of Desire , opined that the Mother India figure is an icon in several respects — being associated with a goddess , her function as a wife , as a lover , and even compromising her femininity at the end of the film by playing the role of Vishnu the Preserver and Shiva the Destroyer , masculine gods .
According to Indian film scholars Gokulsing and Dissanayake , while aspiring to traditional Hindu values , the character of Mother India also represents the changing role of the mother in Indian cinema and society in that the mother is not always subservient or dependent on her husband , refining the relationship to the male gender or patriarchal social structures . The New Internationalist said in an 1999 review that Radha transforms from a submissive wife to an independent mother , thereby breaking female stereotypes in Hindi film . In contrast , in a 2012 article in the newspaper The Hindu , author Tarini Sridharan has pointed out tropes such as upholding female chastity , wifely devotion and saintly motherhood that reinforce gender stereotypes . While the action of sacrificing motherhood to uphold a woman 's dignity is termed as feminist by some , other authors see it as an attempt of a community woman to protect the patriarchal village structure , that esteems izzat ( honour ) of women . A promotional pamphlet to introduce the social context of the film to western audiences described Indian women as being " an altar in India " , and that Indians " measure the virtue of their race by the chastity of their women " , and that " Indian mothers are the nucleus around which revolves the tradition and culture of ages . "
In a 2002 review in The New York Times , film critic Dave Kehr compares the film with Stella Dallas ( 1937 ) for the thematic similarity of series of sacrifices made by the female lead , and with Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) as an epic mirroring social upheavals . Film critic Mark Cousins and author Tejaswini Ganti agree that the film is the Gone with the Wind of Indian cinema .
The term " Mother India " has been defined as " a common icon for the emergent Indian nation in the early 20th century in both colonialist and nationalist discourse " . Many authors , including Gayatri Chatterjee , author of Mother India ( 2002 ) , interpret the film as an allegory signifying patriotism and the changing situation in the newly independent nation , and how India was functioning without British authority . It echoes the tale of a modern India , liberating itself from " feudal and colonial oppression " . The film , an archetypal nationalistic picture , is symbolic in that it demonstrated the euphoria of " Mother India " in a nation that had only been independent for 10 years , and it had a long @-@ lasting cultural impact upon the Indian people . Film scholar Saibal Chatterjee considers Mother India a " mirror of independent India " , highlighting problems of a nascent nation , including rural exploitation of farmers by money @-@ lenders , in a dramatic fashion understandable to the common viewer . It also represents the agrarian poverty and hardship of the people at the time . The red water that flows from the canal irrigating the green fields at the end of the film is seen by Chatterjee as a metaphor to represent the blood of Indians in the struggle for independence , flowing to nourish a new free India . The canal is described by Virdi to signal the imminent end of the feudal order . However , despite Radha 's struggle against feudal oppression depicted in the film , her action of stopping the rebellious Birju and upholding status quo — the feudal and patriarchal order — is seen as " regressive " by various authors .
In a study of media and popular culture in South Asia , author Mahasveta Barua draws parallel between the film 's metaphorical representation of the mother as nation , and the metonymic identification with India that Indira Gandhi , India 's only woman prime minister , sought and tried for during her tenure ( 1966 – 77 , and 1980 – 84 ) . In his book Terrorism , Media , Liberation , John David Slocum argues that like Satyajit Ray 's classic masterpiece Pather Panchali ( 1955 ) , Khan 's Mother India has " vied for alternative definitions of Indianness " . However , he emphasises that the film is an overt mythologising and feminising of the nation in which Indian audiences have used their imagination to define it in the nationalistic context , given that in reality the storyline is about a poverty @-@ stricken peasant from northern India , rather than a true ideal of a modernising , powerful nation .
The Radha – Birju relationship is described to have " Oedipal elements " by many authors ; Virdi has argued that in her chastity , Radha channels her sexual desires into maternal love for her sons who effectively become " substitute erotic subjects " . Mishra opines that the crushing of arms of Radha 's husband and the mellowness of the older son symbolise castration , which is in contrast with the rebellion of Birju , identified with sexual potency . Birju 's obsession with his mother 's bracelets is an expression of his oedipal longings , according to Chakravarty . Rachel Dwyer , Professor of Indian Cultures and Cinema at SOAS , describes how " suspiciously smoothly " the Oedipal elements fits into the film and the off @-@ screen romance between Nargis and Dutt , playing mother and son in the film . Radha 's actions at the end of the film in shooting her own son was a breaking of traditional mother – son relationship to safeguard morality , according to author William van der Heide . Virdi points out that this brought ambiguity to the mother figure who acts as a sacrificing provider and also as a destroyer , annihilating her own son , something rare in Hindi cinema . She interprets Birju 's sexual advances on a village girl ( which is incest in north Indian village culture ) as being a substitute in the plot for the incestuous mother – son relationship and his death at the end as a punishment for violation of the taboo .
Authors such as Eshun and Woods state that Radha and Ramu are the archetypal champions of virtue in battling hardship and injustice , while Birju is a mischievous child who becomes the anarchist whose uncontrollable rebellion destroys order . Mishra has noted that although Radha upholds Dharma ( the natural law or order ) in the film , it is Birju who achieves identification from the spectators ; in his rebellion lies the agenda of political action that will usher social change . Mishra notes that due to such conflicting ideas , the film is very much conforming , and yet " defiantly subversive " .
Film scholar Vijay Mishra has pointed out the presence of " highly syncretic hyphenated Hindu – Muslim nature " of Bollywood in the film . Parama Roy has interpreted that Nargis 's legendary status as the titular Mother India is due to Hinduisation of the role and her real @-@ life marriage with a Hindu ; she is , according to Roy , scripted as a renouncer of Muslim separatism in the film . Mishra has found metacritical value in Salman Rushdie 's commentary on the film in his novel The Moor 's Last Sigh ( 1995 ) in which Rushdie describes :
In Mother India , a piece of Hindu myth @-@ making directed by a Muslim socialist , Mehboob Khan , the Indian peasant women is idealised as bride , mother , and producers of sons , as long @-@ suffering , stoical , loving , redemptive , and conservatively wedded to the maintenance of the social status quo . But for Bad Birju , cast out from his mother 's love , she becomes , as one critic mentioned , ' that image of an aggressive , treacherous , annihilating mother who haunts the fantasy of Indian males ' .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
The production team had planned to release Mother India to commemorate the tenth anniversary of India 's independence on 15 August 1957 , but the film was released over two months later . It premiered at the Liberty Cinema in Mumbai on 25 October 1957 , during Diwali ; it ran continuously at Liberty for over a year . It was released in Kolkata ( then called Calcutta ) the same day and in Delhi a week later . It had reached all regions in India by the end of November . Government ministers and other officials were invited to the premieres , and a special screening was held in Rashtrapati Bhavan ( the presidential quarter ) in New Delhi on 23 October 1957 ; the event was attended by President Rajendra Prasad , Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and his daughter Indira Gandhi . Chief Minister of West Bengal Bidhan Chandra Roy and Governor Padmaja Naidu attended a screening in Kolkata . Impressed with the film 's nationalistic message , Chief Minister of Bombay State Morarji Desai granted it exemption from entertainment tax in the state .
No reliable data is available on the box office earnings of Mother India . It was in continuous distribution in theatres in India until the mid @-@ 1990s . There was a renewed interest in the film in the 1970s causing an upsurge in ticket sales . Film trade websites provide estimates of its business . Boxofficeindia.com gives ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) as its gross , and ₹ 1 @,@ 173 million ( US $ 17 million ) as its adjusted net gross , as of 2012 . According to Chatterjee , it did exceptionally good business in Delhi , Uttar Pradesh , Gujarat , Karnataka ( then called Mysore State ) and Maharashtra . The film 's success led Khan to name his next film Son of India . Released in 1962 , it was not well received .
Mother India was dubbed in several European languages including Spanish , French and Russian ; it did substantial business in Greece , Spain and Russia and was released in the Eastern Bloc countries . Technicolor arranged one screening of the film in Paris on 30 June 1958 , under the name Les bracelets d 'or ( " The Gold Bracelets " ) . It did minimal business in Paris , but fared better in French colonies . It was successful in the Latin American countries of Peru , Bolivia , and Ecuador . Mother India was also acclaimed across the Arab world , in the Middle East , parts of Southeast Asia , and North Africa and continued to be shown in countries such as Algeria at least ten years after its release . It was released in US on 9 July 1959 to lukewarm response , and the UK release in 1961 was also a commercial failure . The initial international version with English subtitles was 40 minutes shorter than the Indian release .
As of 2013 , Mother India is available in DVD in all regions NTSC format , distributed by the Eros Entertainment .
= = = Reviews = = =
Baburao Patel of the film magazine Filmindia ( December 1957 ) described Mother India after its release as " the greatest picture produced in India " and wrote that no other actress would have been able to perform the role as well as Nargis . A review in Monthly Film Bulletin in 1958 remarked that audiences in UK should be grateful that the international version was shortened by 40 minutes , and termed it a " rag @-@ bag pantomime " . After its US release in 1959 , Irene Thirer reviewed the film in the New York Post in which she praised its " striking dramatic appeal " , but feared it might not be accepted by American audiences due to cultural differences . In a 1976 article in the journal Studies : An Irish Quarterly Review , author Michael Gallagher found the film " an amazing mixture of political allegory and cheap musical , a cross between the impressiveness of Eisenstein and the banality of Show Boat " . The New Internationalist in 1999 found Nargis 's acting " exemplary " , and noted " a clever interplay — artistically and politically — between the traditional and the radical " evident in Mother India .
In a 2002 article in The Village Voice , film critic J. Hoberman described the film as " an outrageous masala of apparently discordant elements . " He characterised it as a mixture of " indigenous versions of Soviet @-@ style tractor @-@ opera , Italian neo @-@ realism , Hollywood kiddie @-@ cuteness , a dozen Technicolor musical numbers , and , most significantly , a metaphoric overlay of pop Hinduism . " Hoberman criticised the acting as " broad " , and also wrote about the " vaguely left @-@ wing " nationalist overtone of the film . Author Phill Hall , writing for Film Threat in 2002 , described the film as exceptionally sluggish and one @-@ dimensional , and lampooned it saying " it takes the strongest of constitutions to endure this film without entertaining notions of matricide . " Jonathan Romney in his 2002 report in The Independent observed the earth @-@ mother Radha as " India 's answer to Anna Magnani " and the film as " an all @-@ out exercise in ideological myth @-@ making . " Women 's Feature Service , in a 2007 article , noted Mother India as " one of the most outstanding films of the post @-@ Independence era . " Ziya Us Salam of The Hindu wrote in her 2010 report , " Mehboob was able to blend the individual with the universal , thereby enhancing the film 's appeal without compromising on its sensitivity . "
= = = Awards = = =
Mother India , its star Nargis , and the director Khan received many awards and nominations . Nargis won the Filmfare Best Actress Award in 1958 and became the first Indian to receive the Best Actress award at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival in present @-@ day Czech Republic . Mother India won the Filmfare Award for Best Film and scooped several other Filmfare awards including Best Director for Khan , Best Cinematographer for Faredoon Irani , and Best Sound for R. Kaushik . In 1958 , the film became India 's first submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and was chosen as one of the five nominations for the category . The international version , 120 minutes long , was sent for Oscars . Additionally , this version had English subtitles , and dropped Mehboob Productions ' logo , which featured the Communist hammer and sickle , to appease the Academy . The 120 @-@ minute version was later distributed in the US and UK by Columbia Pictures . The film came close to winning the Academy Award but lost to Federico Fellini 's Nights of Cabiria by a single vote . Khan was utterly disappointed at not winning the award . " He had seen the other films in the fray and believed Mother India was far superior to them " recalled Sunil Dutt years later . It also won two awards at the 5th National Film Awards in 1957 : an All India Certificate of Merit for Best Feature Film and Certificate of Merit for Best Feature Film in Hindi .
= = Music = =
The score and soundtrack for Mother India was composed by Naushad . Mehboob Khan had worked on eight films with Naushad and developed a rapport with him . The lyrics were by Shakeel Badayuni . The soundtrack consists of 12 songs and features vocals by Mohammed Rafi , Shamshad Begum , Lata Mangeshkar , and Manna Dey . It was not particularly well received upon release , and critics said it did not match the high pitch and quality of the film . However , its later reception has been more positive : the soundtrack made Planet Bollywood 's list of " 100 Greatest Bollywood Soundtracks Ever " , compiled in the 2000s . The review gave the album 7 @.@ 5 stars out of 10 .
Mother India is the earliest example of a Hindi film containing Western classical music and Hollywood @-@ style orchestra . An example is a coda during the scene in which Birju runs away from his mother and rejects her . It features a powerful symphonic orchestra with strings , woodwinds and trumpets . This orchestral music contains extensive chromaticism , diminished sevenths , and augmented scales . It also features violin tremolos . Anne Morcom writes in Hindi Film Songs and the Cinema that the piece is unmelodic and " profoundly disturbing " . This use of a western @-@ style orchestra in Indian cinema influenced many later films , such as Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ( 1960 ) , which features similar dissonant orchestral music to create atmosphere at tense moments . The song " Holi Aayi Re Kanhai " , sung by Shamshad Begum , has been cited as a typical Hindi film song which is written for and sung by a female singer , with an emotional charge that appeals to a mass audience .
= = Legacy = =
Mother India has been described as " perhaps India 's most revered film " , a " cinematic epic " , a " flag @-@ bearer of Hindi cinema and a legend in its own right " , Mehboob Khan 's magnum opus and an " all @-@ time blockbuster " , which ranks highly among India 's most successful films . It was in continuous distribution , being played in theatres , for more than three decades ; the record ended in the mid @-@ 1990s with the advent of satellite television and a change in Indian film @-@ viewing habits . Mother India belongs to only a small collection of films , including Kismet ( 1943 ) , Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ( 1960 ) , Sholay ( 1975 ) and Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! ( 1994 ) , which are repeatedly watched throughout India and are viewed as definitive Hindi films with cultural significance . It is also among the only three Indian films to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film ( the others being Salaam Bombay ! and Lagaan ) . The Hindustan Times ( in 2007 ) identifies the " film 's pungent social references " which are " too harsh to be sold at a profit today . But this heartrending tale filled Indians with hope and pride then . "
Mother India is ranked No. 80 in Empire magazine 's " The 100 Best Films of World Cinema " in 2010 . It is listed among the only three Hindi films in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die ( the others being Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge and Deewaar ) . Film critic Anupama Chopra included it in her list of top 100 films in world cinema . In 2005 , Indiatimes Movies ranked the film amongst the " Top 25 Must See Bollywood Films " . It was ranked third in the British Film Institute 's 2002 poll of " Top 10 Indian Films " . It was also included TIME 's list of the best Bollywood classics in 2010 , and in CNN @-@ IBN 's list of the " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " in 2013 . The film was premiered in the Cannes Classics section of the 2004 Cannes Film Festival .
Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN notes that Mother India " didn 't just put India on the world map , it also defined Hindi cinema for decades that followed . " Film critic Dave Kehr agrees that it influenced Indian films for the next 50 years . A 1983 Channel 4 documentary on Hindi cinema describes the film as setting a benchmark in Indian cinema . The shooting stance of Nargis at the end of the film is one of the all @-@ time iconic images of Hindi cinema . Other iconic scenes include Radha pulling the plough through the field ( see film poster at the top ) and feeding chapatis to her two sons as they pull the plough . The Hindustan Times states that Nargis symbolised mothers in " which all the mothers [ in later films ] had the same clichéd roles to play . Representing both motherhood and Mother Earth , who also nurtures and occasionally punishes , Nargis immortalised the Indian mother on celluloid . " The film pioneered the portrayal of two morally opposed brothers personifying good and evil , which became a repeated motif in Hindi films , including Gunga Jumna ( 1961 ) and Deewar ( 1975 ) . The rebellious Birju also inspired the " angry young man " stock character that arose in 1970s Hindi cinema .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Ramprasad Sen =
Sadhak Rāmprasād Sen ( Bengali : রামপ ্ রসাদ সেন ; c . 1718 or c . 1723 – c . 1775 ) was a Shakta poet and saint of eighteenth century Bengal . His bhakti poems , known as Ramprasadi ,
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are still popular in Bengal — they are usually addressed to the Hindu goddess Kali and written in Bengali . Stories of Ramprasad 's life typically include legends and myths mixed with biographical details .
It is said that , Ramprasad was born into a Tantric family , and showed an inclination towards poetry from an early age . He became a disciple of Krishnananda Agamavagisha , a Tantric scholar and yogi . Ramprasad became well known for his devotional songs , eventually becoming the court poet of Raja Krishnachandra of Nadia . His life has been the subject of many stories depicting his devotion to , and relationship with , Kali . Ramprasad 's literary works include Vidyasundar , Kali @-@ kirtana , Krishna @-@ kirtana and Shaktigiti .
Ramprasad is credited with creating a new compositional form that combined the Bengali folk style of Baul music with classical melodies and kirtan . The new style took root in Bengali culture with many poet @-@ composers combining folk and raga @-@ based melodies , mixing every common style of music from classical to semi @-@ classical and folk . His songs are sung today , with a popular collection — Ramprasadi Sangit ( " Songs of Ramprasad " ) — sold at Shakta temples and pithas in Bengal .
= = Biography = =
Biographies of Ramprasad are a mixture of biography , metaphor , and legend .
= = = Early life = = =
Ramprasad was born in Halisahar , a village on the banks of the Ganges about thirty @-@ five miles north of Kolkata , into a Tantric Vaidya family . Due to the absence of birth records , his actual birth date is not known , but it is believed to be around 1718 or 1723 . His father , Ramram Sen , was an Ayurvedic doctor and Sanskrit scholar . Ramprasad 's mother Siddheswari was Ramram 's second wife . Ramprasad was sent to a Sanskrit tol ( school ) where he learned Sanskrit grammar , literature , Persian , and Hindi . As a youth , he had a talent for poetry and learning new languages .
Ramram hoped his son would follow in his profession , but Ramprasad showed no interest in practical pursuits . As he grew up , his spiritual inclinations caused a great deal of anxiety to his parents . Believing that marriage would make Ramprasad more responsible , his parents married him to a girl named Sarvani when he was twenty @-@ two years old . In keeping with the family custom , the newly wed couple was initiated by the family 's spiritual teacher , Madhavacharya . According to traditional accounts , during initiation when the guru whispered the mantra to him , Ramprasad became consumed by intense longing for the goddess Kali . One year after the initiation he lost his guru . Ramprasad later became the disciple of Krishnananda Agamavagisha , a Tantric yogi and scholar . Agamavagisha was a well known devotee of Kali and the author of the Bengali book Tantrasara . Agamavagisha instructed Ramprasad in Tantric sadhanas ( spiritual disciplines ) and worship of Kali .
= = = Employment = = =
Instead of following his parents wishes and looking for a job , it is said that Ramprasad devoted most of his time to sadhana . Ramram died before he could make provisions to support the family . Forced finally by poverty , Ramprasad moved to Kolkata and worked as an accountant in the household of Durga Charan Mitra for a monthly salary of thirty rupees . According to traditional accounts , during his employment Ramprasad would write devotional songs to Kali . His fellow employees were appalled to see Ramprasad write poems in his account book , and reported him to their employer . Durga Charan Mitra , upon reading Ramprasad 's work , was moved by his piety and literary skill . Instead of dismissing Ramprasad from work , he asked him to return to his village and compose songs to Kali , while continuing to pay his salary .
= = = Sadhana and poetry = = =
After returning to his village , Ramprasad spent most of his time in sadhana , meditation , and prayer . Traditional accounts tell of several esoteric sadhanas that he performed , including standing neck @-@ deep in the river Ganges , singing songs to Kali . Ramprasad would regularly practice his sadhana in a panchavati : a grove with five trees — banyan , bael , amalaki , ashoka , and peepul — all regarded as holy in Tantric tradition . He would reportedly spend hours meditating on a panchamundi asana ( an altar inside which are interred five skulls – that of a snake , frog , rabbit , fox , and man ) . According to popular stories he had a vision of Kali in her form of Adyashakti Mahamaya .
The Maharaja Krishna Chandra of Nadia , a landlord under Nawab Sirajuddaula of Bengal , heard Ramprasad 's hymns . Being an ardent devotee of Kali , he appointed Ramprasad as his court poet . Ramprasad rarely attended the Maharaja 's court and would spend his time in sadhana and worship of Kali instead . Krishna Chandra became Ramprasad 's benefactor , giving him 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ; 0 @.@ 16 sq mi ) of tax free land . Ramprasad , in return , dedicated his book Vidyasundar ( " Beautiful Knowledge " ) to the Maharaja . Krishna Chandra also gave Ramprasad the title Kaviranjana ( " Entertainer of poets " ) . During the Maharaja 's last years , Ramprasad stayed beside him , singing hymns to Kali . Ramprasad 's mysticism was recognized by sufis and Nawab Sirajuddaula . Ramprasad is said to have visited the court of the Nawab at the Nawab 's fervent request .
= = = Death = = =
During Ramprasad 's old age , he was looked after by his son Ramdulal and daughter @-@ in @-@ law Bhagavati . A folk story is told of Ramprasad 's death . Ramprasad was very fond of taking part in Kali puja on the night of Diwali , the festival of lights . On one Kali puja night , he performed the puja and sang throughout the night . In the morning , Ramprasad carried the jar of Divine Mother 's sanctified water on his head to the Ganges . He was followed by the devotees , who carried the clay image of Kali to be immersed in the Ganges after the night of worship . Ramprasad waded into the holy river , until the water was neck deep , all the while singing for Kali . As Kali 's image was immersed , Ramprasad died — this was believed to be around 1775 .
However , recent documentary evidence , a Kabulatipatra dated April 1794 bearing the sign of Ramprasad Sen as a witness , clearly proves the fact that Ramprasad Sen was alive in 1794 . The said Kabulatipatra has been preserved and displayed at Sabarna Sangrahashala in Barisha .
= = Stories and legends = =
In Bengal , popular stories and legends are told of Ramprasad . One of the most well known stories is about a " radiant girl " who helped him one day . Ramprasad was repairing a fence with the assistance of his daughter , who left shortly thereafter . Soon a " radiant girl " , whom he didn 't recognize , came to help him . After finishing the task , she vanished . According to the story , Ramprasad then realized that she was a manifestation of Kali .
Another popular story is told of Ramprasad 's vision of goddess Annapurna of Varanasi . Ramprasad was on his way to the river for his daily ritual bath when a beautiful young woman stopped him , asking if she could hear him sing a devotional song to the Divine Mother . Ramprasad requested her to wait , since it was getting late for his noon worship . When he returned , he couldn 't find her , and began to think that it may have been the " play of Divine Mother . " Sitting down to meditate , he was surrounded by a radiant light and heard a female voice saying , " I am Annapurna ( … ) I came all the way from Varanasi to hear your songs but , alas , I had to leave disappointed . " Ramprasad was angry with himself and immediately left for Varanasi to find Mother Annapurna and sing for her . After walking many miles , he reached Triveni , where he took rest under a tree on the bank of the Ganges . Here he reportedly received another vision , saw the same mystical light , and heard the Mother 's voice saying , " Stay here and sing for me . ( … ) Varanasi is not the only place where I live ; I pervade the whole universe . "
= = Poetry and influence = =
Ramprasad Sen is regarded as one of the notable figures of the bhakti movement in Bengal during the eighteenth century . He is credited with popularizing the bhakti Shakta tradition and Shyama Sangeet — devotional songs to the goddess Kali . Ramprasad was the first Shakta poet to address Kali with such intimate devotion , and to sing of her as a tender loving mother or even as a little girl . After him , a school of Shakta poets continued the Kali @-@ bhakti tradition .
Ramprasad created a new compositional form that combined the Bengali folk style of Baul music with classical melodies and kirtan . This new form took root in Bengali culture for the next hundred and fifty years , with hundreds of poet @-@ composers combining folk and raga @-@ based melodies , and bringing together styles of music that included classical , semi @-@ classical , and folk . His poetic style has been described as " sweet , familiar and unsophisticated " , though his lyrics were sung in classical style rather than a folk style . Two of his notable successors as composers in the same style were Kamalakanta Bhattacarya and Mahendranath Bhattacarya .
Ramprasad 's songs are known as Ramprasadi . The devotion to Kali often included as a background the events in Bengal during his time , such as the Bengal famine of 1770 , economic hardships , and the deterioration of rural culture . His poems were very popular during his lifetime .
Ramprasad 's literary works include Vidyasundar ( or Kalikaman @-@ gala ) ( ca. sixth or seventh decade of the 18th century ) , Kali @-@ kirtana , the fragmentary Krishna @-@ kirtana , and Shaktigiti . Kali @-@ kirtana is a collection of lyric and narrative poetry describing the early life of Uma . Krishna @-@ kirtana is an incomplete book of poems and songs to Krishna — the complete collection is yet to be discovered . Vidyasundara Kavya is written in a narrative style that was already popular in Bengali literature , telling the traditional love story of Vidya and Sundara — children of kings who are aided by Kali in meeting , falling in love , and marrying . Shaktigiti is Ramprasad 's well known and respected work , in which he expresses his deepest feelings and love for Kali . In Shaktigiti , he shares the most intimate relationship with Kali — a child who can both love and quarrel with his mother over the inequities of human birth .
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa , a mystic of nineteenth century Bengal , often sang his songs and regarded Ramprasad as his beloved poet . Many of these songs are recorded in The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna , which at one point mentions , " … he ( Ramakrishna ) would spend hours singing the devotional songs of great devotees of the Mother , such as Kamalakanta and Ramprasad . Those rhapsodic songs describing direct vision of God … " Paramhansa Yogananda also was an admirer of Ramprasad and his devotional songs , frequently singing them . Sister Nivedita compared Ramprasad with the English poet William Blake .
One of Ramprasad 's hymns to the Goddess is as follows :
Another of his popular poems describes the human attempt to understand the Goddess :
Ramprasad 's songs are still popular in Bengal and recited regularly in the worship of Kali . Scholar Shuma Chakrovarty notes that his songs are " broadcast over the radio and sung on the streets and in the homes and temples of Calcutta by a cross @-@ section of people — children , the elderly , housewives , businessmen , scholars , the illiterate , monks , householders , and the youth of all classes " . Many of his songs were sung by popular Shyama Sangeet singers like Dhananjay Bhattacharya , Pannalal Bhattacharya , and Anup Ghosal . Still his master literature combination of simple words in the songs melts one 's hearts and floods the eye with tears . An [ anekanta ] vadin reading of Ramprasad 's texts is also found .
= Battle of Sungei Koemba =
The Battle of Sungei Koemba ( 27 May – 12 June 1965 ) took place during the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation . Involving Australian and Indonesian troops , the battle consisted of a series of ambushes launched by the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) , along the Sungei Koemba river in Kalimantan ( Indonesian Borneo ) . The ambushes were part of the wider Operation Claret which involved cross @-@ border operations by British @-@ Commonwealth units from bases in Sarawak , penetrating up to 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) into Indonesian territory with the aim of disrupting the movement and resupply of Indonesian forces and to keep them off balance .
The first ambush was conducted by two platoons from B Company on 27 May 1965 and resulted in significant Indonesian casualties , for no loss to the Australians . The second ambush was conducted a fortnight later and was set a little further downstream from the last one , this time by a platoon from C Company , occurring on 12 June 1965 and again resulting in heavy Indonesian casualties for no loss to the Australians .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
Following Malayan independence from Britain in 1957 , proposals to federate the states of Malaya , Sabah , Sarawak , Brunei , and Singapore led to tensions with Indonesia . In late @-@ 1962 the Indonesian president , Sukarno , had begun military operations in an attempt to destabilise the new state , including an attempt to seize power in the independent enclave of Brunei in December . Following the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 , hostilities grew with military activity increasing along the Indonesian side of the border in Borneo , as small parties of armed men began infiltrating Malaysian territory on propaganda and sabotage missions . Carried out by Indonesian irregular " volunteers " , these operations continued throughout 1963 . However , by 1964 Indonesian regular army ( TNI ) units had also become involved .
Although not initially agreeing to send troops to Borneo in the opening stages of the Indonesia @-@ Malaysia Confrontation , the Australian government did allow its forces stationed in Malaysia as part of the Far East Strategic Reserve ( FESR ) to be used to protect Peninsular Malaysia from Indonesian attack . 3 RAR , which was based at Camp Terendak in Malacca , was subsequently used to mop up two small airborne and seaborne landings near Labis and Pontian in September and October 1964 . These incursions suggested that a major escalation in the conflict was imminent , and in January 1965 the government conceded to British and Malaysian requests , subsequently agreeing to deploy an infantry battalion to Borneo , in addition to a battery of artillery , an engineer construction squadron , and a squadron from the Special Air Service Regiment .
During the early phases , British and Malaysian troops had attempted only to control the border , and to protect population centres . However , by the time the Australian battalion deployed the British had decided on more aggressive action , crossing borders to obtain information and forcing the Indonesians to remain on the defensive , under the codename Operation Claret . The fighting took place in mountainous , jungle @-@ clad terrain , and a debilitating climate , with operations characterised by the extensive use of company bases sited along the border , cross @-@ border operations , the use of helicopters for troop movement and resupply , and the role of human and signals intelligence to determine Indonesian movements and intentions .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
As part of these operations , British @-@ Commonwealth reconnaissance and special forces patrols frequently crossed the border into the Kalimantan in order to detect Indonesian forces about to enter Sarawak . Initially penetration was limited to 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) , while later it was extended to 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) , and yet again to 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . Conventional forces were then tasked to act on this information to ambush or otherwise attack the Indonesians . Uncertain of where British @-@ Commonwealth forces might strike next , the Indonesians were increasingly forced to devote their resources to protecting their own positions , reducing their ability to conduct offensive operations , although these continued on a much reduced scale . Given the sensitivity of Claret operations and the potential consequences if they were exposed they were controlled at the highest level , and were highly classified at the time , with the participants sworn to secrecy . When casualties were suffered they were reported as having occurred within Malaysian territory .
3 RAR formally relieved a British Army battalion , the 1 / 7th Gurkhas , in the Bau area of Sarawak on 22 March 1965 , although they had mounted a number of familiarisation patrols inside Malaysian territory over the proceeding weeks . Joining the West Brigade , the Australians were initially deployed in a series of company bases along the border , guarding the approaches to the capital Kuching just 31 miles ( 50 km ) away . Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Bruce McDonald , the battalion was deployed with three of its four rifle companies forward at Stass ( A Company ) , Bukit Knuckle ( B Company ) and Serikin ( C Company ) in order to cover the border areas , with the fourth company ( D Company ) remaining in reserve at Bau along with Battalion Headquarters . On average , each company operated on a frontage of around 7 @,@ 700 yards ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) . In support in West Brigade was the British 4th Light Regiment , equipped with 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L5 pack howitizers and 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) medium guns . Included were the guns of 102nd Field Battery , Royal Australian Artillery , which had recently been deployed to West Sarawak .
By late April the Australians began their first cross @-@ border reconnaissance patrols . Opposing them were a number of Indonesian units , including elements of the Resimen Para Komando Angkatan Darat ( RPKAD ) and the Diponegoro Division , normally based in KODAM 7 in central Java . These units were among the best in the TNI . In April 1965 two Indonesian battalion combat teams from the 5th Brigade were deployed in the 3 RAR area of operations , designated ' H ' BTP and ' J ' BTP , while a third battalion , ' I ' BTP , was concentrated further to the east ; in total 3 @,@ 050 men under the overall command of Colonel Sujono . These units were supported by at least two detachments of artillery , equipped with anti @-@ aircraft machine @-@ guns and 81 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) mortars .
= = Battle = =
= = = First ambush , 27 May 1965 = = =
The first Australian fighting patrol into Kalimantan began on 24 May with two platoons , 5 and 11 Platoons , from B Company and a forward observation party , departing the company base at Bukit Knuckle under the command of Major William Broderick . The patrol — designated Operation Article — involved an ambush patrol along the bank of the Sungei Koemba river . After several days of careful and laborious movement through the thick jungle Broderick established a patrol base on the high ground overlooking the river on 26 May and sent forward a small reconnaissance party of three men with Lieutenant Patrick Beale . The forward element subsequently detected a party of Indonesians in a re @-@ entrant below , talking loudly and firing random shots , seemingly unaware of the proximity of the Australians and unconcerned with basic notions of security .
The following morning Broderick moved the company down the spur line in order to establish a firm base , while Beale moved 5 Platoon forward . Four 7 @.@ 62 mm L4A4 Bren light machine @-@ guns were incorporated into the patrol . The Australians encountered a track , beyond which lay the river , while to the north across a shallow creek , movement of the Indonesians could still be heard . The presence of the Indonesians so close to the Australian position made the chances of detection too great and as such no more troops were brought forward . Instead , Beale deployed his platoon into two positions , one covering the track with two Brens in order to secure it from the Indonesians in the re @-@ entrant , as well as another position on a bend in the river . Only the sentry on the right @-@ hand flank , Private Lawrence Jackson , could see around the bend , which narrowed to just 33 yards ( 30 m ) at that point .
At 11 : 32 am , after occupying the position for only 40 minutes , motors were heard approaching along the river , with two 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) motor boats coming into view . Each vessel contained five armed and uniformed Indonesian soldiers , including one fair haired European , who was later identified as a Dutch mercenary . The Australians had not been detected and allowed the boats to draw closer before the ambush was sprung . With the boats just 38 yards ( 35 m ) away they opened fire , raking them with automatic fire which emptied the boats of their occupants . The first boat sank and the second drifted down stream . Two Indonesians were observed swimming for the far bank and were subsequently shot , with the other eight also killed . Unknown to the Australians , however , two more boats had been following the first two , and as the third boat rounded the bend in the river Private Jackson engaged the Indonesians , killing all five occupants from a range of just 11 yards ( 10 m ) . The fourth vessel subsequently pulled quickly to the shore out of sight of the remainder of the Australians , with Jackson engaging it with two grenades and small arms fire before his weapon jammed .
The action had lasted just two minutes to this point , yet already a party of approximately 10 Indonesians across the river began to engage the Australians with heavy automatic fire , although it was largely inaccurate . Beale ordered a withdrawal to link up with the rest of B Company , with the ambush party subsequently rejoining the rest of 5 Platoon while 11 Platoon covered their withdrawal . The forward observation officer subsequently called in a defensive artillery fire mission onto the abandoned position , reducing the volume of Indonesian fire and allowing the Australians to break contact . Shortly after an Indonesian 81 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) mortar began to fire , dropping rounds into the jungle towards Siding , away from B Company 's escape route . Elements of D Company and Support Company had been deployed so as to support the withdrawal , and the patrol subsequently recrossed the border into Sarawak without further incident , returning to Bukit Knuckle later that evening .
No Australian casualties were incurred and at least 15 Indonesians were believed to have been killed . Later that night an Indonesian radio broadcast announced that 23 Indonesian military personnel had been accidentally killed during a training exercise . Jackson was subsequently awarded the Military Medal for his " complete disregard for his own safety , [ which ] prevented the Indonesians from landing on the near bank and attacking the other members of the ambush . He contributed much to the overwhelming success of the engagement " ; while Beale received the Military Cross for " his personal bravery , inspiring leadership , judgment and skill " . Further Claret operations followed in quick succession , making June the most intensive month of the Australian battalion 's tour in Borneo , and its most successful .
= = = Second ambush , 12 June 1965 = = =
On 10 June a patrol — designated Operation Faun Fare — consisting of 7 Platoon , C Company under Lieutenant Robert Guest , accompanied the company commander Major Ivor Hodgkinson , the Intelligence Officer and a fire control party , left the company base at Serikin to mount an ambush on the Sungei Koemba river . The site of the ambush was to be a little further downstream from the successful action the previous month , being more towards the Indonesian positions at Siding . The Australian patrol occupied its intended ambush position early the next morning and proceeded to wait . During the day two boats occupied by civilians were observed and allowed to pass unhindered , as were three more the next morning .
At 10 : 45 am on 12 June Private Haines , a sentry on the left hand flank , warned of the approach of an Indonesian foot patrol along the river bank . The Australians had sited the ambush to engage targets on the river and were initially at a disadvantage . Ten minutes after the Indonesians were first seen , Private Sneddon , on the extreme left , engaged a group of six Indonesians with a long burst of machine @-@ gun fire , killing two instantly and a third as he ran towards him . Haines subsequently killed a fourth , while a fifth Indonesian continued past him , followed by five others , who then engaged the Australians . The Indonesian patrol continued to advance , taking them towards the rear of the Australian positions .
Hodgkinson worked his way around to the left towards the Indonesian line of approach , subsequently engaging and killing two more , and wounding a third . Guest gathered the right hand elements of 7 Platoon , hooking around Hodgkinson and counter @-@ attacking the remaining Indonesians , killing the previously wounded soldier and one other . Yet another wounded Indonesian was observed to crawl away while the tenth proceeded to run off unharmed back in the direction from which the patrol had come . Within twenty minutes the contact was over and the Australians proceeded to collect the discarded Indonesian weapons and equipment , including a Browning Automatic Rifle , three MI rifles and 200 rounds of ammunition . Dressed in US steel helmets , green shirts and blue and khaki shorts , the Indonesian soldiers were subsequently identified as members of 440 Battalion .
The Australians then withdrew , calling in a defensive fire artillery mission onto the abandoned ambush position in order to allow them to break contact . Later , Indonesian small arms fire was heard to emanate from the same area and a further nine rounds were called in to bombard the site . The patrol harboured for the night , recrossing the border without incident the following day and returning to Serikin . The Australians suffered no casualties , while eight Indonesians were killed and one was seriously wounded . For his leadership of C Company throughout 3 RAR 's deployment , which " [ brought ] out those highest qualities expected of professional soldiers " , Hodgkinson was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire on 24 May 1966 .
As a consequence , the Indonesians planned to increase their activity against the Gumbang , Tringgus and Bukit Knuckle areas , while additional forces were also subsequently redeployed against Serian . In response , Australian reconnaissance patrols were increased in order to detect movement into Sarawak , and these would later result in further fighting . Perhaps in retailiation , Indonesian mortars subsequently targeted a number of Australian positions along the border , firing 13 rounds , while a further 25 rounds were fired at 11 : 00 am . There were no casualties .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Assessment = = =
In addition to inflicting significant casualties on Indonesian forces , the successful Australian ambushes on the Sungei Koemba , and later at Kindau , in May and June allowed 3 RAR to dominate the border area , while also providing early warning of Indonesian incursions into Sarawak . Following these actions Major General George Lea , the British Director of Operations , ordered a short pause in offensive operations in order to observe the effects . Indonesian mortar attacks on company bases in the 3 RAR area of operation , which had been heavy throughout May and June , ceased soon afterwards . Following the resumption of Claret operations the Australian battalion later followed this up with another profitable mission at Babang on 12 July , contributing to the wider success of the British @-@ Commonwealth forces in slowly asserting control on the war .
Overall , Operation Claret was largely successful in gaining the initiative , inflicting significant casualties on the Indonesians and keeping them on the defensive , before being suspended late in the war . Generally British Commonwealth units on their first tour in Borneo were not allowed to undertake such audacious operations however , and consequently , although highly successful the actions of 3 RAR in their first and only tour may not have been representative of those by more experienced Gurkha and British battalions . Denied during the war , these incursions were only publicly disclosed by Britain in 1974 , while the Australian government did not officially acknowledge its involvement until 1996 . 3 RAR carried out 32 Claret operations in total , including 12 reconnaissance patrols and 20 ambushes or fighting patrols , although the majority never resulted in contact . In contrast , Indonesian activity was usually small @-@ scale and aimed to challenge incursions rather than to attack them .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
3 RAR completed its tour in August 1965 and returned to Camp Terendak , being relieved in West Brigade by the 2 / 10th Gurkhas . During its four months in Borneo the Australian battalion had suffered three men killed and five wounded , the bulk of which occurred during two separate land mine incidents . The 2 / 10th Gurkhas subsequently fought a number of heavy engagements against the Indonesians , including an action at Bau on 21 November 1965 , during which 24 Indonesians were killed for the loss of three Gurkhas . One of the Gurkhas , Lance Corporal Rambahadur Limbu , was later awarded the Victoria Cross ; the only such decoration of the conflict . Meanwhile , the 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 4 RAR ) arrived in Malaysia in September 1965 to replace 3 RAR in the FESR , with the battalion returning to Australia in October . After a period of training the new battalion deployed to Sarawak in April 1966 where it also operated from a series of company bases around Bau . However , by this time the war was winding down as peace negotiations had begun between Malaysia and Indonesia , and although 4 RAR was involved in a number of contacts , its tour was less eventful .
= Wolfgang Lüth =
Kapitän zur See ( Captain ) Wolfgang August Eugen Lüth ( 15 October 1913 – 14 May 1945 ) , was the second most successful German U @-@ boat ace of World War II . His career record of 46 merchant ships plus the French submarine Doris sunk during 15 war patrols , with a total displacement of 230 @,@ 781 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was second only to that of Korvettenkapitän ( Lieutenant Commander ) Otto Kretschmer , whose 47 sinkings totaled 274 @.@ 333 GRT .
Lüth joined the Reichsmarine in 1933 . After a period of training on surface vessels , he transferred to the U @-@ boat service in 1936 . In December 1939 he received command of U @-@ 9 , which he took on six war @-@ patrols . In June 1940 he took command of U @-@ 138 for two patrols . In October 1940 he transferred again , this time to the ocean @-@ going submarine U @-@ 43 for five war @-@ patrols . After two patrols on U @-@ 181 , the second being his longest of the war , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds . He was the first of two U @-@ boat commanders to be so honored during World War II , the other recipient being Albrecht Brandi .
Lüth 's last service position was commander of the naval academy at Mürwik a part of Flensburg . He was accidentally shot and killed by a German sentry on the night of 13 / 14 May 1945 . Lüth was given the last state funeral in the Third Reich , the only U @-@ boat commander to be so commemorated .
= = Early life and career = =
Lüth was a Baltic German born in Riga in the Russian Empire . He went to the Naturwissenschaftliches Gymnasium there and after he had received his Abitur ( school leaving certificate ) , he studied Law for three semesters at the Herder @-@ Institut . With his parents approval he joined the Reichsmarine on 1 April 1933 as an Offiziersanwärter ( Officer Candidate ) . After he underwent basic military training in the 2nd department ( II . Abteilung ) of the standing ship division ( Schiffsstammdivision ) of the Baltic Sea in Stralsund ( 1 April 1933 – 29 June 1933 ) , he was transferred to the training ship Gorch Fock ( 30 June 1933 – 23 September 1933 ) attaining the rank of Seekadett ( Naval Cadet ) on 23 September 1933 . He initially served with the surface fleet , going on a nine @-@ month training tour around the world in the light cruiser Karlsruhe from 24 September 1933 to 27 June 1934 . He advanced in rank to Fähnrich zur See ( Midshipman ) on 1 July 1934 and served for a year aboard the light cruiser Königsberg ( 22 March 1936 – 31 January 1937 ) , attaining the rank of Oberfähnrich zur See ( Senior midshipman ) on 1 April 1936 and Leutnant zur See ( Ensign ) on 1 October 1936 .
In February 1937 he transferred to the U @-@ boat arm and was promoted to Oberleutnant zur See ( Lieutenant [ junior grade ] ) on 1 June 1938 . In July he was appointed 2nd Watch Officer of U @-@ 27 ( 3 July 1938 – 23 October 1938 ) . He sailed on a patrol in Spanish waters during the civil war in that country on the U @-@ boat tender Erwin Wassner ( 13 April 1939 – 18 May 1939 ) . In October he was appointed the 1st Watch Officer of U @-@ 38 under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Lieutenant ) Heinrich Liebe , who during the course of World War II would earn the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves . Lüth was on patrol with U @-@ 38 from 19 August 1939 until 18 September , ( the war started on 1 September ) .
= = Boats under his command = =
= = = U @-@ 9 = = =
On 30 December 1939 Lüth took command of U @-@ 9 , a Type IIB U @-@ boat . He went on six patrols with this boat , achieving steady success . His first victim , following the premature ignition of a smoke float , was the Swedish merchantman Flandria , which he sank in January 1940 . This surface attack was carried out while U @-@ 9 's bridge was filled with onlooking crew members . Other sinkings included the surfaced French submarine Doris on 9 May 1940 and seven merchant ships with a total of 16 @,@ 669 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Two of Lüth 's officers on U @-@ 9 would be awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . His chief engineer Oberleutnant zur See Karl @-@ Heinz Wiebe was decorated in 1944 when he was chief engineer of U @-@ 178 . Oberleutnant zur See Heinrich Schonder , 1st Watch Officer on U @-@ 9 between January and April 1940 , received the award in 1942 by which time he had become commander of U @-@ 77 .
= = = U @-@ 138 = = =
On 27 June 1940 Lüth took command of U @-@ 138 , a Type IID , with which he sank four ships on his first patrol , totalling 34 @,@ 644 GRT . In October , after having returned from his second patrol , on which he fired a torpedo at ( but missed ) the Norwegian merchant steamer SS Dagrun ( 4 @,@ 562 GRT ) , sank the British merchant steamer SS Bonheur ( 5 @,@ 327 GRT ) and damaged the British motor tanker British Glory ( 6 @,@ 993 GRT ) . Lüth was mentioned for the first time in the Wehrmachtbericht , ( the daily report by the High Command of the German Armed Forces regarding the military situation on all fronts ) , on 23 September 1940 and received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for his achievements on 24 October 1940 .
= = = U @-@ 43 = = =
On 21 October 1940 Lüth took command of U @-@ 43 , a long range Type IX U @-@ boat . He carried out five patrols with this boat , totaling 204 days at sea , sinking 12 ships adding up to 64 @,@ 852 GRT . On 1 January 1941 he was promoted to Kapitänleutnant . Lüth , because of his experience — like many other top commanders — was tasked with training future U @-@ boat commanders . These trainees often came along on single war @-@ patrols , which would be their last exercise before they received their own command . Kapitänleutnant Erich Würdemann was one such trainee and sailed onboard U @-@ 43 from April to July 1941 . Würdemann would be awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross as commander of U @-@ 506 in 1943 before he was killed in action on 14 July 1943 .
= = = = The sinking of U @-@ 43 = = = =
U @-@ 43 was due to depart Lorient on a war patrol to an area off Freetown , west Africa , but early on 4 February 1941 , she sank while tied to the Ysere , an old sailing ship which was used as a floating pier . Valves and vents had been tampered @-@ with the previous day , but no one had noticed the slow , but steady ingress of water into the bilges . To make matters worse and contrary to a Befehlshaber der U @-@ Boote ( BdU — U @-@ boat command headquarters ) directive , a hatch had been left open , allowing water to pour into the after torpedo room . Two petty officers were found to be most at fault ; but Lüth , as captain , was ultimately responsible . However , no record of punishment seems to have survived and Lüth 's career does not appear to have been affected .
= = = U @-@ 181 = = =
On 9 May 1942 Lüth was given command of a long @-@ range Type IXD @-@ 2 U @-@ boat , U @-@ 181 . He left on his first patrol in September 1942 , departing from Kiel for the Indian Ocean and waters off South Africa . In October he reached the sea lanes outside Cape Town and spent a month patrolling the area , sinking 12 ships for 58 @,@ 381 GRT before returning to Bordeaux in France , in January 1943 . On 13 November 1942 he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves . On 31 January 1943 , Lüth other Kriegsmarine officers traveled to the Wolf 's Lair , Hitler 's headquarters in Rastenburg , present @-@ day Kętrzyn in Poland , for the Oak Leaves presentation . Following the presentation , Hitler met with Dönitz and Vizeadmiral Theodor Krancke in private . In this meeting , Hitler appointed Dönitz as Oberbefehlshaber der Marine ( Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ) of the Kriegsmarine following Raeder 's resignation on 30 January 1943 . On the return flight to Berlin , Dönitz informed Lüth and the other officers present of this change in command .
In March 1943 Lüth set out for a second patrol off South Africa and in the Indian Ocean , in particular the waters around Mauritius . This patrol lasted 205 days ( 23 March 1943 – 14 October 1943 ) making it the second longest of the war . ( The longest combat patrol of World War II was 225 days in length , this was achieved by Eitel @-@ Friedrich Kentrat as commander of the U @-@ 196 . ) Lüth sank 10 ships totaling 45 @,@ 331 GRT on this patrol , which turned out to be his last . While at sea he was promoted to Korvettenkapitän on 1 April 1943 , and on 15 April received news that he had been awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords .
U @-@ 181 rendezvoused with the supply ship Charlotte Schliemann east of Mauritius to refuel on 21 June . Also present were U @-@ 177 , under the command of Robert Gysae , U @-@ 178 ( Wilhelm Dommes ) , U @-@ 196 ( Eitel @-@ Friedrich Kentrat ) , U @-@ 197 ( Robert Bartels ) and U @-@ 198 ( Werner Hartmann ) . The commanders exchanged experiences and discussed the problem of torpedo failures . On 9 August of the same year and while still on patrol , Lüth was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds . On 15 July 1943 , Lüth sunk the British collier Empire Lake and noted in his logbook . " Five men have been left floating on a piece of wreckage . Due to the high sea and 180 @-@ mile distance from land they will probably not be saved . "
Lüth nominated two crew members of U @-@ 181 for the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross after this patrol . The chief engineer Kapitänleutnant Carl @-@ August Landfermann and 2nd Watch Officer Johannes Limbach both received the Knight 's Cross for their achievements .
= = Ashore = =
After five years of operational U @-@ boat service , including 15 war @-@ patrols and over 600 days at sea , Lüth took command of 22nd U @-@ boat Flotilla stationed at Gotenhafen in January 1944 . This was a training unit for U @-@ boat commanders . In July 1944 he took command of the 1st Department of the Marineschule Mürwik ( Mürwik Naval Academy ) in Flensburg . He was promoted to Fregattenkapitän ( Commander ) on 1 August 1944 and became the commander of the entire Marineschule in September . He was promoted to Kapitän zur See ( Commander ) on 1 September 1944 .
= = = Death = = =
British Forces had occupied Flensburg on 5 May 1945 ; initially nothing changed in the daily routine at the Mürwik Naval Academy . Returning drunk in the night of 13 / 14 May 1945 , Lüth failed to respond to the sentry 's challenge and was shot in the head by 18 @-@ year @-@ old seaman Mathias Gottlob , a German guard . The password of the day was " Tannenberg . " The officer in charge immediately informed Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz , whose adjutant , Fregattenkapitän Walter Lüdde @-@ Neurath , who had accepted the call , initially thought that it was a bad joke . Lüdde @-@ Neurath then informed Lüth 's brother , Joachim Lüth , as the two siblings were staying together . It was he who informed Lüth 's wife and their four children that Lüth had died .
Dönitz contacted the British city commander of Flensburg , Colonel Roberts , asking him for permission to conduct a formal state funeral , which Roberts approved . That funeral , ( the last such of the Third Reich ) , was held for Lüth on 16 May 1945 with Adolf Hitler 's successor as Head of State , Reichspräsident and Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz , delivering the eulogy .
Dönitz ordered a board of inquiry and court martial to clarify the circumstances of the shooting . Four officers under the command of a Navy Judge conducted the court martial . Mathias Gottlob stated that , in accordance with his orders , he had asked for the password three times without response from the person , whom he could not visually identify in the darkness . Without aiming he had fired his rifle from the hip . The chain of events was confirmed by Maschinenmaat Karl Franz , who was leading the watch at the time . The court ruled that Gottlob was not guilty and he was cleared of any fault .
= = In popular culture = =
Lüth was a subject of a hagiographic account by the German author Franz Kurowski , under the pen name Karl Alman , commemorating " the most successful U @-@ boat commandant of the Second World War " ( according to the subtitle ) . By his own admission , the author used his given name , Kurowski , for " more serious work " , and typically reserved his pseudonyms for works of fiction . In his 1995 book Count Not the Dead : The Popular Image of the German Submarine , Canadian historian Michael Hadley panned Kurowski 's works as " hackwork " and " pulp @-@ trade yarn " focused on hero making .
= = Summary of career = =
= = = Awards = = =
Spanish Cross in Bronze ( 6 June 1939 )
The Return of Sudetenland Commemorative Medal of 1 October 1938 ( 16 September 1939 )
U @-@ boat Front Clasp ( 12 October 1944 )
U @-@ boat War Badge with Diamonds ( 26 January 1943 )
Croce di Guerra Italiana al valor militare ( 1 November 1941 )
Iron Cross ( 1939 ) 2nd Class ( 25 January 1940 )
1st Class ( 15 May 1940 )
Gauehrenabzeichen des Reichgaues Wartheland ( 24 October 1943 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross ( 24 October 1940 ) as Oberleutnant zur See and commander of U @-@ 138
142nd Oak Leaves ( 13 November 1942 ) as Kapitänleutnant and commander of U @-@ 181
29th Swords ( 15 April 1943 ) as Kapitänleutnant and commander of U @-@ 181
7th Diamonds ( 9 August 1943 ) as Korvettenkapitän and commander of U @-@ 181
Mentioned twice in the Wehrmachtbericht
= = = Ships Attacked = = =
During his career Lüth sank 46 commercial ships for 225 @,@ 204 GRT , one warship of 552 GRT , and damaged two ships for 17 @,@ 343 GRT . His last patrol saw U @-@ 181 at sea for 206 days , patrolling the waters between Cape Town and Madagascar , making it the second @-@ longest patrol of the war .
= = = Promotions = = =
= Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament =
The Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament was a professional wrestling tag team single @-@ elimination tournament held by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion in 2005 . It was held to honor the TNA wrestler Chris Candido , who died in April 2005 as a result of an injury he sustained at TNA 's Lockdown pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event . It is the only edition held as of 2016 despite it being announced as an annual event . The competition began on August 16 , 2005 and concluded on August 16 , 2005 at the tapings of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! . It was broadcast from the August 19 to September 9 episodes of Impact ! . It was known by various names : 2005 Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament , The Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament , and The Chris Candido Cup Tournament .
The concept of the tournament was to have eight teams consisting of one veteran wrestler and one rookie wrestler competing against each other to gain entry into a Four Way Elimination Tag Team match for the NWA World Tag Team Championship at TNA 's Unbreakable PPV event on September 11 . The tournament featured sixteen TNA wrestlers : Abyss , Shark Boy , Alex Shelley , Sean Waltman , B.G. James , Cassidy Reilly , Chris Sabin , Shocker , Kip James , Petey Williams , Konnan , Lance Hoyt , Mikey Batts , Simon Diamond , Ron Killings , and Sonjay Dutt .
The tournament was well @-@ received overall . James Caldwell of the Pro Wrestling Torch wrote in his review of the matches that they were " solid " and " effective in telling the story . " Caldwell approved of the teaming of Shelley and Waltman , feeling that they were a " natural fit . "
= = Background = =
Chris Candido was an American professional wrestler who worked for TNA starting in 2005 . At TNA 's Lockdown PPV event on April 24 , 2005 , Candido teamed with Lance Hoyt to face Apolo and Sonny Siaki in a Six Sides of Steel Cage match . During the encounter , Candido suffered an injury which was later diagnosed as a dislocated ankle , broken tibia , and a broken fibula which required surgery . Candido had an operation on April 25 to have a plate , screws , and pins placed in his ankle to fix the problem with him being sidelined from competing for two to three months in order to heal . However , Candido hoped to be fully recovered in six to eight weeks . On April 28 , Candido was rushed to the hospital after he collapsed , where he died a short time later . The cause of death was released by Candido 's brother Johnny as a blood clot due to the surgery a few days prior .
TNA released a public statement on April 29 , regrading the subject . TNA paid tribute to Candido on the April 29 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! as well as at TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event on May 15 . The April 29 episode of Impact ! opened and ended with a memorial to Candido . At Hard Justice , a ten @-@ bell salute was held while a photo of Candido , a pair of boots , and one @-@ half of the NWA World Tag Team Championship positioned on a steel chair sat in the center of the ring . A portion of the Lockdown DVD sale profits were donated by TNA to the Chris Candido Memorial Fund . TNA originally planned to remove Candido 's match from the DVD , but were given the blessing of his family to include it on the publication . A tribute to Candido was included on the DVD by TNA .
The tournament was announced in August 2005 by TNA editor Bill Banks . He revealed the official name for the competition , the " 2005 Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament " , and that TNA were planning on it being an annual contest . Banks also announced the format of the tournament involved veteran wrestlers teaming with young wrestlers in order to compete . The idea behind the contest was explained on the August 19 episode of Impact ! prior to the opening bout of the tournament . The tournament was set up in a way to mimic Candido 's role at the time of his death . Prior to his death , the veteran Candido was managing the young tag team of The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) . Candido managed the team to winning the NWA World Tag Team Championship from America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ; AMW ) on the April 29 episode of Impact ! , which had been taped on April 25 prior to his death .
In the tournament , eight tag teams were determined at random , with one veteran wrestler being placed with a younger wrestler from the company . The competition was also referred to as the " Chris Candido Memorial Cup Tournament " . The teams chosen at random were Abyss ( veteran ) and Shark Boy ( young ) , Alex Shelley ( young ) and Sean Waltman ( veteran ) , B.G. James ( veteran ) and Cassidy Reilly ( young ) , Chris Sabin ( young ) and Shocker ( veteran ) , Kip James ( veteran ) and Petey Williams ( young ) , Konnan ( veteran ) and Lance Hoyt ( young ) , Mikey Batts ( young ) and Simon Diamond ( veteran ) , and last of all Ron Killings ( veteran ) and Sonjay Dutt ( young ) . On the August 26 episode of Impact ! , NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko announced that a Four Way Elimination Tag Team match for the NWA World Tag Team Championship was planned for TNA 's Unbreakable PPV event on September 11 , in which The Naturals would defend against AMW , Team Canada ( A @-@ 1 and Eric Young ) , and the winners of the Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament .
= = Tournament = =
The Chris Candido Memorial Tag Team Tournament featured seven matches involving different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match .
The tournament consisted of three rounds : the quarterfinals , semifinals , and finals . All three rounds were broadcast on Impact ! . All three rounds were taped on August 16 and aired on the August 19 , August 26 , September 2 , and September 9 episodes of Impact ! .
Quarterfinals
The first two matches of the quarterfinals took place on the August 19 episode of Impact ! . The team of Chris Sabin and Shocker were pitted against the team of Mikey Batts and Simon Diamond in the first . Sabin and Shocker won the bout after Sabin slammed Batts back @-@ first into the mat with his signature Cradle Shock maneuver and followed with the pin at 7 minutes and 1 second . In the second , the team of B.G. James and Cassidy Reilly fought the team of Ron Killings and Sonjay Dutt . Dutt won the match at 4 minutes and 14 seconds for his team after a 450 ° aerial splash onto Reilly and the pin .
The last two were held on the August 26 episode of Impact ! . The team of Alex Shelley and Sean Waltman faced Abyss and Shark Boy in a bout lasting 4 minutes and 10 seconds . Shelley pinned Shark Boy after slamming him face @-@ first into the mat with his signature Shellshock maneuver . The second encounter was between the team of Lance Hoyt and Konnan and the team of Kip James and Petey Williams . The team of Hoyt and Konnan won the bout after Hoyt pinned Kip following a boot to the face at 6 minutes and 49 seconds .
Semifinals
The semifinals were held on the September 2 episode of Impact ! . Shelley and Waltman defeated the team of Hoyt and Konnan in the first semifinal match at 4 minutes and 22 seconds . During the match , Hoyt hit Waltman with a boot to the face and went for the pin , but the referee was distracted by Kip James who came down to ringside . Hoyt went to get the referee , giving Waltman the ability to hit him in the groin and follow @-@ up by slamming him face @-@ first into the mat with his signature X @-@ Factor maneuver .
In the second semifinal match , Sabin and Shocker defeated Dutt and Killings at 7 minutes and 49 seconds . During the contest , Sabin accidentally hit his teammate Shocker in the face . This led to some confusion in the match , allowing Killings to get a near @-@ fall on Sabin . This was later resolved , with Sabin getting the pin on Dutt via la magistral .
Finals
The final round occurred on the September 9 episode of Impact ! , with Sabin and Shocker versus Shelley and Waltman . This contest lasted 7 minutes and 20 seconds . Sabin and Shelley started off the match , with Shelley dominating Sabin with mat submission holds . The wrestling left the ring as Waltman performed a somersault splash to the ringside area onto Shocker and Sabin . Later , Sabin ascended to the top @-@ rope to perform a dropkick onto Shelley , to only have Shelley dodge out of the way , resulting in Sabin hitting his partner Shocker instead . After checking on Shocker , Sabin turned around and was met with a kick to the jaw from Shelley . Sabin left the ring after this due to a legitimate injury . With Shocker left and the referee attending to other matters , Waltman hit Shocker in the groin and followed by performing his X @-@ Factor maneuver to gain the pinfall victory and to win the tournament .
With Shelley and Waltman 's victory , they became the first winners of the expected annual tournament . They also gained entry into the Four Way Elimination Tag Team match for the NWA World Tag Team Championship scheduled for Unbreakable .
Tournament bracket
= = Reception = =
James Caldwell of the Pro Wrestling Torch felt that Chris Sabin and Shocker versus Simon Diamond and Mikey Batts was " solid wrestling " and a " nice opening match " for the tournament . When it came to the second match of the tournament , B.G. James and Cassidy Reilly versus Ron Killings and Sonjay Dutt , Caldwell felt that James and Killings " undermined the spirit of the Candido tournament " by dancing mid @-@ way through their encounter . Caldwell commented on the pairing of Alex Shelley and Sean Waltman for the tournament , saying they were a " natural fit working together " and expressing hope that they would be a permanent fixture after the tournament concluded . Regarding the semifinal matches , Caldwell thought Sabin and Shocker versus Dutt and Killings was a " solid match with a nice mini @-@ storyline involving Sabin and Shocker having a miscommunication before settling their differences to win the match . " As for the finals , Caldwell stated that Shelley and Waltman versus Sabin and Shocker was a " standard tag match " but it was " effective in telling the story of Waltman and Shelley doing whatever it takes to win while Shocker and Sabin continued to have differences that finally caused Shocker to go off . " Caldwell concluded by saying that " Waltman and Shelley have impressed as a legit tag team since their first round match in the tournament , " going on to say that he hoped for a Waltman and Shelley victory at Unbreakable to " give the tag division a fresh team to build around . "
= = Aftermath = =
Chris Sabin 's jaw was broken in the final round match . Sabin needed serious medical assistance afterwards backstage due to excessive bleeding from the mouth . Sabin had to cancel an August 19 Pro Wrestling Guerrilla ( PWG ) appearance as a result . Shelley was also injured while taking part in the tournament . He suffered a legitimate back injury , but ended up appearing at the PWG show that Sabin was forced to miss . There , he aggravated the injury further , forcing him to miss two Ring of Honor shows for which he was scheduled .
At Unbreakable , The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) defeated the teams of Alex Shelley and Johnny Candido , America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) , and Team Canada ( A @-@ 1 and Eric Young ) to remain champions in a Four Way Elimination Tag Team match . Johnny was a replacement for Waltman who missed the event due to undisclosed reasons . Shelley began the bout alone , until Johnny , who was in attendance along with several of Candido 's family members , jumped the railing to join Shelley as his tag team partner by taking a tag from Shelley . A bit later , Douglas kicked Candido in the crotch and pinned him with a roll @-@ up pin , thus eliminating Shelley and Candido from the contest .
Waltman was not used again by TNA until their Final Resolution PPV event on January 15 , 2006 . There , Waltman defeated Raven in a Raven 's Rules match , forcing Raven to leave TNA in the storyline . Waltman was not used by the company due to management being angered by his failure to participate at Unbreakable . Despite him not showing up to the event , Waltman was in Orlando and dressed to compete , but did not arrive at the arena in time .
= Antlia =
Antlia ( / ˈæntliə / ; from Ancient Greek ἀντλία ) is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere . Its name means " pump " in Latin ; it represents an air pump . Originally Antlia Pneumatica , the constellation was established by Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century , though its name was later abbreviated by John Herschel . Located close to the stars forming the old constellation of the ship Argo Navis , Antlia is completely visible from latitudes south of 49 degrees north .
Antlia is a faint constellation ; its brightest star is Alpha Antliae , an orange giant that is a suspected variable star , ranging between apparent magnitudes 4 @.@ 22 and 4 @.@ 29 . S Antliae is an eclipsing binary star system , changing in brightness as one star passes in front of the other . Sharing a common envelope , the stars are so close they will one day merge to form a single star . Two star systems with known exoplanets , HD 93083 and WASP @-@ 66 , lie within Antlia , as do NGC 2997 , a spiral galaxy , and the Antlia Dwarf Galaxy .
= = History = =
The French astronomer Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille first described the constellation in French as la Machine Pneumatique ( the Pneumatic Pump ) in 1751 – 52 , commemorating the air pump invented by the French physicist Denis Papin . De Lacaille had observed and catalogued almost 10 @,@ 000 southern stars during a two @-@ year stay at the Cape of Good Hope , devising fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe . He named all but one in honour of instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment . Lacaille depicted Antlia as a single @-@ cylinder vacuum pump used in Papin 's initial experiments , while German astronomer Johann Bode chose the more advanced double @-@ cylinder version . Lacaille Latinised the name to Antlia pneumatica on his 1763 chart . English astronomer John Herschel proposed shrinking the name to one word in 1844 , noting that Lacaille himself had abbreviated his constellations thus on occasion . This was universally adopted . The International Astronomical Union adopted it as one of the 88 modern constellations in 1922 .
Although above the horizon and hence visible to the Ancient Greeks , Antlia 's stars were too faint to have been included in any ancient constellations . The stars that now comprise Antlia lay within an area of the sky covered by the ancient constellation Argo Navis , the Ship of the Argonauts , which due to its immense size was split into several smaller constellations by Lacaille in 1763 . Ridpath reports that due to their faintness , the stars of Antlia did not make up part of the classical depiction of Argo Navis .
= = = In non @-@ Western astronomy = = =
Chinese astronomers were able to view what is modern Antlia from their latitudes , and incorporated its stars into two different constellations . Several stars in the southern part of Antlia were a portion of " Dong 'ou " , which represented an area in southern China . Furthermore , Epsilon , Eta , and Theta Antliae were incorporated into the celestial temple , which also contained stars from modern Pyxis .
= = Characteristics = =
Covering 238 @.@ 9 square degrees and hence 0 @.@ 579 % of the sky , Antlia ranks 62nd of the 88 modern constellations by area . Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 49 ° N. Hydra the sea snake runs along the length of its northern border , while Pyxis the compass , Vela the sails , and Centaurus the centaur line it to the west , south and east respectively . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union , is Ant . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of twelve segments ( illustrated in infobox at top @-@ right ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 09h 26.5m and 11h 05.6m , while the declination coordinates are between − 24 @.@ 54 ° and − 40 @.@ 42 ° .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Lacaille gave nine stars Bayer designations , labelling them Alpha through to Theta , including two stars next to each other as Zeta . Gould later added a tenth , Iota Antliae . Beta and Gamma Antliae ( now HR 4339 and HD 90156 ) ended up in the neighbouring constellation Hydra once the constellation boundaries were delineated in 1930 . Within the constellation 's borders , there are 42 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 . The constellation 's two brightest stars — Alpha and Epsilon Antliae — shine with a reddish tinge . Alpha is an orange giant of spectral type Stellar classification # Class KK4III that is a suspected variable star , ranging between apparent magnitudes 4 @.@ 22 and 4 @.@ 29 . It is located 370 ± 20 light @-@ years away from Earth . Estimated to be shining with around 480 to 555 times the luminosity of the Sun , it is most likely an ageing star that is brightening and on its way to becoming a Mira variable star , having converted all its core fuel into carbon . Located 710 ± 40 light @-@ years from Earth , Epsilon Antliae is an evolved orange giant star of spectral type K3 IIIa , that has swollen to have a diameter about 69 times that of the Sun , and a luminosity of around 1279 Suns . It is slightly variable . At the other end of Antlia , Iota Antliae is likewise an orange giant of spectral type K1 III .
Located near Alpha is Delta Antliae , a binary star , 430 ± 30 light @-@ years distant from Earth . The primary is a blue @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V and magnitude 5 @.@ 6 , and the secondary is a yellow @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type F9Ve and magnitude 9 @.@ 6 . Zeta Antliae is a wide optical double star . The brighter star — Zeta1 Antliae — is 410 ± 40 light @-@ years distant and has a magnitude of 5 @.@ 74 , though it is a true binary star system composed of two white main sequence stars of magnitudes 6 @.@ 20 and 7 @.@ 01 that are separated by 8 @.@ 042 arcseconds . The fainter star — Zeta2 Antliae — is 380 ± 20 light @-@ years distant and of magnitude 5 @.@ 9 . Eta Antliae is another double composed of a yellow white star of spectral type F1V and magnitude 5 @.@ 31 , with a companion of magnitude 11 @.@ 3 . Theta Antliae is likewise double , most likely composed of an A @-@ type main sequence star and a yellow giant . S Antliae is an eclipsing binary star system that varies in apparent magnitude from 6 @.@ 27 to 6 @.@ 83 over a period of 15 @.@ 6 hours . The system is classed as a W Ursae Majoris variable — the primary is hotter than the secondary and the drop in magnitude is caused by the latter passing in front of the former . Calculating the properties of the component stars from the orbital period indicates that the primary star has a mass 1 @.@ 94 times and a diameter 2 @.@ 026 times that of the Sun , and the secondary has a mass 0 @.@ 76 times and a diameter 1 @.@ 322 times that of the Sun . The two stars have similar luminosity and spectral type as they have a common envelope and share stellar material . The system is thought to be around 5 – 6 billion years old . The two stars will eventually merge to form a single fast @-@ spinning star .
T Antliae is a yellow @-@ white supergiant of spectral type F6Iab and Classical Cepheid variable ranging between magnitude 8 @.@ 88 and 9 @.@ 82 over 5 @.@ 9 days . U Antliae is a red C @-@ type carbon star and is an irregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 5 @.@ 27 and 6 @.@ 04 . Approximately 900 light @-@ years distant , it is around 5819 times as luminous as the Sun . BF Antliae is a Delta Scuti variable that varies by 0 @.@ 01 of a magnitude . HR 4049 , also known as AG Antliae , is an unusual hot variable ageing star of spectral type B9.5Ib @-@ II . It is undergoing intense loss of mass and is a unique variable that does not belong to any class of known variable star , ranging between magnitudes 5 @.@ 29 and 5 @.@ 83 with a period of 429 days . UX Antliae is an R Coronae Borealis variable with a baseline apparent magnitude of around 11 @.@ 85 , with irregular dimmings down to below magnitude 18 @.@ 0 . A luminous and remote star , it is a supergiant with a spectrum resembling that of a yellow @-@ white F @-@ type star but it has almost no hydrogen .
HD 93083 is an orange dwarf star of spectral type K3V that is smaller and cooler than the Sun . It has a planet that was discovered by the radial velocity method with the HARPS spectrograph in 2005 . About as massive as Saturn , the planet orbits its star with a period of 143 days at a mean distance of 0 @.@ 477 AU . WASP @-@ 66 is a sunlike star of spectral type F4V . A planet with 2 @.@ 3 times the mass of Jupiter orbits it every 4 days , discovered by the transit method in 2012 . DEN 1048 @-@ 3956 is a brown dwarf of spectral type M8 located around 13 light @-@ years distant from Earth . At magnitude 17 it is much too faint to be seen with the unaided eye . It has a surface temperature of about 2500 K. Two powerful flares lasting 4 – 5 minutes each were detected in 2002 . 2MASS 0939 @-@ 2448 is a system of two cool and faint brown dwarfs , probably with effective temperatures of about 500 and 700 K and masses of about 25 and 40 times that of Jupiter , though it is also possible that both objects have temperatures of 600 K and 30 Jupiter masses .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Antlia contains many faint galaxies , the brightest of which is NGC 2997 at magnitude 10 @.@ 6 . It is a loosely wound face @-@ on spiral galaxy of type Sc . Though nondescript in most amateur telescopes , it presents bright clusters of young stars and many dark dust lanes in photographs . Discovered in 1997 , the Antlia Dwarf is a 14.8m dwarf spheroidal galaxy that belongs to the Local Group of galaxies .
The Antlia Cluster , also known as Abell S0636 , is a cluster of galaxies located in the Hydra @-@ Centaurus Supercluster . It is the third nearest to the Local Group after the Virgo Cluster and the Fornax Cluster . The cluster 's distance from earth is 40 @.@ 5 Mpc ( 132 @.@ 1 Mly ) to 40 @.@ 9 Mpc ( 133 @.@ 4 Mly ) Located in the southeastern corner of the constellation , it boasts the giant elliptical galaxies NGC 3268 and NGC 3258 as the main members of a southern and northern subgroup respectively , and contains around 234 galaxies in total .
= Klaus Ebner =
Klaus Ebner ( b . August 8 , 1964 ) is an Austrian writer , essayist , poet , and translator . Born and raised in Vienna , he began writing at an early age . He started submitting stories to magazines in the 1980s , and also published articles and books on software topics after 1989 . Ebner 's poetry is written in German and Catalan ; he also translates French and Catalan literature into German . He is a member of several Austrian writers associations , including the Grazer Autorenversammlung .
His works include cultural essays on Catalan topics , and stories dealing with Jewish traditions . His first collection of short stories was printed in 2007 . In 2008 , Ebner published the short novel Hominide . He has received several literature awards , among them the Youth Prize Erster Österreichischer Jugendpreis in 1982 , and the Viennese Wiener Werkstattpreis in 2007 . Austrian critics , such as Wolfgang Ratz , have praised Ebner 's prose @-@ style . The writer lives in Vienna with his family .
= = Life = =
Klaus Ebner was born on August 8 , 1964 in Vienna , Austria , where he grew up . His mother , Ingeborg ( b . 1944 ) , worked as a hairdresser and his father , Walter ( 1939 – 1996 ) , was a salesman who sold home entertainment products in the 1970s and later . His sister was born in 1969 ; the family moved one year later . Ebner attended Secondary School for eight years , and his first writing experiences date back to this time ; at the age of twelve he wrote a short theater play and rehearsed it with his friends at school . However , the play was never performed .
In 1982 , after a one @-@ month university trip to Tours , France , Ebner began studying Romance languages , German philology , and translation at the University of Vienna . At this time he was already working for a literary circle and Viennese literature magazine . After graduation in 1988 and 1989 he concentrated on various professional careers , such as translation , foreign language teaching and IT projects . In the 1990s , Ebner published articles and books on software and networking topics ; while these books were written in German , he also wrote some articles in English . In 1999 , he spent six weeks in North Carolina , and was the co @-@ author of a book in English about PC servers .
In 2001 , while studying European economics at a Viennese university of applied sciences , he authored a paper about Islamism in Europe , which was published in Germany in 2001 . He also wrote several stories dealing with the Muslim civilization , such as in " Momentaufnahme " ( " Snapshot " ) and " Flug sechs @-@ zwo @-@ zwo " ( " Flight six @-@ two @-@ two ) " , " orgiastisch " ( " orgiastic " ) and others . Ebner lives in Vienna with his family . He is a member of the Austrian writers ' associations Grazer Autorenversammlung ( GAV ) and Österreichischer Schriftstellerverband ( ÖSV ) .
= = Work = =
Since graduating from school , Ebner has written short prose , poetry and radio plays . His work has been published in literary and cultural magazines such as Sterz , one of the largest literary magazine from Styria , Austria , and in Lesezirkel , which was owned by the Viennese daily newspaper Wiener Zeitung . The topic of his 1988 master 's thesis ( Diplomarbeit ) , written in French , was titled " The Image of the Catalan Countries in French literature from Romanticism till Today " . Excerpts of a Catalan Diary , containing travel journals and comments on Catalan culture , were published in 1987 , and in several essays he discusses Catalan culture .
Increasing professional obligations after the birth of his first son in 1987 coincided with a reduction in his literary output . During the 1990s he instead focused his attention on his novel Feuers Geraun . Two early versions of this novel 's chapters were published by the Upper Austrian magazine die Rampe in 1994 ( Der Schreiber von Aram ) and 1997 ( Das Gesetz ) . These chapters deal with Jewish and biblical traditions . The publishing list
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Langer , Don Digirolamo , Pete Elia and Kurt Kassulke , the original members of the sound department , all returned for the second season . Production sound mixer Veda Campbell also returned , but departed after four episodes into the season , whereas assistant sound mixer Douglas J. Schulman was added to the crew for the first ten episodes of the season . Joining the production team in the sound crew were boom operator Kevin Maloney , sound mixer Cameron Hamza , Robert Marts and Mick Davies , with both Marts and Davies leaving the show after two episodes . The special effects team , which was led by coordinator Jason Gustafson , consisted of make @-@ up artists Anthony Julio , who had been part of the production crew since the beginning of the series , and special effects foreman Ken Rudell . Part of the visual effects team were computer graphic artist Richard Also , visual effects supervisor Rick Cortes and matte artist Kristin Johnson . Whereas Cortes and Johnson joined the crew close to the season finale , Also was the only member of the visual effects team to have been in the crew since the beginning of the series .
= = = Writing and filming = = =
The season was primarily filmed in Los Angeles , California . Fisher Plaza , which is the headquarters building for the media company Fisher Communications and Fisher 's ABC affiliated Komo radio and television stations for Seattle , is used for some exterior shots of Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital , such as air ambulances landing on the Komo Television newscopter 's helipad . This puts Seattle Grace conveniently close to the Space Needle , which is directly across the street from Fisher Plaza , the Seattle Monorail , and other local landmarks . However , the hospital used for most other exterior and many interior shots is not in Seattle , are shot at the VA Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center in North Hills , California . Most scenes are primarily taped in Los Feliz , Los Angeles , at the Prospect Studios , and the set occupies two stages , including the hospital pieces , but some outside scenes are shot at the Warren G. Magnuson Park in Seattle . Several props used are genuine medical supplies , including the MRI machine . Prior to being cast , Sara Ramirez was seen by ABC executives , in her Broadway performance of Spamalot , which garnered their attention . Due to their admiration , the network offered Ramirez a role on any ABC television series , of her choice , which ultimately led in her choosing Grey 's Anatomy . Ramirez further explained that at her initial audition , the producers liked her , and had intentions to add her to the show , but did not know who to cast her as . She also said she was in awe of how the executives said , " Pick a show , any show " , a statement she deemed rare . Ramirez 's character was given recurring status in the second season , having been conceived as a love interest for George O 'Malley . At Torres ' initial appearance on the show , she was disliked by fans , due to her getting in the way of O 'Malley and Grey 's relationship . When asked of this , Torres said : " You do run across a lot of people who are extremely invested in that story line . Obviously , I 've heard some negative stuff . " Discussing Izzie Stevens ' relationship with Alex Karev , Katherine Heigl described her character as naive enough to believe she can save him , assessing that : " Even when Alex was a complete dirtbag to her , she forgave him and gave him another chance . And he really screwed her over . " Writer Stacy McKee described Izzie 's moving on from Alex to patient Denny Duquette as " karma " , as Alex previously treated Izzie badly , yet as he begins to realize his true feelings , he is forced to watch her embark on a romance with Denny , regarded by her as " undeniably handsome and totally charming " . Series writer Blythe Robe commented on Izzie and Denny : " I love the way Izzie lights up when she ’ s around him . I love their relationship because it 's so pure and honest and completely game free . " Writer Elizabeth Klaviter noted at this time the way Izzie " seems to be sacrificing her reputation because of her feelings for Denny . " When Izzie deliberately worsened Denny 's condition to move him up the transplant list , series writer Mark Wilding questioned the morality of the actions , asking : " Is Izzie bad for doing it ? Is she tremendously irresponsible ? She cut the wire for love so does that make her action understandable ? " Series creator Shonda Rhimes discussed costuming choices in the scene which saw the interns gather around Denny 's deathbed , explaining : " Meredith and George and Cristina and Callie and Alex are all dressed , not for a prom , but for a funeral . Everyone in dark colors , everyone dressed somberly . As if they were in mourning . Only Izzie is in happy pink . Only Izzie looks like she didn 't know this was coming . "
Peter Horton , expressed that his plan of developing Chandra Wilson 's character , Miranda Bailey , was to focus on the similarities between her and the actress , noting that " there 's not a mean bone in her body , but she 's solid and steady , like a rock . " Wilson herself noted a significant evolution in her character 's personality , noting a transition from the cold attitude that was characteristic to her in the past , to a maternal outlook on her interns . She also noted a number of similarities between her and her character , describing how considers Miranda Bailey an alter ego of hers , rather than someone living inside her . Wilson also assessed that being a real @-@ life human is what makes Bailey an appreciated character : " She gets to be flawed , she gets to be tired , she can be cranky , she can be grumpy . " Showrunner Shonda Rhimes explained that the idea of Miranda Bailey having a child was developed after Chandra Wilson had already been pregnant for six months . Cast member Kate Walsh deemed Wilson 's portrayal of her character " sweet and wonderful " , naming her a professional : " She makes you be a better actor , just by being there . " She also described her performance during her character 's labor as " heart @-@ breaking , tender , powerful and wonderful " , noting how she managed to transform the strong character into " a weak woman , struggling to fight the unusual situation " . Fellow cast member James Pickens , Jr. described Wilson 's portrayal of Miranda Bailey as " a breath of fresh air , literally and figuratively " , also noting how the force she delivers is mainly due to the start of her career being in theater . Horton also described the production process of the two @-@ part story arc , which he stated to have been planning since the beginning of the series . He stated that the plot of the episodes had to " fill the demands of the Super Bowl " , which was scheduled to air in the same night : " We really wanted something different and Shonda [ Rhimes ] came up with the idea of this bomb , that we found simply outstanding ! " Visual effects supervisor Scott Milnex noted how " breaking down the story boards was really the key to getting all the departments to work together " . He also assessed that the necessity to use Primacord , an element they had been trying to avoid , for the explosion scene proved excessively dangerous , and was ultimately replaced with wood and clothing material . He described the filming process by emphasizing the transition from mannequin to the real actor : " When we filmed it , there was a moment , a fraction of a second , when we changed the body with the actor . "
= = Cast = =
The second season had ten roles receiving star billing , out of whom nine were returning from the first season . All the actors who appear as series regulars portray physicians from the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , specialized in surgery . Ellen Pompeo acted as Meredith Grey , the protagonist and the narrator of the series , a surgical intern who struggles to balance the difficulties of the competitive career she has chosen , with her troubled personal background . Sandra Oh portrayed highly competitive intern Cristina Yang , who suffers a miscarriage just as she starts accepting her upcoming motherhood . Katherine Heigl played intern Izzie Stevens , in a continuous struggle to be looked upon as a doctor , not the model she used to be . Justin Chambers acted as Alex Karev , who begins to develop an emotional side of his personality , after being introduced as arrogant and selfish . T.R. Knight played the role of intern George O 'Malley , whose insecurity and lack of self @-@ confidence evolve due to his unshared feelings for Meredith Grey . Chandra Wilson portrayed surgical resident and brilliant general surgeon Miranda Bailey , the mentor of the five interns , whose rudeness and cold attitude earns her the nickname " The Nazi " . James Pickens , Jr. portrayed Seattle Grace Hospital 's Chief of Surgery , Richard Webber , whose relationship with Meredith Grey 's mother , which occurred twenty @-@ one years ago , threatens to ruin his marriage . Isaiah Washington played the role of attending physician and cardiothoracic surgeon Preston Burke , who learns that Cristina , with whom he had a sexual relationship , is pregnant with his child . Patrick Dempsey portrayed attending neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd , whose relationship with intern Meredith Grey has been the focal point of the series since its inception . Although originally conceived as a guest star with a five @-@ episode story arc , Kate Walsh decided to extend her contract following positive reviews from critics and fans , resulting in her getting promoted to series regular status . Being the first addition to the original cast from the first season , Walsh began receiving star billing in the seventh episode of the season , portraying obstetrician @-@ gynaecologist and world @-@ class neonatal surgeon Addison Montgomery Shepherd , who comes in Seattle seeking reconciliation with her estranged husband , Derek Shepherd .
Numerous supporting characters have been given expansive and recurring appearances in the progressive story line . Sara Ramirez appeared in a nine episode arc in the season , portraying orthopedic surgical resident Callie Torres , introduced and developed as a love interest for the character of George O 'Malley . Steven W. Bailey is introduced in the recurring role of Joe , the Bartender , often being portrayed as a confidant of the surgeons of Seattle Grace Hospital . Chris O 'Donnell portrayed Veterinary physician Finn Dandridge , who became a love interest for Meredith Grey . Renowned surgeon Ellis Grey , Meredith 's mother , who is suffering from Alzheimer 's disease , continues her recurring role from the first season , being portrayed by Kate Burton . Brooke Smith portrayed Erica Hahn , a cardiothoracic surgeon at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital , who is revealed to have been a rival of Preston Burke ever since they attended medical school together . Jeffrey Dean Morgan appears in six episodes throughout the season , portraying patient Denny Duquette , who begins a relationship with Izzie Stevens , but ultimately dies following an unsuccessful heart transplant surgery . Loretta Devine acted as Adele Webber , Richard 's wife , who is revealed to have been aware of her husband 's affair since its inception . Other guest stars include Sarah Utterback in the role of nurse Olivia Harper , love interest of both George O 'Malley and Alex Karev , Kali Rocha portraying fifth @-@ year resident Sydney Heron , who replaces Miranda Bailey temporarily when she takes a maternity leave , Jeff Perry portraying Meredith Grey 's father , Thatcher Grey , Mare Winningham in the role of Susan Grey , Tsai Chin in the role of Helen Yang Rubenstein , Cristina 's mother , Mandy Siegfried portraying Molly Grey Thompson , Meredith 's half @-@ sister and Tessa Thompson portraying Camille Travis , Richard Webber 's niece , Christina Ricci portraying paramedic Hannah Davies , and Kyle Chandler in the role of Dylan Young , head of the bomb squad . Eric Dane , who would be promoted to a series regular in the third season , appeared in the eighteenth episode , portraying attending physician , otolaryngologist and plastic surgeon Mark Sloan , Addison Montgomery 's former lover , whose affair with her is presented as the reason behind the estrangement of her husband , Derek Shepherd .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The season opened up to critical acclaim with many critics calling it " one of the best shows on TV " and was included in the top ten for numerous 2006 " best of television " lists . Also the fame of the show skyrocketed during the season The A.V. Club called the show a " pokemon " and " one of the best TV shows around , burning through plot points at a furious clip , swooning romanticism , at embracing the kind of deeply earnest , intensely felt romance that made the show ’ s relationships so great . Meredith ’ s famous " Pick me , choose me , love me " speech is corny , to be sure , but it ’ s got tremendous rhythm and absolute conviction ... season two of Grey ’ s was a comet . " Todd Gilchrist of IGN Entertainment expressed hope in the further development of the series , noting the complex backgrounds of each character as being the series ' focal point . He noted that the ensemble , composed of " countless comely females and enough strong , competitive males " remains outstanding in prime time , being iconic , due to the vast interpretations regarding the main cast . Whereas Gilchrist acknowledged that the show gives the impression of it being only for women , he stated that he can attest to its universal , equal @-@ opportunity appeal , assesing that the show " explores the medical world with both a sense of testosterone @-@ fueled intensity and estrogen @-@ laced sensitivity " and deserved to have viewers from both genders , championing its merits . In response to the bomb story arc , he called the two episodes " juicy " , while assessing that they " followed a story line that not only explained the series up to that point , but featured all of the characters in their more or less purest from " . Gilchrist provided an outlook on each character , describing Grey as a " prodigiously talented but insecure surgeon , waylaid by her love for attending Derek Shepherd " , while stating that Yang , " an aggressively ambitious intern " lacks knowledge on any topic , except medicine , comparing her to boyfriend Burke , described as her opposite . In response to George O 'Malley 's story line , he noted how his sensitive personality constantly results in difficulty in his path to becoming a proper surgeon . He also expressed excitement in the doors opened by the previous season 's cliffhanger , seeing the arrival of Montgomery ( Walsh ) as " certainly speaking to the show 's focus on relationships over the nuts and bolts of being a surgeon " , while praising Rhimes for continuing to " merge those disparate elements in the way that does , or at leas should be a source of enthusiasm for both men and women , creating an atmosphere both professional and intimately personal , often at the same time " .
Noting the realism in the writing for the series , Gilchrist stated : " It 's as if Rhimes and Co. harnessed the sublime and the mundane of our daily experiences , that strange sense of drama that emerges from even the most unimportant daily conflicts , and it transported it on a world that is legitimately fraught with life and death decisions . " However , he expressed disappointment in the end of the second season , which he deemed surprisingly less strong , compared to the " powerful " first half and the " immaculate " first season , describing Stevens ' " awkward and self @-@ destructive " relationship with a patient as a way to " slow episodes to a screeching halt with maudlin and painfully underdeveloped turns towards melodrama " , while expressing the predictability of Duquette 's death . Gilchrist stated in response to Stevens ' development in the last part of the second season : " Izzie 's descent into abject hysteria , which followed her season @-@ long sanctimoniousness about everything , actually made me want something terrible to happen to her too . " He described how some episodes were not among the show 's strongest , noting that the some plot lines created poignancy , and connected in an unfamiliar way .
The reviews have stood the test of time and the season still remains a huge critical favorite . Entertainment Weekly reviewing the tenth season of the show acknowledged that , " the second season is still the show ’ s best season to date . " The site added , " I do want to talk about what season 10 could learn from what I believe is the show ’ s best season to date : season 2 . " calling in all the signature elements of the show that it did the best with listing all the best moments from the season , " the elevator " , " the walkway " , " Joe ’ s bar , " Meredith ’ s " Pick me " speech " . and the " memorable patients " adding , " I want two people stuck on a pole ( Into You Like a Train ) or two Amish best friends having to say goodbye , and I want those stories to be given ample time to resonate . More than anything , I want them to affect our doctors in heartbreaking and beautiful ways . "
Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle was critical of Izzie 's ethics in cutting Denny 's LVAD wire , writing that she " should not be practising medicine " and stating : " That 's the reason I don 't watch Grey 's Anatomy , anymore , because the super hot blond chick can make an earth @-@ shattering , fatal decision and she doesn 't get canned . " Regarding the second season , Kevin Carr from 7M Pictures said " Rhimes really just put Scrubs , E.R. , Sex and the City and even a dash of The Love Boat in a blender and poured out Grey 's Anatomy . " Also in regard to the second season , Christopher Monfette of IGN TV said " [ ... ] The second season of this medical drama expertly wove its signature elements of complex relationships , whimsical banter and challenging life @-@ lessons - all to a montage @-@ fetish , indie @-@ rock soundtrack " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
In 2006 , the series won the Golden Globe for " Best Drama Series " . Sandra Oh won the 2005 Golden Globe Award for " Best Supporting Actress in a Series , Miniseries , or TV Film " and the 2006 Screen Actors Guild Award for " Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series " for her portrayal of Cristina Yang in the show 's second season . Ellen Pompeo and Patrick Dempsey were also nominated for the Best Actress in a Drama Series and Best Actor in a Drama Series respectively at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards . In 2006 , casting directors Linda Lowy and John Brace won a Primetime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series " . The Grey 's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards . At the Screen Actors Guild Awards , the cast was nominated for " Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series " . Isaiah Washington was awarded " Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series " at the NAACP Image Awards in 2006 . Krista Vernoff received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the sixth episode of the season . The sixteenth and seventeenth episodes of the season secured writer Shonda Rhimes a 2006 Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series category .
= = = Ratings = = =
The first five episodes of the season were initially planned to be within the first season with the episode " Bring the Pain " as the season one finale . According to Rhimes , after airing the ninth episode of the show , the ratings , the timeslots and the really great audience meant that they have to end the season with that episode , and the cliffhanger with the coming of Derek 's estranged wife fit perfectly . The season received positive critics and reception , and this season performed better than the previous one . Due to the success of the first season , Grey 's Anatomy took over the Sunday night timeslot along with Desperate Housewives , replacing Boston Legal . The second season averaged 21 @.@ 07 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated season of the series to date . It was ranked the fifth in the 2005 @-@ 2006 television season . The season also includes the series ' highest @-@ rated episode , " It 's the End of the World " which was watched by 37 @.@ 88 million viewers .
= = Episodes = =
= = DVD release = =
The second season was officially released on DVD in Region 1 on September 12 , 2006 , almost two weeks before the third season premiere which aired on September 21 , 2006 . Under the title Grey 's Anatomy : The Complete Second Season – Uncut , the box set consists of episodes with Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 surround sound and widescreen format . It also contained extras available only on DVD , including extended episodes , interviews with cast and crew members , footage from behind the scenes and unaired scenes cut from the aired episodes . The same set was released in Region 4 on January 10 , 2007 , four months after its original release in the United States , whereas its first release date in Region 2 was May 28 , 2007 , being made available first in the United Kingdom . The UK set contained the last twenty @-@ two episodes of the season , due to the first five being released on the first season DVD . The season has not been released on Blu @-@ ray disc in any region . The DVD box set is currently no . 708 in Movies and TV on Amazon.com and no . 2670 in Film and TV on Amazon.co.uk.
= John Plagis =
Ioannis Agorastos " John " Plagis , DSO , DFC & Bar ( 1919 – 1974 ) was a Southern Rhodesian flying ace in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) during the Second World War , noted especially for his part in the defence of Malta during 1942 . The son of Greek immigrants , he was accepted by recruiters only after Greece joined the Allies in late 1940 . Following spells with No. 65 Squadron and No. 266 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , he joined No. 249 ( Gold Coast ) Squadron in Malta in March 1942 . Flying Spitfire Mk Vs , Plagis was part of the multinational group of Allied pilots that successfully defended the strategically important island against numerically superior Axis forces over the next few months . Flying with No. 185 Squadron from early June , he was withdrawn to England in early July 1942 .
After a spell as an instructor in the UK , Plagis returned to action in September 1943 as commander of No. 64 Squadron , flying Spitfire Mk VCs over northern France . He took command of No. 126 ( Persian Gulf ) Squadron in June 1944 , and led many attacks on German positions during the invasion of France and the campaign that followed ; he was shot down over Arnhem during Operation Market Garden , but only lightly wounded . After converting to Mustang IIIs , he commanded a wing based at RAF Bentwaters that supported bombing missions . He finished the war with the rank of squadron leader and remained with the RAF afterwards , operating Gloster Meteors at the head of No. 266 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron .
Plagis was the top @-@ scoring Southern Rhodesian ace of the war , and the highest @-@ scoring ace of Greek origin , with 16 confirmed aerial victories , including 11 over Malta . Awarded the Distinguished Service Order and other medals , he was also one of Rhodesia 's most decorated veterans . The Southern Rhodesian capital , Salisbury , honoured his wartime contributions by naming a street in its northern Alexandra Park neighbourhood after him . On his return home after retiring from the RAF with the rank of wing commander in 1948 , he set up home at 1 John Plagis Avenue , opened a bottle store bearing his name , and was a director of several companies , including Central African Airways in the 1960s . He contested the Salisbury City constituency in the 1962 general election , running for the Rhodesian Front , but failed to win . He died in 1974 , reportedly by suicide .
= = Early life = =
John Plagis was born on 10 March 1919 in Gadzema , a mining village near Hartley , about 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) south @-@ west of the Southern Rhodesian capital Salisbury . His parents , Agorastos and Helen Plagis , were Greek immigrants from the island of Lemnos ; he had five siblings . Christened with the Greek name Ioannis Agorastos , Plagis used the English form of Ioannis , John , from childhood , and attended Prince Edward School in Salisbury .
Having been interested in aviation since he was a boy , Plagis volunteered for the Southern Rhodesian Air Force ( SRAF ) soon after the outbreak of war in September 1939 . He was turned down because he was the son of foreign nationals and therefore not a citizen , despite having lived in Rhodesia all his life . After Italy invaded Greece in late October 1940 , bringing the Greeks into the war on the Allied side , Plagis applied again — this time to join the Royal Air Force , which had absorbed the SRAF in April 1940 — and was accepted . Training first in Southern Rhodesia , then England , Plagis passed out with the rank of flight sergeant in June 1941 with above @-@ average ratings in all of his flying assessments .
Though he was officially in the RAF as a Greek ( he became a Rhodesian citizen only after the war ) , Plagis considered himself a Rhodesian flyer and wore shoulder flashes on his uniform denoting him as such . He named each aircraft he piloted during the war after his sister Kay , and painted that name on the side of each cockpit . After briefly flying Spitfires with No. 65 Squadron RAF , Plagis joined No. 266 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , an almost all @-@ Rhodesian Spitfire unit , on 19 July 1941 . He served in the UK for about half a year , during which he was commissioned as a pilot officer , before being posted to the Mediterranean theatre in January 1942 .
= = Air war in Europe and the Mediterranean = =
= = = First tour of operations = = =
Plagis 's first major operation was Operation Spotter , the first of many British endeavours to reinforce the besieged island of Malta in the face of German and Italian assaults during the Battle of the Mediterranean . Malta was considered to be of vital strategic importance , and its defence was looking increasingly precarious in March 1942 . Spotter was a plan to strengthen its British garrison with 16 new Spitfire Mk Vs , which would be carried part of the way from Gibraltar on the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle , then flown to Malta ; the pilots would then become part of the severely depleted No. 249 ( Gold Coast ) Squadron . The team of pilots comprised eight British airmen , four Australians , two New Zealanders and two Southern Rhodesians — Plagis and his close friend Pilot Officer Doug Leggo .
The operation , carried out on 7 March 1942 , was largely successful and 15 of the 16 Spitfires reached Malta . Plagis and Leggo arrived to find a third Rhodesian , Flight Officer George " Buck " Buchanan , already attached to the squadron . A further delivery of 16 Spitfires , Operation Picket I , was attempted on 21 March , but this was less successful ; only nine of the planes arrived . Thirteen Spitfire reinforcement operations were ultimately launched between March and October 1942 , playing a key role in the siege . The Luftwaffe and the Italian Regia Aeronautica meanwhile attempted to bomb Malta into submission , turning the airfields into " a wilderness of craters , the docks ... a shambles , Valletta a mass of broken limestone ... "
The Luftwaffe launched a major attack against key Maltese airfields at dawn on 20 March . Leggo , who had not slept for over 24 hours , returned to the airfield in the early hours having spent the night with a girlfriend . As the German planes approached he was ordered to prepare to fly . Plagis attempted to stop his friend from going , but Leggo insisted on flying , and took off at 08 : 05 as part of a group of four Spitfires and 12 Hurricanes aiming to intercept a squadron of Messerschmitt Bf 109s . He was soon seen to be flying poorly . A German pilot noticed this and attacked Leggo from close range , seriously damaging his aircraft and forcing him to bale out . Another Bf 109 then swooped and either fired at Leggo or collapsed his parachute with its slipstream , causing him to fall to his death . When Plagis learned what had happened , he was inconsolable , holding himself responsible . In his journal , he vowed to " shoot down ten for Doug — I will too , if it takes me a lifetime " .
Plagis shot down his first enemy aircraft on 25 March 1942 , and on 1 April achieved four more aerial victories in a single afternoon , thereby becoming the Siege of Malta 's first Spitfire ace . His downing of four enemies in a few hours won him much praise from superiors and reporters , and contributed to his growing reputation as an aggressive but skilful combat pilot . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) on 1 May 1942 , the citation noting that he had " destroyed 4 and probably destroyed a further 3 hostile aircraft " . " With complete indifference to odds against him , he presses home his attacks with skill and courage , " it continued — " He has set an outstanding example . "
On 11 May , Plagis attempted to down an Italian Reggiane Re.2001 by flying straight at it to ram it ; taking erratic evasive manoeuvres , the Italian aircraft stalled and almost crashed into the sea . Thinking he had downed the enemy , Plagis claimed afterwards to have achieved an aerial victory without firing a shot , but the Italian flight reported no losses . Plagis 's Spitfire was lightly hit during this engagement , and the Rhodesian had some luck returning safely ; he landed with only three gallons ( 14 litres ) of fuel left . On 16 May , Plagis and an English ace , Pilot Officer Peter Nash , destroyed a Bf 109 for a shared kill that became No. 249 Squadron 's 100th victory over Malta . Amid the continuing siege , the need for a major supply convoy to Malta was becoming urgent ; the Governor Lord Gort warned Britain in early June that if no supplies came by August , he would have to surrender to prevent a famine .
Plagis was promoted in the field to flight lieutenant on 4 June 1942 and transferred to No. 185 Squadron to command " B " Flight . He shot down two Re.2001s two days later to bring his tally of victories to ten ( thereby fulfilling his pledge following Leggo 's death ) , and destroyed a Bf 109 on 7 June . A month later , he received a Bar to his DFC , having been adjudged to have shown " exceptional skill and gallantry in combat ... Undeterred by superior numbers of attacking aircraft , he presses home his attacks with great determination . " Plagis left Malta when his tour expired on 7 July 1942 , flying first to Gibraltar , then the UK . The British finally delivered vital supplies to Malta on 15 August with Operation Pedestal ( known in Malta as the " Santa Marija Convoy " ) .
On arriving in England , Plagis was found to be suffering from malnutrition , scabies and physical and mental fatigue . He briefly convalesced in a nursing home , then spent a year as an instructor in England . He was promoted to probationary flying officer on 1 October 1942 .
= = = Second tour of operations = = =
Plagis returned to action in September 1943 , when he was appointed commanding officer of No. 64 Squadron , then flying Spitfire Mk VCs over northern France from RAF Coltishall in Norfolk . Plagis downed a Bf 109 over France on 24 September 1943 , then a Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 on 23 November , and formally received the rank of flight lieutenant on 8 December 1943 .
At the start of June 1944 , Plagis assumed command of No. 126 ( Persian Gulf ) Squadron , flying Spitfire Mk IXs that had recently been moved from Malta to assist in the invasion of Normandy . Six of the squadron 's planes had been purchased by the Persian Gulf Spitfire Fund , and duly named after the donating sheikdoms ; Plagis 's aircraft , which he chose because of the large letter " K " on its tail ( echoing his sister 's name ) , had " Muscat " painted in English and Arabic script on its side . He added to this a full rendering of " Kay " and other personal decorations .
After leading No. 126 Squadron on raids into Normandy during the Allied invasion , Plagis took part in many of the attacks on German positions in northern France and the Low Countries that followed over the next few months . He was shot down over Arnhem in the Netherlands during Operation Market Garden in September 1944 , but suffered only minor injuries and quickly returned to action . He received the Distinguished Service Order on 3 November for his " participat [ ion ] in very many sorties during which much damage has been inflicted on ... [ German ] shipping , radio stations , oil storage tanks , power plants and other installations " . The citation particularly stressed an engagement in which a small group of Allied fighters led by Plagis had taken on a far superior force of enemy aircraft and shot down five of them , Plagis himself downing two . Plagis was described as " a brave and resourceful leader whose example has proved a rare source of inspiration " .
Plagis converted to Mustang IIIs along with the rest of his squadron at RAF Bentwaters in Suffolk during December 1944 and January 1945 , and spent the rest of the war flying bomber escort missions at the head of Bentwaters Wing , which included No. 126 Squadron . He was promoted to squadron leader on 28 March 1945 . Germany surrendered on 7 May , ending the war in Europe .
Plagis finished the war with a tally of 16 enemy aircraft confirmed destroyed ( including two shared victories counted as half a kill each ) , two shared probably destroyed , six damaged and one shared damaged . This made him Southern Rhodesia 's highest @-@ scoring ace of the war , as well as the top @-@ scoring ace of Greek origin . He was one of the most @-@ decorated Southern Rhodesian servicemen of the war .
= = Post @-@ war service and later life = =
Plagis stayed with the RAF following the end of hostilities , and from September 1946 to December 1947 commanded No. 266 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron in England and Germany , flying Gloster Meteor F.3s. He was awarded the Airman 's Cross by the government of the Netherlands in October 1946 . After retiring from the military with the rank of wing commander , Plagis returned home to Southern Rhodesia in 1948 . A street in the north Salisbury suburb of Alexandra Park had been named after him in recognition of his wartime exploits ; he moved into the house at the end of the road , 1 John Plagis Avenue . He married in 1954 and had three sons and a daughter .
Plagis set up and ran a bottle store bearing his name in Salisbury , and was involved in several businesses during the next three decades , serving as a director on company boards , including Central African Airways from 1963 to 1968 . He joined the Rhodesian Front on its formation in 1962 , and was its candidate in Salisbury City in that year 's general election , losing to the United Federal Party 's John Roger Nicholson by 631 votes to 501 . According to a report published by the Zimbabwe African National Union in 1969 , Plagis was by then working in the office of the Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith ( himself a Second World War Spitfire pilot ) , with responsibility for the premier 's written correspondence .
In later life , Plagis became a friend of British ace Douglas Bader , a prominent supporter of Rhodesia 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965 . Bader , Smith and Plagis often socialised . Plagis also knew L Ron Hubbard , the American founder of Scientology , who briefly relocated to Salisbury in 1966 . Hubbard initiated numerous business schemes in Rhodesia , including the purchase of the Bumi Hills Hotel at Kariba . Plagis was one of two local businessmen who partnered with Hubbard in the Bumi Hills deal . He also sold Hubbard an interest in his holdings before the American was deported .
Plagis died in 1974 , aged 54 or 55 ; according to Lauren St John , an author from Gadzema , he had committed suicide , having never truly readjusted to civilian life .
= Dan Cloutier =
Daniel Cloutier ( born April 22 , 1976 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender and currently a goaltending coach for the Vancouver Canucks . In his 10 @-@ year National Hockey League ( NHL ) career , Cloutier played with the New York Rangers , Tampa Bay Lightning , Vancouver Canucks and Los Angeles Kings , spending the majority of his career in Vancouver . He employed a combination of both butterfly and stand @-@ up goaltending and was known for wearing the uncommon birdcage style helmet .
Cloutier played junior hockey in the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) for four seasons with the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds and Guelph Storm , making two Memorial Cup appearances in 1993 and 1996 . Following his second OHL season , he was selected 26th overall by the Rangers in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft . He began his professional career spending time in the minor leagues with the Rangers ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliates , before joining the NHL team full @-@ time in 1998 – 99 . After three seasons playing within the Rangers organization , he was traded to the Lightning , where he spent one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years .
In February 2001 , he was acquired by the Canucks . Cloutier enjoyed his most successful years as an NHL goaltender with Vancouver , recording three consecutive 30 @-@ win seasons between 2001 – 02 and 2003 – 04 . In the 2006 off @-@ season , he was dealt to Los Angeles , where he struggled with injuries and a decline in play . His contract was bought out by the team following the 2007 – 08 season . As part of an attempted comeback in 2009 , he first signed a deal to try out with the Detroit Red Wings at the team 's training camp , then played briefly with the AHL 's Rockford IceHogs , before retiring due to chronic injury problems . Internationally , Cloutier was part of two Canadian teams . He won a gold medal at the 1995 World Junior Championship and was a fourth @-@ string goaltender at the 2001 IIHF World Championship .
After his time with the Kings , Cloutier served as an assistant coach to his older brother , Sylvain , with the Corpus Christi IceRays of the Central Hockey League for one season . Following his retirement , he became a goaltending coach for the Barrie Colts of the OHL .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior career = = =
As a 15 @-@ year @-@ old , Cloutier played Junior B with the St. Thomas Stars of the Western Ontario Hockey League ( WOHL ) . He recorded a 5 @.@ 83 goals against average ( GAA ) over 14 games in his lone season with the team in 1991 – 92 .
The following season , Cloutier began a four @-@ year career in the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) , debuting with the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds . He played in 12 games ( 4 – 6 – 0 ) with the Greyounds , recording a 4 @.@ 62 GAA in the regular season . In the 1993 OHL playoffs , Cloutier appeared in an additional four games , winning one and losing two , as part of the Greyhounds ' run to the J. Ross Robertson Cup Finals . Although they lost the league championship to the Peterborough Petes four @-@ games @-@ to @-@ one , the Greyhounds still qualified for the 1993 Memorial Cup as the tournament 's host team . The Greyhounds met the Petes again in the Memorial Cup final , defeating them by a 4 – 2 score . Cloutier did not appear in any Memorial Cup games , in lieu of starter Kevin Hodson . During his rookie season in the OHL , he also played in five games at the Junior A level with the Timmins Golden Bears of the Northern Ontario Junior Hockey Association .
Cloutier assumed the starting position with the Greyhounds in 1993 – 94 , posting 28 wins , 14 losses and 6 ties , along with a 3 @.@ 56 GAA and .890 save percentage . Appearing in an additional 14 playoff games , he led the Greyhounds to the OHL semifinals , where they were defeated by the Detroit Jr . Red Wings .
In the off @-@ season , Cloutier was selected by the New York Rangers 26th overall in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft . He was the third @-@ ranked goaltender playing in North America by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau and the fourth goaltender taken in the draft . Appearing in his first NHL training camp in September 1994 , he was returned to the OHL by the middle of the month .
During his third junior season in 1994 – 95 , Cloutier recorded a 4 @.@ 41 GAA in 45 games ( 15 – 26 – 2 ) . As a team , the Greyhounds struggled and finished out of the playoffs . In the off @-@ season , Cloutier was signed by the Rangers to an NHL contract on July 7 , 1995 .
Despite his NHL contract , Cloutier remained in the OHL for the 1995 – 96 season . In his 12th game of the season with Sault Ste . Marie , he suffered a shoulder injury that sidelined him for two months . During his return to the lineup in a game against the Windsor Spitfires on January 2 , 1996 , he reaggravated the injury . While continuing to recover , he was dealt to the Guelph Storm at the trade deadline on January 10 in exchange for goaltender Andy Adams and two draft picks . Splitting the campaign between the Greyhounds and Storm , he recorded a 2 @.@ 85 GAA in 30 games . As the Storm finished the season with lowest GAA in the league , Cloutier and backup Brett Thompson were jointly awarded the Dave Pinkney Trophy . Cloutier additionally received OHL Second All @-@ Star Team honours . In the playoffs , he recorded a 3 @.@ 14 GAA in 16 games . However , for the second time in four years , his team was defeated in the J. Ross Robertson Cup Finals by the Peterborough Petes . Despite losing the OHL title , Guelph earned a berth into the 1996 Memorial Cup as the OHL 's representative ; the Petes had an automatic bye into the tournament as the host team . The Storm lost all three of their round @-@ robin games , failing to qualify for the Memorial Cup playoffs . Cloutier had a 4 @.@ 00 GAA in the three contests .
= = = Early career ( 1996 – 2001 ) = = =
Cloutier began his professional career in 1996 – 97 with the Binghamton Rangers of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , New York 's minor league affiliate . He assumed the starting position in Binghamton as a rookie , posting a 3 @.@ 55 GAA and .892 save percentage to be named to the AHL All @-@ Rookie Team . The following season , New York changed their AHL affiliate to the Hartford Wolf Pack ; Cloutier was consequently moved to Hartford for the club 's inaugural season in 1998 – 99 . By late @-@ December 1998 , he earned a call @-@ up to the Rangers as backup goaltender Jason Muzzatti was demoted to the Wolf Pack . At the time of his call @-@ up , Rangers management established that although he would play backup to Mike Richter , they intended on giving him opportunities to play . In anticipation of Cloutier 's NHL debut , the team 's goaltending consultant , Sam St. Laurent , described his playing style as a combination of both butterfly and stand @-@ up goaltending .
He appeared in his first NHL game on January 3 , 1998 , replacing Richter seven minutes into a contest against the Washington Capitals . Cloutier stopped all 16 shots he faced to record his first NHL victory by a 3 – 2 score . He made his first NHL start the following game against the Carolina Hurricanes on January 6 , 1998 . Stopping 26 shots , he helped the Rangers to a 4 – 2 win . He played 12 games total in 1998 – 99 , backing Richter up for the remainder of the season , recording 4 wins , 5 losses and a tie with a 2 @.@ 50 GAA and .907 save percentage . Perhaps his most well @-@ known performance as a Ranger was during a game against the New York Islanders on April 4 , 1998 , in which he fought opposing goalie Tommy Salo . With seven minutes remaining in a 3 – 0 loss , several fights broke out between players . While Salo tried to intervene in a fight between the Rangers ' P. J. Stock and Islanders ' Mariusz Czerkawski , Cloutier attacked the Islanders goaltender . The subsequent goalie fight resulted in Cloutier repeatedly punching Salo in the back of the head before taking it upon himself to stop . He proceeded to skate towards the Islanders bench , challenging the opposing players before being restrained by a referee .
In the 1998 off @-@ season , the Rangers signed goaltender Kay Whitmore who Cloutier competed with to retain his backup position . Whitmore spent the season in the minors as Cloutier was kept on the Rangers roster in 1998 – 99 . Playing in his first full NHL season , Cloutier appeared in 22 games ( 6 wins , 8 losses , 3 ties ) with a 2 @.@ 68 GAA and .914 save percentage .
The following off @-@ season , Cloutier was traded on the day of the 1999 NHL Entry Draft ( June 26 , 1999 ) to the Tampa Bay Lightning . He was sent to Tampa Bay , along with winger Niklas Sundstrom , a first @-@ round selection ( Nikita Alexeev ) in 2000 and a third @-@ round selection ( subsequently traded ) in 2000 , for the Lightning 's first @-@ round selection in that year 's draft ( Pavel Brendl ) . With the departure of Tampa Bay 's previous starter , Bill Ranford , to the Detroit Red Wings and Darren Puppa nearing the end of his career , Cloutier assumed the starting position for his new club . Cloutier 's first season as an NHL starter was interrupted on several occasions with numerous injuries and a suspension . He suffered a strained groin early in the campaign on November 18 , 1999 , forcing him out of two games . On January 14 , 2000 , he was suspended by the league for four games after an incident with Islanders forward Tim Connolly . After the two collided , Cloutier cross @-@ checked Connolly , then kicked his head ( Connolly 's helmet was intact ) while he was lying face @-@ down on the ice . The following month , he re @-@ strained his groin on February 21 and missed four games . Cloutier missed another four contests beginning on March 14 after injuring his neck . His fourth injury of the season occurred on March 28 , when he strained his medial collateral ligament ( MCL ) and missed five games . He finished the 1999 – 2000 season appearing in 52 games for the Lightning , recording 9 wins , 30 losses and 3 ties as the team finished second @-@ last in the league . He registered a 3 @.@ 49 GAA and .885 save percentage .
Injury troubles continued the following season , in 2000 – 01 , as Cloutier was sidelined for nine games early in the season after straining his biceps on October 22 , 2000 . After recovering , he recorded his first NHL shutout , making 26 saves , in a 3 – 0 win against the Detroit Red Wings on December 2 , 2000 . He achieved the feat in his 95th career game in the NHL . During that month , head coach Steve Ludzik began playing backup Kevin Weekes in favour of Cloutier . By the trade deadline , Cloutier was dealt to the Vancouver Canucks on February 7 , 2001 , in exchange for defenceman Adrian Aucoin and a second @-@ round selection in the 2001 draft .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 2001 – 06 ) = = =
Upon arriving in Vancouver , Cloutier began sharing starts with veteran goaltender Bob Essensa ; the Canucks ' third goaltender , Félix Potvin , was traded away to the Los Angeles Kings soon after Cloutier 's acquisition . Playing in 16 games with the Canucks to close out the 2000 – 01 season , Cloutier recorded 4 wins , 6 losses and 5 ties , along with a 2 @.@ 43 GAA and .894 save percentage . He helped the Canucks make the playoffs for the first time in five years that season . Playing the first @-@ seeded Colorado Avalanche in the opening round , Cloutier made his first NHL post @-@ season appearance in game one , stopping 23 of 28 shots in a losing effort . Having surrendered five goals , Essensa was given the start over Cloutier for the following two contests . After Essensa suffered a knee injury in game three , Cloutier was back in net for the fourth and final game of the series , a 5 – 1 loss . He had a 4 @.@ 63 GAA and .842 save percentage in his first two career playoff games . Despite the Canucks ' early playoff exit , Cloutier 's addition to the team helped bolster a young and improving team led by such players as captain Markus Näslund , winger Todd Bertuzzi and defenceman Ed Jovanovski .
During the off @-@ season , both Canucks goaltenders became free agents . Cloutier was re @-@ signed on July 18 , 2001 , while Essensa agreed to a contract with the Buffalo Sabres . With Essensa 's departure , Cloutier established himself as the team 's starting goaltender in 2001 – 02 . He notched his first shutout as a Canuck on October 13 , 2001 , in a 4 – 0 win against the Avalanche . The following month , Cloutier was named NHL Player of the Week on November 6 , 2001 . He earned a second such distinction near the end of the season on March 18 , 2002 . Eight days later , he recorded his seventh and final shutout of the campaign in a 4 – 0 win against the Los Angeles Kings , setting a new team record . His seven shutouts surpassed Gary Smith and Garth Snow 's previous team record of six , accomplished in 1974 – 75 and 1998 – 99 , respectively . Cloutier 's mark was later surpassed by Roberto Luongo , who recorded nine shutouts in 2008 – 09 . Cloutier finished his first full season with Vancouver posting 31 wins , 22 losses and 5 ties with a 2 @.@ 43 GAA and .901 save percentage . He played in a career @-@ high 62 games despite missing nine games in January and February 2002 with an ankle injury .
Entering the 2002 playoffs as the eighth seed for the second consecutive year , the Canucks faced the Presidents ' Trophy @-@ winning Detroit Red Wings in the opening round . With 32- and 34 @-@ save performances from Cloutier , Vancouver won the first two games of the series . In game three , the Canucks and Red Wings were tied with a minute remaining in the second period when Red Wings defenceman Nicklas Lidström scored on Cloutier with a slapshot from centre ice . The goal was observed by the media as a turning point in the series for both Cloutier and the Canucks as a team . The Red Wings won game three , as well as the next three contests to eliminate the Canucks in six games ; Cloutier was taken out of the game in the first period of the next two contests in favour of backup Peter Skudra .
Cloutier began the 2002 – 03 season by recording a shutout against the Calgary Flames on October 10 , 2002 . It marked the first time in Canucks history that the team began the season with a shutout win . In November 2002 , Cloutier won 11 of 12 games , including a team record 10 straight games , while recording a 2 @.@ 15 GAA and .920 save percentage . He was named NHL Player of the Month , becoming the fourth Canucks player in team history to receive the distinction . He suffered a setback in December 2002 , when he missed three games with a knee injury . On February 17 , 2003 , he was named NHL Player of the Week for the third time in his career . Six days later , he recorded his 30th win of the season , becoming the first Canucks goaltender in team history to reach the plateau in back @-@ to @-@ back years . That same week , he suffered his second knee injury of the season and missed 10 games . He returned to the lineup by mid @-@ March to finish the season with Vancouver . After the Canucks ranked in the eighth and final playoff spot in Cloutier 's first two seasons with the team , Cloutier helped lead them to within one point of the Northwest Division title in 2002 – 03 . In 57 games , he posted 33 wins , 16 losses and 7 ties with a 2 @.@ 42 GAA and .908 save percentage . Cloutier won the first and only playoff series of his career in 2003 as the Canucks eliminated the St. Louis Blues in seven games . He made 33 saves in the deciding contest , a 4 – 1 win for Vancouver . Advancing to the second round against the Minnesota Wild , the Canucks took a three @-@ games @-@ to @-@ one lead . With Vancouver needing one more win to eliminate the Wild , Cloutier was taken out of Game 5 in favour of rookie Alex Auld after allowing six goals on 21 shots through two periods . As both teams were leaving the ice at the start of the second intermission , opposing goaltender Dwayne Roloson bumped Canucks forward Trevor Linden , prompting Cloutier to challenge Roloson ; Cloutier threw two punches towards Roloson and received minor penalties for roughing and for leaving his crease . With Cloutier on the bench for the third period , the Canucks lost 7 – 2 . In the following two games , Cloutier allowed nine goals on 40 shots as the Wild completed a three @-@ game comeback to eliminate the Canucks .
In the off @-@ season , Cloutier was re @-@ signed to a one @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 5 million contract on July 15 , 2003 . Nearly two months into the subsequent season , Cloutier recorded his 100th career NHL win , making 31 saves in a 3 – 1 victory over the Ottawa Senators on November 27 , 2003 . As the season progressed , Cloutier suffered several more injuries , the first of which was a groin injury in December 2003 that sidelined him for three games . He missed three more games before the season ended with cases of the flu and a lower @-@ body injury . On February 14 , 2004 , he was fined $ 1 @,@ 000 by the league for hitting opposing forward Ronald Petrovický in the face with his blocker during a game against the Atlanta Thrashers .
Cloutier 's regular season success with the Canucks continued in 2003 – 04 , as he became the first goaltender in team history to record three consecutive 30 @-@ win seasons . Over 60 games , he recorded 33 wins , 21 losses and 6 ties . His 2 @.@ 27 GAA , which established a Canucks team record ( later surpassed by Roberto Luongo ) , and .914 save percentage were both career highs . In the opening round of the 2004 playoffs against the Calgary Flames , Cloutier suffered another injury , spraining his right ankle in the first period of game three . After Johan Hedberg initially replaced Cloutier , Alex Auld filled in for the final three games of the series ; Vancouver was defeated in seven games .
As initial contract negotiations failed in the off @-@ season , Cloutier filed for arbitration on July 16 , 2004 . Arbitration was avoided by both sides when Cloutier agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 3 million contract 11 days later . Due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , however , Cloutier spent the season mostly inactive until signing with EC KAC of the Austrian Hockey League on January 20 , 2005 . Replacing injured starter Andrew Verner , he appeared in 13 games with the Klagenfurt @-@ based team , going undefeated with a 1 @.@ 94 GAA . EC KAC finished the regular season second with the second @-@ best record in the league . Cloutier appeared in 10 additional playoff games , recording a 2 @.@ 75 GAA . EC KAC advanced to the finals , where they were defeated four @-@ games @-@ to @-@ three by the Vienna Capitals .
With NHL play set to resume in 2005 – 06 , Cloutier re @-@ signed with the Canucks to a two @-@ year , $ 5 million contract on August 18 , 2005 . Returning to the Canucks , he was injured early in the season during a game against the Avalanche on October 29 , 2005 . Attempting to check Avalanche forward Andrew Brunette , Canucks defenceman Nolan Baumgartner collided with Cloutier , causing a goal and forcing Cloutier out of the game with both a concussion and whiplash . The injury caused him to miss five games . Soon after returning , Cloutier was re @-@ injured in a game against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim on November 20 , when forward Rob Niedermayer skated into the crease and collided with Cloutier . He stayed in net to complete the game , a 3 – 2 win , and was on the bench the following game to backup Auld . However , after aggravating the knee in a practice on November 23 , an MRI revealed a partially torn anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) . Electing for reconstructive knee surgery , occurring on December 15 , Cloutier missed the remainder of the season .
As the Canucks missed the playoffs in 2006 , several changes were made to team personnel in the off @-@ season . One such change included the acquisition of All @-@ Star goaltender Roberto Luongo from the Florida Panthers . Shortly after Luongo was acquired , Cloutier was traded to the Los Angeles Kings on July 5 , 2006 , for a second @-@ round draft pick in 2007 and a conditional pick in 2009 . Cloutier finished his five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year tenure with the Canucks third on the team 's all @-@ time wins list with 109 , behind Kirk McLean and Richard Brodeur , and second in shutouts with 14 , behind McLean . In a 2012 interview following his retirement , Cloutier stated that he " loved playing in Vancouver the most " during his NHL career . He recalled the city 's regeneration into a hockey market and described how the team went from playing home games that " seemed half full " to creating a " playoff game atmosphere every night . "
= = = Los Angeles Kings ( 2006 – 08 ) = = =
Leading up to the 2006 – 07 season , Cloutier signed a two @-@ year , $ 6 @.@ 2 million contract extension with the Kings on September 27 , 2006 . He had one year , valued at $ 2 @.@ 55 million , remaining on his existing contract , which was transferred over from the Canucks . Cloutier moved to the Kings alongside Head Coach Marc Crawford , who was hired by the team shortly after being let go by the Canucks in the 2006 off @-@ season .
Cloutier made his Kings debut in the first game of the regular season , a 4 – 3 loss to the Anaheim Ducks on October 6 , 2006 . He made 28 saves on 32 shots . During his first week of the regular season , he suffered a hip injury , but continued playing on the insistence of team management . In retrospect , he later recalled that his " biggest mistake was playing hurt for them . " The Kings organization also had Cloutier change his goaltender mask from the uncommon mask / cage style to the more traditional full @-@ fibreglass style for safety and insurance purposes . After recording 6 wins in 24 games and a 3 @.@ 98 GAA , Cloutier 's hip forced him to end his season , aggravating it on December 23 , 2006 , in a 7 – 0 loss to the Nashville Predators .
At the time , the injury was still believed to be minor and Cloutier volunteered to continue playing in lieu of backup Mathieu Garon also being sidelined with a broken finger . When the pain in his hip quickly got worse , Cloutier appealed to team management . He saw a specialist who diagnosed him with a torn hip labrum and told him the injury could put his career in jeopardy . He was subsequently flown to Colorado for surgery on January 12 , 2007 . Cloutier remained in Colorado for ongoing treatment and was lodged by the organization in a motel 31 miles away from the clinic . The Kings ' original insistence that he play and his subsequent lodging proved to be a contentious issue for Cloutier .
Having recovered from his injury , he returned for training camp in September 2007 . He was assigned to the Kings ' AHL affiliate , the Manchester Monarchs , after losing a roster spot to goaltenders Jason LaBarbera and Jonathan Bernier . During his stint with Manchester , Cloutier struggled to earn playing time , as younger goaltenders Jonathan Quick , Danny Taylor and Erik Ersberg were given more opportunity to play . At one point , he reported to the team 's arena in preparation for a road trip , but was left in Manchester in favour of the team 's other goaltenders . To Cloutier 's surprise , he was recalled by Los Angeles on February 7 , 2008 , while Kings backup Jean @-@ Sébastien Aubin was sent down in his place . After clearing re @-@ entry waivers , he joined the Kings ' roster to backup LaBarbera . Three days later , Cloutier started in goal against the Columbus Blue Jackets ; he recorded his first NHL win in over a year , backstopping the Kings to a 3 – 2 shootout victory . After LaBarbera became sidelined with a groin injury , Cloutier began earning additional playing time with the Kings . On March 10 , he played against the Canucks for the first time since being traded . He stopped 38 shots in a 2 – 1 overtime loss against his former teammates . Later that month , he suffered a groin injury and missed three games . Remaining with the Kings for the remainder of the 2007 – 08 season as backup to Ersberg , he recorded two wins in nine games with a 3 @.@ 44 GAA and .887 save percentage .
In the subsequent off @-@ season , Cloutier 's remaining year on his contract was bought out by the Kings on June 21 , 2008 . As teams cannot buyout the contract of an injured player , Cloutier claimed he was not healthy and contested the move . However , the NHL ruled in favour of the Kings ; the buyout stood and Cloutier became an unrestricted free agent . Consequently , he received $ 2 million over the next two years from the Kings .
Without an NHL job , Cloutier took up an assistant coaching position in the Central Hockey League ( CHL ) with his older brother Sylvain Cloutier , who had just been hired as head coach of the Corpus Christi IceRays .
= = = Return to hockey and retirement ( 2009 – 10 ) = = =
After remaining inactive for a season , Cloutier was offered a tryout with the Canucks for the team 's 2009 training camp . Soon thereafter , he accepted another tryout offer from the Detroit Red Wings on September 4 , 2009 , sensing he had a better chance to secure a contract with the latter team . He was expected to compete with Jimmy Howard for the Wings ' backup position . On September 21 , Cloutier made his first and only pre @-@ season appearance with the Red Wings , splitting a game with Wings prospect Daniel Larsson ; he stopped all eight shots he faced in a 4 – 2 loss against the New York Rangers . While Red Wings General Manager Ken Holland said Cloutier " looked sharp " in his first NHL action since April 5 , 2008 , he also alluded to the media that the amount of goaltenders competing for spots within the Red Wings organization was a factor against the likelihood of him signing Cloutier . Three days later , he was officially released from the Red Wings .
Cloutier subsequently received several offers to play in Europe until signing a tryout contract with the Rockford IceHogs of the AHL in December 2009 . He reportedly had received offers from two other North American teams , but chose Rockford as the best choice for his family . Cloutier made his IceHogs debut on December 6 against the Manitoba Moose , marking his return to professional hockey after 18 months . He played 26 minutes before receiving a match penalty for punching Moose player Guillaume Desbiens after the opposing forward collided with him in his crease . The following day , Cloutier was additionally suspended by the AHL for one game . After serving his ban , he recorded his first win the IceHogs against the Texas Stars on December 12 . Cloutier began receiving interest from NHL teams , but his hip began acting up once again . By the end of the month , Cloutier and the IceHogs mutually agreed to terminate his tryout contract . He recorded one win and one loss in three games with the IceHogs , along with a 2 @.@ 47 GAA and .893 save percentage . In a later interview , published on the Canucks ' website in August 2010 , Cloutier declared he was most likely retiring due to chronic injury troubles .
= = International play = =
During Cloutier 's OHL career , he competed in the 1995 World Junior Championships . He went undefeated in three games with a 2 @.@ 67 GAA to help Canada win a gold medal as the host country in Red Deer , Alberta . Cloutier missed a second opportunity to play for the Canadian national junior team the following year due to a shoulder injury suffered during OHL play .
On May 4 , 2001 , he was added to Team Canada 's roster for the 2001 World Championships . One of four goaltenders on the roster , alongside Roberto Luongo , Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère and Fred Brathwaite , he did not appear in any games . Canada finished the tournament in fifth place .
= = Coaching career = =
Following his release from the Los Angeles Kings in 2008 , Cloutier joined his brother Sylvain Cloutier 's coaching staff on the Central Hockey League ( CHL ) ' s Corpus Christi IceRays as a de facto assistant coach . He served in that capacity for the 2008 – 09 season until his failed attempt at an NHL return in 2009 . In July 2010 , Cloutier signed a one @-@ year contract to become a part @-@ time goaltending coach with the OHL 's Barrie Colts .
= = = Return to Canucks = = =
In September 2012 , Cloutier was hired by the Vancouver Canucks as a goaltending consultant , mostly to work with prospect goaltenders in the AHL 's Chicago Wolves . On June 14th , 2016 , the Canucks announced that Cloutier had been named the team 's goaltending coach .
= = Personal life = =
Cloutier was born to Ivan and Susan Cloutier in Mont @-@ Laurier , Quebec . He moved with his family at a young age to Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario , as a result of his father 's work as a logger . Having grown up in both French and English communities , Cloutier is bilingual . Cloutier 's older brother , Sylvain is also a hockey player who once captained the OHL 's Guelph Storm . After a professional career with the Coventry Blaze in England , Sylvain became a head coach for the minor professional Corpus Christi IceRays of the CHL in 2008 . He is currently player @-@ coach of the Hull Stingrays of the UK Elite League , having held this post since 2009 .
Playing minor hockey in Sault Ste . Marie , Cloutier was at one time on the same bantam team as another future NHL goaltender , Marty Turco . Like many Quebec @-@ born goaltenders of his time , Cloutier patterned the butterfly elements of his playing style after Hall of Fame goaltender Patrick Roy .
Cloutier and his wife Nikki , have a daughter named Kali , born in December 2007 , and a son named Kane , born in June 2010 . Following his playing career , his family moved to Barrie , Ontario .
In November 2005 , following Cloutier 's season @-@ ending ACL injury , a rumour began circling in the media that he was being investigated for a hit @-@ and @-@ run accident that killed two people outside a Gastown nightclub . Cloutier never commented on the record , while his agent later refuted the rumour , saying it was " absolutely untrue " and that Cloutier " was livid with that story . "
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
Career statistics taken from Cloutier 's TSN.ca profile .
= = Awards = =
= Some Kind of Bliss =
" Some Kind of Bliss " is a song recorded by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue , for her sixth studio album Impossible Princess ( 1997 ) . The song was released as the lead single from the album on 8 September 1997 through BMG , Deconstruction and Mushroom . Minogue co @-@ wrote the track with James Dean Bradfield and Sean More while Bradfield and Dave Eringa produced it . Backed by guitar and drum instruments , " Some Kind of Bliss " is a pop rock track in which Minogue sings about feeling happy while away from family and friends .
Critical response to " Some Kind of Bliss " was mostly mixed ; earlier reviews were critical towards her image and sound transition to rock music , while retrospective reviews are positive towards her songwriting and sonic experimentation . " Some Kind of Bliss " performed relatively poorly on international charts peaking at number twenty @-@ seven on the Australian Singles Chart , at 22 on the UK Singles Chart ( her first solo release to miss the UK Top 20 ) and reaching number 46 on the New Zealand Singles Chart . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
To promote " Some Kind of Bliss " , she performed the track on Top of the Pops , MTV Australia live and the Australian TV series Hey Hey It 's Saturday . It was later included on her 1998 concert tour Intimate and Live Tour . David Mould directed the music video to the single , featuring Minogue and actor Dexter Fletcher robbing a gas station . The song was later included in the track list of Minogue 's compilation albums including Confide in Me ( 2002 ) , Kylie Minogue : Artist Collection ( 2004 ) , and Confide in Me : The Irresistible Kylie ( 2007 ) .
= = Background = =
After releasing the single " Where the Wild Roses Grow " with Australian rock band Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds on 2 October 1995 , Minogue received acclaim from critics for her experimentation with rock music , who praised her transition from being the once @-@ dubbed " singing budgie " to a mature woman . Because of this , Minogue , with the support of her then boyfriend Stephane Sednaoui , decided to experiment with her music for the upcoming album . Welsh musician James Dean Bradfield contacted Minogue 's A & R Pete Hadfield , asking him what their current project was where Hadfield replied " Kylie Minogue 's new album " . He asked Hadfield if he could work with Minogue and was approved .
After Bradfield sent her a demo of the album track " I Don 't Need Anyone " , Minogue was dissatisfied with the lyrical content and re @-@ wrote the track herself . Despite this , Minogue found it " difficult " to write the song so Bradfield had taken pieces of the original demo lyrics and mixed them with other lyrics she had written to create the finishing product of " I Don 't Need Anyone " . She found this method of writing " intriguing " and wanted to do it again , so she decided to do this with " Some Kind of Bliss " , writing it alongside Bradfield and Sean Moore . Minogue commented about this method , saying " He took one half of one set [ of lyrics ] and took another half from another set of lyrics and merged them together , which I found interesting because it was something I wouldn 't have done because , in my mind they 're two separate things . " She later commented that she felt it worked together . Lyrically , the song is about her being happy and said " To me the song is about being able , not necessarily shut your eyes and feel that someone is there but they way where you are close to someone [ ... ] the ability to feel like they 're with you even if they are a million miles away . "
= = Composition = =
Produced by Bradfield and Dave Eringa , " Some Kind of Bliss " was recorded at Mayfair Studios , London , England in 1997 , and was mixed by Alan Bremnar at Roundhouse Studios . Instrumentally , the song features bass , electric and acoustic guitars , drums , string sections , flute , and a saxophone . " Some Kind of Bliss " is a pop song with alternative rock and " rock @-@ tinged " elements that lasts a duration of four minutes and thirteen seconds on the album . A reviewer from Sputnikmusic said " Some Kind of Bliss is one of the more pop @-@ rock songs that could have been part of her earlier work . This gem breaks up the dominance of the sleepy trance vibe to a more upbeat feel . " Michael R. Smith from The Daily Vault felt that " Some Kind of Bliss " was " surprisingly a strong and straightforward rock " song . Nick Levine from Digital Spy labelled the music as " Motowny Indie " , while Sarah SMith from FasterLouder called it " pure pop " . Priya from NME said " Some Kind of Bliss " is " a brassy 60 ’ s influenced number which has a totally ‘ Everything Must Go ’ vibe to it . " Martin Power , who wrote the biography Nailed to History : The Story of the Manic Street Preachers ( 2012 ) for the Manic Street Preachers , commented that " Some Kind of Bliss " was " far away from Minogue 's glory days of " I Should Be So Lucky " and " Better The Devil You Know " as it was possible to get . " A reviewer from The Australian noticed the transition from Minogue 's earlier work by saying " The new single is not as heavily produced as her past songs , leaving her voice sounding edgier , and guitars take the place of the drum machine beats of earlier efforts . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Some Kind of Bliss " received mixed reviews from most music critics , but received positive reviews in retrospect . Writing for NME in November 1997 , Ben Willmott called it " supremely irritating " and stated " Kylie belt 's out the lyrics like she 's reading from an autocue . Any soul is lost in a slurry of bought @-@ in brass and a ropey guitar solo that 's be more at home on a Shakin ' Stevens record . " John Magnan from The Age said while the song was a stand out to the album , it " is actually one of the album 's clunkier tracks " . Jaime Gill from Yahoo ! Music reviewed her Ultimate Kylie compilation album , and criticized the musical composition by calling it a " awkward faux @-@ rock " . Matt James from PopMatters reviewed her compilation The Best of Kylie Minogue and was disappointed with " Some Kind of Bliss " ' absence , labelling it a " lost classic " . Larry Flick from Billboard was positive , saying " Ms. Minogue has been reborn as an alterna @-@ pop vixen to be reckoned with . "
Conversely , Allmusic 's Chris True had selected the song as an album stand out and a career stand out track . While reviewing her 2002 compilation Confide in Me , True stated “ Impossible Princess , both of which found her stretching and growing beyond the pop princess image she had previously . Dark , noisy tracks like " Limbo , " the trip @-@ hoppy " Jump , " and the more rock @-@ oriented " I Don 't Need Anyone " and " Some Kind of Bliss " — both of which were co @-@ written by the Manic Street Preachers ' James Dean Bradfield — found her trying on different styles to replace the bubblegum pop of the past . ” A reviewer from Who Magazine called the song " Funky ,
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planning ; once finished , it became a hurricane evacuation route . The project was expected to aid the local economy due to ease of travel from I @-@ 95 to the beach .
The extension currently dead @-@ ends just west of the I @-@ 95 interchange ; this end will eventually connect to the St Johns Heritage Parkway / Palm Bay Parkway .
In October 2011 , five Brevard County commissioners voted to consider the option of purchasing right @-@ of @-@ way and creating an overpass for the causeway over the Florida East Coast Railway line , located just west of US 1 . Although there were no immediate plans for such a construction project , the vote allowed for the maintenance of funding , instead of FDOT transferring the money to other projects .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Brevard County .
= Mississippi Highway 465 =
Mississippi Highway 465 ( MS 465 ) is a highway in the southern region of the Mississippi Delta . The highway starts at U.S. Route 61 ( US 61 ) near Redwood . It travels westward towards the Mississippi River , and then northwards to the village of Eagle Bend . The highway then traverses on the Mississippi River levee on a one @-@ lane road . Later , MS 465 leaves the levee , continues northward , and soon ends at MS 1 .
The highway was built around 1956 , as a gravel road from US 61 in Vicksburg , to MS 1 in Fitler . The southern terminus was moved in 1960 to near Redwood , and the highway was completely paved by 1984 .
= = Route description = =
MS 465 is located in Warren and Issaquena counties . The route is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 , and is maintained by the Mississippi Department of Transportation . The section from US 61 to the Warren – Issaquena county line was designated " William W. " Bill " Ramsey Memorial Highway " in 2009 .
The highway starts at a T @-@ intersection with US 61 , a part of the Great River Road , north of Redwood . It then travels southwestward , adjacent to the Yazoo River . MS 465 then intersects Old Twin Lake Road in the village of Twin Lake , which is surrounded by a mix of forests and farmland . The road continues traveling southwestward , slightly elevated above the farmland . It then travels over a bridge , and soon turns westward , east of the Warren – Issaquena county line .
MS 465 continues to journey westward in Issaquena County , following the Yazoo River while surrounded by multiple smaller ponds . Next , the highway crosses over the Steele Bayou , and soon follows the Old Channel . The highway continues westward , crossing another bridge and passing nearby a cemetery . MS 465 intersects Levee Road , and then re @-@ enters Warren County .
Once re @-@ entering Warren County , MS 465 intersects Paw Paw Road and turns northward . The forest soon changes into farmland as the road nears Eagle Bend . MS 465 then intersects Eagle Lake Shore Road near Eagle Lake , and it begins traveling around the eastern shore of the lake . The highway intersects minor streets around the village and crosses the Muddy Brook toward the center of the village . It then travels northwestward to Brunswick , where the road begins to narrow . MS 465 soon crosses a cattle guard and turns northeastward toward the levee . Once on the levee , MS 465 travels a one @-@ lane road for 11 miles ( 18 km ) . Near Bellevue , the road intersects Laney Camp Road and re @-@ enters Issaquena County after crossing another cattle guard .
In Issaquena County , the route continues traveling northeastward over the levee . Past Jackson Road , the highway shifts slightly to the east . MS 465 then travels around Albermarle Lake , intersecting Goose Lake Road . About four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) later , the route turns northeastward , no longer concurrent with the levee . The road crosses a cattle guard and becomes a two @-@ lane road again . The highway becomes surrounded by forests until it intersects Mannie Road , where it begins traveling northward into farmland . Past the village of New Fitler , the road turns northward , adjacent to the Steele Bayou . MS 465 continues northward to its northern terminus , MS 1 , another section of the Great River Road , at a T @-@ intersection .
= = History = =
MS 465 first appeared as a gravel road on the state map in 1956 , connecting US 61 near Vicksburg to MS 1 in Fitler . A year later , a section of the highway became paved in northwest Warren County , and its southern terminus was realigned to north of Vicksburg by 1958 . The terminus continued to shift north to parallel the Yazoo River the next two years , ending near Redwood . The southern half of the route was fully paved by 1964 , and the northern by 1984 . The route has not changed significantly since . The route was proposed to be part of the Great River Road , but it was not included in the most recent reiteration of the route .
The highway has been prone to flooding , due to it being in the Mississippi River 's vicinity . The floods have impacted the Eagle Bend area , one of the communities on MS 465 . In May 2011 , the highway was closed in preparation for floods , which were already impacting the region . It re @-@ opened in June , after repairs and cleanups were done to the road . MS 465 was closed again in early January 2016 , as waters approached flood levels again . People were told to evacuate Eagle Lake via the northern section of MS 465 . After waters receded by the end of January , the highway was re @-@ opened to the public .
= = Major intersections = =
= Randall Cunningham II =
Randall Cunningham II , sometimes Randall Cunningham , Jr . , ( born January 4 , 1996 ) is an American collegiate high jumper for the USC Trojans Men 's track & field team who will be a junior during the 2016 – 17 school year . He was a high jumper and quarterback at Bishop Gorman High School . He is a five @-@ time Nevada Interscholastic Activities Association ( NIAA ) state champion ( three times in track and twice in football ) . He is a NCAA Outdoor Track Champion and 2 @-@ time All @-@ American , U.S. Junior National Champion and Pan American Junior Athletics Championships Champion .
In track , he set USA Track & Field ( USATF ) and Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) national 15 – 16 @-@ year @-@ old boys high jump records with a heights of 2 @.@ 16 metres ( 7 ft 1 @.@ 0 in ) and 7 feet 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 18 m ) , respectively , as a sophomore . As a junior , he posted the highest jump of the year by an American high school student in Spring 2013 with a height of 7 feet 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 2 @.@ 22 m ) . He was the 2013 Nevada Track & Field Gatorade Athlete of the Year . He won the NIAA state high jump championship as a freshman , as a junior and as a senior .
In football , he led Gorman to its fifth consecutive Nevada Interscholastic Activities Association ( NIAA ) state championship in 2013 and declined numerous Division I Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) scholarship offers as well as an offer to play football at Yale University . He is the son of retired National Football League quarterback Randall Cunningham and nephew of retired NFL fullback Sam Cunningham .
During his freshman year at USC , he became an All @-@ American by placing 8th in the year @-@ end National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) outdoor championships . During the subsequent summer he became the U.S. Junior National high jump Champion and won a gold medal at the 2015 Pan American Junior Athletics Championships . He won the 2016 NCAA outdoor championships as a sophomore .
= = Career = =
= = = Football = = =
Cunningham attended nearby Silverado High School in Las Vegas for his freshman season . His father , who had previously coached his youth teams , was hired as the football team 's offensive coordinator and for the track team 's staff in December 2009 . In August 2011 , his father resigned his positions and transferred his son to Bishop Gorman just prior to his sophomore year .
Due to NIAA rules which require a transfer student to wait a year before participating in athletic activities , Randall II was required to sit out his sophomore year in both football and track and field at Bishop Gorman . Then , he backed up four @-@ time state champion starting quarterback Anu Solomon as a junior . That season , he compiled 298 yards and two touchdowns on 21 – 32 passing with four interceptions and added 42 rushes for 483 yards and seven touchdowns . By his junior year , his 40 @-@ yard dash speed was laser @-@ timed at 4 @.@ 6 seconds . As a senior , he inherited a team that Solomon had led to four consecutive state championships . Despite not starting until his senior season , he entered the year with football scholarship offers from Mississippi State , LSU , Baylor , Syracuse , Arizona State , Utah and UNLV . USA Today predicts that Baylor and LSU may be favorites because of their strong track programs .
During his senior season , the team played a schedule of out @-@ of @-@ state schools for its first 6 games before beginning league competition . Bishop Gorman won 4 of those games . Its October 4 contest with Miami 's Booker T. Washington High School was broadcast on ESPNU at a time when Washington was the number one ranked high school in the country . By that time , he had added offers from Kansas State and Yale . In the five previous season under head coach Tony Sanchez , Bishop Gorman had gone 60 – 5 and not lost by more than 14 points . Bishop Gorman entered the game with national rankings of 18 by Rivals.com , 32 by Student Sports . Gorman trailed 14 – 12 with 8 : 35 remaining when Cunningham fumbled . Washington scored a touchdown and then another following Cunningham 's third interception , resulting in a 28 – 12 defeat . Subsequently , Cunningham led Gorman through an undefeated Southwest League regular season , marking the seventh consecutive such occurrence for the school . By mid @-@ November , Cunningham stated " I like USC , UCLA , Kansas State , Texas , ASU , and Indiana - and Oregon as well " . On December 7 , he led Gorman to a 48 – 14 victory over Edward C. Reed High School in the state championship , rushing for 4 touchdowns and 213 yards on 22 carries and throwing for a touchdown and 111 yards on 9 @-@ of @-@ 11 passing . Cunningham was briefly recruited by Clay Helton , USC quarterback coach under Steve Sarkisian , but USC did not make him a football scholarship offer . After accepting a track scholarship to USC , Cunningham announced he would attempt to walk @-@ on to the football team .
= = = Track = = =
On August 1 , 2010 , Cunningham placed second in the 13 – 14 age group at the USATF National Junior Olympics with a high jump of 5 feet 8 @.@ 75 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) . As a freshman , he won the May 20 , 2011 NIAA AAAA high jump championship with a jump of 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) . As a sophomore , he sat out of NIAA competition after transferring . His father 's best high jump in high school was 6 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) . On June 24 , 2012 , Cunningham established the USATF 15 – 16 age group Outdoor Track & Field record with a jump of 2 @.@ 16 metres ( 7 ft 1 @.@ 0 in ) . Cunningham won the August 2012 National AAU Junior Olympic Games high jump with a jump of 7 feet 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 18 m ) . He actually won the 15 – 16 age group with a height of 6 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) . The Junior Olympic age group record of 7 feet 0 inches ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) by Johnnie Bartley had stood since 1986 , but Cunningham continued to jump past his winning height to establish a new Junior Olympic record . By April 11 of his 2013 junior season , he had already cleared 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) , which was the NIAA state championship record , four times that season . In the May 18 , 2013 NIAA state championships , he achieved a high jump of 7 feet 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 2 @.@ 22 m ) , which was the best height by a high school high jumper in the nation that year . He earned the 2013 Nevada Track & Field Gatorade Player of the Year award . In the August 2013 AAU Junior Olympics , he was second or third in the 17 – 18 age group with a height of 6 feet 10 inches ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) or 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) , depending on the source . On January 3 , 2014 , he made a verbal commitment to the USC Trojans track team , shunning over 30 football scholarship offers . In 2014 at the annual Mt . SAC ( Mt . San Antonio College ) Relays , he set the American high school season best for boys of 7 feet 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 18 m ) on the same April 12 day his sister Vashti did so for girls with 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) . He was surpassed by Bryant O 'Georgia of Arizona by one quarter inch in May . Cunningham placed first in the May 24 , 2014 NIAA state championship with a high jump of 6 feet 11 inches ( 2 @.@ 11 m ) and second with a long jump of 22 feet 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 6 @.@ 92 m ) .
As a freshman at the University of Southern California , Cunningham finished second at the PAC @-@ 12 Outdoor Championships with a height of 2 @.@ 16 metres ( 7 ft 1 in ) and tied for 8th at the 2015 NCAA Division I Outdoor Track and Field Championships ( 2 @.@ 16 metres ( 7 ft 1 in ) ) . Two weeks later , he won the U.S. Junior National Championship with a 2 @.@ 20 m ( 7 ft 21 ⁄ 2 in ) . His top 8 finish in the NCAAs earned him All @-@ American recognition . In his freshman year , Randall was coached by 2 @-@ time Olympian Jamie Nieto who took over as the USC assistant coach in charge of jumps and multi @-@ events on August 20 , 2014 . Later that summer he earned a gold medal at the 2015 Pan American Junior Athletics Championships with a jump of 2 @.@ 16 m ( 7 ft 1 in ) . His sister Vashti also won gold at that same competition .
As a sophomore , he was second again at the PAC @-@ 12 Outdoor Championship with a height of 2 @.@ 18 metres ( 7 ft 1 @.@ 8 in ) and won the 2016 NCAA Division I Outdoor Track and Field Championships with a height of 2 @.@ 25 metres ( 7 ft 4 @.@ 6 in ) , which is an outdoor personal best . Cunningham no @-@ heighted at the July 8 , 2016 Olympic Trials qualifying round after three unsuccessful attempts at 2 @.@ 14 metres ( 7 ft 0 @.@ 3 in ) . The trials were held during a torrential downpour that was deemed severe enough to suspend the women 's pole vault event and that seemed to impair the men 's discuss event .
= = Personal = =
In a highly anticipated birth , Cunningham II was born to Randall Cunningham and Felicity ( née De Jager ) in Las Vegas on January 4 , 1996 . He is well known as the son of 2 @-@ time All @-@ American punter and 4 @-@ time Pro Bowl quarterback Cunningham . He is also the nephew of College Football Hall of Fame running back Sam Cunningham . In addition , he has two other Cunningham uncles ( A.C. and Bruce ) who played Division I football . His mother , Felicity , is a native South African who was formerly a professional ballerina with the Dance Theatre of Harlem . His younger sister , Vashti , is a World Indoor Champion and subsequently signed a professional contract with Nike while still in high school . His brother , Christian , died at age 2 . Cunningham also competed in the long jump in high school .
As of his junior year in high school , Cunningham intended to compete in both football and track in college , although his father 's alma mater , UNLV , does not have a men 's track program . Baylor , who made him his first offer , has coined the nickname RC2 , a reference to RG3 , for him . He aspired to break the national high school record of 7 feet 5 @.@ 75 inches ( 2 @.@ 28 m ) , and he also aspires to be an Olympic high jumper , but the automatic qualifying jump for the 2012 team was 2 @.@ 28 m ( 7 ft 53 ⁄ 4 in ) . The qualifying standard for the 2016 Olympics is 2 @.@ 29 m ( 7 ft 6 in ) .
= Ken Barlow =
Kenneth " Ken " Barlow is a long @-@ standing fictional character from the ITV soap opera Coronation Street , played by William Roache . Ken was created by Tony Warren as one of Coronation Street 's original characters . He debuted in the soap 's first episode on 9 December 1960 . Having appeared continuously since the programme 's inception , December 2010 marked Ken 's 50th anniversary on @-@ screen . At this time , Roache officially became the longest @-@ serving actor in a televised soap opera . Roache was honoured at the 2010 Guinness World Records ceremony for the achievement , when he surpassed actor Don Hastings from the American soap opera As the World Turns , who previously held this title . Roache stated in 2010 that he has no plans to leave the role and will remain in Coronation Street for as long as they will have him .
Ken was introduced as the educated son of a working @-@ class family . Portrayed as moralistic and a political activist , Ken differed from the other , predominantly working @-@ class characters in the soap opera . The character developed a reputation as a ladies ' man ; plots saw Ken dating numerous women , marrying five times to four women ( Valerie Tatlock in 1962 , Janet Reid in 1972 and Deirdre Hunt in 1981 and again in 2005 ) , fathering four children ( Lawrence Cunningham , Susan Barlow , Peter Barlow and Daniel Osbourne ) , and adopting one daughter ( Tracy Barlow ) . Of the many women Ken has been paired with , his relationship with Deirdre has been the most enduring . Ken and Deirdre 's fictional relationship made newspaper headlines in Britain in 1983 due to Deirdre 's adultery with Mike Baldwin . The storyline captured both media and viewer interest . 20 million people tuned in to watch Ken 's discovery of the affair . The storyline lead to a feud between Ken and Mike , prominent in both characters ' narratives until Mike 's screen death in 2006 .
Despite his somewhat antagonistic role in the show 's early years , Ken developed a reputation among critics for representing an archetypal " boring man " . This is an allegation denied by Roache , who has cited Ken 's evolution over the years , his chaotic love life and dysfunctional family as evidence to the contrary . Roache has been honoured with a lifetime achievement award at the British Soap Awards for his portrayal of Ken . Away from the canonical serial , Ken has been portrayed by James Roache ( William Roache 's son ) in the dramatisation The Road to Coronation Street , and by Simon Chadwick in the play Corrie ! . He has also been spoofed by impressionist Jon Culshaw .
= = Storylines = =
Ken is born and raised in Coronation Street , Weatherfield , Greater Manchester on 9 October 1939 . He is the eldest son born to Frank ( Frank Pemberton ) and Ida Barlow ( Noel Dyson ) . An intelligent pupil , Ken attends grammar school after passing his eleven plus exam and in 1957 wins a scholarship at Manchester University ; he lives with his parents and brother David ( Alan Rothwell ) in Weatherfield while studying and gains a second class honours degree in History and English . Being educated and politically minded , Ken differs from his family and neighbours . This is a source of friction between Ken and his father Frank , who believes Ken is trying to distance himself from his working @-@ class roots . When Ken writes a scathing newspaper article about his uneducated neighbours in Weatherfield , Frank and the community are outraged . In 1961 , Ken 's mother dies in a motor accident . Ken turns down a teaching post to support his father , but he and Frank continue to clash until Frank leaves in 1964 . David and Frank 's deaths in 1970 and 1975 respectively , leave Ken as the sole surviving Barlow .
Ken begins teaching , and marries Valerie Tatlock ( Anne Reid ) in July 1962 . Two years later , he has a fling with exotic dancer Pip Mistral ( Elaine Stevens ) , but his marriage survives . Twins Peter ( Robert Heanue ) and Susan ( Katie Heanneau ) are born on 15 April 1965 . In January 1966 , Ken has another affair with reporter Jackie Marsh ( Pamela Craig ) . Valerie leaves when she finds out , but is later persuaded to return . Ken continues to stand up for his political beliefs , and spends seven days in prison in March 1967 , after being arrested for protesting . Ken is left a single @-@ parent following Valerie 's untimely death ; she perishes after being electrocuted in January 1971 , and Ken is left heartbroken . Ken is supported by Valerie 's uncle Albert Tatlock ( Jack Howarth ) , with whom he shares a close relationship , but caring for the twins proves too difficult and they are sent to live with their grandparents in Glasgow .
Ken has numerous flings , including a one @-@ night stand with Rita Littlewood ( Barbara Knox ) , but his next serious relationship occurs in 1973 , when Ken marries Janet Reid ( Judith Barker ) , in the hope that she will mother his two children . Janet refuses to do this , and in 1974 they separate . Janet flits in and out of Ken 's life until 1977 , when she kills herself by taking an overdose when Ken turns down a reconciliation .
When Ray Langton ( Neville Buswell ) leaves his wife Deirdre ( Anne Kirkbride ) in 1978 , Ken supports her . In 1981 they marry , with Ken becoming stepfather to Deirdre 's four @-@ year @-@ old daughter Tracy ( Christabel Finch ) . However , by 1983 , Deirdre grows bored with Ken and has an affair with his rival , Mike Baldwin ( Johnny Briggs ) . Ken and Deirdre 's marriage suffers ; the couple separate in 1990 , and eventually divorce following Ken 's affair with Wendy Crozier ( Roberta Kerr ) , his colleague at the local newspaper , The Weatherfield Recorder . Ken takes the separation badly and attempts suicide by overdose , but is prevented from doing so by his friend , Bet Lynch ( Julie Goodyear ) .
Ken and Mike , who are the moral opposites of each other , remain enemies ; Ken is incensed when his daughter , Susan , falls in love and has a short @-@ lived marriage with Mike . In 1991 Ken and Mike compete for the same woman , Alma Sedgewick ( Amanda Barrie ) . When she is dumped by Mike in favour of Jackie Ingram ( Shirin Taylor ) , she starts seeing Ken . On Christmas Day 1991 , Mike lures Alma back into his bed to get back at Ken . Later in 1992 , Ken falls for one of his pupil 's mothers – Maggie Redman ( Jill Kerman ) . The Baldwin / Barlow feud erupts again , as Mike is the father of Maggie 's son , Mark ( Christopher Oakswood ) . Mike hates the thought of Ken spending Christmas Day with his son , but Ken 's pride gets the better of him . He cannot handle the situation , and he and Maggie split .
Ken has a relationship with hairdresser Denise Osbourne ( Denise Black ) in 1994 and fathers her child ; their son Daniel ( Lewis Harney ) is born in 1995 . Denise agrees to marry Ken , but is having an affair with her brother @-@ in @-@ law Brian Dunkley ( Benny Young ) at the same time . She leaves Weatherfield in 1996 , leaving Daniel with Ken . It is a short @-@ lived custody as , later that year , Denise returns and snatches Daniel ; Ken 's attempts to reclaim his son fail .
Ken and Deirdre remain close , despite their other relationships . They reunite in 1999 , following encouragement from Deidre 's mother Blanche ( Maggie Jones ) . They eventually remarry on 8 April 2005 ; although Ken discovers that Deirdre slept with Dev Alahan ( Jimmi Harkishin ) in 2001 , he forgives her and they remain together . Deirdre supports Ken in 2002 when he loses his teaching post for assaulting a pupil , Aidan Critchley ( Dean Ashton ) , who has been terrorising him . Marital problems arise in 2006 when , following Mike 's death from Alzheimer 's , Ken grows jealous of Deirdre 's grief reaction ; he leaves home and tries to rebuild a relationship with his estranged son Daniel . Daniel 's mother Denise , now single , gets the wrong idea and attempts to rekindle a romance with Ken ; Ken rebuffs her advances and returns to Deirdre . Ken does stray in 2009 , after meeting Martha Fraser ( Stephanie Beacham ) . Ken falls in love with Martha , and in May 2009 , plans to leave with her . He cannot go through with it , and he jilts her , returning to Deirdre . Eventually he admits to the infidelity . Although Deirdre is angry , she forgives him as he had forgiven her fling with Dev ; however , Deirdre later cheats on Ken again , kissing Lewis Archer ( Nigel Havers ) . Relations are once again strained between Ken and Deirdre . The couple acknowledge their mutual unhappiness with their marriage , but remain together .
In late August 2010 Norris Cole ( Malcolm Hebden ) discovers an unopened letter addressed to Ken , dating back to the 1960s . The letter is written by Ken 's first girlfriend , Susan Cunningham ( Patricia Shakesby ) , whom Ken had dated in 1960 . Susan has a son named Lawrence ( Linus Roache ) , who turns out to be Ken 's child . Ken and Lawrence bond , which temporarily threatens Ken 's relationship with his other son Peter . When Ken discovers that Lawrence is intolerant of the homosexuality of his own son , James ( James Roache ) , Ken severs contact . Realising that he has been unappreciative and neglectful of Peter over the years , he makes an effort to bond , supporting him through his relationship and health problems that follow .
= = Creation and development = =
= = = Casting = = =
Ken Barlow is one of the twenty @-@ two original Coronation Street characters devised by series creator Tony Warren . He made his debut in the soap 's first episode , broadcast on 9 December 1960 . While auditionees for the other twenty @-@ one original roles were drawn from casting director Margaret Morris ' contacts in the north of England , Warren spotted William Roache performing in the Granada Television play Marking Time , and knew that he was the right actor to play Ken . Roache almost declined the invitation to audition : " I wasn 't interested . I had my flat in London , I was getting acting parts and it all looked very rosy . " He changed his mind at the insistence of his agent , and attended the audition , at which he was asked to read The Daily Telegraph newspaper in a Lancashire accent . Roache believes that his indifference towards being cast had a positive impact on his audition , as it enabled him to relax . Two pilot episodes were filmed , with Ken played by Roache in one , and by actor Philip Lowrie in the other . Lowrie was later cast in the role of another original character , Dennis Tanner .
Roache was initially offered the role of Ken on a thirteen @-@ episode , six @-@ week contract . His agent convinced him to take it , as it would enhance his exposure around the broadcast of Marking Time . Coronation Street was a hit with viewers and its contract was extended . Roache was given a six @-@ month contract in early 1961 , followed by a one @-@ year contract in June of that year , which he deemed amazing security at a time when he had been " leading a hand @-@ to @-@ mouth existence " . The series became a long @-@ running soap opera , airing multiple times weekly , and Roache continued in the role , though gradually ceased to affect a Lancashire accent . Roache originally earned ₤ 10 per episode , compared to the ₤ 3 @,@ 000 per episode that he earned in 2010 . He stated in 2010 that although he initially only intended to feature in Coronation Street for a short time , once he had filmed it and it was transmitted with " such colossal impact " , he realised it was something special . At the time , Roache needed to be sure it wasn 't a mistake to sign up ; later he said , " If I had known it would turn out to be my life 's work , I would have run a mile . "
According to writer Daran Little , Roache was partly responsible for the name of the street where the soap is set , Coronation Street , which also serves as the programme 's title . The soap was originally titled Florizel Street when it was commissioned . Roache reportedly could not pronounce Florizel , so the name of the street was changed to Coronation Street .
= = = Longevity = = =
By 1984 , Ken was the only character from the original cast who remained in the serial . He became the only original character to remain with the show continuously into 2010 , its 50th year . Roache has revealed that Ken 's role in the serial was threatened in 1964 , when producer Tim Aspinall , who was dubbed the " mad axe @-@ man " , took the helm of Coronation Street . Aspinall culled a variety of characters from the serial , including fan favourite Martha Longhurst ( Lynne Carol ) , and Ken was one of the characters he wished to axe : " He had a kind of hit list of characters . He decided who he wanted out , while others including myself were put on warning that we were likely to be given the chop at a later date . It was appalling , " recalls Roache . A potential storyline was devised in which Ken and his then wife Valerie would move to Australia . However , Ken was given a reprieve , as before he could be axed , Aspinall was removed from his position .
Spiritual enlightenment and a desire for self @-@ improvement led Roache to consider quitting the series in the early 1970s , as he struggled with being in " the most ego @-@ driven profession there is " . He ultimately decided to stay — a decision he is happy with in retrospect , as his qualms were never with the series itself , but the way he felt personally . In 2010 Roache pledged to stay with Coronation Street : " I 'm not even thinking about retiring . It isn 't an option and I don 't want to even consider it [ ... ] I love the Street and while they want me and while I can do it I want to carry on . I don 't care if I 'm 120 , I 'll still be there . " Roache said in 2010 , " When people ask me why I 've played the same role for 50 years I try to explain that I haven 't because like all human beings , and thanks to clever script @-@ writers , Ken 's evolved . He ’ s been married three times , had 24 girlfriends and is head of a totally dysfunctional family . He has a son [ Peter ] who 's an alcoholic bigamist and a daughter [ Tracy ] who 's a convicted murderer . How many actors get the chance to perform scenes with meaty content like that ? "
= = = Characterisation = = =
Tony Warren created Ken as a " zeitgeist " of modern times in 1960 , and it has been suggested that Ken is a " prism through which to read the political and cultural history of the last half century " . In the soap 's early years , Ken was frequently presented as resenting what he saw as the anti @-@ intellectual , repressed climate around him , and author Dorothy Hobson has suggested that Ken was ashamed of his working @-@ class roots . Roache concurs that Ken obviously had higher aspirations than " being stuck in Coronation Street " , but notes that " he was also portrayed as a nice young guy who was happy to help out if he could . " Roache considers himself " the guardian of Ken " , responsible for ensuring that his actions and dialogue remain true to the character . This responsibility lead to a two @-@ year quarrel with his co @-@ star Pat Phoenix , when she insisted that her character , Elsie Tanner , undermine Ken in an argument . Annoyed at Ken being belittled and the scene stripped of its " dramatic impact " , Roache rowed with Phoenix , who did not speak to him again — outside of their scenes together — for two years .
An article in the Daily Mail in 2010 stated , " in the beginning Ken was an angry young man who , as a student , was representative of the millions who had benefited from post @-@ war reforms , such as free education for the gifted . " The Guardian 's Joe Moran likened Ken to Richard Hoggart 's scholarship boy " the ' uprooted and anxious ' figure whose education had alienated him from his working @-@ class origins . " Moran suggested that Ken has led " what Hoggart once called a ' carousel life ' , a life not of the upward trajectory of the professional career but of living from year to year and taking whatever job turns up . " Moran added that Ken " refused to go along with the last half century 's stress on consumer aspiration and meritocratic elitism " , but added that by modern standards , " Ken has wasted his education and his life . He has played little part in ' wealth creation ' [ ... ] and is still stuck in the same house he lived in when he was a student , leading his carousel life , stoically and decently . "
Ken 's political stance is left @-@ liberal . He has been described as the most famous fictional reader of The Guardian , a newspaper that attracts readers of the mainstream left of British political opinion . Ken has had several forays into journalism for left @-@ wing publications over the years , and was occasionally shown to be frustrated that his political views were not shared by others . A scathing article he wrote for a newspaper in which he labelled his neighbours as " lazy @-@ minded , politically ignorant , starved of a real culture and prejudiced against any advance in human insight and scientific progress " led to clashes with his father and a fistfight at the Rovers with Len Fairclough ( Peter Adamson ) . Although Ken has occasionally espoused socialist ideology , Roache suggests that he is really more of a " liberal , fair @-@ minded guy [ ... ] always looking to right the wrongs of society " , and " a man of integrity who fights for what he thinks is right " .
Author Graeme Kay discussed Ken 's evolution within the show : " He began as a bit of a prig , in the eyes of working @-@ class father Frank , but matured into a sound family man , only to go astray . He changed from teacher to newspaper owner , through various jobs , but threw that away too . He has always liked to see himself as a big fish in a small pond , with his steely , domineering manner and feeling of superior intellect . " Little suggested that Ken has transformed from an angry young man who never fitted in and was always challenging the system , into a bore next door , eventually discovering that he couldn 't change the world after all . Little dubbed Ken Coronation Street 's elder statesman and lynch @-@ pin , a one @-@ man Greek tragedy , and the greatest survivor in Weatherfield .
The character has a reputation amongst critics as boring and a man of morals ; Moran dubbed him the archetypal boring man . Chronicling the history of Coronation Street in 2007 , Virgin Media stated , " Perhaps unfairly dubbed boring , Ken is ultimately an intelligent man , frustrated by the cards life has dealt him – although the hair , clothes and strong morals haven 't helped . " Popular perception of Ken as being boring originated , in Roache 's view , around the time of the Ken – Deirdre – Mike love triangle storyline . He refutes the label , particularly as Ken has had numerous romantic dalliances during his tenure . Karen Price of the Western Mail called him the Street 's resident intellectual , who has never quite managed to break free from his roots .
= = = Relationships = = =
Ken is renowned for having had multiple relationships with women during his time in Coronation Street . Discussing this , author Hobson has suggested that Ken 's numerous relationships could give the impression that the character is a lothario or a great romantic ; however , Hobson noted that this would be inaccurate as Ken is " neither a great romantic nor someone with whom you would be wise to trust your romantic or emotional future . In fact , he is one of the characters about whom audiences would tend to want to warn any female characters to ' stay away , it 'll end in tears ' . Roache feels that Ken 's approach to romance early in his tenure belied his educated , intellectual affectations , and revealed him to be a typical " northern working @-@ class man at heart . " He explained : " [ Ken ] was the sort who wanted to have a wife who would stay at home , look after the kids and make sure the house was run smoothly , while he went off to work to pursue a career . It was very old @-@ fashioned in many ways , but he could never see it that way and it was often left to the women he had relationships with to remind him of that trait in his character . "
Ken 's many relationships have been marred by infidelities . Despite being generally " well @-@ meaning " , Roache assessed that for the first two decades of Coronation Street , Ken had a ruthless streak where women were involved . While he has since mellowed somewhat , he was initially a " sensitive , thinking chauvinist who liked the idea of having a wife who was always there for him , but at the same time [ ... ] found nothing wrong with flirting or going off with another woman . " ITV publicity noted how many relationships and flings he has had , stating " This could take a while ... Ken has had more girlfriends than most of the Street ’ s male residents put together . " Between the periods of 1960 and 2007 , Ken married four times and dated 27 women , including a character played by the then unknown actress Joanna Lumley , who played headmaster 's daughter Elaine Perkins in 1973 .
= = = = Valerie Tatlock = = = =
Ken 's first notable relationship in the serial was with the character Valerie Tatlock ( Anne Reid ) in 1961 . Roache and Reid had been to neighbouring schools , which gave them common ground and a relaxed attitude to working together . Ken 's relationship with Valerie became popular with viewers . Roache once attributed their success to his own rapport with Reid , citing it as a helpful element in their on @-@ screen chemistry . Ken and Valerie married on 4 August 1962 . Executive producer H. V. Kershaw was aware of their popularity , and requested that Granada Television 's evening duty officer be made available on the night of broadcast , in order to take phone calls of congratulations from viewers . Although no calls were made , 20 million viewers watched the wedding episode . Reid was " thrilled " with the reaction to the wedding . Roache was initially skeptical about the impact marriage would have on Ken 's development . Roache said : " I was a sort of young semi @-@ heartthrob in those days and thought getting married was going to finish all that . " He felt that , given Ken 's aspirations of upward social mobility and desire to leave Weatherfield , marriage conflicted with his characterisation , but realised it was necessary for the writers to anchor him in the area .
Valerie gave birth to twins , Peter and Susan , and became a housewife to look after them . All scenes involving the child actors were filmed separately from episodic shoots , to avoid unwanted noise ruining Roache and Reid 's scenes . In one storyline , Ken had to start looking after the children more frequently , but he grew bored and would often leave them unattended . Valerie accused him of attempted murder on one occasion when a small house fire occurred – with the twins trapped inside . His boredom with his marriage caused him to have an affair with Jackie Marsh ( Pamela Craig ) . There were only " kissing scenes " written into scripts , but the production team made it clear they were having a sexual relationship . The storyline " horrified " viewers , and Craig received abusive letters from angry fans . Craig knew nothing more than a short affair could occur between the pair . On @-@ screen Elsie Tanner convinced him to end the affair ; Valerie found out , but forgave him . Roache enjoyed the aftermath , as it added a new dimension to Ken , whereby " He was a married man with kids , and had all of those good intentions , but he was also liable to stray and clearly had trouble resisting the temptation of another woman . "
Ken and Valerie 's marriage came to an untimely end in 1971 . Following Reid 's decision to leave the role – having grown bored of playing the character – the producers opted to kill Valerie off . Reid and Roache were briefly concerned that her departure would result in Ken being written out , and Roache recalls that Ken emigrating with the twins was a scenario under consideration . To his relief , he was kept on . Valerie died after being electrocuted while trying to mend a faulty hair dryer . After the fatal shock , she knocked over an electric heater , setting the Barlow 's house on fire ; it has been dubbed one of the most sensational soap departures . A then @-@ record audience tuned in for Valerie 's death , scripted by Leslie Duxbury . The following episode ended with Ken walking through the burned remains of their home , in a scene that Roache has deemed one of his " most enjoyable and satisfying moments in Coronation Street . "
= = = = Janet Reid = = = =
Ken 's second marriage in the serial was to a character named Janet Reid ( Judith Barker ) in 1973 ; their relationship was short @-@ lived . There was no buildup to their marriage ; Ken returned from Scotland and introduced Janet as his wife . The storyline 's fast pace angered Roache ; he once stressed : " I was very cross about the whole thing . There was no wedding , she just arrived , no build @-@ up to it . It was just like an idea that was shoved in . I wasn 't happy . " The storyline was unpopular with viewers , who did not approve of the wedding . Janet was already an unpopular character by then , because of her previous affairs with two other Coronation Street males . Barker said Janet was often perceived as treating Ken unfairly . She openly showed her dislike for his children and sent them to boarding school . The situation saw Ken realise he was in a " loveless marriage " – a match made whilst feeling lonely and under the presumption that she was his last chance of happiness . The breakdown of their marriage was accompanied by what Little dubbed " a series of spectacular rows " , which saw Ken become violent towards Janet . One such row , which followed Ken 's discovery of Janet 's plans to send the twins to boarding school , was later used as an exercise in drama schools , which Roache deemed " a nice compliment to everyone involved in creating the moment . "
Janet and Ken split up in 1974 . Barker was included in the series on and off for a few years , as Janet would occasionally return to be with Ken . In late 1976 Barker was asked to reprise the role for a final time . Janet returned on @-@ screen in 1977 and asked Ken for another chance , claiming she had changed . When he rejects her , she commits suicide by taking an overdose . Barker recalled the " exhausting " scenes she and Roache filmed , and said there was substantial " dramatic tracking " scenes as Ken discovered her dead in bed . Ken was described as " shattered " and " remorseful " by the death of Janet , and felt guilty over the fact he did not try to help her more . To worsen his situation , he was initially suspected of murdering her .
= = = = Deirdre Hunt = = = =
In 1972 , Deirdre Hunt , played by Anne Kirkbride , was introduced into Coronation Street ; the character would become synonymous with Ken 's narrative when , in the early 1980s , Deirdre became Ken 's third wife . A combined audience of 24 million viewers tuned in to see the nuptials . Their wedding coincided with professional unease for actor Roache , who feared that Ken was becoming boring , to the detriment of his own self @-@ confidence . In 2010 Roache said , " [ Ken ] was beginning to look very ordinary and quite nerdy , and that in turn had a knock @-@ on effect for me , because I started to lose confidence as an actor . I went through a time where I was really scared of ' drying ' , which is not being able to remember your lines . You start to wonder about your own ability to remember lines and act in the way you had , which can be very damaging . "
Roache inferred that the writers no longer knew how to utilise Ken . Although he had rarely done so in the past , he voiced his concerns to the series ' producer , dismayed that the character " seemed to be floating in a nebulous state " . He believes that Ken was thereafter included in " much stronger stuff " as a result , including a storyline in which Deirdre had an affair with his rival , Mike Baldwin ( Briggs ) . The storyline was devised in 1982 . Then producer Mervyn Watson recalls : " It was normal story conference and we looked at the Ken / Deirdre marriage and had the idea of her having an affair with somebody in the Street . It was extremely passionately debated because there were categorical and opposite view points expressed . " Watson believes that actors often feel " disturbed and uncomfortable " at the prospect of what their character will experience . In turn , he thought the scenario generated some of the best performances in the actors ' careers . He concluded that Roache proved his theory correct , and praised his performance .
A now infamous scene , in which Ken comes face @-@ to @-@ face with Mike following the discovery of the affair and a showdown ensues , was originally scripted differently . Ken was intended to stand and meekly watch Mike and Deirdre chatting on his doorstep . Roache disliked this version , as he believed Ken 's response lacked realism . Partly fuelled by his previous frustration with Ken 's " lame " characterisation , Roache approached the episode 's director , Brian Mills , and requested that Ken be allowed to hit Mike . Though the filming set @-@ up planned for the scene did not allow for this , it was agreed that Ken would attempt to hit Mike , and that Deirdre would intervene . In the transmitted scene , Deirdre did intervene , resulting in Ken attempting to manhandle her . Roache recalls , " Every time I looked at the words and at what was supposed to happen I knew it just didn 't ring true . Poor Annie wasn 't prepared for what happened to her next and actually burst into tears because of the ferocity of my performance . She was shaken up by it , and when it came to the moment for Mike Baldwin to knock at the door she got an even bigger shock . After Baldwin asked why Deirdre had put the phone down when he 'd called earlier , I slammed the door shut with my left hand and then slammed poor Annie against the door itself , leaving her shaken and shocked . She then made her way into the Barlows ' living room , sobbing her heart out , and Brian left the cameras rolling , capturing [ Anne 's ] genuine distress . "
The storyline was described as the most volatile and explosive in the programme 's history . Roache recalls viewers taking it very seriously , to the point that he received letters reading : " Dear Ken , I though you should know that Mike Baldwin is seeing your wife ! " He related that , " When Deirdre decided to stop seeing Mike and stay with Ken , the scoreboard at Old Trafford on the night flashed the message that the couple were not splitting up to 56 @,@ 000 football fans , amid thunderous cheers from the crowd ! " 20 million viewers tuned in for the episode ; it attained the soap 's second @-@ highest recorded overnight ratings , surpassed only by the farewell episode of Hilda Ogden ( Jean Alexander ) in 1987 .
Ken and Deidre have been described as soap opera 's version of Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor . Their relationship has featured various affairs , break @-@ ups and reunions over the years . The couple 's first marriage eventually disintegrated in the early 1990s , this time when Ken had an affair with colleague Wendy Crozier , a dalliance which ended in divorce for the Barlows . Ken was kicked out of home on New Year 's Day 1990 . Their on / off relationship continued , with each having various other liaisons , until producers decided to reunite Ken and Deidre in 1999 . Roache said , " I was pleased . It seemed to fit perfectly with the lives that had been created for them throughout their time in Coronation Street . They had both gone off and done very silly things and had had affairs with people , and yet their overriding need as they got older was for each other . " Ken and Deirdre 's second marriage in 2005 was watched by an estimated 13 million viewers , compared to the nine million who watched the wedding of Prince Charles to Camilla Parker Bowles the following day . Coincidentally , Ken and Deirdre 's first wedding in 1981 was screened within 48 hours of Prince Charles and Princess Diana 's wedding , and just as in 2005 , the Barlow wedding attracted more viewers than the royal wedding .
Roache has been complimentary about Ken and Deirdre , as well as Kirkbride — who , he states , he loves as much as Ken loves Deirdre — with this love explaining why Ken always ends up returning to her . Roache said , " We have been together on screen for pretty much 30 years now and so much of what we do on camera is instinctive . We really are like an old married couple who have had their ups and downs , lived through them and come out the other side . "
= = = = Denise Osbourne = = = =
Ken was paired romantically with hairdresser Denise Osbourne ( Denise Black ) in 1994 , the romance scuppering the chances of a reconciliation between recent divorcees Ken and Deirdre . Scriptwriters had actually been planning to reunite Ken and Deirdre , but when Deirdre 's actress fell ill and had to be written out , the scripts were changed and Ken was paired with Denise instead . Black has suggested that the romance came out of nowhere .
The Official Coronation Street Annual 1997 has described Ken and Denise as a " mis @-@ matched pair " who were never destined to spend their lives together . In the storyline , Ken fathered Denise 's son Daniel . They had an on / off relationship and a wedding was planned in 1996 ; however , in a plot twist , it was revealed to Ken that Denise , unable to " hold her primitive lusts in check " , was having an affair with her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Brian . Upon the discovery , Ken 's happiness was snatched away in what has been described by Sunday Mail as " harrowing circumstances " , and one of the character 's worst moments . Denise Black has discussed her character 's ambivalence towards her relationship with Ken , revealing why she believed Denise engaged in infidelity : " The thing is that she 's in love with both men . When she 's with Brian she loves him . And she 's completely in love with Ken when he 's with her . So she has two loves and all the guilt that goes along with that scenario . Denise doesn 't mean to cause so much pain . Her problem is that she just doesn 't know whether she 's coming or going . " When Ken discovered the truth the wedding was called off , with Ken telling Denise to " get out before I kill you " .
Following the revelation and amidst the fallout , Denise absconded , leaving her son in Ken 's custody . This facilitated Black 's desire to have a six @-@ month break from the serial . The character returned in the winter of 1996 , for the last part of her storyline , Black having decided to quit the role . Denise 's return storyline was scripted to coincide with Coronation Street 's increase to four weekly episodes . It focused upon a custody battle for Daniel between Ken and Denise after Denise snatched Daniel . A source at the time discussed the storyline and Ken 's reaction to losing his son : " Ken is devastated when he returns home the week before Christmas and finds his son gone . He simply can 't believe he 's been snatched by the woman who dumped them . He immediately starts a custody battle . Denise plays heavily on the fact that she is the mother , while Ken [ claims ] that he is back in a relationship with his ex @-@ wife Deirdre . Deirdre actually goes to court with him for support , but she gets angry when she finds out he tries to use their friendship as a lever to get Daniel back . " When Denise was awarded custody , she left Coronation Street , and Ken lost contact with his son .
Denise was reintroduced for several months in 2007 , over a decade after she had last appeared . Ken tracked down his son following marital unease with Dierdre , which led to interactions with Denise when he turned up unannounced for a visit . Black was pleased to be invited back , saying " I don ’ t think that you can have Ken Barlow ’ s baby and forget about it , can you ? " Denise 's return was used as a catalyst to cause further problems in Ken and Deirdre 's marriage , Ken having grown discontented . It was only a brief return ; once Denise 's advances towards Ken were rejected , Denise was written out again .
= = = = Martha Fraser = = = =
In January 2009 , Martha Fraser ( played by Stephanie Beacham ) , a new love interest for Ken , was introduced to the show . Ken meets Martha by the canal while he is walking his dog , Eccles . Martha reveals that she is a theatre actress who travels to performances on her barge . Ken seeks Martha out again , and he helps her go through her lines . Roache told What 's on TV that Ken is happy to find a " like @-@ minded person " who is easy to talk to . He enjoys telling Martha about his problems , his son and his grandchildren , as she is not judgmental . When asked if Ken mentions Deirdre , Roache said " Er ... no . Martha asks him about Peter 's mum and Ken tells her that she 's dead , which is the truth , so Martha automatically assumes he 's a widower and he doesn 't put her right . " Ken also chooses not to mention Martha to Deirdre ; Roache believed that she would be angry if she found out . Roache revealed that Ken is not thinking about having an affair with Martha , but he is " captivated " by her , and does have feelings for her . During the storyline , Roache 's wife , Sara , died . Roache was given compassionate leave from the soap , and writers were forced to rework Ken 's storyline . Ken and Martha eventually consummate their relationship , and Ken considers leaving Deirdre and Weatherfield . He changes his mind at the last minute and Martha leaves , alone .
Alison Graham of the Radio Times said Martha was Ken 's soulmate , because " she 's the most perfectly bourgeois bit @-@ on @-@ the @-@ side . " Graham said that Martha allowed Ken 's " middle @-@ class heart " to sing after the pair bonded over a love of BBC Radio 4 , books and plays . Comparing Ken 's relationships with Martha and Deirdre to a prison sentence , Graham said Martha offered Ken a deserving parole from the " years of breaking rocks in the prison yard of his marriage to Deirdre . " She hoped that Ken and Martha were " soon in the throes of ecstasy " , because Ken deserved it . Following the conclusion to Ken 's relationship with Martha , Roache expressed an interest in having more girlfriends for Ken introduced in the future . The actor said , " I thought it was great last year having a girlfriend , especially at my age . A few more would be great . I 've lost count of romances I 've had in the show , not to mention the four weddings . " Ken and Martha 's romance was later depicted in the Coronation Street musical , Corrie ! . Ben East of The Stage said the romance was " genuinely funny . "
= = = = Other relationships = = = =
Ken 's first on @-@ screen relationship was with Susan Cunningham ( Shakesby ) , who he dated throughout the first ten episodes . Ashamed of his family and background , Ken was constantly apologising to her . This frustrated Susan , who actually liked Coronation Street . Fifty years later , it transpired that their relationship had left Susan pregnant , resulting in the birth of a son , Lawrence . After Susan , Ken 's early love interests included Marian Lund ( Patricia Heneghan ) , a librarian eleven years his senior ; Yvonne Chappell ( Alex Marshall ) , a hotel receptionist he met en route to first wife Valerie 's funeral ; Norma Ford ( Diana Davies ) , an impressionable young shop @-@ assistant ; Wendy Nightingale ( Susan Tebbs ) , a married woman who moved in with Ken , making them Coronation Street 's first unmarried cohabiting couple ; and Elaine . Roache believes that Ken was in love with Elaine , though her feelings for him were less intense . He recalls some discussion of re @-@ introducing her to the series in 2009 ; however , this did not come to fruition . Upon separating from Elaine , Ken confided in his friend Rita ( Knox ) that , " There were other fellers more glamorous , more successful , more wealthy and more interesting than me . " According to Roache , the line offers insight into Ken 's psyche , evidencing that he truly belongs on Coronation Street , despite his desires to the contrary .
Although the number of romances Ken was involved in declined from the 1980s onwards , Roache states that those relationships he did have " tended to be bigger and more involved " . His later love interests included Wendy Crozier ( Kerr ) , Alma Sedgewick ( Barrie ) and Maggie Redman ( Kerman ) .
= = = Family = = =
Ken was disdainful of his parents , Frank ( Pemberton ) and Ida ( Dyson ) . Their strained familial relationship was apparent from his very first scene , in which conflict arose over his reluctance to eat a meal with brown sauce . Roache called it " good character @-@ defining stuff " , which established the antagonism between Ken and his father , borne from Ken 's snobbery and desire to abandon his roots . The death of his mother further illuminated the father @-@ son relationship . Roache recalls that , " although their relationship could often be stormy , with Ken 's views and attitude rubbing Frank up the wrong way on a number of issues , the fact was that they had been thrown together by her death and they had to get used to living with each other without the buffer that Ida had often provided . " While Dyson left the series under her own volition , Pemberton later became one of several cast members fired under Aspinall 's tenure as producer . By 1984 , both of Ken 's parents had left the Street . Ken was originally intended to have a sister named Enid . Warren decided against her inclusion , and instead created a younger brother , professional footballer David ( Rothwell ) , to enable the show to represent teenage males . Rothwell feels that an " underlying antagonism " existed between Ken and David , which stemmed from the fact Ken had the advantage of a university education , while his brother did not .
Ken was bored with looking after the children , Peter and Susan , before Valerie 's death . Afterwards , further problems occurred and Ken was no longer able to cope . The writers were initially uncertain whether to continue with Ken as a single father , or dispatch the children and pursue a less @-@ encumbered lifestyle . Roache said , " Ken tried to bring up the kids on his own , but he wasn 't doing so good . So he sent them up to Glasgow to live with his mother @-@ in @-@ law . " Ken still remained in contact ; Roache recalled Ken often saying : " Right , I 'm off to Scotland . ' " Roache has suggested that the subsequent problems in his children 's adulthood were Ken 's fault : " I blame Ken for how they 've all turned out . He shoved his kids up in Scotland , didn 't really look after them . But you don 't want a happy family in the Street . You want a wonderful dysfunctional one like the one I 've got , they 're great and Deirdre is wonderful . " The animosity between Ken and his children has been explored throughout the programme 's duration . Chris Gascoyne , who took on the role of Peter in the 2000s , has suggested that there is a lot of tension between Ken and Peter due to the dysfunctional nature of the Barlow family . Guilt over the twins ' upbringing led Ken to dote on his youngest son , Daniel , as he was keen to avoid repeating his past mistakes . Their close relationship resulted in Roache challenging the series producers when a script required Ken to allow Daniel to be taken away by his mother . The actor felt that Ken would not accept this ; he would fight . The scriptwriters apologised , but it was too late to re @-@ write the plot .
After Valerie 's death , Ken became responsible for looking after her uncle , Albert , and he later became known as Ken 's " Uncle Albert " . Albert would often make attempts to interfere in Ken 's life , as he had no one else . At one stage , Ken was making plans to leave Weatherfield . When Albert revealed he could not pay his bills on his pension , Ken opted to stay . The storyline has been called a turning point for Ken — when he realised he belonged in Coronation Street and had to help the community and Albert alike . Ken moved in with him and Albert gradually saw Ken as " the son he never had " . Roache enjoyed the opportunity to work closely with Howarth , whom he first met as a schoolboy . He characterised Ken and Albert 's relationship as " often a little bumpy and uncomfortable , but underlying all of that was an affection the two had for each other . "
Ken had a slight antagonistic relationship with his " acid @-@ tongued " mother @-@ in @-@ law Blanche , Deirdre 's mother , who has been described as a " thorn in Ken 's side " . A favourite subject matter for Blanche 's wit , Ken has been described as " long @-@ suffering " as he bore the brunt of her " catty remarks " . She would criticise his looks , and on one occasion she accused him of being homosexual . When Ken 's affair with Martha was exposed , Blanche took her comments too far : she tormented Deirdre for staying with him , which resulted in her being thrown out of the Barlow household and forced to live with Peter . However , she was seen as " the glue " of the Barlow family in the modern era , holding them together . Blanche was willing to put her wit aside and fight to ensure Ken and Deirdre stayed together , although most of the time , she interfered in his life . Even upon death , Blanche managed to make a final remark aimed at Ken , through her will . The storyline was described as giving her the chance to have " the last laugh " .
In 2010 it was announced that Roache 's own children , Linus and James , would be joining the cast . They played his long @-@ lost son and grandson , respectively . In the storyline , Ken finds a letter which discloses he had a secret son with a short @-@ term girlfriend . Roache said he looked forward " immensely " to working with his children during the fiftieth @-@ anniversary year . The reunion was short @-@ lived due to a rift between Lawrence and James . Lawrence was a bigot who could not accept that the fact James was homosexual . The producers decided to run the storyline to highlight the fact homophobia still exists . Gay rights activists approved of the storyline because the producers showed both sides of the issue . On @-@ screen , Ken was opposed to Lawrence 's views and decided to embrace James ' sexuality . He urged him to be true to himself and ignore his father 's bigoted views . Lawrence does not agree with Ken 's liberal stance . In 2011 James returns to stay with Ken . Ken was grateful for the chance to get to know him better . Ken sees James as his " intellectual match " , and has a lot of respect for him because he is a " well @-@ educated , erudite young man " . He became carried away and moved him in because Ken has always " longed for intelligent conversation " .
= = = Feud with Mike Baldwin = = =
Television researcher Helena Robson has discussed the appeal of soap operas and suggested that " many soap stories are never finally resolved and conflicts between characters may run throughout the programme 's history " . She used the " undying hatred " between Ken Barlow and Mike Baldwin ( Johnny Briggs ) as an example of this , suggesting that viewers " welcome the sense of stability this offers although the element of change offers as much enjoyment for viewers . " It was suggested in an ITV documentary in 2006 that Ken and Mike 's hatred was a clash of cultures : " Barlow the lefty do @-@ gooder versus Baldwin , the cut @-@ and @-@ thrust money grabber . " Briggs has claimed that Ken was jealous of Mike because he was rich and successful while Ken was not , and Roache has claimed that the reason Ken disliked Mike was because he was a self @-@ centred and self @-@ made individual .
Ken 's feud with Mike — spanning over 20 years — began in 1983 , when Ken discovered that his wife , Deirdre , was having an affair with Baldwin . His dislike for Mike pre @-@ dated the affair , however , and Roache has stated :
" The truth was that Ken never liked him , but having his wife go off and have an affair with Mike turned dislike into hatred , which was wonderful for the programme . Just the mention of Baldwin 's name was enough to get Ken twitching with barely contained anger , and for Johnny Briggs and me it was absolutely wonderful . At best the two characters sometimes tolerated each other in an uneasy truce , but at worst the two of them not only threw insults at each other , but punches too . It was a relationship that ran for many years , and although towards the end of Mike Baldwin 's time on the show you might say there was a little mellowing going on , it was never a relationship that was going to be anything other than uneasy . "
Of the love triangle storyline , Briggs has said , " the way it captured the nation was amazing . Everyone was talking about it and the pubs were empty . Men were shouting out : ' Go on Mike , give her one . ' People were disappointed when she went back to Ken " . The storyline had significant cultural impact , with the press claiming that the country was divided between those who thought Deirdre should remain with Ken , and those who thought she should leave with Mike . In her 2003 book , Hobson suggested that Ken " spent at least nineteen years unable to cope with the sense of rejection and betrayal " caused by Mike and Deirdre 's affair .
Scriptwriters capitalised on the rivalry between the characters when , in 1986 , Mike married Ken 's daughter Susan , a union that Ken strongly opposed . Numerous fights between Ken and Mike were featured , and Briggs has suggested that they became famous for their brawls . The first fight between the pair occurred in 1986 , when Ken confronted Mike in his factory about Mike 's maltreatment of his daughter . Of the confrontation , Briggs has said , " It was a classic – Baldwin getting it in his own territory , the factory . It took a lot to get Ken angry but after the way Mike had treated his daughter , he was furious . He marched into the office and let him have it . This was one of those rare times he caught Mike off @-@ guard . " Mike was shown to get revenge on Ken , though it took a further four years before he could do so on @-@ screen . In a scene which aired in 1990 , Mike punched Ken , knocking him over a table in the Rovers Return public house . Briggs has suggested that he and Roache became old hands at doing on @-@ screen fistfights , and that both really enjoyed doing the stunts . According to Briggs , no choreographers were ever used . In 1998 one incident left Briggs with an injury after he fell backwards .
Ken and Mike were forced to work together in 2000 , when they were featured in a storyline dubbed the " Freshco siege " . Ken and Mike were among several series regulars held up at gunpoint in the soap 's local supermarket , where Ken had been working as a trolley pusher . The episode was broadcast after the 9 pm watershed due to its depiction of violence . Ken and Mike were bound together by armed robbers , which facilitated an end to their feud ; Ken helped Mike to combat a panic attack . The pair resolved to put the past behind them ; it was a temporary reprieve . Mike had unknowingly fathered a son , Adam , during his brief marriage to Susan Barlow ; she kept the baby a secret from him . Mike discovered Adam 's existence in 2001 ; Susan attempted to flee , but was killed in a motor accident . Then followed a battle between Mike and Ken for custody of Adam , with Ken adamant that Mike should not look after his grandson . The storyline lead to the fifth fistfight between Ken and Mike in the soap 's history , with the pair brawling at the funeral of Susan .
The feud came to an end on @-@ screen in 2006 , when Briggs quit the role of Mike . Mike was killed off , dying of Alzheimer 's disease ; he died in Ken 's arms . In the final scenes , a disorientated and dying Mike was found wandering the streets by Ken , and as Ken cradled Mike in his arms , the rivals talked about old times before Mike died , signifying the end of their 20 @-@ year feud . To promote Mike 's final scenes , Radio Times released a series of photographs with Ken and Mike re @-@ enacting Arthur Devis 's ( 1807 ) painting of the death of Horatio Nelson — Baldwin was shown surrounded by his nearest and dearest during his final moments , with Ken prominently positioned next to him , taking on the role of Captain Hardy , Nelson 's trusted colleague to whom Nelson famously uttered " Kiss me " before he died . Producer Maire Tracey said , " The fact that Mike dies in Ken 's arms says it all . For most of Mike 's life , it was his battles with Ken that kept him going . Like two cowboys , they spent their lives sizing each other up . Behind the scenes Bill Roache has even suggested to Johnny Briggs that they should make a version of Brokeback Mountain for the two elderly cowboys . Both Ken and Mike will miss the bust @-@ ups . "
Reflecting on the feud in 2006 , Roache gave reasons why he thinks Ken and Mike clashed so often : " Ken felt threatened when Mike arrived on the street , but it made the part more exciting for Bill . Ken is a nice guy , a loyal guy , a reliable guy . But he isn 't terribly exciting . So the exciting guy [ Mike ] comes along and he 's a bit flash , isn 't he ? But I 've always liked the physical side of acting , so my punch @-@ ups with Johnny were probably the best bits . I shall miss those terribly . "
= = Appearances in other media = =
In September 2010 , coinciding with the 50th anniversary of Coronation Street , BBC Four aired a drama film entitled The Road to Coronation Street , which depicted Tony Warren 's struggle to get his soap opera commissioned , and the filming of its pilot . Ken Barlow appeared in the film and was played by Roache 's son , James .
In 2011 , ITV filmed a spin @-@ off , web @-@ based series featuring Ken and Deirdre , entitled Ken and Deirdre 's Bedtime Stories . Created by Coronation Street writer Jonathan Harvey , the webisodes featured Ken and Deirdre mulling over the events of their day while in bed . Roache said , " Each episode has been carefully crafted and injected with humour , warmth and drama . The content takes Coronation Street into new and exciting territory which , for me personally , is thoroughly exciting to be a part of . "
In 2010 a comedy play about Coronation Street was released entitled Corrie ! , penned by scriptwriter Jonathan Harvey . Ken Barlow was played by Simon Chadwick in the production . Harvey has suggested that when he researched the play , in the top five storylines for each of the 50 years of Coronation Street , three characters regularly featured — Ken , Deirdre and Gail Platt . Harvey therefore tried to shape the play around their journeys over the years .
In February 2011 Ken was among various Coronation Street characters to have his portrait auctioned for charity in the exhibition ' Behind the Street ' at Manchester 's Generation Pop Gallery . The black @-@ and @-@ white shots were taken by photographer Rob Evans , and raised £ 8 @,@ 600 for charity . The highest bid on a photograph was for a shot of Ken , standing amongst rubble after the Weatherfield tram crash in 2010 , a storyline marking the show 's 50th anniversary . In 2010 ITV began selling Coronation Street merchandise featuring Ken , including gift wrap and novelty congratulations cards .
A parody song written about the character , entitled " Ken ! " , was included on Harry Hill 's debut album , Funny Times . The track features vocals from Hill and Roache . Ken has been spoofed by Jon Culshaw in The Impressions Show , where he is having a secret affair with Pat Evans from EastEnders , spoofed by Debra Stephenson . Culshaw wanted to include his impression of Ken in the show , saying " We were just looking for an excuse to get him in " , so he decided that Ken and Pat would have a " secret romantic tryst at a motorway service station " somewhere between Weatherfield and the EastEnders ' setting of Walford .
In May 2012 , Trisha Ward 's stage musical , Street of Dreams , debuted . The production , which is based on Coronation Street , featured Roache playing his on @-@ screen alias , Ken , in a pre @-@ recorded segment . Roache was one of several actors from the television series to feature in the musical . Others included Julie Goodyear , Kevin Kennedy and Brian Capron ( who played Bet Gilroy , Curly Watts and Richard Hillman respectively ) .
= = Reception = =
For his portrayal of Ken , Roache won the Lifetime Achievement award at the British Soap Awards in 1999 . In November 2010 , Ken surpassed Bob Hughes ( Don Hastings ) from US soap opera As the World Turns to become the longest @-@ serving soap opera actor . Roache was honoured at a Guinness World Records ceremony in New York . In 1983 , Roache , Kirkbride and Briggs were named TV Personalities of the Year at the Pye Colour Television Awards , for their performances in the Ken – Deirdre – Mike love triangle storyline . Journalist Brian Viner of The Independent has suggested that Roache has not been given the accolades he has deserved as a performer because of his longevity in the role of Ken . He felt that it may be a common assumption that Roache is merely playing himself on @-@ screen ; this notion diminishes a " rather remarkable acting performance " . He added , " although the bouquets tend to go to actors who repeatedly display their versatility , it is in many ways even harder to inhabit one role for five decades . That said , for sheer staying power Ken and Bill are clearly indivisible : one has lived in the same street practically all his life , the other in the same role [ ... ] . That we have been able to watch the evolution of that young man into the Ken Barlow we know today , no less self @-@ righteous but with 50 years of experiences behind him , is frankly one of the wonders of British television . "
Ken has a reputation for being boring . The British band Half Man Half Biscuit highlighted this point in their 2001 song " Lark Descending " , comparing Ken Barlow infavourably with a member of the US underground music scene , with the lyric : " I could have been like Lou Barlow , but I 'm more like Ken Barlow " . Despite Ken being fictional , critic Jim Shelley writing for the Daily Mirror in 2009 labelled Ken " the most boring man you could ever meet " . Roache sued for libel in 1990 when The Sun newspaper ran an article branding Ken boring and making allegations that Roache was disliked among the cast of Coronation Street . Roache said to the jury at the court case , " I felt extremely distressed . I could not believe those words had been written , that they had raked into my past . I broke out in a sweat . [ ... ] They were saying that I was not doing my job , that I was a joke to the storyline writers , which is not true " . Roache added in regard to Ken , " If people find someone who has had 23 girlfriends and three wives boring , that 's fine by me . " Roache won the case and was awarded £ 50 @,@ 000 ; however , he was forced to pay legal costs , which bankrupted him . Brian Viner has suggested that it is remarkable that Ken has been labelled boring in spite of the many plots he has been involved with over the years . Brian Viner said , " It is easy enough to see , despite the extraordinary number of broken relationships and personal crises in his wake , why Ken tends not to make the pulse race when he opens his mouth . After all , he usually opens it only to drink halves of bitter , or to say something sensible or worthy . For 50 years he has been the nearest thing Weatherfield , the fictional area of Greater Manchester where Coronation Street is located , has had to a social conscience . "
In a Channel 4 televised poll that was broadcast in 2001 , Ken Barlow was voted the third most @-@ hated TV character of all time , coming behind Phil Mitchell from EastEnders and Mr Blobby . In a Radio Times poll of over 5 @,@ 000 people in 2004 , 15 % chose Ken as the soap character they would most like to see retired . He came second in the poll , behind EastEnders ' Den Watts ( 17 % ) .
Television personality Paul O 'Grady wrote the foreword to Roache 's 2010 autobiography , 50 Years on the Street . In it , he hailed Ken as " one of the iconic British soap characters " , an all @-@ time great who has been integral to Coronation Street . In 2005 , Grace Dent of The Guardian suggested that Coronation Street archetypes have influenced latter soap opera characters . On Ken , she stated : " another heavily plagiarised Corrie stalwart is Ken Barlow , who as ' resident intellectual ' has been looking down his nose at the proletariat since 1960 . Just like poor hangdog @-@ faced Ken , brainy people in soapland ( Dr Truman [ from EastEnders ] , Roy Cropper , Todd Grimshaw [ both from Coronation Street ] , Emmerdale 's Ethan the curate ) are always miserable and brooding , due to the terrible burden of their mighty intellect in the face of so many simpletons . It rarely pays to be too clever or too rich in soapland as the majority of plotlines rely upon tragic Shakespearian falls from grace which everyone laughs their socks off at . "
In 2009 , viewers complained to ITV as well as the media regulator Ofcom after Coronation Street broadcast scenes in which Ken made derogatory comments about Christianity . A spokesperson for the show defended the opinions expressed by Ken in the scripts , saying , " Coronation Street is a soap opera set in modern society and therefore represents views from all side of the religious spectrum " . The Guardian columnist Nancy Banks @-@ Smith spoke highly of Ken 's affair with Martha Fraser in 2009 , calling it " a muted ingenious storyline " . Gareth McLean of the Radio Times was critical of the storyline : " When it comes to self @-@ delusion , Ken takes the biscuit , claims the cake and wolfs down the éclair . Nursing the notion that he 's been thwarted by life , he decides to leave Deirdre to sail off into the sunset – or possibly Runcorn – with Martha . All these years and Ken still doesn 't realise it 's not Deirdre who 's the dead weight in his life , it 's he himself . " The BBC have said : " During his record @-@ breaking time on the hit soap , Roache 's character has led a life full of incident " . Holy Soap suggested that Ken being labelled a gigolo in the local newspaper after his client , Babs , died halfway through eating her meal , was his most memorable moment . Jaci Stephen , writing for the Daily Mail , said that soap operas are mostly a " cultural wasteland " , but suggested that Ken was the exception as he read broadsheet newspapers and books . In her book Soap Opera , Hobson said Ken and his brother David initially represented the younger males of society . She noted that although Ken had many relationships , " he could hardly be described as an early ' Dirty Den ' " , a character notable for his womanising in the soap opera , EastEnders .
= Hurricane Gladys ( 1968 ) =
Hurricane Gladys was the first Atlantic hurricane to be observed each by the Hurricane Hunters , radar imagery , and photographs from space . The seventh named storm and fifth hurricane ( including one unnamed hurricane ) of the 1968 season , Gladys formed on October 13 in the western Caribbean from a broad disturbance related to a tropical wave . The storm moved north @-@ northwestward , becoming a hurricane before striking Cuba on October 16 . Gladys later reached peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) just before making landfall near Homosassa on the western coast of Florida on October 19 . The hurricane crossed the state and continued northeastward , passing just east of Cape Hatteras on October 20 . The next day , Gladys became extratropical and was absorbed by a cold front over Nova Scotia .
In Cuba , the threat of the hurricane prompted widespread evacuations . Gladys caused flash flooding and heavily damaged the tobacco crop . Damage in the country was estimated at $ 12 million ( 1968 USD ) , and there were six deaths . While passing west of the Florida Keys , the hurricane produced strong winds that briefly cut communications to the Dry Tortugas , but damage was minor . Near where Gladys made landfall , winds gusted to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and tides reached 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) above normal . There was heavy beach erosion and flooding along the coast , while the winds knocked down trees and caused power outages . Across the state , damage was estimated at $ 6 @.@ 7 million ( 1968 USD ) , and three people were indirectly killed . Heavy rainfall in South Carolina caused minor river flooding . When paralleling just off the coast of North Carolina , Gladys was responsible for breaking the state 's worst drought since 1932 , and proved more beneficial than the minor storm damage there . Later , Gladys killed two people in Atlantic Canada and caused coastal damage in Prince Edward Island .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Gladys were from a tropical wave – a trough embedded in the trade winds – that moved across the Lesser Antilles on October 6 . For the next few days , the wave moved across the Caribbean Sea without any development . As the wave interacted with the intertropical convergence zone , a large area of convection persisted across the region , spawning a series of low pressure areas . One became a tropical depression near Swan Island offshore Honduras on October 11 , and two days later another tropical depression formed near San Andrés island in the extreme southwestern Caribbean . The latter system , which would eventually become Gladys , moved slowly north @-@ northwestward . An anticyclone in the region caused wind shear to decrease , allowing for gradual development . On October 15 , a Hurricane Hunters flight observed winds of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) ; on that basis , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Gladys .
After becoming a tropical storm , Gladys intensified into a hurricane near the Isle of Youth on October 16 . Shortly thereafter it crossed the narrow but mountainous region of western Cuba . By the time the hurricane reached the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , a deep trough was moving eastward through the United States toward a weak anticyclone off the east coast . Gladys turned more to the north , passing just west of the Dry Tortugas , before resuming its north @-@ northwest trajectory , possibly due to a mid @-@ level low near Alabama . Around that time , the eye was reorganizing offshore southwestern Florida , and the hurricane failed to intensify significantly due to the eastern portion of the circulation being over the state . Early on October 19 , Gladys made landfall near Homosassa after turning to the northeast , with peak winds estimated at 85 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It accelerated across the state due to the approaching trough , emerging into the Atlantic near St. Augustine . Paralleling the southeastern coast of the United States , Gladys passed just east of Cape Hatteras on October 20 , although by that time the strongest winds remained along the eastern periphery . The approaching trough caused Gladys to gradually lose tropical characteristics , and on October 21 Gladys became extratropical just south of Nova Scotia . A few hours later , the former hurricane was absorbed by the cold front .
Hurricane Gladys was active during the Apollo 7 spaceflight mission , and astronauts aboard took several pictures of the hurricane . Later , researchers were able to compare the photographs to airforce reconnaissance data , radar , and local weather networks , the first such hurricane to be observed with such varied data .
= = Preparations = =
In advance of the storm , Cuban officials forced about 36 @,@ 000 residents to evacuate from low @-@ lying areas , along with 35 @,@ 000 livestock . All flights were canceled in and out of Havana during the storm 's passage . Many classes were canceled in the region , and workers took steps to minimize damage to the tobacco crop .
Shortly after Gladys became a tropical storm , the NHC issued gale warnings for the Florida Keys and later a hurricane watch for the southwest Florida coast from the Florida Keys to Clearwater . After Gladys entered the Gulf of Mexico , the NHC issued hurricane warnings for the Florida Keys to Cedar Key , with a watch to St. Marks . Later , hurricane warnings were issued from Charleston , South Carolina to Hatteras , North Carolina . Before Gladys made landfall in Florida , all schools in Pinellas County were closed , and officials evacuated 60 jet fighters from MacDill Air Force Base to Mississippi . The HMS Sirius , which was visiting St. Petersburg , rode out the storm in the open Gulf of Mexico . The American Red Cross opened shelters across western Florida for people to stay in during the storm , and about 40 @,@ 000 people evacuated their homes during the storm 's passage . Then @-@ governor Claude R. Kirk , Jr. ordered 100 Florida guardsmen to assist with storm work . Shelters were set up in North Carolina , although few people evacuated .
= = Impact = =
Before its first landfall in Cuba , Gladys produced wind gusts of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at Nueva Gerona on the Isle of Youth . Rainfall on the island was estimated at 8 @.@ 49 in ( 216 mm ) . On the Cuban mainland , a station in Havana reported gale force winds for several hours . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall , causing flash flooding that damaged factories and crops ; the tobacco crop sustained heavy losses to the extent that the Monthly Weather Review described it as " virtually wiped out " . In Havana , floodwaters from the storm wrecked houses and other buildings , while in San Antonio de los Baños , residents required rescue from their flooded houses . After the storm , Cuban officials advised residents in Havana to boil their water to prevent the spread of disease , after water lines were damaged . At least 36 @,@ 000 people were left homeless as a result of the storm . Throughout Cuba , Gladys caused $ 12 million in damage and six deaths .
While Gladys was still moving northward offshore Florida , it produced winds of 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) on the Dry Tortugas , with gusts to 86 mph ( 138 km / h ) . Rainfall on the Dry Tortugas reached over 4 in ( 100 mm ) . Communications were briefly cut to the island during the storm . Along the Florida Keys , the only other report of a hurricane force wind gust was 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) on Plantation Key . Tides in the Florida Keys were about 0 @.@ 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 18 m ) above normal , and damage was minor in the region .
Farther north in Florida , hurricane @-@ force winds were limited to a small area from Clearwater to Bayport , with peak gusts of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . Winds in eastern Florida were not as strong . Gladys produced moderate rainfall across the state , peaking at 12 @.@ 46 in ( 316 mm ) at Cape Canaveral . Rainfall was generally less than 6 in ( 150 mm ) , which limited flooding . The hurricane produced high tides near where it made landfall , reaching 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) above normal ; this caused heavy beach erosion and coastal flooding . The town of Sunset Beach was almost entirely under water during the high storm tides . Elsewhere , the high waves wrecked boat houses , and portions of the seawall were washed out in Tierra Verde . Gladys also spawned two tornadoes in the state , one each in Boca Raton and Palatka . The one in Boca Raton damaged a warehouse , while a waterspout in Whitfield Estates damaged three homes . According to locals , several other tornadoes touched down in Volusia and Putnam counties , based on the falling of trees and visible twisting trail of damage Across Florida , Gladys downed many trees and power lines , and the NHC office briefly lost power for two hours . Gladys affected about 85 % of the citrus crop to some degree , although crop damage was fairly minimal , with about 10 % lost in Pinellas and west Pasco counties . There was widespread property damage due to the strong winds , particularly to mobile homes . Strong winds in Pinellas County knocked over trailers and damaged billboards . In Ocala , most roads were blocked by fallen trees and power lines . Wind damage was minor in northeastern Florida , despite a wind gust of 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) in Jacksonville . Two people died in the state due to storm @-@ induced heart attacks , and another person died after driving into a flooded ditch . Damage in the state totaled $ 6 @.@ 7 million , mostly to private property , and due to the damage , portions of the state were later declared a federal disaster area . The Small Business Administration authorized low @-@ interest loans to homes and businesses damaged during the storm .
Outside of Florida , Gladys produced rainfall through Delaware , with a maximum of 13 @.@ 80 in ( 351 mm ) in Marion , South Carolina . In the state , the rains caused minor river flooding and left minor damage to the cotton crop , while high tides eroded beaches . In North Carolina , wind gusts peaked at 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) at Cape Lookout , while sustained winds reached 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at Nags Head before the anemometer blew away . The strongest winds were only along the immediate coastline due to the hurricane passing offshore . Gladys produced above @-@ normal tides of 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) . The storm knocked two houses off their foundations and severely damaged a business and a mobile home . Rainfall in the state helped end break the worst drought since 1932 , and the minimal storm damage was offset by the beneficial precipitation . In southeastern Virginia , the fringes of the storm produced wind gusts of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) and light rainfall in Norfolk . Farther inland , rains from Gladys caused the Roanoke River to rise 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) near Roanoke , just below flood stage . Tides were about 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above normal in the state , low enough to prevent major coastal flooding .
Later , the extratropical remnants of Gladys produced beneficial rainfall of 2 to 4 in ( 51 to 102 mm ) over Atlantic Canada , peaking at 5 @.@ 03 in ( 128 mm ) in New Brunswick . In the province , the former hurricane also produced 1 @.@ 38 in ( 35 mm ) of snow in Upsalquitch . Precipitation from the storm spread as far west as Quebec and as far northeast as Newfoundland , causing flooding in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia . Wind gusts in the latter province peaked at 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) in Sydney . Along Cape Breton Island , the remnants of Gladys killed one person and injured four . In Prince Edward Island , wind gusts reached 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) in Charlottetown , strong enough to knock over a tree and kill a man driving in Alberton . The storm washed out a portion of a bridge near Alberton and part of a wharf in Miminegash , and damaged 35 boats . Ferry service was disrupted between the Canadian Maritime provinces .
= Solomon P. Sharp =
Solomon Porcius Sharp ( August 22 , 1787 – November 7 , 1825 ) was an American attorney and politician , serving as attorney general of Kentucky and a member of the United States Congress and the Kentucky General Assembly . His murder by Jereboam O. Beauchamp in 1825 is referred to as the Beauchamp – Sharp Tragedy or " The Kentucky Tragedy . "
Sharp began his political career representing Warren County , in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He briefly served in the War of 1812 , then returned to Kentucky and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1813 . He was re @-@ elected to a second term , though his support of a controversial bill regarding legislator salaries cost him his seat in 1816 . Allied with Kentucky 's Debt Relief Party , he returned to the Kentucky House in 1817 ; in 1821 , he accepted Governor John Adair 's appointment to the post of Attorney General of Kentucky . Adair 's successor , Joseph Desha , re @-@ appointed him to this position . In 1825 , Sharp resigned as attorney general to return to the Kentucky House .
In 1820 , rumors surfaced that Sharp had fathered a stillborn illegitimate child with Anna Cooke , a planter 's daughter . Sharp denied the charge , and the immediate political effects were minimal . When the charges were repeated during Sharp 's 1825 General Assembly campaign , opponents publicized the allegation that the child was a mulatto . Whether Sharp made such a claim , or whether it was a rumor started by his political enemies , remains in doubt . Jereboam Beauchamp , who had married Cooke in 1824 , avenged the honor of his wife by fatally stabbing Sharp at his home early on the morning of November 7 , 1825 . Sharp 's murder inspired fictional works , most notably Edgar Allan Poe 's unfinished play Politian and Robert Penn Warren 's novel World Enough and Time ( 1950 ) .
= = Personal life = =
Solomon Sharp was born on August 22 , 1787 , at Abingdon , Washington County , Virginia . He was the fifth child and third son of Captain Thomas and Jean ( Maxwell ) Sharp , a Scottish woman . Through the male line he was a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of John Sharp , Archbishop of York . His father Thomas Sharp was a veteran of the Revolutionary War , participating in the Battle of King 's Mountain . The family briefly moved to the area near Nashville , Tennessee , and to North Carolina , before settling permanently about 1795 at Russellville , Logan County , where they lived in a log cabin near the Muddy River .
Sharp " [ intermittently attended ] one of Logan County 's academies " during his childhood years ; the schools of Logan County were primitive then . He read the law and was admitted to the bar in 1806 . He opened a practice in Russellville , but soon relocated to the busier Warren County seat of Bowling Green , which had 154 residents in 1810 . He engaged in land speculation , sometimes in partnership with his brother , Dr. Leander Sharp , and by 1824 , had acquired 11 @,@ 000 acres , mostly north of the Barren River in Warren County .
= = Marriage and family = =
After getting established , on December 17 , 1818 , Sharp at the age of 31 married Eliza T. Scott , the daughter of a physician who had served as an officer in the War of 1812 . She was from Frankfort and above him in social standing . They had three children together . He moved the family to the state capital of Frankfort in 1820 for his political career .
= = Political career = =
In 1809 , Sharp was elected to represent Warren County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . During his tenure , he supported the legislature 's election of Henry Clay to the U.S. Senate , the creation of a state lottery , and the creation of an academy in Barren County . He served on a number of committees , and for a time , served as interim speaker of the house during the General Assembly 's second session . He was re @-@ elected in 1810 and 1811 . By 1810 , the county had nearly 12 @,@ 000 residents . During the 1811 session , Sharp worked with Ben Hardin to secure passage of a bill to ensure that state officers and attorneys at law would not be involved in dueling . He also opposed a measure allowing harsher treatment of slaves .
Sharp 's political service was interrupted by the War of 1812 . On September 18 , 1812 , he enlisted as a private in the Kentucky militia , serving under Lieutenant Colonel Young Ewing . Twelve days later , in a rapid rise even for the militia , he was promoted to major and made a part of Ewing 's staff . Ewing 's unit was put under the command of general Samuel Hopkins during his ineffective expedition against the Shawnee . In total , the expedition lasted forty @-@ two days and never engaged the enemy . Sharp recognized the value of a record of military service in Kentucky politics , however ; he was eventually was promoted to the rank of colonel .
= = = U.S. Representative = = =
In 1812 , Sharp was elected to the Thirteenth Congress as a member of the United States House of Representatives and took his seat at the age of 25 , the minimum for election . Aligning with the War Hawks , he defended President James Madison 's decision to lead the country into the war , and supported a proposal to offer 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 156 sq mi ; 0 @.@ 405 km2 ) of land to any British deserters . Sharp also " [ passionately denounced ] Federalist obstruction of the war effort " . In a speech on April 8 , 1813 , he opposed indemnity for those defrauded in the Yazoo land scandal in Mississippi . He allied with South Carolina 's John C. Calhoun in supporting the Second Bank of the United States .
Sharp was re @-@ elected to the Fourteenth Congress , during which he served as chairman of the Committee on Private Land Claims . He supported the controversial Compensation Act of 1816 sponsored by fellow Kentuckian Richard Mentor Johnson . The measure , which paid Congressmen a flat salary instead of paying them on a daily basis for the days when they were in session , was unpopular with the voters of his district . When the next congressional session opened in December 1816 , Sharp reversed his position and voted to repeal the law , but the damage was already done ; he lost his seat in the House in the next election .
In 1817 , Sharp was again elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives . During his term , he supported measures for internal improvements , but opposed the creation of a state health board and a proposal to open the state 's vacant lands to the widows and orphans of soldiers killed in the War of 1812 . Most notably , he supported the creation of 46 new banks in the state , and proposed a tax on the branches of the Bank of the United States in Lexington and Louisville .
= = = Accusations of illegitimate child = = =
In May or June 1820 , Anna Cooke , an unmarried planter 's daughter in her early 30s , claimed that Sharp was the father of her illegitimate child ; Sharp denied her claim . The stillborn child was rumored to have dark skin , and some speculated that it was a mulatto , with a black father . After her father 's death and the sale of their plantation in Fairfax County , Virginia , Cooke had moved with her mother and
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siblings to Warren County between 1805 and 1810 , when she may have met Sharp . In addition to losing the child , Cooke suffered the deaths of three of her five brothers between 1818 and 1821 .
The scandal soon abated for Sharp , as Anna had a reputation as " a freethinker , reader of romantic fiction , and a libertine . " Although Sharp 's political opponents would continue to call attention to his putative child in future campaigns , his reputation remained largely untarnished .
= = = Attorney general of Kentucky = = =
In 1821 , Sharp began a campaign for a seat in the Kentucky Senate . His opponent , attorney John U. Waring , was a notably violent and contentious man , frequently in court because of altercations . ( In 1835 , he shot and killed the attorney Samuel Q. Richardson . )
Waring sent two threatening letters to Sharp , and on June 18 , 1821 , published a handbill attacking Sharp 's character . Five days later , Sharp ceased campaigning for the senatorial seat . He accepted an appointment by Governor John Adair to the position of attorney general of Kentucky . Sharp 's nomination was unanimously confirmed by the legislature on October 30 , 1821 .
Sharp took office at a critical time Kentucky 's history . Still reeling from the financial Panic of 1819 , state politicians had split into two camps : those who supported legislation favorable to debtors ( the Debt Relief Party ) and those who favored the protection of creditors ( typically called Anti @-@ Reliefers . ) Sharp had identified with the Relief Party , as had Governor Adair .
In the 1824 presidential election , Sharp alienated some of his constituency by supporting his former House colleague John C. Calhoun instead of Kentucky 's favorite son , Henry Clay . When it was clear that Calhoun 's bid would fail , Sharp threw his support behind Andrew Jackson . He served as secretary of a meeting of Jackson supporters in Frankfort on October 2 , 1824 .
After Governor Adair 's term expired in 1825 , he was succeeded by another Relief Party member , General Joseph Desha . Desha and Sharp had been colleagues in Congress , and Desha re @-@ appointed Sharp as attorney general . The Relief faction in the legislature passed several measures favorable to debtors , but the Kentucky Court of Appeals struck them down as unconstitutional . Unable to muster the votes to remove the hostile justices on the Court of Appeals , Relief partisans in the General Assembly passed legislation to abolish the entire court and create a new one , which Governor Desha promptly stocked with sympathetic judges . For a time , two courts claimed authority as Kentucky 's court of last resort ; this period was referred to as the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy .
Sharp 's role in the Relief Party 's plan to abolish the old court and replace it with a new , more favorable court is not known . As he was the administration 's chief legal counsel , historians believe he was closely involved . He is known to have issued the order for Old Court clerk Achilles Sneed to turn over his records to New Court clerk Francis P. Blair . By practicing as state attorney general before the New Court to the exclusion of the Old Court , Sharp provided it a measure of legitimacy .
On May 11 , 1825 , Sharp was chosen to represent the Desha administration in welcoming the Marquis de Lafayette , a hero of the American Revolution , to Kentucky . At a banquet in Lafayette 's honor three days later , Sharp toasted the guest of honor : " The People : Liberty will always be safe in their holy keeping . " Shortly following this event , Sharp resigned as attorney general , likely because Relief Party advocates thought he would be more useful as a member of the General Assembly .
The Anti @-@ Relief partisans nominated former Senator John J. Crittenden for one of the two seats apportioned to Franklin County in the state House . The Relief Party countered with Sharp and Lewis Sanders , a prominent area lawyer . During the sharply contested campaign , both John U. Waring and Patrick Henry Darby , a land speculator , said that Sharp 's life was at risk if he won . Opponents revived the charges of Sharp 's illegitimate child . It was also alleged that Sharp had claimed that the child was mulatto and said he had a certificate from Cooke 's midwife to that effect ; whether Sharp made this claim may never be known for certain . Despite the controversy , Sharp netted the most votes in the election , winning by 69 out of a total of 1600 votes cast in the county .
= = Murder and aftermath = =
" It was a land of the fiddle and whisky , sweat and prayer , pride and depravity . - Robert Penn Warren , World Enough and Time : A Romantic Novel ( 1950 )
In the early hours of November 7 , 1825 , the day the General Assembly was to open its session , a man knocked on the door of Sharp 's residence . When Sharp answered the door , the visitor grabbed him with his left hand and used his right to stab him in the heart with a poisoned dagger . Sharp died at approximately two o 'clock in the morning . After lying in state in the House of Representatives Hall , he was buried in Frankfort Cemetery .
Because of the bitterness of the campaign and the timing of the murder , speculation mounted that Sharp had been killed by an Anti @-@ Relief partisan . For some time , rumors traveled that Darby was implicated in his death . Sharp 's political rival , John J. Crittenden , tried to blunt such accusations by personally introducing a resolution condemning the murder and offering a $ 3000 reward for the capture of the assassin . The trustees of the city of Frankfort added a reward of $ 1000 , and an additional $ 2000 reward was raised from private sources . In the 1825 session of the General Assembly , a measure to form Sharp County from Muhlenberg County died on the floor due to the tumultuous politics of the session .
In the investigation that followed , the evidence quickly pointed to Jereboam O. Beauchamp , 23 , who had married the much older Anna Cooke in 1824 . ( She was a contemporary of Sharp . ) On November 11 , 1825 , a four @-@ man posse arrested Beauchamp at his home in Franklin .
He was tried and convicted of Sharp 's murder on May 19 , 1826 . His sentence – execution by hanging – was to be carried out on June 16 , 1826 . Beauchamp requested a stay of execution so that he could write a justification of his actions ; he continued to assert his avenging his wife 's honor . The request was granted , allowing Beauchamp to complete his book , The Confession of Jereboam O. Beauchamp : who was hanged at Frankfort , Ky . , on the 7th day of July , 1826 , for the murder of Col. Solomon P. Sharp . After two failed suicide attempts with his wife , who died as a result of the second incident , Beauchamp was hanged for his crime on July 7 , 1826 . Beauchamp 's Confession was published in 1826 . Some editions included The Letters of Ann Cook as an appendix . Historians dispute whether Cooke was their author .
The following year , Sharp 's brother , Dr. Leander Sharp , wrote Vindication of the Character of the Late Col. Solomon P. Sharp to defend him from the charges contained in Beauchamp 's confession . In Vindication , Dr. Sharp portrayed the killing as a political assassination : he named Patrick Darby , a partisan of the Anti @-@ Relief faction , as co @-@ conspirator with Beauchamp , an Anti @-@ Relief stalwart . Darby threatened to sue Sharp if he published his Vindication ; and Waring threatened to kill him . Heeding these threats , Sharp did not publish his work ; all extant manuscripts remained in his house , where they were discovered many years later during a remodeling .
= = In popular culture = =
The events have inspired numerous works of fiction , drama and history :
Charles Fenno Hoffman 's novel , Greyslayer
William Gilmore Simms 's novel , Beauchamp
Edgar Allan Poe 's unfinished play , Polltian
J.G. Dana and R.S. Thomas 's history , Beauchamp 's Trial .
L.F. Johnson included it in his Tragedies and Trials .
1950 , J. Winston Coleman published a history of the events .
1950 , Robert Penn Warren wrote a novel that was a " critique of romantic values " in World Enough and Time .
Richard Taylor 's play , Three Kentucky Tragedies , was based on this .
1992 John Hawkins created an outdoor drama on this subject , Wounded is the Wounding Heart , produced in Frankfort , Kentucky .
= Broder Knudtzon =
Broder Lysholm Knudtzon ( 5 October 1788 – 20 March 1864 ) was a Norwegian merchant , politician and benefactor . Born into one of Trondheim 's wealthiest mercantile families , he travelled to England where he developed a great admiration of English language and literature . Despite his commercial background he was more drawn towards the fields of politics , culture and art . He nevertheless administrated his father 's family firm , acting as foreign correspondent with little interest in the everyday business . In England he befriended Lord Byron and came under the influence of the English national liberal movement . Prior to his death , he bequeathed his entire library and several artworks to the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters .
= = Early years = =
Knudtzon was born in Trondheim in Sør @-@ Trøndelag ; he was the sixth and youngest child of Hans Carl Knudtzon ( 1751 – 1823 ) , a merchant and burgomaster , and Karen Knudtzon ( née Müller , 1752 – 1818 ) . Knudtzon 's father was of German origin and had moved to Norway to further his career as a merchant . His firm was flourishing financially , and the Knudtzon family became a rallying point for Trondheim 's artists and authors . Having spent his childhood in Trondheim , Broder Knudtzon moved to Flensburg , Germany in 1796 to live in the house of his father 's uncle . Upon his confirmation , Knudtzon travelled back to Trondheim where he was apprenticed to his father . He subsequently travelled around in France in search of a mercantile education ; in Paris he met the Danish poet and playwright Adam Oehlenschläger . After a brief visit to his sister in Nantes , he relocated to England , where he came in contact with poet Lord Byron and other leading figures in the national liberal movement . During his stay in England , he acquired a great fondness and knowledge of the English language , literature and culture . In a later trip to Italy he met the Danish @-@ Icelandic sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen , who made portrait busts of him and other persons in his family .
= = Mercantile and political engagement = =
In the spring of 1814 , Broder and his brother Jørgen assisted Carsten Anker in his endeavour to gain English supporters of an independent Norway . As a member of the Storting 's deputation to Sweden , Knudtzon travelled with his father to Stockholm in the autumn of the same year . On his return from Stockholm , he became foreign correspondent of his father 's firm Hans Knudtzon & Co , which he owned together with his brother Christian and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Lorentz Johannsen . He maintained that his own duties in the firm 's office were a displeasure , and was once quoted as saying : " Business I hate , and for reading there is not leisure " .
A supplementary member of the Storting , he met in the parliament once , acting as secretary for the constitution committee . During 1839 – 57 , he was a member of the supervisory board of Norges Bank . He became a member of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters in 1821 , and was its secretary from 1825 to 1831 . Having a profound wish to spread erudition in Norway , he used his acquaintances in England to supply the society with enlightenment books and journals . Knudtzon eventually bequeathed his entire book collection and five of Thorvaldsen 's sculptures to the society , with the condition that they not move to Christiania .
= = Death and legacy = =
Knudtzon died unmarried on 20 March 1864 in Trondheim . He was buried in Vår Frue Church , where he also had been christened . Prior to his death , he had burned all his letters and notes , including his correspondences with Lord Byron . Little remains therefore of his written production , aside from a few translations and periodical articles . A biographer once wrote of him :
Mr. Knudtzon is a banker of eminence at Trondheim . He resided some years in England ; hence , to the hospitable kindness of a native of the north and the acquirements of a literary man he unites the polish and refinement of an English gentleman .
= Spoo =
Spoo is a fictional food product that served as a running joke within the Babylon 5 science fiction television series . In the series ' fictional universe , spoo is made from worm @-@ like creatures of the same name and is generally regarded as the most delicious food in the galaxy ; the creature itself , however , is regarded with contempt by most species . Despite appearing only in a few episodes , spoo was embraced by fans and became part of the series ' extended mythology .
= = Origins = =
Use of the word " spoo " to denote a food item predates Babylon 5 , which began airing in 1993 . The show 's creator J. Michael Straczynski was a writer for the 1985 cartoon series She @-@ Ra Princess of Power . After a Babylon 5 fan recalled a possible spoo reference from that show , Straczynski replied , " Yeah , I slipped some spoo in there once . A couple of real cute ( as in wanna drop a truck on them cute ) elf @-@ types offer Skeletor a bowl of Spoo . " In a 1995 interview , Straczynski referred to that scene as his favorite of the show .
Spoo appeared in the first episode of Babylon 5 , where it was briefly mentioned by the Narn Ambassador , G 'Kar . Straczynski , who wrote the episode in question , was asked about spoo by fans on various internet message boards on which he frequently participated . At first , Straczynski 's responses were terse : " Spoo is . " In another early post , he explained how he created the word : " Spoo is Oops spelled backward . " He eventually noted that the taste of spoo is that of " Meat Jello . Served chilled . "
After years of speculation from Babylon 5 fans , Straczynski finally offered an extensive explanation of the origins and nature of spoo . He said spoo are tiny , pasty , mealworm @-@ like creatures that travel slowly in herds . Their main behavior is sighing , which " can reportedly induce unparalleled bouts of depression " in other creatures . They are raised on ranches and harvested through " whacking " . Spoo are regarded with contempt by most species in Babylon 5 ; they " are the only creatures of which the Interstellar Animal Rights Protection League says , simply , ' Kill ' em . ' " Despite this , they are " generally considered the most delicious food in all of known space " .
This near @-@ universal delight in the taste of spoo apparently doesn 't include human tastes . In the episode " A View from the Gallery " , neither of the two maintenance men , Mack and Bo , find spoo to their liking , despite the high price of the delicacy .
= = Appearances = =
The Babylon 5 episodes in which spoo appears or is mentioned are " Midnight on the Firing Line " , " The Geometry of Shadows " , " Point of No Return " , " And the Rock Cried Out , No Hiding Place " , " A View from the Gallery " , " A Tragedy of Telepaths " , and " Meditations on the Abyss " . Spoo also appears in the " Over There " segment of the Lost Tales episode " Voices in the Dark " , where President Sheridan at one point jokes that the product is " Spoo : The other gray meat " .
Although mostly relegated to a background role , spoo was a key plot point in the season 5 episode " A Tragedy of Telepaths " . The fact that Narn prefer fresh spoo while the Centauri prefer it aged was the clue that G 'Kar used to figure out that there was another Narn in the Centauri Royal Palace . Spoo is referenced in the Straczynski @-@ authored open gaming licensed Babylon 5 : The Roleplaying Game .
= = Real @-@ world references = =
In 1998 , Boxtree UK published a Babylon 5 cookbook , officially licensed from Warner Bros. Presented as if written around the year 2260 , the time when most of the Babylon 5 series takes place , the book contains many recipes for the various foods mentioned and seen throughout the series . Included are recipes for Narn @-@ style spoo and Centauri @-@ style spoo , both using currently available ingredients , with sea scallops taking the place of spoo . Straczynski claims that while dining in a restaurant prior to the 1996 Hugo award ceremony , " a fan had the waiter bring over a tray of food , christened spoo " .
Spoo is spoofed in the first episode of the South Park parody Babylon Park , Spoohunter .
In 2008 , rap @-@ filk artist Luke Ski recorded and released a parody of the Beastie Boys song " No Sleep till Brooklyn " called " No Sleep Till Babylon " , which references spoo . A stanza attributed to the Babylon 5 character Londo Mollari contains the lyrics : " Spoo . All I really want is Spoo . And in the morning it 's Spoo . Cause in the evening it 's Spoo . I like the way that it tastes . It 's blue meatballs in greyish paste ... "
= Dorset Ooser =
The Dorset Ooser ( / ˈoʊsər / ) is a wooden head that featured in the nineteenth @-@ century folk culture of Melbury Osmond , a village in the southwestern English county of Dorset . The head was hollow , thus perhaps serving as a mask , and included a humanoid face with horns , a beard , and a hinged jaw which allowed the mouth to open and close . Although sometimes used to scare people during practical jokes , its main recorded purpose was as part of a local variant of the charivari custom known as " skimity riding " or " rough music " , in which it was used to humiliate those who were deemed to have behaved in an immoral manner .
The Dorset Ooser was first brought to public attention in 1891 , at which time it was under the ownership of the Cave family of Melbury Osmond 's Holt Farm . After traveling with Edward Cave to Somerset , the Ooser went missing around 1897 . Since then , various folklorists and historians have debated the origins of the head , which has possible connections to the horned costumes sometimes worn by participants in English Mummers plays . The folklorists Frederick Thomas Elworthy and H. S. L. Dewar believed that the head was a representation of the Devil and thus was designed to intimidate individuals into behaving according to the local community 's moral system . Conversely , the folklorist Margaret Murray suggested that it represented a pre @-@ Christian god of fertility whose worship survived in Dorset into the modern period , although more recent scholarship has been highly sceptical of this interpretation . The etymology of Ooser is also disputed , with various possibilities available .
In 1975 a replica of the original Ooser was produced by John Byfleet , which has since been on display at Dorset County Museum in Dorchester . This mask retains a place in Dorset folk culture , being removed from the museum for use in local Morris dancing processions held by the Wessex Morris Men on both St. George 's Day and May Day . The design of the Ooser has also inspired the production of copies which have been used as representations of the Horned God in the modern Pagan religion of Wicca in both the United Kingdom and United States .
= = Description and etymology = =
A wooden head , the Dorset Ooser had been cut from a single block of timber , with the exception of the lower jaw , which was movable and connected to the rest of the mask by leather hinges . The lower jaw could be moved by pulling on a string which passed through a hole in the upper jaw to connect to the lower . The mask also contained locks of hair on either side of its head , a beard on its chin , and a pair of bullock 's horns . Between the Ooser 's eyes was a rounded boss , the meaning of which is unknown . The Ooser was hollow , allowing an individual to place their own head within it , potentially permitting it to be worn as a mask whilst being supported on the shoulders ; however , there were no holes allowing for the wearer to see while wearing it in this way . The historian Ronald Hutton described the Ooser as " a terrifying horned mask with human face , staring eyes , beard , and gnashing teeth " . Similarly , the folklorist H. S. L. Dewar stated that " the expression of the eyes [ conveyed ] a really agonized spirit of hatred , terror , and despair " .
The term " Ooser " was pronounced with a short , quick s by villagers as Osser . It is unclear if the head itself was the Ooser , or whether it instead was designed as a depiction of an entity called the Ooser . Dewar suggested the possibility that it might have been connected to the term Wurse , used for the Devil in Layamon 's Brut , or to the seventeenth @-@ century Italian term Oser , again used for the Devil . Alternately , he suggested that it might be a derivative of Guisard or Guiser , two old terms for a Mummer . Hutton instead proposed that Osser possibly derived from Wooset , a term used in the dialect around Wiltshire to refer to a pole upon which a horse 's skull with deer 's horns was affixed . This Wooset was recorded as having been paraded by youths in the Marlborough district until the 1830s , where it was used to mock neighbours whose partners were suspected of marital infidelity , the horns being a traditional sign of cuckoldry . Similar traditions have been recorded in Wiltshire and Somerset , where they can be traced back to at least the early seventeenth century .
= = History = =
The first public mention of the Dorset Ooser was in an 1891 edition of Somerset and Dorset Notes and Queries , where it was the subject of an article by the journal 's editor , Charles Herbert May . The head was , at the time , in the possession of Thos Cave of Holt Farm in Melbury Osmond ; the editor noted that it had been owned by Cave 's family from " time out of mind " . Cave had stated that it had formerly been kept in an " old malt @-@ house " in the village , " where it was an object of terror to children who ventured to intrude upon the premises " . May noted that it was " possibly the only example now in existence , or at any rate from one of the very few which may still survive in the County " , adding that Cave was " willing to dispose of this mask to a lover of objects of antiquarian interest " .
At some point before 1897 , another member of the family , the doctor Edward Cave , left Holt Farm and moved to Crewkerne in Somerset , taking the Ooser with him . In 1897 , he relocated to Bath , leaving the Ooser with his family coachman ; when Edward Cave subsequently tried to recover the head , he was informed that it had been " disposed of " , with some suggestion that it had found its way to the United States . In 1935 , a folklore collector named S. A. Ramsden undertook enquiries into the fate of the head at the prompting of the Egyptologist and folklorist Margaret Murray . His enquiries led him to meet with Cave 's coachman , Lawrence , who – after Cave left Crewkerne – had subsequently served as the coachman for Cave 's replacement , a doctor by the name of Webber . Lawrence claimed that Cave left the head in his house in the village , where it was hung up in a loft and began to fall apart ; Lawrence recalled wearing it to frighten people during a parade around 1900 , at which time the hair was falling out . He claimed that the house was later pulled down , with the head probably still inside it , in order for a local post office to be constructed in its place .
= = = Usage and origins = = =
In Somerset and Dorset Notes and Queries , May noted that " no recollection of its ever being made use of is retained " , although thought that " it may plausibly be conjectured " that the Ooser was used in " village revels , and at similar times of rustic entertainment " . The following year , a Dorchester @-@ based individual , H. J. Moule , published a note in the same journal relating that their childhood nurse , who was from the village of Cerne Abbas , had talked about the head , and had referred to it as the " Wurser " . Moule added that it was " surely " used in Mummers plays performed at Christmas time . Dewar , after subsequent research , reported the recollections of K. G. Knight — a member of the Melbury Estate staff — that inhabitants of Melbury Osmond associated the head with a folk custom known as " Skimity Riding " or " Rough Music " . In this custom , an individual or individuals accused of " husband @-@ beating , scolding , sexual unfaithfulness or irregularity , and cuckoldry " were made to ride on a donkey or horse , facing the direction of the animal 's tail , while the assembled crowd made much noise by beating frying pans , kettles , bull 's horns , and bones . In Melbury Osmond , the Ooser was brought out into the crowd at such an occasion . Similar forms of " mob @-@ punishment " were recorded in parts of neighbouring Devon , where the act was termed " Skimmety Riding " , " Skimmington " , and " Skivetton " . As he deemed it too heavy to be carried or worn by an individual , the historian of folklore Peter Robson later suggested that the Ooser might originally have been mounted in a carnival procession .
Dewar also recorded the villagers ' claims that the Ooser was brought to the door of a tallet in order to scare the local children , and that it was also used to scare adults on some occasions . Knight came across the claim that it was once used to frighten a stable hand , who jumped through a window to escape it , and in doing so " so injured himself that his life was despaired of " . Dewar further drew comparisons with the horned masks sometimes worn during Mummers plays . He noted that in a case of a group of Christmas Wassailers at Kingscote , Gloucestershire , a man was " dressed in a sack , his head in a real bull 's face , head and horns complete " . Another case highlighted by Dewar was taken from an account provided by G. W. Greening of Dorchester , in which a member of the Bradstock Mummers was dressed as Beelzebub . Given these similarities , Dewar ultimately suggested that the Ooser was " likely enough an off @-@ shoot from the 14th century and later Mummers ' plays " . The antiquary Frederick Thomas Elworthy expressed the view that the Dorset Ooser was " the probable head " of a hobby horse ; however , in his in @-@ depth study of the hobby horse tradition in English folk culture , the folklorist E. C. Cawte articulated the opinion that , although both entailed dressing up in an animalistic costume , the Ooser had no clear connection with this tradition .
Elworthy suggested that the Ooser was a depiction of the Devil , an idea supported by Dewar , who believed that , as the Devil , its imagery was " intended to inspire terror in the minds of the foolish and the wicked " . Conversely , others have suggested that it is a depiction of a pre @-@ Christian god . In her 1931 book The God of the Witches , Margaret Murray connected the Ooser to her version of the witch @-@ cult hypothesis — the idea that the individuals persecuted in the Early Modern witch trials were adherents of a surviving pre @-@ Christian fertility religion — claiming that the mask was a cult item that reflected continuing worship of the cult 's Horned God . Murray 's hypothesis is now discredited . The historians Jeffrey B. Russell and Brooks Alexander have stated that " today , scholars are agreed that Murray was more than just wrong [ regarding the existence of the witch @-@ cult ] – she was completely and embarrassingly wrong on nearly all of her basic premises " . The Ooser 's pre @-@ Christian origin theory was echoed in the Reader 's Digest encyclopedia of British folklore , Folklore , Myths and Legends of Britain , where it was described as " the idol of a former god of fertility " . Although not believing that the Ooser was a specific depiction of a surviving pre @-@ Christian deity , Dewar suggested that the imagery of the Devil , and thus of the Ooser , was originally drawn from the pre @-@ Christian gods of " phallic or fertility worship " .
= = Contemporary usage and influence = =
In 1975 the local Morris dancer John Byfleet made a replica of the original Ooser , which he carved from a log using a penknife . This replica is on display at Dorset County Museum in Dorchester . It is taken from the museum twice a year , on May Day and St. George 's Day , when it is used by the Wessex Morris Men as part of their seasonal festivities . In 2005 , a journalist from The Guardian reported on a dawn ceremony performed by the troupe on May Day atop Giant Hill near Cerne Abbas . The ceremony involved one member carrying the Dorset Ooser replica atop his head , with other Morris men dancing around him ; after the rite they proceeded , still dancing , to a local pub , the Red Lion . In summer 2006 , the Wessex Morris Men took the replica to Melbury Osmond for the first time , where they performed a dance in a local street .
Murray 's interpretation of the Ooser was embraced by Doreen Valiente , an earlier practitioner of the modern Pagan religion of Wicca , who stated that the mask " is certainly connected with the Old Religion [ i.e. the witch @-@ cult ] , and that from a long way back " . The Gardnerian Wiccan Melissa Seims suggested that the iconography of the Ooser was an influence on the design of the Head of Atho , a statue of the Wiccan Horned God created by Raymond Howard in mid @-@ 20th century England . Wiccans in the Minnesota area of the United States make use of a head with stag antlers that they term the Minnesota Ooser . Representing the religion 's Horned God , it is kept on an altar and brought out for use in Sabbat rituals .
= Ygnacio del Valle =
Ygnacio Ramón de Jesus del Valle ( July 1 , 1808 – 1880 ) was a rancher and landowner in the eastern Santa Clara River Valley , California , United States , as well as an alcalde of Los Angeles . His estate , Rancho Camulos , is registered as a National Historic Landmark .
= = Early life = =
Del Valle was born in Jalisco , Mexico . His father , Antonio del Valle , was a soldier in the Spanish army who came to California in 1819 and was mayordomo ( administrator and / or foreman ) of Mission San Fernando Rey de España . Ygnacio joined the army as a cadet in 1825 at the Presidio of Santa Barbara . In 1828 he was promoted to second lieutenant and transferred to the Presidio of San Diego . In 1832 , his commander became involved in a power struggle with the commandant of the Presidio of Monterey , where Antonio served . Ygnacio 's side won the conflict on the battlefield , causing a rift between father and son , and they never spoke again .
Ygnacio then moved to the Monterey Presidio and was in charge of the secularization of Mission Santa Cruz and Mission San Francisco de Asís . He became a trusted officer , enough to be left in charge of the Presidio in José Figueroa 's absence . For his service to the Mexican Army , del Valle received the Rancho El Tejon land grant in 1843 . During this time , he married Maria de Los Angeles in 1842 , who died in childbirth five years later .
= = Ranchos = =
Antonio died in 1841 without leaving a will . On his deathbed , he decided he wanted to reconcile with his son and , in a letter , offered Ygnacio several properties , including the 48 @,@ 612 @-@ acre ( 197 km2 ) Rancho San Francisco land grant he had received . Unfortunately , he died before the letter was delivered to Ygnacio , but the son returned to the family homestead to administer the ranch anyway . Without a will specifying how the estate was to be divided , Jacoba Feliz , Antonio 's second wife who remarried after his death , filed a lawsuit to claim part of the land , which was the site the first recorded discovery of gold in California , sparking a minor gold rush in 1842 , six years before the more famous California Gold Rush . Eventually , the lawsuit was decided and the land was split , with Ygnacio receiving the 13 @,@ 599 @-@ acre ( 55 km2 ) Rancho Camulos .
However , del Valle did not live on this land initially , instead residing in the Olvera Street area of Los Angeles , where he was active in local politics . In the 1840s , he served on the junta ( the equivalent of a city council ) as a member and its secretary , as well as treasurer of civil government under Governor Pío Pico . In 1850 , he was elected alcalde of Los Angeles and served only a short time before the city was incorporated as an American city , but during his tenure he established the Los Angeles Rangers , an early law enforcement group . After California achieved statehood later that year , del Valle served in the California State Assembly for a short period .
He was elected to a one @-@ year term in the Los Angeles Common Council in 1852 @.@ and was elected again in May 1856 but resigned in December of that year .
= = Marriage = =
In 1852 , at the age of 44 , he married 15 @-@ year @-@ old Ysabel Varela . Del Valle remained on the City Council for five years , after which he devoted his time to improving Camulos . The del Valle family , including five children , finally moved to the rancho in 1861 .
= = Later life = =
However , the late 1850s and early 1860s were difficult for ranchers in Southern California . Severe flooding had caused great damage to many ranchos . Despite this , the Del Valle family , like many Californios , continued to live beyond its means . Del Valle had to pay off the debts of his stepmother , Jacoba Feliz , in return for which received part of her land inheritance . He had already sold off his Rancho Tejon to pay his own debts as well . The winter floods of 1861 @-@ 62 were followed by droughts which lasted for three years , which forced del Valle to sell off his remaining land . He was left with just 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 km ² ) of his Rancho Camulos , but the ranch survived these hard times and became a thriving operation , the source of the first commercially grown oranges in Ventura County .
Through 1870 , the del Valles had seven more children , although only five of the twelve would live to adulthood . One , Reginaldo , became the youngest @-@ ever president of the California State Senate at age 28 and was instrumental in the preservation of Mission San Fernando , as well as the movement to have the El Camino Real marked with bells .
Ygnacio del Valle died in 1880 and was buried on his rancho . Ysabel took over the running of rancho until 1900 , then moved back to Los Angeles . In 1905 , the ailing woman " refused to die " until she could be reunited with her long @-@ dead husband . His remains were exhumed and moved to Los Angeles . Soon after their arrival , Ysabel died , and she was buried in the same coffin as Ygnacio . Their remains lie at Calvary Cemetery .
= Mycena leptocephala =
Mycena leptocephala , commonly known as the nitrous bonnet , is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family . The mushrooms have conical grayish caps that reach up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter , and thin fragile stems up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long . The gills are gray and distantly spaced . The spores are elliptical , typically measure 7 – 10 by 4 – 6 μm , and are white in deposit . When viewed under a light microscope , the gills has abundant spindle @-@ shaped cystidia on the gill edges , but few on the gill faces . The mushroom is found in North America and Asia , where it grows singly or in groups on conifer needles , cones and sticks on the forest floor . It has a distinctive odor of bleach ; the edibility is unknown . Similar species include Mycena alcalina , M. austera , and M. brevipes .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first called Agaricus leptocephalus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1800 , and was transferred to the genus Mycena in 1876 by French mycologist Claude @-@ Casimir Gillet . Synonyms include Agaricus alcalinus var. leptocephalus ( Fries , 1821 ) , Mycena alcaline var. chlorinella ( J.E. Lange , 1914 ) , and Mycena chlorinella ( Singer , 1936 ) . The latter was reduced to synonym in a 1980 publication by Dutch Mycena specialist Maas Geesteranus .
Mycena leptocephala is classified in the section Fragilipedes of the genus Mycena , along with other similar @-@ looking mushrooms , such as M. aetites , M. austera , M. parca , and M. aronsenii . Some of these have a nitrous smell similar to M. leptocephala .
The specific epithet leptocephala is derived from the Greek λεπτος leptos , " thin " and κεφαλη kephale , " head " , and refers to the delicate cap . The mushroom is commonly known as the " nitrous bonnet " .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. leptocephala is 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter , and initially a fat conical shape with the margin pressed close to the stem . As the cap expands , it becomes broadly conic to convex , sometimes broadly bell @-@ shaped , and sometimes convex with a flaring margin . The cap surface has a whitish sheen because of its pruinose coating . The coating gradually sloughs off , leaving the surface smooth and moist . The cap shows radial grooves that outline the position of the gills underneath . Its color is initially dusky brownish @-@ gray to blackish ( after the pruinose coating has sloughed off ) , soon fading from dark to light gray and finally ashy @-@ gray . The flesh is thin and fragile , grayish , and has a slightly sour ( acidulous ) taste , and a weakly alkaline odor that strengthens in intensity if the flesh is crushed . The gills are narrow , equal in width throughout , ascending @-@ adnate ( the gills attach at much less than a right angle , appearing to curve upward toward stem ) and toothed . They are subdistantly spaced , with 18 – 27 gills reaching the stem , and one or two tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stem ) interspersed between them . The color of the gills is pallid or cinereous , with pallid and even edges . The stem is 4 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , 1 – 2 mm thick , equal in width throughout , hollow , and very fragile . It is usually bluish @-@ black initially ( darker than the cap ) but gradually turns sordid brownish @-@ gray , and finally fades to pallid or cinereous . The surface is densely white @-@ pruinose overall , but soon polished and translucent when the pruinose coating wears off . The stem base is nearly smooth to rather densely white @-@ strigose . The species has a distinctive bleach @-@ like odor . Its edibility is currently unknown .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are broadly ellipsoid , amyloid ( meaning they will adsorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , and measure 7 – 10 by 4 – 6 μm . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) are usually four @-@ spored , although two- and three @-@ spored forms have been found on which the spores measure 11 – 14 by 6 – 6 @.@ 5 μm or 8 – 10 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm , respectively . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the face of a gill ) are scattered , rare or absent , 30 – 44 by 9 – 13 μm , variable in shape , fusoid @-@ ventricose to club @-@ shaped , with some having a forked apex . The pleurocystidia that are club @-@ shaped occasionally have two or three finger @-@ like prolongations . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are numerous , and similar in morphology to the pleurocystidia . The flesh of the gill is homogenous , composed of enlarged hyphae that stain vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine . The flesh of the cap has a well @-@ differentiated pellicle , the cells of which bear numerous rodlike prolongations . The hypoderm ( a layer of tissue immediately below the pellicle ) is well @-@ formed , while the remaining tissue is floccose ; all but the pellicle are vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine stain .
= = = Similar species = = =
The " stump fairy helmet " Mycena alcalina is a common species that is similar in appearance and odor to M. leptocephala . However , it grows on conifer wood and rarely on the ground . Microscopically , it has numerous cystidia on the gill edges . Although M. leptocephala usually has a weaker alkaline odor and a more fragile stem , the strength of the odor of M. alcalina is also quite variable , so differences in odor cannot be used as the sole distinguishing characteristic . M. austera , described from southern Norway in 1994 , differs from M. leptocephala by the lack of a nitrous odor , and differently shaped cheilocystidia and terminal cells of the cortical layer of the stem . Alexander H. Smith considers M. brevipes close to M. leptocephala , but the former mushroom has a short stem up to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) long , typically grows singly , and lacks an odor .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena leptocephala is a saprobic species , meaning it derives nutrients from the breakdown of organic matter . Fruit bodies are found growing scattered to gregarious on fallen sticks and on needle carpets under conifers , and are rather common during early summer and again in the autumn . Fruit bodies may be infected by the bonnet mold Spinellus fusiger .
In North America , the fungus is found in Canada ( British Columbia , Manitoba , Nova Scotia ) , to Washington and south to California and North Carolina . In South America , the mushroom has been collected in Venezuela . It also grows in the Archipelago of the Recherche , off the southern coast of Western Australia . In Europe , it is known from Britain , Finland , The Netherlands , Norway , and Spain It has also been found in various locations in Asia : the Vindhya Range of India ; the Gwangneung Forest Museum in the Korea National Arboretum ; and the alpine zone of Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve , Jilin Province , China . The fungus is also known from Arctic and Alpine regions such as Iceland , Greenland , and the Murmansk region .
= Fólkvangr =
In Norse mythology , Fólkvangr ( Old Norse " field of the host " or " people @-@ field " or " army @-@ field " ) is a meadow or field ruled over by the goddess Freyja where half of those that die in combat go upon death , while the other half go to the god Odin in Valhalla . Fólkvangr is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . According to the Prose Edda , within Fólkvangr is Freyja 's hall Sessrúmnir . Scholarly theories have been proposed about the implications of the location .
= = Attestations = =
In the poem Grímnismál collected in the Poetic Edda , Odin ( disguised as Grímnir ) tells the young Agnar that Freyja allots seats to half of those that die in her hall Fólkvangr , while Odin receives the other half ( Fólkvangr is here anglicized to Fôlkvang and Folkvang ) :
In chapter 24 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , High tells Gangleri ( described as king Gylfi in disguise ) that Freyja is " the most glorious of the ásynjur " , that Freyja has a dwelling in the heavens called Fólkvangr , and that " whenever she rides to battle she gets half of the slain , and the other half Odin , as it says here : [ the stanza above from Grímnismál is then quoted ] " . High then continues with a description of Freyja 's hall Sessrúmnir .
= = Theories = =
= = = Egils saga = = =
In Egils saga , when Egill Skallagrímsson refuses to eat , his daughter Þorgerðr ( here anglicized as " Thorgerd " ) says she will go without food and thus starve to death , and in doing so will meet the goddess Freyja :
Thorgerd replied in a loud voice , ' I have had no evening meal , nor will I do so until I join Freyja . I know no better course of action than my father 's . I do not want to live after my father and brother are dead.'
Britt @-@ Mari Näsström says that " as a receiver of the dead her [ Freyja 's ] abode is also open for women who have suffered a noble death . " Näsström cites the above passage from Egils saga as an example , and points to a potential additional connection in the saga Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks , where the queen hangs herself in the dísarsalr ( Old Norse " the Hall of the Dís " ) after discovering that her husband has betrayed both her father and brother . Näsström comments that " this Dís could hardly be anyone but Freyja herself , the natural leader of the collective female deities called dísir , and the place of the queen 's suicide seems thus to be connected with Freyja . "
= = = Implications = = =
John Lindow says that if the Fólk- element of Fólkvangr is to be understood as " army " , then Fólkvangr appears as an alternative to Valhalla . Lindow adds that , like Odin , Freyja has an association with warriors in that she presides over the eternal combat of Hjaðningavíg .
Rudolf Simek theorizes that the name Fólkvangr is " surely not much older than Grímnismál itself " , and adds that the Gylfaginning description keeps close to the Grímnismál description , yet that the Gylfaginning descriptions adds that Sessrúmnir is located within Fólkvangr . According to Hilda Ellis Davidson , Valhalla " is well known because it plays so large a part in images of warfare and death , " yet the significance of other halls in Norse mythology such as Ýdalir , where the god Ullr dwells , and Freyja 's Fólkvangr have been lost .
Britt @-@ Mari Näsström places emphasis on that Gylfaginning relates that " whenever she rides into battle she takes half of the slain , " and interprets Fólkvangr as " the field of the Warriors . " Näsström comments that :
Freyja receives the slain heroes of the battlefield quite respectfully as Óðinn does . Her house is called Sessrumnir , ' filled with many seats ' , and it probably fills the same function as Valhöll , ' the hall of the slain ' , where the warriors eat and drink beer after the fighting . Still , we must ask why there are two heroic paradises in the Old Norse View of afterlife . It might possibly be a consequence of different forms of initiation of warriors , where one part seemed to have belonged to Óðinn and the other to Freyja . These examples indicate that Freyja was a war @-@ goddess , and she even appears as a valkyrie , literally ' the one who chooses the slain ' .
Siegfried Andres Dobat comments that " in her mythological role as the chooser of half the fallen warriors for her death realm Fólkvangr , the goddess Freyja , however , emerges as the mythological role model for the Valkyrjar and the dísir . "
= = Modern influence = =
Early in the 20th century , Karl Ernst Osthaus developed the " Folkwang @-@ Gedanke " or " Folkwang @-@ Konzept " , that art and life can be reconciled . Several cultural institutions bearing the name Folkwang ( the German spelling of Fólkvangr ) were founded on this concept . These institutions include the Museum Folkwang in Essen ( opened 1902 ) , the publishing house Folkwang @-@ Verlag ( founded 1919 ) , Folkwang Kammerorchester Essen ( founded 1958 ) , Folkwang @-@ Musikschule in Essen ( founded 1974 ) , and Folkwang University of the Arts , focusing on music , theater , dance , design and academic studies .
= 1994 San Marino Grand Prix =
The 1994 San Marino Grand Prix ( formally the 14 ° Gran Premio di San Marino ) was a Formula One motor race held on 1 May 1994 at the Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari , located in Imola , Italy . It was the third race of the 1994 Formula One season .
Tragic events at this race proved to be a major turning point in both the 1994 season , and in the development of Formula One itself , particularly with regard to safety . The race weekend was marked by the deaths of Austrian driver Roland Ratzenberger and of three @-@ time world champion Ayrton Senna in separate accidents . Other incidents saw driver Rubens Barrichello injured and several mechanics and spectators injured . In terms of driver fatalities , this was Formula One 's darkest weekend since two drivers were killed at the 1960 Belgian Grand Prix .
Michael Schumacher , driving for Benetton , won the race despite contact with Damon Hill ( who dropped to the back of the field and battled back to finish sixth ) . Nicola Larini , driving for Ferrari , scored the first points of his career when he achieved a podium finish in second position . Mika Häkkinen finished third in a McLaren .
The race led to an increased emphasis on safety in the sport as well as the reforming of the Grand Prix Drivers ' Association after a 12 @-@ year hiatus , and the changing of many track layouts and car designs . Since the race , numerous regulation changes have been made to slow Formula One cars down and new circuits incorporate large run @-@ off areas to slow cars before they collide with a wall . Senna was given a state funeral in his home town of São Paulo , Brazil , where around 500 @,@ 000 people lined the streets to watch the coffin pass . Italian prosecutors charged six people with manslaughter in connection with Senna 's death , all of whom were later acquitted . The case took more than 11 years to conclude due to an appeal and a retrial following the original verdict of not guilty .
As a result of increased standards in safety following this race , there was a 20 @-@ year gap between the deaths of Ratzenberger and Senna , and the crash of Jules Bianchi at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix which led to his death the following year .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Heading into the third round of the season , Benetton driver Michael Schumacher was leading the World Drivers ' Championship with 20 points ; Jordan driver Rubens Barrichello was second on seven points , 13 points behind Schumacher . Behind Schumacher and Barrichello was Damon Hill in third place on six points , tied on points with Ferrari driver Gerhard Berger . Berger 's team @-@ mate Jean Alesi was fifth on four points . In the World Constructors ' Championship , Benetton were leading on 20 points and Ferrari were second on ten points , with Jordan third on seven points .
There were two driver changes heading into the race . JJ Lehto replaced Jos Verstappen at Benetton , the latter having replaced Lehto for the opening two races of the season due to an injury sustained by Lehto in pre @-@ season testing . Aguri Suzuki was replaced with Andrea de Cesaris at Jordan .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Drivers had two hours , split over two days , Friday and Saturday , to register the fastest possible time . The driver who could register the fastest time would start on pole position , giving them a headstart of eight metres over the second @-@ fastest driver , who started on the opposite side of the track . Third place would start eight metres behind the second @-@ fastest driver and on the side of the track where the first placed car is . This practice continues until twenty @-@ sixth place , and the twenty @-@ seventh and twenty @-@ eighth placed cars are not allowed to race .
= = = = Friday qualifying = = = =
On Friday , 29 April , during the first qualifying session to determine the starting order for the race , Rubens Barrichello , a driver for Jordan , hit a kerb at the Variante Bassa corner at 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) , launching him into the air . He hit the top of the tyre barrier , and was knocked unconscious . His car rolled several times after landing before coming to rest upside down . Medical teams treated him at the crash site , and he was taken to the circuit 's medical centre before being transferred to Maggiore Hospital in Bologna by helicopter for routine tests and observation to be carried out . He returned to the race meeting the next day , although his broken nose and a plaster cast on his arm forced him to sit out the rest of the race weekend . Ten years after the incident , Damon Hill , who drove for the Williams @-@ Renault team at the time , described the feeling after the crash : " We all brushed ourselves off and carried on qualifying , reassured that our cars were tough as tanks and we could be shaken but not hurt . "
Despite a spin , Senna was the fastest driver at the end of Friday 's session with a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 548 , almost five @-@ tenths of a second faster than Schumacher and Berger . Senna 's teammate Damon Hill was seventh , having spun himself , over 1 @.@ 6 seconds behind Senna .
= = = = Saturday qualifying = = = =
Twenty minutes into the final qualifying session , Austrian driver Roland Ratzenberger failed to negotiate the Villeneuve curva in his Simtek ; he subsequently hit the opposing concrete barrier wall almost head @-@ on and was critically injured . Although the survival cell remained largely intact , the force of the impact inflicted a basal skull fracture . Ratzenberger , in his first season as a Formula One driver , had run over a kerb at the Acque Minerali chicane on his previous lap , the impact of which is believed to have damaged his front wing . Rather than return to the pitlane , he continued on another fast lap . Travelling at 190 mph ( 306 km / h ) his car suffered a front wing failure leaving him unable to control it .
The session was stopped while doctors attended to Ratzenberger . After initially being taken by ambulance to the on @-@ circuit medical centre , he was airlifted to Maggiore Hospital in Bologna shortly after , the second driver to be admitted there during the weekend . The session was restarted approximately 25 minutes later , but several teams — including Williams and Benetton — took no further part . Later in hospital , it was announced that Ratzenberger had died as a result of his multiple injuries . His death marked the first Formula One race weekend fatality since the 1982 Canadian Grand Prix when Riccardo Paletti was killed . It had been eight years since Elio de Angelis died testing a Brabham car at the Circuit Paul Ricard . Professor Sid Watkins , then head of the Formula One on @-@ track medical team , recalled in his memoirs Ayrton Senna 's reaction to the news , stating that " Ayrton broke down and cried on my shoulder . " Watkins tried to persuade Senna not to race the following day , asking " What else do you need to do ? You have been world champion three times , you are obviously the quickest driver . Give it up and let 's go fishing . " Senna replied , " Sid , there are certain things over which we have no control . I cannot quit , I have to go on . "
Senna had qualified on pole position , having not set a lap time following Ratzenberger 's death . He was joined on the front row by Schumacher and Berger qualified in 3rd . Damon Hill was able to improve on his disastrous Friday session before the red flag , improving his time by one second and qualifying fourth as a result . A time posted by Ratzenberger before his fatal crash would have been sufficient for entry into the race starting from the 26th and final position on the grid ; Paul Belmondo and Barrichello did not qualify .
= = = Race = = =
= = = = First start = = = =
The race took place in the afternoon from 14 : 00 CEST ( UTC + 2 ) , in dry and sunny weather . At the start of the race , J.J. Lehto stalled his Benetton on the grid . Pedro Lamy , starting from further back on the grid , had his view of the stationary Benetton blocked by other cars and hit the back of Lehto 's car , causing bodywork and tyres to fly into the air . Parts of the car went over the safety fencing designed to protect spectators at the startline causing minor injuries to nine people . Further back , Martin Brundle had a good start , overtaking two cars as well as Lehto , propelling him from thirteenth to tenth place .
The incident between Lehto and Lamy caused the safety car to be deployed , with all the remaining competitors holding position behind it while travelling at a reduced speed . During this period , as a result of travelling at slower speeds , tyre temperatures dropped . At the drivers ' briefing before the race , Senna , along with Gerhard Berger , had expressed concern that the safety car ( itself only reintroduced in Formula One in 1993 and only the third time used since then , the other occurrences being the 1993 Brazilian Grand Prix and the 1993 British Grand Prix ) did not go fast enough to keep tyre temperatures high . Senna was also worried by a procedure introduced at the 1994 Pacific Grand Prix , which was that the safety car would lead the grid on the formation lap , rather than letting the race leader choose the pace of the formation lap . The procedure was removed for this race .
Once the track was reported clear of debris , the safety car was withdrawn and the race restarted with a rolling start . Jonathan Palmer , commentating alongside Murray Walker for the BBC , remarked how quick Schumacher was , as his time in the warm @-@ up session on Sunday morning gave rise to speculation that he was going to make one pit stop and , therefore , race with a heavier car than Senna , who was planning to make two , as was conventional . Martin Brundle had told BBC presenter Steve Rider that McLaren were going to make two stops . On the second lap after the restart , with Ayrton Senna leading Michael Schumacher , Senna 's car left the road at the Tamburello corner , and after slowing from 190 mph ( 306 km / h ) to 131 mph ( 211 km / h ) , hit the concrete wall , with debris flying into the path of the other drivers .
At 14 : 17 local time , a red flag was shown to indicate the race was stopped and FIA race doctor Sid Watkins arrived at the scene to treat Senna . When a race is stopped under a red flag cars must slow down and make their way back to the pit lane or starting grid unless notified of a restart . This protects race marshals and medical staff at the crash scene , and allows easier access for medical cars to the incident . Approximately 10 minutes after Senna 's crash , the Larrousse team mistakenly allowed one of their drivers , Érik Comas , to leave the pits despite the circuit being closed under red flags . Marshals frantically waved him down as he approached the scene of the accident travelling at " pretty much full speed " . Eurosport commentator John Watson described the incident as " the most ridiculous thing I have ever seen at any time in my life " . Comas avoided hitting any of the people or cars that were on the circuit but after going over towards Senna 's accident scene , he was so distressed at what he saw that he withdrew from the race .
The pictures shown on the world feed ( supplied by host broadcaster RAI ) of Senna being treated were considered by the BBC ( the corporation responsible for broadcasting the San Marino Grand Prix to viewers in the United Kingdom ) to be too graphic , disturbing and upsetting for general viewing at the time ( around 13 : 20 GMT ) , and the BBC abandoned RAI 's world feed to focus on their own camera in the pit lane . BBC commentator Murray Walker has frequently talked about how upsetting it was to have to talk to viewers whilst attempting to avoid any and all mention of the distressing images shown on RAI . Referring to the number of times the incident was replayed on the world feed , Ferrari team principal Jean Todt stated that " even if you didn 't want to watch it , you could barely fail to " . Senna was lifted from the wrecked Williams , and after approximately fifteen minutes of on @-@ site medical attention , was airlifted directly to Maggiore Hospital in Bologna , becoming the third and final driver to be admitted there during the weekend . Medical teams continued to treat him during the flight . Thirty @-@ seven minutes after the crash , at 2 : 55 pm local time , the race was restarted .
= = = = Second start = = = =
Regulations meant that the original sixth lap would be deleted and the race would be restarted from the beginning of said lap . The first five laps would be added to the second part of the race and the overall result would be decided on aggregate . The race ran to a total of 58 laps , five from the first section and 53 from the second section .
On the second formation lap , Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen stalled his Sauber whilst attempting to leave the grid and was forced to start from the pitlane . The other cars started from the grid in the order they were at the point the race was stopped . Michael Schumacher had a poor start and Gerhard Berger took the lead on track ( but Schumacher still led the race overall due to the amount of time he was ahead of Berger before the race was stopped ) . Hill , from third , made contact attempting to overtake Schumacher at the Tosa corner , dropping Hill to the back of the field and was forced to make a pitstop in order to fit a new nose cone . Hill battled back to finish in sixth position .
A very fast Schumacher took the lead on track on lap 12 when Berger ran wide , before relinquishing the race lead overall to Berger when he made his first pitstop , confirming that his pace both before and after the red flag was down to him running a three @-@ stop strategy , therefore racing with a lighter car . Berger pitted at the end of lap 15 for his first of two scheduled stops , before retiring a lap later with handling problems . Häkkinen led his first ever laps of a Formula One World Championship race , before pitting at the end of lap 18 . Following the first series of pit stops , Schumacher resumed the race lead .
Schumacher 's extra pace as a result of his lighter fuel loads meant he was able to pull out enough of a gap to Häkkinen which enabled him to make an extra pit stop . Häkkinen 's pace was very slow , allowing Nicola Larini to leapfrog him when the second round of pit stops were made .
On lap 48 , Michele Alboreto came in for a pit stop , but as he left , the rear @-@ right wheel came loose from the Minardi as it left the pit lane , striking two Ferrari and two Lotus mechanics , who were left needing hospital treatment .
Towards the end of the race , all eyes were on the battle for third place , as Häkkinen 's pace was so slow that Karl Wendlinger was catching him in the Sauber , aiming to give Sauber their first podium finish . However , Häkkinen was able to resist Wendlinger 's challenge and finish in third place , with Wendlinger fourth . Ukyo Katayama finished fifth for Tyrrell and Hill was able to battle back to finish sixth , the last of the points @-@ scorers .
Michael Schumacher won the race ahead of Larini and Häkkinen , giving him a maximum 30 points after 3 rounds of the 1994 Formula One season . It was the only podium finish of Larini 's career , and the first of just two occasions when he scored world championship points . Karl Wendlinger rode back to the pits on Häkkinen 's McLaren after Wendlinger 's car broke down on the slowing @-@ down lap . At the podium ceremony , out of respect for Roland Ratzenberger , who had died the day before , no champagne was sprayed .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
In the press conference following the race , Schumacher said that he " couldn 't feel satisfied , couldn 't feel happy " with his win following the events that had occurred during the race weekend . Two hours and 20 minutes after Schumacher crossed the finish line , at 6 : 40 pm local time , Dr. Maria Teresa Fiandri announced that Ayrton Senna had died . The official time of death was given , however , as 2 : 17 pm local time , meaning that Senna had been killed instantly . The autopsy recorded the cause of death as head injuries likely caused by an impact from a wheel and suspension . BBC Television commentator Murray Walker described it as " the blackest day for Grand Prix racing that I can remember " .
Later that day in the United States , word of Senna 's death reached Talladega , Alabama where NASCAR was running the Winston Select 500 at Talladega Superspeedway . ESPN , which televised the San Marino Grand Prix for the American audience , had race commentator Bob Jenkins relay word to the viewers during the race . During the postrace festivities , race winner Dale Earnhardt ( who would meet a similar fate seven years later ) dedicated the victory to Senna .
On 3 May , the FIA called a meeting at the request of the Italian Automobile Club to review the events of the Weekend . Later on , the governing body announced new safety measures for the next round in Monaco which included the entry and exit of the pitlane to be controlled by a curve to force cars to run at a reduced speed , no team mechanic would be allowed onto the pit lane surface except for pit stops and a draw would be arranged to determine the order in which cars make pit stops and be limited to emergencies with cars not taking on new tyres or allowed to refuel .
Senna was given a state funeral in São Paulo , Brazil on 5 May 1994 . Approximately 500 @,@ 000 people lined the streets to watch the coffin pass . Senna 's rival Alain Prost was among the pallbearers . The majority of the Formula One community attended Senna 's funeral ; however the president of the sport 's governing body , the FIA , Max Mosley attended the funeral of Ratzenberger instead which took place on 7 May 1994 in Salzburg , Austria . Mosley said in a press conference ten years later , " I went to his funeral because everyone went to Senna 's . I thought it was important that somebody went to his . "
The 1994 Imola layout , which had been in place since 1981 , was never again used for a Formula One race . The circuit was heavily modified following the race , including a change at Tamburello — also the scene of major accidents for Gerhard Berger ( 1989 ) and Nelson Piquet ( 1987 ) — from a high speed corner to a much slower chicane . The FIA also changed the regulations governing Formula One car design , to the extent that the 1995 regulations required all teams to create completely new designs , as their 1994 cars could not be adapted to them . The concern raised at the drivers briefing the morning of the race , by Senna and Berger , would lead to the Grand Prix Drivers ' Association reforming at the following race , the 1994 Monaco Grand Prix . The GPDA , which was originally founded in 1961 , had previously disbanded in 1982 . The primary purpose of it reforming was to allow drivers to discuss safety issues with a view to improve standards following the incidents at Imola . The front two grid slots at the Monaco Grand Prix that year , which were painted with Brazilian and Austrian flags , were left clear in memory of the two drivers who had lost their lives , while both Williams and Simtek entered only one car each . Additionally , a minute of silence was observed before the race .
In October 1996 FIA set about researching a driver restraint system for head @-@ on impacts , in conjunction with McLaren and Mercedes @-@ Benz . Mercedes contacted the makers of the HANS ( Head and Neck Support ) device , with a view to adapting it for Formula One . The HANS device was first released in 1991 and was designed to restrain the head and neck in the event of an accident to avoid basal skull fracture , the injury which killed Ratzenberger . Initial tests proved successful , and at the 2000 San Marino Grand Prix the final report was released which concluded that the HANS should be recommended for use . Its use was made compulsory from the start of the 2003 season .
Senna was the last driver for twenty years to die in a Formula One accident , until the death of Jules Bianchi in 2015 from injuries sustained at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix . However , three trackside marshals were killed during those years as a direct result of such crashes : Paolo Gislimberti at the 2000 Italian Grand Prix , Graham Beveridge at the 2001 Australian Grand Prix and Mark Robinson at the 2013 Canadian Grand Prix .
To date , this is the last time that an Italian driver scored a point for Ferrari .
= = Trial = =
Italian prosecutors brought legal proceedings against six people in connection with Senna 's death . They were Frank Williams , Patrick Head and Adrian Newey of Williams ; Fedrico Bendinelli representing the owners of the Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari ; Giorgio Poggi as the circuit director and Roland Bruynseraede who was race director and sanctioned the circuit . The trial verdict was given on 16 December 1997 , clearing all six defendants of manslaughter charges . The cause of Senna 's accident was established by the court as the steering column breaking . The column had been cut and welded back together at Senna 's request in order for him to be more comfortable in the car .
Following the court 's decision , an appeal was lodged by the state prosecutor against Patrick Head and Adrian Newey . On 22 November 1999 , the appeal absolved Head and Newey of all charges , stating that no new evidence had come to light ( there was missing data from the black box recorder on Senna 's car due to damage , and 1 @.@ 6 seconds of video from the onboard camera of Senna 's car was unavailable because the broadcaster switched to another car 's camera just before the accident ) , and so under Article 530 of the Italian Penal Code , the accusation had to be declared as " non @-@ existent or the fact doesn 't subsist " . This appeal result was annulled in January 2003 , as the Court of Cassation believed that Article 530 was misinterpreted , and a retrial was ordered . On 27 May 2005 , Newey was acquitted of all charges while Head 's case was " timed out " under a statute of limitations . The Italian Court of Appeal , on 13 April 2007 , stated the following in the verdict numbered 15050 : " It has been determined that the accident was caused by a steering column failure . This failure was caused by badly designed and badly executed modifications . The responsibility of this falls on Patrick Head , culpable of omitted control " . Even being found responsible for Senna 's accident , Patrick Head was not arrested , as the verdict was delivered past the Italian statute of limitation for manslaughter .
= = Launch control controversy = =
Liverpool Data Research Associates ( LDRA ) were called in to investigate allegations of cheating using banned driving aids , such as traction control and launch control , both prohibited at the start of the year . The top three cars of Michael Schumacher , Nicola Larini and Mika Häkkinen were investigated and their teams were asked to surrender their systems ' source code to the company . Larini 's team , Ferrari , complied
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French = = =
24th Demi @-@ brigade de Ligne ( one battalion )
68th Demi @-@ brigade de Ligne ( three battalions )
104th Demi @-@ brigade de Ligne ( remnants )
19th Dragoon Regiment ( two squadrons )
= = = Austrian = = =
Infantry Regiment Nr. 12 ( three battalions )
Infantry Regiment Nr. 15 ( three battalions )
Infantry Regiment Nr. 38 ( elements )
= The Singles 1992 – 2003 =
The Singles 1992 – 2003 is a greatest hits album by American rock band No Doubt , released on November 14 , 2003 by Interscope Records . It features thirteen of the band 's singles from three studio albums — Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) , Return of Saturn ( 2000 ) , and Rock Steady ( 2001 ) — and the single " Trapped in a Box " from their 1992 self @-@ titled debut album . The album also included a cover of Talk Talk 's 1984 song " It 's My Life " , the only new song on the album and which was released as a single . It was released alongside the DVD Rock Steady Live , a video of a concert as part of the band 's Rock Steady tour in 2002 , and the box set Boom Box , which contained The Singles 1992 – 2003 , Everything in Time , The Videos 1992 – 2003 , and Live in the Tragic Kingdom .
No Doubt went into hiatus in April 2003 after the release of four singles from their fifth studio album , Rock Steady , allowing the four members to spend time with loved ones . This also allowed their lead singer , Gwen Stefani , to work on her solo music side project , under which she has released two albums , Love . Angel . Music . Baby. in November 2004 and The Sweet Escape in December 2006 . The band regrouped in September 2003 to record the lead single for the album , " It 's My Life " , with producer Nellee Hooper . Additionally , in May 2010 , the band regrouped again to start work on their latest record .
The album sold moderately well , being certified double platinum in the United States , United Kingdom and Canada , and platinum in Australia . It received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised the variety of music genres on the album . The album was re @-@ released on November 2 , 2010 under the title Icon , featuring different artwork .
= = Background = =
No Doubt released their fifth studio album , Rock Steady , in December 2001 and from it released four singles , " Hey Baby " , " Hella Good " , " Underneath It All " , and " Running " between 2001 and 2003 . The album was commercially successful , selling three million copies worldwide and being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . In April 2003 , No Doubt went into hiatus to take a break to spend time with their families before starting to compile The Singles 1992 – 2003 , which would feature the band 's greatest hits from their previous albums .
The main reason to go into hiatus was that , in early 2003 , their lead singer Gwen Stefani started work on her 1980s @-@ inspired new wave / dance @-@ pop music side project , under which she has released two solo albums — Love . Angel . Music . Baby. on November 23 , 2004 and The Sweet Escape on December 5 , 2006 .
= = Music = =
The album was a compilation of thirteen commercially released singles by the band from their previous studio albums , Tragic Kingdom , Return of Saturn , and Rock Steady , as well as the independently released single " Trapped in a Box " from No Doubt 's self @-@ titled debut album , and a brand @-@ new cover version of " It 's My Life " . However , The Singles did not include " Happy Now ? " and " Hey You ! " , two singles from Tragic Kingdom , neither of which were commercially successful , or " Squeal " and " Doghouse " from The Beacon Street Collection , which were both independently released . " Girls Get the Bass in the Back " , a remix of " Hey Baby " , and a live acoustic version of " Underneath It All " were included as bonus tracks on international pressings of the album .
= = = Production = = =
Being a greatest hits album and containing only one new song , recording The Singles 1992 – 2003 took very little time compared with the band 's studio albums . Production started in September 2003 with the recording of a cover version of Talk Talk 's song " It 's My Life " , produced by Nellee Hooper . The accompanying music video for the song was filmed by director David LaChapelle at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles . Stefani insisted that just because no songwriting was involved in the production of the album did not mean no effort would be needed : the band had to decide which of their songs to include and which to leave out . Two months later on November 25 , the album was released along with the B @-@ side , rarity , and remix collection Everything in Time and box set Boom Box .
= = = Singles = = =
The only single from The Singles 1992 – 2003 was a cover of the song " It 's My Life " , originally released in 1984 by the synthpop band Talk Talk . Because the band were taking a break while lead singer Stefani recorded her solo debut album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , they decided to do a cover version to avoid having to write a new song . The band listened to hundreds of songs and narrowed it down to " It 's My Life " and the song " Don 't Change " , released in 1982 by Australian new wave band INXS . No Doubt had doubts on recording a cover and contemplated writing new material , but decided on " It 's My Life " after rehearsing the song with producer Nellee Hooper , referring to it as a " feel @-@ good " song . Stefani stated :
We thought [ choosing a song to cover ] was going to be so easy , because that was the idea — ' Let 's just do something that 's fun and easy , why do we also have to , like , torture ourselves . ' We went and listened to hundreds of songs , hundreds , and imagine trying to pick one , between the four of us ? Oh my God , it was ridiculous .
" It 's My Life " later became one of the band 's biggest hits , being certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . The song was nominated for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals at the 47th Grammy Awards , but lost out to Los Lonely Boys ' " Heaven " . Stuart Price ( also known as Jacques Lu Cont ) , the song 's programmer , created the Thin White Duke mix of " It 's My Life " , which won the award for Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical .
= = Critical reception = =
The Singles 1992 – 2003 was generally well received by music critics . Mike McGuirk of Rhapsody described the album as " a real joy for anyone who has a taste for Gwen Stefani 's yearning vocals and her band 's uncanny ability to mix ska , teen pop and hip @-@ hop . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called the album a " stellar collection " , concluding that it is " the kind of compilation that satisfies fans of all stripes and converts skeptics . It 's the greatest @-@ hits package that [ No Doubt ] deserve [ s ] . " Anthony Thornton of NME stated , " Despite being an album packed with as much drama as the band themselves have suffered , it 'll be the pop anthems you come back for and fortunately there 's enough here to keep even the soap addicts happy . " Sara McDonnell of musicOMH wrote that the album 's music had " sheer diversity " due to the band 's " pick ' n mix approach to musical styles " . The high points were " Gwen Stefani 's lyrics , which deal principally with coming to terms with her own femininity " and " the band 's collaborations with various hip producers " , such as The Neptunes , Nellee Hooper and Sly and Robbie ; and the low points were the album 's " hotch @-@ potch feel " , " random tracklisting " and the " forays into reggae " . Ruth Mitchell of the BBC Music viewed the album as a typical Christmas album that was " unlikely to stand out from the crowd " and " too long , [ getting ] tiresome about half way through " , although complimenting " Just a Girl " , " Hey Baby " and " Underneath It All " . However , she also expressed disappointment at the placement of " Don 't Speak " , " the foursome 's most glorious pop moment " , at the end of the album . The Rolling Stone Album Guide later gave the album four stars out of five .
= = Commercial performance = =
The Singles 1992 – 2003 debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , selling 253 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on July 21 , 2004 , and has sold 2 @.@ 2 million copies in the United States . In Canada , the album was certified double platinum on June 13 , 2005 by the Canadian Recording Industry Association , denoting sales of over 200 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , the album was certified gold in 2003 and platinum in 2004 by the Australian Recording Industry Association , signalling sales of over 35 @,@ 000 and 70 @,@ 000 units , respectively .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
^ b signifies an executive producer
^ c signifies a remixer
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Singles 1992 – 2003 .
No Doubt
Gwen Stefani – vocals
Tom Dumont – additional engineering , programming ( tracks 3 , 10 ) , guitar , keyboards
Tony Kanal – additional engineering , programming ( tracks 3 , 10 ) , saxophone ( track 8 ) , bass , keyboards
Adrian Young – drums , percussion
No Doubt – production ( tracks 2 , 3 , 6 – 8 , 10 , 15 , 16 )
Additional personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Statue of Liberty =
The Statue of Liberty ( Liberty Enlightening the World ; French : La Liberté éclairant le monde ) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City , in the United States . The copper statue , designed by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi , a French sculptor , was built by Gustave Eiffel and dedicated on October 28 , 1886 . It was a gift to the United States from the people of France . The statue is of a robed female figure representing Libertas , the Roman goddess , who bears a torch and a tabula ansata ( a tablet evoking the law ) upon which is inscribed the date of the American Declaration of Independence , July 4 , 1776 . A broken chain lies at her feet . The statue is an icon of freedom and of the United States , and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad .
Bartholdi was inspired by French law professor and politician Édouard René de Laboulaye , who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to American independence would properly be a joint project of the French and American peoples . He may have been minded to honor the Union victory in the American Civil War and the end of slavery . Due to the post @-@ war instability in France , work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s . In 1875 , Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the Americans provide the site and build the pedestal . Bartholdi completed the head and the torch @-@ bearing arm before the statue was fully designed , and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions .
The torch @-@ bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 , and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882 . Fundraising proved difficult , especially for the Americans , and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened due to lack of funds . Publisher Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World started a drive for donations to complete the project that attracted more than 120 @,@ 000 contributors , most of whom gave less than a dollar . The statue was constructed in France , shipped overseas in crates , and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe 's Island . The statue 's completion was marked by New York 's first ticker @-@ tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland .
The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War ; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service . The statue was closed for renovation for much of 1938 . In the early 1980s , it was found to have deteriorated to such an extent that a major restoration was required . While the statue was closed from 1984 to 1986 , the torch and a large part of the internal structure were replaced . After the September 11 attacks in 2001 , it was closed for reasons of safety and security ; the pedestal reopened in 2004 and the statue in 2009 , with limits on the number of visitors allowed to ascend to the crown . The statue , including the pedestal and base , was closed for a year until October 28 , 2012 , so that a secondary staircase and other safety features could be installed ; Liberty Island remained open . However , one day after the reopening , Liberty Island closed due to the effects of Hurricane Sandy in New York ; the statue and island opened again on July 4 , 2013 . Public access to the balcony surrounding the torch has been barred for safety reasons since 1916 .
= = Design and construction process = =
= = = Origin = = =
According to the National Park Service , the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye the president of the French Anti @-@ Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time . The project is traced to a conversation between Édouard René de Laboulaye , a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi , a sculptor in mid @-@ 1865 . In after @-@ dinner conversation at his home near Versailles , Laboulaye , an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War , is supposed to have said : " If a monument should rise in the United States , as a memorial to their independence , I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort — a common work of both our nations . " The National Park Service , in a 2000 report , however , deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet , and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870 . In another essay on their website , the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences , " With the abolition of slavery and the Union 's victory in the Civil War in 1865 , Laboulaye 's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States . In order to honor these achievements , Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France . Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States , the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy . "
According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi , who later recounted the story , Laboulaye 's comment was not intended as a proposal , but it inspired Bartholdi . Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III , Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye . Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects ; in the late 1860s , he approached Isma 'il Pasha , Khedive of Egypt , with a plan to build a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant , robed and holding a torch aloft , at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said . Sketches and models were made of the proposed work , though it was never erected . There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal , the Colossus of Rhodes : an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun , Helios . This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet ( 30 m ) high , and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships .
Any large project was further delayed by the Franco @-@ Prussian War , in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia . In the war , Napoleon III was captured and deposed . Bartholdi 's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians , and a more liberal republic was installed in France . As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States , he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans . In June 1871 , Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic , with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye .
Arriving at New York Harbor , Bartholdi focused on Bedloe 's Island as a site for the statue , struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it . He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government — it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense . It was thus , as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye : " land common to all the states . " As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers , Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant , who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue . Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail , and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project . But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal , and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign .
Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870 . The son of a friend of Bartholdi 's , American artist John LaFarge , later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge 's Rhode Island studio . Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France . He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians . One of these was the Lion of Belfort , a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort , which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months . The defiant lion , 73 feet ( 22 m ) long and half that in height , displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism , which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty .
= = = Design , style , and symbolism = = =
Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty . In early American history , two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation . One of these symbols , the personified Columbia , was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France . Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess , which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans . The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty , derived from Libertas , the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome , especially among emancipated slaves . A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time , and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art , including Thomas Crawford 's Statue of Freedom ( 1863 ) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building .
Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol . A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France . However , Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix 's famed Liberty Leading the People ( 1830 ) . In this painting , which commemorates France 's Revolution of 1830 , a half @-@ clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen . Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution , and so Bartholdi 's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes . Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work , Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch , representing progress , for the figure to hold .
Crawford 's statue was designed in the early 1850s . It was originally to be crowned with a pileus , the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome . Secretary of War Jefferson Davis , a Southerner who would later serve as President of the Confederate States of America , was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol . He ordered that it be changed to a helmet . Delacroix 's figure wears a pileus , and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well . Instead , he used a diadem , or crown , to top its head . In so doing , he avoided a reference to Marianne , who invariably wears a pileus . The seven rays form a halo or aureole . They evoke the sun , the seven seas , and the seven continents , and represent another means , besides the torch , whereby Liberty enlightens the world .
Bartholdi 's early models were all similar in concept : a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty , wearing a stola and pella ( gown and cloak , common in depictions of Roman goddesses ) and holding a torch aloft . According to popular accounts , the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi , the sculptor 's mother , but Regis Huber , the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this , as well as other similar speculations , have no basis in fact . He designed the figure with a strong , uncomplicated silhouette , which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan . He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling , reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose . Bartholdi wrote of his technique :
The surfaces should be broad and simple , defined by a bold and clear design , accentuated in the important places . The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared . By exaggerating the forms , in order to render them more clearly visible , or by enriching them with details , we would destroy the proportion of the work . Finally , the model , like the design , should have a summarized character , such as one would give to a rapid sketch . Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study , and that the artist , concentrating his knowledge , should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity .
Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved . Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain , but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War . The erected statue does rise over a broken chain , half @-@ hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground . Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty 's left hand ; he settled on a tabula ansata , a keystone @-@ shaped tablet used to evoke the concept of law . Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution , he chose to inscribe " JULY IV MDCCLXXVI " on the tablet , thus associating the date of the country 's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty .
Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor , architect Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc , in the project . As chief engineer , Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc designed a brick pier within the statue , to which the skin would be anchored . After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget , Gauthier & Co . , Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin , copper sheets , and the method used to shape it , repoussé , in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers . An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume , as the copper need be only 0 @.@ 094 inches ( 2 @.@ 4 mm ) thick . Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 feet ( 46 m ) for the statue , double that of Italy 's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius , both made with the same method .
= = = Announcement and early work = = =
By 1875 , France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy . Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support . In September 1875 , he announced the project and the formation of the Franco @-@ American Union as its fundraising arm . With the announcement , the statue was given a name , Liberty Enlightening the World . The French would finance the statue ; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal . The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France , though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia . French monarchists opposed the statue , if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye , who had recently been elected a senator for life . Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful , including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25 , 1876 , that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod . The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde , the French version of the statue 's announced name .
Despite its initial focus on the elites , the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society . Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave , as did 181 French municipalities . Laboulaye 's political allies supported the call , as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War . Less idealistically , contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal . The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes , Norway , though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples . According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York , 90 @,@ 800 kilos ( 200 @,@ 000 pounds ) was needed to build the statue , and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 58 @,@ 100 kilos ( 128 @,@ 000 pounds ) of copper . Historian Yasmin Khan , in her 2010 book about the statue , states that the firm of Japy Frères , copper merchants , donated copper valued at 64 @,@ 000 francs ( about $ 16 @,@ 000 at the time or the equivalent of US $ 356 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .
Although plans for the statue had not been finalized , Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm , bearing the torch , and the head . Work began at the Gaget , Gauthier & Co. workshop . In May 1876 , Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition , and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities . The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August ; because of its late arrival , it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue , and while some reports correctly identified the work , others called it the " Colossal Arm " or " Bartholdi Electric Light " . The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers ' interest , including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi . Nevertheless , the arm proved popular in the exhibition 's waning days , and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds . After the exhibition closed , the arm was transported to New York , where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue .
During his second trip to the United States , Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project , and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco @-@ American Union . Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York , Boston , and Philadelphia . The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the " American Committee " . One of its members was 19 @-@ year @-@ old Theodore Roosevelt , the future governor of New York and president of the United States . On March 3 , 1877 , on his final full day in office , President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it . President Rutherford B. Hayes , who took office the following day , selected the Bedloe 's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed .
= = = Construction in France = = =
On his return to Paris in 1877 , Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head , which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World 's Fair . Fundraising continued , with models of the statue put on sale . Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget , Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered . The French government authorized a lottery ; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue . By the end of 1879 , about 250 @,@ 000 francs had been raised .
The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc , who fell ill in 1879 . He soon died , leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier . The following year , Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel . Eiffel and his structural engineer , Maurice Koechlin , decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower . Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure , which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking . A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon , then , to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days , he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps , known as " saddles " , that were riveted to the skin , providing firm support . In a labor @-@ intensive process , each saddle had to be crafted individually . To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure , Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac .
Eiffel 's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction , in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing , but is instead supported by an interior framework . He included two interior spiral staircases , to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown . Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided , but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder , 40 feet ( 12 m ) long . As the pylon tower arose , Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure . The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois @-@ Perret .
The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue 's assembly . He had originally expected to assemble the skin on @-@ site as the masonry pier was built ; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe 's Island .
In a symbolic act , the first rivet placed into the skin , fixing a copper plate onto the statue 's big toe , was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton . The skin was not , however , crafted in exact sequence from low to high ; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors . Some work was performed by contractors — one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi 's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban . By 1882 , the statue was complete up to the waist , an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue . Laboulaye died in 1883 . He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps , builder of the Suez Canal . The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4 , 1884 , and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York . The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal ; by January 1885 , this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage .
The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal . The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade . The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money : construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years ; it would ultimately take over three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half decades to complete . There was criticism both of Bartholdi 's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal . In the years following the Civil War , most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation 's history , rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue . There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works — the selection of Italian @-@ born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism , even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen . Harper 's Weekly declared its wish that " M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had ' gone the whole figure ' while they were about it , and given us statue and pedestal at once . " The New York Times stated that " no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances . " Faced with these criticisms , the American committees took little action for several years .
= = = = Design = = = =
The foundation of Bartholdi 's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood , a disused army base on Bedloe 's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811 . Since 1823 , it had rarely been used , though during the Civil War , it had served as a recruiting station . The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven @-@ point star . The statue 's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast , greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean . In 1881 , the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal . Within months , Hunt submitted a detailed plan , indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months . He proposed a pedestal 114 feet ( 35 m ) in height ; faced with money problems , the committee reduced that to 89 feet ( 27 m ) .
Hunt 's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture , including Doric portals , as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture . The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail , in order to focus attention on the statue . In form , it is a truncated pyramid , 62 feet ( 19 m ) square at the base and 39 @.@ 4 feet ( 12 @.@ 0 m ) at the top . The four sides are identical in appearance . Above the door on each side , there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states ( between 1876 and 1889 , there were 38 U.S. states ) , although this was not done . Above that , a balcony was placed on each side , framed by pillars . Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal , above which the statue itself rises . According to author Louis Auchincloss , the pedestal " craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty " . The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work . Construction on the 15 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) foundation began in 1883 , and the pedestal 's cornerstone was laid in 1884 . In Hunt 's original conception , the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite . Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans ; the final design called for poured concrete walls , up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) thick , faced with granite blocks . This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford , Connecticut . The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time .
Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty . His work involved design computations , detailed fabrication and construction drawings , and oversight of construction . In completing his engineering for the statue 's frame , Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel .
= = = = Fundraising = = = =
Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882 . The committee organized a large number of money @-@ raising events . As part of one such effort , an auction of art and manuscripts , poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work . She initially declined , stating she could not write a poem about a statue . At the time , she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti @-@ Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe . These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced . She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue . The resulting sonnet , " The New Colossus " , including the iconic lines " Give me your tired , your poor / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free " , is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base .
Even with these efforts , fundraising lagged . Grover Cleveland , the governor of New York , vetoed a bill to provide $ 50 @,@ 000 for the statue project in 1884 . An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $ 100 @,@ 000 , sufficient to complete the project , also failed . The New York committee , with only $ 3 @,@ 000 in the bank , suspended work on the pedestal . With the project in jeopardy , groups from other American cities , including Boston and Philadelphia , offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it .
Joseph Pulitzer , publisher of the New York World , a New York newspaper , announced a drive to raise $ 100 @,@ 000 — the equivalent of $ 2 @.@ 3 million today . Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor , no matter how small the amount given . The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers , especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors . " A young girl alone in the world " donated " 60 cents , the result of self denial . " One donor gave " five cents as a poor office boy 's mite toward the Pedestal Fund . " A group of children sent a dollar as " the money we saved to go to the circus with . " Another dollar was given by a " lonely and very aged woman . " Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York 's rival city of Brooklyn — the cities would not merge until 1898 — donated $ 15 ; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons . A kindergarten class in Davenport , Iowa , mailed the World a gift of $ 1 @.@ 35 . As the donations flooded in , the committee resumed work on the pedestal .
= = = = Construction = = = =
On June 17 , 1885 , the French steamer Isère , laden with the Statue of Liberty , reached the New York port safely . New Yorkers displayed their new @-@ found enthusiasm for the statue , as the French vessel arrived with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board . Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the Isère . After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund , on August 11 , 1885 , the World announced that $ 102 @,@ 000 had been raised from 120 @,@ 000 donors , and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar .
Even with the success of the fund drive , the pedestal was not completed until April 1886 . Immediately thereafter , reassembly of the statue began . Eiffel 's iron framework was anchored to steel I @-@ beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled . Once this was done , the sections of skin were carefully attached . Due to the width of the pedestal , it was not possible to erect scaffolding , and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections . Nevertheless , no one died during the construction . Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch 's balcony to illuminate it ; a week before the dedication , the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal , fearing that ships ' pilots passing the statue would be blinded . Instead , Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch — which was covered with gold leaf — and placed the lights inside them . A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs . After the skin was completed , renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted , co @-@ designer of New York 's Central Park and Brooklyn 's Prospect Park , supervised a cleanup of Bedloe 's Island in anticipation of the dedication .
= = = Dedication = = =
A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28 , 1886 . President Grover Cleveland , the former New York governor , presided over the event . On the morning of the dedication , a parade was held in New York City ; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million . President Cleveland headed the procession , then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America . General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade . The route began at Madison Square , once the venue for the arm , and proceeded to Battery Park at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway , with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row . As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange , traders threw ticker tape from the windows , beginning the New York tradition of the ticker @-@ tape parade .
A nautical parade began at 12 : 45 p.m. , and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe 's Island for the dedication . De Lesseps made the first speech , on behalf of the French committee , followed by the chairman of the New York committee , Senator William M. Evarts . A French flag draped across the statue 's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts 's speech , but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely . The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts 's address . President Cleveland spoke next , stating that the statue 's " stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man 's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world " . Bartholdi , observed near the dais , was called upon to speak , but he refused . Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address .
No members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies , which were reserved entirely for dignitaries . The only females granted access were Bartholdi 's wife and de Lesseps 's granddaughter ; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people . The restriction offended area suffragists , who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island . The group 's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women 's right to vote . A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather .
Shortly after the dedication , The Cleveland Gazette , an African American newspaper , suggested that the statue 's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation " in reality " :
" Liberty enlightening the world , " indeed ! The expression makes us sick . This government is a howling farce . It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders . Shove the Bartholdi statue , torch and all , into the ocean until the " liberty " of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family , without being ku @-@ kluxed , perhaps murdered , his daughter and wife outraged , and his property destroyed . The idea of the " liberty " of this country " enlightening the world , " or even Patagonia , is ridiculous in the extreme .
= = After dedication = =
= = = Lighthouse Board and War Department ( 1886 – 1933 ) = = =
When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue 's dedication , it produced only a faint gleam , barely visible from Manhattan . The World characterized it as " more like a glowworm than a beacon . " Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light , but this proved too expensive . The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch 's effect ; in spite of its efforts , the statue remained virtually invisible at night . When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893 , he made additional suggestions , all of which proved ineffective . He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue , allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel 's design . In 1901 , President Theodore Roosevelt , once a member of the New York committee , ordered the statue 's transfer to the War Department , as it had proved useless as a lighthouse . A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe 's Island until 1923 , after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction .
The statue rapidly became a landmark . Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight . Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty . One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled ,
I saw the Statue of Liberty . And I said to myself , " Lady , you 're such a beautiful ! [ sic ] You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here . Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it , to do something , to be someone in America . " And always that statue was on my mind .
Originally , the statue was a dull copper color , but shortly after 1900 a green patina , also called verdigris , caused by the oxidation of the copper skin , began to spread . As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press ; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue . Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion , Congress authorized $ 62 @,@ 800 for various repairs , and to paint the statue both inside and out . There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting . The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin , " softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful . " The statue was painted only on the inside . The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal .
On July 30 , 1916 , during World War I , German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City , New Jersey , in what is now part of Liberty State Park , close to Bedloe 's Island . Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated , and seven people were killed . The statue sustained minor damage , mostly to the torch @-@ bearing right arm , and was closed for ten days . The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about $ 100 @,@ 000 . The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public safety reasons , and it has remained closed ever since .
That same year , Ralph Pulitzer , who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World , began a drive to raise $ 30 @,@ 000 for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night . He claimed over 80 @,@ 000 contributors but failed to reach the goal . The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor — a fact that was not revealed until 1936 . An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood . Gutzon Borglum , who later sculpted Mount Rushmore , redesigned the torch , replacing much of the original copper with stained glass . On December 2 , 1916 , President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights , successfully illuminating the statue .
After the United States entered World War I in 1917 , images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially . This impressed upon the public the war 's stated purpose — to secure liberty — and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue .
In 1924 , President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument . The only successful suicide in the statue 's history occurred five years later , when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death , glancing off the statue 's breast and landing on the base .
= = = Early National Park Service years ( 1933 – 1982 ) = = =
In 1933 , President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue transferred to the National Park Service ( NPS ) . In 1937 , the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe 's Island . With the Army 's departure , the NPS began to transform the island into a park . The Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) demolished most of the old buildings , regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island , and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear . The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue , temporarily removing the rays from the statue 's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced . Rusted cast @-@ iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete ; the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced , as well . Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal . The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938 .
During World War II , the statue remained open to visitors , although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts . It was lit briefly on December 31 , 1943 , and on D @-@ Day , June 6 , 1944 , when its lights flashed " dot @-@ dot @-@ dot @-@ dash " , the Morse code for V , for victory . New , powerful lighting was installed in 1944 – 1945 , and beginning on V @-@ E Day , the statue was once again illuminated after sunset . The lighting was for only a few hours each evening , and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night , all night . In 1946 , the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away .
In 1956 , an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe 's Island as Liberty Island , a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier . The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island , which backers took as federal approval of the project , though the government was slow to grant funds for it . Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965 . In 1972 , the immigration museum , in the statue 's base , was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon . The museum 's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island .
Beginning December 26 , 1971 , 15 anti @-@ Vietnam War veterans occupied the statue , flying a US flag upside down from her crown . They left December 28 following a Federal Court order . The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence , opposition to abortion , and opposition to US intervention in Grenada . Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally .
A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976 . The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail , a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4 , 1976 , and sailed around Liberty Island . The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue .
= = = Renovation and rededication ( 1982 – 2000 ) = = =
The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986 . In 1982 , it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration . Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure . It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure . In addition , the head had been installed 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) off center , and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind . The armature structure was badly corroded , and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced . Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936 , when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed , much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years .
In May 1982 , President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty – Ellis Island Centennial Commission , led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca , to raise the funds needed to complete the work . Through its fundraising arm , the Statue of Liberty – Ellis Island Foundation , Inc . , the group raised more than $ 350 million in donations . The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign . A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card , the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue . The campaign generated contributions of $ 1 @.@ 7 million to the restoration project .
In 1984 , the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation . Workers erected the world 's largest free @-@ standing scaffold , which obscured the statue from view . Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades , leaving two layers of coal tar , originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion . Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper . The restorers ' work was hampered by the asbestos @-@ based substance that Bartholdi had used — ineffectively , as inspections showed — to prevent galvanic corrosion . Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear , dubbed " moon suits " , with self @-@ contained breathing circuits . Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired , and new copper was added where necessary . The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs , which had a patina that closely resembled the statue 's ; in exchange , the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing . The torch , found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations , was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi 's unaltered torch . Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder ; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead . The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one , whose flame is covered in 24 @-@ carat gold . The torch reflects the sun 's rays in daytime and lighted by floodlights at night .
The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced . Low @-@ carbon corrosion @-@ resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium , an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves . To prevent the ray and arm making contact , the ray was realigned by several degrees . The lighting was again replaced — night @-@ time illumination subsequently came from metal @-@ halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue , showing off various details . Access to the pedestal , which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s , was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation . A modern elevator was installed , allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal . An emergency elevator was installed within the statue , reaching up to the level of the shoulder .
July 3 – 6 , 1986 , was designated " Liberty Weekend " , marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening . President Reagan presided over the rededication , with French President François Mitterrand in attendance . July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail , and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5 . In Reagan 's dedication speech , he stated , " We are the keepers of the flame of liberty ; we hold it high for the world to see . "
= = = Closures and reopening ( 2001 – present ) = = =
Following the September 11 attacks , the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public . The island reopened at the end of 2001 , while the pedestal and statue remained off @-@ limits . The pedestal reopened in August 2004 , but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency . The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration . New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue 's reopening a personal crusade . On May 17 , 2009 , President Barack Obama 's Secretary of the Interior , Ken Salazar , announced that as a " special gift " to America , the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4 , but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day .
The statue , including the pedestal and base , closed on October 29 , 2011 for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities , such as restrooms , up to code . The statue was closed to the public until October 28 , 2012 . A day after the reopening , the statue closed again due to Hurricane Sandy . Although the storm did not harm the statue , it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island , severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue . On November 8 , 2012 , a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done . Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island , a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night . The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument , David Luchsinger , whose home on the island was severely damaged , stated that it would be " optimistically ... months " before the island was reopened to the public . The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4 , 2013 . Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013 . For part of October 2013 , Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013 , along with other federally funded museums , parks , monuments , construction projects and buildings .
= = Access and attributes = =
= = = Location and tourism = = =
The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island , which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument . Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800 . As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay 's midpoint , the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line . Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York . Land created by reclamation added to the 2 @.@ 3 acres ( 0 @.@ 93 ha ) original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory .
No charge is made for entrance to the national monument , but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use , as private boats may not dock at the island . A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities , replacing Circle Line , which had operated the service since 1953 . The ferries , which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan , also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public , making a combined trip possible . All ferry riders are subject to security screening , similar to airport procedures , prior to boarding . Visitors intending to enter the statue 's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum / pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket . Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket , which may be reserved up to a year in advance . A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend : ten per group , three groups per hour . Climbers may bring only medication and cameras — lockers are provided for other items — and must undergo a second security screening .
= = = Inscriptions , plaques , and dedications = = =
There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty .
A plaque on the copper just under the figure in front declares that it is a colossal statue representing Liberty , designed by Bartholdi and built by the Paris firm of Gaget , Gauthier et Cie ( Cie is the French abbreviation analogous to Co . ) .
A presentation tablet , also bearing Bartholdi 's name , declares the statue is a gift from the people of the Republic of France that honors " the Alliance of the two Nations in achieving the Independence of the United States of America and attests their abiding friendship . "
A tablet placed by the New York committee commemorates the fundraising done to build the pedestal .
The cornerstone bears a plaque placed by the Freemasons .
In 1903 , a bronze tablet that bears the text of Emma Lazarus 's sonnet , " The New Colossus " ( 1883 ) , was presented by friends of the poet . Until the 1986 renovation , it was mounted inside the pedestal ; today it resides in the Statue of Liberty Museum , in the base .
" The New Colossus " tablet is accompanied by a tablet given by the Emma Lazarus Commemorative Committee in 1977 , celebrating the poet 's life .
A group of statues stands at the western end of the island , honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty . Two Americans — Pulitzer and Lazarus — and three Frenchmen — Bartholdi , Eiffel , and Laboulaye — are depicted . They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner .
= = UNESCO World Heritage Site = =
In 1984 , the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The UNESCO " Statement of Significance " describes the statue as a " masterpiece of the human spirit " that " endures as a highly potent symbol — inspiring contemplation , debate and protest — of ideals such as liberty , peace , human rights , abolition of slavery , democracy and opportunity . "
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
= = Depictions = =
Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide . A smaller version of the statue , one @-@ fourth the height of the original , was given by the American community in Paris to that city . It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes , facing west toward her larger sister . A replica 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years ; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum . In a patriotic tribute , the Boy Scouts of America , as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949 – 1952 , donated about two hundred replicas of the statue , made of stamped copper and 100 inches ( 2 @,@ 500 mm ) in height , to states and municipalities across the United States . Though not a true replica , the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions — the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty . Among other recreations of New York City structures , a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York @-@ New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas .
As an American icon , the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country 's coinage and stamps . It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial , and on New York 's 2001 entry in the state quarters series . An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997 , and it was placed on the reverse , or tails , side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins . Two images of the statue 's torch appear on the current ten @-@ dollar bill . The statue 's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino .
Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions . Between 1986 and 2000 , New York State issued license plates featuring the statue . The Women 's National Basketball Association 's New York Liberty use both the statue 's name and its image in their logo , in which the torch 's flame doubles as a basketball . The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue 's head on their third jersey , beginning in 1997 . The National Collegiate Athletic Association 's 1996 Men 's Basketball Final Four , played at New Jersey 's Meadowlands Sports Complex , featured the statue in its logo . The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem .
The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture . In music , it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies , as in Toby Keith 's song " Courtesy of the Red , White and Blue ( The Angry American ) " , and in opposition , appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys ' album Bedtime for Democracy , which protested the Reagan administration . In film , the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock 's 1942 movie Saboteur . The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes , in which it is seen half @-@ buried in sand . It is knocked over in the science @-@ fiction film Independence Day and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off . In Jack Finney 's time @-@ travel novel Time and Again , the right arm of the statue , on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park , plays a crucial role . Robert Holdstock , consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction , wondered in 1979 @,@
Where would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty ? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted [ E ] arth — giants have uprooted it , aliens have found it curious ... the symbol of Liberty , of optimism , has become a symbol of science fiction 's pessimistic view of the future . "
= The Philaletheis Society =
The Philaletheis Society ( often shortened to Philaletheis or just Phil and originally founded as The Philalethean Society ) is a student theatre group at Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York , and the school 's oldest student organization . Founded in December 1865 , Phil began as a college literary society and its first leader was college president John Howard Raymond . Control of the organization was swiftly handed to the students and the group split into three chapters , each with a distinct focus . The group maintained its literary focus until the 1890s , by which point dramatic productions had taken over in popularity . The tradition of producing four and later three plays per year continued into the mid @-@ twentieth century , but in 1958 , the organization disbanded due to lack of interest . It was revived in 1975 , first as an arm of student government and then as an independent student organization .
The group is run by an executive board that selects which plays to produce each year based on the proposals received from student @-@ directors . Auditions are open to all Vassar students but those interested in directing must have previously completed a directing workshop through the organization .
= = History = =
According to alumna Maria Dickinson McGraw , the creation of a college literary society at Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York , was proposed by students during the first week of the school 's first year . Later that year , on December 2 , 1865 , the Philalethean Society was founded , becoming the first student group at Vassar . It was organized and helmed by John Howard Raymond , president of the college . While Raymond was the organization 's first leader , students in the organization quickly saw fit to transition to self @-@ governance ; Raymond " was not re @-@ elected . " The Society 's first student president was M. L. Dickinson , who also served as one of the several editors of the inaugural edition of Vassariana , the precursor the Vassar 's weekly newspaper , The Miscellany News . Named for the term philalethea , meaning " truth @-@ loving " , the Society was split into three distinct chapters , each with a specialized focus . The Alpha arm of the organization focused on literary works , the Beta chapter did dramatic exercises , and the Delta chapter was involved with musical pursuits . Later , it added a fourth chapter . Until the alumnae gymnasium — later Ely Hall — was built , the organization was headquartered in the Society Room on the second floor of the school 's Calisthenium and Riding Academy .
The Society 's first public meeting occurred in June 1866 , with invitations sent to Vassar students reading " The pleasure of your company is invited to a literary entertainment . " The event included music , prayer , and the perforamcne of original poems , songs , essays , and a drama piece . Further meetings happened in December , at which point a scene from Henry VIII was produced , and again the following June , at which point Vassar students recited nine of William Shakespeare 's monolgues for female characters . By 1871 , the Society was sizable , consisting of 127 members . It retained its original literary focus through the 1890s .
The college 's 50th anniversary fell in 1915 ; by this point , the society had transitioned its focus exclusively to dramatic arts . In 1890 , when someone discovered that the term Philalethea was not proper Greek , the group changed its name to the more correct Philaletheis Society or Phil for short . While the group had originally performed four shows per year , by 1915 it was down to three plays annually including one outdoors that was usually a Shakespeare show , and indoor productions of contemporary dramas , comedies , and older works such as The Critic and She Stoops to Conquer . The year 1908 saw the abolishment of the chapters and their plays , which had ostensibly come to serve as a proving ground for undiscovered Vassar women who wanted to take part in the larger productions sponsored by the entire Philaletheis organization . The chapters ' plays were prepared in just one week each leading to the criticism that their presentations were " hasty and patchy " , and the establishment of competitive auditions for the main Phil plays rendered obsolete the model of chapter plays as proving grounds for new actresses . The group had produced 147 full shows by this time . A song in a marziale tempo , " Hail to thee , Philaletheis ! " , was published in 1908 .
Philaletheis had its offices in the 1913 Students ' Building for many years . The tradition of putting on three plays each year continued through the 1940s , including presenting the third and final play outdoors . In 1950 , Philaletheis was identified by the Miscellany News as one of the " Big Five " organizations , a quintet of student groups " which include [ d ] nearly every extra @-@ curricular activity which [ took ] place on campus " . Each student became a member of each of the Big Five organizations upon their matriculation to the college . In 1958 , however , the group 's focus had shifted and it now stood primarily as an organization through which freshmen could try out theatre arts before moving on to the drama department for more serious dramatic work . Later that year , Philaletheis disbanded due to insufficient interest from students .
= = = Reboot = = =
In 1975 , a group of students interested in extracurricular theatre revived the Philaletheis Society after a 17 @-@ year absence . Citing an interest in producing shows without being involved in the college 's drama department ( a requirement for involvement at the time ) , the rebooted Phil 's first performance was Agatha Christie 's The Mousetrap . The next year , the Student Government Association ( SGA ) took over the organization , merging it with its extant Drama Funds Committee to create " the sole producing agent of independent student theatre on the Vassar campus " . By the 1980s , Phil split from student government while retaining its funding from the latter .
The group was struggling to find space to rehearse and perform by 1989 . The Students ' Building where Philaletheis had once performed had been transformed into the All Campus Dining Center and the old performance space was neither replaced nor replicated elsewhere on campus . To rememdy this , in 1993 and 1994 , Vassar invested in the renovation of one of its disused buildings , a former functioning coal bin , into the Coal Bin Theater to be used by Philaletheis and the other student theatre and comedy groups that had been created by this time .
= = Operations = =
Early in the Society 's history , when its focus was still primarily literary , membership was considered by a committee for three days and then voted upon . By 1908 , that model had been abandoned in favor of an open system in which any student who paid an annual fee could be part of the group . At that time , Philaletheis was governed by a six @-@ member board consisting of a president and vice @-@ president ( both seniors ) , secretary , treasurer , and props manager ( juniors ) , and an assistant props manager ( a sophomore ) . In 1951 , the board was vastly expanded to include managers of scenery , lights , sound , makeup , publicity , and a number of other fields .
The rebooted 1975 version of Philaletheis , as a committee of the SGA , was governed by the SGA 's president . Membership was by application for all positions . Once the organization split from student government , it was run by a seven @-@ member board and accepted proposals for shows , ranging from musicals to one @-@ act plays . Recently , the Society has accepted proposals for shows at the beginning of every semester , then the production board has voted on which shows to produce . Each production then holds its own auditions for actors , with no experience required . Directors seeking to produce a full @-@ length show must first direct a shorter directing workshop , usually a scene running 15 minutes or shorter . Directing workshops occur twice a year , early in fall and spring semesters . For the 2015 fiscal year , the group 's budget was $ 12 @,@ 000 .
= = = Cited = = =
Farkas , Brian ( 2009 ) . Covering The Campus : A History Of The Miscellany News At Vassar College . Bloomington , IN : iUniverse . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4401 @-@ 2683 @-@ 3 .
Gurney , Vivian ( 1915 ) . " Philaletheis " . In Mallon , Mary ; et al . Vassar 1865 – 1915 , from the Undergraduate Point of View : Fiftieth Anniversary Number . Poughkeepsie , NY : The Vassar Miscellany .
Horowitz , Helen Lefkowitz ( 1985 ) . Alma Mater : Design and Experience in the Women 's Colleges from Their Nineteenth @-@ century Beginnings to the 1930s ( 2 ed . ) . Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87023 @-@ 869 @-@ 8 .
Seeley , Isaac Casper ( 1871 ) . Manual of College Literary Societies , with Statistical Table . Kalamazoo , MI : Chaplin & Ihling Bro 's Book and Job Printers .
The Students ' Association of Vassar College ( 1908 ) . The New Vassar College Songbook . New York City : Hinds , Noble & Eldredge .
Taylor , James Monroe ; Haight , Elizabeth Hazelton ( 1915 ) . Vassar . New York City : Oxford University Press .
Van Lengen , Karen ; Reilly , Lisa ( 2004 ) . The Campus Guide : Vassar College . New York City : Princeton Architectural Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 56898 @-@ 349 @-@ 2 .
Wood , Frances Ann ( 1909 ) . Earliest Years at Vassar : Personal Recollections . Poughkeepsie , NY : The Vassar College Press .
= 1986 Jamaica floods =
The 1986 Jamaica floods killed 50 people in the country , comparable to flooding that occurred in June 1979 . The floods originated as a stationary front on May 24 that produced rainfall across much of the central Caribbean Sea for two weeks . Rainfall totals in Jamaica reached 635 mm ( 25 @.@ 0 in ) at Norman Manley International Airport . The flooding left heavy agriculture damage totaling $ 22 @.@ 5 million , and 40 @,@ 000 residents per day received meals after the event . Roads and bridges were damaged across the country , and one damaged bridge resulted in eight deaths after a bus crashed . The floods left 2 @,@ 000 Jamaicans homeless .
Elsewhere , the floods were the worst in Haiti in decades . There , a swollen river destroyed several homes in Les Cayes , and there were 21 deaths nationwide . In neighboring Dominican Republic , flooding isolated several towns and caused mudslides that killed 12 people . In Cuba , flooding was worst in the easternmost four provinces , and there were five deaths . The overall system spawned a subtropical cyclone on June 5 that later became Tropical Storm Andrew .
= = Meteorological history = =
Beginning on May 24 , a stationary front persisted across the central Caribbean Sea . It dropped torrential rainfall across Jamaica , totaling 275 mm ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) in Saint Andrew Parish , and 635 mm ( 25 @.@ 0 in ) at Norman Manley International Airport . There were reports as high as 1 @,@ 270 mm ( 50 in ) in the southern portion of the country . The high rainfall caused rivers to flow faster than usual , and the Yallahs River reported a peak discharge of 453 m ³ / s . Flooding also affected Hispaniola and eastern Cuba . In Haiti , the floods were reported as the worst in decades . The system gradually moved to the north through the Greater Antilles , developing into a subtropical cyclone on June 5 . It eventually became Tropical Storm Andrew before dissipating on June 8 .
= = Impact = =
The high rainfall caused island @-@ wide flooding in Jamaica , as well as widespread landslides . Along the coast , freshwater flooding decreased salt @-@ levels , lowered ocean temperatures , and caused a significant increase of phytoplankton . By two weeks after the floods subsided , phytoplankton levels returned to normal . Significant agricultural damage occurred due to the flooding . Over 17 @,@ 600 acres ( 7 @,@ 100 ha ) of crop fields were damaged , and many livestock and fish died . Damage was heaviest in Clarendon Parish , and the nationwide crop damage was estimated at $ 22 @.@ 5 million . Water systems were damaged in eight of the fourteen Parishes of Jamaica , leaving 100 @,@ 000 people without water . More than 300 roads were damaged or blocked , and 15 bridges were damaged . Four people were killed after being buried by a landslide . A collapsed bridge in May Pen , located southwest of Kingston , was washed out by the Rio Minho , killing eight people in a bus . Nationwide , 14 hospitals and 16 other health facilities were severely damaged , and many government offices had roof damage . Damage to utilities was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 65 million . The floods left 2 @,@ 000 people homeless , many of whom stayed in shelters , and there were 50 deaths . The flooding was described as similar to the deadly floods in June 1979 .
Flooding was also reported in Hispaniola and eastern Cuba . In Cuba , a state of alert was declared for Santiago de Cuba , Guantanamo , Granma , and Holguin provinces , and 7 @,@ 500 people were evacuated . Heavy rainfall caused landslides and isolated several towns after roads and rails were blocked . Some areas lost power or telephone services . Five people were killed in Cuba , four of whom from drowning and one from electrocution . In nearby Haiti , flooding was worst in Les Cayes , where the Ravine River destroyed many homes and left 1 @,@ 300 homeless . Throughout the country , flooding severely damaged crops and wrecked bridges and roads . There were 21 deaths in the Les Cayes area . In the Dominican Republic , there were 12 deaths around Santo Domingo after mudslides buried people . Four towns were isolated after rivers exceeded their banks , forcing hundreds of people to evacuate . Overall , the system caused 94 deaths and $ 25 million in damage .
= = Aftermath = =
After the floods subsided , the government of Jamaica appealed to the international community for assistance . Local workers cleared roads , and about 1 @,@ 100 people assisted in various relief efforts . The Jamaican Red Cross provided about 40 @,@ 000 meals each day to residents who lost food during the floods . Repairing damaged roads and bridges cost about $ 4 @.@ 3 million . For at least one day , all schools and most businesses on the island were closed .
In the weeks following the floods , the Pan American Health Organization provided $ 10 @,@ 000 worth of water supply units and a group of six workers , and offices within the United Nations provided $ 55 @,@ 000 worth of contributions . The government of Barbados provided five units to assist in vector control , and the United States donated $ 25 @,@ 000 in aid . The European Economic Community donated about $ 376 @,@ 300 in assistance . The government of Canada provided $ 142 @,@ 490 worth of aid , and the government of West Germany donated $ 21 @,@ 740 . The British Red Cross and the United Kingdom government collectively donated $ 302 @,@ 850 to the country , mostly for 3 helicopters to transport relief and medical teams . The California Air National Guard flew three trips of supplies , including 2 @,@ 000 cots , to Jamaica .
= Schmerber v. California =
Schmerber v. California , 384 U.S. 757 ( 1966 ) , was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court clarified the application of the Fourth Amendment 's protection against warrantless searches and the Fifth Amendment privilege against self @-@ incrimination for searches that intrude into the human body . Until Schmerber , the Supreme Court had not yet clarified whether state police officers must procure a search warrant before taking blood samples from criminal suspects . Likewise , the Court had not yet clarified whether blood evidence taken against the wishes of a criminal suspect may be used against that suspect in the course of a criminal prosecution .
In a 5 – 4 opinion , the Court held that forced extraction and analysis of a blood sample is not compelled testimony ; therefore , it does not violate the Fifth Amendment privilege against self @-@ incrimination . The Court also held that intrusions into the human body ordinarily require a search warrant . However , the Court ruled that the involuntary , warrantless blood sample taken in this case was justified under the Fourth Amendment 's exigent circumstances exception because evidence of blood alcohol would be destroyed by the body 's natural metabolic processes if the officers were to wait for a warrant . In 2013 , the Supreme Court clarified in Missouri v. McNeely that the natural metabolism of alcohol in the bloodstream is not a per se exigency that would always justify warrantless blood tests of individuals suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol .
In the years following the Court 's decision in Schmerber , many legal scholars feared the ruling would be used to limit civil liberties . Other scholars , including Nita A. Farahany , Benjamin Holley , and John G. New , have suggested courts may use the ruling in Schmerber to justify the use of mind reading devices against criminal suspects . Because the Court 's ruling in Schmerber prohibited the use of warrantless blood tests in most circumstances , some commentators argue that the decision was responsible for the proliferation of breathalyzers to test for alcohol and urine analyses to test for controlled substances in criminal investigations .
= = Background = =
= = = Warrantless searches of the human body = = =
In the 1950s , the Supreme Court of the United States issued two key rulings clarifying the constitutionality of physical intrusions into the human body by police and other government agents . In Rochin v. California , police officers broke into the home of an individual suspected of selling narcotics and observed him place several small objects into his mouth . Officers were unable to force his mouth open , so they transported him to a local hospital where his stomach was pumped against his will . A unanimous Supreme Court held the involuntary stomach pump was an unlawful violation of substantive due process because it " shocked the conscience " , and was so " brutal " and " offensive " that it did not comport with traditional ideas of fair play and decency . In 1957 , the Court held in Breithaupt v. Abram that involuntary blood samples " taken by a skilled technician " neither " shocked the conscience " nor violated substantive due process . In Breithaupt , police took a blood sample from a patient suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol while he lay unconscious in a hospital . The Court held that the blood samples were justified , in part , because " modern community living requires modern scientific methods of crime detection . " Additionally , the Court mentioned in dicta that involuntary blood samples may violate the constitution if officers do not provide " every proper medical precaution " to the accused .
= = = Fourth Amendment exclusionary rule = = =
Until the twentieth century , courts would admit evidence at trial even if it was seized in violation of the Fourth Amendment . Although the Supreme Court developed an exclusionary rule for federal cases in Weeks v. United States and Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States , the Court held in 1949 that the exclusionary rule did not apply to the states . In Rochin , the Court held that evidence obtained in a manner that " shocks the conscience " must be excluded in criminal prosecutions but the court declined to incorporate a broad exclusionary rule for all Fourth Amendment violations . By the middle of the twentieth century , many state courts had crafted their own exclusionary rules . In 1955 , the California Supreme Court ruled in People v. Cahan that the Fourth Amendment 's exclusionary rule applied in California because it was necessary to deter constitutional violations by law enforcement . In 1961 , the Supreme Court of the United States relied upon Cahan to hold in Mapp v. Ohio that the exclusionary rule was incorporated to the states .
= = = Arrest and prosecution = = =
On the night of November 12 , 1964 , Armando Schmerber and a passenger were driving home after drinking at a tavern and bowling alley in the San Fernando Valley region of Los Angeles , California when their car skidded off the road and struck a tree . Schmerber and his companion were injured in the crash and taken to a hospital for treatment . When investigating police officers arrived at the hospital , they asked Schmerber to submit a sample of his blood , but Schmerber refused . Although they did not possess a search warrant , officers instructed attending physicians to take a blood sample from Schmerber . The blood sample indicated that Schmerber was intoxicated , and he was placed under arrest . The blood sample was ultimately admitted into evidence at trial , and Schmerber was convicted for driving under the influence of intoxicating liquors . Schmerber objected to the admissibility of the blood sample , claiming that the police violated his rights to due process , his privilege against self @-@ incrimination , his right to counsel , and his right not to be subjected to unreasonable searches and seizures . The Appellate Department of the California Superior Court rejected Schmerber 's arguments , and the California District Court of Appeal declined to review his case .
= = = Arguments before the Court = = =
Schmerber submitted an appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States , which granted certiorari on January 17 , 1966 . In his brief , Schmerber argued , inter alia , that the warrantless blood test violated his Fourth Amendment right to be free from unlawful searches and seizures , as well as his Fifth Amendment privilege against self @-@ incrimination . The Los Angeles City Attorney 's office represented the State of California on appeal . In their brief , the City Attorney argued that the blood test did not violate the Fourth Amendment because the seizure was conducted incident to a lawful arrest . The City Attorney also argued that admitting the sample into evidence did not violate Schmerber 's Fifth Amendment right against self @-@ incrimination because blood is not testimonial evidence under the Fifth Amendment . Oral arguments were held on April 25 , 1966 , and the Court issued its opinion on June 20 , 1966 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
In his majority opinion , Justice William J. Brennan , Jr. held that Schmerber 's constitutional rights were not violated when police took his blood without his consent . Relying upon the Court 's holding in Breithaupt v. Abram , he concluded that the police did not violate Schmerber 's Fifth Amendment right against self @-@ incrimination because the extraction and chemical analysis of the blood sample did not involve " even a shadow of testimonial compulsion . " Likewise , Justice Brennan held that the officers did not violate Schmerber 's Fourth Amendment right against unreasonable seizures . Justice Brennan wrote that absent exigent circumstances , searches that involve intrusions into the human body require a search warrant . Here , the search was not justified as a search incident to arrest because weapons and contraband are not ordinarily concealed beneath the skin . However , the involuntary blood draw was justified under the Fourth Amendment 's exigent circumstances exception because if the officers had waited to receive a search warrant , evidence of intoxication would have been lost through the body 's natural metabolism of alcohol in the bloodstream . He wrote that the responding officer " might reasonably have believed that he was confronted with an emergency , " where evidence would be destroyed if he waited to receive a warrant . Additionally , Justice Brennan cautioned that the Court 's ruling was limited " only to the facts of the present record " and that " minor intrusions into an individual 's body under stringently limited conditions in no way indicates that it permits more substantial intrusions , or intrusions under other conditions . "
= = = Justice Harlan 's concurrence = = =
In his concurring opinion , Justice John Marshall Harlan II agreed that the involuntary blood sample did not implicate involuntary testimonial compulsion , but wrote separately to emphasize his opinion that the case before the Court " in no way implicates the Fifth Amendment . " Additionally , Justice Harlan cited to his dissent in Miranda v. Arizona where he argued against a broad expansion of the Fifth Amendment privilege against self @-@ incrimination . Justice Harlan disagreed with the Court 's ruling in Miranda and even stated that the case " represents poor constitutional law and entails harmful consequences for the country at large . "
= = = Dissenting opinions = = =
All four dissenting Justices wrote separate dissenting opinions in Schmerber . Chief Justice Earl Warren reiterated his dissenting opinion in Breithaupt v. Abram , where he argued that involuntary blood samples violate substantive due process . Justice Hugo Black authored an impassioned dissent in which he argued that the officers violated Schmerber 's privilege against self @-@ incrimination . He wrote , " [ b ] elieving with the Framers that these constitutional safeguards broadly construed by independent tribunals of justice provide our best hope for keeping our people free from governmental oppression , I deeply regret the Court 's holding . " Justice William O. Douglas also reiterated his dissent in Breithaupt v. Abram , but added that physical invasions into the human body violate the right to privacy enumerated in Griswold v. Connecticut and that " [ n ] o clearer invasion of this right of privacy can be imagined than forcible bloodletting of the kind involved here . " Finally , Justice Abe Fortas wrote that the involuntary blood sample was an act of violence that violated substantive due process and that states may not resort to acts of violence when prosecuting crimes .
= = Subsequent developments = =
In the 1970s and 1980s , the Supreme Court revisited questions about the constitutionality of involuntary bodily intrusions in several key cases . In 1973 , the Court ruled in Cupp v. Murphy that the police were permitted to extract a tissue sample from underneath a suspect ’ s fingernails to recover " evanescent " physical evidence . The suspect in Cupp was suspected of strangling his wife and voluntarily went to a police station to answer questions . Officers noticed bloodstains under the suspect ’ s fingernails and detained him , but did not place him under arrest . Against the suspect ’ s wishes , the police scraped out a tissue sample from under his fingernails to retrieve the evidence . The biological material found under the suspect ’ s fingernails was later found to have come from the victim . Citing Schmerber , the Court held that this warrantless search was justified under the exigent circumstances exemption of the Fourth Amendment because the search was necessary to preserve the “ highly evanescent evidence ” under the defendant ’ s fingernails .
Twelve years later , the Court again revisited the topic of involuntary bodily intrusions in Winston v. Lee , where the Court held that the State of Virginia could not force an individual to undergo surgery to extract a bullet that may be evidence of a crime . The Court applied its previous holding in Schmerber to conclude that the surgery would constitute an unreasonable search under the Fourth Amendment and that a crucial factor for evaluating any bodily intrusion " is the extent to which the procedure may threaten the safety or health of the individual . " Writing for the Court 's majority , Chief Justice Warren E. Burger concluded that forcing a patient to undergo major surgery intrudes too far upon individual privacy rights and that surgical intrusions " can only be characterized as severe . "
In 1989 , the Court ruled in Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives ’ Association that warrantless blood tests of railroad employees were reasonable under the Fourth Amendment . The Court reaffirmed that the “ compelled intrusio [ n ] into the body for blood to be analyzed for alcohol content ” is a search under the Fourth Amendment , but that warrantless blood tests of railroad employees were necessary to " prevent accidents and casualties in railroad operations that result from impairment of employees by alcohol or drugs . ” The Court also concluded that when individuals “ participate in an industry that is regulated pervasively to ensure safety , ” these individuals “ have a reduced expectation of privacy . ” Because these employees had a " diminished expectation of privacy , " the warrantless blood tests were permissible . Justice Thurgood Marshall and Justice Brennan wrote a dissenting opinion in which they argued that this case was distinguishable from Schmerber because " no such exigency prevents railroad officials from securing a warrant before chemically testing the samples they obtain . "
= = = South Dakota v. Neville and self @-@ incrimination = = =
After the Court issued its decision in Schmerber , a split of authority emerged in lower courts with regard to whether the Fifth Amendment 's privilege against self @-@ incrimination prohibited the use of a suspect 's refusal to submit to a blood test as evidence of guilt . The United States Supreme Court resolved this split in authority in South Dakota v. Neville , where the Court held that prosecutors could use a suspect 's refusal to submit to a blood test as evidence of guilt , and the introduction of this evidence at trial does not violate the suspect 's Fifth Amendment privilege against self @-@ incrimination . Writing for the Court 's majority , Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor concluded that " the state did not directly compel respondent to refuse the test " and that a " simple blood @-@ alcohol test is so safe , painless , and commonplace " a suspect would not feel coerced to refuse the test . Justice John Paul Stevens wrote a dissenting opinion , joined by Justice Thurgood Marshall , in which he argued that the Court in Schmerber intended to adopt a broad and liberal interpretation of the Fifth Amendment privilege against self @-@ incrimination .
= = = Missouri v. McNeely and the exigent circumstances exception = = =
Over time , a split of authority grew among lower courts with regard to whether the Fourth Amendment 's exigent circumstances exception allowed officers to always conduct warrantless blood tests on individuals suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol because evidence of alcohol was being destroyed by the body 's natural metabolic processes . States that recognized this per se exigency argued that " [ o ] nce police arrest a suspect for drunk driving , each passing minute eliminates probative evidence of the crime . " In 2012 , the Court granted review in Missouri v. McNeely to resolve this question . In a 5 – 4 opinion , the Court rejected the theory that the natural dissipation of blood alcohol constituted a per se exigency . Instead , the court affirmed the basic principle from Schmerber that absent " an emergency that justifie [ s ] acting without a warrant , " police may not conduct warrantless blood testing on suspects . Consequently , exigency in drunk driving cases " must be determined case by case based on the totality of the circumstances . "
= = Analysis = =
Scholars have described Schmerber v. California as a landmark case and a " watershed moment " in the history of Fourth Amendment jurisprudence . Likewise , John D. Castiglione described the case as " seminal for its place in the annals of Fifth Amendment jurisprudence . " Constitutional law scholar Akhil Reed Amar identified Schmerber as a turning point in the Fifth Amendment 's " distinction between words and physical evidence . " Anne Marie Schubert has also argued that Schmerber served as the genesis for a long line of Supreme Court cases ordering the compelled production of physical evidence . Because Schmerber foreclosed the use of warrantless blood tests in most circumstances , some scholars , including John A. Scanlan , argue that the Court 's ruling was responsible for the proliferation of breathalyzers to test for alcohol and urine analysis to test for controlled substances in criminal investigations .
= = = Immediate reaction = = =
Soon after the Court 's ruling , analysts predicted that the effects of the case would be " far @-@ reaching . " Some analysts feared the ruling would be used to justify " other intrusive searches . " Other commentators also observed that the Court 's holding in Schmerber seemed to " reverse direction " from the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona one week earlier , where the Court enlarged protections against the police for criminal suspects . However , in his assessment of Schmerber , Charles L. Berry praised the decision as a " successful effort to find a practical solution to the problem of the drinking motorist . " Additionally , many law journals also offered commentary of the case 's significance . For example , a November 1966 article in the Harvard Law Review opined that Justice Brennan 's majority opinion was " a good exposition of his view of the interrelationship between the fourth and fifth amendments , " and a February 1967 article in the Texas Law Review argued that Schmerber " exemplifies the proposition that the fifth amendment is not absolute . "
= = = Impact = = =
Some legal scholars have criticized the Court 's ruling in Schmerber for infringing too far upon civil liberty and privacy . E. John Wherry , Jr . , former Dean of the University of Orlando School of Law , wrote that " [ b ] lindly following Schmerber as authorization for all non @-@ consensual blood seizure for forensic purposes is , in this day and age , an outrage . " Writing for the Notre Dame Law Review , Blake A. Bailey , Elaine M. Martin , and Jeffrey M. Thompson observed that although the Court limited the holding in Schmerber to the facts of the case , prior to Winston v. Lee , many lower courts relied upon the ruling to order criminal defendants to undergo surgery to remove bullets that may have been evidence of a crime . Other scholars have expressed concern that the Court 's decision to exclude physical evidence from protections against self @-@ incrimination may one day lead to the use of mind reading devices when prosecuting criminal suspects . For example , the Harvard Law Review suggested that the Court 's decision may be used to justify monitoring brain waves . Additionally , in an article in the journal Developments in Mental Health Law , Benjamin Holley suggested that " neurotechnological lie detection " could be used in criminal prosecutions , as long as a suspect 's words are not " linked with the physical manifestations sought to be introduced at trial . " Likewise , in an article in the Journal of Legal Medicine , John G. New suggested that non @-@ testimonial evidence gathered from electroencephalography or magnetic resonance imaging may be admissible to demonstrate a suspect 's thoughts .
= Cholmondeley Castle =
Cholmondeley Castle ( / ˈtʃʌmlɪ / CHUM @-@ lee ) is a country house in the civil parish of Cholmondeley , Cheshire , England . Together with its adjacent formal gardens it is surrounded by parkland . The site of the house has been a seat of the Cholmondeley family since the 12th century . The present house replaced a timber @-@ framed hall nearby . It was built at the start of the 19th century for George Cholmondeley , 1st Marquess of Cholmondeley , who designed most of it himself in the form of a battlemented castle . After the death of the Marquess , the house was extended to designs by Robert Smirke to produce the building in its present form . The house is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II * listed building .
The first formal garden was designed in the 17th century by George London . Following neglect in the 18th century , the garden was re @-@ ordered by William Emes , who also created the landscape park . During the 20th century the garden was further developed under the care of Lavinia , widow of the late 6th Marquess . The park and gardens are listed at Grade II in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . In the park and gardens are a number of other listed buildings . The most important of these is St Nicholas ' Chapel , which dates back to the 13th century , contains much 17th @-@ century furniture , and is listed in the National Heritage List for England at Grade I. Standing across the main drive is a wrought iron screen and gateway made by Robert Bakewell in 1722 for the Old Hall , and moved here in the early 19th century ; this is listed at Grade II * . The buildings listed at Grade II include the altered remains of the Old Hall , five of the lodges in and around the estate , and a variety of structures in the gardens .
During the Second World War , the house and grounds were used for a variety of military purposes , including acting as a hospital . Until her death in November 2015 , the house was occupied by Lavinia , Marchioness of Cholmondeley , mother of the present Marquess of Cholmondeley , who lives in the other family seat , Houghton Hall in Norfolk . The house is not open to the public , but the park and gardens are open during the summer season . A variety of events are organised in the grounds , and one of the lodges can be used as a holiday cottage .
= = History = =
= = = Old Hall = = =
The site of the house has been a family seat of the Cholmondeley family since the 12th century . In the 16th century the house was a timber @-@ framed hall standing on a moated platform . The house and its separate chapel were damaged by the Parliamentarians the following century , during the English Civil War , and were subsequently repaired by Robert Cholmondeley , 1st Earl of Leinster . In 1701 Hugh Cholmondeley , 1st Earl of Cholmondeley commissioned William Smith of Warwick to encase the house with brick and to add features such as giant columns and balustraded parapets with urns and statues . By 1712 the earl had lost patience with Smith and asked John Vanbrugh to prepare a new design , but it was never executed . In 1722 wrought iron gates and railings made by Robert Bakewell were used to enclose the forecourt of the house . During the 18th century the house became neglected . In 1770 it was inherited by George Cholmondeley , the 4th Earl of Cholmondeley , who decided to replace it with a new building and demolished most of the Old Hall .
= = = Present house = = =
Building of the new house in the style of a castle began in 1801 . It was designed mainly by the Earl in collaboration with the architect William Turner of Whitchurch . The design was symmetrical ; the entrance front facing west and consisting of two castellated blocks , between which was a single @-@ storey loggia . Behind the loggia was the full @-@ height entrance hall . Facing the park on the east side of the house were the three main state rooms . This phase of building the house was completed in 1805 . Much of the construction material was recycled from the old house , including bricks , glass , windows , woodwork and chimneypieces . Bakewell 's railings , without the gates , were moved to form a screen on the main drive . In 1817 George Cholmondeley ( now the 1st Marquess ) started a series of enlargements to the house , beginning with a new dining room . Two years later a family wing with a tall rectangular tower was added to the south of the house ; both of these additions were designed by the Marquess . They were followed by the addition of two octagonal angle turrets . The Marquess died in 1828 , and soon after that Robert Smirke was commissioned to make further additions and alterations . The main addition was a round tower on the southeast corner of the family wing . Smirke also brought forward the central tower of the east front by adding a canted bay , giving the house its present appearance . This work was completed in 1829 .
= = = Later history = = =
In common with many other country estates and stately homes , special roles were allocated to Cholmondeley during the Second World War . Between July and October 1940 the grounds were the home of troops serving the Czechoslovak government @-@ in @-@ exile . Later they were used in the preparations for Operation Anthropoid , an assassination attempt on Reinhard Heydrich . Cholmondeley was also used as a Royal Navy Auxiliary Hospital , which treated serving men suffering from nervous breakdowns .
The house was designated a Grade II * listed building on 10 June 1952 . The current Marquess , David Cholmondeley , 7th Marquess , does not live at Cholmondeley but at the other family seat , Houghton Hall in Norfolk . As of 2014 Cholmondeley Castle is occupied by his mother , Lavinia .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The house is constructed in sandstone with roofs of slate and lead . It is mainly in two storeys with a basement , and has towers rising to a greater height . The entire building has a battlemented parapet . The entrance front faces west and consists of two three @-@ storey wings in three bays with a single @-@ storey three @-@ bay loggia between them . The windows in the lateral blocks have Gothic @-@ style arches and contain Y @-@ tracery . In the loggia the windows each have two lights under almost circular heads . Above and behind the loggia the upper storeys of the entrance hall also contain Y @-@ tracery . On the right side of the entrance front is a square five @-@ storey tower , which is linked to an octagonal turret containing arrow slits . The garden front , facing east , has octagonal corner turrets between which is a large canted bay window which rises up to form a half @-@ tower . The section to the left of this faces south , and is in two storeys with three bays . It contains French windows , and windows with trefoil heads containing Y @-@ tracery . There is then a two @-@ storey two @-@ bay section , and finally Smirke 's service wing with its large round tower containing arrow slits .
= = = Interior = = =
The loggia leads into the double @-@ height entrance hall . This has blind arcades on the side walls . Opposite the entrance is an open arcade leading to a north @-@ south passage , Beyond this is the ante @-@ room with its large canted bay window . This room has a simple dentil cornice . To the north of it is the dining room , with a marble mantlepiece , a cornice decorated with gilded flowers and leaves and , in the ceiling , rosettes and a large central rose with a chandelier . To the south of the ante @-@ room is the drawing room . Here the cornice is decorated with arrows pointing downward , and there is a central rose with a chandelier . Leading from the drawing room is the staircase hall , with an open @-@ well staircase . The hall is top @-@ lit from a timber lantern . The stairs are in black marble , the wrought iron balustrade on the stairs and landing was made by Robert Bakewell and moved from the Old Hall , and the handrail is in rosewood . To the south of the staircase hall is the nursery suite and the library . The Bird Room , between the staircase and the drawing room , contains a collection of muniments . The arrangement of rooms and corridors in the upper rooms is complex . The kitchens and domestic offices are in the basement .
= = Grounds = =
= = = Chapel = = =
The Grade I listed chapel originated as a timber @-@ framed structure in the 13th century . It was encased in brick and extended in 1717 , and further additions were made in 1829 and 1840 . It has a slate roof , and is in a cruciform plan . Much of its furniture dates from the 17th century . The Cholmondeley family pew is at the west end , in an elevated position .
= = = Gardens and park = = =
The first formal gardens were established in the 17th century by Hugh Cholmondeley , 1st Earl of Cholmondeley . These were in the French style , containing canals and alleés . The gardens were designed by George London , and included gates and railings by Jean Tijou , and statues by Jan van Nost . Following neglect in the 18th century , the 4th Earl employed William Emes to re @-@ model the garden . Emes converted the formal garden into a landscape park , planting large numbers of trees and creating lakes . Further development of the gardens was carried out by John Webb , a student of Emes , who probably designed the terrace immediately around the house . Since the middle of the 20th century the gardens have been under the care of Lavinia , the widow of the late 6th Marquess , who has tidied and improved them , and added new features .
The house is surrounded by a terrace to the south of which are three interlinked gardens : the Silver Garden , the Lily Pool Garden , and an area containing a swimming pool . Beyond are lawns , groups of specimen tress and shrubs , gravelled paths , and a walled garden . A major feature is the Temple Garden , which contains an irregular pool within which are two small islands . On one of the islands is a structure in the form of a temple . At the west end of the garden is a rotunda . To the northwest of the Temple Garden is the Rose Garden . Beyond the gardens is a park , which is mainly grassland with some trees . Features in the park include a ha @-@ ha and two lakes , Chapel Mere and Deer Park Mere . Since 10 June 1985 the gardens and park have been listed at Grade II in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . The area covered by the designation amounts to about 240 ha .
= = Listed buildings = =
In addition to the house being listed at Grade II * and the chapel at Grade I , there are other listed structures associated with the house . Richard Bakewell 's screen , standing across the main drive is listed at Grade II * . All the other listed buildings are designated at Grade II . Five are associated with the Temple Garden : the temple itself , the rotunda , the bridge over the pond , with its parapets consisting of stone dolphins , a sculpture in lead by van Nost depicting three cherubs , and the gated entrance , possibly by Jean Tijou . The north and south gates of the chapel enclosure , made by Bakewell in 1722 and installed in 1829 , are both listed . Five of the lodges associated with the castle , three of them within the grounds , are listed : Dee Park Lodge , on the southeast approach to the castle ; Park House Lodge , on the north approach ; and Somerset Lodge , a gatehouse on the east approach , designed by S. S. Teulon . The other two are at the entrances to the grounds : Nantwich Lodge , at the original south entrance , and Beeston Lodge , a lodge and gateway at the east approach . The other listed buildings are the reduced and altered remains of the Old Hall , The Mews , adapted from the former stables , Park House , and Scotch Farm , developed from the original stables . A bridge on the east approach to the house is also listed .
= = Present day = =
The house is not open to visitors , but during the summer season the gardens can be visited . Available facilities include tea rooms , picnic and play areas , and a nature trail . Visitors can see a variety of farm animals in the stables and paddocks . During the summer season a programme of events is organised , including an annual Pageant of Power . Somerset Lodge is available for use as a holiday cottage .
= Bad ( album ) =
Bad is the seventh studio album by American singer Michael Jackson . It is his third studio album released through Epic Records . It was released on August 31 , 1987 , nearly five years after Jackson 's previous studio album , Thriller . As of 2012 Bad itself has sold between 30 and 45 million copies worldwide , was certified 9 times Platinum in the United States alone , and has been cited as one of the 30 best @-@ selling albums of all time . The album produced a record five Billboard Hot 100 number one singles , the first of two albums to do so , the second being Katy Perry 's 2010 album Teenage Dream .
Bad was recorded during the first half of 1987 . The lyrical themes on the record relate to media bias , paranoia , racial profiling , romance , self @-@ improvement and world peace . The album is widely regarded as having cemented Jackson 's status as one of the most successful artists of the 1980s , as well as enhancing his solo career and being one of the best musical projects of his career . Nine of the eleven songs on Bad were released as singles ; one was a promotional single and another was released outside of the United States and Canada . Five of the singles hit number one in the United States , while a sixth charted within the top ten , and a seventh charted within the top twenty on the Hot 100 . Bad peaked at number one in thirteen countries and charted within the top twenty in other territories . The only songs on the album which were not released as a single were " Speed Demon " and " Just Good Friends " , the latter being the only song on the album to also not have a music video accompanying it .
Bad saw Jackson exercise even more artistic freedom than he did with his two previous Epic releases ( Off the Wall and Thriller ) . On Bad , Jackson composed nine of the album 's eleven tracks and received co @-@ producer credit for the entire album . The album continued Jackson 's commercial success in the late 1980s and garnered six Grammy Award nominations , winning two . Aside from commercial success , the album also received critical acclaim from contemporary critics . Bad was ranked number 43 in the 100 Greatest Albums of All Time of the MTV Generation in 2009 by VH1 and number 202 in Rolling Stone magazine 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . The album marked the final collaboration between Jackson and producer Quincy Jones .
= = Production = =
Jackson 's previous albums , Off the Wall and Thriller , were critically and commercially successful , eventually selling over 20 million and 65 million units worldwide , respectively . Jackson 's aim for Bad was that it would sell 100 million copies .
The first studio album Jackson released in almost five years since the release of Thriller , Bad was the third , and final , musical collaboration between Jackson and Quincy Jones . It was produced by Jones , with co @-@ production credit given to Jackson . Jackson began recording demos for the anticipated follow @-@ up to Thriller a few months after the 1984 Victory Tour with the Jacksons and throughout 1985 while preparing for Disney 's 4D film experience Captain EO , which featured an early pre @-@ album extended cut of " Another Part of Me . " Album development for Bad began in November 1986 and recording took place between January 5 , 1987 and July 9 , 1987 , at Westlake Audio , where a special wooden stage was built to allow Jackson to dance while recording .
Jackson wrote a reported sixty songs for the new album and recorded thirty , wanting to use them all on a three @-@ disc set . Jones had suggested that the album be cut down to a ten @-@ track single LP . When the album was released on CD , a bonus 11th track , " Leave Me Alone " , was included . It was later released as a single . Later reissues of the LP also include this song . Jackson was credited for writing nine out of eleven of the songs on the album . Other writing credits included Terry Britten and Graham Lyle for " Just Good Friends " and Siedah Garrett and Glen Ballard for " Man in the Mirror " .
= = Composition = =
The album 's song lyrics relate to romance and paranoia , the latter being a recurring theme in Jackson 's albums . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic noted that Bad moved Jackson " deeper into hard rock , deeper into schmaltzy adult contemporary , deeper into hard dance – essentially taking each portion of Thriller to an extreme , while increasing the quotient of immaculate studiocraft . "
" Bad " was originally intended as a duet between Jackson and musician Prince . Other artists that were supposed to be featured on the album included Diana Ross , Whitney Houston , Aretha Franklin and Barbra Streisand , but none of those collaborations ended up happening . The song was viewed as a rived " Hit the Road , Jack " progression with lyrics that pertain to ' boasting ' . " Dirty Diana " was viewed by AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine as " misogynistic " and its lyrics , describing a sexual predator , do not aim for the " darkness " of " Billie Jean " , instead sounding equally intrigued by and apprehensive of a sexual challenge , while having the opportunity to accept or resist it . " Leave Me Alone " was described as being a " paranoid anthem " . " Man in the Mirror " was seen as Jackson going " a step further " and offering " a straightforward homily of personal commitment " , which can be seen in the lyrics , " I 'm starting with the man in the mirror / I 'm asking him to change his ways / And no message could have been any clearer / If you wanna make the world a better place / Take a look at yourself and then make a change . " The lyrics to " Speed Demon " are about driving fast .
" Liberian Girl " ' s lyrics were viewed as " glistening " with " gratitude " for the " existence of a loved one " . " Smooth Criminal " ' s recalled " the popcorn @-@ chomping manner " of " Thriller " . The track was thought of as an example of " Jackson 's free @-@ form language " that keeps people " aware that we are on the edge of several realities : the film , the dream it inspires , the waking world it illuminates " . The music in " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " , a duet with Siedah Garrett , consisted mainly of finger snaps and timpani . " Just Good Friends " , a duet with Stevie Wonder , was viewed by critics as sounding good at the beginning of the song , ending with a " chin @-@ bobbing cheerfulness " . " The Way You Make Me Feel " ' s music consisted of blues harmonies . The lyrics of " Another Part of Me " deal with being united , as " we " .
= = Release = =
Bad was released on August 31 , 1987 . By September 26 , it had debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , remaining there for the next six consecutive weeks . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified Bad nine times platinum for having shipped nine million copies in the United States alone . Though Jackson furthered his stance as a global pop superstar , in the United States Bad failed to match the sales of Thriller , causing some in the media to label the album a " disappointment " in comparison .
Internationally , Bad was commercially successful . In the United Kingdom , the album sold 500 @,@ 000 copies in its first five days of release , and as of 2008 is certified 13 × platinum , for sales of 3 @.@ 9 million , making it Jackson 's second biggest @-@ selling album in the United Kingdom . Bad peaked at number one in 25 countries including Austria , Canada , Japan , New Zealand , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . The album also charted at number thirteen in Mexico and at number twenty two in Portugal . Bad has received various certifications worldwide . It was certified 7 × platinum for the shipment of over 700 @,@ 000 units in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . In Europe , the 2001 reissue was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for the sales of one million units . The album was also
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of Heaven ... They Say ) .
As of 2013 Arnada is married to Hevie Ursulla Arnada . The couple live in Bali . Arnada has expressed interest in continuing his career as a novelist , ignoring journalism as it offers " nothing new , nothing different . " A movie based on his life is planned by Playboy Enterprises ' Alta Loma Entertainment .
= = Filmography = =
As of 2013 Arnada has been involved with nine feature films , mostly as producer .
Tusuk Jelangkung ( 2002 ) – executive producer , story
30 Hari Mencari Cinta ( 2003 ) – producer ,
Catatan Akhir Sekolah ( 2004 ) – producer
Cinta Silver ( 2004 ) – producer , story
Alexandria ( 2005 ) – producer , story
Jelangkung 3 ( 2007 ) – producer , screenwriter
Jakarta Undercover ( 2007 ) – producer , story
Asmara Dua Diana ( 2009 ) – producer
Rumah di Seribu Ombak ( 2012 ) – director , producer , story
= Henry Petre =
Henry Aloysius Petre , DSO , MC ( 12 June 1884 – 24 April 1962 ) was an English solicitor who became Australia 's first military aviator and a founding member of the Australian Flying Corps , predecessor of the Royal Australian Air Force . Born in Essex , he forsook his early legal career to pursue an interest in aviation , building his own aeroplane and gaining employment as a designer and pilot . In 1912 , he answered the Australian Defence Department 's call for pilots to form an aviation school , and was commissioned a lieutenant in the Australian Military Forces . The following year , he chose the site of the country 's first air base at Point Cook , Victoria , and established its inaugural training institution , the Central Flying School , with Eric Harrison .
Shortly after the outbreak of World War I , Petre was appointed commander of the Mesopotamian Half Flight , the first unit of the newly formed Australian Flying Corps to see active service . He led the Half Flight through the Battles of Es Sinn and Ctesiphon , and the Siege of Kut . His actions in the Middle East earned him the Distinguished Service Order , the Military Cross , and four mentions in despatches . Transferring to the Royal Air Force as a major in 1918 , he commanded No. 75 Squadron before retiring from the military the following year . Petre resumed his legal practice in England , and continued to fly recreationally before his death in 1962 , aged seventy @-@ seven . He was married to racing driver Kay Petre .
= = Early career = =
Born on 12 June 1884 at Ingatestone , Essex , Petre ( pronounced " Peter " ) was the son of Sebastian Henry Petre and his wife Catharine . He was schooled at Mount St Mary 's College , Chesterfield , before following his father into law and becoming a solicitor in 1905 . Inspired by Louis Blériot 's pioneering cross @-@ channel flight in July 1909 , Petre gave up his legal practice , borrowed £ 250 and proceeded to build his own aeroplane , with design assistance from his brother Edward , an architect . Having spent six months on its construction , Petre crashed the machine on its maiden flight . Uninjured and undiscouraged , he borrowed a further £ 25 , took flying lessons at Brooklands Airfield in Surrey , and obtained Royal Aero Club Aviator 's Certificate No. 128 on 12 September 1911 . He became an instructor at Brooklands ' Deperdussin School , and later its chief , prior to taking up employment as a designer and pilot with Handley Page Limited in 1912 . Characterised by official RAAF historian Douglas Gillison as " quiet and academic by nature " , and coming from a long line of Catholic clergy , Petre was nicknamed " Peter the Monk " . On Christmas Eve 1912 , Edward Petre , who was known as " Peter the Painter " , was killed in an accident at Marske @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea , Yorkshire , while attempting to fly from Brooklands to Edinburgh .
In December 1911 , the Australian Defence Department had advertised in the United Kingdom for " two competent mechanists and aviators " to establish a flying corps and school . From among fifty applications , Petre was chosen and commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Military Forces , his appointment on 6 August 1912 making him the nation 's first military pilot . The other appointee , Eric Harrison , joined him later that year . Petre arrived in Australia in January 1913 , his first task being to choose a site for the proposed Central Flying School ( CFS ) , which he was to command . After travelling hundreds of kilometres on his motorcycle , and rejecting the government 's preferred location near the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in Canberra , he selected 297 hectares ( 730 acres ) at Point Cook , Victoria , to become , as George Odgers described it , the " birthplace of Australian military aviation " .
Unlike the alternative site near Duntroon , Point Cook was flat , close to the coast and not , in Petre 's own words , " isolated in the bush " . He and Harrison established CFS over the following year with four mechanics , three other staff , and five aircraft including two Deperdussin monoplanes , two Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 biplanes , and a Bristol Boxkite for initial training . Harrison made the unit 's first flight in the Boxkite on Sunday , 1 March 1914 , while Petre , taking off in a Deperdussin later that day , registered its first accident when he crashed after snaring his tailplane in telephone wires . Its coterie of personnel by now being referred to as the Australian Flying Corps , CFS commenced its first flying course on 17 August , two weeks after the outbreak of World War I. The four students included Captain Thomas White and Lieutenants Richard Williams , George Merz , and David Manwell ; Harrison was responsible for initial training and Petre for advanced instruction .
= = World War I = =
On 8 February 1915 , the Australian government received a request from the British Government of India for aerial assistance in the campaign against the Turks in Mesopotamia . Aircrew and supporting personnel for half a flight only were available so the unit , the AFC 's first to see active service , became known as the Mesopotamian Half Flight . Promoted to captain , Petre was appointed the Half Flight 's commanding officer and embarked for Basra via Bombay on 14 April , later to be joined by fellow pilots White , Merz and Lieutenant William Treloar , along with thirty @-@ seven ground staff . In Mesopotamia , Petre was required to lead the AFC contingent in reconnaissance and sabotage missions , and had to deal with unreliable machines , hazardous terrain , and the threat of incarceration or death at the hands of hostile tribesmen . He took part in operations in the Amara area from 31 May to 4 June , for which he was mentioned in despatches . The obsolete aircraft supplied by the Indian Government , two Maurice Farman Shorthorns and a Maurice Farman Longhorn , were only capable of top speeds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , while the desert wind ( known as the shamal ) could reach 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) , meaning that the aircraft often made no headway or were simply blown backwards . In July , the Half Flight 's equipment was augmented by two Caudron G.3 aircraft , a marginal improvement on the Farmans , but still prone to mechanical failure . Later that month , one of the Caudrons was forced to land in enemy territory . Its crew , Merz and a New Zealander , were never seen again ; they were later reported killed by Arabs after a running gun battle over several miles .
On 24 August , the Half Flight was augmented by four Martinsyde S1s and redesignated No. 30 Squadron , Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) . The squadron moved into Kut following the city 's capture by the Allies during the Battle of Es Sinn in September ; for his part in the operation , Petre was again mentioned in despatches . Over the following two months , however , both Treloar and White were captured and became prisoners of war , leaving Petre as the only pilot remaining from the original Half Flight . Around the time of the Battle of Ctesiphon in November , he devised an implement shaped like a small garden rake that allowed him to accurately measure ground distances from the air in order to better map the desert terrain . During the Siege of Kut between December 1915 and April 1916 , he flew a series of missions using crude parachutes to airdrop grain supplies ( and a millstone for grinding ) , medical supplies and equipment to the town 's entrapped garrison , which included nine of his AFC mechanics .
Petre was awarded the Military Cross on 14 January 1916 , and was mentioned in despatches twice more over the course of the year . In May 1916 he contracted typhoid and was sent to India for recuperation . He transferred out of No. 30 Squadron in December , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order the same month . In February 1917 , he was posted to France with No. 15 Squadron RFC , a reconnaissance unit operating B.E.2s. Two months later his youngest brother John , a squadron commander in the Royal Naval Air Service and a Distinguished Service Cross recipient , was killed in a flying accident . Petre subsequently returned to England and took charge of No. 5 Squadron AFC ( also known as No. 29 Squadron RFC ) , a training unit for Australian fighter pilots , particularly those destined for Palestine . He had hoped to command No. 1 Squadron AFC in Palestine but received an adverse report concerning his leadership abilities , and the position went to Richard Williams . Petre was discharged from the AFC as a major on 31 January 1918 , to take a commission with the RFC . In April that year , he transferred to the newly formed Royal Air Force , establishing and commanding No. 75 ( Home Defence ) Squadron .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Petre retired from the RAF on 15 September 1919 , and resumed practice as a solicitor in London . He married Kathleen Defries , a Canadian , in 1929 . Petre introduced Kathleen to racing cars and , as Kay Petre , she became one of Britain 's leading female drivers of the 1930s . Henry Petre maintained his interest in aviation for the rest of his life , taking up competitive gliding and , more than thirty years after his first flight in 1911 , still delighted in " taking an Auster for a spin " . In 1951 , he received the Royal Aero Club 's Silver Medal for his long record of active flying . He visited Australia for the first time in forty @-@ five years in 1961 , and was photographed sitting in the cockpit of the same Deperdussin — by then an exhibit at RAAF Museum — that he had flown at Point Cook in 1914 . Having retired from his legal practice in 1958 , Henry Petre died in London on 24 April 1962 , and was survived by Kay , who died in 1991 .
In a retrospective on the RAAF in November 1939 , Flight magazine described Henry Petre and Eric Harrison as " the fathers of military aviation in Australia " . Though Harrison , through his longer association with Australian service flying as a founding member of the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921 and his career up until the end of World War II , was generally regarded as the " Father of the RAAF " until Air Marshal Richard Williams assumed that mantle , Douglas Gillison considered Petre " equally entitled " to such an accolade . In his volume on the Air Force for The Australian Centenary History of Defence in 2001 , Alan Stephens noted that Petre made " the greater contribution to the establishment of Point Cook and the Central Flying School " , concluding that " perhaps any judgement would not only be moot but also gratuitous , as by circumstance and achievement both men properly belong in the pantheon of the RAAF " .
= Wonder Boy in Monster Land =
Wonder Boy in Monster Land , known by its original arcade release as Wonder Boy : Monster Land ( ワンダーボーイモンスターランド , Wandā Bōi Monsutā Rando ) , is an action role @-@ playing platform video game developed by Westone Bit Entertainment and released by Sega for arcade cabinets in 1987 and for the Master System in 1988 , with a number of other home computer and console ports following . The game is the sequel to the 1986 game Wonder Boy and takes place eleven years after the events in the previous game . After enjoying over a decade of peace on Wonder Land following the defeat of the evil King by Tom @-@ Tom , later bestowed the title " Wonder Boy " , a fire @-@ breathing dragon called the MEKA dragon appeared ; he and his minions conquered Wonder Land , turning it into " Monster Land " . The people , helpless due to their lack of fighting skill , call for Wonder Boy , now a teenager , to destroy the monsters and defeat the MEKA dragon . Players control Wonder Boy through twelve linear levels as he makes his way through Monster Land to find and defeat the MEKA dragon . Players earn gold by defeating enemies and buy weapons , armor , footwear , magic , and other items to help along the way .
The arcade version of Wonder Boy in Monster Land amassed moderate sales , and the Master System version received overall positive reviews in all aspects and has been highly regarded as one of the better titles in the Master System library . Reviews praised the game for its colorful graphics , smooth controls , gameplay , and replay value . Other ports received mixed reception : criticisms included very slow multi @-@ load times on the home computer versions , sub @-@ quality sound , and reduced gameplay area size . A later port to the Nintendo Virtual Console drew additional praise .
= = Plot = =
The plot of Wonder Boy in Monster Land follows the events in its predecessor , Wonder Boy . The game 's main protagonist is a young boy named Bock Lee Temjin , in which his friends call him " Tom @-@ Tom " . In Wonder Boy Tom @-@ Tom 's girlfriend Tanya was kidnapped by the " evil King " and was taken to his woodland kingdom ; Tom @-@ Tom set out to the kingdom , defeated the evil King , and saved Tanya . Word spread throughout Wonder Land about Tom @-@ Tom 's quest , and people bestowed upon him the title of " Wonder Boy " .
Following the evil King 's defeat , peace reigned over Wonder Land for eleven years . Then , one day , a fire @-@ breathing dragon called the " MEKA dragon " appeared and terrorized the land . The people , helpless and not skilled in fighting , were defeated by him and his minions ; they quickly took over the land , and Wonder Land became known as " Monster Land " . The people send out for Wonder Boy , now a teenager , as Wonder Land 's only chance to defeat the monsters and demons who inhabited the land and to defeat the MEKA dragon . The deposed Mayor gives Wonder Boy a sword and a life potion and sets him on his way .
= = Gameplay = =
In Wonder Boy in Monster Land , players control Wonder Boy as he destroys the monsters in Monster Land and defeats the MEKA dragon . When the player begins the game , Wonder Boy starts out in the City of Wonder Land without any items or gold , but to give him a chance , at the beginning of the game , the city 's mayor gives him a sword and a revival potion and sets him off on his own . The game is divided into twelve levels , and each of them has its own unique features , items , monsters , and secrets . These levels include towns , valleys , deserts , islands , and castles . Players use the D @-@ pad to move Wonder Boy on the main screen , to enter doors by pressing upward , and to use Magic Weapons by pressing downward . The D @-@ pad is also used to select between various items when in a shop . Players also have two buttons : one which makes Wonder Boy attack with his sword and buy items in the shop ; and one which makes Wonder Boy jump and skip through storylines .
Wonder Boy has a life meter which consists of a series of red hearts ; he starts the game with five red hearts . Whenever he sustains damage those hearts turn black . When all the hearts turn black , Wonder Boy dies , and the game ends . Players score points whenever Wonder Boy defeats enemies and collects certain treasures , and at certain point intervals Wonder Boy receives an additional life heart . Players earn gold throughout the game in order to purchase weapons , magic weapons , and other items in shops and rooms . Gold is obtained from enemies , while some are hidden in odd places such as trees and clouds . The game has an " Hourglass Timer " on the top of the screen ; whenever the Hourglass Timer runs out , Wonder Boy loses some life . The Hourglass Timer can be refilled by collecting hourglasses or by visiting hospitals or taverns . In the ZX Spectrum version of the game , a candle represents the timer .
In the Master System version of the game , pressing one of the buttons takes players to the Status Screen which primarily shows what items they currently have . Other information displayed in the Status Screen include types and strengths of weapons and armor equipped ; gold ; life remaining ; special items collected ; and types of " Magic Weapons " collected and their quantities . Magic Weapons include bombs that roll on the ground , fireballs that fly through the air , small tornadoes that run on the ground and attack enemies , and " thunder flash " which damage all enemies on the screen . In the game 's other versions , all gameplay information are displayed on the left and top edges of the screen ; there is no need to access a separate screen .
Throughout the game , the player must investigate the surroundings through finding and entering doors . These doors contain shops where players can buy equipment , rooms which provide additional information needed in the quest , traps which contain powerful enemies , and exits to the next level which can be opened after finding a key . Some of the doors in the game are hidden and can only be found through by trial and error . At the beginning of the game , shops are visible and are clearly marked with the appropriate signs . Later on in the game , as Wonder Boy gets closer to the MEKA Dragon , the shop doors become unmarked while others are traps set by the level 's bosses ; near the end of the game , many of the shops are invisible and contain more powerful weapons . There are four types of shops throughout the game : boot shops allow the player to buy boots which make Wonder Boy jump higher and run faster , armor shops contain armor which makes Wonder Boy incur less damage from enemy attacks , shield shops contain shields which allow him to repel fire from enemies , and magical shops allow players to purchase Magic Weapons . There are also various rooms in the game which the player can enter and receive additional assistance in the quest : taverns where players can buy drinks and receive information from the bartender , Fortune Teller rooms where players may receive information about future events , and hospitals which allow players to refill their life meter and Hourglass Timer for a small price . Other rooms contain a boss in which the player must defeat to get the key to the next level , to earn additional gold , or to upgrade to a more powerful sword .
There are many items and treasures located throughout the game . Many of these treasures are obtained by defeating enemies and include the following : gold ; golden water jugs , necklaces , scales of justice , harps , mirrors , and crowns which increase the player 's score ; hourglasses which refill the Hourglass Timer ; hearts which refill the life meter ; gauntlets which temporarily double Wonder Boy 's attack power ; helmets which temporarily provide additional protection from enemy attacks ; Wing Boots which allow Wonder Boy to fly over obstacles ; Revival Potions ; and magic mantles which make Wonder Boy temporarily invisible . Other special items hidden in the game which the player must find include letters , the flute , various charms , the bell , and the ruby .
= = Development = =
Wonder Boy in Monster Land was created by Ryuchi Nishizawa and Michishisto Ishizuka , two of the three members of a newly found company called Escape . After the release of the first Wonder Boy game , they rebranded the company as " Westone " : the first letter in Nishizawa 's name means " west " , while the first on Ishizuka 's name means " stone " . Nishizawa , originally an arcade game developer , was trying to take advantage of the quickly emerging role @-@ playing video game genre , with games such as The Black Onyx , Wizardry , and Dragon Quest . He tried to create a game that fused together arcade and RPG elements . The jungle backdrop was overhauled and replaced with a medieval one with castles and caves . As with RPGs , he intended for the player to start with no items or strength , and for players to buy items , spells , health , and better equipment . Later in the game 's development , Shinichi Sakamoto came on board to compose its soundtrack ; in an overview of the series by IGN , they said that the music " was a sigh of relief for those still haunted by the repetitive loops of the arcade original " , adding that it contributed to the RPG style and that would establish the standard for all future Wonder Boy games in the series .
The game would be published by Sega in 1987 and released for the arcade . It ran on a Sega System 2 board . It was based on a Z80 processor that runs at 4 MHz , with audio provided by two SN76489 ( also known as SN76496 ) chips that run at 4 MHz each . It used raster standard graphics and monaural sound . Upon its release for the arcades in Japan in 1987 , Wonder Boy : Monster Land had slow sales , but it would eventually pick up to become a decent seller . Sega ported the game to its Master System console in 1988 , where in Japan it was titled Super Wonder Boy : Monster World . It was also ported by Activision for the Amiga , Atari ST , Commodore 64 , Amstrad CPC , and ZX Spectrum in 1989 . The Activision @-@ published version bore the title of Super Wonder Boy in Monster Land on their packaging artwork . Hudson Soft released a version of the game titled Super Adventure Island for mobile phones on June 8 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 06 @-@ 08 ) . The Master System version was released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service in Japan on December 14 , 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 12 @-@ 14 ) , in Europe on January 23 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 01 @-@ 23 ) , and in North America on January 26 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 01 @-@ 26 ) . Sega release the arcade version for the Virtual Console , PlayStation Network , Xbox Live Arcade ( along with The Revenge of Shinobi , Alex Kidd in Miracle World , the Arcade port of Super Hang @-@ On , Monster World IV , and Wonder Boy in Monster World ) as part of its third Sega Vintage Collection package in May 2012 .
= = Ports and remakes = =
Wonder Boy in Monster Land was released by Sega for the arcades in 1987 and for the Master System in 1988 ; Activision released the game for the Amiga , Commodore 64 , Amstrad CPC , ZX Spectrum , and Atari ST in 1989 , these version were developed by Images Software in the UK ( now called Climax Studios ) . In Japan , the original arcade game was titled Wonder Boy : Monster Land ( ワンダーボーイ モンスターランド , Wandā Bōi Monsutā Rando ) , while the later Sega Mark III home version was titled Super Wonder Boy : Monster World ( スーパーワンダーボーイ モンスターワールド ) . In Europe , Activision 's home computer versions were titled Super Wonder Boy in Monster Land on their packaging cover ( although all the versions , except the CPC version , omit the word " Super " from the in @-@ game title ) .
The game has been cloned , hacked and re @-@ marketed a number of times over the years with varying degrees of legality . Jaleco released a modified port of the game to the Famicom , changing the graphics and character sprites so that it resembled the Chinese novel Journey to the West . They titled the game Saiyūki World , changed its protagonist to Sun Wukong , and changed the setting to Ancient China ; they released the game on November 11 , 1988 ( 1988 @-@ 11 @-@ 11 ) . This game would have a sequel called Saiyūki World 2 in Japan and Whomp ' Em in North America . Similarly , Hudson Soft ported a version of Wonder Boy : Monster Land titled Bikkuriman World , where they changed the graphics and characters to those from the Bikkuriman anime franchise . They released the game for the PC Engine on October 30 , 1987 ( 1987 @-@ 10 @-@ 30 ) . Tectoy , Sega 's distributor in Brazil , used the game 's license and code to produce Mônica no Castelo do Dragão for the Master System in 1989 . Here , the characters were replaced with known figures from the Brazilian comic book series Monica 's Gang ( Turma da Mônica ) , and Monica was re @-@ cast as the game 's main character . The game is considered the only legal remake of any game in the Wonder Boy series .
= = Reception = =
The Master System version of the game was reviewed in the June 1988 issue of Computer and Video Games , which gave it an overall score of 9 out of 10 . It described the game as a " total mix of arcade , strategy and adventure " with " role playing elements " such as " interaction with other characters and the ability to develop your character " . It further stated that the " graphics rate as some of the best seen to date on a Sega game " and the " playability is supreme " , concluding that it pushes its game design " to new horizons , all of which makes for longterm playability and interest " . It was also reviewed in the April 1989 issue of Dragon by Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser in " The Role of Computers " column . The reviewers called it " a good game with a bad name " , considered the game play superb , and concluded that the game " is one of SEGA 's classic products " . They stated that the arcade , strategy and role @-@ playing action elements combine to make it " a truly original and enjoyable game " and that Sega has " done an excellent job " overall , giving the game 4 ½ out of 5 stars . Allgame also gave the game 4 ½ out of 5 stars , with reviewer Jonathan Sutyak describing it as " one of the best games I have ever played on the Master System " . IGN in 2009 described the Virtual Console release as an " interesting platformer / RPG hybrid " game .
The ZX Spectrum version of Wonder Boy in Monster Land received preview coverage in Your Sinclair magazine . They praised the new additions made to the game that separated it from Wonder Boy ; they called the game " a good arcade adventure with a smattering of strategy thrown in " . The magazine reviewed the game four months later . The reviewer noted the diverse level designs and many " surprises " the player will encounter , and they praised the game 's learning curve , saying that it " is well thought out and you really feel as if you made some progress before you die " . It was criticized for its long multi @-@ load times on the ZX Spectrum , its jumping mechanics in which the character " floats around " , and the graphics which was not as good as its predecessor . The reviewer called Wonder Boy in Monster Land " a souped @-@ up version of Wonderboy , which improves much on the original theory but at a slight cost to gameplay " . Reviewers from UK @-@ based magazine The Games Machine called it " probably the best conversion you could expect on the Spectrum " . Crash magazine praised the ZX Spectrum version of the game for its detailed sprites and smooth movements , playability , and combat system . The reviewer further commended the game for the differences that set it apart from the original Wonder Boy game , citing the cartoon @-@ like feel and the vast arrays of enemies and items ; just as in Your Sinclair , it was criticized for its slow multi @-@ loading . Overall , the reviewer said the game is " great fun for the experienced games player or the person just starting out in the Spectrum world " . Sinclair User magazine praised its gameplay , citing the ability to stab enemies with a sword , to collect gold and items left behind , and to go into shops and pubs and buy equipment . Further praise went to the colorful and detailed graphics and animations , though they said they tend not to perform well in more complex background settings . Spanish magazine MicroHobby said that the ZX Spectrum version brought nothing new from its arcade counterpart , but the execution was good ; they lauded the game 's graphics and its challenging and addictive gameplay , but they criticized it for its lack of originality .
The Commodore 64 and Atari ST versions of Wonder Boy in Monster Land also received similar praise from gaming magazines . The Games Machine praised the Atari ST version but criticized the Commodore 64 version . The reviewers said the former " is not only playable , but the graphics are the nearest to the arcade machine you 're going to get " ; however , they said the graphics in the latter , while colorful , were too block @-@ like and ruined its overall presentation . Reviewers from Zzap ! 64 criticized the Commodore 64 version , saying that this version is only slightly better and more playable than the Amiga version . Moreover , they said this version also suffered from repetitive gameplay and " inefficient multi @-@ load " , though an improvement from the Amiga version . Zero gave a fair assessment of the Atari ST version , appreciating the " cutesy " and cartoon @-@ like graphics and addicting gameplay , which the reviewer said is " very easy to get into and very hard to put down " ; they criticized the game 's lack of any save features , saying that some of the gameplay gets repetitive after a while . Swedish magazine Datormagazin acclaimed the Commodore 64 version in most aspects . They lauded its graphics for being simplistic but clean , but they noted that they were not sensational . They criticized the game for its music , which they said can become annoying after a while , and for its lack of save points . Overall , they gave a positive review , saying that it " is a perfect example of how to make a game that is fairly simple to play but still is fairly advanced " .
The Amiga version of Wonder Boy in Monster Land received mixed responses , but most reviews were negative . CU Amiga magazine expressed disappointment over the major change in the gameplay and the protagonist himself from the game 's predecessor . The review also criticized sharply the game 's poor graphics and character sprites , saying that " many of the characters are short and stumpy " , that the background resembles that of Boulder Dash , and that Wonder Boy " is as wide as he is tall " . Other criticisms included substandard screen scrolling , terrible gameplay due to the game 's slowness , and that the actual gameplay area has been drastically reduced in size to include gameplay statistics such as the life meter and score displays . IGN heavily criticized the Amiga version 20 years after its release , saying how Wonder Boy was depicted as " a diaper @-@ clad baby " . Amiga Format similarly gave the game poor ratings , including the small gameplay area as a result of displaying the other statistics , sound that is substandard to the Amiga computer 's expectations , the lack of a " high score " feature , and limited continues ( as opposed to the arcade version which had unlimited continues ) . The reviewer said that " the game hasn 't been programmed to make use of any of the Amiga 's features " and that it " is another in the sadly increasing number of games that has simply been ported over from the first conversion , so that none of the features that make Amiga games stand out are included " . Zzap ! 64 complained about the version 's " beepy " sound and the very slow multi @-@ load times , saying that the player may spend more time waiting for the game to load levels than play it . It also noted the lack of detail and variety in the graphics which did not make up for the slow multi @-@ load times ; the reviewer said that the enemies looked " about as dangerous as a dead tortoise " . Other reviews from computer magazines gave the Amiga version of the game more positive reviews . Amiga User International praised the game 's graphics , which they said were translated from the arcade version near @-@ perfectly . It also appreciated the game 's cartoon @-@ style graphics , which said befits the game well . However , the review noticed that the game 's code came from the Atari ST version , which , as noted in the other reviews , resulted in choppy scrolling and a shrunken gameplay area : something which the Amiga could do " perfectly smoothly with one hand tied behind its back " . The review also criticized its slow multi @-@ load times and high retail price . German magazine Amiga Joker liked the game 's " candy @-@ like graphics " and gameplay style , which they said compared to the title The Great Giana Sisters . However , the reviewers criticized it for its choppy scrolling and sound , of which they said " David Whittaker has already produced much better sound " .
= = Legacy = =
Wonder Boy in Monster Land received additional coverage years after its release . A 2004 review from Honest Gamers highly lauded its gameplay , challenge , and sound . It noted that while the game starts easy , the difficulty increases at a decent rate and involves good general gameplay skills that serve to add to the gameplay value . The reviewer praised the sound for being simple yet very effective , saying that it " is the ultimate compliment to pay a video game score " and comparing it to other Master System titles such as Alex Kidd . A 2008 IGN feature listed the game as one of " The 7 Master System Games You Need " ; the reviewer said the game " is one of the finest adventures in a long series of [ Wonder Boy ] games " , praising its brightly colored graphics and character sprites , and its sound . IGN had its sequel , Wonder Boy III : The Dragon 's Trap , at No. 8 on their list , just missing also being featured .
The game received further reviews and general praise upon its release to the Virtual Console in 2009 . Website Nintendo Life praised the game 's controls for being smooth and responsive , especially for such an old game . The review appreciated its graphics , especially in its sharpness and usage of color ; it further lauded the game 's upbeat sound that complements the game nicely , the varied level designs and gameplay elements such as the need to answer questions from some bosses , and its overall execution . It said that the game is one of the better Master System titles that still plays good today . IGN called Wonder Boy in Monster Land one of the best games on the Master System , mainly because of its unique balance of platforming and RPG elements , which the reviewer calls " a winning formula " . It said that the game is an improvement over its Adventure Island @-@ like predecessor , replacing the " fruit gauge " with an hourglass timer while retaining other elements such as finding invisible items and discovering secret areas . The review mentioned that the game should appeal to fans from the days of 8 @-@ bit and the Master System .
Allgame gave positive reviews of the game . It said that game includes everything from hidden items , simplistic gameplay , fun and replay value , and basic but good @-@ looking graphics . Defunct Games called Wonder Boy in Monster Land the most challenging game in the Wonder Boy series , noting the lack of passwords or continues in the Master System version , the relatively few chances to earn extra lives , and a time limit . The review said that the ability to earn gold and upgrade equipment which are laid out in the status screen tremendously adds to the replay value . It praised the responsive , though sometimes not precise , controls and the tight hit detection . Moreover , it said that the graphics were colorful and that it complemented the music and its simplistic sound effects well . Overall , the review said that the game is recommended for Master System and platforming fans alike .
= John of Tynemouth ( canon lawyer ) =
John of Tynemouth ( died 1221 ) was a medieval English clergyman and canon lawyer . He was among the first teachers of canon law at what later became Oxford University , where he was by 1188 . By the late 1190s John had joined the household of the Archbishop of Canterbury , Hubert Walter . Besides his position in the household , he also held a number of ecclesiastical positions , which earned him a substantial income . After Walter 's death , John continued to serve as a lawyer as well as hold clerical offices . He died in 1221 and a number of his writings survive .
= = Legal career = =
The first mention of John occurs in 1188 when he was teaching at Oxford . This record notes that he witnessed a legal case decided by delegated judges for the Bishop of Lincoln . Along with a few other instructors , including Simon of Southwell , Honorius of Kent , and possibly Nicholas de Aquila , John was among the first securely attested legal teachers at Oxford . While at Oxford he lectured on the Decretum Gratiani and was one of the teachers of Thomas of Marlborough , later writer of the Chronicon Abbatiae de Evesham , or Chronicle of the Abbey of Evesham . It is not quite clear when John taught Thomas , but Thomas attests in his Chronicon that John was one of Thomas ' teachers . Nothing else is known of John 's early life or where he studied law , but presumably like other early English canon lawyers , he studied somewhere on the Continent before returning to England to teach or practice . It is possible that he served as a canon of Lincoln Cathedral during the 1190s , but this is not securely attested . By the late 1190s , John was a member of the household of Hubert Walter , the Archbishop of Canterbury . Besides Walter , another of his patrons was Walter de Coutances , the Archbishop of Rouen .
In 1203 John was employed in pleading at Rome on the Hubert Walter 's behalf in a case against Gerald of Wales . While returning from Rome , John was captured and held for ransom . He informed his captors that Gerald would also be passing by , thus ensuring Gerald 's capture . Gerald 's revenge was to inform the kidnappers that John 's income was over 100 marks a year , which meant that the kidnappers required a large ransom before releasing John . John was eventually rescued by John Bellesmains , a fellow Englishman and former Archbishop of Lyon .
John held the rectorship of Upminster , Essex , by 1204 . By 25 June 1206 , John was holding the prebend of Langford Ecclesia in the Diocese of Lincoln and it is unclear when he relinquished this position . Sometime between 1210 and 1212 he became Archdeacon of Oxford in the Diocese of Lincoln , perhaps during 1211 . His predecessor in office was the chronicler Walter Map .
In 1203 the medieval chronicler Thomas of Marlborough , who was a monk of Evesham Abbey , pleaded a case for Evesham before Hubert Walter and later , in his chronicle , he noted that John , Simon of Southwell , and Honorius of Kent , by now all canon lawyers in the archbishop 's household , sided with the abbey . He also described the three men as magistri mei in scholis ( roughly , " my school teachers " ) . Surviving evidence shows that Simon and John frequently found themselves on opposing sides of cases , which suggests a rivalry between the two over their expositions of canon law .
During the papal interdict on England during King John 's reign , John of Tynemouth remained in England . He also served as a papal judge @-@ delegate on several occasions . He died in 1221 , between 25 March and August . This date of death is only recorded in a medieval work , the Annals of Dunstable , often felt to be the work of another canonist , Richard de Mores .
= = Writings = =
Some of John 's writings , dealing with canon law , still survive . They show him to have been steeped in canon law and quite knowledgeable . In his writings , he often cited earlier canonists or theologians as well as contemporary writers . A number of the glosses on a late @-@ twelfth @-@ century copy of Gratian 's Decretum are ascribed to John . These take the form of notes from his lectures that were later added to the margins of copies of the Decretum . This combined work is now at Gonville and Caius College at Cambridge University , catalogued as manuscript ( MS ) 283 / 676 . Another set of student notes from his lectures , this time entitled Quaestiones , survives as part of British Library MS Royal E.VII. This work includes lectures notes not only from John 's classes , but from Simon and Nicholas ' as well . He also was addressed as magister , testifying to his learning .
= Lobster ( magazine ) =
Lobster is a magazine that is interested primarily in the influence of intelligence and security services on politics and world trade , what it calls " deep politics " or " parapolitics " . It combines the examination of conspiracy theories and contemporary history . Lobster is edited and published in the United Kingdom and has appeared twice a year for 32 years , at first in 16 @-@ page A5 format , then as an A4 magazine . Operating on a shoestring , its distinguished contributors include academics and others . Since 2009 it is distributed as a free downloadable PDF document .
According to the Hull Daily Mail , Lobster ' investigates government conspiracies , state espionage and the secret service . ' In 1986 the magazine scooped mainstream media by uncovering the secret Clockwork Orange operation , implicated in trying to destabilise the British government . Colin Wallace , a former British Army Intelligence Corps officer in Northern Ireland , described how he had been instructed to smear leading UK politicians . Questions were asked in the House of Commons and an extended scandal ensued .
The current curator of the CIA Historical Intelligence Collection , Hayden B. Peake , notes that the editors of Lobster see it as " member of the international brotherhood of parapolitics mags , " the other members being Geheim ( Cologne , Germany ) , Intelligence Newsletter ( Paris , France ) , and Covert Action Information Bulletin ( USA ) , and is " distinctive in its depth of coverage , its detailed documentation , and the absence of the rhetoric " .
In 1989 , Lobster published names of 1 @,@ 500 citizens said to be working in intelligence . The magazine was denounced in the House of Commons . The editors replied that all published details could be found in local libraries . The magazine has also carried detailed analysis of " fringe " subjects such as UFOs and remote viewing .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
In 1982 , an American newsletter about the Kennedy assassination , Echoes of Conspiracy , put Robin Ramsay and Stephen Dorril in touch with each other because of their common interest in the JFK assassination story . A few months later , they decided to launch a magazine , and in September 1983 , they published 150 copies of The Lobster priced at 50p . Ramsay later described himself and his associate : " Dorril is a Freudo @-@ anarchist , with Situationist tendencies ; and Ramsay is a premature anti @-@ Militant member of the soft old left of the Labour Party " .
The inaugural issue stated its aims as " a journal / newsletter about intelligence , parapolitics , state structures and so forth [ .. ] there is no copyright on the material in The Lobster [ .. ] we hope to break even at the present price of 50p , but we may not [ .. ] should appear 6 times a year " . From Issue 5 onwards , the cover dropped the definite article and became just " Lobster " .
Publishing frequency Lobster dropped to four issues in 1984 and three issues in 1986 and 1987 , before settling down as a bi @-@ annual from 1988 . The Lobster logo ( see illustration ) , first appeared in issue 20 in November 1990 and was designed by Clive Gringras .
= = = Format and costs = = =
The first 8 issues of Lobster are A5 paper size ( 148 × 210mm ) format , growing to A4 ( 210 × 297mm ) from Issue 9 in September 1985 . The magazine was originally typewritten , reduced on a photocopier , pasted @-@ up and printed on a Gestetner off @-@ set litho duplicating machine . Around issue 17 , the magazine was type @-@ set on an Amstrad PCW using Wordstream and from Lobster 27 , on an AppleMac with Claris Works . Lobster Issue 57 ( Summer 2009 ) was the last hard copy issue . Issue 58 ( Winter 2009 / 2010 ) was the first available without charge . The magazine is published from Ramsay 's home in Hull .
Lobster is published not @-@ for @-@ profit . The Independent on Sunday quoted Ramsay that the magazine " .. always broke even , as I would put the price up if it started losing money . The readers paid whatever I asked " , which the newspaper commented " Sounds a fine business model " . Robert McCrum in The Guardian quotes Ramsay as boasting that Lobster is " the only left @-@ wing journal to pay for itself " .
= = = The Dorril / Ramsay split = = =
In March 1993 , The Independent newspaper noted that the founders of Lobster had fallen out , and that " The break between the two men began in December when Ramsay told Dorril he was removing his name from the Lobster masthead and would run the twice @-@ yearly magazine alone . " The London Evening Standard reported that Ramsay had told his readers that Dorril also planned to produce a magazine called Lobster . After producing Lobster Issue 25 , they each produced their own version of Lobster Issue 26 . Dorril recalls a different version of events . Dorril 's website indicates that his Lobster Issue 31 ( October 1996 ) was the last published . Alternative media expert and Professor of Media and Culture at Edinburgh Napier University , Chris Atton , notes that Dorril 's Lobster concentrates on the activities of the British and US security services , while Robin Ramsay 's Lobster casts its net wider to encompass histories of fascism , the JFK assassination , the Lockerbie bombing and the military 's medical experiments on service personnel .
= = = Name = = =
The name of the magazine , " Lobster " , has attracted multiple interpretations . Dorril recalls that " We wanted the magazine to sound not pompous , and as a teenager , he would invent names for punk rock groups . ' Lobster ' was just one of his favourites . " Ramsay recalls that " The name " Lobster " was Steve Dorril 's choice . I couldn 't think of an alternative and I didn 't think the name mattered . As far as I know it had no connotations for Dorril ; indeed as I remembered it , the absence of connotations was part of is appeal . "
= = Controversy = =
= = = Operation Clockwork Orange , Colin Wallace and Fred Holroyd = = =
Lobster published the first account of the Colin Wallace affair , also known as Operation Clockwork Orange , about the plot by disaffected members of Britain 's Security Service , MI5 , to destabilise the Harold Wilson Labour Government , and to smear politicians such as former Tory prime minister Edward Heath . The editors of Lobster described the revelations as Britain 's Watergate and the biggest story since World War Two . The relevations were subsequently confirmed by former MI5 officer Peter Wright in his book Spycatcher .
= = = = Political fallout = = = =
In late 1986 , questions were asked in the UK Parliament concerning the matters in Lobster . Then Labour Party Member of Parliament for Hull North , Kevin McNamara , brought up the issue in the House of Commons , asking the Prime Minister , Margaret Thatcher , to refer the matter to the Security Commission , and asking then Attorney @-@ General and Conservative MP Michael Havers , to ask the Director of Public Prosecutions to investigate allegations published in Lobster and prosecute Colin Wallace for revealing details of secret service operations against Her Majesty 's Government . Both declined . Two weeks later , Labour MP Tam Dalyell asked the Prime Minister why she would not refer the matter to the Security Commission , but she said that she had nothing more to add .
= = = Who 's Who of the British Secret State = = =
In 1989 , British journalist Richard Norton @-@ Taylor reported in The Guardian newspaper , that Lobster was planning to publish " a list of the names and brief biographical details of more than 1 @,@ 500 past and present officials involved , according to the publishers , in covert activities " . A year later the article appeared in Lobster Issue 19 , and another appeared 18 months later . Although The Guardian noted that the Government was considering making the publication of such names a criminal offence , then Lobster co @-@ editor Stephen Dorril noted that " All the names and details .. have been compiled by research in their local libraries or have already appeared in published books . ' No inside knowledge or breach of official secrets was needed ' " 10 years later , Ramsay was quoted in the Hull Daily Mail , that " At the time it was a way of sticking two fingers up at the Government " .
= = = = House of Commons criticism = = = =
Subsequently , Lobster was denounced in the British Parliament . Then Conservative Party Member of Parliament for Wycombe , Ray Whitney , criticised the publication of the names in the House of Commons on 21 December 1988 in a debate on a proposed Official Secrets Bill , when he commented that :
" A small obscure magazine published , I think , in Hull and called , would hon . Members believe , Lobster makes a practice of publishing names of gentlemen who are alleged to be members of the security services . That creates danger and I am sure that my right hon . Friend the Member for Old Bexley and Sidcup shares my deep apprehension about that sort of practice being allowed to continue . "
In his book , Politics and Paranoia , Ramsay criticised Whitney 's role as the head of the Foreign Office 's Information Research Department which Ramsay described as the " State 's official , anti @-@ left psy @-@ war outfit " , and had omitted to tell the Commons before denouncing him .
= = Contributors = =
In addition to co @-@ founders Robin Ramsay and Stephen Dorril , contributors have included :
Dan Atkinson , a British journalist and author
William Blum , American author and historian
Mike Carlson , broadcaster and writer for The Guardian and the Independent
Colin Challen , the Member of Parliament for Morley and Rothwell from 2001 until 2010
Kevin Coogan , American investigative journalist
Alex Cox , a film @-@ maker
Richard Cummings , an author , playwright , theorist and critic
Mark Curtis , investigative journalist and author
Anthony Frewin , writer and assistant to Stanley Kubrick
Robert Henderson , British writer
Jim Hougan , author of Decadence , Spooks , and Secret Agenda
John Newsinger , author and professor of History at Bath Spa University
David Osler , a British author and journalist
Greg Palast , author and a freelance journalist
Jan Nederveen Pieterse , Professor of Global Studies and Sociology at the University of California , Santa Barbara
Dave Renton , historian and political activist
Paul Rogers , Professor of Peace Studies at the University of Bradford
Peter Dale Scott , a former English professor at the University of California , Berkeley , and a former diplomat
Michael John Smith , convicted of espionage
Giles Scott @-@ Smith , Professor of Diplomatic History of Atlantic Cooperation at Leiden University .
Kenn Thomas , conspiracy theorist , writer , editor & publisher of Steamshovel Press
= = Themed and special issues = =
Lobster has published a couple of themed or special issues , including :
= = Regular sections = =
A number of regular sections have appeared in Lobster over the years :
= = Reception = =
In 1998 , the Hull Daily Mail described the magazine as " a tiny but influential fringe political journal " . In 2001 , the magazine Red Pepper wrote that Lobster " .. succeeds on the quality of its writing ... articles are well researched ... human , passionate and honest ... " , the Fortean Times ( who also syndicated a regular Lobster column by Ramsay ) wrote that it was " ... immensely engrossing reading , ... an essential purchase for anyone interested in the machinations of the secret state " , Green Anarchist magazine wrote that Lobster is " ... an invaluable resource , and deserves to be widely read and much studied " , and Direct Action magazine described it as " a good read ... very revealing and worth it , just for the pub talk " .
Journalist Robert McCrum in The Guardian describes Lobster as " .. a left @-@ wing journal that offers succour to conspiracy theorists [ .. ] a brave , bright beacon , a Quixotic piece of typically English amateurism that keeps the professionals on their toes " . The Independent newspaper has described it as a " delightful and worthwhile publications , more footnote than story , that [ .. ] delivers a comprehensive picture of a clandestine world which the Establishment would prefer remained secret " .
Trade Magazine PRWeek describes Lobster as a " Hull @-@ based intelligence magazine and conspiracy theorists ' bible " , and the Conspiracy Encyclopedia described it as " the most influential publication in the parapolitical underground " . Irish historical writer , Tim Pat Coogan , in discussing a TV programme about Captain Fred Holroyd in relation to the Collin Wallace affair , noted that " some of the best writing on the Holroyd case is contained in smaller journals published contemporaneously , notably Lobster , Private Eye , and , in particular [ Duncan ] Campbell 's own series [ .. ] in the Statesman " .
Professor of Media and Culture at Edinburgh Napier University , Chris Atton , notes that a reference at the end of an article in Lobster led to the founding of the activist librarians ' group Information for Social Change . CIA curator , Hayden B. Peake notes that a British journalist described " much of its content its impenetrable " , but that it was also intriguing .
= Park Grill =
The Park Grill is the only full @-@ service restaurant included in the multibillion @-@ dollar Millennium Park project in Chicago , Illinois . Its outdoor seating area is the largest al fresco dining area in Chicago . It has placed among the leaders in citywide best @-@ of competitions for best burger and is widely praised for its views .
The exclusive location , the lucrative contract terms , the investor list , and a close personal relationship between a managing partner of the restaurant and the Chicago Park District 's project manager led to a formal ethics investigation , court litigation , and extensive press coverage , and ranked among the most prominent scandals of the administration of Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley in 2005 . The more than 80 investors include some of Daley 's friends and neighbors . One of the most financially successful restaurants in Chicago , the Park Grill remains exempt from property taxes after a multi @-@ year litigation which reached the Illinois Supreme Court .
= = Location and views = =
The Park Grill is located on North Michigan Avenue in Chicago in the Historic Michigan Boulevard District . Cloud Gate , a public sculpture , is located on AT & T Plaza on the roof of the Park Grill .
During the summer months , the restaurant 's outdoor seating area becomes the largest al fresco dining area in Chicago . During the winter months , the restaurant 's outdoor seating area becomes the McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink , and diners in the 300 @-@ seat The Park Grill overlooks the ice skating rink through floor @-@ to @-@ ceiling windows .
= = History = =
In late 2001 , Matthew A. O 'Malley and James Horan proposed Park Grill and Park Cafe to " provide both white @-@ tablecloth meals and picnic @-@ hamper fare for visitors in Millennium Park " . In 2003 , the Chicago Park District awarded a 20 @-@ year contract to run the Park Grill to a partnership , including several of Mayor Richard M. Daley 's friends and neighbors .
= = = Background of managing partners = = =
The current managing partners of the Park Grill are O 'Malley and Horan . O 'Malley , who once worked for the U.S. Representative Dan Rostenkowski , runs the re @-@ purposed firehouse , Chicago Firehouse Restaurant , which is located around the corner from the home of Mayor Richard M. Daley , who has been a steady customer . The son of Alderman Edward Vrdolyak has also been a business partner with O 'Malley . Matthew O 'Malley and his brother Paul were picked to run the Clock Tower Cafe at the Sydney Marovitz Golf Course in Lincoln Park on the Chicago lakefront . James Horan is a restaurant owner and caterer . He is president of Blue Plate Catering , which runs a cafe at Gallery 37 , an after @-@ school program created and fostered by Mayor Daley 's wife , Maggie Daley .
= = = Background of investors = = =
O 'Malley obtained commitments from over 80 prospective Park Grill investors , including some of Mayor Daley 's friends and neighbors . Each share of the restaurant cost investors $ 200 @,@ 000 . Among the investors are Daley 's friend Fred Barbara , a nephew of the late Chicago Alderman Fred Roti . Barbara has ties to the Hired Truck Program scandal and the blue bag recycling controversy . Other investors include relatives of Daley 's political adviser Timothy Degnan , two neighbors of the mayor , Ray Chin , an O 'Hare Airport contractor , and Rick Simon , a controversial figure who runs a janitorial business and sits on the board of the Chicago Convention and Tourism Bureau . Also among the investors was Daley 's cousin Theresa E. Mintle , then the Chicago Transit Authority ’ s director of governmental affairs and former congressman Morgan F. Murphy , who has had business dealings with convicted labor union official John Serpico . Among the vendors for Park Grill was an architectural metal company owned by the son of then Chicago Alderman Burton Natarus ( 42nd ) .
= = = Contract award process = = =
O 'Malley 's and two other groups submitted proposals to run the restaurant in September 2001 . The Park Grill group 's proposal was twice as long as the other two but , technically , promised the Park District the lowest revenues . By the end of the year , O 'Malley 's team had been selected to run the restaurant , souvenir and concession stands , and a cafe in the new Millennium Park .
The Park Grill contract was signed February 11 , 2003 . The contract requires that Park Grill to pay a percent of net sales and an additional fee of $ 275 @,@ 000 per year , but the latter was not due until the Park Grill recouped half its build @-@ out costs . As part of its deal , the Park District pays for water , gas , and garbage collection at Park Grill . The garbage pickup costs taxpayers about $ 245 @,@ 000 annually .
= = = Park District project manager 's relationship with contractor = = =
The Park District team , including an outside consultant , spent 18 months negotiating a contract with O 'Malley 's group . During that time , Laura Foxgrover , a top official in the Park District department directly overseeing the deal , gave birth to O 'Malley 's child . Prior to working for the Park District , Foxgrover had been an employee of O 'Malley as director of operations at the Chicago Firehouse Restaurant . Foxgrover held the title " senior project manager " at the Park District at an annual salary of $ 94 @,@ 000 . In May 2002 , Foxgrover wrote a memo recusing herself from negotiations , without saying why , and never told her superiors she was carrying O 'Malley 's child . The girl was born in September , 2002 .
Foxgrover remained involved in the Millennium Park restaurant after she recused herself from contract negotiations in May , 2002 . In October 2003 , Foxgrover spoke in favor of the restaurant getting a liquor license before a Chicago City Council committee while O 'Malley owed Foxgrover at least $ 5 @,@ 000 . On the same day , Foxgrover worked to get O 'Malley 's Clock Tower Cafe a liquor license . In one July 2003 e @-@ mail , Foxgrover , then the acting director of park services , said that if O 'Malley 's contractor had any questions for the Park District , she will be the point person . In August 2003 , Horan sent out an e @-@ mail mentioning a discussion Horan had with Foxgrover , in which Horan asked Foxgrover if the Park District would waive a form of insurance on the restaurant 's construction . A provision in the Park Grill contract allows the restaurant to arrange a series of summer concerts on the Millennium Park ice @-@ skating rink , drawing crowds that bolster food and drink sales . In summer 2004 , O 'Malley and his partners asked Clear Channel @-@ owned WNUA Radio to conduct the concerts . In February 2005 , Foxgrover led a five @-@ member Park District committee that chose Clear Channel over JAM Productions to operate the new concert venue at Northerly Island on the former site of Meigs Field .
Foxgrover was the subject of an ethics investigation . An ethics officer for the Chicago Board of Ethics concluded that Foxgrover did not violate the district 's ethics ordinance and should be allowed to keep her $ 90 @,@ 000 @-@ a @-@ year job as the Park District 's director of development . By 2008 , Foxgrover had left the Park District to work for O 'Malley 's restaurant management company .
= = = Exemption from property tax = = =
On March 16 , 2005 , Cook County Assessor , James Houlihan 's office sent Horan and O 'Malley a letter notifying Park Grill that it was being assessed at $ 502 @,@ 550 and that it would be sent a bill in the fall for 2004 property taxes . On August 5 , 2005 , Horan and O 'Malley filed a lawsuit against the assessor , asking that a judge prohibit the county from imposing property taxes . The owners asserted that their contract to run Park Grill was a property tax exempt concessionaire agreement and not a taxable lease . The state 's attorney 's office , which defended the assessor in the case , said " our position is that the Park Grill is a leaseholder and as a leaseholder they are subject to taxes . " In 2009 , an appellate court affirmed the circuit court 's finding that the agreement to run Park Grill was not a lease but a license . In December , 2010 the Illinois Supreme Court with a 4 @-@ 3 vote affirmed the lower court decisions maintaining the Park Grill ’ s " agreement with the Park District created an untaxable license as opposed to a taxable lease " to do business .
= = = Daley administration response = = =
Mayor Richard M. Daley criticized the Park Grill deal , blaming Chicago 's Corporation Counsel Mara Georges , saying that lawyers for the city and the Chicago Park District erred and that the city wanted to renegotiate the pact . " Lawyers do make mistakes , " Daley said . " That 's what it was . ... It 's embarrassing to them . Yes it is - the corporation counsel and the Park District counsel . " Chicago Park District Superintendent Tim Mitchell said the Park District also wanted to renegotiate the contract . In a February 9 , 2005 letter to O 'Malley and Horan , Georges warned that the concession agreement " does not authorize your occupation of the Park Grill facilities " because the city owns the land , and City Hall should have been party to the original agreement when it was not . On February 11 , 2005 , Daley asked state lawmakers to impose tougher penalties for defrauding tax payers , and was questioned by reporters about why the Park Grill had not paid any property taxes and gets free gas , water and garbage pick @-@ up . Erma Tranter , president of the Friends of the Parks watchdog group , speaking at a Park District Board of Commissioners meeting , questioned why the Park Grill contract had yet to be renegotiated 11 months after Mayor Daley vowed to do so . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times dubbed the Park Grill the " Clout Cafe " and included the contract award process in a year @-@ end review of 2005 Daley administration scandals .
= = = Profitability = = =
The grand opening was set for November 24 , 2003 . In its first year of operation , Park Grill paid $ 162 @,@ 656 @.@ 72 in rent . The 2004 / 2005 Zagat Survey named the restaurant among the five " Top Newcomers " to Chicago . The Park Grill began making money for its investors in 2006 , its third year of operation , when investors split $ 527 @,@ 250 in profits . In 2008 , the Park Grill was named one of the top 100 highest @-@ grossing independent restaurants in the U.S. , serving approximately 300 @,@ 000 meals and grossing approximately US $ 12 million in sales , making it the seventh largest independent restaurant in terms of sales in Chicago in 2007 , according to Restaurants & Institutions magazine . The Park Grill remains exempt from property taxes , and the contract has not been renegotiated .
= = = Emanuel administration response = = =
Daley announced he would not seek a seventh term , and in the final months of Daley 's last term , the owners of the Park Grill , including O 'Malley and Barbara were reported as interested in selling . Daley 's successor , Mayor Rahm Emanuel appointed Theresa E. Mintle , one of the Park Grill investors , as his $ 174 @,@ 996 @-@ a @-@ year chief of staff . Three days after Emanuel took office and Mintle started work as his top aide , Mintle transferred her financial stake in the restaurant to her husband .
On December 1 , 2011 , the Emanuel administration sued the Park Grill operating company , and the Chicago Park District , asking a judge to end the generous 2003 concession agreement with the Chicago Park District . The city wants the Park Grill operator , which is trying to sell the restaurant , to pay more for the privilege of operating at the park . On December 15 , 2011 the Park Grill operators filed a counter suit against the City and Park District . In June , 2013 O ’ Malley and Foxgrover were married by Illinois Supreme Court Justice Anne M. Burke . By October , 2013 the City had paid more than $ 749 @,@ 000 and the Park District more than $ 585 @,@ 000 in legal fees . Deposed in August , 2013 in the lawsuit , Daley responded " I don 't recall " 139 times . “ In the Park Grill situation , city taxpayers were taken advantage of . They did not get a fair pricing for that property , ” Emanuel said . Chicago Sun @-@ Times columnist Mark Brown summarized " the Park Grill story " as
Guy meets girl . Guy owns a restaurant . Girl handles valuable Park District restaurant concession . Guy and girl make a baby together . Guy gets concession deal . Mayor knows nothing . Nothing ! But a bunch of his pals invest in what city lawyers later call a “ sweetheart deal . ”
On September 24 , 2015 , the court ruled in favor of the Park Grill , rejecting the Emanuel administration ’ s claims that the contract was invalid .
= = Menu = =
The menu is traditional American food with international influences . Zagats describes the cuisine as New American . Bernard Laskowski , formerly of Chicago restaurants Marche and mk , is the executive chef . The Park Cafe , adjacent to the Park Grill , offers takeout food such as salads and sandwiches .
= = Critical reviews = =
The restaurant is notable for its views , its location , and its cuisine , especially its hamburgers . Zagat lists Park Grill as one of the " choice outdoor spots in town . " New City Chicago magazine named it one of the top 100 essential restaurants in the city , urging , " Ignore the scandal over sweetheart deals with the city for a moment and consider this : Park Grill sits in the hottest spot in the city today , if not in America . " In the 2006 / 07 and 2008 / 09 editions , Zagats respondents ranked it among the best of Chicago in the " Outdoors " and " Views " categories and lauded its fireplace .
Park Grill hamburgers achieved high citywide rankings in several publications , including best burgers in Time Out Chicago ( 2005 ) , Chicago Magazine ( 2008 ) and Citysearch ( 2008 ) .
The Unofficial Guide to Chicago points out the " spectacular view of the Chicago skyline , fronted by the ice rink at Millennium Park . " Fodor 's Chicago 2010 says " Location trumps service at Park Grill , where a seat on the patio in summer , in full view of Millennium Park , is among the best in the city . Sadly , the waitstaff lapses ... " The National Geographic 's website 's Chicago Walking Tour : Millennium and Grant Parks recommends the Park Grill as it " allows you to admire the surrounding architecture passively . " The restaurant was noted as one of the " 99 Best of Chicago , " named as one of three under the category of " Best Restaurants with a View " in Night + Day Chicago . The location , " under ' the bean ' or next to a swarm of ice skaters , all convenient to the Loop , " was cited by Crain 's Chicago Business as a reason for including Park Grill as one of Chicago 's best restaurants for business dining in 2010 .
= Clinton Engineer Works =
The Clinton Engineer Works ( CEW ) was the name of the Manhattan Project 's production installation during World War II that produced the enriched uranium used in the bombing of Hiroshima in August 1945 , as well as the first examples of reactor produced plutonium . It consisted of production facilities arranged at three major sites , various utilities including a power plant , and the town of Oak Ridge . It was in the eastern part of the state of Tennessee , about 18 miles ( 29 km ) west of Knoxville , and was named after the town of Clinton , Tennessee , eight miles ( 13 km ) to the north . The production facilities were mainly in Roane County although the northern part of the site was in Anderson County . The Manhattan District Engineer , Kenneth Nichols , moved the Manhattan District headquarters from Manhattan to Oak Ridge in August 1943 .
Construction workers were housed in a community known as Happy Valley . Built by the Army in 1943 , this temporary community housed 15 @,@ 000 people . The township of Oak Ridge was established to house the production staff . The operating force peaked at 50 @,@ 000 workers just after the end of the war . The construction labor force peaked at 75 @,@ 000 and the combined employment peak was 80 @,@ 000 . The town was developed by the federal government as a segregated community ; black residents lived only in an area known as Gamble Valley , in government @-@ built " hutments " ( one @-@ room shacks ) on the south side of what is now Tuskegee Drive .
= = Site selection = =
In 1942 , the Manhattan Project was attempting to construct the first atomic bombs . This would require production facilities , and by June 1942 the project had reached the stage where their construction could be contemplated . On 25 June 1942 , the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) S @-@ 1 Executive Committee deliberated on where they should be located . Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer recommended that the different manufacturing facilities be built at the same site in order to simplify security and construction . Such a site would require a substantial tract of land to accommodate both the facilities and housing for the thousands of workers . The plutonium processing plant needed to be two to four miles ( 3 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 4 km ) from the site boundary and any other installation in case radioactive fission products escaped . While security and safety concerns suggested a remote site , it still needed to be near sources of labor , and accessible by road and rail transportation . A mild climate that allowed construction to proceed throughout the year was desirable . Terrain separated by ridges would reduce the impact of accidental explosions , but they could not be so steep as to complicate construction . The substratum needed to be firm enough to provide good foundations , but not so rocky that it would hinder excavation work . It was estimated that the proposed plants would need access to 150 @,@ 000 KW of electricity and 370 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 l ; 310 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water per minute . A War Department policy held that as a rule munitions facilities should not be located west of the Sierra or Cascade Ranges , east of the Appalachian Mountains , or within 200 miles ( 320 km ) of the Canadian or Mexican borders .
Several sites were considered in the Tennessee Valley , two in the Chicago area , one near the Shasta Dam in California , and some in Washington , where the Hanford site was eventually established . An OSRD team had selected the Knoxville , Tennessee , area in April 1942 , and in May Arthur Compton , the director of the Metallurgical Laboratory had met with Gordon R. Clapp , the General Manager of the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) . The Chief Engineer of the Manhattan District ( MED ) , Colonel James C. Marshall , asked Colonel Leslie R. Groves , Jr. to undertake a study within the Army 's Office of the Chief of Engineers . After receiving assurances that the TVA could supply the required quantity of electric power if given priority for procuring some needed equipment , Groves also concluded that the Knoxville area was suitable . The only voice of dissent at the 25 June meeting was Ernest O. Lawrence , who wanted the electromagnetic separation plant located much nearer to his Radiation Laboratory in California . The Shasta Dam area remained under consideration for the electromagnetic plant until September , by which time Lawrence had dropped his objection .
On 1 July , Marshall and his deputy , Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Nichols , surveyed sites in the Knoxville area with representatives of the TVA and Stone & Webster , the designated construction contractor . No perfectly suitable site was found , and Marshall even ordered another survey of the Spokane , Washington , area . At the time , the proposed nuclear reactor , gas centrifuge and gaseous diffusion technologies were still in the research stage , and the design of the plant was a long way off . The schedules , which called for construction work on the nuclear reactor to commence by 1 October 1942 , the electromagnetic plant by 1 November , the centrifugal plant by 1 January 1943 and the gaseous diffusion plant by 1 March 1943 , were quite unrealistic . While work could not commence on the plants , a start could be made on the housing and administrative buildings . Stone & Webster therefore drew up a detailed report on the most promising site , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) west of Knoxville . Stephane Groueff later wrote that :
This portion of the quiet rural area was called Black Oak Ridge and was the northernmost of five principal oak- and pine @-@ covered ridges around the meandering Clinch River . It was a verdant , beautiful countryside with rolling hills covered with dogwood and full of partridge and deer . To the east were the Great Smoky Mountains , to the west the peaks of the Cumberland Mountains .
The site was located in Roane County and Anderson County , and lay roughly halfway between the two county seats of Kingston and Clinton . Its greatest drawback was that a major road , Tennessee State Route 61 , ran through it . Stone & Webster considered the possibility of re @-@ routing the road . The Ohio River Division ( ORD ) of the Corps of Engineers estimated that it would cost $ 4 @.@ 25 million to purchase the entire 83 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 34 @,@ 000 ha ) site .
Groves became the director of the Manhattan Project on 23 September , with the rank of brigadier general . That afternoon , he took a train to Knoxville , where he met with Marshall . After touring the site , Groves concluded that the site " was an even better choice than I had anticipated . " He called Colonel John J. O 'Brien of the Corps of Engineers ' Real Estate Branch , and told him to proceed with acquiring the land . The site was initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range . It officially became the Clinton Engineer Works ( CEW ) in January 1943 . It was given the codename of Site X. After the township was established in mid @-@ 1943 , the name Oak Ridge was chosen from employee suggestions . It met with the Manhattan District 's approval because " its rural connotation held outside curiosity to a minimum . " Oak Ridge then became the site 's postal address , but the site itself was not officially renamed Oak Ridge until 1947 .
= = Land acquisition = =
Although War Department policy maintained that land should be acquired by direct purchase , as time was short , it was decided to proceed immediately with condemnation . This allowed access to the site for construction crews , provided faster compensation to the owners , and expedited the handling of property with defective titles . On 28 September 1942 , the ORD Real Estate Branch opened a project office in Harriman with a staff of 54 surveyors , appraisers , lawyers and office workers . The ORD Real Estate Branch was quite busy at this time , as it was also acquiring land for the Dale Hollow Reservoir , so some staff were borrowed from the Federal Land Bank and the TVA . The next day , Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorized the acquisition of 56 @,@ 000 acres ( 23 @,@ 000 ha ) at an estimated cost of $ 3 @.@ 5 million . At the request of the ORD Real Estate Branch attorneys , the District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee issued an order of possession on 6 October , effective the next day . Recognizing the hardship that it would cause to the landowners , it restricted immediate exclusive possession to properties " essential to full and complete development of the project " .
Over 1 @,@ 000 families lived on the site on farms or in the hamlets of Elza , Robertsville , and Scarboro . The first that most heard about the acquisition was when a representative from the ORD showed up to inform them that their land was being acquired . Some returned home from work one day to find an eviction notice nailed to their door or to a tree in the yard . Most were given six weeks to leave , but some were given just two . The government took possession of 13 tracts for immediate construction work on 20 November 1942 . By May 1943 , 742 declarations had been filed covering 53 @,@ 334 acres ( 21 @,@ 584 ha ) . Most residents were told to prepare to leave between 1 December 1942 and 15 January 1943 . In cases where this would cause undue hardship , the MED allowed residents to stay beyond this date . For some it was the third time that they had been evicted by the government , having previously been evicted for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the 1920s and the TVA 's Norris Dam in the 1930s . Many expected that , like the TVA , the Army would provide assistance to help them relocate ; but unlike the TVA , the Army had no mission to improve the area or the lot of the local people , and no funds for the purpose . Tires were in short supply in wartime America , and moving vehicles were hard to find . Some residents had to leave behind possessions that they were unable to take with them .
A delegation of landowners presented the ORD Real Estate Branch with a petition protesting the acquisition of their property on 23 November 1942 , and that night over 200 landowners held a meeting where they agreed to hire lawyers and appraisers to challenge the Federal government . Local newspapers and politicians were sympathetic to their cause . By the end of May 1943 , agreements were reached covering 416 tracts totaling 21 @,@ 742 acres ( 8 @,@ 799 ha ) , but some landowners rejected the government 's offers . The ORD Real Estate Branch invoked a procedure under Tennessee law that allowed for a jury of five citizens appointed by the Federal District Court to review the compensation offered . They handled five cases in which they proposed higher values than those of the ORD appraisers , but the landowners rejected them as well , so the Army discontinued the use of this method . In response to rising public criticism , O 'Brien commissioned a review by the Department of Agriculture . It found that the appraisals had been fair and just , and that farmers had overestimated the size and productivity of their land .
The landowners turned to their local Congressman , John Jennings , Jr . On 1 February 1943 , Jennings introduced a resolution in the House of Representatives calling for a committee to investigate the values offered to the landowners . He also complained to Patterson about how buildings and facilities were being demolished by the MED . On 9 July 1943 , Andrew J. May , the chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs , appointed an investigating subcommittee chaired by Clifford Davis , who selected Dewey Short and John Sparkman as its other members . Public hearings were held in Clinton on 11 August 1943 , and in Kingston the following day . The Committee report , presented in December 1943 , made a number of specific recommendations concerning the Corps of Engineers ' land acquisition process , but neither Congress nor the War Department moved to provide any additional compensation for the landowners .
In July 1943 , Groves prepared to issue Public Proclamation No. 2 , declaring the site a military exclusion area . He asked Marshall to present it to the Governor of Tennessee , Prentice Cooper . Marshall , in turn , delegated the task to the area engineer , Major Thomas T. Crenshaw , who sent a junior officer , Captain George B. Leonard . Cooper was unimpressed . He told Leonard that he had not been informed about the purpose of the CEW , and that the Army had kicked the farmers off their land and had not compensated the counties for the roads and bridges , which would now be closed . In his opinion it was " an experiment in socialism " , a New Deal project being undertaken in the name of the war effort . Instead of reading the proclamation , he tore it up and threw it in the waste paper basket . Marshall went to Nashville to apologize to Cooper , who refused to talk to him . Nichols , who succeeded Marshall as chief engineer of the Manhattan District , met Cooper on 31 July 1943 , and offered compensation in the form of Federal financing for road improvements . Cooper accepted an offer from Nichols to visit the CEW , which he did on 3 November 1943 .
Nichols and Cooper came to an agreement about the Solway Bridge . Although it was in Knox County , Anderson County had contributed $ 27 @,@ 000 towards its construction . It was still paying off the bonds , but now the bridge was usable only by CEW workers . Nichols negotiated a deal in which Knox County was paid $ 25 @,@ 000 annually for the bridge , of which $ 6 @,@ 000 was to be used to maintain the access road . Judge Thomas L. Seeber then threatened to close the Edgemoor Bridge unless Anderson County was similarly compensated . An agreement was reached under which Anderson County received $ 10 @,@ 000 for the bridge and $ 200 per month . Knox County did not keep its side of the bargain to maintain the road , which was torn up by heavy traffic and became impassable after torrential rains in 1944 . The Army was forced to spend $ 5 @,@ 000 per month on road works in Knox County .
Additional parcels of land were acquired during 1943 and 1944 for access roads , a railway spur , and for security purposes , bringing the total to about 58 @,@ 900 acres ( 23 @,@ 800 ha ) . The Harriman office closed on 10 June 1944 , but reopened on 1 September 1944 to deal with the additional parcels . The last acquisition was not complete until 1 March 1945 . The final cost of the land acquired was around $ 2 @.@ 6 million , about $ 47 an acre .
= = Facilities = =
= = = X @-@ 10 graphite reactor = = =
On 2 February 1943 , DuPont began construction of the plutonium semiworks , on an isolated 112 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) site in the Bethel Valley about 10 miles ( 16 km ) southwest of Oak Ridge . Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at the Hanford Site , it included the air @-@ cooled graphite @-@ moderated X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor . There was also a chemical separation plant , research laboratories , waste storage area , training facility for Hanford staff , and administrative and support facilities that included a laundry , cafeteria , first aid center and fire station . Because of the subsequent decision to construct water @-@ cooled reactors at Hanford , only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot . The facility was known as the Clinton Laboratories , and was operated by the University of Chicago as part of the Metallurgical Laboratory project .
The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor was the world 's second artificial nuclear reactor after Enrico Fermi 's Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation . It consisted of a huge block , 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long on each side , of nuclear graphite cubes , weighing around 1 @,@ 500 short tons ( 1 @,@ 400 t ) , surrounded by seven feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of high @-@ density concrete as a radiation shield . There were 36 horizontal rows of 35 holes . Behind each was a metal channel into which uranium fuel slugs could be inserted . The cooling system was driven by three large electric fans .
Construction work on the reactor had to wait until DuPont had completed the design . Excavation commenced on 27 April 1943 . A large pocket of soft clay was soon discovered , necessitating additional foundations . Further delays occurred due to wartime difficulties in procuring building materials . There was also an acute shortage of common and skilled labor : the contractor had only three @-@ quarters of the required workforce , and less after high turnover and absenteeism , mainly the result of poor accommodations and difficulties in commuting . The township of Oak Ridge was still under construction , and barracks were built to house workers . Special arrangements with individual workers increased their morale and reduced turnover . Finally , there was unusually heavy rainfall , with 9 @.@ 3 inches ( 240 mm ) falling in July 1943 , more than twice the average of 4 @.@ 3 inches ( 110 mm ) .
Some 700 short tons ( 640 t ) of graphite blocks were purchased from National Carbon . The construction crews began stacking it in September 1943 . Cast uranium billets came from Metal Hydrides , Mallinckrodt and other suppliers . These were extruded into cylindrical slugs , and canned by Alcoa , which started production on 14 June 1943 . General Electric and the Metallurgical Laboratory developed a new welding technique . The new equipment was installed in the production line at Alcoa in October 1943 . Supervised by Compton , Martin D. Whitaker and Fermi , the reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 short tons ( 27 t ) of uranium . A week later the load was increased to 36 short tons ( 33 t ) , raising its power generation to 500 kW , and by the end of the month the first 500 mg of plutonium was created . Modifications over time raised the power to 4 @,@ 000 kW in July 1944 .
Construction commenced on the pilot separation plant before a chemical process for separating plutonium from uranium had been selected . Not until May 1943 would DuPont managers decide to use the Bismuth @-@ phosphate process . The plant consisted of six cells , separated from each other and the control room by thick concrete walls . The equipment was operated from the control room by remote control . Construction work was completed on 26 November 1943 , but the plant could not operate until the reactor started producing irradiated uranium slugs . The first batch was received on 20 December 1943 , allowing the first plutonium to be produced in early 1944 . By February , the reactor was irradiating a ton of uranium every three days . Over the next five months , the efficiency of the separation process was improved , with the percentage of plutonium recovered increasing from 40 to 90 percent . X @-@ 10 operated as a plutonium production plant until January 1945 , when it was turned over to research activities . By this time , 299 batches of irradiated slugs had been processed .
In September 1942 , Compton asked Whitaker to form a skeleton operating staff for X @-@ 10 . Whitaker became director of the Clinton Laboratories . The first permanent operating staff arrived at X @-@ 10 from the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago in April 1944 , by which time DuPont began transferring its technicians to the site . They were augmented by one hundred technicians in uniform from the Army 's Special Engineer Detachment . By March 1944 , there were some 1 @,@ 500 people working at X @-@ 10 .
A radioisotope building , a steam plant , and other structures were added in April 1946 to support the laboratory 's peacetime educational and research missions . All work was completed by December 1946 , adding another $ 1 @,@ 009 @,@ 000 to the cost of construction at X @-@ 10 , and bringing the total cost to $ 13 @,@ 041 @,@ 000 . Operational costs added another $ 22 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 .
= = = Y @-@ 12 electromagnetic separation plant = = =
Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed by Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory . This method employed devices known as calutrons , a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer and cyclotron . The name was derived from the words " California " , " university " and " cyclotron " . In the electromagnetic separation process , a magnetic field deflected charged uranium particles according to mass . The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient . Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor , an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials , require more manpower to operate , and cost more to build . Nonetheless , the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk . Moreover , it could be built in stages , and rapidly reach industrial capacity .
Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant , which came to be called Y @-@ 12 , was assigned to Stone & Webster by the S @-@ 1 Committee in June 1942 . The design called for five first @-@ stage processing units , known as Alpha racetracks , and two units for final processing , known as Beta racetracks . In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks , known as Alpha II . Construction began in February 1943 .
When the plant was started up for testing on schedule in November , the 14 @-@ ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment because of the power of the magnets and had to be fastened more securely . A more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out . In December Groves ordered a magnet broken open , and handfuls of rust were found inside . Groves then ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned . A pickling plant was established on @-@ site to clean the pipes and fittings . The second Alpha I was not operational until the end of January 1944 , the first Beta and first and third Alpha I 's came online in March , and the fourth Alpha I became operational in April . The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944 .
Tennessee Eastman was hired to manage Y @-@ 12 on the usual cost plus fixed fee basis , with a fee of $ 22 @,@ 500 per month plus $ 7 @,@ 500 per racetrack for the first seven racetracks and $ 4 @,@ 000 per additional racetrack . The calutrons were initially operated by scientists from Berkeley to remove bugs and achieve a reasonable operating rate . They were then turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators who had only a high school education . Nichols compared unit production data , and pointed out to Lawrence that the young " hillbilly " girl operators were outperforming his PhDs . They agreed to a production race and Lawrence lost , a morale boost for the Tennessee Eastman workers and supervisors . The girls were " trained like soldiers not to reason why " , while " the scientists could not refrain from time @-@ consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials . "
Y @-@ 12 initially enriched the uranium @-@ 235 content to between 13 and 15 percent , and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to the Manhattan Project 's weapons design laboratory , the Los Alamos Laboratory , in March 1944 . Only 1 part in 5 @,@ 825 of the uranium feed emerged as final product . Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process . Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10 percent of the uranium @-@ 235 feed by January 1945 . In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched ( 1 @.@ 4 percent ) feed from the new S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant . The next month it received enhanced ( 5 percent ) feed from the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant . By August K @-@ 25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks .
The Alpha tracks began to suspend operations on 4 September 1945 , and ceased operation completely on 22 September . The last two Beta tracks went into full operation in November and December 1945 , processing feed from K @-@ 25 and the new K @-@ 27 . By May 1946 , studies suggested that the gaseous plants could fully enrich the uranium by themselves without accidentally creating a critical mass . After a trial showed this was the case , Groves ordered all but one Beta track at Y @-@ 12 shut down in December 1946 . Y @-@ 12 remained in use for nuclear weapons processing and materials storage . A production facility for the hydrogen bomb used in Operation Castle in 1954 was hastily installed in 1952 .
= = = K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant = = =
The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion . Graham 's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass , so in a box containing a semi @-@ permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases , the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules . The gas leaving the container is somewhat enriched in the lighter molecules , while the residual gas is somewhat depleted . The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes , with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture . Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey , Karl P. Cohen and John R. Dunning .
In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600 @-@ stage gaseous diffusion plant . On 14 December , M. W. Kellogg accepted an offer to construct the plant , which was codenamed K @-@ 25 . A cost plus fixed fee contract was negotiated , eventually totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 million . A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project , headed by Percival C. Keith , one of Kellogg 's vice presidents . The process faced formidable technical difficulties . The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride had to be used , as no substitute could be found , and the motors and pumps would have to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas . The biggest problem was the design of the barrier , which would have to be strong , porous and resistant to corrosion by uranium hexafluoride . The best choice for this seemed to be nickel . Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel . A six @-@ stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process , but the Norris @-@ Adler prototype proved to be too brittle . A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex , the Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Bakelite Corporation . In January 1944 , Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production .
Kellex 's design for K @-@ 25 called for a four @-@ story U @-@ shaped structure 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) long containing 54 contiguous buildings . These were divided into nine sections . Within these were cells of six stages . The cells could be operated independently , or consecutively within a section . Similarly , the sections could be operated separately or as part of a single cascade . A survey party began construction by marking out the 500 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 km2 ) site in May 1943 . Work on the main building began in October 1943 , and the six @-@ stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944 . In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages of the plant , directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540 @-@ stage side feed unit , which became known as K @-@ 27 . Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor , Union Carbide and Carbon , on 11 September 1945 . The total cost , including the K @-@ 27 plant completed after the war , came to $ 480 million .
The production plant commenced operation in February 1945 , and as cascade after cascade came online , the quality of the product increased . By April 1945 , K @-@ 25 had attained a 1 @.@ 1 percent enrichment and the output of the S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed . Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7 percent enrichment . In August , the last of the 2 @,@ 892 stages commenced operation . K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period , when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants . Uranium was enriched by the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion process until 1985 ; the plants were then decommissioned and decontaminated . A 235 MW coal @-@ fired power station was included for reliability and to provide variable frequency , although most electric power came from the TVA .
= = = S @-@ 50 liquid thermal diffusion plant = = =
The thermal diffusion process was based on Sydney Chapman and David Enskog 's theory , which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient , the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end . Since hot gases tend to rise and cool ones tend to fall , this can be used as a means of isotope separation . This process was first demonstrated by H. Clusius and G. Dickel in Germany in 1938 . It was developed by US Navy scientists , but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project . This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility , but the inter @-@ service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part .
The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson 's direction , but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944 , when Captain William S. Parsons , the naval officer who was in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos , brought Robert Oppenheimer , the director there , news of encouraging progress in the Navy 's experiments on thermal diffusion . Oppenheimer wrote to Groves suggesting that the output of a thermal diffusion plant could be fed into Y @-@ 12 . Groves set up a committee consisting of Warren K. Lewis , Eger Murphree and Richard Tolman to investigate the idea , and they estimated that a thermal diffusion plant costing $ 3 @.@ 5 million could enrich 110 pounds ( 50 kg ) of uranium per week to nearly 0 @.@ 9 percent uranium @-@ 235 . Groves approved its construction on 24 June 1944 .
Groves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of Cleveland , Ohio , to build the thermal diffusion plant , which was designated S @-@ 50 . Groves ' advisers , Karl Cohen and W. I. Thompson from Standard Oil , estimated that it would take six months to build . Groves gave Ferguson just four . Plans called for the installation of 2 @,@ 142 forty @-@ eight @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 15 m ) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks . Inside each column were three concentric tubes . Steam , obtained from the nearby K @-@ 25 powerhouse at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch ( 690 kPa ) and temperature of 545 ° F ( 285 ° C ) , flowed downward through the innermost 1 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 32 mm ) nickel pipe , while water at 155 ° F ( 68 ° C ) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe . Isotope separation occurred in the uranium hexafluoride gas between the nickel and copper pipes .
Work commenced on 9 July 1944 , and S @-@ 50 began partial operation in September . Ferguson operated the plant through a subsidiary known as Fercleve . The plant produced just 10 @.@ 5 pounds ( 4 @.@ 8 kg ) of 0 @.@ 852 percent uranium @-@ 235 in October . Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months , but in June 1945 it produced 12 @,@ 730 pounds ( 5 @,@ 770 kg ) . By March 1945 , all 21 production racks were operating . Initially the output of S @-@ 50 was fed into Y @-@ 12 , but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series . S @-@ 50 became the first stage , enriching from 0 @.@ 71 percent to 0 @.@ 89 percent . This material was fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K @-@ 25 plant , which produced a product enriched to about 23 percent . This was , in turn , fed into Y @-@ 12 .
In early September Nichols appointed a production control committee , headed by Major A. V. ( Pete ) Peterson . Peterson 's staff tried various combinations , using mechanical calculating machines , and decided that the S @-@ 50 production should be fed to K @-@ 25 rather than Y @-@ 12 , which was done in April 1945 . The charts also showed that the proposed top stages for K @-@ 25 should be abandoned , as should Lawrence 's recommendation to add more alpha stages to the Y @-@ 12 plant . Groves accepted their proposal to add more base units to the K @-@ 27 gaseous @-@ diffusion plant and one more beta stage track for Y @-@ 12 . These additions were estimated to cost $ 100 million , with completion in February 1946 . Soon after Japan surrendered in August 1945 , Peterson recommended that S @-@ 50 be shut down . The Manhattan District ordered this on 4 September 1945 . The last uranium hexafluoride was sent to K @-@ 25 , and the plant had ceased operation by 9 September 1945 . S @-@ 50 was completely demolished in 1946 .
= = = Electric power = = =
Despite protests from TVA that it was unnecessary , the Manhattan District built a coal @-@ fired power plant at K @-@ 25 with eight 25 @,@ 000 KW generators . Steam generated from the K @-@ 25 power plant was subsequently used by S @-@ 50 . Additional power lines were laid from the TVA hydroelectric plants at Norris Dam and Watts Bar Dam , and the Clinton Engineer Works was given its own electrical substations at K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 . By 1945 , power sources were capable of supplying Oak Ridge with up to 310 @,@ 000 KW , of which 200 @,@ 000 KW was earmarked for Y @-@ 12 , 80 @,@ 000 KW for K @-@ 25 , 23 @,@ 000 KW for the township , 6 @,@ 000 KW for S @-@ 50 and 1 @,@ 000 KW for X @-@ 10 . Peak demand occurred in August 1945 , when all the facilities were running . The peak load was 298 @,@ 800 KW on 1 September 1945 .
= = Township = =
Planning for a " Government village " to house the workers at the Clinton Engineer Works began in June 1942 . Because the site was remote , it was believed more convenient and secure for the workers to live on the site . The gentle slopes of Black Oak Ridge , from which the new town of Oak Ridge got its name , were selected as a suitable location . Brigadier General Lucius D. Clay , the deputy chief of staff of the United States Army Services of Supply , reminded Marshall of a wartime limit of $ 7 @,@ 500 per capita for individual quarters , but Groves , Nichols and Marshall saw no prospect that the kind of workers they needed would be willing to live in substandard accommodations . The first plan , submitted by Stone & Webster on 26 October 1942 , was for a residential community of 13 @,@ 000 people .
As Stone & Webster began work on the production facilities , it became clear that building the township as well would be beyond its capacity . The Army therefore engaged the architectural and engineering firm Skidmore , Owings & Merrill to design and build the township . The John B. Pierce Foundation were brought in as a consultant . In turn , Skidmore , Owings & Merrill brought in numerous subcontractors . This first phase of construction became known as the East Town . It included some 3 @,@ 000 family dwellings , an administrative center , three shopping centers , three grade schools for 500 children each and a high school for 500 , recreation buildings , men 's and women 's dormitories , cafeterias , a medical services building and a 50 @-@ bed hospital . The emphasis was on speed of construction and getting around wartime shortages of materials . Where possible , fiberboard and gypsum board were used instead of wood , and foundations were made from concrete blocks rather than poured concrete . The work was completed in early 1944 .
In addition to the East Town , a self @-@ contained community known as the East Village , with 50 family units , its own church , dormitories and a cafeteria , was built near the Elza gate . This was intended as a segregated community for Black people , but by the time it was completed , it was required by white people . Black people were instead housed in " hutments " ( one @-@ room shacks ) in segregated areas , some in " family hutments " created by joining two regular hutments together .
The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District . One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge although the name of the district did not change . In September 1943 the administration of community facilities was outsourced to Turner Construction Company through a subsidiary , the Roane @-@ Anderson Company . The company was paid a fee of $ 25 @,@ 000 per month on a cost @-@ plus contract , about 1 percent of the $ 2 @.@ 8 million monthly cost of running the town facilities . Roane @-@ Anderson did not take over everything at once . A phased takeover started with Laundry No. 1 on 17 October 1943 . Transportation and garbage collection soon followed . It assumed responsibility for water and sewage in November , and electricity in January 1944 . The number of Roane @-@ Anderson workers peaked at around 10 @,@ 500 in February 1945 , including concessionaires and subcontractors . Thereafter , numbers declined to 2 @,@ 905 direct employees and 3 @,@ 663 concessionaires and subcontractors when the Manhattan Project ended on 31 December 1946 .
By mid @-@ 1943 , it had become clear that the initial estimates of the size of the town had been too low , and a second phase of construction was required . Plans now called for a town of 42 @,@ 000 people . Work began in the fall of 1943 , and continued into the late summer of 1944 . Hospitals were expanded , as were the police and fire services , and the telephone system . Only 4 @,@ 793 of a planned total of 6 @,@ 000 family houses were built , mostly on the East Town area and the undeveloped stretch along Tennessee State Route 61 . They were supplemented by 55 new dormitories , 2 @,@ 089 trailers , 391 hutments , a cantonment area of 84 hutments and 42 barracks . Some 2 @,@ 823 of the family units were prefabricated off @-@ site . The high school was expanded to cater for 1 @,@ 000 students . Two additional primary schools were built , and existing ones were expanded so that they could cater for 7 @,@ 000 students .
Although expected to accommodate the needs of the entire workforce , by late 1944 expansion of both the electromagnetic and gaseous diffusion plants led to forecasts of a population of 62 @,@ 000 . This prompted another round of construction that saw an additional 1 @,@ 300 family units and 20 dormitories built . More shopping and recreational facilities were added , the schools were expanded to cater for 9 @,@ 000 students , and a 50 @-@ bed annex was added to the hospital . The number of school children reached 8 @,@ 223 in 1945 . Few issues resonated more with the scientists and highly skilled workers than the quality of the education system . Although school staff were nominally employees of the Anderson County Education Board , the school system was run autonomously , with federal funding under the supervision of administrators appointed by the Army . Teachers enjoyed salaries that were considerably higher than those of Anderson County . The population of Oak Ridge peaked at 75 @,@ 000 in May 1945 , by which time 82 @,@ 000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works , and 10 @,@ 000 by Roane @-@ Anderson .
In addition to the township , there were a number of temporary camps established for construction workers . It was initially intended that the construction workers should live off @-@ site , but the poor condition of the roads and a shortage of accommodations in the area made commuting long and difficult , and in turn made it difficult to find and retain workers . Construction workers therefore came to be housed in large hutment and trailer camps . The largest , the trailer camp at Gamble Valley , had four thousand units . Another , at Happy Valley , held 15 @,@ 000 people . The population of the construction camps declined as the construction effort tapered off , but they continued to be occupied in 1946 .
The main shopping area was Jackson Square , with about 20 shops . The Army attempted to keep prices down by encouraging competition , but this met with limited success due to the captive nature of the population , and the requirements of security , which meant that firms and goods could not freely move in and out . The Army could give prospective concessionaires only vague information about how many people were in or would be in the town , and concessions were only for the duration of the war . Concessions were therefore charged a percentage of their profits in rental rather than a fixed fee . The Army avoided imposing draconian price controls , but limited prices to those of similar goods in Knoxville . By 1945 , community amenities included 6 recreation halls , 36 bowling alleys , 23 tennis courts , 18 ball parks , 12 playgrounds , a swimming pool , a 9 @,@ 400 @-@ volume library , and a newspaper .
= = Personnel = =
From 1 April 1943 , access to the Clinton Engineer Works was strictly controlled , with wire fences , guarded gates , and guards patrolling the perimeter . All employees had to sign a security declaration , the purpose of which was to make them aware of possible penalties under the Espionage Act of 1917 . Noting the distillation facilities and their high energy consumption , " I thought they were making sour mash to drop on the Germans , get them all drunk , " engineer Benjamin Bederson recalled , before realizing the facilities were enriching nuclear isotopes . Mail was censored , and lie detectors were employed in security checks . Everyone was issued with a color @-@ coded badge that restricted where they could go . Despite the security , the Clinton Engineer Works was penetrated by atomic spies George Koval and David Greenglass , who passed secrets to the Soviet Union .
Occupational health and safety presented a challenge , because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals , using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures , and working with high voltages , not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials . Accidents represented unacceptable numbers of work days lost , and a vigorous safety program was instituted . Since it did not matter where accidents occurred , this included safety off the job , in homes and in the schools . Safety indoctrination was included in job training , and safety training courses were held . Safety posters , manuals and films were distributed . In December 1945 , the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record . The Clinton Engineer Works also received an award of merit in the National Traffic Safety Contest . Many workers had to drive long distances over poorly built and inadequately maintained roads . There were 21 deaths from motor vehicles at the Clinton Engineer Works : two in 1943 , nine in 1944 , eight in 1945 and two in 1946 . This represented a better road safety record than other towns of comparable size .
The citizens of Oak Ridge were not allowed to have any form of local government ; but the state of Tennessee , concerned over the potential loss of tax revenue , did not cede sovereignty over the land . The residents of Oak Ridge therefore did not live on a federal reservation , and were entitled to vote in state and county elections . However , notice of the Clinton City elections was withheld by local authorities until a week after the deadline to pay the poll tax . On the day of a 1945 referendum on whether Anderson should remain a dry county , the Edgemoor Bridge was suddenly closed for repairs , and the dry vote carried . A subsequent vote in 1947 reversed this result , with 4 @,@ 653 dry votes compared to 5 @,@ 888 wet ; 5 @,@ 369 of the wet votes came from Oak Ridge .
This was but one point of difference between Oak Ridge residents and the rest of Anderson County . While most Oak Ridge residents had high school diplomas , and many had college degrees , the average education level of adults in Anderson County was only 6 @.@ 8 years . Oak Ridge residents demanded , and Groves insisted on , schools with fine teachers and first @-@ rate facilities . To achieve this , the Manhattan District paid teachers nearly twice as much as Anderson County . The consequent drain of qualified teachers from surrounding areas aroused considerable resentment .
The Manhattan District accepted that wages and salaries had to be high enough to allow contractors to hire and retain good workers . It generally allowed wages and salaries to be paid by contractors as they saw fit , subject to limits imposed by wartime national wage and price controls intended to limit inflation . Salaries above $ 9 @,@ 000 had to be approved by Patterson and Groves .
The War Production Board was asked to keep stores in Oak Ridge well @-@ stocked in order to reduce absenteeism among the workers . When shortages did occur , the relatively well @-@ paid Oak Ridge residents bought up scarce goods in surrounding areas . In both cases , they attracted the ire of their residents . Personnel employed by the Manhattan District were not exempted from being drafted under the Selective Service System . Efforts were made to employ draft
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freeway was completed around Morgan as well . By 1971 , most of the western portions of the freeway had been constructed with two sections remaining that had at @-@ grade intersections . Along the concurrency , there were gaps between Brigham City and Pleasant View , and one small gap near the Devil 's Slide .
The I @-@ 80N designation was changed to I @-@ 84 in 1977 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials , over objections from the Washington State Department of Transportation and the Idaho Transportation Department , and with the support of UDOT and the Oregon Department of Transportation . By 1978 , construction of I @-@ 84 was complete across Utah , Oregon and most of Idaho .
In 1994 I @-@ 84 was planned to be used to transport low @-@ level radioactive waste from the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory to Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in Carlsbad , New Mexico via Wyoming . This did not start until 1999 however due to the delay in the opening of the New Mexican plant . A $ 20 million ( equivalent to $ 33 @.@ 9 million in 2015 ) reconstruction of the US @-@ 89 interchange at the mouth of Weber Canyon was financed partly by the funding obtained by the state in preparation for the 2002 Winter Olympics in 1998 , and was scheduled to begin in 2000 . Reconstruction of a 10 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 km ) segment of I @-@ 84 between Mountain Green and Morgan was done between 2004 and 2005 at a cost of $ 19 million ( equivalent to $ 25 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) . One of the sub @-@ contractors on the job was found guilty of lying about sub @-@ par work done on installation of roadside impact absorbers along this stretch .
= = Exit list = =
= Fatal Frame : Mask of the Lunar Eclipse =
Zero : Tsukihami no Kamen ( 零 〜 月蝕の仮面 〜 , lit . Zero : Mask of the Lunar Eclipse ) , commonly referred to as Fatal Frame / Project Zero : Mask of the Lunar Eclipse in Western territories , is a survival horror video game developed by Tecmo Koei , Grasshopper Manufacture and Nintendo . It was published by Nintendo for the Wii video game console . The fourth installment in the Fatal Frame series and the first on a Nintendo console , it was released in Japan on July 31 , 2008 . Despite a European release being announced , the game has never been released outside Japan . A fan translation was released in 2010 .
The story , set on the fictional Rougetsu Island , focuses on Ruka Minazuki , one of a group of girls who was held captive on the island for unknown reasons . Years after their rescue , still suffering from amnesia , Ruka and the two surviving girls return to the island to seek out the truth . The game 's title stems from a ritual mask key to the story . The gameplay , as with previous entries in the series , revolves around the main character exploring environments and tackling hostile ghosts using the Camera Obscura .
The idea for Mask of the Lunar Eclipse came to series co @-@ creator Keisuke Kikuchi when he first saw the Wii hardware . Kikuchi and series co @-@ creator Makoto Shibata returned as respective producer and director , while Grasshopper Manufacture 's Goichi Suda acted as co @-@ director . The gameplay concept was making the player literally feel the fear evoked in the game . The addition of further developers to the project enabled the team to reconsider the standard formula , although it proved to be a chaotic experience . As with previous games , the theme songs were sung by Tsuki Amano . When released , it became the best @-@ selling entry in the series to that date , and received mixed to positive from Japanese and Western critics .
= = Gameplay = =
Zero : Tsukihami no Kamen , commonly referred to in the West as Mask of the Lunar Eclipse , has players taking control of four different character navigating a variety of different environments , including traditional Japanese houses and a Meiji @-@ era sanatorium @-@ turned @-@ hotel . Environments are navigated from a third @-@ person perspective using the Wii Nunchuk . During exploration , the characters are regularly attacked by hostile spirits , who take away the characters ' health through touch .
The two central characters can fight off and defeat spirits using the series ' recurring Camera Obscura , a camera that captures spirits . Shots taken by the Camera Obscura deal varying amounts of damage based on how close the ghost is , the angle of the shot , and the film used . These factors are taken together to determine how many points the player is awarded for a shot . The most damaging type of shot is the " Fatal Frame " , which is achieved if a shot is taken when the ghost is attacking . Points are used as the in @-@ game currency , which can be used to at save points to purchase items such as medicine and other items . Blue gems scattered around the environment can be used to upgrade the Camera Obscura , with some upgrades speeding reload time or enabling shots to deal more damage . Types of film range from an unlimited low @-@ quality film that deals little damage to rarer and more powerful film types .
In addition to the Camera Obscura , the character can use a flashlight to explore their surroundings , and one character has access to a special Spirit Flashlight , which uses moonlight to pacify spirits . The Camera Obscura and flashlights are controlled with the Wii Remote . Should a ghost attack , gestures with the Wii Remote can shake them off . The " New Game + " mode unlocks additional costumes and further items and upgrades , many of them dependent on how much the player has scored during the initial playthrough . On higher difficulties , the number of items available is reduced .
= = Synopsis = =
In 1970 , ten years prior to the start of the game , suspected serial killer Yō Haibara kidnapped five girls from their rooms in a sanatorium on Rougetsu , an island south of Honshu . The girls were rescued from a cavern beneath the sanatorium by detective Chōshirō Kirishima , who had been pursuing Haibara , but they had all lost their memories . Two years later , a catastrophe strikes Rougetsu Island which kills off the inhabitants . Eight years later , in the present , two of the rescued girls have died in mysterious circumstances and two of the survivors , Misaki Asō and Madoka Tsukimori , return to discover the truth about their pasts . Despite being warned by her mother not to return to the island , fellow survivor Ruka Minazuki goes there to find Misaki and Madoka . Shortly before Ruka 's arrival , Madoka is killed by hostile spirits . Chōshirō , the detective who rescued them , also returns to the island to both find Ruka and continue his pursuit of Haibara . During her exploration , Ruka learns that she and Misaki are suffering from a malady known as the Hidden Moon Disease , which affects their memories and identity and is spread by touch and vision . Each character also collects pieces of a mask used in a local ritual dance to ease the passing of souls into the afterlife . During the course of the story , it is revealed that Misaki arranged their return to the island so their illness might be cured , and that Chōshirō himself died ten years before , and is now helping the girls guided by the benevolent spirit of Ruka 's mother Sayaka .
It is gradually revealed that Ruka 's father Souya had become obsessed with helping complete a ritual dance that would purify the islanders of the Hidden Moon Disease , which required the construction of a special mask for the dancer . Ruka herself became infected , and was treated at the sanatorium along with the other girls and the dancer , Haibara 's sister Sakuya . The ritual was a catastrophic failure , with Sakuya reaching the final stage of the Hidden Moon Disease and falling into a coma , while the other girls collapsed and had their memories wiped . Two years after Ruka and Sayaka left the island , Sakuya woke and spread the Hidden Moon Disease across the island , killing all the inhabitants including Souya . To lay her to rest , the ritual must be completed , and for that her mask must be restored . Ruka comes into possession of all the mask fragments , which reform into the complete mask . Confronting Sakuya atop the island 's lighthouse , she manages to pacify her with a sacred tune communicated to her by Sayaka , then Chōshirō puts the mask on Sakuya , completing the ritual and allowing all the island 's spirits to pass into the afterlife . Depending on the game 's difficulty setting , Misaki 's fate is either left unknown , or her illness is cured after she is saved by Madoka 's spirit and she leaves the island with Ruka .
= = Development = =
Mask of the Lunar Eclipse was co @-@ developed by Koei Tecmo , Grasshopper Manufacture and Nintendo Software Planning & Development . Koei Tecmo was in charge of the gameplay and atmosphere , Grasshopper Manufacture were put in charge of character motion and other unspecified aspects of development , while Nintendo managed general production . Makoto Shibata and Keisuke Kikuchi , series creators and respective director and producer of the previous games in the series , returned to their respective posts . In addition , Grasshopper Manufacture 's Goichi Suda acted as a co @-@ director . According to a later interview with Kikuchi , he was first inspired when he saw the potential in the Wii hardware , and was the first to propose the project to Nintendo . The main development goal for Mask of the Lunar Eclipse was " feeling fear with [ the player 's ] body " , with gameplay functions closely tied into the Wii hardware . Among these were feeding sounds through the Wii remote 's speaker and creating effects using the rumble function . An adjustment they made was to the camera perspective : while it had been placed at a distance in previous games , it was shifted to an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder third @-@ person view so the control of the torch was more realistic . This raised concerns as to the pace of the character 's movement . Taking into account similar criticisms from fans of earlier games , the characters ' speed was increased . This aspect was undergoing revision until quite late into development .
When designing the game 's main setting , the team moved away from the traditional enclosed Japanese mansions from previous games in favor of somewhere that blended Eastern and Western architectural tastes to create different gameplay opportunities , described in @-@ game as a Meiji @-@ era hotel . Traditional mansion settings were also included , with more locations being present than in previous games . The color yellow was chosen as the game 's image color , while the key words used to describe the plot were " memory " , " moon " and " mask " . The subtitle refers to the mask that is key to the Kagura Dance Ritual . The mask in turn tied into story themes of the phases of the moon , the nature of memory , and music . During development , Shibata and Kikuchi felt that Grasshopper and Nintendo 's involvement helped them reevaluate the series formula and try out new things . After development , Kikuchi said that the three companies ' varying ideas on the project made the development " a complete and utter mess " , though it ultimately worked out well . The characters were designed by Takeyasu Sawaki , who had previously worked in that capacity on Ōkami and El Shaddai : Ascension of the Metatron . As with the previous two games , Mask of the Lunar Eclipse features songs by Japanese singer Tsuki Amano : the theme song " Zero Tuning " , and the ending theme " Noise " .
= = Release = =
Mask of the Lunar Eclipse was first revealed in January 2008 at a Tecmo press conference . It was the first series title to be developed and released for a Nintendo console . It was released on July 31 , 2008 . Its release was timed to coincide with a traditional time in Japan for people to tell each other ghost stories . Upon release , the game featured several bugs affecting player progress through the game , as revealed in a message to fans from Nintendo . While no North American release was planned , a European release was in the works and was briefly outed by a French gaming magazine . After the leak , Nintendo stated that a European release had been planned , but since then the localization had been cancelled . In addition to Nintendo , no other third @-@ party publisher would publish the game overseas , leaving Mask of the Lunar Eclipse as a Japan @-@ exclusive title .
After Nintendo 's announcement , a three @-@ person team decided to create a fan translation of the game . The development process was compared by them to " a Frankenstein 's monster " , referring to how they needed to assess the data , construct a development schedule for the translation patch , going through theories about file structure , then creating a tool to access the game 's data files . The modification program was then tested on Super Smash Bros. Brawl by a dedicated tester , then sent back for refinement . They worked hard to preserve the atmosphere of the original game , along with attempting to make the translation as true as possible without being overly verbose . To help translate the text , they posted the script in segments on internet forums , then later restricted access to the work due to quality concerns . During this time , they found several competent translators who were able to do the final 20 % of script translation . It took several months for the entire process of extracting text , translation , then patching in the translated text to be completed . The patch ended up being quite large as the game designers had split the game into hundreds of different data archives and suitable accommodations and adjustments needed to be made for this . The fan translation was released on January 19 , 2010 . The patch was designed to work on any Wii device , bypassing the console 's region locking , and included a newly @-@ made costume for the main character . While receiving no official localized title , it has commonly been dubbed " Fatal Frame / Project Zero IV " or " Fatal Frame / Project Zero : Mask of the Lunar Eclipse " by journalists .
= = Reception = =
During its debut , Mask of the Lunar Eclipse sold approximately 30 @,@ 000 units , making one of the weaker debuts of the series . As of the end of December 2008 , the game had sold nearly 75 @,@ 000 units . While these were low sales compared to other Wii titles , it made Mask of the Lunar Eclipse the best @-@ selling title in the series to that date .
The reviewers for Famitsu were united in their opinion that , while not a revolutionary title within the series , it was a high @-@ quality game . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed regularly noted its similarity to previous entries in the series , priasing the atmosphere and gameplay , while criticizing the control scheme and its negative effect on combat and navigation . In a preview of the game , Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku praised the game 's multiple storylines and settings , but was mixed about its familiar gameplay and again criticized the controls . In closing , he generally cited it as a good entry in the series . Matthew Blundon of Nintendo Life , echoing the criticism of the controls , said that it would please hardcore horror game players . Albert Lichi of Cubed3 again faulted the control set up . In most other respects he was highly positive , praising the story , combat and graphics , calling it a " labor of love " on the part of the development team . In its import review , Edge Magazine generally enjoyed the unsettling atmosphere that the developers had succeeded in creating by using the dark settings and close @-@ set camera angle . The reviewer also defended the often @-@ criticized control scheme , saying that it added to the feeling of fear . In closing , the reviewer said that the subtlety of the game showed the flaws other horror franchises such as Silent Hill .
= 1878 Wallingford tornado =
The Wallingford Tornado was an F4 tornado that struck the town of Wallingford , Connecticut , on August 9 , 1878 . The violent tornado destroyed most of the town , killing about 34 people — estimated totals varied — and injuring at least 70 , many severely . This was the deadliest tornado ever to strike the state of Connecticut , and the second deadliest ever in New England , after the Worcester tornado of 1953 .
= = Before the storm = =
The storm system that eventually spawned the Wallingford tornado produced damaging winds and at least one tornado far before it reached the town . The first tornado from this storm system touched down in South Kent , unroofing houses , blowing down barns , and uprooting and tossing trees into the air . It moved steadily southeast for 12 mi ( 19 km ) , moving just south of New Preston , and then through Washington , before turning north and dissipating . The next path of damage started further north along the Shepaug River . It is unknown whether this was a tornado or straight @-@ line winds , but the damage path continued southeast for three miles before disappearing again . More damage was reported near Waterbury , where a house was unroofed two miles west of the town . In the town itself , branches and chimneys were damaged .
As the storm approached Wallingford , observers described a black , rolling funnel , with clouds blowing in from all directions . This system passed directly over Cheshire , producing a strong wind at the surface which caused some minor damage . The storm then moved directly towards Wallingford .
= = The Wallingford tornado = =
In Wallingford , the day prior to the tornado was clear , and said to be " one of the loveliest [ days ] of the season " . At around 5 p.m. the sky began to get dark , and by 5 : 30 p.m. the air was very black . At around 6 p.m. , the air at the surface was calm , but lightning began to fill the sky , and the clouds began moving at a very rapid pace , frightening some residents into shelter .
The tornado started at 6 : 15 p.m. local time as a waterspout over Community Lake , just west of town . It then moved through the center of town along Christian Street , damaging almost every structure as it went . The tornado tore houses from their foundations , throwing some more than 600 feet ( 180 meters ) . A receipt from the town was later found 65 miles ( 105 km ) east in Peacedale , Rhode Island . Large trees were uprooted and snapped , and those that were still standing were stripped of small limbs and leaves . The Catholic Church was blown to bits , and heavy tombstones in the nearby cemetery were tossed around . The brand @-@ new brick high school building was almost completely destroyed . The tornado 's path through town was only two miles long , but the damage path was up to 600 feet ( 180 meters ) wide .
More tornadic damage was reported in southern Durham and Killingworth , with some homes severely damaged , but there were some minor injuries , one young woman in Killingworth was injured by shards of glass from a breaking window . Some sources insist that the Wallingford tornado dissipated a few miles west of the town , and this was an entirely separate tornado , but without a modern damage survey it is impossible to tell . The parent storm finally moved out over the ocean around 8 PM .
= = Aftermath = =
A district schoolhouse was converted into a temporary morgue immediately after the storm ; 21 bodies were discovered and placed there that night . One person was found dead 3300 feet ( 1 km ) from where he had been standing . The tornado brought down telegraph lines and poles around the area , so assistance from physicians in nearby towns took more than an hour . More than 50 special police were sworn in to prevent looting , and to control the crowds of curious onlookers who had come by train from surrounding cities .
Thirty five homes were completely destroyed , with many more being unroofed or receiving some sort of damage . Damage estimates were around $ 150 @,@ 000 from buildings alone ; utilities and railway facilities received a lot of damage as well . Final estimates were around $ 250 @,@ 000 ( $ 5 @.@ 3 million when adjusted for inflation ) .
Tornadoes are not very uncommon in the state of Connecticut , but tornadoes of this power are rare . Though tornadoes have only been officially rated on the Fujita scale since 1950 , this tornado has been estimated to be of F4 @-@ intensity on the scale . This would make it one of only three tornadoes of this intensity to ever affect the state , as of 2008 . Thirty @-@ four people were killed by the tornado — thirty @-@ one more than the second @-@ deadliest Connecticut tornado — and 70 others injured .
= William of Tyre =
William of Tyre ( Latin : Willelmus Tyrensis ; c . 1130 – 29 September 1186 ) was a medieval prelate and chronicler . As archbishop of Tyre , he is sometimes known as William II to distinguish him from a predecessor , William of Malines . He grew up in Jerusalem at the height of the Kingdom of Jerusalem , which had been established in 1099 after the First Crusade , and he spent twenty years studying the liberal arts and canon law in the universities of Europe .
Following William 's return to Jerusalem in 1165 , King Amalric made him an ambassador to the Byzantine Empire . William became tutor to the king 's son , the future King Baldwin IV , whom William discovered to be a leper . After Amalric 's death , William became chancellor and archbishop of Tyre , two of the highest offices in the kingdom , and in 1179 William led the eastern delegation to the Third Council of the Lateran . As he was involved in the dynastic struggle that developed during Baldwin IV 's reign , his importance waned when a rival faction gained control of royal affairs . He was passed over for the prestigious Patriarchate of Jerusalem , and died in obscurity , probably in 1186 .
William wrote an account of the Lateran Council and a history of the Islamic states from the time of Muhammad . Neither work survives . He is famous today as the author of a history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . William composed his chronicle in excellent Latin for his time , with numerous quotations from classical literature . The chronicle is sometimes given the title Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum ( " History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea " ) or Historia Ierosolimitana ( " History of Jerusalem " ) , or the Historia for short . It was translated into French soon after his death , and thereafter into numerous other languages . Because it is the only source for the history of twelfth @-@ century Jerusalem written by a native , historians have often assumed that William 's statements could be taken at face value . However , more recent historians have shown that William 's involvement in the kingdom 's political disputes resulted in detectable biases in his account . Despite this , he is considered the greatest chronicler of the crusades , and one of the best authors of the Middle Ages .
= = Early life = =
The Kingdom of Jerusalem was founded in 1099 at the end of the First Crusade . It was the third of four Christian territories to be established by the crusaders , following the County of Edessa and the Principality of Antioch , and followed by the County of Tripoli . Jerusalem 's first three rulers , Godfrey of Bouillon ( 1099 – 1100 ) , his brother Baldwin I ( 1100 – 1118 ) , and their cousin Baldwin II ( 1118 – 1131 ) , expanded and secured the kingdom 's borders , which encompassed roughly the same territory as modern @-@ day Israel , Palestine , and Lebanon . During the kingdom 's early decades , the population was swelled by pilgrims visiting the holiest sites of Christendom . Merchants from the Mediterranean city @-@ states of Italy and France were eager to exploit the rich trade markets of the east .
William 's family probably originated in either France or Italy , since he was very familiar with both countries . His parents were likely merchants who had settled in the kingdom and were " apparently well @-@ to @-@ do " , although it is unknown whether they participated in the First Crusade or arrived later . William was born in Jerusalem around 1130 . He had at least one brother , Ralph , who was one of the city 's burgesses , a non @-@ noble leader of the merchant community . Nothing more is known about his family , except that his mother died before 1165 .
As a child William was educated in Jerusalem , at the cathedral school in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . The scholaster , or school @-@ master , John the Pisan , taught William to read and write , and first introduced him to Latin . From the Historia it is clear that he also knew French and possibly Italian , but there is not enough evidence to determine whether he learned Greek , Persian , and Arabic , as is sometimes claimed .
Around 1145 William went to Europe to continue his education in the schools of France and Italy , especially in those of Paris and Bologna , " the two most important intellectual centers of twelfth @-@ century Christendom . " These schools were not yet the official universities that they would become in the 13th century , but by the end of the 11th century both had numerous schools for the arts and sciences . They were separate from the cathedral schools , and were established by independent professors who were masters of their field of study . Students from all over Europe gathered there to hear lectures from these masters . William studied liberal arts and theology in Paris and Orléans for about ten years , with professors who had been students of Thierry of Chartres and Gilbert de la Porrée . He also spent time studying under Robert of Melun and Adam de Parvo Ponte , among others . In Orléans , one of the pre @-@ eminent centres of classical studies , he read ancient Roman literature ( known simply as " the Authors " ) with Hilary of Orléans , and learned mathematics ( " especially Euclid " ) with William of Soissons . For six years , he studied theology with Peter Lombard and Maurice de Sully . Afterwards , he studied civil law and canon law in Bologna , with the " Four Doctors " , Hugo de Porta Ravennate , Bulgarus , Martinus Gosia , and Jacob de Boragine . William 's list of professors " gives us almost a who 's who of the grammarians , philosophers , theologians , and law teachers of the so @-@ called Twelfth @-@ Century Renaissance " , and shows that he was as well @-@ educated as any European cleric . His contemporary John of Salisbury had many of the same teachers .
= = Religious and political life in Jerusalem = =
The highest religious and political offices in Jerusalem were usually held by Europeans who had arrived on pilgrimage or crusade . William was one of the few natives with a European education , and he quickly rose through the ranks . After his return to the Holy Land in 1165 , he became canon of the cathedral at Acre . In 1167 he was appointed archdeacon of the cathedral of Tyre by Frederick de la Roche , archbishop of Tyre , with the support of King Amalric .
Amalric had come to power in 1164 and had made it his goal to conquer Egypt . Egypt had been invaded by King Baldwin I fifty years earlier , and the weak Fatimid Caliphate was forced to pay yearly tribute to Jerusalem . Amalric turned towards Egypt because Muslim territory to the east of Jerusalem had fallen under the control of the powerful Zengid sultan Nur ad @-@ Din . Nur ad @-@ Din had taken control of Damascus in 1154 , six years after the disastrous siege of Damascus by the Second Crusade in 1148 . Jerusalem could now expand only to the southwest , towards Egypt , and in 1153 Ascalon , the last Fatimid outpost in Palestine , fell to the crusaders . Nur ad @-@ Din , however , also wished to acquire Egypt , and sent his army to hinder Amalric 's plans . This was the situation in the east when William returned from Europe . In 1167 Amalric married Maria Comnena , grand @-@ niece of Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus , and in 1168 the king sent William to finalize a treaty for a joint Byzantine @-@ crusader campaign against Egypt . The expedition , Amalric 's fourth , was the first with support from the Byzantine navy . Amalric , however , did not wait for the fleet to arrive . He managed to capture Damietta , but within a few years he was expelled from Egypt by one of Nur ad @-@ Din 's generals , Saladin , who would later become Jerusalem 's greatest threat .
Meanwhile , William continued his advancement in the kingdom . In 1169 he visited Rome , possibly to answer accusations made against him by Archbishop Frederick , although if so , the charge is unknown . It is also possible that while Frederick was away on a diplomatic mission in Europe , a problem within the diocese forced William to seek the archbishop 's assistance .
On his return from Rome in 1170 he may have been commissioned by Amalric to write a history of the kingdom . He also became the tutor of Amalric 's son and heir , Baldwin IV . When Baldwin was thirteen years old , he was playing with some children , who were trying to cause each other pain by scratching each other 's arms . " The other boys gave evidence of pain by their outcries , " wrote William , " but Baldwin , although his comrades did not spare him , endured it altogether too patiently , as if he felt nothing ... It is impossible to refrain from tears while speaking of this great misfortune . " William inspected Baldwin 's arms and recognized the possible symptoms of leprosy , which was confirmed as Baldwin grew older .
Amalric died in 1174 , and Baldwin IV succeeded him as king . Nur ad @-@ Din also died in 1174 , and his general Saladin spent the rest of the decade consolidating his hold on both Egypt and Nur ad @-@ Din 's possessions in Syria , which allowed him to completely encircle Jerusalem . The subsequent events have often been interpreted as a struggle between two opposing factions , a " court party " and a " noble party . " The " court party " was led by Baldwin 's mother , Amalric 's first wife Agnes of Courtenay , and her immediate family , as well as recent arrivals from Europe who were inexperienced in the affairs of the kingdom and were in favour of war with Saladin . The " noble party " was led by Raymond III of Tripoli and the native nobility of the kingdom , who favoured peaceful co @-@ existence with the Muslims . This is the interpretation offered by William himself in the Historia , and it was taken as fact by later historians . Peter W. Edbury , however , has more recently argued that William must be considered extremely partisan as he was naturally allied with Raymond , who was responsible for his later advancement in political and religious offices . The accounts of the 13th @-@ century authors who continued the Historia in French must also be considered suspect , as they were allied to Raymond 's supporters in the Ibelin family . The general consensus among recent historians is that although there was a dynastic struggle , " the division was not between native barons and newcomers from the West , but between the king 's maternal and paternal kin . "
Miles of Plancy briefly held the regency for the underaged Baldwin IV . Miles was assassinated in October 1174 , and Raymond III was soon appointed to replace him . Raymond named William chancellor of Jerusalem , as well as archdeacon of Nazareth , and on 6 June 1175 , William was elected archbishop of Tyre to replace Frederick de la Roche , who had died in October 1174 . William 's duties as chancellor probably did not take up too much of his time ; the scribes and officials in the chancery drafted documents and it may not have even been necessary for him to be present to sign them . Instead he focused on his duties as archbishop . In 1177 he performed the funeral services for William of Montferrat , husband of Baldwin IV 's sister Sibylla , when the patriarch of Jerusalem , Amalric of Nesle , was too sick to attend .
In 1179 , William was one of the delegates from Jerusalem and the other crusader states at the Third Lateran Council ; among the others were Heraclius , archbishop of Caesarea , Joscius , bishop of Acre and William 's future successor in Tyre , the bishops of Sebastea , Bethlehem , Tripoli , and Jabala , and the abbot of Mount Sion . Patriarch Amalric and Patriarch of Antioch Aimery of Limoges were unable to attend , and William and the other bishops did not have sufficient weight to persuade Pope Alexander III of the need for a new crusade . William was , however , sent by Alexander as an ambassador to Emperor Manuel , and Manuel then sent him on a mission to the Principality of Antioch . William does not mention exactly what happened during these embassies , but he probably discussed the Byzantine alliance with Jerusalem , and Manuel 's protectorate over Antioch , where , due to pressure from Rome and Jerusalem , the emperor was forced to give up his attempts to restore a Greek patriarch . William was absent from Jerusalem for two years , returning home in 1180 .
= = Patriarchal election of 1180 = =
During William 's absence a crisis had developed in Jerusalem . King Baldwin had reached the age of majority in 1176 and Raymond III had been removed from the regency , but as a leper Baldwin could have no children and could not be expected to rule much longer . After the death of William of Montferrat in 1177 , King Baldwin 's widowed sister Sibylla required a new husband . At Easter in 1180 , the two factions were divided even further when Raymond and his cousin Bohemond III of Antioch attempted to force Sibylla to marry Baldwin of Ibelin . Raymond and Bohemond were King Baldwin 's nearest male relatives in the paternal line , and could have claimed the throne if the king died without an heir or a suitable replacement . Before Raymond and Bohemond arrived , however , Agnes and King Baldwin arranged for Sibylla to be married to a Poitevin newcomer , Guy of Lusignan , whose older brother Aimery of Lusignan was already an established figure at court .
The dispute affected William , since he had been appointed chancellor by Raymond and may have fallen out of favour after Raymond was removed from the regency . When Patriarch Amalric died on 6 October 1180 , the two most obvious choices for his successor were William and Heraclius of Caesarea . They were fairly evenly matched in background and education , but politically they were allied with opposite parties , as Heraclius was one of Agnes of Courtenay 's supporters . It seems that the canons of the Holy Sepulchre were unable to decide , and asked the king for advice ; due to Agnes ' influence , Heraclius was elected . There were rumours that Agnes and Heraclius were lovers , but this information comes from the partisan 13th @-@ century continuations of the Historia , and there is no other evidence to substantiate such a claim . William himself says almost nothing about the election and Heraclius ' character or his subsequent patriarchate , probably reflecting his disappointment at the outcome .
= = Death = =
William remained archbishop of Tyre and chancellor of the kingdom , but the details of his life at this time are obscure . The 13th @-@ century continuators claim that Heraclius excommunicated William in 1183 , but it is unknown why Heraclius would have done this . They also claim that William went to Rome to appeal to the Pope , where Heraclius had him poisoned . According to Peter Edbury and John Rowe , the obscurity of William 's life during these years shows that he did not play a large political role , but concentrated on ecclesiastical affairs and the writing of his history . The story of his excommunication , and the unlikely detail that he was poisoned , were probably an invention of the Old French continuators . William remained in the kingdom and continued to write up until 1184 , but by then Jerusalem was internally divided by political factions and externally surrounded by the forces of Saladin , and " the only subjects that present themselves are the disasters of a sorrowing country and its manifold misfortunes , themes which can serve only to draw forth lamentations and tears . "
His importance had dwindled with the victory of Agnes and her supporters , and with the accession of Baldwin V , infant son of Sibylla and William of Montferrat . Baldwin was a sickly child and he died the next year . In 1186 he was succeeded by his mother Sibylla and her second husband Guy of Lusignan , ruling jointly . William was probably in failing health by this point . Rudolf Hiestand discovered that the date of William 's death was 29 September , but the year was not recorded ; whatever the year , there was a new chancellor in May 1185 and a new archbishop of Tyre by 21 October 1186 . Hans E. Mayer concluded that William died in 1186 , and this is the year generally accepted by scholars .
William 's foresight about the misfortunes of his country was proven correct less than a year later . Saladin defeated King Guy at the Battle of Hattin in 1187 , and went on to capture Jerusalem and almost every other city of the kingdom , except the seat of William 's archdiocese , Tyre . News of the fall of Jerusalem shocked Europe and plans were made to send assistance . According to Roger of Wendover , William was present at Gisors in France in 1188 when Henry II of England and Philip II of France agreed to go on crusade : " Thereupon the king of the English first took the sign of the cross at the hands of the Archbishop of Rheims and William of Tyre , the latter of whom had been entrusted by our lord the pope with the office of legate in the affairs of the crusade in the western part of Europe . " Roger was however mistaken ; he knew that an unnamed archbishop of Tyre was present and assumed it must have been the William whose chronicle he possessed , although the archbishop in question was actually William 's successor Joscius .
= = Works = =
William reports that he wrote an account of the Third Council of the Lateran , which does not survive . He also wrote a history of the Holy Land from the time of Muhammad up to 1184 , for which he used Eutychius of Alexandria as his main source . This work seems to have been known in Europe in the 13th century but it also does not survive . August C. Krey thought William 's Arabic sources may have come from the library of the Damascene diplomat Usama ibn Munqidh , whose library was looted by Baldwin III from a shipwreck in 1154 . Alan V. Murray , however , has argued that , at least for the accounts of Persia and the Turks in his chronicle , William relied on Biblical and earlier medieval legends rather than actual history , and his knowledge " may be less indicative of eastern ethnography than of western mythography . "
= = = Latin chronicle = = =
In the present work we seem to have fallen into manifold dangers and perplexities . For , as the series of events seemed to require , we have included in this study on which we are now engaged many details about the characters , lives , and personal traits of kings , regardless of whether these facts were commendable or open to criticism . Possibly descendants of these monarchs , while perusing this work , may find this treatment difficult to brook and be angry with the chronicler beyond his just deserts . They will regard him as either mendacious or jealous — both of which charges , as God lives , we have endeavored to avoid as we would a pestilence .
William 's great work is a Latin chronicle , written between 1170 and 1184 . It contains twenty @-@ three books ; the final book , which deals with the events of 1183 and the beginning of 1184 , has only a prologue and one chapter , so it is either unfinished or the rest of the pages were lost before the whole chronicle began to be copied . The first book begins with the conquest of Syria by Umar in the seventh century , but otherwise the work deals with the advent of the First Crusade and the subsequent political history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . It is arranged , but was not written , chronologically ; the first sections to be written were probably the chapters about the invasion of Egypt in 1167 , which are extremely detailed and were likely composed before the Fatimid dynasty was overthrown in 1171 . Much of the Historia was finished before William left to attend the Lateran Council , but new additions and corrections were made after his return in 1180 , perhaps because he now realized that European readers would also be interested in the history of the kingdom . In 1184 he wrote the Prologue and the beginning of the twenty @-@ third book .
William had access to the chronicles of the First Crusade , including Fulcher of Chartres , Albert of Aix , Raymond of Aguilers , Baldric of Dol , and the Gesta Francorum , as well as other documents located in the kingdom 's archives . He used Walter the Chancellor and other now @-@ lost works for the history of the Principality of Antioch . From the end of Fulcher 's chronicle in 1127 , William is the only source of information from an author living in Jerusalem . For events that happened in William 's own lifetime , he interviewed older people who had witnessed the events about which he was writing , and drew on his own memory .
William 's classical education allowed him to compose Latin superior to that of many medieval writers . He used numerous ancient Roman and early Christian authors , either for quotations or as inspiration for the framework and organization of the Historia . His vocabulary is almost entirely classical , with only a few medieval constructions such as " loricator " ( someone who makes armour , a calque of the Arabic " zarra " ) and " assellare " ( to empty one 's bowels ) . He was capable of clever word @-@ play and advanced rhetorical devices , but he was prone to repetition of a number of words and phrases . His writing also shows phrasing and spelling which is unusual or unknown in purely classical Latin but not uncommon in medieval Latin , such as :
confusion between reflexive and possessive pronouns ;
confusion over the use of the accusative and ablative cases , especially after the preposition in ;
collapsed diphthongs ( i.e. the Latin diphthongs ae and oe are spelled simply e ) ;
the dative " mihi " ( " to me " ) is spelled " michi " ;
a single " s " is often doubled , for example in the adjectival place @-@ name ending which he often spells " -enssis " ; this spelling is also used to represent the Arabic " sh " , a sound which Latin lacks , for example in the name Shawar which he spells " Ssauar " .
= = = Literary themes and biases = = =
Despite his quotations from Christian authors and from the Bible , William did not place much emphasis on the intervention of God in human affairs , resulting in a somewhat " secular " history . Nevertheless , he included much information that is clearly legendary , especially when referring to the First Crusade , which even in his own day was already considered an age of great Christian heroes . Expanding on the accounts of Albert of Aix , Peter the Hermit is given prominence in the preaching of the First Crusade , to the point that it was he , not Pope Urban II , who originally conceived the crusade . Godfrey of Bouillon , the first ruler of crusader Jerusalem , was also depicted as the leader of the crusade from the beginning , and William attributed to him legendary strength and virtue . This reflected the almost mythological status that Godfrey and the other first crusaders held for the inhabitants of Jerusalem in the late twelfth century .
William gave a more nuanced picture of the kings of his own day . He claimed to have been commissioned to write by King Amalric himself , but William did not allow himself to praise the king excessively ; for example , Amalric did not respect the rights of the church , and although he was a good military commander , he could not stop the increasing threat from the neighbouring Muslim states . On a personal level , William admired the king 's education and his interest in history and law , but also noted that Amalric had " breasts like those of a woman hanging down to his waist " and was shocked when the king questioned the resurrection of the dead .
About Amalric 's son Baldwin IV , however , " there was no ambiguity " . Baldwin was nothing but heroic in the face of his debilitating leprosy , and he led military campaigns against Saladin even while still underaged ; William tends to gloss over campaigns where Baldwin was not actually in charge , preferring to direct his praise towards the afflicted king rather than subordinate commanders . William 's history can be seen as an apologia , a literary defense , for the kingdom , and more specifically for Baldwin 's rule . By the 1170s and 1180s , western Europeans were reluctant to support the kingdom , partly because it was far away and there were more pressing concerns in Europe , but also because leprosy was usually considered divine punishment .
William was famously biased against the Knights Templar , whom he believed to be arrogant and disrespectful of both secular and ecclesiastical hierarchies , as they were not required to pay tithes and were legally accountable only to the Pope . Although he was writing decades later , he is the earliest author to describe the actual foundation of the Templar order . He was generally favourable towards them when discussing their early days , but resented the power and influence they held in his own time . William accused them of hindering the Siege of Ascalon in 1153 ; of poorly defending a cave @-@ fortress in 1165 , for which twelve Templars were hanged by King Amalric ; of sabotaging the invasion of Egypt in 1168 ; and of murdering Assassin ambassadors in 1173 .
Compared to other Latin authors of the twelfth century , William is surprisingly favourable to the Byzantine Empire . He had visited the Byzantine court as an official ambassador and probably knew more about Byzantine affairs than any other Latin chronicler . He shared the poor opinion of Alexius I Comnenus that had developed during the First Crusade , although he was also critical of some of the crusaders ' dealings with Alexius . He was more impressed by Alexius ' son John II Comnenus ; he did not approve of John 's attempts to bring the crusader Principality of Antioch under Byzantine control , but John 's military expeditions against the Muslim states , the common enemy of both Greeks and Latins , were considered admirable . Emperor Manuel , whom William met during his visits to Constantinople , was portrayed more ambivalently , much like King Amalric . William admired him personally , but recognized that the Empire was powerless to help Jerusalem against the Muslim forces of Nur ad @-@ Din and Saladin . William was especially disappointed in the failure of the joint campaign against Egypt in 1169 . The end of the Historia coincides with the massacre of the Latins in Constantinople and the chaos that followed the coup of Andronicus I Comnenus , and in his description of those events , William was certainly not immune to the extreme anti @-@ Greek rhetoric that was often found in Western European sources .
As a medieval Christian author William could hardly avoid hostility towards the kingdom 's Muslim neighbours , but as an educated man who lived among Muslims in the east , he was rarely polemical or completely dismissive of Islam . He did not think Muslims were pagans , but rather that they belonged to a heretical sect of Christianity and followed the teachings of a false prophet . He often praised the Muslim leaders of his own day , even if he lamented their power over the Christian kingdom ; thus Muslim rulers such as Mu 'in ad @-@ Din Unur , Nur ad @-@ Din , Shirkuh , and even Jerusalem 's ultimate conqueror Saladin are presented as honourable and pious men , characteristics that William did not bestow on many of his own Christian contemporaries .
= = = Circulation of the chronicle = = =
After William 's death the Historia was copied and circulated in the crusader states and was eventually brought to Europe . In the 13th century , James of Vitry had access to a copy while he was bishop of Acre , and it was used by Guy of Bazoches , Matthew Paris , and Roger of Wendover in their own chronicles . However , there are only ten known manuscripts that contain the Latin chronicle , all of which come from France and England , so William 's work may not have been very widely read in its original form . In England , however , the Historia was expanded in Latin , with additional information from the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi , and the chronicle of Roger Hoveden ; this version was written around 1220 .
It is unknown what title William himself gave his chronicle , although one group of manuscripts uses Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum and another uses Historia Ierosolimitana . The Latin text was printed for the first time in Basel in 1549 by Nicholas Brylinger ; it was also published in the Gesta Dei per Francos by Jacques Bongars in 1611 and the Recueil des historiens des croisades ( RHC ) by Auguste @-@ Arthur Beugnot and Auguste Le Prévost in 1844 , and Bongars ' text was reprinted in the Patrologia Latina by Jacques Paul Migne in 1855 . The now @-@ standard Latin critical edition , based on six of the surviving manuscripts , was published as Willelmi Tyrensis Archiepiscopi Chronicon in the Corpus Christianorum in 1986 , by R. B. C. Huygens , with notes by Hans E. Mayer and Gerhard Rösch . The RHC edition was translated into English by Emily A. Babcock and August C. Krey in 1943 as " A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea , " although the translation is sometimes incomplete or inexact .
= = = Old French translation = = =
A translation of the Historia into Old French , made around 1223 , was particularly well @-@ circulated and had many anonymous additions made to it in the 13th century . In contrast to the surviving Latin manuscripts , there are " at least fifty @-@ nine manuscripts or fragments of manuscripts " containing the Old French translation . There are also independent French continuations attributed to Ernoul and Bernard le Trésorier . The translation was sometimes called the Livre dou conqueste ; it was known by this name throughout Europe as well as in the crusader Kingdom of Cyprus and in Cilician Armenia , and 14th @-@ century Venetian geographer Marino Sanuto the Elder had a copy of it . The French was further translated into Spanish , as the Gran Conquista de Ultramar , during the reign of Alfonso the Wise of Castile in the late 13th century . The French version was so widespread that the Renaissance author Francesco Pipino translated it back into Latin , unaware that a Latin original already existed . A Middle English translation of the French was made by William Caxton in the 15th century .
= = Modern assessment = =
William 's neutrality as an historian was often taken for granted until the late twentieth century . August C. Krey , for example , believed that " his impartiality ... is scarcely less impressive than his critical skill . " Despite this excellent reputation , D. W. T. C. Vessey has shown that William was certainly not an impartial observer , especially when dealing with the events of the 1170s and 1180s . Vessey believes that William 's claim to have been commissioned by Amalric is a typical ancient and medieval topos , or literary theme , in which a wise ruler , a lover of history and literature , wishes to preserve for posterity the grand deeds of his reign . William 's claims of impartiality are also a typical topos in ancient and medieval historical writing .
His depiction of Baldwin IV as a hero is an attempt " to vindicate the politics of his own party and to blacken those of its opponents . " As mentioned above , William was opposed to Baldwin 's mother Agnes of Courtenay , Patriarch Heraclius , and their supporters ; his interpretation of events during Baldwin 's reign was previously taken as fact almost without question . In the mid twentieth century , Marshall W. Baldwin , Steven Runciman , and Hans E. Mayer were influential in perpetuating this point of view , although the more recent re @-@ evaluations of this period by Vessey , Peter Edbury and Bernard Hamilton have undone much of William 's influence .
An often @-@ noted flaw in the Historia is William 's poor memory for dates . " Chronology is sometimes confused , and dates are given wrongly " , even for basic information such as the regnal dates of the kings of Jerusalem . For example , William gives the date of Amalric 's death as 11 July 1173 , when it actually occurred in 1174 .
Despite his biases and errors , William " has always been considered one of the greatest medieval writers . " Steven Runciman wrote that " he had a broad vision ; he understood the significance of the great events of his time and the sequence of cause and effect in history . " Christopher Tyerman calls him " the historian 's historian " , and " the greatest crusade historian of all , " and Bernard Hamilton says he " is justly considered one of the finest historians of the Middle Ages " . As the Dictionary of the Middle Ages says , " William 's achievements in assembling and evaluating sources , and in writing in excellent and original Latin a critical and judicious ( if chronologically faulty ) narrative , make him an outstanding historian , superior by medieval , and not inferior by modern , standards of scholarship . "
= = = Primary = = =
= = = Secondary = = =
= Sunday football in Northern Ireland =
Sunday football in Northern Ireland ( Ulster Scots : Sundaye fitba en Nairnairn ) has been a controversial issue . Until 2008 , the Irish Football Association ( IFA ) under IFA Article 27 , prohibited any clubs affiliated with them from playing association football matches on Sunday . The ban initially came from Northern Ireland 's Protestant Christian majority 's observance of Sunday as the Sabbath ( a day of rest ) , but was also a way to combat a perceived encroachment on their culture by Catholics . Since the abolition of the ban , teams can play matches on Sunday if they have mutual agreement , although some teams such as Linfield have club rules against such games .
The Northern Ireland national team also had a policy of not playing on Sundays . This policy was later amended to allow Northern Ireland to play on Sundays away from home before being unofficially suspended due to changes in UEFA rules regarding playing dates for international competition qualifiers . On 29 March 2015 , the national team played their first home match on a Sunday against Finland .
= = History = =
Prior to the 1930s , the IFA had no official ban on Sunday football . However , unofficially no matches were scheduled on Sundays . In 1898 , the Leinster Football Association requested permission for matches on Sunday , which was unanimously rejected by the IFA as " very detrimental to the interests of the game " . In 1901 , the Munster Football Association made a similar request which was also turned down . It is not known when the official ban on Sunday football was instituted but it is known that it was created in the 1930s . The arguments in favour of the ban when was introduced are not recorded , but it is known that the nationalist and predominantly Catholic Gaelic Athletic Association decided to play games on Sundays and the unionist and predominantly Protestant IFA felt that this was an encroachment on their " soccer territory " and their Protestant culture . It has been stated by historians that it might also have been due to strict Protestant sabbatarianism that led to the ban . When the Football Association of Ireland ( FAI ) broke away from the IFA in 1921 following allegations of the IFA having an alleged bias in favour of Belfast clubs , one of their first actions was to permit football being played on Sunday under their jurisdiction . While the IFA maintained a ban on Sunday football for all senior and junior men 's football , the independent Northern Ireland Women 's Football Association ( NIWFA ) played their matches on Sundays .
= = Effect = =
The IFA ban on football on Sundays was strictly enforced so that no club affiliated with the IFA could play football in Northern Ireland on Sundays . This included the Northern Ireland national team who also refused to play international matches on Sunday . Before the 1982 FIFA World Cup , it was noted that Northern Ireland would play France on a Sunday . As a result , the IFA relaxed their Sunday football ban to permit the Northern Ireland national team to play football on Sundays outside of Northern Ireland . As a result of this , born @-@ again Christian player Johnny Jameson refused to play for Northern Ireland in that match because it was on Sunday . In 2001 , Cliftonville attempted to play a friendly match against Derry City , who are based in County Londonderry but are affiliated with the FAI , on a Sunday . The IFA initially permitted this , but the match was cancelled after complaints from the North West of Ireland Football Association despite Cliftonville arguing that since Derry City organized it , it was outside of the IFA 's jurisdiction . The ban was also identified as causing problems for ethnic minority players ; the Chinese Football Association Northern Ireland , whose players mostly work in the catering industry , noted that its members often had " no choice " but to play on Sundays and pointed out the ban interfered with outreach efforts .
= = Abolition of ban = =
Towards the start of the 21st century , several clubs made moves to abolish the ban on Sunday football in Northern Ireland . In 2000 Newry Town put forward a motion to play football on Sunday on commercial grounds . However , it was rejected by the IFA overwhelmingly on moral grounds despite Newry Town stating they " do not wish to impinge on anyone 's Christian or moral ethics . " In 2003 , Cliftonville started a campaign to permit Sunday football if both clubs consented . In 2005 , Armagh City and Ballynure Old Boys made a similar request to play on Sundays . Again the IFA rejected it on the grounds that it would interfere with the NIWFA 's fixtures . A year later , the request was made again and members of the IFA voted in favour of it 69 @-@ 28 however they failed to reach a 75 % majority needed due to the NIWFA 's clubs voting against it and thus the Sunday football ban remained in place . Maintaining the ban meant that Northern Ireland was the only country in UEFA which had a ban on Sunday football . This decision was criticized in the media who viewed the ban as outdated . Howard Wells , the IFA chief executive , took legal advice after it was suggested that the ban on Sunday football might not be supported in the European Court of Human Rights if a lawsuit was brought against them . After the failure of the 2006 motion , the predicted legal challenge , supported by the Equality Commission , emerged on the grounds of religious discrimination .
In 2007 , despite opposition from the Democratic Unionist Party , the IFA voted 91 @-@ 14 to remove IFA Article 27 from their constitution . It was replaced by IFA Article 36.b , which stated that no football would be scheduled on Sunday , but matches on Sunday could be played if both teams and the organizing competition agreed . It also stated that no player or club could be punished if they refused to play on Sunday . The ban on Sunday football in Northern Ireland was lifted on 1 June 2008 . The first match held on Sunday since the ban was lifted was an Irish Premiership match between Glentoran and Bangor at The Oval . Before the match there was a protest against it by members of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster led by Reverend David McIlveen . Despite the lifting of the ban on Sunday football , Article 36.b has been used very rarely .
Some clubs maintain a club ban on Sunday football . Linfield , the owners of Windsor Park , used as the home ground of the Northern Ireland national team , had it written in their club rules in Article 24 that no games would be permitted on their grounds on Sundays . Since this could have prevented Windsor Park hosting cup finals or international matches , Linfield members voted to change Article 24 to state that no games involving Linfield could take place at Windsor Park on Sundays . Ballymena United decided to play a friendly tournament in the Republic of Ireland on a Sunday . As a result , one of their sponsors pulled out of the club .
Despite the scrapping of the ban on Sunday football , the Northern Ireland national team continued to negotiate the fixture dates of friendlies and international competition qualifiers so that they were not on Sundays . In 2014 , UEFA changed the match date allocation for qualifying competitions from mutual agreement between associations to randomly selected dates from a computer . The IFA were informed this might mean matches on Sunday and they signed in agreement prior to the draw for UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying . When the draw was made , it was determined that Northern Ireland would play Finland at home on 29 March 2015 in Northern Ireland 's first international match at home on Sunday . Jim Allister , leader of the Traditional Unionist Voice party , questioned the choice of date ; the IFA replied that they had no control over it but accepted that some fans might boycott the match because it was on a Sunday .
= Nuthatch =
The nuthatches constitute a genus , Sitta , of small passerine birds belonging to the family Sittidae . Characterised by large heads , short tails , and powerful bills and feet , nuthatches advertise their territory using loud , simple songs . Most species exhibit grey or bluish upperparts and a black eye stripe .
Most nuthatches breed in the temperate or montane woodlands of the Northern Hemisphere , although two species have adapted to rocky habitats in the warmer and drier regions of Eurasia . However , the greatest diversity is in Southern Asia , and similarities between the species have made it difficult to identify distinct species . All members of this genus nest in holes or crevices . Most species are non @-@ migratory and live in their habitat year @-@ round , although the North American red @-@ breasted nuthatch migrates to warmer regions during the winter . A few nuthatch species have restricted ranges and face threats from deforestation .
Nuthatches are omnivorous , eating mostly insects , nuts and seeds . They forage for insects hidden in or under bark by climbing along tree trunks and branches , sometimes upside @-@ down . They forage within their territories when breeding , but they may join mixed feeding flocks at other times . Their habit of wedging a large food item in a crevice and then hacking at it with their strong bills gives this group its English name .
= = Taxonomy = =
The nuthatch family , Sittidae , was described by René @-@ Primevère Lesson in 1828 . Sometimes the wallcreeper ( Tichodroma muraria ) , which is restricted to the mountains of southern Eurasia , is placed in the same family as the nuthatches , but in a separate subfamily " Tichodromadinae " , in which case the nuthatches are classified in the subfamily " Sittinae " . However , it is more often placed in a separate family , the Tichodromadidae . The wallcreeper is intermediate in its morphology between the nuthatches and the treecreepers , but its appearance , the texture of its plumage , and the shape and pattern of its tail suggest that it is closer to the former taxon . The nuthatch vanga of Madagascar ( formerly known as the coral @-@ billed nuthatch ) and the sittellas from Australia and New Guinea were once placed in the nuthatch family because of similarities in appearance and lifestyle , but they are not closely related . The resemblances arose via convergent evolution to fill an ecological niche .
The nuthatches ' closest relatives , other than the wallcreeper , are the treecreepers , and the two ( or three ) families are sometimes placed in a larger grouping with the wrens and gnatcatchers . This superfamily , the Certhioidea , is proposed on phylogenetic studies using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA , and was created to cover a clade of ( four or ) five families removed from a larger grouping of passerine birds , the Sylvioidea .
The nuthatches are all in the genus Sitta Linnaeus , 1758 , a name derived from sittē , Ancient Greek for this bird . Nuthatch refers to the propensity of some species to wedge a large insect or seed in a crack and hack at it with their strong bills . Species boundaries in the nuthatches are difficult to define . The red @-@ breasted nuthatch , Corsican nuthatch and Chinese nuthatch have breeding ranges separated by thousands of kilometres , but are similar in habitat preference , appearance and song . They were formerly considered to be one species , but are now normally split into three and comprise a superspecies along with the Krüper 's and Algerian nuthatch . Unusually for nuthatches , all five species excavate their own nests .
The Eurasian , chestnut @-@ vented , Kashmir and chestnut @-@ bellied nuthatches form another superspecies and replace each other geographically across Asia . They are currently considered to be four separate species , but the south @-@ Asian forms were once believed to be a subspecies of the Eurasian nuthatch . A recent change in this taxonomy is a split of the chestnut @-@ bellied nuthatch into three species , namely the Indian nuthatch , Sitta castanea , found south of the Ganges , the Burmese nuthatch , Sitta neglecta , found in southeast Asia , and the chestnut @-@ bellied nuthatch sensu strictu , S. cinnamoventris , which occurs in the Himalayas . Mitochondrial DNA studies have demonstrated that the white @-@ breasted northern subspecies of Eurasian nuthatch , S. ( europea ) arctica , is distinctive , and also a possible candidate for full species status . This split has been accepted by the British Ornithologists ' Union .
A 2006 review of Asian nuthatches suggested that there are still unresolved problems in nuthatch taxonomy and proposed splitting the genus Sitta . This suggestion would move the red- and yellow @-@ billed south Asian species ( velvet @-@ fronted , yellow @-@ billed and sulphur @-@ billed nuthatches ) to a new genus , create a third genus for the blue nuthatch , and possibly a fourth for the beautiful nuthatch .
The fossil record for this group appears to be restricted to a foot bone of an early Miocene bird from Bavaria which has been identified as an extinct representative of the climbing Certhioidea , a clade comprising the treecreepers , wallcreeper and nuthatches . It has been described as Certhiops rummeli . Two fossil species have been described in the Sitta genus : S. cuvieri Gervais , 1852 and S. senogalliensis Portis , 1888 , but probably not belong to nuthatches .
= = Description = =
Nuthatches are compact birds with short legs , compressed wings , and square 12 @-@ feathered tails . They have long , sturdy , pointed bills and strong toes with long claws . Nuthatches have blue @-@ grey backs ( violet @-@ blue in some Asian species , which also have red or yellow bills ) and white underparts , which are variably tinted with buff , orange , rufous or lilac . Although head markings vary between species , a long black eye stripe , with contrasting white supercilium , dark forehead and blackish cap is common . The sexes look similar , but may differ in underpart colouration , especially on the rear flanks and under the tail . Juveniles and first @-@ year birds can be almost indistinguishable from adults .
The sizes of nuthatches vary , from the large giant nuthatch , at 195 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) and 36 – 47 g ( 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 7 oz ) , to the small brown @-@ headed nuthatch and the pygmy nuthatch , both around 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in length and about 10 g ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) .
Nuthatches are very vocal , using an assortment of whistles , trills and calls . Their breeding songs tend to be simple and often identical to their contact calls but longer in duration . The red @-@ breasted nuthatch , which coexists with the black @-@ capped chickadee throughout much of its range , is able to understand the latter species ' calls . The chickadee has subtle call variations that communicate information about the size and risk of potential predators . Many birds recognise the simple alarm calls produced by other species , but the red @-@ breasted nuthatch is able to interpret the chickadees ' detailed variations and to respond appropriately .
= = Species = =
The species diversity for Sittidae is greatest in southern Asia ( possibly the original home of this family ) , where about 15 species occur , but it has representatives across much of the Northern Hemisphere . The currently recognised nuthatch species are tabulated below .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Members of the nuthatch family live in most of North America and Europe and throughout Asia down to the Wallace Line . Nuthatches are sparsely represented in Africa ; one species lives in a small area of northeastern Algeria and a population of the Eurasian nuthatch subspecies , S. e. hispaniensis , lives in the mountains of Morocco . Most species are resident year @-@ round . The only significant migrant is the red @-@ breasted nuthatch , which winters widely across North America , deserting the northernmost parts of its breeding range in Canada ; it has been recorded as a vagrant in Bermuda , Iceland and England .
Most nuthatches are woodland birds and the majority are found in coniferous or other evergreen forests , although each species has a preference for a particular tree type . The strength of the association varies from the Corsican nuthatch , which is closely linked with Corsican pine , to the catholic habitat of the Eurasian nuthatch , which prefers deciduous or mixed woods but breeds in coniferous forests in the north of its extensive range . However , the two species of rock nuthatches are not strongly tied to woodlands : they breed on rocky slopes or cliffs , although both move into wooded areas when not breeding . In parts of Asia where several species occur in the same geographic region , there is often an altitudinal separation in their preferred habitats .
Nuthatches prefer a fairly temperate climate ; northern species live near sea level whereas those further south are found in cooler highland habitats . Eurasian and red @-@ breasted nuthatches are lowland birds in the north of their extensive ranges , but breed in the mountains further south ; for example , Eurasian nuthatch , which breeds where the July temperature range is 16 – 27 ° C ( 61 – 81 ° F ) , is found near sea level in Northern Europe , but between 1 @,@ 750 and 1 @,@ 850 m ( 5 @,@ 740 and 6 @,@ 070 ft ) altitude in Morocco . The velvet @-@ fronted nuthatch is the sole member of the family which prefers tropical lowland forests .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Nesting , breeding and survival = = =
All nuthatches nest in cavities ; except for the two species of rock nuthatches , all use tree holes , making a simple cup lined with soft materials on which to rest eggs . In some species the lining consists of small woody objects such as bark flakes and seed husks , while in others it includes the moss , grass , hair and feathers typical of passerine birds .
Members of the red @-@ breasted nuthatch superspecies excavate their own tree holes , although most other nuthatches use natural holes or old woodpecker nests . Several species reduce the size of the entrance hole and seal up cracks with mud . The red @-@ breasted nuthatch makes the nest secure by daubing sticky conifer resin globules around the entrance , the male applying the resin outside and the female inside . The resin may deter predators or competitors ( the resident birds avoid the resin by diving straight through the entrance hole ) . The white @-@ breasted nuthatch smears blister beetles around the entrance to its nest , and it has been suggested that the unpleasant smell from the crushed insects deters squirrels , its chief competitor for natural tree cavities .
The western rock nuthatch builds an elaborate flask @-@ shaped nest from mud , dung and hair or feathers , and decorates the nest 's exterior and nearby crevices with feathers and insect wings . The nests are located in rock crevices , in caves , under cliff overhangs or on buildings . The eastern rock nuthatch builds a similar but less complex structure across the entrance to a cavity . Its nest can be quite small but may weigh up to 32 kg ( 70 lb ) . This species will also nest in river banks or tree holes and will enlarge its nest hole if it the cavity is too small .
Nuthatches are monogamous . The female produces eggs that are white with red or yellow markings ; the clutch size varies , tending to be larger for northern species . The eggs are incubated for 12 to 18 days by the female alone , or by both parents , depending on the species . The altricial ( naked and helpless ) chicks take between 21 and 27 days to fledge . Both parents feed the young , and in the case of two American species , brown @-@ headed and pygmy , helper males from the previous brood may assist the parents in feeding .
For the few species on which data are available , the average nuthatch lifespan in the wild is between 2 and 3 @.@ 5 years , although ages of up to 10 years have been recorded . The Eurasian nuthatch has an adult annual survival rate of 53 % and the male Corsican nuthatch 61 @.@ 6 % . Nuthatches and other small woodland birds share the same predators : accipiters , owls , squirrels and woodpeckers . An American study showed that nuthatch responses to predators may be linked to reproductive strategies . It measured the willingness of males of two species to feed incubating females on the nest when presented with models of a sharp @-@ shinned hawk , which hunts adult nuthatches , or a house wren , which destroys eggs . The white @-@ breasted nuthatch is shorter @-@ lived than the red @-@ breasted nuthatch , but has more young , and was found to respond more strongly to the egg predator , whereas the red @-@ breasted showed greater concern with the hawk . This supports the theory that longer @-@ lived species benefit from adult survival and future breeding opportunities while birds with shorter life spans place more value on the survival of their larger broods .
Cold can be a problem for small birds that do not migrate . Communal roosting in tight huddles can help conserve heat and several nuthatch species employ it — up to 170 pygmy nuthatches have been seen in a single roost . The pygmy nuthatch is able to lower its body temperature when roosting , conserving energy through hypothermia and a lowered metabolic rate .
= = = Feeding = = =
Nuthatches forage along tree trunks and branches and are members of the same feeding guild as woodpeckers . Unlike woodpeckers and treecreepers , however , they do not use their tails for additional support , relying instead on their strong legs and feet to progress in jerky hops . They are able to descend head @-@ first and hang upside @-@ down beneath twigs and branches . Krüper 's nuthatch can even stretch downward from an upside @-@ down position to drink water from leaves without touching the ground . Rock nuthatches forage with a similar technique to the woodland species , but seek food on rock faces and sometimes buildings . When breeding , a pair of nuthatches will only feed within their territory , but at other times will associate with passing tits or join mixed @-@ species feeding flocks .
Insects and other invertebrates are a major portion of the nuthatch diet , especially during the breeding season , when they rely almost exclusively on live prey , but most species also eat seeds during the winter , when invertebrates are less readily available . Larger food items , such as big insects , snails , acorns or seeds may be wedged into cracks and pounded with the bird 's strong bill . Unusually for a bird , the brown @-@ headed nuthatch uses a piece of tree bark as a lever to pry up other bark flakes to look for food ; the bark tool may then be carried from tree to tree or used to cover a seed cache .
All nuthatches appear to store food , especially seeds , in tree crevices , in the ground , under small stones , or behind bark flakes , and these caches are remembered for as long as 30 days . Similarly , the rock nuthatches wedge snails into suitable crevices for consumption in times of need . European nuthatches have been found to avoid using their caches during benign conditions in order to save them for harsher times .
= = Status = =
Some nuthatches , such as the Eurasian nuthatch and the North American species , have extensive ranges and large populations , and few conservation problems , although locally they may be affected by woodland fragmentation . In contrast , some of the more restricted species face severe pressures .
The endangered white @-@ browed nuthatch is found only in the Mount Victoria area of Burma , where forest up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level has been almost totally cleared and habitat between 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 500 m ( 6 @,@ 600 – 8 @,@ 200 ft ) is heavily degraded . Nearly 12 @,@ 000 people live in the Natma Taung national park which includes Mount Victoria , and their fires and traps add to the pressure on the nuthatch . The population of the white @-@ browed nuthatch , estimated at only a few thousand , is decreasing , and no conservation measures are in place . The Algerian nuthatch is found in only four areas of Algeria , and it is possible that the total population does not exceed 1 @,@ 000 birds . Fire , erosion , and grazing and disturbance by livestock have reduced the quality of the habitat , despite its location in the Taza National Park .
Deforestation has also caused population declines for the vulnerable Yunnan and yellow @-@ billed nuthatches . The Yunnan nuthatch can cope with some tree loss , since it prefers open pine woodland , but although still locally common , it has disappeared from several of the areas in which it was recorded in the early 20th century . The threat to yellow @-@ billed is particularly acute on Hainan , where more than 70 % of the woodland has been lost in the past 50 years due to shifting cultivation and the use of wood for fuel during Chinese government re @-@ settlement programmes .
Krüper 's nuthatch is threatened by urbanisation and development in and around mature coniferous forests , particularly in the Mediterranean coastal areas where the species was once numerous . A law promoting tourism came into force in Turkey in 2003 , further exacerbating the threats to their habitat . The law reduced bureaucracy and made it easier for developers to build tourism facilities and summer houses in the coastal zone where woodland loss is a growing problem for the nuthatch .
= Homer Alone =
" Homer Alone " is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 6 , 1992 . In the episode , stress from doing housework and being underappreciated at home causes Marge to have a mental breakdown and she decides to go on a vacation . She leaves for a spa called Rancho Relaxo , putting Bart and Lisa into the care of her sisters Patty and Selma and leaving Maggie at home with Homer .
The episode was written by David M. Stern and directed by Mark Kirkland . Stern had noticed that most of the writers were pitching stories about Bart and Homer , and he thought a " deeper vein of comedy " could be reached by having Marge suffer from a nervous breakdown . Originally , Marge 's trip was to a distressed mother 's institute rather than a spa . However , the plot was not well received at the table read for the episode and much of it was re @-@ written . The episode 's title references the film Home Alone which starred David Stern 's brother Daniel .
" Homer Alone " contains references to the Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner cartoons , Thelma and Louise , Home Alone , MacGyver , and the song " Baby Come Back " by Player . The episode has received generally positive reviews from critics . During its original airing on the Fox network during February sweeps , it acquired a 14 @.@ 2 Nielsen rating . The episode aired two days before the opening ceremony of the 1992 Winter Olympics .
= = Plot = =
One day , Marge becomes stressed from all of the chores she does for her family . The day is particularly stressful as she must run several errands . While driving over a bridge , she listens to the radio and hears the DJs make a cruel prank call to a man . She suddenly snaps after Maggie accidentally bursts open her bottle and floods the car with milk and parks her car in the middle of the bridge , blocking traffic . The police try to convince her to move her car , to no avail . Finally , Homer arrives and convinces her to get out of the car , and she is promptly arrested by the police . Many women sympathize with Marge 's plight , and Mayor Quimby , hoping to gain popularity , orders her release .
That night , Marge decides to unwind by taking a vacation to a spa called Rancho Relaxo . She goes alone , putting Bart and Lisa into the care of her sisters Patty and Selma and leaving Maggie at home with Homer . Marge enjoys her much @-@ needed rest while the rest of the family have difficulty adapting to life without her . Homer finds that he is lonely , and not adept at taking care of Maggie . Bart and Lisa have a hard time adjusting to life with their aunts .
Maggie , upset about her mother 's absence , makes her way out of the house looking for Marge and goes missing . After a long search by Homer and Barney , Homer calls a baby search hotline . Meanwhile , Marge has done everything she wanted to do in her vacation and calls Homer to tell him she is coming back and he should pick her up at the train station . Maggie is found on the edge of the top of an ice @-@ cream shop and is returned to Homer just in time for Marge 's arrival . That night , Marge tells Homer and the kids , who are all sleeping next to her , that she would like more help around the house ; they assure her she has nothing to worry about .
= = Production = =
" Homer Alone " was written by David M. Stern . He had noticed that most of the writers were pitching stories about Bart and Homer , and he thought a " deeper vein of comedy " could be reached by having Marge suffer from a nervous breakdown . Executive producer James L. Brooks immediately approved the idea . Originally , Marge 's trip was to a distressed mother 's institute so they could show " what made Marge tick . " However , the plot was not well received at the table read for the episode .
The writers then re @-@ wrote much of the episode , switching the institute to a spa . They also added a video appearance from the fictional actor Troy McClure , voiced by Phil Hartman . According to executive producer Al Jean , the writers often used McClure as a " panic button " when they felt an episode needed more humor . The episode 's title is a play on the 1990 film Home Alone ; David Stern 's brother Daniel had starred in the movie as one of the main antagonists .
The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland . The scene at the train station where Marge leaves for Rancho Relaxo includes a brief cameo appearance of a character modeled after Simpsons director Jim Reardon . Reardon dislikes flying , and took trains whenever possible , so the animators always tried to include him in scenes at a train station . Susie Dietter served as assistant director for the episode and animated several of the scenes for the subplot with Bart , Lisa , Patty and Selma . In a scene where Homer sings a song to Maggie , he was designed to look dishevelled because the writers had wanted him to look drunk , although no attention was called to it .
= = Cultural references = =
The beginning of the episode where Homer chases Bart is a reference to the Warner Bros. / Chuck Jones Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner cartoons . The scene freezes , during which Bart and Homer 's scientific names are given as Brat 'us Don 'thaveacow 'us and Homo Neanderthal 'us respectively . The background in the sequence references the Hanna – Barbera tradition of using backgrounds over and over and making it look like there is an " endless living room . " The scene where Marge is booked in prison references the Coen brothers film Raising Arizona .
The song that plays while Homer is on hold on the missing child hotline is " Baby Come Back " by Player . One of the films available at Rancho Relaxo is Thelma and Louise , which Marge ends up watching . " Homer Alone " is the first episode of The Simpsons that shows Patty and Selma 's fondness for MacGyver , and Selma says " Richard Dean Anderson will be in my dreams tonight . "
= = Reception = =
In its original airing on February 6 , 1992 on the Fox network during February sweeps , the episode acquired a 14 @.@ 2 Nielsen rating and was viewed in approximately 13 @.@ 08 million homes . It finished 25th in the ratings for the week of February 3 – 9 , 1992 , up from the season 's average rank of 37th . The Simpsons was the highest rated show on Fox that week .
Since airing , the episode has received generally positive reviews from critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " After the first few minutes , this episode becomes less about Marge than the family 's reliance on her . Bart and Lisa 's torturous time at Patty and Selma 's is wonderful [ ... ] , but it 's Homer losing Maggie , and working out what to tell Marge upon her return , that provides the best jokes . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson felt that the episode " comes close to finding the series in a rut , as it sort of offers another iteration of the ' Homer 's a bad father ' theme .
However , the emphasis on Marge 's issues makes it different , and it 's also fun to see life at Patty and Selma 's place . It 's another solid show . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode 3 / 5 , writing , " The episode serves only to demonstrate what is already obvious : that Marge holds the family together .
It 's entertaining to see Homer struggle with the most basic of parenting skills , but this happens at the expense of all the other episodes this season that show him to be a good father ( albeit flawed ) . Still , it 's nice to see Marge get her own show . "
= Part of Me ( Katy Perry song ) =
" Part of Me " is a song by American singer Katy Perry , released as the lead single from Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection . It was written by Perry and Bonnie McKee , with production and additional writing by Dr. Luke , Max Martin , and Cirkut . The song was not included on the original edition of Teenage Dream because Perry felt that it did not fit the composition of the album . A demo of the song leaked online in late 2010 , amid speculation that the lyrics were directed to the singer 's ex @-@ boyfriend Travie McCoy . " Part of Me " was re @-@ worked and officially released on February 13 , 2012 , through Capitol Records with artwork by art director Gavin Taylor and photography by Mary Ellen Matthews .
A dance @-@ pop and power pop song with a distinctive house beat , it has been compared to Jessie J 's 2011 single " Domino " and Perry 's 2010 singles " Firework " and " California Gurls " . Its lyrics describe a female protagonist who declares herself as unbreakable and strong following a break @-@ up . Many critics theorized that the lyrics addressed Perry 's divorce from Russell Brand , although Perry stated it was not about him since it was written in early 2010 .
" Part of Me " was a commercial success . It was the twentieth song to debut at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 , Perry 's seventh number @-@ one single on the chart , and her ninth consecutive number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . The single debuted at No. 1 in Canada and the United Kingdom and has been certified Platinum in Australia , New Zealand , and the United States . Marketing campaigns for Adidas and The Sims 3 : Showtime have featured it .
An accompanying music video was filmed at the United States Marine Corps ' Camp Pendleton in Oceanside , California . The video depicts Perry enlisting in the Marines following a heartbreak . It garnered generally positive reviews for Perry 's " Girl power " message but drew criticism from feminist author Naomi Wolf , who denounced it as military propaganda . Perry debuted the first televised performance of song on at the 54th Grammy Awards and has also performed the song at the ECHO Awards , the 2012 Kids ' Choice Awards , and American Idol .
= = Background and release = =
" Part of Me " was written by Perry herself , Dr. Luke , Bonnie McKee , and Max Martin during the 2010 Teenage Dream writing sessions , which also produced the Hot 100 number @-@ one singles " California Gurls " , " Teenage Dream " and " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) . " Perry and McKee had been casual friends prior to Perry 's request for her help with a song that Perry had been writing called " Part of Me " . According to Rolling Stone , McKee stayed up all night writing the lyrics . When Perry was presented the song , she shouted " We 're buying you a car ! " by the time she heard the third line .
Perry recorded a demo of the track that leaked in full on December 30 , 2010 . The song was rumored to be a leftover cut from her Teenage Dream recording sessions , and fans speculated that the track might be included in an as @-@ yet @-@ unconfirmed re @-@ release of the LP . This re @-@ release was confirmed in January 2012 , when Perry announced through her official website that the album would contain all twelve songs from the original album , plus three new songs and a remix , and would be released on March 26 , 2012 . Perry 's press release stated : " This is the complete story of Teenage Dream . It was an incredible honor to tie the King of Pop 's Billboard Hot 100 record , but I 'm moving forward and had a few things left to get off my chest . So this is the complete special edition of my album for my fans . "
On February 13 , 2012 , " Part of Me " received an official release as the lead single from the album 's re @-@ release . Perry had planned all along to release the song on the deluxe edition of the album rather than the original , as it did not fit that album 's composition . On February 11 , two days before its worldwide premiere , the song was leaked for a second time with a reworked production and slightly changed lyrics . " Part of Me " was released to most iTunes stores worldwide on February 18 , 2012 , following her performance at the 54th Grammy Awards . In the United States , " Part of Me " was sent to contemporary radio playlists on February 21 , 2012 . The song was released in England , Scotland , Wales , France , and Ireland on March 18 , 2012 under the digital download and CD single formats . Perry revealed via Twitter that all profits raised from the sales of the single would be donated to MusiCares . The photograph by Mary Ellen Matthews that was used on the single cover was part of a photographic essay for Perry 's appearance in episode 710 of the television program Saturday Night Live .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Part of Me " is a dance @-@ pop and power pop song set to a house beat . It is composed in the key of D minor and set in a 4 / 4 time signature at a tempo of 130 beats per minute . The melody spans the tonal range of D4 to D5 , while the music follows the chord progression of Dm – F – Bb @-@ C. Production was done by Perry 's frequent collaborator , Dr. Luke . The song begins with Perry 's somber and emotional delivery of the line , " Days like this I want to drive away / Pack my bags and watch your shadow fade . " At the bridge , the beat amplifies and Perry 's lyrics become more aggressive as she commands " Now Look at Me ! " , signalling to her ex that she is still strong , regardless of what he tries to do to bring her down . The beat reaches a peak at the chorus , and Perry 's tone and the song 's lyrics become more aggressive and prominent as she sings , " This is the Part of me that you 're never gonna ever take away from me . " As the song continues , Perry 's lyrics become strong and empowered : " So you can keep the diamond ring / It don 't mean nothing anyway / In fact you can keep everything Yeah / Yeah Except for me " . Perry repeats the ending chorus as the beat fades .
James Dinh of MTV noted that " the pop star appears strong , bold and just a tad resentful after a breakup " on the track . His analysis of the lyrics observed that " The singer declares herself unbreakable after a breakup , evident in lines such as " Days like this I want to drive away / Pack my bags and watch your shadow fade / ' Cause you chewed me up and spit me out / Like I was poison in your mouth / You took my light , you drained me down / But that was then and this is now , now look at me . " Dinh pointed out similarities between " Part of Me " and Perry 's previous single " California Gurls " , noting that " the tune 's steady beat amplifies " as the chorus starts . Andrew Hampp of Billboard described the song as a " dance @-@ floor rave up " , and compared the song 's composition to Jessie J 's " Domino " . Edna Gundersen from USA Today stated : " Katy Perry could be addressing her ex or her detractors on this defiant slapdown , a gleaming " Firework " -like pop torpedo propelled by slick beats and a brazen chorus . " Chris Ryan , also of MTV , inferred that the song was aimed at Perry 's ex @-@ boyfriend Travie McCoy , while New York magazine journalist Amanda Dobbis described it as " another break @-@ up anthem " . Fans and media noted differences in the lyrics between the demo and the single , and claimed that the changes redirected the song 's subject from McCoy to Perry 's ex @-@ husband Russell Brand , from whom she had recently divorced . Perry declared it was not about Brand , stating :
I wrote it two years ago , which is funny because everybody is like " God , it sounds so current , " and some people that I work with were like " You should just say you wrote it a couple of weeks ago . " I 'm like " I 'm not a dick , I 'm going to tell the truth . " I wrote it two years ago when I was writing and recording Teenage Dream , [ but ] it didn 't feel right on the record . I would 've had to take out one of my other songs that [ made the album ] a nice , complete package .
= = Critical reception = =
Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone gave the song three stars out of five , criticizing its generic topic but praising its production . Steven Hyden and Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club were positive of the song , with Hyden , giving it a B + , noted that , although the lyrics seemed " dopey " , the production and the chorus are " pretty damn sticky " , while Koski , giving the song a B , noted that the song follows a similar formula to several of Perry 's previous singles but went on to say that " the template works well in the context of a break @-@ up anthem " and positively remarked that it comes off as " a chintzier , 2012 version of ' Since U Been Gone . ' "
A reviewer from Plugged In criticized Perry 's decision to create an uplifting song about such a serious subject matter as divorce : " Framing the song in terms of her divorce from Brand , though ' Part of Me ' , puts a much more somber and serious spin on things . This is no mere breakup . It 's the demolition of a marital covenant . So no matter how bad things were in her relationship , no matter how much better she feels now , no matter how cathartic the pulsing beats ( courtesy of hitmeisters Max Martin and Dr. Luke ) might feel , the ultimate end here is a very sad one indeed . " Priya Elan of NME panned the song : ' This is the part of me , that you 're never going to take away from me , ' " she sings in that strange angry robot voice of hers . The sentiment , as ever , is punch you in face crystal clear and probably meant something to one of the ( probably ) 17 writers who wrote the song . As it stands , it 's another de @-@ humanised slab of radio pop from Perry INC . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Part of Me " debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and the U.S. Hot Digital Songs chart , with 411 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . It was the twentieth song to debut atop the Billboard Hot 100 . " Part of Me " became Perry 's her seventh number @-@ one song , and her sixth in the 2010s . The single debuted at number 36 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart , with 35 million radio impressions in its first week , and was Perry 's ninth song to top the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . It is Perry 's tenth single to be certified Platinum by the RIAA , for sales of over 1 million copies . As of January 2015 , the single has sold 2 @,@ 780 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
" Part of Me " debuted at number one on the Canadian Hot 100 , with sales of 46 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week . In Brazil , it reached the top spot on the Brazil Pop 100 . In Mexico , the song peaked in the top 10 of the Mexican Hot 100 . It also peaked at number 1 in Venezuela . The song was Perry 's first single to debut at number one on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and as her seventh to reach that spot , tied her with Mariah Carey as the artist with the most number @-@ one hits in New Zealand . It has received a Platinum certification by the RIANZ , with over 15 @,@ 000 copies sold . In Australia , " Part of Me " debuted at number 22 on the chart , and peaked at number 5 . The recording has been certified 2 × platinum by the ARIA , with 140 @,@ 000 copies sold .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at the top of the UK Singles Chart on March 25 , 2012 ― for the week ending date March 31 , 2012 ― selling 79 @,@ 079 copies in its first week and becoming Perry 's third number @-@ one single in Britain , following " I Kissed a Girl " in 2008 and " California Gurls " in 2010 . " Part of Me " was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for sales of over 400 @,@ 000 . In the Republic of Ireland , " Part of Me " peaked at number five on the Irish Singles Chart and was Perry 's twelfth single to reach the top ten in the Irish Republic . In Italy , the song was certified Gold for sales of over 15 @,@ 000 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The music video for " Part of Me " was directed by Ben Mor . Filming began on February 16 , 2012 , and took place over the course of three days at USMC Camp Pendleton in Oceanside , California . Perry announced the video shortly after the song 's release , tweeting , " Holy power of the Grammy 's , Part Of Me is already top 10 on itunes ! U guys are killing it ! NICE ! Can 't wait to shoot this video ! # grateful . " Her preparation for the video shoot included vigorous training in military basics , including firepower , military etiquette , and combat training .
As filming began , pictures from the video set surfaced online , showing Perry with short hair and dressed in military clothing . The music video premièred on its announced date during the program MTV First : Katy Perry , in which she discussed her experiences filming the video and the background of the video 's plot :
Well , I actually had the idea , I wrote the story about what it is actually like to be in the Service , and it does take a lot of physical strength , but now that I 've been through it – and even just for the three days I was there , [ it 's ] a lot of mental strength . We used only Marines , no actors or actresses . We used all of the Marine 's equipment and they were so lovely to us , I always have fun even though it 's a lot of work . Even though I was sore and exhausted , I was so educated on people in the service , who I 've always respected but the stuff they go through , and the kind of loyalty they possess , it 's very communal
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of executive , legislative and judicial . The executive includes a president who is both chief of state and head of government , first and second vice presidents and a cabinet . The president is elected every five years , and the vice president is chosen by the president . A second vice president may be appointed by the president if so chosen , although they must be from a different party . The members of the cabinet are appointed by the president and can be from either inside or outside of the legislature .
The legislative branch consists of a unicameral National Assembly of 193 members who are elected every five years , and although the Malawian constitution provides for a Senate of 80 seats , one does not exist in practice . If created , the Senate would provide representation for traditional leaders and a variety of geographic districts , as well as special interest groups including the disabled , youth and women . There are currently nine political parties , with the Democratic Progressive Party acting as the ruling party and the Malawi Congress Party and the United Democratic Front acting as the main opposition parties in the National Assembly . Suffrage is universal at 18 years of age , and the central government budget for 2009 / 2010 is $ 1 @.@ 7 billion .
The independent judicial branch is based upon the English model and consists of a Supreme Court of Appeal , a High Court divided into three sections ( general , constitutional and commercial ) , an Industrial Relations Court and Magistrates Courts , the last of which is divided into five grades and includes Child Justice Courts . The judicial system has been changed several times since Malawi gained independence in 1964 . Conventional courts and traditional courts have been used in varying combinations , with varying degrees of success and corruption .
Malawi is composed of three regions ( the Northern , Central and Southern regions ) , which are divided into 28 districts , and further into approximately 250 traditional authorities and 110 administrative wards . Local government is administered by central government @-@ appointed regional administrators and district commissioners . For the first time in the multi @-@ party era , local elections took place on 21 November 2000 , with the UDF party winning 70 % of the available seats . There was scheduled to be a second round of constitutionally mandated local elections in May 2005 , but these were cancelled by the government .
In February 2005 , President Mutharika split with the United Democratic Front and began his own party , the Democratic Progressive Party , which has attracted reform @-@ minded officials from other parties and won elections across the country in 2006 . In 2008 , President Mutharika had implemented reforms to address the country 's major corruption problem , with at least five senior UDF party members facing criminal charges . In 2012 , Malawi was ranked 7th of all countries in sub @-@ Saharan Africa in the Ibrahim Index of African Governance , an index that measures several variables to provide a comprehensive view of the governance of African countries . Although the country 's governance score was higher than the continental average , it was lower than the regional average for southern Africa . Its highest scores were for safety and rule of law , and its lowest scores were for sustainable economic opportunity , with a ranking of 47th on the continent for educational opportunities . Malawi 's governance score had improved between 2000 and 2011 . Malawi held its most recent elections in May 2014 , with challenger Peter Muthrika defeating incumbent President Joyce Banda .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Malawi is divided into 28 districts within three regions :
= = = Foreign relations = = =
Former President Hastings Banda established a pro @-@ Western foreign policy that continued into early 2011 . It included good diplomatic relationships with many Western countries . The transition from a one @-@ party state to a multi @-@ party democracy strengthened Malawian ties with the United States . Significant numbers of students from Malawi travel to the US for schooling , and the US has active branches of the Peace Corps , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the Department of Health and Human Services and the Agency for International Development in Malawi . Malawi maintained close relations with South Africa throughout the Apartheid era , which strained Malawi 's relationships with other African countries . Following the collapse of apartheid in 1994 , diplomatic relationships were made and maintained into 2011 between Malawi and all other African countries . In 2010 , however , Malawi 's relationship with Mozambique became strained , partially due to disputes over the use of the Zambezi River and an inter @-@ country electrical grid . In 2007 , Malawi established diplomatic ties with China , and Chinese investment in the country has continued to increase since then , despite concerns regarding treatment of workers by Chinese companies and competition of Chinese business with local companies . In 2011 , relations between Malawi and the United Kingdom was damaged when a document was released in which the British ambassador to Malawi criticised President Mutharika . Mutharika expelled the ambassador from Malawi , and in July 2011 , the UK announced that it was suspending all budgetary aid because of Mutharika 's lack of response to criticisms of his government and economic mismanagement . On 26 July 2011 , the United States followed suit , freezing a US $ 350 million grant , citing concerns regarding the government 's suppression and intimidation of demonstrators and civic groups , as well as restriction of the press and police violence .
Malawi has been seen as a haven for refugees from other African countries , including Mozambique and Rwanda , since 1985 . These influxes of refugees have placed a strain on the Malawian economy but have also drawn significant inflows of aid from other countries . Donors to Malawi include the United States , Canada , Germany , Iceland , Japan , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , Ireland , the UK and Flanders ( Belgium ) , as well as international institutions such as the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund , the European Union , the African Development Bank and UN organisations .
Malawi is a member of several international organisations including the Commonwealth , the UN and some of its child agencies , the IMF , the World Bank , the African Union and the World Health Organization . Malawi tends to view economic and political stability in southern Africa as a necessity , and advocates peaceful solutions through negotiation . The country was the first in southern Africa to receive peacekeeping training under the African Crisis Response Initiative .
= = = Human rights = = =
As of 2010 , international observers noted issues in several human rights areas . Excessive force was seen to be used by police forces , security forces were able to act with impunity , mob violence was occasionally seen , and prison conditions continued to be harsh and sometimes life @-@ threatening . However , the government was seen to make some effort to prosecute security forces who used excessive force . Other legal issues included limits on free speech and freedom of the press , lengthy pretrial detentions , and arbitrary arrests and detentions . Societal issues found included violence against women , human trafficking , and child labour . Corruption within the government is seen as a major issue , despite the Malawi Anti @-@ Corruption Bureau 's ( ACB ) attempts to reduce it . The ACB appears to be successful at finding and prosecuting low level corruption , but higher level officials appear to be able to act with impunity . Corruption within security forces is also an issue . Malawi had one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world . In 2015 Malawi raised the legal age for marriage from 15 to 18 . Other issues that have been raised are lack of adequate legal protection of women from sexual abuse and harassment , very high maternal mortality rate , and abuse related to accusations of witchcraft .
As of 2010 , homosexuality has been illegal in Malawi , and in one recent case , a couple perceived as homosexual faced extensive jail time when convicted . The convicted pair , sentenced to the maximum of 14 years of hard labour each , were pardoned two weeks later following the intervention of United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki @-@ moon . In May 2012 , President Joyce Banda pledged to repeal laws criminalising homosexuality .
= = Geography = =
Malawi is a landlocked country in southeastern Africa , bordered by Zambia to the northwest , Tanzania to the northeast and Mozambique to the south , southwest and southeast . It lies between latitudes 9 ° and 18 ° S , and longitudes 32 ° and 36 ° E.
The Great Rift Valley runs through the country from north to south , and to the east of the valley lies Lake Malawi ( also called Lake Nyasa ) , making up over three @-@ quarters of Malawi 's eastern boundary . Lake Malawi is sometimes called the Calendar Lake as it is about 365 miles ( 587 km ) long and 52 miles ( 84 km ) wide . The Shire River flows from the south end of the lake and joins the Zambezi River 250 miles ( 400 km ) farther south in Mozambique . The surface of Lake Malawi is located at 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 457 m ) above sea level , with a maximum depth of 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 701 m ) , which means the lake bottom is over 700 feet ( 213 m ) below sea level at some points .
In the mountainous sections of Malawi surrounding the Rift Valley , plateaus rise generally 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 914 to 1 @,@ 219 m ) above sea level , although some rise as high as 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 438 m ) in the north . To the south of Lake Malawi lie the Shire Highlands , gently rolling land at approximately 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 914 m ) above sea level . In this area , the Zomba and Mulanje mountain peaks rise to respective heights of 7 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 134 and 3 @,@ 048 m ) .
Malawi 's capital is Lilongwe , and its commercial centre is Blantyre with a population of over 500 @,@ 000 people . Malawi has two sites listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List . Lake Malawi National Park was first listed in 1984 and the Chongoni Rock Art Area was listed in 2006 .
Malawi 's climate is hot in the low @-@ lying areas in the south of the country and temperate in the northern highlands . The altitude moderates what would otherwise be an equatorial climate . Between November and April the temperature is warm with equatorial rains and thunderstorms , with the storms reaching their peak severity in late March . After March , the rainfall rapidly diminishes and from May to September wet mists float from the highlands into the plateaus , with almost no rainfall during these months .
= = Economy = =
Malawi is among the world 's least @-@ developed countries . Around 85 % of the population live in rural areas . The economy is based on agriculture , and more than one @-@ third of GDP and 90 % of export revenues come from this . In the past , the economy has been dependent on substantial economic aid from the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , and other countries . Malawi was ranked the 119th safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings .
In December 2000 , the IMF stopped aid disbursements due to corruption concerns , and many individual donors followed suit , resulting in an almost 80 % drop in Malawi 's development budget . However , in 2005 , Malawi was the recipient of over US $ 575 million in aid . The Malawian government faces challenges in developing a market economy , improving environmental protection , dealing with the rapidly growing HIV / AIDS problem , improving the education system , and satisfying its foreign donors that it is working to become financially independent . Improved financial discipline had been seen since 2005 under the leadership of President Mutharika and Financial Minister Gondwe . This discipline has since evaporated as shown by the purchase in 2009 of a private presidential jet followed almost immediately by a nationwide fuel shortage which was officially blamed on logistical problems , but was more likely due to the hard currency shortage caused by the jet purchase . The overall cost to the economy ( and healthcare system ) is unknown .
In addition , some setbacks have been experienced , and Malawi has lost some of its ability to pay for imports due to a general shortage of foreign exchange , as investment fell 23 % in 2009 . There are many investment barriers in Malawi , which the government has failed to address , including high service costs and poor infrastructure for power , water , and telecommunications . As of 2009 , it was estimated that Malawi had a GDP ( purchasing power parity ) of $ 12 @.@ 81 billion , with a per capita GDP of $ 900 , and inflation estimated at around 8 @.@ 5 % in 2009 .
Agriculture accounts for 35 % of GDP , industry for 19 % and services for the remaining 46 % . Malawi has one of the lowest per capita incomes in the world , although economic growth was estimated at 9 @.@ 7 % in 2008 and strong growth is predicted by the International Monetary Fund for 2009 . The poverty rate in Malawi is decreasing through the work of the government and supporting organizations , with people living under the poverty line decreasing from 54 % in 1990 to 40 % in 2006 , and the percentage of " ultra @-@ poor " decreasing from 24 % in 1990 to 15 % in 2007 .
Many analysts believe that economic progress for Malawi depends on its ability to control population growth .
In January 2015 southern Malawi was devastated by the worst floods in living memory , stranding at least 20 @,@ 000 people . These floods affected more than a million people across the country , including 336 @,@ 000 who were displaced , according to UNICEF . Over 100 people were killed and an estimated 64 @,@ 000 hectares of cropland were washed away .
= = = Agriculture and industry = = =
The main agricultural products of Malawi include tobacco , sugarcane , cotton , tea , corn , potatoes , sorghum , cattle and goats . The main industries are tobacco , tea and sugar processing , sawmill products , cement and consumer goods . The industrial production growth rate is estimated at 10 % ( 2009 ) . The country makes no significant use of natural gas . As of 2008 , Malawi does not import or export any electricity , but does import all its petroleum , with no production in country . Beginning in 2006 , the country began mixing unleaded petrol with 10 % ethanol , produced in @-@ country at two plants , to reduce dependence on imported fuel . In 2008 , Malawi began testing cars that ran solely on ethanol , and initial results are promising , and the country is continuing to increase its use of ethanol .
As of 2009 , Malawi exports an estimated US $ 945 million in goods per year . The country 's heavy reliance on tobacco places a heavy burden on the economy as world prices decline and the international community increases pressure to limit tobacco production . Malawi 's dependence on tobacco is growing , with the product jumping from 53 % to 70 % of export revenues between 2007 and 2008 . The country also relies heavily on tea , sugar and coffee , with these three plus tobacco making up more than 90 % of Malawi 's export revenue . Because of a rise in costs and a decline in sales prices , Malawi is encouraging farmers away from tobacco towards more profitable crops , including spices such as paprika . India hemp is another possible alternative , but arguments have been made that it will bring more crime to the country through its resemblance to varieties of cannabis used as a recreational drug and the difficulty in distinguishing between the two types . This concern is especially important because the cultivation of Malawian cannabis , known as Malawi Gold , as a drug has increased significantly . Malawi is known for growing " the best and finest " cannabis in the world for recreational drug use , according to a recent World Bank report , and cultivation and sales of the crop may contribute to corruption within the police force .
Other exported goods are cotton , peanuts , wood products and apparel . The main destination locations for the country 's exports are South Africa , Germany , Egypt , Zimbabwe , the United States , Russia and the Netherlands . Malawi currently imports an estimated US $ 1 @.@ 625 billion in goods per year , with the main commodities being food , petroleum products , consumer goods and transportation equipment . The main countries that Malawi imports from are South Africa , India , Zambia , Tanzania , the US and China .
In 2006 , in response to disastrously low agricultural harvests , Malawi began a program of fertiliser subsidies that were designed to re @-@ energize the land and boost crop production . It has been reported that this program , championed by the country 's president , is radically improving Malawi 's agriculture , and causing Malawi to become a net exporter of food to nearby countries .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
As of 2012 , Malawi has 31 airports , 7 with paved runways and 24 with unpaved runways . As of 2008 , the country has 797 kilometres ( 495 mi ) of railways , all narrow @-@ gauge , and , as of 2003 , 15 @,@ 451 miles ( 24 @,@ 866 km ) of roadways , 6 @,@ 956 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 322 mi ) paved and 8 @,@ 495 kilometres ( 5 @,@ 279 mi ) unpaved . Malawi also has 700 kilometres ( 430 mi ) of waterways on Lake Malawi and along the Shire River .
As of 2011 , there were 3 @.@ 952 million cell phones and 173 @,@ 500 landline telephones in Malawi . There were 716 @,@ 400 Internet users in 2009 , and 1099 Internet hosts as of 2012 . As of 2007 there was one government @-@ run radio station and approximately a dozen more owned by private enterprise . The one TV station was government owned . In the past , Malawi 's telecommunications system has been named as some of the poorest in Africa , but conditions are improving , with 130 @,@ 000 land line telephones being connected between 2000 and 2007 . Telephones are much more accessible in urban areas , with less than a quarter of land lines being in rural areas .
= = Demographics = =
Malawi has a population of over 15 million , with a growth rate of 2 @.@ 75 % , according to 2009 estimates . The population is forecast to grow to over 45 million people by 2050 , nearly tripling the estimated 16 million in 2010 .
Malawi 's population is made up of the Chewa , Nyanja , Tumbuka , Yao , Lomwe , Sena , Tonga , Ngoni , and Ngonde native ethnic groups , as well as populations of Asians and Europeans . The official language is English . Major languages include Chichewa , a language spoken by over 57 % of the population , Chinyanja ( 12 @.@ 8 % ) , Chiyao ( 10 @.@ 1 % ) , and Chitumbuka ( 9 @.@ 5 % ) . Other native languages are Malawian Lomwe , spoken by around 250 @,@ 000 in the southeast of the country ; Kokola , spoken by around 200 @,@ 000 people also in the southeast ; Lambya , spoken by around 45 @,@ 000 in the northwestern tip ; Ndali , spoken by around 70 @,@ 000 ; Nyakyusa @-@ Ngonde , spoken by around 300 @,@ 000 in northern Malawi ; Malawian Sena , spoken by around 270 @,@ 000 in southern Malawi ; and Tonga , spoken by around 170 @,@ 000 in the north .
= = = Urbanization = = =
= = = Religion = = =
Malawi is a majority Christian country , with a significant Muslim minority , although the exact figures are disputed . There is limited data with widely varying estimates on religious affiliation in the country . According to the Malawi Religion Project run by the University of Pennsylvania in 2010 , approximately 68 % of the population identify as Christians , 25 % as Muslim and 5 % as " other " . Slightly more dated CIA statistics from 1998 indicate that 82 % of the population was Christian , with 13 % Muslim . The largest Christian groups in Malawi are the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian ( CCAP ) . The CCAP is the biggest Protestant denomination in Malawi with 1 @.@ 3 million members . There are smaller Presbyterian denominations like the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Malawi and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church of Malawi . There are also smaller numbers of Anglicans , Baptists , Jehovah 's Witnesses ( approx . 89 @,@ 000 ) , evangelicals and Seventh @-@ day Adventists . Most of the Muslim population is Sunni , of either the Qadriya or Sukkutu groups , with few Ahmadiyya Muslims . Other religious groups within the country include Rastafarians , Hindus , Baha 'is ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) and around 300 Jews . Atheists make up around 4 % of the population , although this number may include people who practice traditional African religions .
= = = Health = = =
Malawi has central hospitals , regional and private facilities . The public sector offers free health services and medicines , while non @-@ government organisations offers services and medicines for fees . Private doctors offer fee @-@ based services and medicines . Health insurance schemes have been established since 2000 . The country has a pharmaceutical manufacturing industry consisting of four privately owned pharmaceutical companies . Malawi 's healthcare goal is for " promoting health , preventing , reducing and curing disease , and reducing the occurrence of premature death in the population " .
Infant mortality rates are high , and life expectancy at birth is 50 @.@ 03 years . There is a high adult prevalence rate of HIV / AIDS , with an estimated 930 @,@ 000 adults ( or 11 @.@ 9 % of the population ) living with the disease in 2007 . There are approximately 68 @,@ 000 deaths a year from HIV / AIDS ( 2007 ) . Approximately 250 new people are infected each day , and at least 70 % of Malawi 's hospital beds are occupied by HIV / AIDS patients . The high rate of infection has resulted in an estimated 5 @.@ 8 % of the farm labor force dying of the disease . The government spends over $ 120 @,@ 000 each year on funerals for civil servants who die of the disease . In 2006 , international superstar Madonna started Raising Malawi , a foundation that helps AIDS orphans in Malawi , and also financed a documentary about the hardships experienced by Malawian orphans , called I Am Because We Are . Raising Malawi also works with the Millennium Villages Project to improve education , health care , infrastructure and agriculture in Malawi .
There is a very high degree of risk for major infectious diseases , including bacterial and protozoal diarrhoea , hepatitis A , typhoid fever , malaria , plague , schistosomiasis , and rabies . Malawi has been making progress on decreasing child mortality and reducing the incidences of HIV / AIDS , malaria and other diseases ; however , the country has been " [ performing ] dismally " on reducing maternal mortality and promoting gender equality . Female genital mutilation ( FGM ) , while not widespread , is practiced in some local communities .
= = = Education = = =
In Malawi , primary education is not compulsory , but the Constitution requires that all people be entitled to at least five years of primary education . In 1994 , free primary education for all children was established by the government , which increased attendance rates . Dropout rates are higher for girls than boys , attributed to security problems during the long travel to school , as girls face a higher prevalence of gender @-@ based violence . However , attendance rates for all children are improving , with enrollment rates for primary schools increased from 58 % in 1992 to 75 % in 2007 , while the number of students who begin in standard one and complete standard five has increased from 64 % in 1992 to 86 % in 2006 . However attendance in secondary school falls to approximately 25 % , with attendance rates being slightly higher for males . Youth literacy has also increased , moving from 68 % in 2000 to 82 % in 2007 . This increase is primarily attributed to improved learning materials in schools , better infrastructure and feeding programs that have been implemented throughout the school system .
Education in Malawi comprises eight years of primary education , four years of secondary school and four years of university .
There are four public universities in Malawi namely ; Mzuzu , Lilongwe University of Agriculture and natural Resources , University of Malawi and Malawi University of Science and Technology . Besides these , there are also private universities like ; Livingstonia , Malawi Lakeview , Catholic University of Malawi , MIM etc . The entry requirements is six credits on the Malawi school Certificate of Education certificate which is equivalent to O levels .
In 2016 , the Malawi eHealth Research Centre in partnership with Mzuzu University and Luke International will establish Malawi 's first fully dedicated eHealth Research Centre . This new research facility will contribute to improve health and social outcomes for communities in Malawi , by enhancing the quality of research and education in eHealth and healthcare .
= = Military = =
Malawi maintains a small standing military of approximately 25 @,@ 000 men , the Malawian Defence Force . It consists of army , navy and air force elements . The Malawi army originated from British colonial units formed before independence , and is now made up of two rifle regiments and one parachute regiment . The Malawi Air Force was established with German help in 1976 , and operates a small number of transport aircraft and multi @-@ purpose helicopters . The Malawian Navy has 3 vessels operating on Lake Malawi , based in Monkey Bay .
= = Culture = =
The name " Malawi " comes from the Maravi , a Bantu people who emigrated from the southern Congo around 1400 AD . Upon reaching northern Lake Malawi , the group divided , with one group moving south down the west bank of the lake to become the group known as the Chewa , while the other group , the ancestors of today 's Nyanja , moved along the east side of the lake to the southern section of Malawi . Ethnic conflict and continuing migration prevented the formation of a society that was uniquely and cohesively Malawian until the dawn of the 20th century . Over the past century , ethnic distinctions have diminished to the point where there is no significant inter @-@ ethnic friction , although regional divisions still occur . The concept of a Malawian nationality has begun to form around a predominantly rural people who are generally conservative and traditionally nonviolent .
From 1964 – 2010 , and again since 2012 , the Flag of Malawi is made up of three equal horizontal stripes of black , red and green with a red rising sun superimposed in the center of the black stripe . The black stripe represented the African people , the red represented the blood of martyrs for African freedom , green represented Malawi 's ever @-@ green nature and the rising sun represented the dawn of freedom and hope for Africa . In 2010 , the flag was changed , removing the red rising sun and adding a full white sun in the center as a symbol of Malawi 's economic progress . The change was reverted in 2012 .
Its dances are a strong part of Malawi 's culture , and the National Dance Troupe ( formerly the Kwacha Cultural Troupe ) was formed in November 1987 by the government . Traditional music and dances can be seen at initiation rites , rituals , marriage ceremonies and celebrations . Soccer is the most common sport in Malawi , introduced there during British colonial rule . Basketball is also growing in popularity .
The indigenous ethnic groups of Malawi have a rich tradition of basketry and mask carving , and some of these goods are used in traditional ceremonies still performed by native peoples . Wood carving and oil painting are also popular in more urban centres , with many of the items produced being sold to tourists . There are several internationally recognised literary figures from Malawi , including poet Jack Mapanje , history and fiction writer Paul Zeleza and authors Legson Kayira , Felix Mnthali , Frank Chipasula and David Rubadiri .
Malawian cuisine is diverse , with tea and fish being popular features of the country 's cuisine . Sugar , coffee , corn , potatoes , sorghum , cattle and goats are also important components of the cuisine and economy . Lake Malawi is a source of fish including chambo ( similar to bream ) usipa ( similar to sardine ) , mpasa ( similar to salmon and kampango ) . Nsima is a food staple made from ground corn and served with side dishes of meat and vegetable . It can be eaten for lunch and dinner .
= Springbok ( horse ) =
Springbok ( 1870 – 1897 ) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse who won the seventh Belmont Stakes in 1873 . Foaled in 1870 , he was sired by the imported stallion Australian , his dam was a daughter of Lexington . During his racing career he started 25 races , winning 17 of them . Besides the Belmont , Springbok won the Saratoga Cup twice , in 1874 and 1875 and was named Champion Older Male horse in 1874 and 1875 . After retiring from the racetrack , he sired five stakes winners and died in 1897 .
= = Early life = =
Springbok was sired by the imported horse Australian and out of the mare Hester . Hester was by Lexington and out of a mare named Heads I Say by imported stallion Glencoe . Springbok was foaled in 1870 , and was a chestnut stallion , bred by A. J. Alexander of Woodburn , Kentucky . Springbok was one of 26 stakes winning foals sired by Australian . Springbok was Hester 's only stakes winning foal .
At two years of age , Springbok was owned and raced by Daniel Swigert , but was sold that year to David McDaniel for $ 2 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 40 @,@ 000 today ) .
= = Racing career = =
Springbok won the seventh running of the Belmont Stakes in 1873 at Jerome Park Racetrack . He carried 110 pounds ( 50 kilograms ) in the race , which had a winning time of 3 minutes 11 ⁄ 4 seconds . He won $ 5 @,@ 200 ( approximately $ 103 @,@ 000 today ) for his owner from the race . The race was run on June 7 over a distance of 1 5 ⁄ 8 miles ( i.e. 13 furlongs ( 2 @,@ 600 meters ) ) on a fast track . He won the race by four lengths from the second placed finisher , Count D 'Orsay , and the third place was Strachino . The winning jockey was James Rowe , Sr. , later to be a noted trainer . This was the third of three consecutive wins of the Belmont Stakes by David McDaniel as both owner and trainer , as he had already won the 1871 race with Harry Bassett and the 1872 race with Joe Daniels .
Besides the Belmont , Springbok won the 1874 and 1875 Saratoga Cup and the 1874 Citizens Stakes . During the 1870s , the Saratoga Cup was a 2 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 3 @,@ 600 m ) race . In 1874 , Springbok won the race while carrying 108 pounds ( 49 kg ) , beating Preakness who came in second , and Katie Pease , who placed third . The winning time was 4 minutes 113 ⁄ 4 seconds , with a value to the winner of $ 2 @,@ 450 ( approximately $ 51 @,@ 000 today ) . His 1875 Saratoga Cup win was a dead heat with the horse Preakness . In that race , Springbok carried 114 pounds ( 52 kg ) , and the winning time was 3 minutes 561 ⁄ 4 seconds . Third place was secured by Grinstead . The win paid $ 2 @,@ 250 ( approximately $ 48 @,@ 000 today ) to Springbok 's owner .
Springbok 's total race career was 25 starts with 17 wins for a total earnings of $ 20 @,@ 020 ( approximately $ 431 @,@ 000 today ) . He is considered to be the 1874 American Champion Older Male Horse , and also the Champion Older Male Horse for 1875 , a title he shared with Preakness .
= = Breeding career = =
In his breeding career , Springbok sired the stakes winners Audrain , East Lynne , Ethel , Huntress , and Vallera . Audrain , an 1881 stallion out of Alme by Planet , won the 1884 Latonia Derby , 1884 St. Louis Derby and the 1884 Hindoo Stakes . East Lynne was an 1882 mare out of Easter Planet by Planet . East Lynne won the 1885 Dixie Stakes and the 1885 Hunter Handicap . Ethel , an 1888 mare out of La Vena by Planet , won the 1890 Clipsetta Stakes and the 1891 Ashland Oaks . Huntress was an 1885 mare out of Edith by the imported stallion Saxon . Huntress won the 1887 Clipsetta Stakes , the 1888 St. Louis Oaks , and the 1889 Cincinnati Hotel Handicap . Vallera , an 1888 stallion out of Valasco by Pat Malloy , won the 1891 Tennessee Derby , 1891 Travers Stakes , and the 1891 Kenner Stakes .
Springbok died on March 19 , 1897 at the Megibben @-@ Edgewater farm in Kentucky .
= House of Mindaugas =
The House of Mindaugas was the first royal family of Grand Duchy of Lithuania , centered on Mindaugas , the first known and undoubted sovereign of Lithuania . He was crowned as King of Lithuania in 1253 and assassinated ten years later . His known family relations end with children ; there is no data on his great @-@ grandchildren or any relations with the Gediminids , a dynasty of sovereigns of Lithuania and Poland that started with Butigeidis ca . 1285 and ended with Sigismund II Augustus in 1572 .
Historians have to make considerable assumptions trying to reconstruct the full family tree because of extremely scarce written sources about the early history of Lithuania . The matter is further complicated by the 16 – 17th century genealogies , most famously the Bychowiec Chronicle , that mixed legends and facts into one . The legends about Palemonids , a noble family from the Roman Empire who settled in Lithuania and gave rise to the Duchy , are quite popular and widespread in these genealogies . The real historical data comes from the Russian and Livonian chronicles , most important of these being the Hypatian Codex .
= = Family tree = =
Mindaugas and his brother Dausprungas are first mentioned among the 5 elder dukes in a 1219 treaty with Galicia – Volhynia . Since at that time both brothers had to be relatively young , it implies that they inherited their high status . However , no written sources of the period talk about their father , except the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle , which mentions in passing that he was a powerful Grand Duke ( ein kunic grôß ) . Chronicles written in the 16 – 17th centuries gave him the name of Ryngold ( Lithuanian : Rimgaudas ) and made him part of the Palemonids ' legends . Historian Edvardas Gudavičius argued that because the 1219 treaty mentioned two pairs of young brothers among the 5 elder dukes ( Mindaugas and Dausprungas , Daujotas and Vilikaila ) , it was very likely that they were sons of powerful Lithuanian dukes Daugirutis and Stekšys , killed in 1213 and 1214 .
Dausprungas is not mentioned anywhere else . However , it is known that Mindaugas had two nephews , Tautvilas and Gedvydas , who waged a war against their uncle . Since historians do not have any data on other brothers of Mindaugas , it is generally assumed that the two were sons of Dausprungas . During the civil war of 1249 – 1252 Tautvilas and Gedvydas asked Daniel of Galicia , their brother @-@ in @-@ law , for help . This bit of information indicates that they also had a sister . The sister was the second wife of Daniel and they did not have children . Dausprugas ' wife must have been Duke of Samogitia Vykintas ' sister since Vykintas was an uncle of Tautvilas and Gedvydas . It is believed that Gedvydas died in 1253 in a campaign against Bohemia , as it is the last message about him . Tautvilas was killed by his cousin Treniota in 1263 . Some historians suggest that Tautvilas had a son , Constantine , who ruled Vitebsk , however others disagree and claim that his son might have been Aigust , who was sent by Novgorod to Pskov in 1271 .
It is assumed that Mindaugas had three wives even though nothing is known about the first one . The assumption is made because Mindaugas had two older children , Vaišvilkas and a daughter of unknown name , who already led independent lives while the children Mindaugas had with Morta were young and still dependent on their father . Vaišvilkas became such a devoted Orthodox that he voluntarily gave up the title of Grand Duke of Lithuania in favor of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Shvarn and died heirless . The only known daughter of Mindaugas , by marriage with Shvarn in 1255 , became the Queen of Galicia ( 1255 – 1264 ) and Princess of Chełm ( 1264 ) . According to one source , after Shvarn 's death his brother Lev of Galicia married the childless widow Ramona to his ally count Hujd . Their children were the originators of the Sas noble family of western Ukraine and Poland .
In the commentary of the 1219 treaty with Galicia – Volhynia it is noted that Mindaugas took the wife of Vismantas from the Bulionis family for himself . It is assumed that Vismantas ' wife and Morta are the same woman . It is known that Vismatas died in 1252 in a battle against Mindaugas ; however the date of Mindaugas and Morta 's wedding is unknown . There is no consensus on how many children Morta had . The chronicles mention two sons , Replys and Gerstukas , in 1261 . In 1263 two sons , Ruklys and Rupeikis , were assassinated together with Mindaugas . This is the only information available and historians disagree on whether these are the same two sons , whose name got distorted by scribes , or they are four sons . There is no data on any rivals to the crown after the assassination , except for Vaišvilkas and Tautvilas ; it would indicate that , whether there were two or four sons , they had perished in their youth .
After Morta 's death in 1262 , Mindaugas took her sister ( name unknown ) as his wife despite her being married to Daumantas . This cruel act motivated Daumantas to become an ally of Treniota and assassinate Mindaugas with two of his sons . Treniota was Mindaugas ' nephew . It is believed that he was son of Duke of Samogitia , either Vykintas or Erdvilas . If it really was Vykintas , then there was a double marriage : Vykintas ' sister married Dausprungas and Dausprungas ' ( and Mindaugas ' ) sister married Vykintas . Erdvilas is mentioned only once in the 1219 treaty . The other nephew , Lengvenis , played a role in Lithuanian state in 1242 – 1260 .
= = Graphic representation = =
Please note the assumptions outlined above
= Herbie Collins =
Herbert ( Herbie ) Leslie Collins ( 21 January 1888 in Darlinghurst , Sydney , New South Wales – 28 May 1959 in Little Bay , Sydney ) was an Australian cricketer who played 19 Tests between 1921 and 1926 . An all @-@ rounder , he captained the Australian team in eleven Tests , winning five , losing two with another four finishing in draws . In a Test career delayed by First World War he scored 1 @,@ 352 runs at an average of 45 @.@ 06 , including four centuries . Collins was also a successful rugby league footballer , winning the 1911 NSWRFL season 's grand final with the Eastern Suburbs club and also representing Queensland .
Collins was a keen gambler , a pastime that became habitual during his time as a soldier in the Great War . After the war , he played with the Australian Imperial Forces cricket team ( AIF XI ) that toured England , South Africa and Australia and was later appointed captain of the team . He was not a stylish or forceful batsman , preferring to rely on nudges and deflections to score runs . His slow left arm off @-@ spin , bowled from a two step run up , was seldom seen after the AIF XI tour . On return to Australia , he made his Test début against England at the Sydney Cricket Ground ( SCG ) scoring 104 in the second innings ; the fifth Australian to score a century on Test début . He was appointed captain of the Australian team in 1921 in South Africa , when the previous captain , Warwick Armstrong , fell ill .
His Test career finished in disappointment and in a cloud of suspicion when Australia lost the Fifth Test and the Ashes against England in 1926 . While some former players and cricket administrators suspected a case of match fixing , no material evidence supporting this has emerged . After his retirement from cricket , Collins used his gambling knowledge to start a career in horse racing , working as a bookmaker and commission agent .
= = Early career = =
Collins was born in Darlinghurst , an inner suburb of Sydney , the son of Thomas , an accountant , and Emma ( née Charlton ) . He attended Albion Street ( Superior ) Public School , where he showed an aptitude for cricket and rugby union . He played his early cricket with Paddington Cricket Club , bowling left arm spinners and batting well enough to be selected at 19 for the New South Wales cricket team ( NSW ) .
He made his first @-@ class cricket debut against South Australia in 1909 – 1910 and was disappointing , scoring three and one and taking 1 / 35 . He played one further match for the season , against Victoria . For the next two seasons , his opportunities at first @-@ class level were limited but he managed to play against the touring South African and English sides .
Collins also played first grade rugby league at this time in the New South Wales Rugby Football League premiership . He played at five @-@ eighth in Eastern Suburbs ' grand final win of the 1911 NSWRFL season alongside the great Dally Messenger . He also played in Brisbane for Toombul 's club , gaining selection for Queensland in 1912 .
Collins 's first full season for NSW was in 1912 – 1913 , playing ten matches and scoring 598 runs at an average of 42 @.@ 71 . He finished the season with 282 against Tasmania at Hobart . During the 1913 Australian winter , Collins was part of an Australian team that toured North America , playing Gentlemen of Philadelphia and a combined Canada – United States team .
= = First World War and Services XI = =
In 1915 Collins was one of 417 @,@ 000 Australians who enlisted and was a member of the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) as a reinforcement for the Australian Light Horse . He served in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign and later on the Western Front , carting ammunition to the artillery shelling the German lines . At the end of the War , Collins was a Lance Corporal .
Following the war he was included in an Australian Imperial Forces cricket team , touring England in 1919 . Charles Kelleway , an officer , was the captain of the team for the first six matches . Despite Collins 's rank Field Marshal Birdwood , the former commander of the Australian Corps , asked him to take over the captaincy for the remainder of the tour . Some of his colleagues were officers such as Jack Gregory and Nip Pellew . Collins proved a capable and popular skipper with the team losing only four of twenty eight matches during the tour . He scored 1 @,@ 615 runs including five centuries at an average of 38 @.@ 45 and took 106 wickets at 16 @.@ 55 apiece .
On their way home the AIF team played ten matches in South Africa , eight of them first @-@ class , remaining undefeated in this section of the tour . While Jack Gregory relished the conditions , the local newspapers acclaimed Collins as the finest player in the touring team . Collins scored 602 runs in South Africa at an average of 50 @.@ 58 and took 39 wickets at 16 @.@ 53 . In a match at the Old Wanderers ground in Johannesburg against the South African XI , Collins scored 235 from a total of 441 in the first innings as the AIF XI won by 8 wickets .
On arrival back in Australia , the AIF team played three first @-@ class matches , defeating the reigning Sheffield Shield champions New South Wales and perennial Shield powerhouse Victoria . A likely victory against Queensland was frustrated due to torrential rain . The results in Australia demonstrated the strength of the AIF team and within a few months of the team 's dissolution , Collins would make his Test début , along with his AIF team @-@ mates , Gregory , wicket @-@ keeper Bert Oldfield and the batsmen Johnny Taylor and Nip Pellew .
= = Test career = =
= = = Début = = =
Test cricket returned from its hiatus in 1920 with the English touring Australia . Collins , also a selector , was one of six AIF XI players to make his début in the First Test of that series . The First Test was played on Collins 's home ground , the Sydney Cricket Ground and Collins had reason to feel at home , scoring 70 and 104 . Collins was only the fifth Australian to make a century on Test début . Collins scored another century in the Third Test at the Adelaide Oval , batting 258 minutes for 162 , helping Australia to a 119 run victory . Over the 1920 – 1921 series , Collins made 557 runs at an average of 61 @.@ 88 .
The Australians toured England in 1921 , the first representative tour since the disastrous 1912 Triangular Tournament . Collins was included in the squad that would win the series comprehensively , three Tests to nil . In the First Test at Trent Bridge , Collins broke his thumb , ruling him out of the next two internationals . He returned to the team for the Fourth Test , after Australia had already wrapped up the series . England had fought back well and Australia were forced to defend grimly . Batting for over four and a half hours with what Wisden described as " inexhaustible patience " , Collins scored 40 runs in Australia 's only innings to force a draw . Collins scored 1 @,@ 222 runs in all matches on tour at an average of 33 @.@ 94 .
= = = Captain = = =
On the return trip to Australia , the Australian team stopped in South Africa for a short tour . Due to illness , captain Warwick Armstrong was unable to take part in any of the matches and as a result Collins was appointed captain in his place . The first two Tests were drawn but Australia won the third Test and the series at Cape Town . In the second Test of the series , Collins scored a remarkable double century ( 203 ) on the matting pitch at the Old Wanderers ground in Johannesburg , unearthing a range of shots he had rarely used . With Gregory , who scored 119 , the pair put on a partnership of 209 in 85 minutes , destroying the South African bowling . In six matches played , Collins scored 548 runs , including two centuries at an average of 60 @.@ 88 .
The next international visitors to Australia were the English team of 1924 – 1925 , under the captaincy of Arthur Gilligan . In the First Test at Sydney , Collins opened the batting and scored 114 . Batting with a young Victorian in his début Test , Bill Ponsford , Collins was confident enough to shelter him from the brilliant swing bowling of Maurice Tate . Ponsford went on to make a century ( 110 ) on début . Ponsford later said " I was most grateful for Herbie taking [ Tate 's bowling ] until I was settled in . I doubt I would have scored a century but for his selfless approach . " In the Second Test at Melbourne , chasing 600 , the English pair of Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe batted throughout the third day for an unbroken partnership of 283 . Before play commenced the next day , Collins said to his profligate leg spinner , " You 're going straight on to get Hobbs if we 're to have a chance " . The first ball of the day , Mailey bowled a full toss . Collins moved the field , leaving a gap in the offside field . The next ball was another full toss and Hobbs , looking to hit it into the gap , missed it all ends up and was bowled for 154 .
The Adelaide Test was a thriller with England needing 27 runs to win the Test with two wickets in hand . Collins , ever the gambler , threw the ball once again to Mailey , who was not known for his accuracy or containment . The gamble paid off with Mailey dismissing Tich Freeman and Gregory removing Gilligan at the other end to win the Test by eleven runs and secure The Ashes . Australia won the series four Tests to one . During the Adelaide Test , Collins was approached by a " well known racing identity " who offered him £ 100 to throw the match . Collins rejected the approach and suggested to team mate Arthur Mailey that they throw the visitor down the stairs .
= = = Controversy and retirement = = =
The 1926 tour of England would be Collins 's last . Partly as a result of a wet English summer , the first four Tests of the five @-@ Test series ended in draws . Collins had a disappointing tour , suffering from neuritis and in constant pain from arthritis . He missed the Third and Fourth Tests when admitted to hospital but recovered to resume his place as captain for the Fifth Test .
The Fifth Test , played at the Oval , saw England win the toss and bat . They compiled 280 , Mailey taking five wickets . Australia responded with 302 , dismissed late on the second day . At stumps , England – in their second innings – were 0 / 49 . A violent thunderstorm inundated the ground overnight , rendering the pitch sticky . Collins attracted a great deal of negative attention by using the inexperienced Arthur Richardson as a main strike bowler at the expense of the likes of Mailey and Clarrie Grimmett . The English openers , Hobbs and Sutcliffe , took advantage of this by compiling a 172 @-@ run opening partnership . England were bowled out in their second innings for 436 , 415 runs ahead . Australia were dismissed for 125 , losing the match by 289 runs . The Test was to be Collins 's last .
Such was the disappointment at losing the Ashes , Collins was stripped not only of the New South Wales captaincy but also that of his local club , Waverley . Former players , including his former Waverley captain , the influential Monty Noble , publicly criticised Collins ' captaincy . Hunter Hendry , viewing the match from the stands , suspected Collins threw the match . Despite his reputation as a gambler , there is no material evidence that Collins ever fixed the result of any cricket match .
= = Rugby league career = =
In the 1911 cricket off season Collins played rugby league for Sydney 's Eastern Suburbs club . A five @-@ eighth , Collins played alongside rugby league " immortal " , Dally Messenger when the Eastern Suburbs club won its first ever premiership . In the 1912 season he played in Brisbane for Toombul 's club and represented Queensland on three occasions .
= = Outside cricket = =
Collins was an enthusiastic gambler , renowned by his team mates for finding any reason to bet . Mailey stated that Collins 's haunts " were the racetrack , the dog track , a baccarat joint at Kings Cross , a two @-@ up school in the Flanders trenches and anywhere a quiet game of poker was being played . " His New South Wales team mate Hal Hooker remarked of Collins :
He would bet on anything — perhaps he was the original of the saying about flies crawling up the window . Waiting on a railway line he would bet on how many trains would pass through the opposite platform. how may carriages would be on the next one , how many carriage windows would be open . In a train he would produce a brass top stamped Put and Take — he paid or collected according to which way it fell when it stopped spinning .
Collins was known for all night poker sessions before going out to open the batting but refused to play against his fellow cricketers , seeing no challenge in taking money from novices . His gambling attracted some criticism and Collins was seen by many , including some cricket administrators , as an inveterate gambler .
He turned his interest in gambling into a career , taking out a bookmakers ' licence for a period and he served as a steward at pony races in Sydney . Neither role appealed to him as much as acting as a commission agent for other bookmakers . Collins would " lay @-@ off " for bookmakers over committed on certain horses , placing large bets carefully and with cool calculation . He won and lost two fortunes on the track and at one stage required the assistance of the New South Wales Cricketers Fund to support him and his invalid mother . He re @-@ enlisted in the Australian Army during the Second World War , stationed at Victoria Barracks with the rank of sergeant .
In 1940 , Collins , then aged 51 , married 24 @-@ year @-@ old Marjorie Paine , the daughter of a race steward . The marriage produced a son before ending in divorce eleven years later ; a petition served by Collins was not defended by his wife . After his divorce , Collins continued to frequent gambling clubs at Kings Cross , participating in all @-@ night poker sessions . Despite giving up smoking late in life , his lungs failed him and he died of cancer in 1959 , aged 70 .
= = Playing style and personality = =
Collins was short , no more than 5 ft 8 in ( 173 cm ) and slight . As a batsman , he was not an extravagant strokeplayer , preferring to avoid risk and leave balls on a good length where possible . He batted with very little backlift and at first inspection could seem strokeless , scoring only from pushes and prods , nudges and dabs . His patience was renowned with the contemporary cricket writer Ray Robinson remarking " [ Collins ] had an implacable trench warfare style that in difficult times earned admiration from his own side , put bowlers on the road to exasperation and sent onlookers through the doors of bars . " His one bold shot was an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder hook shot , finishing standing on his right foot , his left foot six inches in the air . Deficient in driving power , bowlers learnt to lessen his scoring power by pitching the ball well up . He often batted without the protection of gloves , especially on easy pitches .
Collins bowled his slow left arm spinners off two steps , with seemingly little effort . In South Africa while bowling , a batsman was heard to yell " Collins is getting weary , Why don 't you carry him to the wicket ? " After his efforts for the AIF team he seldom bowled long spells again .
Popular with his men , Collins was respected for his faith in his team mates and his ability to relate to different personalities . The Test leg @-@ spinner , Arthur Mailey noted , " I learnt more of the psychology of cricket from Collins from all the hundreds of cricketers I met . " Bert Oldfield said of Collins , " He studied every player 's temperament and acted accordingly . " Collins was undemonstrative , expecting his fieldsmen to look at him every after every delivery and adjust their position in response to his slight hand movements or even a bent finger . He was last to shower at the end of a day 's play , preferring to sit in a corner in silence . His team mates assumed that he was contemplating the day 's action and pondering on the next day 's possibilities . He was a successful Test captain , leading Australia to five wins and two losses ; four matches finished in draws .
Many nicknames attached themselves to Collins , including " Lucky " and " Horseshoe " as a result of his reputation for fortune , especially when it came to tossing the coin . His players called him " Maudy " ( probably because of his left @-@ handedness ) and " Nutty " ; it is unclear if this was because he used his " nut " ( head ) or was a hard nut to crack . Mailey nicknamed him " The squirrel " , claiming that Collins eyes glowed at night , enabling him to see better at night than by day . Collins has a bohemian character who enjoyed all night poker and baccarat sessions and evenings at the opera . " Poker Face " , indeed , was another of his nicknames . He had a light tenor voice himself and would sometimes sing at parties . While in the army , Collins became a chain smoker but he remained a teetotaller , save for an occasional glass of celebratory champagne .
= HMS Active ( 1869 ) =
HMS Active was a Volage @-@ class corvette built for the Royal Navy in the late 1860s . Launched in 1869 , she entered service in 1873 , and was the Commodore 's ship on the Cape of Good Hope and West Africa Station . Her crew served ashore in both the Third Anglo @-@ Ashanti and Zulu Wars . From 1885 to 1898 , the ship was the flagship of the Training Squadron . Active was sold for scrap in 1906 .
= = Description = =
Active was 270 feet ( 82 @.@ 3 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 42 feet 1 inch ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) . Forward the ship had a draught of 16 feet 5 inches ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) , but aft she drew 21 ft 5 in ( 6 @.@ 5 m ) . Active displaced 3 @,@ 078 long tons ( 3 @,@ 127 t ) and had a burthen of 2 @,@ 322 tons . Her iron hull was covered by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) layer of oak that was sheathed with copper from the waterline down to prevent biofouling . Watertight transverse bulkheads subdivided the hull . Her crew consisted of 340 officers and enlisted men .
The ship had one 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting rod @-@ steam engine made by Humphreys and Tennant driving a single 19 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) propeller . Five rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 30 psi ( 207 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced a total of 4 @,@ 130 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 080 kW ) which gave Active a maximum speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship carried 410 long tons ( 420 t ) of coal , enough to steam 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 700 km ; 2 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Active was ship rigged and had a sail area of 16 @,@ 593 square feet ( 1 @,@ 542 m2 ) . The lower masts were made of iron , but the other masts were wood . The ship 's best speed under sail alone was 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) . Her funnel was semi @-@ retractable to reduce wind resistance and her propeller could be hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail .
The ship was initially armed with a mix of 7 @-@ inch and 64 @-@ pounder 64 cwt rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The six 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) guns and two of the four 64 @-@ pounders were mounted on the broadside while the other two were mounted on the forecastle and poop deck as chase guns . In 1879 , ten BL 6 @-@ inch 80 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns replaced all the broadside weapons . Two carriages for 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedoes were added as well .
= = Service = =
HMS Active was laid down in 1867 and launched on 13 March 1869 . The ship was completed in March 1871 at a total cost of £ 126 @,@ 156 . Of this , £ 85 @,@ 795 was spent on her hull and £ 40 @,@ 361 on her machinery . Unlike her sister ship Volage , Active was placed in reserve after completion until 1873 when she was commissioned to serve as the flagship of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Cape of Good Hope and West Coast of Africa Station , Commodore William Hewett . The ship participated in naval operations during the Third Anglo @-@ Ashanti War of 1874 and some of her crew were landed to reinforce the forces ashore . Commodore Francis Sullivan replaced Hewett in 1876 and he retained command until 1879 when the ship returned home to refit .
= = = Zulu War = = =
Between 19 November 1878 and 21 July 1879 , during the Anglo @-@ Zulu War , 173 men of Active ( along with men from Tenedos , Shah and Boadicea ) served ashore as part of an 858 @-@ man naval brigade . The group from Active comprised 10 officers , 100 seamen , 5 idlers , 42 Marines , 14 Kroomen , and 2 medical attendants . In addition to small arms , they were equipped with two 12 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns , 24 @-@ pounder rockets , and a Gatling gun . The 12 @-@ pounders were exchanged for two of the Army 's 7 @-@ pounder mountain guns before entering Zululand .
Attached to the No.1 Column commanded by Colonel Charles Pearson , they crossed the Tugela River from Natal into Zululand on 12 January 1879 . On 22 January they saw action in the Battle of Inyezane , driving off an attacking force of Zulus with rockets , Martini @-@ Henry rifles and the Gatling gun . The same day the British main force was defeated at the Battle of Isandlwana , and so Pearson 's column advanced to Eshowe , where it was besieged for two months , until relieved on 3 April . During the campaign , Active 's crew suffered only one man killed , and nine wounded in action against the enemy , while nine died of disease during the siege , and one man drowned while crossing the Tugela . In 1881 the South Africa Medal was awarded to those members of Active 's crew that had served there .
= = = Training Squadron = = =
Active was rearmed and refitted in 1879 and placed in reserve until she was selected in 1885 to be the commodore 's flagship in the newly formed Training Squadron . Active was the last square @-@ rigged naval ship to leave Portsmouth Harbour under sail . She was paid off in 1898 and was sold for scrap on 10 July 1906 .
A memorial to the men of Active who lost their lives during the African campaigns can be found in Victoria Park , Portsmouth .
= Volcanic ash =
Volcanic ash consists of fragments of pulverized rock , minerals and volcanic glass , created during volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 inches ) in diameter . The term volcanic ash is also often loosely used to refer to all explosive eruption products ( correctly referred to as tephra ) , including particles larger than 2mm . Volcanic ash is formed during explosive volcanic eruptions when dissolved gases in magma expand and escape violently into the atmosphere . The force of the escaping gas shatters the magma and propels it into the atmosphere where it solidifies into fragments of volcanic rock and glass . Ash is also produced when magma comes into contact with water during phreatomagmatic eruptions , causing the water to explosively flash to steam leading to shattering of magma . Once in the air , ash is transported by wind up to thousands of kilometers away .
Due to its wide dispersal , ash can have a number of impacts on society , including human and animal health , disruption to aviation , disruption to critical infrastructure ( e.g. , electric power supply systems , telecommunications , water and waste @-@ water networks , transportation ) , primary industries ( e.g. , agriculture ) , buildings and structures .
= = Formation = =
Volcanic ash is formed during explosive volcanic eruptions , phreatomagmatic eruptions and during transport in pyroclastic density currents .
Explosive eruptions occur when magma decompresses as it rises , allowing dissolved volatiles ( dominantly water and carbon dioxide ) to exsolve into gas bubbles . As more bubbles nucleate a foam is produced , which decreases the density of the magma , accelerating it up the conduit . Fragmentation occurs when bubbles occupy ~ 70 @-@ 80 vol % of the erupting mixture . When fragmentation occurs , violently expanding bubbles tear the magma apart into fragments which are ejected into the atmosphere where they solidify into ash particles . Fragmentation is a very efficient process of ash formation and is capable of generating very fine ash even without the addition of water .
Volcanic ash is also produced during phreatomagmatic eruptions . During these eruptions fragmentation occurs when magma comes into contact with bodies of water ( such as the sea , lakes and marshes ) groundwater , snow or ice . As the magma , which is significantly hotter than the boiling point of water , comes into contact with water an insulating vapor film forms ( Leidenfrost effect ) . Eventually this vapor film will collapse leading to direct coupling of the cold water and hot magma . This increases the heat transfer which leads to the rapid expansion of water and fragmentation of the magma into small particles which are subsequently ejected from the volcanic vent . Fragmentation causes an increase in contact area between magma and water creating a feedback mechanism , leading to further fragmentation and production of fine ash particles .
Pyroclastic density currents can also produce ash particles . These are typically produced by lava dome collapse or collapse of the eruption column . Within pyroclastic density currents particle abrasion occurs as particles interact with each other resulting in a reduction in grain size and production of fine grained ash particles . In addition , ash can be produced during secondary fragmentation of pumice fragments , due to the conservation of heat within the flow . These processes produce large quantities of very fine grained ash which is removed from pyroclastic density currents in co @-@ ignimbrite ash plumes .
Physical and chemical characteristics of volcanic ash are primarily controlled by the style of volcanic eruption . Volcanoes display a range of eruption styles which are controlled by magma chemistry , crystal content , temperature and dissolved gases of the erupting magma and can be classified using the volcanic explosivity index ( VEI ) . Effusive eruptions ( VEI 1 ) of basaltic composition produce < 105 m3 of ejecta , whereas extremely explosive eruptions ( VEI 5 + ) of rhyolitic and dacitic composition can inject large quantities ( > 109 m3 ) of ejecta into the atmosphere . Another parameter controlling the amount of ash produced is the duration of the eruption : the longer the eruption is sustained , the more ash will be produced . For example , the second phase of the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull was classified as VEI 4 despite a modest 8 km high eruption column , but the eruption continued for a month , which allowed a large volume of ash to be ejected into the atmosphere .
= = Properties = =
= = = Chemical = = =
The types of minerals present in volcanic ash are dependent on the chemistry of the magma from which it erupted . Considering that the most abundant elements found in magma are silica ( SiO2 ) and oxygen , the various types of magma ( and therefore ash ) produced during volcanic eruptions are most commonly explained in terms of their silica content . Low energy eruptions of basalt produce a characteristically dark coloured ash containing ~ 45 - 55 % silica that is generally rich in iron ( Fe ) and magnesium ( Mg ) . The most explosive rhyolite eruptions produce a felsic ash that is high in silica ( > 69 % ) while other types of ash with an intermediate composition ( e.g. , andesite or dacite ) have a silica content between 55 @-@ 69 % .
The principal gases released during volcanic activity are water , carbon dioxide , sulfur dioxide , hydrogen , hydrogen sulfide , carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride . These sulfur and halogen gases and metals are removed from the atmosphere by processes of chemical reaction , dry and wet deposition , and by adsorption onto the surface of volcanic ash .
It has long been recognised that a range of sulfate and halide ( primarily chloride and fluoride ) compounds are readily mobilised from fresh volcanic ash . ; It is considered most likely that these salts are formed as a consequence of rapid acid dissolution of ash particles within eruption plumes , which is thought to supply the cations involved in the deposition of sulfate and halide salts .
While some 55 ionic species have been reported in fresh ash leachates the most abundant species usually found are the cations Na + , K + , Ca2 + and Mg2 + and the anions Cl − , F − and SO42 − . Molar ratios between ions present in leachates suggest that in many cases these elements are present as simple salts such as NaCl and CaSO4 . In a sequential leaching experiment on ash from the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens , chloride salts were found to be the most readily soluble , followed by sulfate salts Fluoride compounds are in general only sparingly soluble ( e.g. , CaF2 , MgF2 ) , with the exception of fluoride salts of alkali metals and compounds such as calcium hexafluorosilicate ( CaSiF6 ) . The pH of fresh ash leachates is highly variable , depending on the presence of an acidic gas condensate ( primarily as a consequence of the gases SO2 , HCl and HF in the eruption plume ) on the ash surface .
The crystalline @-@ solid structure of the salts act more as an insulator than a conductor . However , once the salts are dissolved into a solution by a source of moisture ( e.g. , fog , mist , light rain , etc . ) , the ash may become corrosive and electrically conductive . A recent study has shown that the electrical conductivity of volcanic ash increases with ( 1 ) increasing moisture content , ( 2 ) increasing soluble salt content , and ( 3 ) increasing compaction ( bulk density ) . The ability of volcanic ash to conduct electric current has significant implications for electric power supply systems .
= = = Physical = = =
= = = = Components = = = =
Volcanic ash particles erupted during magmatic eruptions are made up of various fractions of vitric ( glassy , non @-@ crystalline ) , crystalline or lithic ( non @-@ magmatic ) particles . Ash produced during low viscosity magmatic eruptions ( e.g. , Hawaiian and Strombolian basaltic eruptions ) produce a range of different pyroclasts dependent on the eruptive process . For example , ash collected from Hawaiian lava fountains consists of sideromelane ( light brown basaltic glass ) pyroclasts which contain rare microlites ( small quench crystals ) and phenocrysts . Slightly more viscous eruptions of basalt ( e.g. , Strombolian ) form a variety of pyroclasts from irregular sideromelane droplets to blocky tachylite ( black to dark brown microcrystalline pyroclasts ) . In contrast , most high @-@ silica ash ( e.g. rhyolite ) consists of pulverised products of pumice ( vitric shards ) , individual phenocrysts ( crystal fraction ) and some lithic fragments ( xenoliths ) .
Ash generated during phreatic eruptio [ e ] ns primarily consists of hydrothermally altered lithic and mineral fragments , commonly in a clay matrix . Particle surfaces are often coated with aggregates of zeolite crystals or clay and only relict textures remain to identify pyroclast types .
= = = = Morphology = = = =
The morphology ( shape ) of volcanic ash is controlled by a plethora of different eruption and kinematic processes . Eruptions of low @-@ viscosity magmas ( e.g. , basalt ) typically form droplet shaped particles . This droplet shape is , in part , controlled by surface tension , acceleration of the droplets after they leave the vent , and air friction . Shapes range from perfect spheres to a variety of twisted , elongate droplets with smooth , fluidal surfaces .
The morphology of ash from eruptions of high @-@ viscosity magmas ( e.g. , rhyolite , dacite , and some andesites ) is mostly dependent on the shape of vesicles in the rising magma before disintegration . Vesicles are formed by the expansion of magmatic gas before the magma has solidified . Ash particles can have varying degrees of vesicularity and vesicular particles can have extremely high surface area to volume ratios . Concavities , troughs , and tubes observed on grain surfaces are the result of broken vesicle walls . Vitric ash particles from high @-@ viscosity magma eruptions are typically angular , vesicular pumiceous fragments or thin vesicle @-@ wall fragments while lithic fragments in volcanic ash are typically equant , or angular to subrounded . Lithic morphology in ash is generally controlled by the mechanical properties of the wall rock broken up by spalling or explosive expansion of gases in the magma as it reaches the surface .
The morphology of ash particles from phreatomagmatic eruptions is controlled by stresses within the chilled magma which result in fragmentation of the glass to form small blocky or pyramidal glass ash particles . Vesicle shape and density play only a minor role in the determination of grain shape in phreatomagmatic eruptions . In this sort of eruption , the rising magma is quickly cooled on contact with ground or surface water . Stresses within the " quenched " magma cause fragmentation into five dominant pyroclast shape @-@ types : ( 1 ) blocky and equant ; ( 2 ) vesicular and irregular with smooth surfaces ; ( 3 ) moss @-@ like and convoluted ; ( 4 ) spherical or drop @-@ like ; and ( 5 ) plate @-@ like .
= = = = Density = = = =
The density of individual particles varies with different eruptions . The density of volcanic ash varies between 700 – 1200 kg / m3 for pumice , 2350 – 2450 kg / m3 for glass shards , 2700 – 3300 kg / m3 for crystals , and 2600 – 3200 kg / m3 for lithic particles . Since coarser and denser particles are deposited close to source , fine glass and pumice shards are relatively enriched in ash fall deposits at distal locations . The high density and hardness ( ~ 5 on the Mohs Hardness Scale ) together with a high degree of angularity , make some types of volcanic ash ( particularly those with a high silica content ) very abrasive .
= = = = Grain size = = = =
Volcanic ash consists of particles ( pyroclasts ) with diameters < 2 mm ( particles > 2 mm are classified as lapilli ) , and can be as fine as 1 μm . The overall grain size distribution of ash can vary greatly with different magma compositions . Few attempts have been made to correlate the grain size characteristics of a deposit with those of the event which produced it , though some predictions can be made . Rhyolitic magmas generally produce finer grained material compared to basaltic magmas , due to the higher viscosity and therefore explosivity . The proportions of fine ash are higher for silicic explosive eruptions , probably because vesicle size in the pre @-@ eruptive magma is smaller than those in mafic magmas . There is good evidence that pyroclastic flows produce high proportions of fine ash by communition and it is likely that this process also occurs inside volcanic conduits and would be most efficient when the magma fragmentation surface is well below the summit crater .
= = Dispersal = =
Ash particles are incorporated into eruption columns as they are ejected from the vent at high velocity . The initial momentum from the eruption propels the column upwards . As air is drawn into the column , the bulk density decreases and it starts to rise buoyantly into the atmosphere . At a point where the bulk density of the column is the same as the surrounding atmosphere , the column will cease rising and start moving laterally . Lateral dispersion is controlled by prevailing winds and the ash may be deposited hundreds to thousands of kilometres from the volcano , depending on eruption column height , particle size of the ash and climatic conditions ( especially wind direction and strength and humidity ) .
Ash fallout occurs immediately after the eruption and is controlled by particle density . Initially , coarse particles fall out close to source . This is followed by fallout of accretionary lapilli , which is the result of particle agglomeration within the column . Ash fallout is less concentrated during the final stages as the column moves downwind . This results in an ash fall deposit which generally decreases in thickness and grain size exponentially with increasing distance from the volcano . Fine ash particles may remain in the atmosphere for days to weeks and be dispersed by high @-@ altitude winds . These particles can impact on the aviation industry ( refer to impacts section ) and , combined with gas particles , can affect global climate .
Volcanic ash plumes can form above pyroclastic density currents , these are called co @-@ ignimbrite plumes . As pyroclastic density currents travel away from the volcano , smaller particles are removed from the flow by elutriation and form a less dense zone overlying the main flow . This zone then entrains the surrounding air and a buoyant co @-@ ignimbrite plume is formed . These plumes tend to have higher concentrations of fine ash particles compared to magmatic eruption plumes due to the abrasion within the pyroclastic density current .
= = Impacts = =
= = = Introduction = = =
Population growth has caused the progressive encroachment of urban development into higher risk areas , closer to volcanic centres , increasing the human exposure to volcanic ash fall events .
Infrastructure is critical to supporting modern societies , particularly in urban areas , where high population densities create high demand for services . These infrastructure networks and systems support urban living , and provide lifeline services upon which we depend for our health , education , transport and social networking . Infrastructure networks and services support a variety of facilities across a broad range of sectors .
Volcanic ash fall events can disrupt and or damage the infrastructure upon which society depends . Several recent eruptions have illustrated the vulnerability of urban areas that received only a few millimetres or centimetres of volcanic ash . This has been sufficient to cause disruption of transportation , electricity , water , sewage and storm water systems . Costs have been incurred from business disruption , replacement of damaged parts and insured losses . Ash fall impacts on critical infrastructure can also cause multiple knock @-@ on effects , which may disrupt many different sectors and services .
Volcanic ash fall is physically , socially and economically disruptive . Volcanic ash can affect both proximal areas and areas many hundreds of kilometres from the source , and causes disruptions and losses in a wide variety of different infrastructure sectors . Impacts are dependent on : ash fall thickness ; the duration of the ash fall ; the grain size and chemistry of the ash ; whether the ash is wet or dry ; and any preparedness , management and prevention ( mitigation ) measures employed to reduce effects from the ash fall . Different sectors of infrastructure and society are affected in different ways and are vulnerable to a range of impacts or consequences . These are discussed in the following sections .
= = = Infrastructure sectors = = =
= = = = Electricity = = = =
Volcanic ash can cause disruption to electric power supply systems at all levels of power generation , transformation , transmission and distribution . There are four main impacts arising from ash @-@ contamination of apparatus used in the power delivery process :
Wet deposits of ash on high voltage insulators can initiate a leakage current ( small amount of current flow across the insulator surface ) which , if sufficient current is achieved , can cause ‘ flashover ’ ( the unintended electrical discharge around or over the surface of an insulating material ) .
If the resulting short @-@ circuit current is high enough to trip the circuit breaker then disruption of service will occur . Ash @-@ induced flashover across transformer insulation ( bushings ) can burn , etch or crack the insulation irreparably and will likely result in the disruption of power supply .
Volcanic ash can erode , pit and scour metallic apparatus , particularly moving parts such as water and wind turbines and cooling fans on transformers or thermal power plants .
The high bulk density of some ash deposits can cause line breakage and damage to steel towers and wooden poles due to ash loading . This is most hazardous when the ash and / or the lines and structures are wet ( e.g. , by rainfall ) and there has been ≥ 10 mm of ash fall . Fine @-@ grained ash ( e.g. , < 0 @.@ 5 mm diameter ) adheres to lines and structures most readily . Volcanic ash may also load overhanging vegetation , causing it to fall onto lines . Snow and ice accumulation on lines and overhanging vegetation further increases the risk of breakage and or collapse of lines and other hardware .
Controlled outages of vulnerable connection points ( e.g. , substations ) or circuits until ash fall has subsided or for de @-@ energised cleaning of equipment .
= = = = Drinking water supplies = = = =
Following an eruption , it is very common for the public to hold fears about chemical contamination of water supplies . However , in general , the physical impacts of an ashfall will tend to overwhelm problems caused by the release of chemical contaminants from fresh volcanic ash . Impacts vary according to the type of treatment system .
= = = = = Large water treatment plants = = = = =
Groundwater @-@ fed systems are resilient to impacts from ashfall , although airborne ash can interfere with the operation of well @-@ head pumps . Electricity outages caused by ashfall can also disrupt electrically powered pumps if there is no backup generation .
For surface water sources such as lakes and reservoirs , the volume available for dilution of ionic species leached from ash is generally large . The most abundant components of ash leachates ( Ca , Na , Mg , K , Cl , F and SO4 ) occur naturally at significant concentrations in most surface waters and therefore are not affected greatly by inputs from volcanic ashfall , and are also of low concern in drinking water , with the possible exception of fluorine . The elements iron , manganese and aluminium are commonly enriched over background levels by volcanic ashfall . These elements may impart a metallic taste to water , and may produce red , brown or black staining of whiteware , but are not considered a health risk . Volcanic ashfalls are not known to have caused problems in water supplies for toxic trace elements such as mercury ( Hg ) and lead ( Pb ) which occur at very low levels in ash leachates .
A further point to note is that drinking @-@ water treatment commonly involves the addition of treatment chemicals such as aluminium sulfate or ferric chloride as flocculants , lime for pH adjustment , chlorine for disinfection and fluoride compounds for dental health .
The physical impacts of ashfall can affect the operation of water treatment plants . Ash can block intake structures , cause severe abrasion damage to pump impellers and overload pump motors . Many water treatment plants have an initial coagulation / flocculation step that is automatically adjusted to turbidity ( the level of suspended solids , measured in nephelometric turbidity units ) in the incoming water . In most cases , changes in turbidity caused by suspended ash particles will be within the normal operating range of the plant and can be managed satisfactorily by adjusting the addition of coagulant . Ashfalls will be more likely to cause problems for plants that are not designed for high levels of turbidity and which may omit coagulation / flocculation treatment . Ash can enter filtration systems such as open sand filters both by direct fallout and via intake waters . In most cases , increased maintenance will be required to manage the effects of an ashfall , but there will not be service interruptions .
The final step of drinking water treatment is disinfection to ensure that final drinking water is free from infectious microorganisms . As suspended particles ( turbidity ) can provide a growth substrate for microorganisms and can protect them from disinfection treatment , it is extremely important that the water treatment process achieves a good level of removal of suspended particles .
= = = = = Small treatment systems = = = = =
Many small communities obtain their drinking water from diverse sources ( lakes , streams , springs and groundwater wells ) . Levels of treatment vary widely , from rudimentary systems with coarse screening or settling followed by disinfection ( usually chlorination ) , to more sophisticated systems using a filtration step . It should be noted that unless a high quality source is used , such as secure groundwater , disinfection alone is unlikely to guarantee that drinking water is safe from protozoa such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium , which are relatively resistant to standard disinfectants and which require additional removal steps such as filtration .
Volcanic ashfall is likely to have major effects on these systems . Ash will clog intake structures , cause abrasion damage to pumps and block pipes , settling ponds and open filters . High levels of turbidity are very likely to interfere with disinfection treatment and doses may have to be adjusted to compensate . It is essential to monitor chlorine residuals in the distribution system .
= = = = = Rainwater @-@ fed supplies = = = = =
Many households , and some small communities , rely on rainwater for their drinking water supplies . Roof @-@ fed systems are highly vulnerable to contamination by ashfall , as they have a large surface area relative to the storage tank volume . In these cases , leaching of chemical contaminants from the ashfall can become a health risk and drinking of water is not recommended . Prior to an ashfall , downpipes should be disconnected so that water in the tank is protected . A further problem is that the surface coating of fresh volcanic ash can be acidic . Unlike most surface waters , rainwater generally has a very low alkalinity ( acid @-@ neutralising capacity ) and thus ashfall may acidify tank waters . This may lead to problems with plumbosolvency , whereby the water is more aggressive towards materials that it comes into contact with . This can be a particular problem if there are lead @-@ head nails or lead flashing used on the roof , and for copper pipes and other metallic plumbing fittings .
= = = = = Water demand = = = = =
During ashfall events large demands are commonly placed on water resources for cleanup and shortages can result . Shortages compromise key services such as firefighting and can lead to a lack of water for hygiene , sanitation and drinking . Municipal authorities need to monitor and manage this water demand carefully , and may need to advise the public to utilise cleanup methods that do not use water ( e.g. , cleaning with brooms rather than hoses ) .
= = = = Wastewater treatment = = = =
Wastewater networks may sustain damage similar to water supply networks . It is very difficult to exclude ash from the sewerage system . Systems with combined storm water / sewer lines are most at risk . Ash will enter sewer lines where there is inflow / infiltration by stormwater through illegal connections ( e.g. , from roof downpipes ) , cross connections , around manhole covers or through holes and cracks in sewer pipes .
Ash @-@ laden sewage entering a treatment plant is likely to cause failure of mechanical prescreening equipment such as step screens or rotating screens . Ash that penetrates further into the system will settle and reduce the capacity of biological reactors as well as increasing the volume of sludge and changing its composition .
= = = = Aircraft = = = =
The principal damage sustained by aircraft flying into a volcanic ash cloud is abrasion to forward @-@ facing surfaces , such as the windshield and leading edges of the wings , and accumulation of ash into surface openings , including engines . Abrasion of windshields and landing lights will reduce visibility forcing pilots to rely on their instruments . However , some instruments may provide incorrect readings as sensors ( e.g. , pitot tubes ) can become blocked with ash . Ingestion of ash into engines causes abrasion damage to compressor fan blades . The ash erodes sharp blades in the compressor , reducing its efficiency . The ash melts in the combustion chamber to form molten glass . The ash then solidifies on turbine blades , blocking air flow and causing the engine to stall .
The composition of most ash is such that its melting temperature is within the operating temperature ( > 1000 ° C ) of modern large jet engines . The degree of impact depends upon the concentration of ash in the plume , the length of time the aircraft spends within the plume and the actions taken by the pilots . Critically , melting of ash , particularly volcanic glass , can result in accumulation of resolidified ash on turbine nozzle guide vanes , resulting in compressor stall and complete loss of engine thrust . The standard procedure of the engine control system when it detects a possible stall is to increase power which would exacerbate the problem . It is recommended that pilots reduce engine power and quickly exit the cloud by performing a descending 180 ° turn . Volcanic gases , which are present within ash clouds , can also cause damage to engines and acrylic windshields , although this damage may not surface for many years .
= = = = = Occurrence = = = = =
There are many instances of damage to jet aircraft as a result of an ash encounter . On 24 June 1982 a British Airways Boeing 747 @-@ 236B ( Flight 9 ) flew through the ash cloud from the eruption of Mount Galunggung , Indonesia resulting in the failure of all four engines . The plane descended 24 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) in 16 minutes before the engines restarted , allowing the aircraft to make an emergency landing . On 15 December 1989 a KLM Boeing 747 @-@ 400 ( Flight 867 ) also lost power to all four engines after flying into an ash cloud from Mount Redoubt , Alaska . After dropping 14 @,@ 700 feet ( 4 @,@ 500 m ) in four minutes , the engines were started just 1 – 2 minutes before impact . Total damage was US $ 80 million and it took 3 months ' work to repair the plane . In the 1990s a further US $ 100 million of damage was sustained by commercial aircraft ( some in the air , others on the ground ) as a consequence of the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines .
In April 2010 airspace all over Europe was affected , with many flights cancelled @-@ which was unprecedented @-@ due to the presence of volcanic ash in the upper atmosphere from the eruption of the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull . On 15 April 2010 the Finnish Air Force halted training flights when damage was found from volcanic dust ingestion by the engines of one of its Boeing F @-@ 18 Hornet fighters . On 22 April 2010 UK RAF Typhoon training flights were also temporarily suspended after deposits of volcanic ash were found in a jet 's engines . In June 2011 there were similar closures of airspace in Chile , Argentina , Brazil , Australia and New Zealand , following the eruption of Puyehue @-@ Cordón Caulle , Chile .
= = = = = Detection = = = = =
Volcanic ash clouds are very difficult to detect from aircraft as no onboard cockpit instruments exist to detect them . However , a new system called Airborne Volcanic Object Infrared Detector ( AVOID ) has recently been developed by Nicarnica Aviation , a daughter company of the Norwegian Institute for Air Research , which will allow pilots to detect ash plumes up to 100 km ( 62 mi ) ahead and fly safely around them . The system uses two fast @-@ sampling infrared cameras , mounted on a forward @-@ facing surface , that are tuned to detect volcanic ash . This system can detect ash concentrations of < 1 mg / m3 to > 50 mg / m3 , giving pilots approximately 7 – 10 minutes warning . The camera is currently being tested by easyJet airline company .
In addition , ground and satellite based imagery , radar , and lidar can be used to detect ash clouds . This information is passed between meteorological agencies , volcanic observatories and airline companies through Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers ( VAAC ) . There is one VAAC for each of the nine regions of the world . VAACs can issue advisories describing the current and future extent of the ash cloud .
= = = = = Airport systems = = = = =
Volcanic ash not only affects in @-@ flight operations but can affect ground @-@ based airport operations as well . Small accumulations of ash can reduce visibility , create slippery runways and taxiways , infiltrate communication and electrical systems , interrupt ground services , damage buildings and parked aircraft . Ash accumulation of more than a few millimeters requires removal before airports can resume full operations . Ash does not disappear ( unlike snowfalls ) and must be disposed of in a manner that prevents it from being remobilised by wind and aircraft .
= = = = Land transport = = = =
Ash may disrupt transportation systems over large areas for hours to days , including roads and vehicles , railways and ports and shipping . Falling ash will reduce the visibility which can make driving difficult and dangerous . In addition , fast travelling cars will stir up ash , creating billowing clouds which perpetuate ongoing visibility hazards . Ash accumulations will decrease traction , especially when wet , and cover road markings . Fine @-@ grained ash can infiltrate openings in cars and abrade most surfaces , especially between moving parts . Air and oil filters will become blocked requiring frequent replacement . Rail transport is less vulnerable , with disruptions mainly caused by reduction in visibility .
Marine transport can also be impacted by volcanic ash . Ash fall will block air and oil filters and abrade any moving parts if ingested into engines . Navigation will be impacted by a reduction in visibility during ash fall . Vesiculated ash ( pumice and scoria ) will float on the water surface in ‘ pumice rafts ’ which can clog water intakes quickly , leading to over heating of machinery .
= = = = Communications = = = =
Telecommunication and broadcast networks can be affected by volcanic ash in the following ways : attenuation and reduction of signal strength ; damage to equipment ; and overloading of network through user demand . Signal attenuation due to volcanic ash is not well documented ; however , there have been reports of disrupted communications following the 1969 Surtsey eruption and 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption . Research by the New Zealand @-@ based Auckland Engineering Lifelines Group determined theoretically that impacts on telecommunications signals from ash would be limited to low frequency services such as satellite communication . Signal interference may also be caused by lightning , as this is frequently generated within volcanic eruption plumes .
Telecommunication equipment may become damaged due to direct ash fall . Most modern equipment requires constant cooling from air conditioning units . These are susceptible to blockage by ash which reduces their cooling efficiency . Heavy ash falls may cause telecommunication lines , masts , cables , aerials , antennae dishes and towers to collapse due to ash loading . Moist ash may also cause accelerated corrosion of metal components .
Reports from recent eruptions suggest that the largest disruption to communication networks is overloading due to high user demand . This is common of many natural disasters .
= = = = Computers = = = =
Computers may be impacted by volcanic ash , with their functionality and usability decreasing during ashfall , but it is unlikely they will completely fail . The most vulnerable components are the mechanical components , such as cooling fans , cd drives , keyboard , mice and touch pads . These components can become jammed with fine grained ash causing them to cease working ; however , most can be restored to working order by cleaning with compressed air . Moist ash may cause electrical short circuits within desktop computers ; however , will not affect laptop computers .
= = = = Buildings and structures = = = =
Damage to buildings and structures can range from complete or partial roof collapse to less catastrophic damage of exterior and internal materials . Impacts depend on the thickness of ash , whether it is wet or dry , the roof and building design and how much ash gets inside a building . The specific weight of ash can vary significantly and rain can increase this by 50 @-@ 100 % . Problems associated with ash loading are similar to that of snow ; however , ash is more severe as 1 ) the load from ash is generally much greater , 2 ) ash does not melt and 3 ) ash can clog and damage gutters , especially after rain fall . Impacts for ash loading depend on building design and construction , including roof slope , construction materials , roof span and support system , and age and maintenance of the building . Generally flat roofs are more susceptible to damage and collapse than steeply pitched roofs . Roofs made of smooth materials ( sheet metal or glass ) are more likely to shed ash than roofs made with rough materials ( thatch , asphalt or wood shingles ) . Roof collapse can lead to widespread injuries and deaths and property damage . For example , the collapse of roofs from ash during the 15 June 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption killed about 300 people .
= = = Human and animal health = = =
Ash particles of less than 10 µm diameter suspended in the air are known to be inhalable , and people exposed to ash falls have experienced respiratory discomfort , breathing difficulty , eye and skin irritation , and nose and throat symptoms . Most of these effects are short @-@ term and are not considered to pose a significant health risk to those without pre @-@ existing respiratory conditions . The health effects of volcanic ash depend on the grain size , mineralogical composition and chemical coatings on the surface of the ash particles . Additional factors related to potential respiratory symptoms are the frequency and duration of exposure , the concentration of ash in the air and the respirable ash fraction ; the proportion of ash with less than 10 µm diameter , known as PM10 . The social context may also be important .
Chronic health effects from volcanic ash fall are possible , as exposure to free crystalline silica is known to cause silicosis . Minerals associated with this include quartz , cristobalite and tridymite , which may all be present in volcanic ash . These minerals are described as ‘ free ’ silica as the SiO2 is not attached to another element to create a new mineral . However , magmas containing less than 58 % SiO2 are thought to be unlikely to contain crystalline silica .
The exposure levels to free crystalline silica in the ash are commonly used to characterise the risk of silicosis in occupational studies ( for people who work in mining , construction and other industries , ) because it is classified as a human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer . Guideline values have been created for exposure , but with unclear rationale ; UK guidelines for particulates in air ( PM10 ) are 50 µg / m3 and USA guidelines for exposure to crystalline silica are 50 µg / m3 . It is thought that the guidelines on exposure levels could be exceeded for short periods of time without significant health effects on the general population .
There have been no documented cases of silicosis developed from exposure to volcanic ash . However , long @-@ term studies necessary to evaluate these effects are lacking .
Ingesting ash may be harmful to livestock , causing abrasion of the teeth , and in cases of high fluorine content , fluorine poisoning ( toxic at levels of > 100 µg / g ) for grazing animals . It is known from the 1783 eruption of Laki in Iceland that fluorine poisoning occurred in humans and livestock as a result of the chemistry of the ash and gas , which contained high levels of Hydrogen Fluoride . Following the 1995 / 96 Mount Ruapehu eruptions in New Zealand , two thousand ewes and lambs died after being affected by fluorosis while grazing on land with only 1 – 3 mm of ash fall . Ash ingestion may also cause gastrointestinal blockages . Sheep that ingested ash from the 1991 Mount Hudson volcanic eruption in Chile , suffered from diarrhoea and weakness . The added weight of ash in the wool led to fatigue and sheep could not stand up .
= = = Environment and agriculture = = =
Volcanic ash can have a detrimental impact on the environment which can be difficult to predict due to the large variety of environmental conditions that exist within the ash fall zone . Natural waterways can be impacted in the same way as urban water supply networks . Ash will increase water turbidity which can reduce the amount of light reaching lower depths , which can inhibit growth of submerged aquatic plants and consequently affect species which are dependent on them such as fish and shellfish . High turbidity can also affect the ability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen . Acidification will also occur , which will reduce the pH of the water and impact the fauna and flora living in the environment . Fluoride contamination will occur if the ash contains high concentrations of fluoride .
Ash accumulation will also affect pasture , plants and trees which are part of the horticulture and agriculture industries . Thin ash falls ( < 20 mm ) may put livestock off eating , and can inhibit transpiration and photosynthesis and alter growth . There may be an increase in pasture production due to a mulching effect and slight fertilizing effect , such as occurred following the 1980 Mount St. Helens and 1995 / 96 Mt Ruapehu eruptions . Heavier falls will completely bury pastures and soil leading to death of pasture and sterilization of the soil due to oxygen deprivation . Plant survival is dependent on ash thickness , ash chemistry , compaction of ash , amount of rainfall , duration of burial and the length of plant stalks at the time of ash fall . The acidic nature of ash will lead to elevated soil sulfur levels and lowered soil pH , which can reduce the availability of essential minerals and alter the soil ’ s characteristics so that crops and plants will not survive . Ash will also impact upon arable crops , such as fruit , vegetables and grain . Ash can burn plant and crop tissue reducing quality , contaminate crops during harvest and damage plants from ash loading .
Young forests ( trees < 2 years old ) are most at risk from ash falls and are likely to be destroyed by ash deposits > 100 mm . Ash fall is unlikely to kill mature trees , but ash loading may break large branches during heavy ash falls ( > 500 mm ) . Defoliation of trees may also occur , especially if there is a coarse ash component within the ash fall .
Land rehabilitation after ash fall may be possible depending on the ash deposit thickness . Rehabilitation treatment may include : direct seeding of deposit ; mixing of deposit with buried soil ; scraping of ash deposit from land surface ; and application of new topsoil over the ash deposit .
= = = Interdependence = = =
Critical infrastructure and infrastructure services are vital to the functionality of modern society , to provide : medical care , policing , emergency services , and lifelines such as water , wastewater , and power and transportation links . Often critical facilities themselves are dependent on such lifelines for operability , which makes them vulnerable to both direct impacts from a hazard event and indirect effects from lifeline disruption .
The impacts on lifelines may also be inter @-@ dependent . The vulnerability of each lifeline may depend on : the type of hazard , the spatial density of its critical linkages , the dependency on critical linkages , susceptibility to damage and speed of service restoration , state of repair or age , and institutional characteristics or ownership .
The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland highlighted the impacts of volcanic ash fall in modern society and our dependence on the functionality of infrastructure services . During this event the airline industry suffered business interruption losses of € 1 @.@ 5 @-@ 2 @.@ 5 billion from the closure of European airspace for six days in April 2010 and subsequent closures into May 2010 . Ash fall from this event is also known to have caused local crop losses in agricultural industries , losses in the tourism industry , destruction of roads and bridges in Iceland ( in combination with glacial melt water ) , and costs associated with emergency response and clean @-@ up . However , across Europe there were further losses associated with travel disruption , the insurance industry , the postal service , and imports and exports across Europe and worldwide . These consequences demonstrate the interdependency and diversity of impacts from a single event .
= = Preparedness , mitigation and management = =
Preparedness for ashfalls should involve sealing buildings , protecting infrastructure and homes , and storing sufficient supplies of food and water to last until the ash fall is over and clean @-@ up can begin . Dust masks can be worn to reduce inhalation of ash and mitigate against any respiratory health affects . Goggles can be worn to protect against eye irritation .
The International Volcanic Ashfall Impacts Working Group of IAVCEI maintains a regularly updated database of impacts and mitigations strategies at http : / / volcanoes.usgs.gov / ash
At home , staying informed about volcanic activity , and having contingency plans in place for alternative shelter locations , constitutes good preparedness for an ash fall event . This can prevent some impacts associated with ash fall , reduce the effects , and increase the human capacity to cope with such events . A few items such as a flashlight , plastic sheeting to protect electronic equipment from ash ingress , and battery operated radios , are extremely useful during ash fall events .
The protection of infrastructure must also be considered within emergency preparedness . Critical facilities that need to remain operable should be identified , and all others should be shut down to reduce damage . It is also important to keep ash out of buildings , machinery and lifeline networks ( in particular water and wastewater systems , ) to prevent some of the damage caused by ash particles . Windows and doors should be closed and shuttered if possible , to prevent ingress of ash into buildings .
Communication plans should be made beforehand to inform of mitigation actions being undertaken . Spare parts and back @-@ up systems should be in place prior to ash fall events to reduce service disruption and return functionality as quickly as possible . Good preparedness also includes the identification of ash disposal sites , before ash fall occurs , to avoid further movement of ash and to aid clean @-@ up . Protective equipment such as eye protection and dust masks should be deployed for clean @-@ up teams in advance of ash fall events .
Some effective techniques for the management of ash have been developed including cleaning methods and cleaning apparatus , and actions to mitigate or limit damage . The latter include covering of openings such as : air and water intakes , aircraft engines and windows during ash fall events . Roads may be closed to allow clean @-@ up of ash falls , or speed restrictions may be put in place , in order to prevent motorists from developing motor problems and becoming stranded following an ash fall . To prevent further effects on underground water systems or waste water networks , drains and culverts should be unblocked and ash prevented from entering the system . Ash can be moistened ( but not saturated ) by sprinkling with water , to prevent remobilisation of ash and to aid clean @-@ up . Prioritisation of clean @-@ up operations for critical facilities and coordination of clean @-@ up efforts also constitute good management practice .
= = Volcanic ash soils = =
Volcanic ash 's primary use is that of a soil enricher . Once the minerals in ash are washed into the soil by rain or other natural processes , it mixes with the soil to create an Andisol layer . This layer is highly rich in nutrients and is very good for agricultural use ; the presence of lush forests on volcanic islands is often as a result of trees growing and flourishing in the Phosphorus and Nitrogen @-@ rich andisol .
= = Tephrochronology = =
= Dutch 1913 battleship proposal =
A Dutch proposal to build new battleships was originally tendered in 1912 , after years of concern over the expansion of the Imperial Japanese Navy and the withdrawal of allied British warships from the China Station . Only four coastal defense ships were planned , but naval experts and the Tweede Kamer ( lower house of the parliament ) believed that acquiring dreadnoughts would provide a stronger defense for the Nederlands @-@ Indië ( Netherlands East Indies , abbr . NEI ) , so a Royal Commission was formed in June 1912 .
The Royal Commission reported in August 1913 . It recommended that the Koninklijke Marine ( Royal Navy ) acquire nine dreadnought @-@ type battleships to protect the NEI from attack and help guarantee the country 's neutrality in Europe . Five of these would be based in the colony , while the other four would operate out of the Netherlands . Seven foreign companies submitted designs for the contract ; naval historians believe that a 26 @,@ 850 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 27 @,@ 280 tonnes ) ship , whose design was submitted by the German firm Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft , would have been eventually selected .
The Royal Commission 's proposal led to a debate between senior officers in the Navy and the Koninklijke Landmacht ( Royal Army ) over how to best protect the NEI , and the question of how the cost of the ships should be split between the Netherlands and the NEI also was not settled until July 1914 . After considering the recommendations , the Dutch Government decided to acquire four battleships , and a bill seeking funding for them was introduced into the Dutch parliament in August 1914 . However , this was withdrawn following the outbreak of the First World War that month . A new royal commission into Dutch defense needs held after the war did not recommend that battleships be procured and none were ever ordered .
= = Background = =
During the early years of the 20th century , the Dutch became concerned about their ability to defend their colonial empire in the NEI from foreign aggressors . Fears of an eventual Japanese attack developed following the total defeat of the Russian Pacific and Baltic Fleets in the Russo – Japanese War . Moreover , the withdrawal of most of the British China Station 's warships in 1905 meant that there was no credible force in the Pacific to deter the Imperial Japanese Navy , which had been victorious over the Russians and was building powerful cruisers armed with 300 mm ( 12 in ) guns .
At the time , the Dutch naval force in the NEI , the Dutch Squadron in the East Indies , was widely seen as inadequate . It comprised a small number of destroyers , ironclads and armored cruisers , most of which were not battle @-@ worthy . In response to the perceived threat of Japanese attack , the Dutch laid down a coastal defense ship , De Zeven Provinciën , and eight destroyers of the Wolf class , while beginning plans for other ships . In addition , a submarine for the colony was approved in 1911 . Four coast defense ships were projected in one of the two major bills to come before the House of Representatives in 1912 . Specifications for these ships included an armament of four 280 @-@ mm ( 11 @-@ inch ) and ten 102 @-@ mm ( 4 @-@ inch ) guns and three torpedo tubes and they would have been armored with a belt of 152 @-@ mm ( 6 @-@ inch ) and turret armor of 203 mm ( 8 inches ) . Two triple @-@ expansion engines generating 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower would drive the ships through the water at 18 knots ( 21 mph ; 33 km / h ) . One ship of this design was very close to being authorized in 1912 , but it was felt by experts and the House of Representatives that the Netherlands would be better served by constructing dreadnoughts of a type similar to the Spanish España class . Further plans for coast @-@ defense ships were shelved pending the findings of a Royal Commission , formed on 5 June 1912 . Its goal was to assess the steps needed to improve the defenses of the East Indies .
Meanwhile , in September 1912 the Navy Minister , Hendrikus Colijn , contacted the German firm Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft and asked them to prepare a design for dreadnought battleships suited to the NEI . Germaniawerft submitted their design to the Royal Netherlands Navy on 25 September 1912 . The proposed ships were generally similar to the German Kaiser class , but with eight 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) L / 50 guns in four turrets mounted en echelon rather than ten 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five turrets , and two fewer150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) medium guns . The proposed Dutch ships were 1 knot ( 1 @.@ 9 km / h ) faster and had a longer range , at the expense of lighter armor protection , similar to that used in contemporary German battlecruisers . By the time the design was proposed the Dutch authorities had decided that mounting the armament en echelon was inferior to superfiring turrets , and asked Germaniawerft to submit a revised design incorporating this armament , enhanced ammunition storage and other minor improvements .
= = Proposal = =
The Royal Commission handed its findings and recommendations to the government in August 1913 . It concluded that international relations were deteriorating in the Pacific and there was an increased risk of the NEI becoming involved in a war between western and Asian powers . As a result , the Commission argued that the Netherlands should develop a powerful fleet of warships to enforce Dutch neutrality and offer a credible defense should any nation attack the NEI or the home country itself . The Commission was very specific in its call for nine dreadnoughts , stating that they should be ships of 20 @,@ 668 long tons ( 23 @,@ 148 short tons ; 21 @,@ 000 t ) , possessing a speed of 21 knots ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) , and mounting eight 340 mm ( 13 in ) guns , sixteen 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , and twelve 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . It was also recommended that the fleet include six 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 300 short tons ; 1 @,@ 200 t ) " torpedo cruisers " — believed by Conway 's to be closer to large destroyers — eight 500 long tons ( 560 short tons ; 510 t ) destroyers ( a role which would be filled by the Fret class ) , eight torpedo boats ( also already completed , though they were old ) , eight large submarines and two large minelayers . This ambitious plan was estimated to cost nearly ƒ17,000,000 each year for the next 35 ( until 1949 ) , adding up to about ƒ595,000,000 ; this would triple the Navy 's budget . The Commission recommended that the cost of the fleet be partially offset by reducing the size of the Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger ( Royal Dutch East Indies Army ) as the Navy would provide a stronger defense from attack than the Army could .
The requirement for nine battleships was determined by the defense needs of both the Netherlands and NEI . The Commission recommended that four battleships be active at all times in the NEI , with a fifth ship held in reserve there . The remaining four battleships would be based in the Netherlands . Ships sent to the NEI would return to Europe after twelve years in the tropics and complete another eight years service before being scrapped .
The Dutch Navy would need a significant manpower expansion of 2 @,@ 800 sailors to crew all of the proposed battleships . The Commission believed that it was unlikely that sufficient Dutch citizens would volunteer , and that as a result Indonesian sailors should be recruited and trained for service in the NEI . Strong segregation between white and Indonesian sailors was to be maintained to the maximum extent practical for unit efficiency .
One member of the Commission , the chief accountant of the Ministry of Finance , A. van Gijn , objected to the report 's conclusions . He provided a note to Queen Wilhelmina , which argued that advocates of building large warships had forced their views on the other members of the commission . Moreover , he believed that the proposed fleet would be inadequate given the rapid naval expansion being undertaken by the major powers , and that if it was adopted there would be a requirement to buy further dreadnoughts in order to keep pace . This note was included as an appendix to the Commission 's report .
The Royal Commission 's proposals were extensively debated . Hendrick van Kol , who was one of the leaders of the Social Democratic Workers ' Party , argued that building up a strong fleet would hinder Dutch neutrality by making it impossible to avoid battle with foreign fleets which passed through NEI waters en route to other destinations . Other critics of the plan believed that it would be unwise for the Netherlands to join the naval arms race which was taking place in Europe at the time , and that competition between the major powers meant that none of them would allow another nation to occupy either the Netherlands or the NEI . The Dutch Army also opposed the development of a strong fleet in the NEI , arguing that a land force centered on Java would be better able to mount a prolonged resistance against a large invasion force and that reducing the size of the Army to fund the fleet would leave it unable to suppress insurrections . The Governor @-@ General of the NEI , Alexander Willem Frederik Idenburg , argued that both a stronger Army and Navy were necessary , and advocated for seven battleships to be stationed in the Indies . He believed that the cost of this alternative could be managed by reducing the planned battleship force in European waters to three small ships . Other supporters of the proposal , led by the Onze Vloot ( " Our Fleet " ) naval advocacy association , argued that it was necessary to build a strong fleet which was capable of defending the NEI as the loss of the colonial empire would greatly damage the Dutch economy and reduce the country 's prestige . The Dutch Naval staff also debated the relative merits of torpedo boats and battleships , and concluded that while small craft and submarines were suitable for defending the Netherlands , large warships were needed to effectively protect the sprawling East Indies .
After considering the Royal Commission 's recommendations the Dutch Government decided to purchase four battleships . All the ships were to be permanently stationed in the NEI , and none would be used in European waters . The ships were larger than those proposed by the commission , however . Idenburg opposed this decision , and unsuccessfully argued for at least a fifth battleship to be built . In October 1913 it was rumored that the Government was about to order the first ship , and that it would be paid for by a loan borne by NEI .
= = Design = =
Germaniawerft submitted a revised battleship design ( designated Project No. 753 ) to the Dutch Navy on 4 March 1913 , well before the Royal Commission reported back to the Government . As requested , the new design mounted its main armament in superfiring turrets . Other changes included an increase in the number of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns to sixteen , a 0 @.@ 5 knots ( 0 @.@ 93 km / h ) faster maximum speed , different armor protection , replacement of two of the side @-@ launching torpedo tubes with a single stern tube and an increase in the number of rounds carried for each gun from 60 to 100 for the main armament and 100 to 150 for the medium guns . The new design also had a single funnel and a tripod mast that supported a director tower . Displacement was increased from 19 @,@ 535 tons to 20 @,@ 040 tons . Germaniawerft submitted a modified version of this design later in the year which increased the ships ' displacement to 20 @,@ 700 tons and substituted eight 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 inch ) L / 45 guns mounted in two quadruple turrets which were better protected than the four double turrets in the Project No. 753 proposal . This design was not accepted , however .
A meeting chaired by the Navy Minister , Jean Jacques Rambonnet , was held on 10 November 1913 to finalize the battleships ' specifications . It was decided that the ships would be armed with eight 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 inch ) L / 45 guns in four superfiring turrets mounted on the centerline , a secondary armament of sixteen 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) and twelve 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 9 inch ) guns and at least two , possibly four , 533 mm ( 21 inch ) side @-@ launching submerged torpedo tubes and a single stern torpedo tube . The ships were to have a speed of at least 21 knots ( 39 km / h ) and an endurance of more than 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) . They would be propelled by oil @-@ fired boilers powering turbines and three or four propeller shafts . Armor protection would comprise a main belt at least 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 inches ) thick and at least 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 inches ) over the gun turrets and conning tower . A crew of 110 officers and petty officers and 750 ratings was envisioned , and designers were permitted to reduce the armor protection at ships ' bow and stern to save weight for improvements to crew living conditions if necessary .
On 13 March 1914 the Dutch Government altered the battleships ' specifications to require a displacement of 25 @,@ 000 tons , main armament of 356 mm ( 14 inch ) guns , speed of 22 knots ( 25 mph ; 41 km / h ) and endurance of 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 900 mi ; 11 @,@ 000 km ) . The specified speed was faster than normal for contemporary battleships and their belt armor protection was relatively thin . These characteristics were meant to aid the ships in fighting on the Java Sea ; with the good visibility common in that area , naval battles could — and most likely would — be fought at a longer range than would be feasible in other areas like the North Sea , meaning that more shells would strike the deck rather than the belt .
Eleven firms or groups of firms were invited to tender to build the ships , with proposals due on 4 June 1914 . Proposals were received from seven firms ; Germaniawerft , Blohm & Voss , AG Vulcan in cooperation with Bethlehem Steel and AG Weser from Germany as well as the British firms Sir W G Armstrong Whitworth & Co ,
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Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company and Vickers . It is believed that Armstrong submitted at least five different designs . As Dutch shipyards lacked the capability to build large battleships , the ships would have been constructed abroad .
The proposal from Germaniawerft ( designated Project No. 806 ) is regarded by both Conway 's and historian Anthonie van Dijk as being the most likely to have been selected . This design envisioned 24 @,@ 605 long ton ships with a length of 184 meters ( 604 ft ) , beam of 28 meters ( 92 ft ) and draft of 9 meters ( 30 ft ) . The main armament of eight 356 mm guns was to be mounted in four superfiring turrets , while the sixteen 150 mm guns would be placed in casemates about 6 meters ( 20 ft ) above the waterline . Their machinery would include six double @-@ ended boilers and one single @-@ ended boiler and three turbine sets were to drive three propeller shafts . Armor would have included a belt of 250 mm amidships and 150 mm to fore and aft . Germaniawerft reserved the right to subcontract Blohm & Voss to build some of the ships and offered a delivery time for the first ship of 28 months following the date the order was made .
Other major proposals included the ones from Blohm & Voss and Vickers . While both included the same armament as Germania , the former design had a smaller displacement — 26 @,@ 055 long tons ( 26 @,@ 473 metric tons ) versus 28 @,@ 033 long tons ( 28 @,@ 483 t ) — and devoted a greater amount of weight to protection : 8 @,@ 974 long tons ( 9 @,@ 118 t , 34 @.@ 8 % of the displacement ) , versus 8 @,@ 820 long tons ( 8 @,@ 960 t , 31 @.@ 77 % ) . Blohm & Voss ' design included a belt starting at 150 mm in the bow , increasing to 250 mm , then tapering to 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in the stern . It would have been powered by six double @-@ ended coal boilers with oil burners alongside . These boilers would have generated 38 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( shp ) to drive four propellers , giving the ships a maximum speed of 22 knots ( 25 mph ; 41 km / h ) . Only one rudder would have been fitted . The Vickers design had a shorter belt of 250 mm amidships , and would have used 15 boilers with oil burners to provide 34 @,@ 000 shp and the same 22 knots .
= = = Weight distribution = = =
= = Debate over costs = =
There was an extensive debate over how to divide the cost of the proposed fleet between the Netherlands and NEI . The members of the Royal Commission were split on this question ; while a minority preferred an equal division , the majority wanted the NEI to pay most of the costs . The public debate on this issue was centered on the questions of who should pay for the ships and who would make the greatest profits from the NEI remaining under Dutch rule . Arguments against the NEI paying for the ships included that the resources required were needed to fund economic and social development and that the cost of the ships would increase opposition to Dutch rule , thereby worsening the security situation in the East Indies . Some critics of the plan also argued that it was unreasonable to expect the Dutch subjects in the NEI pay for ships intended to prolong colonial rule . In contrast , Onze Vloot published pamphlets which claimed that Dutch rule was seen as beneficial in the NEI , and that both white and native residents of the islands would be willing to pay for the ships as they were necessary to guarantee its continuation . These pamphlets also argued that the cost of the ships was modest compared to the NEI 's economic output .
In order to avoid a confrontation over the naval budget , the Dutch Government postponed parliamentary discussions of the Royal Commission 's recommendations during 1913 and early 1914 . By this time Onze Vloot 's campaign in support of the fleet had gained considerable momentum . In late 1913 the Government accepted an offer made by representatives of the Dutch business community to contribute 120 @,@ 000 guilders towards the cost of a second battleship once parliament approved funding for the first ship . Despite this , the Government continued to delay submitting a plan for the defense of the NEI to parliament , though work continued on it . The main difficulty remained the question of how to pay for the fleet . The Minister of the Colonies , Thomas B. Pleyte , believed that the NEI 's population needed to be sheltered from the cost of the ships to the extent possible so that funding for welfare projects was not reduced or taxes increased from what were already high levels . In 1914 he settled on a plan under which the necessary revenue would be raised through increasing the taxes on export duties and freight moved by privately owned railways and ships .
A bill setting out arrangements for funding and building the fleet was finalized in mid @-@ July 1914 . At this time the Navy had not yet settled on a final battleship design . It was planned that the first ship 's keel would be laid in December 1914 and fitting out be completed sometime in 1918 . The bill was not immediately introduced into parliament , however , as Idenburg was given until 10 August to comment on it . The outbreak of the First World War led to the bill being withdrawn due to the uncertain international circumstances and the impossibility of buying battleships from foreign shipbuilders in wartime . Instead , the Government ordered three Java @-@ class cruisers in 1915 , though only two were completed .
A new Royal Commission into the defense of the Netherlands and NEI was held during 1920 and 1921 . This Commission did not recommend that any battleships be constructed ; instead it proposed that all ships under construction as at 31 December be completed along with a further two cruisers , 12 destroyers and 16 submarines . This plan was considered unaffordable , however , especially given the strength of the disarmament movement internationally . A Navy Bill to fund a reduced version of the Royal Commission 's proposal was introduced to parliament in November 1921 , but was eventually defeated by a single vote in October 1923 . Renewed Dutch concerns over Japanese aggression in the late 1930s led to a proposal to build three Design 1047 battlecruisers for service in the NEI , but construction of these ships had not begun when the Netherlands was overrun by German forces in May 1940 .
= Whippet =
The Whippet ( also English Whippet or Snap dog ) is a dog breed of medium @-@ size . They are a sighthound breed that originated in England , where they descended from greyhounds . Whippets today still strongly resemble a smaller greyhound . Shown in the Hound group , Whippets have relatively few health problems other than arrhythmia . Whippets also participate in dog sports such as lure coursing , agility , and flyball .
Whippets were originally greyhounds that were deemed unsuitable for hunting because of their size . They were returned to their peasant breeders after being maimed so that they could not be used to hunt and break the Forest law . These maimed dogs were bred together and used to catch rats , and hunt rabbits . When the Forest law was repealed , these " miniature greyhounds " became popular in the sport of dog racing . This has led to Whippets being described as " the poor man 's racehorse . " They are still frequently used as racing dogs today , as they have the highest running speed of breeds their weight : 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) and even challenge greyhounds for top speed . Whippets are , however , the fastest accelerating dog in the world .
= = History = =
Whippets were bred to hunt by sight , coursing game in open areas at high speeds . One can find numerous representations of small greyhound @-@ like hounds in art dating back to Ancient Egyptian times . Pharaohs bred a small sighthound dog related to the greyhound to keep in their palaces , and this dog may be the ancestor of today 's Whippets . In medieval England , a small greyhound breed became popular for use as a ratting dog . The first written English use of the word whippet with regard to a type of dog was in 1610 . However , the first dog to be called a Whippet was actually a greyhound @-@ spaniel cross and has little to do with the modern Whippet .
The original whippets were thought to be English Greyhounds that were too small for stag hunting in the forests of England . These dogs were frequently returned to their breeders , who were usually peasants and as such could not own hunting dogs under the Forest law . Because of this , dogs returned to them were maimed , usually by cutting a tendon in a leg or removing the toes on one paw . The breeders kept these dogs and continued to breed them , producing a smaller version of a greyhound that was suited for rat catching and hunting hares and rabbits . When the Forest Law was repealed , the " small greyhounds " became immensely popular . Whippets were then commonly known as " snap dogs " for their tendency to " snap up " nearby prey . In the picture by Jean @-@ Baptiste Oudry ( 1686 – 1755 ) of two dogs presented to Louis XV , they are either whippets or small greyhounds , but are probably related to an early form of whippet . Oudry also painted a second painting of Misse with a different , non @-@ sighthound dog . There is a 1758 painting by Pompeo Batoni entitled Portrait of Charles Compton , 7th Earl of Northampton which features a similar whippet @-@ like dog .
In the nineteenth century , Whippet racing was a major sport in England . The Whippet was held in high regard in the northern parts of England and Wales , but was generally disregarded in the rest of the country . At the time , there were two varieties of Whippet . The first type had a smooth coat , was more popular in Lancashire , Yorkshire , and the Midlands , and became the modern Whippet . The other had a rough coat from crossbreeding with Bedlington Terriers , was more popular in Durham and Northumberland and was frequently referred to as a " rabbit dog " . Early specimens were taken from the race track by the dog fanciers of the time and exported around the world . John Taylor said that " In all the shapes and forms of dogges ; of all which there are but two sorts that are useful to man 's profits , which two are the mastiffe and the little curre , whippet , or house @-@ dogge ; all the rest are for pleasure and recreation . "
The age of the modern Whippet dawned in 1891 when The Kennel Club granted the breed official recognition , thus making the Whippet eligible for competition in dog shows , and commencing the recording of their pedigrees . In the United States , the Whippet was recognised in 1888 by the American Kennel Club . Whippets arrived in the United States with mill operators from England , and the first populations were established in Massachusetts . The Whippet is the 55th most popular breed according to the American Kennel Club .
In 1964 , Ch . Courtenay Fleetfoot of Pennyworth won best in show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show . In 1992 , Pencloe Dutch Gold won best in show at Crufts , and a Whippet known as Cobyco Call the Tune won in 2004 . In 2011 , GCh . Starline 's Chanel , a female Whippet , was chosen as the hound Show Dog of the Year by the Westminster Kennel Club .
= = Racing = =
Dog racing was originally an extension of hare coursing . Whippets began to be bred to race in the mid @-@ nineteenth century . The first form of the sport was a rudimentary form of coursing known as ' ragging ' , and dogs who participated were said to be ' trained to the rag ' . Dogs were kept on a leash by a person known as a slip , who was frequently also the race judge . The slip would release the dogs from their collars at the same time , and they would race towards their owners , who were standing at the opposite end of the track waving towels .
Whippet rags were a popular Sunday event in the north and Midlands at the time . There were also international events ; in Australia , at a track known as Gurney 's Paddock , there were races of more than 300 whippets every Saturday , and three nights a week at the White City track . Eventually , the sport evolved and dogs were divided into four groups : those who hunted rabbits , which was not governed by rules ; those who coursed hare , for which a set of rules was established ; those trained to the rag ; and those trained to chase a mechanical lure in a fashion similar to greyhound races . Few of the Whippets of any of the four types were purebred , as maintaining a purebred bloodline was not considered as important as breeding dogs that could win races . Many racing dogs were part terrier , part Greyhound , or part Lurcher .
In 1967 , the British Whippet Racing Association was established to bring around reform and consistency in race rules and procedures for races involving non @-@ purebred Whippets . A year later , viewing the non @-@ purebred dogs as a threat , the Whippet Club Racing Association was established exclusively for purebred animals .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
Whippets are a medium @-@ sized dog weighing from 15 to 42 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 to 19 @.@ 1 kg ) . There are two height ranges for Whippets , depending on whether or not the dog is being shown in North America . The Fédération Cynologique Internationale and The Kennel Club both call for heights of 18 @.@ 5 to 20 inches ( 47 to 51 cm ) for males and 17 @.@ 5 to 18 @.@ 5 inches ( 44 to 47 cm ) for females . Whippets tend to be somewhat larger in the United States and Canada as the American Kennel Club and Canadian Kennel Club standards are larger ; 18 @.@ 5 to 22 @.@ 5 inches ( 47 to 57 cm ) for males , and 17 @.@ 5 to 21 @.@ 5 inches ( 44 to 55 cm ) for females . Because colour is considered immaterial in judging Whippets , they come in a wide variety of colours and marking patterns , everything from solid black to solid white , with red , fawn , brindle , blue , or cream . The coat is short , smooth and close .
They are the fastest dog of their weight , capable of achieving speeds of 35 miles per hour ( 56 km / h ) . This is due to their unique way of running , which is referred to as a double suspension gallop . This gait results in four of the dog 's legs being off the ground twice in each stride , once when the legs are completely extended and again when they are tucked under the body .
= = = Temperament = = =
Whippets are quiet and not prone to barking , but require regular exercise . They are generally gentle dogs and may be content to spend much of the day resting . The AKC describes them as " quiet and dignified in their owner 's living room " and says they make " excellent house dogs . " Whippets have been called a " poor man 's racehorse " by the colliers in Lancashire and Yorkshire .
Despite being bred for racing , Whippets can be couch potatoes . When not running around , they are usually asleep or cuddled in their owner 's lap . They are not prone to fighting but have been known to chase small pets , due to their sighthound nature . They also have a tendency to get up on furniture . Whippets are touch sensitive , meaning that they tend to jump or overreact when touched unexpectedly .
= = Health = =
Whippets course , work , and race ; they have been bred for these jobs for years . This has kept them a structurally sound breed which is predominantly free from the physical exaggerations that can lead to certain health problems . Whippets are , like other sighthounds , intolerant of barbiturate anaesthetics . This is in part due to their low concentration of body fat and their liver 's inability to metabolise the anaesthetics .
Given proper nutrition , exercise , and veterinary care , most Whippets live for 12 to 15 years . A UK breed survey puts the median lifespan at 12 years 10 months . They are generally healthy , and are not prone to the frequent ear infections , skin allergies , or digestive problems that can afflict other breeds . Genetic eye defects , though quite rare , have been noted in the breed . Because of this , the American Whippet Club recommends that breeders test for this defect in their breeding stock . Hip dysplasia is rare in Whippets , with only 1 @.@ 2 % of 161 evaluations performed by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals being determined as dysplasic .
The heart of a Whippet is large and slow beating , often being arrhythmic or even intermittent when the animal is at rest . This sometimes causes concern to the owner , or to the vet not experienced with the breed . Whippets will , however , demonstrate a regular heartbeat during exercise . In a health survey conducted by The Kennel Club cardiac problems were shown to be the second leading cause of mortality in Whippets .
A 2007 study identified a myostatin mutation particular to Whippets that is significantly associated with their athletic performance . Whippets with a single copy of this mutation are generally very fast ; those with two copies have disproportionately large musculature and are known as " bully whippets " . These bully whippets experience no significant health problems beyond those experienced by a normal whippet , but may be more prone to muscle cramping . The mutation has not been seen in Greyhounds or other sighthound breeds , or in heavily muscled dogs such as Bullmastiffs , Bulldogs , Rottweilers or American Staffordshire Terriers .
= Chilean battleship Capitán Prat =
Capitán Prat was a unique ironclad battleship of the Chilean Navy built in the late 1880s and completed in 1890 . Armed with a main battery of four 9 @.@ 4 in ( 240 mm ) guns in four single turrets , Capitán Prat was the first battleship in the world to be equipped with an electrical system . She was built in the La Seyne dockyard in France , and commissioned into the Chilean fleet in 1891 . Foreign navies tried to purchase the ship twice before the outbreak of wars , including an American attempt in 1898 and a Japanese offer in 1903 .
Capitán Prat served in the fleet for about ten years , until she was disarmed in accordance with a treaty signed with Argentina intended to stop a naval arms race between the two countries . The ship returned to service , however , and remained on active duty with the fleet until 1926 , when she was reduced to a coastal defense ship . In 1928 – 1930 , she was used as a submarine tender , and in 1935 , she was disarmed and used as a training ship for engineers . She remained in the Navy 's inventory until 1942 , when she was sold for scrap .
= = Design = =
Capitán Prat was 328 feet ( 100 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 60 ft 8 in ( 18 @.@ 49 m ) . She displaced 6 @,@ 901 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 792 long tons ; 7 @,@ 607 short tons ) and had a draft of 22 ft 10 in ( 6 @.@ 96 m ) . Her hull was steel @-@ built , with wood and copper sheathing , and was equipped with a ram bow . The ship mounted two masts , both with fighting tops . She had a crew of 480 officers and enlisted men .
She was powered by a pair of horizontal expansion engines that were supplied with steam by five cylindrical boilers . The boilers were trunked into two funnels on the centerline . Her propulsion system was rated at 12 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 900 kW ) for a top speed of 18 @.@ 3 kn ( 33 @.@ 9 km / h ; 21 @.@ 1 mph ) . She was designed to carry 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of coal , though she could carry up to 1 @,@ 100 t ( 1 @,@ 100 long tons ; 1 @,@ 200 short tons ) . She was the first battleship of any navy to utilize electricity to power machinery .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 9 @.@ 4 in ( 240 mm ) / 35 caliber guns in single , electrically powered turrets . One was placed forward , on the centerline , two were mounted amidships , and the fourth was located aft of the superstructure on the centerline . Her secondary battery consisted of eight 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) guns in four twin turrets ; they were mounted on either side of the foremast and mainmast . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of six 6 @-@ pounder guns , four 3 @-@ pounder guns , and ten 1 @-@ pounder guns . She was also armed with four 18 in ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck @-@ mounted launchers . One was in the bow , another in the stern , and two on the broadside .
The ship 's armor consisted of Creusot steel . Her armored belt was 11 @.@ 8 in ( 300 mm ) thick amidships above the waterline , and 7 @.@ 8 in ( 200 mm ) below . Above the waterline , the belt was reduced to 4 @.@ 9 in ( 120 mm ) forward and 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) aft . The belt was 3 @.@ 9 in ( 99 mm ) below the waterline , on either end of the ship . The belt extended for 2 ft 4 in ( 0 @.@ 71 m ) above the waterline and 4 ft 7 in ( 1 @.@ 40 m ) below . The citadel was 3 @.@ 1 in ( 79 mm ) thick and protected the ship 's machinery spaces amidships . It extended to the upper deck and was closed on either ends by bulkheads 3 @.@ 1 in ( 79 mm ) thick . Outside the citadel , the deck was protected by 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick armor . The barbettes for the main battery guns were 8 to 10 @.@ 8 in ( 200 to 270 mm ) thick , with 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick hoods to protect the gun crews . The conning tower had 10 @.@ 5 in ( 270 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
On 22 August 1887 , the National Congress of Chile passed a law authorizing the construction of new vessels to modernize the fleet . As part of this , they decided to order a new battleship from a foreign shipyard . The contract for constructing the new Chilean battleship was advertized throughout the European shipyards , and was sought by British , German , and French shipbuilders . The contract for Capitán Prat was awarded to the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne , France on 18 April 1889 . The cost of the ship was agreed at £ 391 @,@ 000 , and she was laid down in 1889 . The ship was launched on 20 December 1890 , commissioned into the Chilean fleet in 1891 , and arrived in Chile in May 1893 . Capitán Prat received favorable reviews from contemporary naval critics , as she was seen as a prime example of combining a high speed with good armament and armor protection . She was also heralded as " the most powerful war ship possessed by any South American Government [ sic ] ... [ and ] any vessel at present in commission in the United States Navy . "
The construction of the ship helped begin a naval arms race between Chile and Argentina . In addition to Capitán Prat , the Chilean Navy ordered two new protected cruisers and a pair of torpedo boats . Argentina responded with the battleships Independencia and Libertad . The race continued through the 1890s , even after the expensive 1891 Chilean Civil War . The race culminated in the orders for two armored cruisers for the Argentine Navy and two Constitución @-@ class battleships for the Chilean Navy , though the latter two were purchased by the United Kingdom . The British , concerned over the possibility of war between the two countries , mediated an agreement , which resulted in the Pactos de Mayo . The treaty ended the expensive arms race and stipulated that both countries arrive at an agreement to balance their fleets . The latter led to the demilitarization of Capitán Prat and two Argentine armored cruisers , though all were later rearmed .
In March 1898 , shortly before the outbreak of the Spanish – American War , the US Navy attempted to purchase Capitán Prat to bolster its fleet for the coming conflict with Spain . The negotiations fell through , however , and the ship remained in Chile . By 1903 , in the prelude to the Russo @-@ Japanese War , the Japanese government looked into purchasing Capitán Prat and the cruiser Esmeralda , along with other South American warships . Esmeralda was eventually purchased and commissioned into the Imperial Japanese Navy as Izumi . By 1907 , the ship was seen as outmoded in comparison to newer armored cruisers in the fleet . In 1909 – 1910 , the ship was modernized , which included the installation of twelve new Babcock & Wilcox watertube boilers in place of the old cylindrical boilers , increasing the ship 's top speed to 19 @.@ 5 kn ( 22 @.@ 4 mph ; 36 @.@ 1 km / h ) . The height of her funnels was also increased .
On 11 March 1916 , Capitán Prat suffered a magazine explosion while she was anchored in port in Valparaiso . Two cases of bad cordite propellant in the aft main battery magazine exploded . The construction of the ship , however , which provided a quick venting of the explosion , and defects in the propellant cases that allowed the explosive gasses to escape easily , saved the ship from destruction . The cordite was by that time 17 to 20 years old , about the maximum life @-@ span of the propellant . By 1926 , Capitán Prat was reduced to a coast defense ship . From 1928 to 1930 , the ship was designated as a submarine tender for Chile 's H and Capitan O 'Brien @-@ class submarines . She was disarmed in 1935 to serve with the mechanical training school . The old battleship was ultimately sold for scrap in 1942 .
= Richard Coeur de Lion ( statue ) =
Richard Coeur de Lion is a Grade II listed equestrian statue of the 12th @-@ century English monarch Richard I , also known as Richard the Lionheart , who reigned from 1189 – 99 . It stands on a granite pedestal in Old Palace Yard outside the Palace of Westminster , facing south towards the entrance to the House of Lords . It was created by Baron Carlo Marochetti , an Italian sculptor whose works were popular with European royals and the nobility , though often less well regarded by critics and the artistic establishment . The statue was first produced in clay and displayed at The Great Exhibition in 1851 , where it was located outside the west entrance to the Crystal Palace . It was well received at the time and two years later Queen Victoria and Prince Albert headed a list of illustrious subscribers to a fund that aimed to raise money for the casting of the statue in bronze .
Although the money was duly raised and the bronze cast of the statue was finally completed in 1856 , a lengthy dispute delayed its installation for several years . The original idea had been to erect the statue as a memorial to the Great Exhibition . This prompted opposition , as did proposals to place it outside Charles Barry 's newly completed Palace of Westminster . Various other locations to display the statue were initially considered before agreement was reached that it would be placed in Old Palace Yard , Marochetti 's preferred location . It was installed in October 1860 , though it was not until March 1867 that it was finally completed with the addition of bronze bas @-@ reliefs on either side of the pedestal .
The quality of the statue 's workmanship caused problems during its first half @-@ century ; the horse 's tail fell off the day after it was installed at the Great Exhibition , and forty years after its installation it was discovered to be riddled with holes and to have never been properly attached to its pedestal . It narrowly escaped destruction during the Second World War when a German bomb dropped during the Blitz landed a few metres away and peppered it with shrapnel . The pedestal and the horse 's tail were damaged and Richard 's sword was bent by the blast . In 2009 , the Parliamentary authorities undertook a project to conserve and restore the statue .
= = Description = =
The statue was created by Baron Carlo Marochetti and is located in Old Palace Yard outside the Palace of Westminster , opposite Westminster Abbey in London . With its pedestal , it stands 9 metres ( 30 ft ) high , showing King Richard I on horseback . The king is depicted wearing a crowned helmet and a chainmail shirt with a surcoat , and lifting a sword into the air . The horse paws the ground , as if preparing for a charge into battle . Marochetti described his work as being inspired by Richard I rather than accurately depicting a 12th @-@ century knight .
It stands on a granite pedestal also designed by Marochetti and made by Freeman & Co. of Penryn , Cornwall . Bas @-@ relief panels showing Crusaders fighting the Saracens at the Battle of Ascalon and Richard on his deathbed pardoning Bertran de Born , the archer who fatally shot him in 1199 , were added to the east and west sides of the pedestal in 1866 – 67 . As the statue cannot be accessed by the general public – the area around it is used as the House of Lords car park – the west @-@ side scene showing Richard and Bertran is the only one visible from the street . According to Marochetti , the two bas @-@ reliefs were designed in the style of Lorenzo Ghiberti 's doors at the Florence Baptistry . Bronze letters on the front of the pedestal bear the inscription RICHARD I CŒUR DE LION / 1189 – 1199 .
= = History = =
= = = Creation and display at the Great Exhibition = = =
Marochetti was born in Italy and was ennobled by the Kingdom of Sardinia but lived and worked in France , creating a number of prestigious works for the royalist French government in the 1830s . He made his name by creating equestrian statues ; one , of the Duke of Wellington , was erected in Glasgow in 1840 . By the 1840s , however , his popularity in continental Europe was in decline . The French Revolution of 1848 , which saw the final overthrow of the French monarchy , prompted him to resettle in London and seek new patrons among the British elite .
Marochetti was not popular with the Victorian artistic establishment ; Punch referred to him derisively as " Count Marrowfatty " , while John Timbs wrote that he " owed more of his success in life to royal and noble patrons than artistic merit . " It was certainly true that he benefited from the patronage of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . His courtly manners impressed Victoria on their first meeting in 1849 , and soon afterwards he became involved with the Prince Consort 's plans for what became The Great Exhibition of 1851 . Several countries planned to display sculptures of romantic historical figures in their contributions to the exhibition . The genre was common in mainland Europe but relatively rare in England at the time . Marochetti was probably aware that the Belgian sculptor Eugene Simonis intended to show his statue of Godfrey de Bouillon , the leader of the First Crusade , which King Leopold I of Belgium had commissioned . The two men had a number of connections ; they shared the same bronze founder , Soyer of Paris , and Simonis was influenced by Marochetti 's earlier acclaimed statue of the Duke of Savoy , Emanuele Filiberto . The Italian sculptor was probably motivated by a sense of competition with the Belgian in designing his Richard I.
Marochetti 's creation of the clay model of the statue involved not only the sculptor himself but also the painter Victor Mottez , King Louis Philippe 's personal physician Henri Gueneau de Mussy and the singers Mario and Garcia , all of whom contributed manual input . A clay model of the statue was displayed as one of two statues positioned outside the western entrance of the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park . Unfortunately it was so poorly assembled that shortly after the opening of the exhibition on 1 May 1851 , the horse 's tail fell off . It was repaired and the statue eventually attracted critical acclaim . The art critic John Ruskin said of the model , " it will tend more to educate the public with respect to art than anything we have done for centuries " . It came to be regarded as one of the more popular items in the exhibition and Prince Albert personally took King Leopold to see it and the statue by Simonis , which now stands in the Grand Place of Brussels . The Art Journal was later to describe it as " unquestionably a vigorous and spirited example of the bravura class of sculpture . "
= = = Casting and dispute over location = = =
Major General Charles Richard Fox proposed during the exhibition that a bronze cast should be made of the statue to serve as a memorial to the exhibition , marking one end of the site of the Crystal Palace with a statue of Prince Albert at the other end . A campaign got underway two years later , in May 1853 , with a variety of the great and the good signing a brochure promoting a scheme to erect the statue somewhere in London . Its supporters included the Duke of Sutherland , Lord Lansdowne , the Earl of Shaftesbury , the sculptor John Henry Foley , the novelist William Makepeace Thackeray , the ceramic manufacturer William Taylor Copeland and the Conservative MP ( and future Prime Minister ) Benjamin Disraeli . The Times was strongly in favour of the project due to the influence of its foreign affairs reporter Henry Reeve , who had known Marochetti since as early as 1839 . The Royal Family also let it be known that they were supporters , with Queen Victoria donating £ 200 and Prince Albert £ 100 .
The future location of the statue was a contentious issue from the outset , with Fox 's proposal of a site in Hyde Park being sidelined in favour of leaving the site open for future consideration . The appropriateness of its theme in relation to the Great Exhibition was also questioned . The Art Journal pointed out the contradiction between " the effigy of a valiant crusader " and " the great Peace congress of 1851 " and asked why " a foreign sculptor alone " was being selected to commemorate a British exhibition . The Lord Mayor of London , Thomas Challis , was similarly critical , declaring that the statue depicted " muscular power and the almost savage ferocity of war ... , while ... the Great Exhibition afforded an example of the cordial amity of nations . " His criticism was perhaps not unrelated to the fact that he was promoting a rival scheme to commemorate the Exhibition . Others criticised the statue 's lack of realism . As The Times observed after the statue 's installation , the sculptor " sacrificed probabilities in the close fit he has given to Richard 's mail shirt , which is made to display the swelling biceps and folded mass of pectoral muscle as accurately as a knitted woollen jersey . "
Despite the criticism , £ 5 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 456 @,@ 000 today ) was raised by private donations for a bronze version to be created . Parliament subsequently agreed to contribute £ 1 @,@ 650 for the pedestal and a further £ 1 @,@ 500 for two bas @-@ reliefs to be installed on its sides . In 1854 a plaster version was placed in New Palace Yard facing west outside Westminster Hall , but Charles Barry , the architect of the palace , was opposed to its placement there . The Art Journal criticised the New Palace Yard location on the grounds that the statue was merely a novelty and , worse , depicted an unworthy subject – " a disobedient son and a bad governor " . It also suffered from being lost against the architectural details of the Palace of Westminster . By early May 1854 , the plaster statue had been removed .
In 1856 , Marochetti had the statue cast in bronze at the workshop that he had established in the early 1850s in Sydney Mews , off Fulham Road . The casting and the statue 's gifting to the nation in the summer of 1856 made the question of its location all the more essential to resolve . Other sites were considered , including outside Buckingham Palace , Carlton Gardens near the Horse Guards and even on top of Marble Arch . Prince Albert himself suggested locating it outside the west entrance of Westminster Abbey , looking down the newly created Victoria Street . Punch mocked the ongoing search for a location in an August 1857 issue , calling Richard I " the Wandering Statue of London " . The anonymous writer asked whether " no @-@ one [ will ] find standing @-@ room for this fugitive king ? Is there no spot , no royal mews , no academic stable where his over @-@ driven steed can be taken in to bait ? "
Marochetti proposed to install it in Old Palace Yard outside the south window of Westminster Hall . His idea was considered by the Fine Arts Commission for the Palace of Westminster and was deemed acceptable , although Sir Charles Barry again opposed it . His reasoning was that Old Palace Yard was " too limited in area , and too irregular and unsymmetrical in its form and approaches , to give due effect to it , as a work of art ... " For his part , Marochetti positively preferred the location 's irregularity to the symmetry of a formally laid @-@ out square . The dispute continued until 1859 when the Commissioner of Works , Lord John Manners , finally agreed to install the statue in Marochetti 's favoured location . By this time Sir Charles Barry was seriously ill ( and died on 12 May 1860 ) so was no longer in a position to offer opposition .
= = = Installation and subsequent history = = =
Parliament voted to fund a pedestal for the statue , carved from Cornish granite , but transportation delays meant that it was not until 26 October 1860 that the statue was placed on its pedestal and unveiled to the public . It was completely undecorated at first but a bronze shield was placed on the front end of the pedestal shortly after the installation . The Times ( probably its pro @-@ Marochetti reporter Henry Reeve ) declared that with the installation of the statue " a great reproach had been removed from London " , which now finally had a great equestrian monument which displayed a " combination of life and picturesqueness " . It claimed that Marochetti 's Richard I ranked " with the few great statues of that class in Europe " . Not all critics were as fulsome ; the British critic and poet Francis Turner Palgrave castigated it as " an essentially vulgar and low @-@ class work precisely on the grounds that call forth the wonder of uncultivated spectators . " It was said to have been particularly appreciated by London 's cabbies , who tethered their horses nearby .
Marochetti also intended to add bas @-@ reliefs to either side of the pedestal and had provisioned it with " sunk panels " ready for the reliefs to be installed . He proposed to create four " alto relievos in the style of the Ghiberi doors on the Battisterio at Florence " , depicting the coronation of Richard in Westminster Abbey , the taking of Ascalon , Richard as a prisoner of the Saracens and Richard on his deathbed . He quoted £ 2 @,@ 500 for all four , but Parliament voted instead to grant him £ 1 @,@ 500 for two scenes – Ascalon and the death of Richard .
Marochetti accepted the commission and created plaster models of the reliefs . He installed one of the models in his château in France , where it remains today , while the other was set into the wall of a gardener 's cottage adjoining his French estate . The bronze relief of the deathbed scene was added to the pedestal in August 1866 , while the Taking of Ascalon was installed in March 1867 . The Art Journal criticised the deathbed scene as being excessively stretched lengthways and noted similarities with a painting displayed in the Houses of Parliament , created by John Cross , that depicted the same subject .
Marochetti also pursued an abortive project to install a second giant equestrian statue in Old Palace Yard , this time portraying Edward , the Black Prince . He envisaged the two statues facing each other on either side of the entrance to the House of Lords . Although the scheme was reported in several journals , including the Illustrated London News , the Art Journal and the Athenaeum , and was strongly criticised for its perceived thematic inappropriateness , nothing came of it . Three different versions of the model for Marochetti 's Black Prince came to light at the turn of the 21st century . They appear to have been designed at the same time as his Richard I , demonstrating their common origins ; models of the two statues almost certainly would have co @-@ existed in his workshop and Marochetti probably intended to seek a commission from Prince Albert . However , the death of the Prince Consort in 1861 deprived him of his most influential patron , and Marochetti 's own death was to follow in 1867 . Queen Victoria purchased one of Marochetti 's statuette versions of the Black Prince following the sculptor 's death and gave it to her son Edward , Prince of Wales . It is still part of the Royal Collection .
The statue has required repair work on several occasions to fix damage and defects . Only a few months after it was installed , it was reported to be oscillating in strong gusts of wind . Marochetti pronounced it sound but promised to strengthen the legs if necessary . During the winter of 1908 – 09 , frost damaged one of the forelegs of the horse part of the statue . It was found that between 60 – 80 leaks were letting water into the interior of the statue and causing further damage when it froze . It was also discovered that the statue had never been properly attached to the pedestal but was merely resting under its own weight on the two ends of its base . Repair work took place to remedy these problems .
The statue was damaged during the Second World War when a large German bomb hit Old Palace Yard on 26 September 1940 , during the Blitz . The bomb exploded only a few metres away from the statue and reportedly lifted it bodily off the ground . The upper part of the sword was bent and the tail of the horse suffered several holes from pieces of shrapnel . Vincent Massey , the High Commissioner for Canada , argued that the sword should be left unrepaired , as it symbolised " the strength of democracy which will bend but not break under attack . " The sword was replaced in 1947 , and other repair work was also done . However , damage to the pedestal can still be seen . The statue received Grade II listed status in February 1970 .
In the summer of 2009 , the Parliamentary authorities undertook a three @-@ week conservation project to repair and restore the statue . It consisted of removing accumulated dirt and an old coating of black wax , repatinating the bronze surface to return it to its original colour and treating it with a clear wax as protection from pollution and the elements . The bas reliefs on the pedestal were also cleaned and treated , as was the pedestal itself .
= Banksia scabrella =
Banksia scabrella , commonly known as the Burma Road Banksia , is a species of woody shrub in the genus Banksia . It is classified in the series Abietinae , a group of several species of shrubs with small round or oval inflorescences . It occurs in a number of isolated populations south of Geraldton , Western Australia , with the largest population being south and east of Mount Adams . Found on sandy soils in heathland or shrubland , it grows to 2 m ( 7 ft ) high and 3 m ( 10 ft ) across with fine needle @-@ like leaves . Appearing in spring and summer , the inflorescences are round to oval in shape and tan to cream with purple styles . Banksia scabrella is killed by fire and regenerates by seed .
Originally collected in 1966 , Banksia scabrella was one of several species previously considered to be forms of Banksia sphaerocarpa , before it was finally described by banksia expert Alex George in his 1981 revision of the genus . Like many members of the Abietinae , it is rarely seen in cultivation ; however , it has been described as having horticultural potential .
= = Description = =
Banksia scabrella grows as a low shrub to 2 m ( 7 ft ) in height and 3 m ( 10 ft ) across , with a spreading habit . Its lateral branches are low and often rest on the ground . The small linear leaves measure 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 8 cm in length and 0 @.@ 1 cm in width and are crowded along the stems . George recorded flowering as occurring in spring and summer ( September to January ) , but The Banksia Atlas recorded the species in bloom in April . Flowers occur in " flower spikes " , or inflorescences , made up of hundreds of small flowers , or florets , densely packed around a woody axis . Quite conspicuous , they are terminal ( occurring on the ends of branches ) or on short side branchlets . Round or oval in shape , the cream or tan inflorescences are 3 to 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) high and 7 – 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 6 in ) wide . The individual flowers are light yellow or cream , with the styles and upper floral parts purple . The perianths measure 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) , while the pistils 3 @.@ 4 to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) in length and are curved at the apex . The inflorescences fade to grey as they age and the old flowers do not fall off . Up to 80 follicles develop on one spike , and remain closed until opened after a bushfire . Oval @-@ shaped , they measure 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 1 in ) in length , by 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) high , and 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) wide . They open to release a dark brown oval seed 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) long , 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) wide with a papery dark ' wing ' 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 in ) wide . Seedlings have narrowly obovate bright green cotyledons 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) long by 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 in ) wide , and the leaves which develop immediately afterward are linear and scattered , and the stem is hairy .
= = Taxonomy = =
First collected on 4 September 1966 , southeast of Walkaway , Banksia scabrella was described by Alex George in his 1981 revision of the genus Banksia . He gave it the epithet scabrella , a diminutive of the Latin adjective scaber " rough " , referring to the leaves . George placed B. scabrella in subgenus Banksia because of its flower spike , section Oncostylis because its styles are hooked , and the resurrected series Abietinae , which he constrained to contain only round @-@ fruited species . He initially thought its closest relative to be Banksia leptophylla , which is found in the same region , and later felt it to be B. lanata , which has similarly coloured inflorescences but longer smooth leaves . It was one of several new species previously regarded as a form of Banksia sphaerocarpa .
In 1996 , botanists Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published an arrangement informed by a cladistic analysis of morphological characteristics . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . Banksia ser . Abietinae was found to be very nearly monophyletic , and so retained . It further resolved into four subclades , so Thiele and Ladiges split it into four subseries . Banksia scabrella appeared in the third of these , initially called the " telmatiaea clade " for its most basal member . As with George 's classification , B. lanata and two subspecies of B. leptophylla emerged as close relatives of B. scabrella , but there was some question over the relationships between all five forms in the clade .
This clade became the basis for a new subseries Leptophyllae , which Thiele defined as containing species with " indurated and spinescent common bracts on the infructescence axes " , and seedling stems which were densely arachnose ( covered in fine hair ) . Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement was not accepted by George , and was largely discarded by him in his 1999 arrangement . B. ser . Abietinae was restored to George 's 1981 circumscription , and all of Thiele and Ladiges ' subseries were abandoned . The placement of B. scabrella in George 's 1999 arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia ( 9 series , 50 species , 9 subspecies , 3 varieties )
B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species )
B. sect . Oncostylis
B. ser . Abietinae
B. sphaerocarpa ( 3 varieties )
B. micrantha
B. grossa
B. telmatiaea
B. leptophylla ( 2 varieties )
B. lanata
B. scabrella
B. violacea
B. incana
B. laricina
B. pulchella
B. meisneri ( 2 subspecies )
B. nutans ( 2 varieties )
A 2002 study by American botanists Austin Mast and Tom Givnish concurred with Alex George 's observations in that molecular analysis mapped out scabrella as one of a clade containing B. lanata , both subspecies of B. leptophylla and B. telmatiaea , with B. grossa as a more distant relative . Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. scabrella is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia scabrella is found in two disjunct areas of scattered populations ; the first discovered being southeast of the small town of Walkaway south of Geraldton , while a more populous cluster is found southeast of Mount Adams in Western Australia . The average annual rainfall over its range is around 450 mm ( 18 in ) . It has been placed on the Declared Rare and Priority Flora List , where it is classified as a " Priority Four – Rare " taxon ; although it is rare , it is not currently threatened by any identifiable factors . These taxa require monitoring every 5 to 10 years . Many stands are populous , and number over 100 plants . However , over half the known population of Banksia scabrella is found on road verges . Found in deep pale yellow or white sand in kwongan scrubland and heathland , Banksia scabrella grows on flat areas or gentle slopes and is found in association with B. leptophylla and a dwarf form of B. attenuata .
= = Ecology = =
Most Proteaceae and all Banksia species , including B. scabrella , have proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These roots are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient @-@ poor soils , such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . B. scabrella is highly susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback .
Killed by fire , the species regenerates from seed afterwards . The resultant seedlings have been recorded flowering two or three years after bushfires , although records are few . No pollinators were recorded during observations for the Banksia Atlas , although banksia flowerheads in general play host to a variety of birds , mammals and insects .
The region between Geraldton and Gingin is a rich one for Abietinae banksias , and nine species occur there . Despite this , there is little overlap in range and habitat ; Banksia scabrella is unusual in its co @-@ occurrence with B. leptophylla . It is also associated with the endangered heath shrub Leucopogon marginatus . Burma Road Nature Reserve is one of the few protected conservation areas in its range ; there , Banksia scabrella is found most commonly in ( and forms a prominent part of ) a mallee sedgeland , which is dominated by the cord rush Ecdeiocolea monostachya as a ground cover , and the mallee Eucalyptus eudesmoides as an emergent species . It is found occasionally in acacia scrub @-@ heath , and rarely in acacia thickets and banksia woodland . An assessment of the potential impact of climate change on this species found that its range is unlikely to contract and may actually grow , depending on how effectively it migrates into newly habitable areas .
= = Cultivation = =
Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 14 to 16 days to germinate . Rarely cultivated , Banksia scabrella flowers in 3 to 5 years from seed . Information is limited on its reliability , but it has been grown successfully in South Australia . It is fast @-@ growing but ultimately untidy in habit , and would benefit from regular pruning . Some forms in the wild have a more compact habit , and are more promising for horticulture .
= Dangerous ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Dangerous " is a pop song by African American recording artist Michael Jackson . The song appeared as the fourteenth and final track on Jackson 's solo studio album of the same name , released in November 1991 . Written and composed by Jackson , Bill Bottrell and Teddy Riley , the song was planned as the tenth single from the album , set for a January 1994 release . However , these plans were canceled due to allegations of child sexual abuse which were made against Jackson in August 1993 , Jackson 's health concerns , and the failure of the previous single , " Gone Too Soon " .
Prior to the planned release of the song , " Dangerous " received a positive reaction from contemporary critics in reviews of the track 's parent album . Although the song has not been released as a single , " Dangerous " entered music charts in mid @-@ 2009 after Jackson 's death in June . Jackson also performed the song live . In 1994 , songwriter Crystal Cartier alleged that Jackson , Bottrell and Riley had plagiarized " Dangerous " . At the subsequent court hearing the judge ruled in favor of Jackson , Bottrell and Riley , due to lack of evidence ; Cartier was refused the right to appeal her case .
Near the end of Dangerous : The Short Films , the song is played over footage of various performances during his Dangerous World Tour .
= = Background = =
" Dangerous " was developed from another song titled " Streetwalker " , which Jackson wrote for his 1987 Bad album . During recording sessions in September 1990 for Dangerous , Jackson recorded a 6 : 40 minute demo of " Dangerous " , which he wrote with Bill Bottrell . Teddy Riley later added writing and produced it with Jackson in early 1991 . According to music commentator Nelson George the demo is " very different to the final version . Here the keyboards are spacey , in strong contrast to the taunt , mechanical rhythm track . Throughout the song , Jackson keeps up a spoken word rap about the dangerous woman who is this song 's subject . Overall it is much moodier " . The demo was released in November 2004 , on The Ultimate Collection . A different , longer version also exists , with Jackson heard screaming at the beginning — after a sound protection wall fell on him as he was about to record . " The genesis of the songs we co @-@ wrote [ for Dangerous ] " , said Bottrell , " consisted of Jackson humming melodies and grooves , and him then leaving the studio while I developed these ideas with a bunch of drum machines and samplers " . " Dangerous " is played in the key of D minor with Jackson 's vocal range being from Ab2 to B5 . The song 's tempo is moderate at 113 beats per minute . The song 's chorus has the same melody as that of Jam , another song from the Dangerous album , albeit at a slightly slower tempo .
= = = Court case = = =
In 1994 , songwriter Crystal Cartier accused Jackson , Bottrell and Riley of plagiarizing the song . Cartier claimed she had written , copyrighted and recorded the song in 1985 . At a court hearing , Jackson testified that " Dangerous " grew out of a song called " Streetwalker " , which he co @-@ wrote with Bottrell in 1985 . His original demo version of the song was played in court . The recordings were followed by a cappella performances of " Dangerous " and " Billie Jean " , giving a rare insight into his songwriting habits . As Cartier was unable to supply any original tapes to back up her suit , the judge found in Jackson 's favour , and Cartier was refused the right to appeal .
= = Live performances = =
Although the song was not released as a single , the live performances of " Dangerous " remained a staple of Jackson 's concerts since the third leg of the Dangerous Tour . " Dangerous " was a song that involved group choreography , similar to " Smooth Criminal " , which also appears as part of the mix in later performances . There were five live performance versions of " Dangerous " , although Jackson nearly always lipsynced this song :
The first was performed on the final leg of the Dangerous Tour and at the 1993 American Music Awards . This version included Jackson singing the second verse , chorus , bridge , and third speaking interlude .
The second was performed from 1995 to 1997 , on some presentations like the 1995 MTV Music Awards , and during most of the concerts for the HIStory World Tour . It did not contain the second verse , bridge or third speaking interlude . This version samples an extract from " Owner of a Lonely Heart " by Yes , Ennio Morricone 's The Good , the Bad and the Ugly theme , " Smooth Criminal " , Janet Jackson 's " You Want This " and " Let 's Dance " , Judy Garland 's " Get Happy " , Monty Norman 's " James Bond Theme " , and a guitar intro from Duran Duran 's " A View to a Kill " . The HIStory Tour version contains slightly more sound effects during the breakdown ; Jackson spoke the rap in the beginning live during the concert in Ostend , Belgium on September 3 , 1997 . Dangerous was not performed on two concerts , the final concert in Tokyo and the concert in Manila .
The third was performed twice : during both 1999 Michael Jackson & Friends concerts . It is similar to the 1995 mix , but has clicking sound effects instead of the main drumbeat during the spoken part , and a short interlude with the dancers introducing themselves .
The fourth was performed twice on the 50th American Bandstand Special and President Clinton 's presidential gala in 2002 and is a variation of both the second and third version . There are clicking beats as with the 1999 mix , but only replacing the finger snaps in the beginning and the main beat begins as it does in the 1995 mix . In the American Bandstand performance Jackson briefly sang a section live .
The fifth was being rehearsed for his This Is It concerts in Staples Center and the Forum in L.A , but were cancelled because of his sudden death . Audio of this version leaked online in 2010 . It is similar to the 1999 mix , but in the beginning makes a combination between the clicking beats of 1999 mix and the finger snaps of 1995 mix . It features snippets of " Morphine " , " 2000 Watts " , " Heartbreak Hotel " , " Stranger in Moscow " , and the Psycho theme . In January 2011 , at the " Carnival Dance Showcase " , the This Is It concerts dancers performed a snippet of " Dangerous " as it would have been in the concerts , but without the leaked intro .
For the Michael Jackson and Friends concerts and on , Jackson wore a red shirt instead of the original white shirt and tie , but the tie was kept in . For all of the performances but the American Bandstand one , Michael would have an armband in his black jacket .
= = Planned release as a single and critical analysis = =
The album Dangerous was released in November 1991 , and with shipments of seven million copies in the United States and 32 million copies sold worldwide , it stands as one of the world 's best @-@ selling records . The album 's appeal and commercial success prompted Jackson 's record company to keep releasing singles throughout 1992 and 1993 , especially as Jackson was still promoting the album with a worldwide concert tour . However August 1993 saw intensifying media scrutiny surrounding allegations of child sexual abuse on Jackson 's part . The albums ninth single , " Gone Too Soon " , did not perform well in the United Kingdom and Jackson 's health deteriorated , which eventually led to the cancellation of the albums tenth single " Dangerous " but it was released with " Remember the Time " and " Black or White " on the box set Tour Souvenir Pack . An alternative version and a remix , entitled " Roger 's Rough Dub " , were both to be included on the expanded edition of Dangerous – the bonus disc was later canceled .
" Dangerous " was generally well received by contemporary music critics . Jon Pareles , a writer for The New York Times , called it " [ Jackson 's ] latest song about a predatory lover " and highlighted the lyrics " I felt taken by lust 's strange inhumanity , " observing , " He is a great dancer , yet his songs proclaim a terror of the body and of fleshly pleasures . " Music critic Nelson George said of the song , " [ it is ] a pile driving track ... that explodes from radio speakers . ' Dangerous ' in fact , opens another window into Michael 's artistic process . " Writer Barry Farber noted that the same lyrics " are an excellent representation of how sex can sometimes feel like a powerful biologically driven force . "
= = Chart performance = =
Although it has not been released as a single , " Dangerous " entered music charts in mid @-@ 2009 after Jackson 's death in June . The track debuted at its peak position , number seventy eight , on the Swiss Singles Chart for the week of July 12 , 2009 . The song also peaked at number ninety nine on the German Singles Chart for the week of July 13 , 2009 . " Dangerous " only remained on the two countries chart for one week .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Remixes = =
Roger 's Dangerous Club Mix – 6 : 58
Roger 's Dangerous Edit – 4 : 40
Roger 's Rough Dub – 6 : 48
Immortal version – 2 : 41
Early version , included in The Ultimate Collection – 6 : 40
= New Jersey Route 166 =
Route 166 is a short , 3 @.@ 73 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 00 km ) state highway in Ocean County , New Jersey . The route provides an alternate alignment of U.S. Route 9 through South Toms River and Toms River . The southern terminus is at an intersection with U.S. Route 9 northbound in Beachwood , where it heads northward along Atlantic City Boulevard . The route continues until ending where U.S. Route 9 leaves the Parkway north of Toms River . US 9 itself uses the Garden State Parkway to bypass Toms River .
Route 166 is a former alignment of New Jersey Route 4 , designated in 1920 and U.S. Route 9 , designated in 1927 through Toms River . The highways were realigned when the Garden State Parkway was built , and the original alignment became U.S. Route 9 Alternate in the 1950s , which was eventually replaced with Route 166 . The alignment has remained the same since .
= = Route description = =
Route 166 begins at an interchange with U.S. Route 9 northbound ( Atlantic City Boulevard ) in the community of South Toms River . The route heads northward along the right @-@ of @-@ way of Atlantic City Boulevard , progressing northward along residential homes . Paralleling to the north of U.S. Route 9 , Route 166 continues , passing a war memorial in the southern portion of the business district . In the center of the community , the highway intersects with Ocean County Route 621 ( Admiral Avenue ) . There , Route 166 turns to the northeast , running along the shoreline for the Atlantic Ocean . Heading past a marina , the highway crosses on a four @-@ lane bridge over the ocean and into Toms River .
After landing down on the Toms River side , Route 166 heads to the northwest , intersecting with the incomplete Herficker Boulevard . The highway turns off its right @-@ of @-@ way , and crosses another branch into the center of Toms River . Passing the Riverfront Landing , Route 166 intersects with the eastern / southern terminus of County Route 527 ( Water Street ) . The highway continues northward along commercial buildings as Main Street , passing to the west of Toms River High School and back into the residential districts . Route 166 continues northbound to an interchange with New Jersey Route 37 ( Little League World Champions Boulevard ) in Toms River . At the interchange , Route 166 switches names from Main Street to Lakewood Road , which heads northwestward .
Route 166 , after changing monikers , continues northwestward through the commercial and industrial portions of Toms River , intersecting with several local and county roads until a fork with Ocean County Route 623 , where the highway forks at Riverside Cemetery . A short distance later , the highway begins a split parallel with the Garden State Parkway and U.S. Route 9 to the east . Route 166 then leaves the commercial and industrial districts for the residential ones soon later , crossing through several developments including Colonial Gardens . The highway continues northward , intersecting with Albert Avenue , where it returns to the commercial area . After an intersection with Briar Knoll , Route 166 divides , approaching Interchange 83 on the Garden State Parkway , where the designation terminates . The right @-@ of @-@ way continues northward as U.S. Route 9 .
= = History = =
The alignment of Route 166 was originally part of Route 4 prior to 1927 , designated from Absecon to Rahway . This designation remained in place for seven years , until the 1927 state highway renumbering , which remained part of an extended Route 4 . A year prior to the state highway renumbering , the alignment of Route 4 was also co @-@ designated as part of U.S. Route 9 , which had been assigned as part of a nationwide system . Route 4 remained intact concurrnent with Route 9 until the state highway renumbering on January 1 , 1953 . On that day , Route 4 was truncated back to Fort Lee in Bergen County , and the alignment became only U.S. Route 9 . A bypass was built of the Route 9 alignment in the 1950s along with construction of the Garden State Parkway , which was completed soon after . The route currently Route 166 became U.S. Route 9 Alternate by 1954 , remaining for several years , when it was decommissioned in place for Route 166 . The route has remained intact since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Ocean County .
= Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) =
" Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) , " called " Waka Waka ( Esto es África ) " in Spanish , is a song by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , featuring the South African band Freshlyground . It was released on 10 September 2010 by Epic Records as the official song of the 2010 FIFA World Cup , which was held in South Africa . Written , composed , and produced by Shakira and John Hill , " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " is a pop song whose lyrics encourage one to aim for their goals like a soldier on a battlefield . The song was adapted from the Cameroonian band Golden Sounds 's 1986 song " Zangaléwa . " The song initially generated controversy after numerous South Africans expressed disappointment in FIFA 's decision to select Shakira to sing the song , opining that a native artist should have been assigned the role .
It garnered generally favourable reviews from critics , receiving praise for its production . " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " peaked at number one on record charts of numerous countries including Austria , Belgium , France , Germany , Spain and Switzerland . In the United States , the song peaked at number 38 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling over one million units in the country . The single similarly attained multi @-@ platinum certifications in other countries , including a nine @-@ times platinum certification in Sweden and a six @-@ times platinum certification in Spain . By May 2014 , " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " had sold 12 million units of combined sales and track @-@ equivalent streams worldwide , becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . It has been listed as one of the best World Cup songs of all time .
The music video for " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " was directed by Marcus Raboy and shows Shakira and a group of dancers and children dancing to the song together . It features cameos by various footballers like Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi . It became popular on YouTube , receiving 1 @.@ 14 billion views as of July 2016 and becoming the twenty @-@ second most @-@ watched video of all time on the site . Shakira performed the song at the 2010 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony on 10 June as well as at the closing ceremony on 11 July . It was also included on the set list of her The Sun Comes Out World Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) .
= = Background and release = =
In February 2010 , Shakira wrote and produced " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " with American record producer John Hill , who had previously collaborated with her on several songs from She Wolf . The inclusion of Freshlyground , a South African Afro @-@ fusion band , on the track came to take place after Hill met with their producer in New York . The band were finishing their studio album Radio Africa when Hill approached them requesting for input regarding the song . The producer left the band alone to make additions to the track and returned hours later to listen to it . Giving little reaction after hearing it , Hill expressed interest in recording " everything I 'd heard here " and told the band that they would hear from him later .
On 26 April , the Fédération Internationale de Football Association ( FIFA ) announced that " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " would serve as the official song of the 2010 FIFA World Cup , which was to begin in South Africa later in June , and would also appear on Listen Up ! The Official 2010 FIFA World Cup Album . The announcement mentioned that Shakira would perform the song at the closing ceremony of the cup , which would take place before the Final match , on 11 July at the FNB Stadium in Johannesburg . She would also headline the World Cup FIFA World Cup Kick @-@ Off Celebration Concert on 10 June at the Orlando Stadium in Johannesburg . The song was premiered on 28 April and was made available for digital download on the iTunes Store on 7 May 2010 . It received a physical release as a CD single on 28 May . A Spanish @-@ language version of the song , titled " Waka Waka ( Esto es África ) , " was also recorded by Shakira . It was released as a single in specific markets . " K @-@ Mix " versions of " Waka Waka ( This Time for África ) " and " Waka Waka ( Esto es Africa ) " were also included in the singer 's ninth studio album , Sale el Sol , which she released in October the same year .
= = Composition = =
A pop song , " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " draws inspiration from traditional African music and blends an African Colombian rhythm with a Soca @-@ influenced beat . It contains instrumentation from a Southern African guitar . The chorus of the song and the words " waka waka " are borrowed from " Zangaléwa , " a 1986 song recorded by Cameroonian band Golden Sounds , which was a hit not only across Africa but also in Shakira 's native country , Colombia . According to Debora Halbert , author of the book The State of Copyright : The Complex Relationships of Cultural Creation in a Globalized World , Golden Sounds are not the original creators of the chorus too , since it has been adapted from " military marches of unknown origins that go back as far as World War II . "
The lyrics of " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " compare football ( soccer ) players to soldiers on a battlefield and encourage them to fight for their goals . Fraser McAlpine from BBC Music Chart Blog described them to be " about an undisclosed event which is about to happen for Africa , in which everyone gets together and enjoys the fruits of their hard work , even though there have been many hardships along the way . " The Spanish version of the song does not contain a war metaphor and instead " talks about walls coming down . "
= = Controversy = =
FIFA 's decision to choose " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " as the official song was negatively received by South African people , who felt Shakira was not the " right person to represent the country 's first World Cup , " arguing that an African artist should have been assigned the role . South African musicians were also displeased regarding the lack of native acts scheduled to perform at the FIFA World Cup Kick @-@ Off Celebration Concert on 10 June 2010 . They expressed anger towards the South African Football Association ( SAFA ) for letting international artists like Alicia Keys , the Black Eyed Peas , and Shakira to headline the event . Subsequently , the Creative Workers Union of South Africa planned a demonstration to be held on 15 April , but called it off after SAFA announced that the repertoire of performing acts would be finalised after " consultation with fans and host cities . " Danny Jordaan , head of the South African World Cup Organising Committee and president of SAFA , released a statement assuring that " the incredibly talented South African and African music industry will play a major part in the tournament 's off @-@ field success and character . " Freshlyground 's violinist Kyla @-@ Rose Smith defended FIFA 's decision to select " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " as the official song , saying : " I think that the World Cup is a global event but it ’ s also a business , a huge marketing exercise . FIFA requires a musician of a certain global reach to appeal to all the different kinds of people who are involved and witness and watch the World Cup . So I understand the choice of someone like Shakira . "
The " waka waka " riff of the song also generated controversy . In June 2010 , it was reported that Dominican musician Wilfrido Vargas had decided to file a lawsuit against Shakira for plagiarising the riff off his composition " El Negro No Puede " for a sum of $ 11 million , which was performed by Dominican group Las Chicas del Can . However , Vargas later directly addressed the issue and said he did not have any intention to sue Shakira , clarifying that he himself did not own the riff used in " El Negro No Puede , " and that the prior statements made in his name were fabricated .
= = Critical reception = =
Fraser McAlpine from BBC Music Chart Blog gave the song a four out of five rating and praised its welding of " undulating African guitars to a clod @-@ hopping , skippy township beat . " However , he felt the song did not seem to be about the World Cup and could " just as easily be about a global effort to build water @-@ pipes in the worst drought @-@ ridden areas of the continental land @-@ mass . " Robert Copsey from Digital Spy rated it three out of five stars , favouring its " ludicrously catchy " chorus , although he commented : " Somewhat inevitably , ' Waka Waka ( This Time For Africa ) ' sees Shak [ ira ] replace her usual kooky lyrics with lines that wouldn 't sound out of place on an X Factor winner 's song . " Kyle Anderson from MTV picked " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " as the best official World Cup song , calling it a " funky , inspirational tune . " Canada.com critic Stuart Derdeyn , however , was highly critical of the song and called it " sonic vomit " and " perhaps the stupidest official song for any major sporting event ever . "
" Waka @-@ Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " received a nomination at the 2010 Premios Shock for " Best Radio Song " ( " Mejor Canción Radio " ) , but lost to " No Digas lo Siento " by Don Tetto . The song was nominated " Top Latin Song " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards . In the same year , it received a nomination for " Latin Digital Download of the Year " at the 2011 Latin Billboard Music Awards . At the 2011 Nuestro Tierra Awards , " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " was nominated for " Best Song " , but lost to Santiago Cruz and Fernando Osorio 's " Cuando Regreses " . In the same year , It was recognized at the 19th Annual ASCAP Latin Music Awards as one of the most @-@ performed Pop Songs of 2010 . The song was recognized as one of the most @-@ performed songs at the 19th BMI Latin Music Awards in 2012 .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = Europe = = =
The song became a success across Europe . In Austria , " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " displaced Somali @-@ Canadian artist K 'naan 's song " Wavin ' Flag " ( which was also another promotional song for the World Cup ) from the top spot on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart , ending its four @-@ week @-@ long run at number one . " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " went on the spend six consecutive weeks atop the chart and a total of 63 weeks , making it Shakira 's longest @-@ charting single in the region . It is also Shakira 's most successful single in the country and was certified double @-@ platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) Austria , denoting sales of 60 @,@ 000 units . In both the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders and French @-@ speaking Wallonia regions of Belgium , the song reached number one on the Ultratop charts , logging a total of five and eight weeks at the spot , respectively . It was the best @-@ selling single of 2010 in Wallonia and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) in 2012 for completing sales of 60 @,@ 000 units . In Denmark , the song topped the Hitlisten chart and was certified double @-@ platinum by the IFPI Denmark .
" Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " debuted at number one on the French Singles Chart and stayed at the position for six consecutive weeks . The success of the song was such in the country that it appeared on the chart for three consecutive years ( 2010 – 13 ) and for a total of 132 weeks . The Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) certified the single platinum for sales of 150 @,@ 000 units . It was the best @-@ selling single in the country in 2010 with sales of 373 @,@ 068 copies . The song peaked at number one on the German Singles Chart for six weeks and became the second highest selling single in the country in 2010 . It was certified quintuple @-@ gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) , denoting shipments of 750 @,@ 000 units , making " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " Shakira 's highest @-@ selling single in the country . In Italy , the song entered the FIMI singles chart at number two and peaked at number one a week later . It stayed at number one for 16 consecutive weeks . In 2014 , the single was certified six times @-@ platinum by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) for selling 180 @,@ 000 units in the country .
The song topped the Spanish Singles Chart for 17 consecutive weeks and charted for 69 weeks in total . " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " was the best @-@ selling single in Spain in 2010 . It was later certified six times @-@ platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for selling 240 @,@ 000 units in the country . The song is one of the best @-@ selling singles in Spain . " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " became Shakira 's biggest single in Sweden , where it peaked atop the Sverigetopplistan chart and appeared on the chart for 58 weeks . By 2012 , the single had sold 360 @,@ 000 downloads in the country and had been certified nine times @-@ platinum by the IFPI . The ring tone format of the song has received a triple @-@ platinum certification . In Switzerland , the song debuted at number five and later peaked atop the chart for four weeks . It spent 86 weeks on the chart and was certified triple @-@ platinum in 2011 by the IFPI . " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " peaked at number 21 in the United Kingdom and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in 2015 for completing shipments of 400 @,@ 000 units .
= = = Asia and Americas = = =
" Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " was the most @-@ downloaded song of 2010 on the Nokia Music Store , based on its performance in 38 countries , including India and China . In India , it peaked at number three on the Radio Mirchi Angrezi Top 20 chart . According to Manoj Gairola of Hindustan Times , the song was downloaded by more than 300 @,@ 000 subscribers of a telecom company that held exclusive rights to sell " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " on mobile phones .
The song attained number one positions in Argentina , Chile and Shakira 's native country Colombia . In Mexico , it spent five successive weeks at number one , and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) in 2012 for completing sales of 120 @,@ 000 downloads . In the United States , the song debuted at number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 - Shakira 's second @-@ highest debut on the chart at that time . It later peaked at number 38 . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the song platinum in 2011 after it completed sales of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 downloads . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the single has sold 1 @,@ 763 @,@ 000 downloads in the United States , making it Shakira 's third @-@ highest selling digital single in the country ( as of March 2014 ) .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " was directed by Marcus Raboy . It was developed and conceptualised by Shakira along with Antonio Navas , executive creative director of international marketing agency Ogilvy & Mather . Navas explained that the concept of the video was to " take the viewer on a trip around the world , ending in Africa . " The dance sequences were choreographed by Hi @-@ Hat , who had previously worked with Shakira on the video of " She Wolf " ( 2009 ) . The video was shot in Los Angeles and was recorded in multiple languages . It was premiered on 6 June 2010 and became the first @-@ ever music video by Sony Music to receive a release in 3D format .
The video chiefly focuses on Shakira and a crowd composed of numerous dancers and children dancing together . Freshlyground appear during their verse , with lead singer Zolani Mahola and
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's twenty @-@ fifth Anime Grand Prix award winner in 2002 , with the characters of Kira Yamato and Lacus Clyne topping the male and female anime categories , respectively . It topped the charts in the Newtype magazine reader poll during 2004 . However , the show was not well received by older Japanese fans . In February 2004 , Sunrise 's president , Takayuki Yoshii , stated it was because Gundam SEED incorporated elements from popular live @-@ action television dramas . On the other hand , Bandai Visual reported in April 2004 that Gundam SEED had a wide audience , including both young and older viewers .
Gundam SEED has been praised for being a stand @-@ out in a long line of Gundam series with Anime News Network 's Paul Fargo calling it " the best of the alternative timelines , but stands as one of the best Gundam titles " . The story has been praised for its battle sequences as well as its character @-@ driven scenes , neither of which were reviewed to have detracted emphasis from the other . The series was noted to " downshift " in pace from its early episodes as the main characters development began to progress along political themes , which appealed to some audiences . Early in the series , speculations were made with regard to the progress the characters ' relationships . The relationship between Kira Yamato and Athrun Zala earned praise as it resulted in entertaining action scenes between their mobile suits , while in later reviews speculation arose as to whether the two would become allies .
The climax has been praised for bringing unexpected inclusions within the war , as well as revelations regarding the characters ' roles . A common comment among writers was that Gundam SEED blended elements from previous Gundam series and displayed it in fast @-@ paced way , making it enjoyable to younger fans but still engaging older fans familiar with previous series . DVD Verdict writer Mitchell Hattaway further noted that while it used elements from other anime series , it still " drew [ him ] in so quickly [ he ] soon found [ himself ] wrapped up in the proceedings " . Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network stated that Gundam SEED adapted the original Mobile Suit Gundam series from 1979 for a modern audience in the same way Mobile Suit Gundam 00 would adapt Mobile Suit Gundam Wing . Bamboo Dong from the same site stated that while this caused the appearance of " hardcore anti @-@ Gundam Seed zealots " who criticized the series for these traits , it was nevertheless entertaining to watch and give anime fans a step into the " Gundam fandom " .
The quality of the animation led THEM Anime Reviews ' Derrick L. Tucker to call it " by @-@ and @-@ far the best of any Gundam Series to date " . Additionally , the soundtrack was popular for bringing popular J @-@ pop artists such as Nami Tamaki and T.M. Revolution to perform the theme songs . The casting of many talented voice actors , such as Rie Tanaka , Seki Tomokazu and Houko Kuwashima , provided the emotional depth in scenes that required it . The English dub was reviewed favorably for the most part but comparisons between the English and original Japanese dubbing revealed weaknesses in the portrayal of the characters .
= = = Controversy = = =
The sixteenth episode of Gundam SEED features a scene in which Kira Yamato is seen dressing after getting out of a bed where the teenage girl Flay Allster lies sleeping naked , suggesting a sexual relationship . The Japanese Commission for Better Broadcasting reported that viewers filed complaints regarding the scene as the show was aired at 6 pm when children would be watching . Mainichi replied by mentioning it should have given more careful consideration to the episode before airing it . The scene was extended in one of the compilation films with John Oppliger noting it expanded the off @-@ screen scene with three shots .
= Interstate 35E ( Minnesota ) =
Interstate 35E ( I @-@ 35E ) is an Interstate Highway in the US state of Minnesota , passing through downtown Saint Paul . It is one of two through routes for Interstate 35 through the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul , the other being Interstate 35W through Minneapolis . Thus , both ends of I @-@ 35E are shared with I @-@ 35W and I @-@ 35 . This is one of two pairs of suffixed Interstates that has not been eliminated ; I @-@ 35 also splits into I @-@ 35E and I @-@ 35W in Dallas @-@ Fort Worth , Texas .
In Minnesota , I @-@ 35E continues the exit numbers of I @-@ 35 , while those of I @-@ 35W begin with 1 just north of the split . I @-@ 35E also carries the legislative route of I @-@ 35 — unsigned legislative route 390 — through the Twin Cities . On the other hand , the portion of I @-@ 35E through the West Seventh neighborhood of Saint Paul is a controversial four @-@ lane parkway that heavy trucks are prohibited from using .
Interstate 35E in Minnesota is 39 miles ( 63 km ) in length .
= = Route description = =
The southern terminus of I @-@ 35E is at exit 88A in Burnsville , where I @-@ 35 splits into I @-@ 35E and I @-@ 35W . While I @-@ 35W heads north into Minneapolis , I @-@ 35E takes a northeasterly path into Saint Paul . There is no access between I @-@ 35E and I @-@ 35W here , but Dakota County Road 42 ( exit 88B ) , immediately to the north , connects the two Interstates in Burnsville . Major interchanges south of Saint Paul include State Highway 77 ( MN 77 , signed as Cedar Avenue — exit 92 ) at Apple Valley – Eagan and Interstate 494 ( exit 99 ) in Mendota Heights . Between exits 94 and 97 , the highway deviates from its relatively straight path to avoid Blackhawk Lake . As it crosses I @-@ 494 , I @-@ 35E turns more to the north , crossing MN 110 ( exit 101 ) and MN 13 ( exit 102 ) in Mendota Heights before crossing the Mississippi River on the Lexington Bridge into the city of Saint Paul . This portion of I @-@ 35E is four lanes wide ( two in each direction ) , except between MN 77 and MN 110 , where it carries six lanes . The Lexington Bridge carries six lanes — four through lanes and the exit and entrance lanes for MN 13 — as well as a bicycle and pedestrian path . The bridge has an innovative automatic anti @-@ icing system that sprays potassium acetate onto the bridge surface to prevent frost and ice formation in inclement weather .
The auxiliary lanes from MN 13 leave at the first exit in Saint Paul , a half interchange with Shepard Road ( exit 103A ) with ramps toward the bridge . Shepard Road is a four @-@ lane roadway with minimal intersections that follows the Mississippi River northeast into downtown Saint Paul . Immediately after Shepard Road is MN 5 ( West 7th Street ) ( exit 103B ) , which leads northeast to downtown through the heart of the West Seventh neighborhood . The portion of I @-@ 35E between MN 5 and downtown is a mostly sunken four @-@ lane parkway with a speed limit of 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) ( this portion is sometimes referred to as the " practice freeway " by locals ) , a ban on trucks over 9 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 100 kg ) gross vehicle weight , and median landscaping . This parkway was built instead of a typical six @-@ lane freeway because of local opposition . Major interchanges on this section include Ayd Mill Road ( exit 104B ) , a sunken four @-@ lane road to the northwest , and Kellogg Boulevard ( exit 106B ) , which extends in both directions as part of a loop around downtown .
The four lanes of I @-@ 35E pass through downtown Saint Paul in the center of the six lanes of I @-@ 94 , with a short overlap occupying the blocks between 11th and 12th streets . Despite this short overlap , there is no weaving between the two highways , since an exit in each direction of I @-@ 35E — exit 107A from I @-@ 35E north to I @-@ 94 east , and exit 107B from I @-@ 35E south to I @-@ 94 west — takes traffic that would move to the right in the overlap instead to the right of the entire roadway . There are no interchanges on the common segment , and no direct access from I @-@ 35E northbound to I @-@ 94 west or I @-@ 94 eastbound to I @-@ 35E south . Kellogg Boulevard provides an indirect connection ; Ayd Mill Road , further west , nears I @-@ 94 but does not connect without several turns and traffic lights . Unlike the west split of I @-@ 35E and I @-@ 94 , all ramps are present at the east split ; among other uses , the I @-@ 35E southbound to I @-@ 94 east and I @-@ 94 westbound to I @-@ 35E north ramps carry traffic following US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) , which overlaps I @-@ 35E north of downtown , and truck traffic using the nearby Lafayette Freeway ( US 52 ) to avoid the parkway through the West Seventh neighborhood .
From downtown Saint Paul north to the junction with I @-@ 694 west ( exit 113 ) in Little Canada , where US 10 also leaves I @-@ 35E , the highway carries three lanes of traffic in each direction . Major interchanges here include Pennsylvania Avenue ( exit 108 ) , another part of the loop that includes Kellogg Boulevard , and MN 36 ( exit 111 ) . An overlap of about one mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) exists between the two interchanges with I @-@ 694 ( exits 113 and 115 ) ; unlike the one with I @-@ 94 , traffic must weave to remain on either road . Heading northbound on I @-@ 35E , the three lanes split into two for I @-@ 694 westbound and two for I @-@ 35E northbound , and then one lane from I @-@ 694 eastbound enters on the left . These three lanes then split into two on the right for I @-@ 694 eastbound and two on the left for I @-@ 35E northbound ; after the turn north , a lane joins on the right from I @-@ 694 westbound traffic . Thus through traffic on I @-@ 694 eastbound must move right at least one lane , and only the center lane of I @-@ 35E north continues through . The configuration in the other direction , where I @-@ 35E southbound and I @-@ 694 westbound merge , is similar , but two lanes of I @-@ 694 westbound enter the merge , and the rightmost of the two I @-@ 35E lanes ends , so all I @-@ 35E south traffic must move at least one lane to the left , while the right lane of I @-@ 694 west can continue straight through . A four @-@ year construction project , called " Unweave the Weave " beginning in 2004 , was completed in 2008 , to eliminate this weaving in a similar method to the I @-@ 94 overlap , with three I @-@ 35E lanes inside three I @-@ 694 lanes , and separate right @-@ side ramps from I @-@ 35E to I @-@ 694 .
I @-@ 35E is four lanes wide north of I @-@ 694 ; the third lane added northbound from the I @-@ 694 westbound ramp exits immediately onto County Road E ( exit 115 ) in Vadnais Heights . Other than the northern terminus of I @-@ 35E ( exit 127 ) in Columbus near Forest Lake , where it merges with I @-@ 35W to re @-@ form I @-@ 35 , there are only four interchanges on I @-@ 35E north of I @-@ 694 between Vadnais Heights and Columbus , all for county roads .
= = History = =
Early plans for the Interstate Highway System include a route along roughly the same alignment as the present I @-@ 35 through the Twin Cities area , but are not detailed enough to show exactly how the cities would be served . When preliminary urban routes were laid out in 1955 , a split alignment was chosen to serve both cities equally . South of the Twin Cities , I @-@ 35 followed the corridor of old US 65 , which had followed Lyndale Avenue between Burnsville and downtown Minneapolis . I @-@ 35E was located parallel to MN 13 , which cut northeast to Saint Paul from old US 65 south of the Minnesota River . North of the metropolitan area , I @-@ 35 closely paralleled US 61 , which passed through Saint Paul ; I @-@ 35W paralleled old US 8 from Minneapolis northeast through New Brighton and then to the present day I @-@ 35E – I @-@ 35W split at Columbus near Forest Lake , near where old US 8 had joined US 61 . The Minnesota Legislature defined I @-@ 35E as part of unmarked Legislative Route 390 , which stretched south to the Iowa state line and north to the city of Duluth along I @-@ 35 .
I @-@ 35E was completed north of downtown Saint Paul in 1970 . The first section to open ran north from Maryland Avenue in Saint Paul to I @-@ 694 in Little Canada ; this was completed in the early 1960s , concurrently with I @-@ 694 west to old MN 49 ( Rice Street ) . Later that decade , I @-@ 35E was extended south to downtown Saint Paul , opening first to Pennsylvania Avenue and then to I @-@ 94 , including the I @-@ 35E / I @-@ 94 concurrency ( and I @-@ 94 in both directions ) . In 1970 , I @-@ 35E was extended north along the I @-@ 35E / I @-@ 694 concurrency in Little Canada – Vadnais Heights and also extended northbound to its northern terminus at Columbus near Forest Lake ; the adjacent sections of I @-@ 35 , I @-@ 35W , and I @-@ 694 opened at about the same time .
The southern half of I @-@ 35E in the metro area took a lot longer to build . Its first section — a short stretch from MN 110 north to State Highway 5 , including the Lexington Bridge over the Mississippi River — opened in the mid @-@ 1960s . Even though the connecting piece of I @-@ 35W and I @-@ 35 at the southern terminus of I @-@ 35E in Burnsville opened in the mid @-@ 1960s , it was not until the mid @-@ 1980s that I @-@ 35E was completed south of MN 110 at Mendota Heights and southbound through Eagan and Apple Valley , where there had been a missing link of I @-@ 35E for 20 years . Construction was delayed by opposition from nearby residents in Burnsville and from environmentalists over the proposed alignment across Blackhawk Lake . The final plan involved a new alignment avoiding the lake , as well as a less complicated interchange at I @-@ 494 in Mendota Heights , eliminating access to MN 55 that was part of the earlier plans .
= = = Controversy through the West Seventh neighborhood of Saint Paul = = =
The missing piece through the West Seventh neighborhood of Saint Paul , from MN 5 ( West 7th Street ) northeast to I @-@ 94 in downtown Saint Paul , was held up by controversy . Construction began in 1964 , and was planned for completion in the 1970s as a typical six @-@ lane freeway , but in late 1969 , a group of neighbors in the area had formed " Residents in Protest 35E " ( R.I.P. 35E ) to oppose the completion of I @-@ 35E . The group convinced the city to drop its support , and in August it filed a joint lawsuit against the Minnesota Highway Department ( MHD ) and U.S. Department of Transportation along with four neighborhood associations and eight citizens . The parties quickly reached an agreement , favorable to the plaintiffs , to halt construction pending an environmental impact statement ( EIS ) .
The Saint Paul City Council decided in late 1974 to support I @-@ 35E , possibly due to the influence of proponents . R.I.P. 35E proposed an alternative to the original plan , and convinced the city council to go along with it . The plan included a four @-@ lane boulevard upgrade of Pleasant Avenue ( the street chosen for the I @-@ 35E alignment ) , with another route such as Shepard Road or the nearby Lafayette Freeway forming part of I @-@ 35E . The group opposed any direct connection of this parkway to I @-@ 94 near the State Capitol , where I @-@ 35E and I @-@ 94 were to merge . The EIS was completed in early 1975 , identifying noise pollution , air pollution , vibrations , and slope stability as the main concerns . In addition to the nearby location of historic districts , hospitals were worried about the effects of vibrations on sensitive operations ; the MHD solved this problem while the report was being developed . The EIS identified the primary benefit of completing I @-@ 35E as connecting downtown Saint Paul to the Interstate Highway System , and determined that the original Pleasant Avenue corridor was the best choice , but with minor changes such as lowering the freeway below Grand Avenue and Ramsey Street .
A bill passed by the Minnesota Legislature on May 31 , 1975 , imposed a moratorium on building I @-@ 35E , as well as other area freeways such as the canceled I @-@ 335 project and the MN 55 ( Hiawatha Avenue ) upgrade project . This law defined several new legislative routes , which " may be added by order of the commissioner of transportation to the trunk highway system " ( as opposed to other such routes , which were added to that system by the legislature ) :
Legislative Route No. 380 . Beginning at a point on Route No. 390 [ I @-@ 35E ] at its intersection with Shepard Road in the city of Saint Paul ; thence extending in a northeasterly direction generally following along the course of Shepard Road to a point on Route No. 112 [ Lafayette Freeway ] ; thence extending in a northeasterly direction to a point on Route No. 392 [ I @-@ 94 ] easterly of the downtown area of Saint Paul ; providing a connector route between Route No. 390 and Routes No. 112 and 392 ;
Legislative Route No. 381 . Beginning at a point on Route No. 112 [ Lafayette Freeway ] , northerly of the Lafayette Street bridge in the city of Saint Paul ; thence extending in a northwesterly direction to a point on Route No. 390 [ I @-@ 35E ] , southerly of Maryland Avenue in the city of Saint Paul ; providing a connector route between Route No. 112 and Route No. 390 ; and
Legislative Route No. 382 . Beginning at a point on Route No. 390 [ I @-@ 35E ] at its junction with Route No. 111 [ MN 5 ] , thence extending in a general northerly direction , within the corridor of the right of way already acquired on the effective date of this act , for Route No. 390 , to a point on Short Line Road ; thence extending in a northeasterly direction within said corridor of right of way to the intersection of Pleasant Avenue and Kellogg Boulevard in the city of Saint Paul .
Legislative Routes 380 and 381 provided for an alternate alignment of I @-@ 35E along Shepard Road and a northerly extension of the Lafayette Freeway , while Legislative Route 382 was a " four @-@ lane parkway facility " that the MHD could build along the original alignment of I @-@ 35E , but without a connection to I @-@ 94 . The city announced its support of the parkway in August 1976 .
An act passed on April 5 , 1978 , added a condition to the definition of Legislative Route 390 ( I @-@ 35E ) :
Legislative Route No. 390 [ I @-@ 35E ] shall not include any portion of Legislative Route No. 382 [ the parkway ] as designated by section 161 @.@ 117 or any portion of any route connecting Route No. 382 to Route No. 392 [ I @-@ 94 ] , nor shall it include any portion of trunk highway marked number 3 from trunk highway marked number 110 in Dakota County to East Seventh Street in the city of Saint Paul .
At the time , old MN 3 was marked along the nearby Lafayette Freeway ( now US 52 ) from the late 1970s to 1994 .
It also allowed a connection from the parkway to I @-@ 94 , but this link could not be controlled access . The Metropolitan Council was to complete a draft EIS for the parkway and I @-@ 35E by September 1 , 1979 , with the cooperation of Minnesota Department of Transportation ( Mn / DOT ) and Saint Paul . There was widespread support for a 45 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 72 km / h ) parkway , with landscaping and a truck restriction , but the non @-@ connection to I @-@ 94 jeopardized federal Interstate funding , since it could no longer be part of the continuous I @-@ 35E . Two notable alternatives came out of the draft EIS — a parkway with or without an I @-@ 94 connection . The parkway with a connection would provide the same level of service as a typical freeway .
R.I.P. 35E and other citizens ' groups continued to oppose a direct connection , arguing that it would be no different from a typical freeway , since drivers would be more likely to exceed the speed limit if it was a continuous roadway to I @-@ 94 . Saint Paul changed its mind again in September 1981 , supporting a direct connection , along with Mn / DOT and the Metropolitan Council . A bill passed in March 1982 removed the stipulation that the parkway shall not connect to I @-@ 94 , and allowed Route 390 ( I @-@ 35E ) to use Route 382 ( the parkway ) . The final EIS was approved at about that time , and several groups including R.I.P. 35E filed suit in early 1983 .
The suit alleged that the EIS focused almost exclusively on the Pleasant Avenue alignment , and that it did not consider the effect of a direct connection on speed limit compliance ; faster traffic would mean more noise . Judge Paul Magnuson ruled in February 1984 that the EIS was valid , stating that the Pleasant Avenue alternative was the only reasonable one that would meet goals . This court order has been interpreted as a legal contract , prohibiting the state from raising the speed limit or allowing trucks . Construction went forward , and I @-@ 35E was opened from MN 5 north to Saint Clair Avenue in 1984 , using original bridges that had been built for three lanes in each direction . Further extensions , including all new bridges , were opened to Grand Avenue in 1986 , to Kellogg Boulevard in November 1988 , and to I @-@ 94 on October 15 , 1990 , 26 years after construction began . The 1990 opening ceremony of I @-@ 35E in downtown Saint Paul was attended by a group of highway experts from the Soviet Union , and both the US and Soviet national anthems were played .
= = = Later changes = = =
The original plans for the I @-@ 94 overlap in downtown Saint Paul did not include the right @-@ side ramps that eliminate weaving . The ramp from I @-@ 35E northbound to I @-@ 94 eastbound was added when I @-@ 35E was finally completed in 1990 , and a five @-@ year construction project that was completed in 1992 added the ramp from I @-@ 35E southbound to I @-@ 94 westbound , as well as a direct ramp from I @-@ 35E southbound to the Lafayette Freeway ( US 52 ) to avoid weaving across I @-@ 94 east . This project was done because the old Spaghetti Junction at the east split of I @-@ 35E and I @-@ 94 would not be able to handle the extra load from the completed I @-@ 35E parkway .
When the first piece of the parkway opened in 1984 , unused provisions , pending more study , were added for a direct link to Ayd Mill Road , a sunken four @-@ lane road with minimal intersections that leads northwest from I @-@ 35E . The ramps were built and temporarily opened in 1992 for high @-@ occupancy vehicles , due to the closure of the nearby Lafayette Bridge ( US 52 ) for reconstruction . The ramps were reopened on June 12 , 2002 , as a test , and remain open as of 2014 . A controversial extension of Ayd Mill Road to I @-@ 94 remains on the table .
The 1964 Lexington Bridge across the Mississippi River was replaced by a new bridge , built from 2001 to 2004 , due to deterioration of the old structure including cracks in steel beams . Unweave the Weave , a project to eliminate weaving at the I @-@ 694 overlap , was completed in 2008 .
The 1965 bridge just north of downtown Saint Paul carrying a daily traffic volume of 148 @,@ 000 vehicles over Cayuga Street and the BNSF Railway line was rated by Mn / DOT as meeting minimum tolerable limits in 2006 . Its superstructure and substructure were described as poor with advanced section loss , deterioration , spalling , or scour . As the fourth busiest bridge in the state , it was scrutinized following the collapse of the I @-@ 35W Mississippi River Bridge in nearby Minneapolis on August 1 , 2007 .
= = Exit list = =
Exit numbers and mileposts increase numerically from the south end , continuing the numbers used on I @-@ 35 .
= G @-@ Dragon =
Kwon Ji @-@ yong ( Hangul : 권지용 ) ; born August 18 , 1988 ) , better known by his stage name G @-@ Dragon , is a South Korean rapper , singer @-@ songwriter , record producer and fashion icon . After 6 years as a trainee under the record label YG Entertainment , G @-@ Dragon officially debuted as a member of the South Korean group Big Bang . G @-@ Dragon has been involved with writing , composing , and producing many of Big Bang 's hit tracks , including " Lies " , " Last Farewell " , and " Day by Day . "
His debut solo album , Heartbreaker ( 2009 ) , yielded the number @-@ one single of the same name and would go on to become one of the most successful albums of the year , garnering sales of over 200 @,@ 000 copies and winning the Mnet Asian Music Awards for Album of the Year . Heartbreaker also sparked major controversies for the artist , including accusations of plagiarism . After almost a year of hiatus , G @-@ Dragon and bandmate , T.O.P collaborated to record and release the album GD & TOP ( 2010 ) . The album saw the release of three singles : " High High " , " Oh Yeah " , and " Knock Out " , all of which have charted within the top three positions of the Gaon chart , with " High High " becoming a chart @-@ topper . 2012 saw the release of his first EP One of a Kind , which yielded hit singles " One of a Kind " , " Crayon " , and " That XX . " The album was critically acclaimed , earning Record of the Year at the 22nd Seoul Music Awards . His second full album in four years , Coup D 'Etat ( 2013 ) matched the success of his previous work , and he won Artist of the Year at the 15th Mnet Asian Music Awards . He also earned the World 's Best Entertainer and World 's Best Album awards at the 2014 World Music Awards .
G @-@ Dragon became the second member of Big Bang to make a solo debut in Japan after his bandmate Daesung 's solo concert tour . He embarked on his second worldwide tour as a solo artist , which included a four @-@ dome tour in Japan .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1988 – 2009 : Early life and debut with Big Bang = = =
Born and raised in Busan , South Korea , Kwon Ji @-@ yong began his career at age five as part of the group Little Roo 'Ra . After releasing a Christmas album , the group 's contract was terminated by their record company , which Kwon described as " shock [ ing ] . " Although he vowed to his mother that he " wouldn 't [ become a singer ] again , " he was scouted by SM Entertainment while on a ski trip with his family . He was a trainee under the record label for five years ( from 8 – 13 years old ) , specializing in dance before he left as he was unclear about what he wanted to do .
In third grade , Kwon was introduced to the American rap group Wu @-@ Tang Clan by a friend . Inspired by their music , he developed an interest in rapping and began taking class . Under People Crew 's tutelage , he participated in the release of the Korean hip @-@ hop Flex album in 2001 , becoming the youngest Korean rapper at just 13 years old . Although he wrote his own lyrics for the song , he admitted that his English was weak and the story behind the lyrics was just another typical " I 'm young , but I 'm the best . " Kwon caught the interest of Sean of the hip @-@ hop duo Jinusean from YG Entertainment , who later recommended him to CEO Yang Hyun Suk . After signing a contract with the record label , Kwon spent the first year cleaning the studio for the other artists in the record label and fetching them water bottles during dance practice . He and another trainee Dong Young @-@ bae , originally planned to debut as the hip @-@ hop duo GDYB , with him choosing the stage name of G @-@ Dragon ( " Ji " is pronounced like " G " , and Yong is Korean for Dragon ) . After six years of training , Kwon made several featured appearances on other artists ' albums and even released several singles with Dong under the name " GDYB . " G @-@ Dragon made his official debut as the leader of the group Big Bang in 2006 , after six years of training under YG Entertainment , with Dong Young @-@ bae ( who chose the stage @-@ name Taeyang ) and three other members ( T.O.P , Daesung , & Seungri ) .
The formation of the group was documented on television , and though there were initially six members , Jang Hyun @-@ seung was dropped before the official debut . The group 's debut was fairly successful , with their first single netting in sales of over 40 @,@ 000 copies . It spawned several airplay singles , including " La La La " , " We Belong Together " and " Forever with You " which featured label @-@ mate Park Bom . The album also included G @-@ Dragon 's first solo song , a cover of the American alternative rock group Maroon 5 's single " This Love . " Following the release of the group 's EP Always in 2007 , G @-@ Dragon began to involve himself more with the production of their albums . Always featured several songs composed by him , including the lead @-@ single " Lies " ( Korean : 거짓말 ; Revised Romanization : Geojitmal ) , which became the group 's first number @-@ one hit . Their following EPs followed its predecessor 's footsteps : Hot Issue yielded " Last Farewell " ( Korean : 마지막 인사 ; Revised Romanization : Majimak Insa ) while Stand Up spawned " Day by Day " ( Korean : 하루하루 ; Revised Romanization : Haru Haru ) ; both singles , which were composed by him were chart @-@ toppers .
= = = 2009 — 2011 : Solo career development , Heartbreaker , and GD & TOP = = =
Aside from Big Bang , G @-@ Dragon also made several solo appearances . After helping produce Taeyang 's debut album , he recorded his own version of the album 's lead single " Only Look at Me " ( Korean : 나만바라봐 ; Revised Romanization : Naman Barabwa ) , titled as the " Only Look At Me Part 2 " to the song . The single was released digitally . Along with Taeyang and T.O.P , G @-@ Dragon was featured on singer Lexy 's song " Super Fly " for her album " ' Rush ' . " In May 2009 , he collaborated with the Japanese boy band W @-@ inds. for their single , " Rain Is Fallin ' / Hybrid Dream . "
After Taeyang released his solo effort , G @-@ Dragon released his debut solo album Heartbreaker , featuring collaborations with several artists , including Teddy of 1TYM , Taeyang , Kush , CL of 2NE1 , and Sandara Park of 2NE1 . Initially scheduled to be released in April , the album was pushed back to August to coincide with his 21st ( Korean years : 22nd ) birthday . The album marked a change in G @-@ Dragon 's appearances as he dyed his hair blonde to match its concept . Propelled by its lead @-@ single of the same name , an electronic pop song , the album sold over 200 @,@ 000 copies and went on to win Album of the Year from the 2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards . Shortly after Heartbreaker 's release , G @-@ Dragon was accused of plagiarism by Sony Music when his tracks " Heartbreaker " and " Butterfly " were alleged to be similar to Flo Rida 's " Right Round " and Oasis 's " She 's Electric " , respectively . However , EMI , the record label that distributed " Right Round " said that they saw no similarities between these two songs . On March 6 , 2010 , YG Entertainment announced that they personally contacted Flo Rida 's representatives requesting that he feature in G @-@ Dragon 's live album , Shine a Light , to which Flo Rida accepted . In support of his album , G @-@ Dragon staged his first solo concert at the Olympic Park in December 2009 . Entitled Shine a Light , the name of the concert was derived from the lyrics to his song " A Boy . " The concert subsequently sparked controversy following complaints of obscenity and suggestive content . The Korean Ministry of Health , Welfare and Family Affairs later asked the government prosecutors to investigate if G @-@ Dragon or YG Entertainment violated laws on obscene performances in his concert . He was found innocent and was cleared of all charges on March 15 , 2010 .
In November 2010 , YG Entertainment announced the collaboration album from G @-@ Dragon and bandmate T.O.P. Preceding the release of the album , the duo held a world @-@ wide premiere showcase for their album at Times Square in Yeongdeungpo of Seoul , which was also broadcast live on YouTube . To promote their album , the duo released three singles : " High High , " " Oh Yeah " , and " Knock Out . " All three singles preceded the release of the album . The singles attained commercial successes : " High High " was number one on several music programs while " Oh Yeah " peaked at number two on the Gaon Digital Chart . The album was released on Christmas Eve , and debuted at number one on the Gaon Chart with pre @-@ orders of 200 @,@ 000 copies , eventually topping 130 @,@ 000 copies sold .
With a collaboration with Park Myung Soo , and Mr. Potato they created a duo called GG for the Infinite Challenge Seohae Ahn Highway Song Festival 2011 . They released their song " Fired Up ( 바람났어 ) " featuring Park Bom from 2NE1 on June 2 , 2011 .
On October 5 , 2011 , it was reported that G @-@ Dragon was tested positive for marijuana . His urine test came back negative but a weak positive for marijuana was detected from testing the content of his hair . The tests were done in early June and the results came back in August . As it was a first offense with a minuscule amount , it resulted in an indictment and he was not charged . He allegedly accepted an offered cigarette from a fan in Japan during a party back in May . He was the only one at the party who was later tipped off to Korean authorities . He confessed that he smoked the cigarette that was offered to him , but after realizing it was not a normal cigarette , he threw it away .
The scandal caused a halt to his promotions , and YG Entertainment issued a statement that he was being given time to reflect on his mistake . Because he was not charged , he did not lose any endorsers and later made his first public appearance after the scandal at the 2011 MTV EMAs with his group Big Bang .
= = = 2012 — 2013 : One of a Kind , world tour , and Coup D 'Etat = = =
It was announced in March 2012 that G @-@ Dragon 's solo comeback would be scheduled in the later half of the year to coincide with his birthday . He continued to collaborate with other artists while recording materials for his album , including an appearance in Pixie Lott 's upcoming Japanese album , along with fellow member T.O.P.
G @-@ Dragon released the music video for his song " One of a Kind " from the album of the same name on August 24 , 2012 , on YouTube . The song earned him two " Best Hiphop / Rap Song of the Year " awards from Korean Music Awards and Rhythmer Awards . He followed this up with " That XX " . His EP One of a Kind was released in digital and physical format several days apart in September . The album was received positively , placing first on the Billboard World Album Chart and entering the Billboard 200 Chart at 161 for the week . At of the end of 2012 , the album netted in over 200 @,@ 000 copies , making it the highest selling solo album in Korea since the release of his Heartbreaker in 2009 . For his effort , he won the ' Best Male Solo Artist ' award at the 14th Mnet Asian Music Awards and late Record of the Year award for One of a Kind at the 22nd Seoul Music Awards .
In January 2013 , in support of his album , G @-@ Dragon embarked on his G @-@ Dragon 2013 1st World Tour , becoming the first Korean solo artist to embark a 4 @-@ dome tour in Japan and the second Korean solo artist to have a world tour ( the first being Bi Rain ) . After touring extensively , G @-@ Dragon went back into the studio to record for his second full @-@ length studio album . YG Entertainment later announced that Grammy Award @-@ winning musician Missy Elliott will be featured on the album . Elliott previously announced in January 2013 via Twitter that she had contributed two tracks ( " Chugalug " , " Niliria " ) both of which were produced by Teddy P.
His second album , Coup D 'état , was released in 2 parts online , with the full album being released September 13 . The album featured collaborations with a star @-@ studded list of artists and producers , including Missy Elliott , Diplo , Baauer , Boys Noize , Sky Ferreira , Siriusmo , Zion.T , Lydia Paek , and label @-@ mate Jennie Kim . G @-@ Dragon and Missy Elliott performed the song " Niliria " at the KCON 2013 in LA . Six tracks from Coup D 'etat placed within the top 10 of the Gaon Singles Charts with " Who You ? " being number one . The music video for " Coup D 'Etat " was released on YouTube on September 1 while the music video for " Crooked " was released shortly after , on September 4 . The success of Coup D 'état lead to G @-@ Dragon winning a total of four awards at the 15th Mnet Asian Music Awards : Best Male Solo Artist , Best Music Video for " Coup D 'etat " , Best Dance Performance for " Crooked " , and the highest award , Artist of The Year . He later took home the World 's Best Entertainer and World 's Best Album at the World Music Awards .
G @-@ dragon participated in the Infinite Challenge music contest , held on October 17 in Imjingak , by contributing the song " Going to Try " ( Haebolago ) , a duet with comedian Jeong Hyeong @-@ don . He also worked with Skrillex on the song " Dirty Vibe " for the album Recess .
= = = 2014 – present : Touring , collaborations and contemporary art = = =
G @-@ Dragon held a fan meeting tour through Asia , visiting Japan , Hong Kong , Taiwan , Singapore , Malaysia and China . He also joined YG Entertainment 's tour " YG Power Tour " , which gathered an audience of 400 @,@ 000 + in seven cities around Asia .
On November 21 , G @-@ Dragon released a collaboration with Taeyang on the song " Good Boy " . The song reached number one on Billboard 's " World Digital Songs " chart , marking the third time a Korean act had topped the chart after PSY and 2NE1 . The single had 1 @.@ 1 million downloads in South Korea . On December 15 G @-@ Dragon released another collaboration with Skrillex and Diplo , featuring his label mate CL . The single charted at number 19 on Billboard 's Hot Dance / Electronic Songs . In September 2014 , G @-@ Dragon partnered with Chow Tai Fook ( 周大福 ) jewelry and launched a new collection designed by himself .
G @-@ Dragon started an art exhibition on 2015 under the name PEACEMINUSONE : Beyond the Stage . The exhibition features 200 works of art from 12 domestic and international artists including Michael Scoggins , Sophie Clements and James Clar . G @-@ Dragon said that he worked on the exhibition for over a year , with aim to bring the modern art and pop culture together , he said , " I would like to be the bridge to introduce domestic artists to the public , who are unfamiliar with art or who find art unapproachable . " The show was held on Seoul , South Korea from June 6 and ran through August 23 , and will travel to Shanghai and Singapore . He also became the face of Airbnb in the Asian market in August 2015 .
He participated in the Infinite Challenge music contest for the third time in row , this time with Taeyang . The duet teamed up with ZE : A 's Hwang Kwanghee .
= = Image and artistry = =
= = = Public image = = =
Described as the " most fashionable " one in Big Bang , G @-@ Dragon is noted for his constantly changing image and tight control over his artistry and has strongly opposed the idea of singers as " products " of the entertainment industry .
While promoting Heartbreaker , his change in hairstyle by dyeing it blonde gained popularity among his fans and became one of the top hairstyles of the year . He has consistently altered his hair throughout the years , ranging from various shades of colors to different cuts . Additionally , his constant sporting of triangular scarves became a trend among teenagers and were later nicknamed the " Big Bang scarves . " G @-@ Dragon is noted for his androgynous appearance and have collaborated with Italian footwear designer Giuseppe Zanotti to launch a limited @-@ edition collection of men 's and women 's shoes , stating that " it 's not just girls or women who get excited and worked up over pretty shoes . [ ... ] [ G ] uys can feel that way , too . " G @-@ Dragon 's fashion has been described as " quirky and experimental " by Rushali Pawar of the International Business Times while Taylor Glasby from the British Magazine Dazed and Confused characterized GD 's style as " fluid and far @-@ reaching , " calling him a " natural style chameleon . "
Because of his constant change in image , G @-@ Dragon has won multiple awards , including the Style Icon of 2008 and the award for Most Influential Men of 2008 sponsored by Arena magazine . In 2013 , G @-@ Dragon was listed in the Style Icon Top 10 , later garnering the 2013 Style Icon of the Year Award . He is the first solo singer to win the award undivided . In 2015 , he was chosen by GQ Korea as their Man of the Year . He also won the Fashionista Award in 2015 . G @-@ Dragon has attract the attention of other celebrities for his fashion sense . Fashion icon Kang Dong Won also acknowledged G @-@ Dragon 's influences during an interview , calling the singer a " fashionista . " TV personality Kim Jun Hee , when speaking at the Fashion N 's " Follow Me Season 2 " , spoke of her admiration for the artist , stating how " [ n ] ot only does G @-@ Dragon have a great taste in fashion , but he can write and compose music like a genius . " Canadian singer Grimes also stated that K @-@ pop has influenced her musical style " more visually than anything else , " in particular G @-@ Dragon .
Initially , G @-@ Dragon admitted to being self @-@ conscious of his role as a musician , noting how he had " changed many things including the tone of my voice because I was conscious about my job when I was in front of others . " Aware that his public image is important when promoting his materials , G @-@ Dragon notes that " what the public perceives of [ my physical appearance ] is my doing so it 's my fault if I give off the wrong intention . " In recent years , he has become more relaxed , stating that now he doesn 't " do music or dress up in order to impress people around me . I don 't try to be conscious [ about music and fashion ] . " Despite his success as a solo artist and leader of Big Bang , G @-@ Dragon has admitted that he didn 't realize how famous he was until he went on Big Bang 's World Tour . He was later highlighted as one of the " 50 Reasons Why Seoul is the Best City " by CNN in 2011 while in 2015 , was picked as one of Business of Fashion 's " 500 Global Fashion Leaders , " making him 1 of 5 Koreans on the list , and the only K @-@ Pop act to have made the cut . In 2016 , G @-@ Dragon was chosen as one of the top 10 most influential celebrities in China by Chinese media outlet Sina , he became the first international artist to be placed within the top 10 of Sina 's Most Influential Stars rankings .
= = = Musical style , lyrics and composition = = =
Inspired by music by the Wu @-@ Tang Clan and citing American singer Pharrell Williams as his " musical hero , " G @-@ Dragon participated in the annual hip hop Flex album in 2001 at the age of 12 , establishing his career as an artist . During the early days of Big Bang 's career , the band was marketed predominately as a hip @-@ hop group , though they went on to experiment with electronic music and setting it as the new music trend in Korea . From previous exposure to a range of genres with Big Bang , G @-@ Dragon incorporated a mix of dance , hip @-@ hop , and R & B songs into Heartbreaker . During the production for the collaboration album GD & TOP , G @-@ dragon opted for a more hip @-@ hop sound , though he does acknowledge that R & B , acoustic , and electronic music heavily influenced it .
Since becoming a solo artist , G @-@ Dragon has maintained tight control over his music , stating that " each feeling [ in creating the music ] is different " , using his emotions to direct the lyrical content and the composition of his songs . The lyrics in his song " A Boy " was in response the negative criticisms surrounding his 2009 plagiarism controversy , with the artist refusing to give up on his career despite the setbacks . Big Bang 's song " If You " was inspired during a time when the artist was in love while " Loser " was written in an attempt to humanize the group . To distinguish himself from other artists and composers , G @-@ Dragon admits to " giving twist and turn at every corner and evoking [ a ] different story " with each part of his music , acknowledging that although the chorus is the catchiest part of the song , he wants all the parts to his song to be remembered . Prior to his establishment as a solo artist , he was also involved with the production of Big Bang 's albums , writing and composing majority of their songs . Aside from producing songs for his own band , G @-@ Dragon has also produces for other artists , including bandmates Taeyang and Seungri , and iKon
G @-@ Dragon 's contributions to his own music have garnered him praises and criticism alike . Preferring to pen lyrics that " sound like an actual story , " he has been referred to as a " genius singer @-@ songwriter , " though the rapper has expressed being uncomfortable with the label . His effort to create melodies won him praises as one of the best composers of 2008 , with many pop culture critics and industry representatives choosing him as the " musician whose future they anticipate the most . " His rap lyrics have also placed him fourth during a vote for " Most God @-@ like " rapper in Japan . The rapper also topped Forbes listing of " Most Hardworking Idol " , and made into its list " Korea 2030 Power Leaders . " Singer Lee Seung @-@ Cheol also points to G @-@ Dragon as one of the young artists he currently looks forward to . Producer and rapper Cho PD expressed his appreciation for Big Bang , stating how " [ i ] dol singers like Big Bang possess the ability of being musicians , " crediting how " in many ways Big Bang has evolved out of being an idol with the abilities they possess as musicians " and how " G @-@ Dragon can be counted as the main representative for this . " The Korea Music Copyright Association lists at least 147 songs under G @-@ Dragon 's name and in 2015 , G @-@ Dragon 's annual earnings from song royalties was estimated to be over $ 700 @,@ 000 a year . He is the highest paid touring singer @-@ songwriter in Korea , as while as the only performer to be mentioned on a list of South Korean composers earning the most from songwriting royalties in 2012 and the youngest on the list .
= = Personal life = =
In 2012 , G @-@ Dragon built a pension motel as a gift to his family ; fans can also stay at this hotel which is now run as a business by his parents . In October 20 , 2015 , G @-@ Dragon opened officially his first Cafe , under the name of " Monsant Cafe " . The café is located on Jeju Island . The South Korean indie band Hyukoh was the first artist to play at the café in September 2015 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = TV Shows = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Korean studio albums = = =
Heartbreaker ( 2009 )
Coup D 'Etat ( 2013 )
= = = Japanese studio albums = = =
Coup D 'Etat ' + One of a Kind & Heartbreaker ( 2013 )
= = Tours = =
World Tours
One of a Kind World Tour ( 2013 )
Concerts
Shine a Light ( 2009 )
= = Awards = =
= Angevin kings of England =
The Angevins / ændʒvɪns / ( " from Anjou " ) were an English royal house in the 12th and early 13th centuries ; its monarchs were Henry II , Richard I and John . In the 10 years from 1144 , two successive counts of Anjou , Geoffrey and his son , the future Henry II , won control of a vast assemblage of lands in western Europe that would last for 80 years and would retrospectively be referred to as the Angevin Empire . As a political entity this was structurally different from the preceding Norman and subsequent Plantagenet realms . Geoffrey became Duke of Normandy in 1144 and died in 1151 . In 1152 his heir , Henry , added Aquitaine by virtue of his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine . Henry also inherited the claim of his mother , Empress Matilda , the daughter of King Henry I , to the English throne , to which he succeeded in 1154 following the death of King Stephen .
Henry was succeeded by his third son , Richard , whose reputation for martial prowess won him the epithet " Cœur de Lion " or " Lionheart " . He was born and raised in England but spent very little time there during his adult life , perhaps as little as six months . Despite this Richard remains an enduring iconic figure both in England and in France , and is one of very few kings of England remembered by his nickname as opposed to regnal number .
When Richard died , his brother John – Henry ’ s fifth and only surviving son – took the throne . In 1204 John lost the Angevins ' continental territories , including Anjou , to the French crown . The loss of Anjou from which the dynasty is named is the rationale behind John 's son — Henry III of England — being considered the first Plantagenet — a name derived from a nickname for Geoffrey . Where no distinction is made between the Angevins — and Angevin era — and subsequent English Kings , Henry II is the first Plantagenet king . From John the dynasty continued successfully and unbroken in the senior male line until the reign of Richard II before dividing into two competing cadet branches , the House of Lancaster and the House of York .
= = Terminology = =
= = = Angevin = = =
The adjective Angevin is especially used in English history to refer to the kings who were also counts of Anjou — beginning with Henry II — descended from Geoffrey and Matilda ; their characteristics , descendants and the period of history which they covered from the mid @-@ twelfth to early @-@ thirteenth centuries . In addition it is also used pertaining to Anjou , or any sovereign , government derived from this . As a noun it is used for any native of Anjou or Angevin ruler . As such Angevin is also used for other Counts and Dukes of Anjou ; including the three kings ' ancestors , their cousins who held the crown of Jerusalem and unrelated later members of the French royal family who were granted the titles to form different dynasties amongst which were the Capetian House of Anjou and the Valois House of Anjou .
= = = Angevin Empire = = =
The term " Angevin Empire " was coined in 1887 by Kate Norgate . As far as it is known there was no contemporary name for this assemblage of territories which were referred to — if at all — by clumsy circumlocutions such as our kingdom and everything subject to our rule whatever it may be or the whole of the kingdom which had belonged to his father . Whereas the Angevin part of this term has proved uncontentious the empire portion has proved controversial . In 1986 a convention of historical specialists concluded that there had been no Angevin state and no empire but the term espace Plantagenet was acceptable .
= = Origins = =
The Angevins descend from Geoffrey II , Count of Gâtinais and Ermengarde of Anjou . In 1060 this couple inherited , via cognatic kinship , the county of Anjou from an older line dating from 870 and a noble called Ingelger . The marriage of Count Geoffrey to Matilda , the only surviving legitimate child of Henry I of England , was part of struggle for power during the tenth and eleventh centuries among the lords of Normandy , Brittany , Poitou , Blois , Maine and the kings of France . It was from this marriage that Geoffrey ’ s son , Henry , inherited the claims to England , Normandy and Anjou that marks the beginning of the Angevin and Plantagenet dynasties . This was the third attempt by Geoffrey ’ s father Fulk V to build a political alliance with Normandy . The first was by marrying his daughter Matilda to Henry ’ s heir William Adelin , who drowned in the wreck of the White Ship . Fulk then married his daughter Sibylla to William Clito , heir to Henry 's older brother Robert Curthose , but Henry had the marriage annulled to avoid strengthening William ’ s rival claim to his lands .
= = Inheritance custom and Angevin practice = =
As society became more prosperous and stable in the 11th century , inheritance customs developed that allowed daughters ( in the absence of sons ) to succeed to principalities as well as landed estates . The twelfth @-@ century chronicler Ralph de Diceto noted that the counts of Anjou extended their dominion over their neighbours by marriage rather than conquest . The marriage of Geoffrey to the daughter of a king ( and widow of an emperor ) occurred in this context . It is unknown whether King Henry intended to make Geoffrey his heir , but it is known that the threat presented by William Clito ’ s rival claim to the duchy of Normandy made his negotiating position very weak . Even so , it is probable that , should the marriage be childless , King Henry would have attempted to be succeeded by one of his Norman kinsmen such as Theobald II , Count of Champagne or Stephen of Blois who in the event did seize King Henry ’ s English crown . King Henry ’ s great relief in 1133 at the birth of a son to the couple , described as " the heir to the Kingdom " , is understandable in the light of this situation . Following this the birth of a second son raised the question of whether custom would be followed with the maternal inheritance passing to first born and the paternal inheritance going to his brother , Geoffrey .
According to William of Newburgh writing in the 1190s , the plan failed because of Geoffrey ’ s early death in 1151 . The dying Geoffrey decided that Henry would have the paternal and maternal inheritances while he needed the resources to overcome Stephen , and left instructions that his body would not be buried until Henry swore an oath that once England and Normandy were secured the younger Geoffrey would have Anjou . Henry ’ s brother Geoffrey died in 1154 , too soon to receive Anjou , but not before being installed count in Nantes after Henry aided a rebellion by its citizens against their previous lord .
The unity of Henry ’ s assemblage of domains was largely dependent on the ruling family , influencing the opinion of most historians that this instability made it unlikely to endure . The French custom of partible inheritance at the time would lead to political fragmentation . Indeed , if Henry II 's sons Henry the Young King and Geoffrey of Brittany had not died young , the inheritance of 1189 would have been fundamentally altered . Henry and Richard both planned for partition on their deaths while attempting to provide overriding sovereignty to hold the lands together . For example , in 1173 and 1183 Henry tried to force Richard to acknowledge allegiance to his older brother for the duchy of Aquitaine and later Richard would confiscate Ireland from John . This was complicated by the Angevins ' being subjects of the kings of France , who felt these feudal rights of homage and the right of allegiance more legally belonged to them . This was particularly true when the wardship of Geoffrey 's son Arthur and lordship of Brittany was contended between 1202 and 1204 . On the Young King ’ s death in 1183 , Richard became heir in chief , but refused to give up Aquitaine to give John an inheritance . More by accident than design this meant that , while Richard inherited the patrimony , John would become lord of Ireland and Arthur would be duke of Brittany . By the mid @-@ thirteenth century there was a clear unified patrimony and Plantagenet empire but this cannot be called an Angevin Empire as by this date Anjou and most of the continental lands had been lost .
= = Arrival in England = =
Henry I of England named his daughter Matilda heir ; but when he died in 1135 Matilda was far from England in Anjou or Maine , while her cousin Stephen was closer in Boulogne , giving him the advantage he needed to race to England and have himself crowned and anointed king of England . Matilda 's husband Geoffrey , though he had little interest in England , commenced a long struggle for the duchy of Normandy . To create a second front Matilda landed in England during 1139 to challenge Stephen , instigating the civil war known as the Anarchy . In 1141 she captured Stephen at the battle of Lincoln , prompting the collapse of his support . While Geoffrey pushed on with the conquest of Normandy over the next four years , Matilda threw away her position through arrogance and inability to be magnanimous in victory . She was even forced to release Stephen in a hostage exchange for her half @-@ brother Robert , 1st Earl of Gloucester , allowing Stephen resumed control of much of England . Geoffrey never visited England to offer practical assistance but instead sent Henry as a male figurehead — beginning in 1142 when Henry was only 9 — with a view that if England was conquered it would be Henry that would become king . In 1150 Geoffrey also transferred the title of Duke of Normandy to Henry but retained the dominant role in governance . Three fortuitous events allowed Henry to finally bring the conflict to a successful conclusion :
In 1151 Count Geoffrey died before having time to complete his plan to divide his inheritance between his sons Henry and Geoffrey , who would have received England and Anjou respectively .
Louis VII of France divorced Eleanor of Aquitaine whom Henry quickly married , greatly increasing his resources and power with the acquisition of Duchy of Aquitaine .
In 1153 Stephen ’ s son Eustace died . The disheartened Stephen , who had also recently been widowed , gave up the fight and , with the Treaty of Wallingford , repeated the peace offer that Matilda had rejected in 1142 : Stephen would be king for life , Henry his successor , preserving Stephen ’ s second son William 's rights to his family estates . Stephen did not live long and so Henry inherited in late 1154 .
Henry faced many challenges to secure possession of his father ’ s and grandfathers ’ lands that required the reassertion and extension of old suzerainties . In 1162 Theobald , Archbishop of Canterbury , died , and Henry saw an opportunity to re @-@ establish what he saw as his rights over the church in England by appointing his friend Thomas Becket to succeed him . Instead , Becket proved to be an inept politician whose defiance alienated the king and his counsellors . Henry and Becket clashed repeatedly : over church tenures , Henry ’ s brother ’ s marriage and taxation . Henry reacted by getting Becket , and other members of the English episcopate , to recognise sixteen ancient customs — governing relations between the king , his courts , and the church — in writing for the first time in the Constitutions of Clarendon . When Becket tried to leave the country without permission , Henry attempted to ruin him by laying a number of suits relating to Becket ’ s time as chancellor . In response Becket fled into exile for five years . Relations later improved , allowing Becket 's return , but soured again when Becket saw the coronation of Henry 's son as coregent by the Archbishop of York as a challenge to his authority and excommunicated those who had offended him . When he heard the news , Henry said : " What miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low @-@ born clerk . " Three of Henry 's men killed Becket in Canterbury Cathedral after Becket resisted a botched attempt to arrest him . Within Christian Europe Henry was widely considered complicit in Becket 's death . The opinion of this transgression against the church made Henry a pariah , so in penance he walked barefoot into Canterbury Cathedral where he was scourged by monks .
In 1171 Henry invaded Ireland to assert his overlordship following alarm at the success of knights he had allowed to recruit soldiers in England and Wales who had assumed the role of colonisers and accrued autonomous power , including Strongbow . Pope Adrian IV had given Henry a papal blessing to expand his power into Ireland to reform the Irish church . Originally this would have allowed some territory to be granted to Henry ’ s brother , William , but other matters had distracted Henry and William was now dead . Instead Henry ’ s designs were made plain when he gave the lordship of Ireland to his youngest son , John .
In 1172 Henry II tried to give his landless youngest son John a wedding gift of the three castles of Chinon , Loudun and Mirebeau . This angered the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Young King who had yet to receive any lands from his father and prompted a rebellion by Henry II 's wife and three eldest sons . Louis VII supported the rebellion to destabilise his Henry II . William the Lion and other subjects of Henry II also joined the revolt and it took 18 months for Henry to force the rebels to submit to his authority . In Le Mans in 1182 , Henry II gathered his children to plan a partible inheritance in which his eldest son ( also called Henry ) would inherit England , Normandy and Anjou ; Richard the Duchy of Aquitaine ; Geoffrey Brittany , and John Ireland . This degenerated into further conflict . The younger Henry rebelled again before he died of dysentery and , in 1186 , Geoffrey died after a tournament accident . In 1189 Richard and Philip II of France took advantage of Henry ’ s failing health and forced him to accept humiliating peace terms , including naming Richard as his sole heir . Two days later the old king died , defeated and miserable in the knowledge that even his favoured son John had rebelled . This fate was seen as the price he paid for the murder of Beckett .
= = Decline = =
On the day of Richard 's English coronation there was a mass slaughter of Jews , described by Richard of Devizes as a " holocaust " . After his coronation , Richard put the Angevin Empire 's affairs in order before joining the Third Crusade to the Middle East in early 1190 . Opinions of Richard by his contemporaries varied . He had rejected and humiliated the king of France 's sister ; deposed the king of Cyprus and sold the island ; insulted and refused to give spoils from the Third Crusade to Leopold V , Duke of Austria , and allegedly arranged the assassination of Conrad of Montferrat . His cruelty was exemplified by the massacre of 2 @,@ 600 prisoners in Acre . However , Richard was respected for his military leadership and courtly manners . Despite victories in the Third Crusade he failed to capture Jerusalem , retreating from the Holy Land with a small band of followers .
Richard was captured by Leopold on his return journey . He was transferred to Henry VI , Holy Roman Emperor , and a 25 @-@ percent tax on goods and income was required to pay his 150 @,@ 000 @-@ mark ransom . Philip II of France had overrun Normandy , while John of England controlled much of Richard 's remaining lands . However , when Richard returned to England he forgave John and re @-@ established his control . Leaving England permanently in 1194 , Richard fought Phillip for five years for the return of holdings seized during his incarceration . On the brink of victory , he was wounded by an arrow during the siege of Château de Châlus @-@ Chabrol and died ten days later .
His failure to produce an heir caused a succession crisis . Anjou , Brittany , Maine and Touraine chose Richard 's nephew Arthur as heir , while John succeeded in England and Normandy . Philip II of France again destabilised the Plantagenet territories on the European mainland , supporting his vassal Arthur 's claim to the English crown . Eleanor supported her son John , who was victorious at the Battle of Mirebeau and captured the rebel leadership .
Arthur was murdered ( allegedly by John ) , and his sister Eleanor would spend the rest of her life in captivity . John 's behaviour drove a number of French barons to side with Phillip , and the resulting rebellions by Norman and Angevin barons ended John 's control of his continental possessions — the de facto end of the Angevin Empire , although Henry III would maintain his claim until 1259 .
After re @-@ establishing his authority in England , John planned to retake Normandy and Anjou by drawing the French from Paris while another army ( under Otto IV , Holy Roman Emperor ) attacked from the north . However , his allies were defeated at the Battle of Bouvines in one of the most decisive battles in French history . John 's nephew Otto retreated and was soon overthrown , with John agreeing to a five @-@ year truce . Philip 's victory was crucial to the political order in England and France , and the battle was instrumental in establishing absolute monarchy in France .
John 's French defeats weakened his position in England . The rebellion of his English vassals resulted in the Magna Carta , which limited royal power and established common law . This would form the basis of every constitutional battle of the 13th and 14th centuries . The barons and the crown failed to abide by the Magna Carta , leading to the First Barons ' War when rebel barons provoked an invasion by Prince Louis . Many historians use John 's death and William Marshall 's appointment as protector of nine @-@ year @-@ old Henry III to mark the end of the Angevin period and the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty . Marshall won the war with victories at Lincoln and Dover in 1217 , leading to the Treaty of Lambeth in which Louis renounced his claims . In victory , the Marshal Protectorate reissued the Magna Carta as the basis of future government .
= = Legacy = =
= = = House of Plantagenet = = =
Historians use the period of Prince Louis 's invasion to mark the end of the Angevin period and the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty . The outcome of the military situation was uncertain at John 's death ; William Marshall saved the dynasty , forcing Louis to renounce his claim with a military victory . However , Philip had captured all the Angevin possessions in France except Gascony . This collapse had several causes , including long @-@ term changes in economic power , growing cultural differences between England and Normandy and ( in particular ) the fragile , familial nature of Henry 's empire . Henry III continued his attempts to reclaim Normandy and Anjou until 1259 , but John 's continental losses and the consequent growth of Capetian power during the 13th century marked a " turning point in European history " .
Richard of York adopted " Plantagenet " as a family name for himself and his descendants during the 15th century . Plantegenest ( or Plante Genest ) was Geoffrey 's nickname , and his emblem may have been the common broom ( planta genista in medieval Latin ) . It is uncertain why Richard chose the name , but it emphasised Richard 's hierarchal status as Geoffrey 's ( and six English kings ' ) patrilineal descendant during the Wars of the Roses . The retrospective use of the name for Geoffrey 's male descendants was popular during the Tudor period , perhaps encouraged by the added legitimacy it gave Richard 's great @-@ grandson Henry VIII of England .
= = = Descent = = =
Through John , descent from the Angevins ( legitimate and illegitimate ) is widespread and includes all subsequent monarchs of England and the United Kingdom . He had five legitimate children with Isabella :
Henry III – king of England for most of the 13th century
Richard – a noted European leader and King of the Romans in the Holy Roman Empire
Joan – married Alexander II of Scotland , becoming his queen consort .
Isabella – married the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II .
Eleanor – married William Marshal 's son ( also called William ) and , later , English rebel Simon de Montfort .
John also had illegitimate children with a number of mistresses , including nine sons — Richard , Oliver , John , Geoffrey , Henry , Osbert Gifford , Eudes , Bartholomew and ( probably ) Philip — and three daughters — Joan , Maud and ( probably ) Isabel . Of these Joan was the best known , since she married Prince Llywelyn the Great of Wales .
= = = Contemporary opinion = = =
The chronicler Gerald of Wales borrowed elements of the Melusine legend to give the Angevins a demonic origin , and the kings were said to tell jokes about the stories .
Henry was an unpopular king , and few grieved his death ; William of Newburgh wrote during the 1190s , " In his own time he was hated by almost everyone " . He was widely criticised by contemporaries , even in his own court . Henry 's son Richard 's contemporary image was more nuanced , since he was the first king who was also a knight . Known as a valiant , competent and generous military leader , he was criticised by chroniclers for taxing the clergy for the Crusade and his ransom ; clergy were usually exempt from taxes .
Chroniclers Richard of Devizes , William of Newburgh , Roger of Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto were generally unsympathetic to John 's behaviour under Richard , but more tolerant of the earliest years of John 's reign . Accounts of the middle and later years of his reign are limited to Gervase of Canterbury and Ralph of Coggeshall , neither of whom were satisfied with John 's performance as king . His later negative reputation was established by two chroniclers writing after the king 's death : Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris . The latter claimed that John attempted to convert to Islam , but this is not believed by modern historians .
= = = Constitutional impact = = =
Many of the changes Henry introduced during his rule had long @-@ term consequences . His legal innovations form part of the basis for English law , with the Exchequer of Pleas a forerunner of the Common Bench at Westminster . Henry 's itinerant justices also influenced his contemporaries ' legal reforms : Philip Augustus ' creation of itinerant bailli , for example , drew on Henry 's model . Henry 's intervention in Brittany , Wales and Scotland had a significant long @-@ term impact on the development of their societies and governments . John 's reign , despite its flaws , and his signing of the Magna Carta were seen by Whig historians as positive steps in the constitutional development of England and part of a progressive and universalist course of political and economic development in medieval England . Winston Churchill said , " [ W ] hen the long tally is added , it will be seen that the British nation and the English @-@ speaking world owe far more to the vices of John than to the labours of virtuous sovereigns " . The Magna Carta was reissued by the Marshal Protectorate and later as a foundation of future government .
= = = Architecture , language and literature = = =
There was no distinct Angevin or Plantagenet culture that would distinguish or set them apart from their neighbours in this period . Robert of Torigni recorded that Henry built or renovated castles throughout his domain in Normandy , England , Aquitaine , Anjou , Maine and Torraine . However this patronage had no distinctive style except in the use of circular or octagonal kitchens of the Fontevraud type . Similarly amongst the multiple vernaculars — French , English and Occitan — there was not a unifying literature . French was the lingua franca of the secular elite and Latin or the church .
The Angevins were closely associated with the Fontevraud Abbey in Anjou . Henry 's aunt was Abbess , Eleonor retired there to be a nun and the abbey was originally the site of his grave and those of Eleanor , Richard , his daughter Joan , grandson Raymond VII of Toulouse and John 's wife — Isabella of Angoulême . Henry III visited the abbey in 1254 to reorder these tombs and requested his heart be buried with them .
= = = Historiography = = =
According to historian John Gillingham , Henry and his reign have attracted historians for many years and Richard ( whose reputation has " fluctuated wildly " ) is remembered largely because of his military exploits . Steven Runciman , in the third volume of the History of the Crusades , wrote : " He was a bad son , a bad husband , and a bad king , but a gallant and splendid soldier . " Eighteenth @-@ century historian David Hume wrote that the Angevins were pivotal in creating a genuinely English monarchy and , ultimately , a unified Britain . Interpretations of the Magna Carta and the role of the rebel barons in 1215 have been revised ; although the charter 's symbolic , constitutional value for later generations is unquestionable , for most historians it is a failed peace agreement between factions . John 's opposition to the papacy and his promotion of royal rights and prerogatives won favour from 16th @-@ century Tudors . John Foxe , William Tyndale and Robert Barnes viewed John as an early Protestant hero , and Foxe included the king in his Book of Martyrs . John Speed 's 1632 Historie of Great Britaine praised John 's " great renown " as king , blaming biased medieval chroniclers for the king 's poor reputation . Similarly , later Protestant historians view Henry 's role in Thomas Becket 's death and his disputes with the French as worthy of praise . Similarly , increased access to contemporary records during the late Victorian era led to a recognition of Henry 's contributions to the evolution of English law and the exchequer . William Stubbs called Henry a " legislator king " because of his responsibility for major , long @-@ term reforms in England ; in contrast , Richard was " a bad son , a bad husband , a selfish ruler , and a vicious man " .
The growth of the British Empire led historian Kate Norgate to begin detailed research into Henry 's continental possessions and create the term " Angevin Empire " during the 1880s . However , 20th @-@ century historians challenged many of these conclusions . During the 1950s , Jacques Boussard , John Jolliffe and others focused on the nature of Henry 's " empire " ; French scholars , in particular , analysed the mechanics of royal power during this period . Anglocentric aspects of many histories of Henry 's reign were challenged beginning in the 1980s , with efforts to unite British and French historical analyses of the period . Detailed study of Henry 's written records has cast doubt on earlier interpretations ; Robert Eyton 's 1878 volume ( tracing Henry 's itinerary by deductions from pipe rolls ) , for example , has been criticised for not acknowledging uncertainty . Although many of Henry 's royal charters have been identified , their interpretation , the financial information in the pipe rolls and broad economic data from his reign has proven more challenging than once thought . Significant gaps in the historical analysis of Henry remain , particularly about his rule in Anjou and the south of France .
Interest in the morality of historical figures and scholars waxed during the Victorian period , leading to increased criticism of Henry 's behaviour and Becket ’ s death . Historians relied on the judgement of chroniclers to focus on John 's ethos . Norgate wrote that John 's downfall was due not to his military failures but his " almost superhuman wickedness " , and James Ramsay blamed John 's family background and innate cruelty for his downfall .
Richard 's sexuality has been controversial since the 1940s , when John Harvey challenged what he saw as " the conspiracy of silence " surrounding the king 's homosexuality with chronicles of Richard 's behaviour , two public confessions , penances and childless marriage . Opinion remains divided , with Gillingham arguing against Richard 's homosexuality and Jean Flori acknowledging its possibility .
According to recent biographers Ralph Turner and Lewis Warren , although John was an unsuccessful monarch his failings were exaggerated by 12th- and 13th @-@ century chroniclers . Jim Bradbury echoes the contemporary consensus that John was a " hard @-@ working administrator , an able man , an able general " with , as Turner suggests , " distasteful , even dangerous personality traits " . John Gillingham ( author of a biography of Richard I ) agrees and judges John to be a less @-@ effective general than Turner and Warren do . Bradbury takes a middle view , suggesting that modern historians have been overly lenient in evaluating John 's flaws . Popular historian Frank McLynn wrote that the king 's modern reputation amongst historians is " bizarre " and , as a monarch , John " fails almost all those [ tests ] that can be legitimately set " .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Henry II appears as a fictionalised character in several modern plays and films . The king is a central character in James Goldman 's play The Lion in Winter ( 1966 ) , depicting an imaginary encounter between Henry 's family and Philip Augustus over Christmas 1183 at Chinon . Philip 's strong character contrasts with John , an " effete weakling " . In the 1968 film , Henry is a sacrilegious , fiery and determined king . Henry also appears in Jean Anouilh 's play Becket , which was filmed in 1964 . The Becket conflict is the basis for T. S. Eliot 's play Murder in the Cathedral , an exploration of Becket 's death and Eliot 's religious interpretation of it .
During the Tudor period , popular representations of John emerged . He appeared as a " proto @-@ Protestant martyr " in the anonymous play The Troublesome Reign of King John and John Bale 's morality play Kynge Johan , in which John attempts to save England from the " evil agents of the Roman Church " . Shakespeare 's anti @-@ Catholic King John draws on The Troublesome Reign , offering a " balanced , dual view of a complex monarch as both a proto @-@ Protestant victim of Rome 's machinations and as a weak , selfishly motivated ruler " . Anthony Munday 's plays The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of Huntington demonstrate many of John 's negative traits , but approve of the king 's stand against the Roman Catholic Church .
Richard is the subject of two operas : in 1719 George Frideric Handel used Richard 's invasion of Cyprus as the plot for Riccardo Primo and in 1784 André Grétry wrote Richard Coeur @-@ de @-@ lion .
= = = = Robin Hood = = = =
The earliest ballads of Robin Hood such as those compiled in A Gest of Robyn Hode associated the character with a king named " Edward " and the setting is usually attributed by scholars to either the 13th or the 14th century . As the historian J.C. Holt notes at some time around the 16th century , tales of Robin Hood started to mention him as a contemporary and supporter of Richard , Robin being driven to outlawry during John ’ s misrule , while in the narratives Richard was largely absent , away at the Third Crusade . Plays such as Robert Davenport 's King John and Matilda further developed the Elizabethan works in the mid @-@ 17th century , focussing on John 's tyranny and transferring the role of Protestant champion to the barons . Graham Tulloch noted that unfavourable 19th @-@ century fictionalised depictions of John were influenced by Sir Walter Scott 's historical romance Ivanhoe . They , in turn , influenced the children 's author Howard Pyle 's The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood ( 1883 ) which cast John as the principal villain of the Robin Hood narrative . During the 20th century , John also appeared in fictional books and films with Robin Hood . Sam De Grasse 's John , in the 1922 film version , commits atrocities and acts of torture . Claude Rains ' John , in the 1938 version with Errol Flynn , began a cinematic trend in which John was an " effeminate ... arrogant and cowardly stay @-@ at @-@ home " . John 's character highlights Richard 's virtues and contrasts with Guy of Gisbourne , the " swashbuckling villain " opposing Robin . In the Disney cartoon version , John ( voiced by Peter Ustinov ) is a " cowardly , thumbsucking lion " .
= = = In medieval folklore = = =
During the 13th century , a folktale developed in which Richard ’ s minstrel Blondel roamed ( singing a song known only to him and Richard ) to find Richard 's prison . This story was the foundation of André Ernest Modeste Grétry 's opera Richard Coeur @-@ de @-@ Lion , and inspired the opening of Richard Thorpe 's film version of Ivanhoe . Sixteenth @-@ century tales of Robin Hood began describing him as a contemporary ( and supporter ) of Richard the Lionheart ; Robin became an outlaw during the reign of Richard 's evil brother , John , while Richard was fighting in the Third Crusade .
= Gilbert and Sullivan =
Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian @-@ era theatrical partnership of the librettist W. S. Gilbert ( 1836 – 1911 ) and the composer Arthur Sullivan ( 1842 – 1900 ) and to the works they jointly created . The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896 , of which H.M.S. Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado are among the best known .
Gilbert , who wrote the words , created fanciful " topsy @-@ turvy " worlds for these operas where each absurdity is taken to its logical conclusion — fairies rub elbows with British lords , flirting is a capital offence , gondoliers ascend to the monarchy , and pirates emerge as noblemen who have gone astray . Sullivan , six years Gilbert 's junior , composed the music , contributing memorable melodies that could convey both humour and pathos .
Their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English @-@ speaking world . Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that directly influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century . The operas have also influenced political discourse , literature , film and television and have been widely parodied and pastiched by humourists . Producer Richard D 'Oyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration . He built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works ( which came to be known as the Savoy Operas ) and founded the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which performed and promoted Gilbert and Sullivan 's works for over a century .
= = Beginnings = =
= = = Gilbert before Sullivan = = =
Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836 . His father , William , was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories , some of which included illustrations by his son . In 1861 , to supplement his income , the younger Gilbert began writing illustrated stories , poems and articles of his own , many of which would later be mined as inspiration for his plays and operas , particularly Gilbert 's series of illustrated poems , the Bab Ballads .
In the Bab Ballads and his early plays , Gilbert developed a unique " topsy @-@ turvy " style in which humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences , however absurd . Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the " Gilbertian " style as follows :
With great fluidity and freedom , [ Gilbert ] continually challenges our natural expectations . First , within the framework of the story , he makes bizarre things happen , and turns the world on its head . Thus the Learned Judge marries the Plaintiff , the soldiers metamorphose into aesthetes , and so on , and nearly every opera is resolved by a deft moving of the goalposts ... His genius is to fuse opposites with an imperceptible sleight of hand , to blend the surreal with the real , and the caricature with the natural . In other words , to tell a perfectly outrageous story in a completely deadpan way .
Gilbert developed his innovative theories on the art of stage direction , following theatrical reformer Tom Robertson . At the time Gilbert began writing , theatre in Britain was in disrepute . Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre , especially beginning with his six short family @-@ friendly comic operas , or " entertainments " , for Thomas German Reed .
At a rehearsal for one of these entertainments , Ages Ago ( 1869 ) , the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend , the young composer Arthur Sullivan . Two years later , Gilbert and Sullivan would write their first work together . Those two intervening years continued to shape Gilbert 's theatrical style . He continued to write humorous verse , stories and plays , including the comic operas Our Island Home ( 1870 ) and A Sensation Novel ( 1871 ) , and the blank verse comedies The Princess ( 1870 ) , The Palace of Truth ( 1870 ) , and Pygmalion and Galatea ( 1871 ) .
= = = Sullivan before Gilbert = = =
Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842 . His father was a military bandmaster , and by the time Arthur had reached the age of eight , he was proficient with all the instruments in the band . In school he began to compose anthems and songs . In 1856 , he received the first Mendelssohn Scholarship and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then at Leipzig , where he also took up conducting . His graduation piece , completed in 1861 , was a suite of incidental music to Shakespeare 's The Tempest . Revised and expanded , it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation . He began building a reputation as England 's most promising young composer , composing a symphony , a concerto , and several overtures , among them the Overture di Ballo , in 1870 .
His early major works for the voice included The Masque at Kenilworth ( 1864 ) ; an oratorio , The Prodigal Son ( 1869 ) ; and a dramatic cantata , On Shore and Sea ( 1871 ) . He composed a ballet , L 'Île Enchantée ( 1864 ) and incidental music for a number of Shakespeare plays . Other early pieces that were praised were his Symphony in E , Concerto for Cello and Orchestra , and Overture in C ( In Memoriam ) ( all three of which premiered in 1866 ) . These commissions , however , were not sufficient to keep Sullivan afloat . He worked as a church organist and composed numerous hymns , popular songs , and parlour ballads .
Sullivan 's first foray into comic opera was Cox and Box ( 1866 ) , written with librettist F. C. Burnand for an informal gathering of friends . Public performance followed , with W. S. Gilbert ( then writing dramatic criticism for the magazine Fun ) saying that Sullivan 's score " is , in many places , of too high a class for the grotesquely absurd plot to which it is wedded . " Nonetheless , it proved highly successful , and is still regularly performed today . Sullivan and Burnand 's second opera , The Contrabandista ( 1867 ) was not as successful .
= = Operas = =
= = = First collaborations = = =
= = = = Thespis = = = =
In 1871 , producer John Hollingshead brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to produce a Christmas entertainment , Thespis , at his Gaiety Theatre , a large West End house . The piece was an extravaganza in which the classical Greek gods , grown elderly , are temporarily replaced by a troupe of 19th @-@ century actors and actresses , one of whom is the eponymous Thespis , the Greek father of the drama . Its mixture of political satire and grand opera parody mimicked Offenbach 's Orpheus in the Underworld and La belle Hélène , which ( in translation ) then dominated the English musical stage .
Thespis opened on Boxing Day and ran for 63 performances . It outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season , and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety , but no one at the time anticipated that this was the beginning of a great collaboration . Unlike the later Gilbert and Sullivan works , it was hastily prepared , and its nature was more risqué , like Gilbert 's earlier burlesques , with a broader style of comedy that allowed for improvisation by the actors . Two of the male characters were played by women , whose shapely legs were put on display in a fashion that Gilbert later condemned . The musical score to Thespis was never published and is now lost , except for one song that was published separately , a chorus that was re @-@ used in The Pirates of Penzance , and the Act II ballet music .
Over the next three years , Gilbert and Sullivan did not have occasion to work together again , but each man became more eminent in his field . Gilbert worked with Frederic Clay on Happy Arcadia ( 1872 ) and with Alfred Cellier on Topsyturveydom ( 1874 ) , and wrote The Wicked World ( 1873 ) Sweethearts ( 1874 ) and several other libretti , farces , extravaganzas , fairy comedies , dramas and adaptations . Sullivan completed his Festival Te Deum ( 1872 ) ; another oratorio , The Light of the World ( 1873 ) ; his only song cycle , The Window ; or , The Song of the Wrens ( 1871 ) ; incidental music to The Merry Wives of Windsor ( 1874 ) ; and more songs , parlour ballads , and hymns , including " Onward , Christian Soldiers " ( 1872 ) . At the same time , the audience for theatre was growing because of the rapidly expanding British population ; improvement in education and the standard of living , especially of the middle class ; improving public transportation ; and installation of street lighting , which made travel home from the theatre safer . The number of pianos manufactured in England doubled between 1870 and 1890 as more people began to play parlour music at home and more theatres and concert halls opened .
= = = = Trial by Jury = = = =
In 1874 , Gilbert wrote a short libretto on commission from producer – conductor Carl Rosa , whose wife would have played the leading role , but her death in childbirth cancelled the project . Not long afterwards , Richard D 'Oyly Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre , and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach 's La Périchole . Carte knew about Gilbert 's libretto for Rosa and suggested that Sullivan write a score for it . Gilbert read the piece to Sullivan in February 1875 , and the composer was delighted with it ; Trial by Jury was composed and staged in a matter of weeks .
The piece is one of Gilbert 's humorous spoofs of the law and the legal profession , based on his short experience as a barrister . It concerns a breach of promise of marriage suit . The defendant argues that damages should be slight , since " he is such a very bad lot , " while the plaintiff argues that she loves the defendant fervently and seeks " substantial damages . " After much argument , the judge resolves the case by marrying the lovely plaintiff himself . With Sullivan 's brother , Fred , as the Learned Judge , the opera was a runaway hit , outlasting the run of La Périchole . Provincial tours and productions at other theatres quickly followed .
Fred Sullivan was the prototype for the " patter " ( comic ) baritone roles in the later operas . F. C. Burnand wrote that he " was one of the most naturally comic little men I ever came across . He , too , was a first @-@ rate practical musician ... As he was the most absurd person , so was he the very kindliest ... " Fred 's creation would serve as a model for the rest of the collaborators ' works , and each of them has a crucial comic little man role , as Burnand had put it . The " patter " baritone ( or " principal comedian " , as these roles later were called ) would often assume the leading role in Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas , and was usually allotted the speedy patter songs .
After the success of Trial by Jury , Gilbert and Sullivan were suddenly in demand to write more operas together . Over the next two years , Richard D 'Oyly Carte and Carl Rosa were two of several theatrical managers who negotiated with the team but were unable to come to terms . Carte proposed a revival of Thespis for the 1875 Christmas season , which Gilbert and Sullivan would have revised , but he was unable to obtain financing for the project . In early 1876 , Carte requested that Gilbert and Sullivan create another one @-@ act opera on the theme of burglars , but this was never completed .
= = = Early successes = = =
= = = = The Sorcerer = = = =
Carte 's real ambition was to develop an English form of light opera that would displace the bawdy burlesques and badly translated French operettas then dominating the London stage . He assembled a syndicate and formed the Comedy Opera Company , with Gilbert and Sullivan commissioned to write a comic opera that would serve as the centrepiece for an evening 's entertainment .
Gilbert found a subject in one of his own short stories , " The Elixir of Love , " which concerned the complications arising when a love potion is distributed to all the residents of a small village . The leading character was a Cockney businessman who happened to be a sorcerer , a purveyor of blessings ( not much called for ) and curses ( very popular ) . Gilbert and Sullivan were tireless taskmasters , seeing to it that The Sorcerer opened as a fully polished production , in marked contrast to the under @-@ rehearsed Thespis . While The Sorcerer won critical acclaim , it did not duplicate the success of Trial by Jury . Nevertheless , Carte and his syndicate were sufficiently encouraged to commission another full @-@ length opera from the team .
= = = = H.M.S. Pinafore = = = =
Gilbert and Sullivan scored their first international hit with H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1878 ) , satirising the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority and poking good @-@ natured fun at the Royal Navy and the English obsession with social status ( building on a theme introduced in The Sorcerer , love between members of different social classes ) . As with many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , a surprise twist changes everything dramatically near the end of the story .
Gilbert oversaw the designs of sets and costumes , and he directed the performers on stage . He sought realism in acting , shunned self @-@ conscious interaction with the audience , and insisted on a standard of characterisation where the characters were never aware of their own absurdity . Gilbert insisted that his actors know their words perfectly and obey his stage directions , which was something new to many actors of the day . Sullivan personally oversaw the musical preparation . The result was a new crispness and polish in the English musical theatre . As Jessie Bond wrote later :
Our stage discipline was strict and unbending . Gilbert 's word was law ; he thoroughly worked out in his own mind every bit of action , by @-@ play and grouping , and allowed no deviation from his plan . He ... made drawings and took measurements with the minutest care .... He had unlimited fertility of invention in comic business and would allow no gag , no clowning , no departure from his own definite conception . Sullivan 's musical conception was equally clear @-@ cut and decided . Every part must be made subservient to the whole , and his sarcasms overwhelmed the transgressor with scorn . " And now , might I trouble you to try over my music , " he would say to a singer too anxious to display his or her top notes . But there was nothing to hurt or offend us in this unswerving discipline , we took their good @-@ humoured raillery as our due when we failed in our rendering or overstepped the bounds ; and the patience and enthusiasm of that artistic pair so infected all of us that we worked willingly for hours and hours at rehearsals , trying with all our might to realize the conceptions of those two brilliant minds .
H.M.S. Pinafore ran in London for 571 performances , the second longest run of any musical theatre piece in history up to that time ( after the operetta Les cloches de Corneville ) . Hundreds of unauthorised , or " pirated " , productions of Pinafore appeared in America . During the run of Pinafore , Richard D 'Oyly Carte split up with his former investors . The disgruntled former partners , who had invested in the production with no return , staged a public fracas , sending a group of thugs to seize the scenery during a performance . Stagehands successfully managed to ward off their backstage attackers . This event cleared the way for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan to form the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which then produced all of their succeeding operas .
The libretto of H.M.S. Pinafore relied on stock character types , many of which were familiar from European opera ( and some of which grew out of Gilbert 's earlier association with the German Reeds ) : the heroic protagonist ( tenor ) and his love @-@ interest ( soprano ) ; the older woman with a secret or a sharp tongue ( contralto ) ; the baffled lyric baritone — the girl 's father ; and a classic villain ( bass @-@ baritone ) . Gilbert and Sullivan added the element of the comic patter @-@ singing character . With the success of H.M.S. Pinafore , the D 'Oyly Carte repertory and production system was cemented , and each opera would make use of these stock character types . Before The Sorcerer , Gilbert had constructed his plays around the established stars of whatever theatre he happened to be writing for , as had been the case with Thespis and Trial by Jury . Building on the team he had assembled for The Sorcerer , Gilbert no longer hired stars ; he created them . He and Sullivan selected the performers , writing their operas for ensemble casts rather than individual stars .
The repertory system ensured that the comic patter character who performed the role of the sorcerer , John Wellington Wells , would become the ruler of the Queen 's navy as Sir Joseph Porter in H.M.S. Pinafore , then join the army as Major @-@ General Stanley in The Pirates of Penzance , and so on . Similarly , Mrs. Partlet in The Sorcerer transformed into Little Buttercup in Pinafore , then into Ruth , the piratical maid @-@ of @-@ all @-@ work in Pirates . Relatively unknown performers whom Gilbert and Sullivan engaged early in the collaboration would stay with the company for many years , becoming stars of the Victorian stage . These included George Grossmith , the principal comic ; Rutland Barrington , the lyric baritone ; Richard Temple , the bass @-@ baritone ; and Jessie Bond , the mezzo @-@ soprano soubrette .
= = = = The Pirates of Penzance = = = =
The Pirates of Penzance ( New Year 's Eve , 1879 ) also poked fun at grand opera conventions , sense of duty , family obligation , the " respectability " of civilisation and the peerage , and the relevance of a liberal education . The story also revisits Pinafore 's theme of unqualified people in positions of authority , in the person of the " modern Major @-@ General " who has up @-@ to @-@ date knowledge about everything except the military . The Major @-@ General and his many daughters escape from the tender @-@ hearted Pirates of Penzance , who are all orphans , on the false plea that he is an orphan himself . The pirates learn of the deception and re @-@ capture the Major @-@ General , but when it is revealed that the pirates are all peers , the Major @-@ General bids them : " resume your ranks and legislative duties , and take my daughters , all of whom are beauties ! "
The piece premiered first in New York rather than London , in an ( unsuccessful )
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The Distant Shore ( 1874 )
The Love that Loves Me Not ( 1875 )
Sweethearts ( 1875 ) , based on Gilbert 's 1874 play , Sweethearts
= = = Overtures = = =
The overtures from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas remain popular , and there are many recordings of them . Most of them are structured as a potpourri of tunes from the operas . They are generally well @-@ orchestrated , but not all of them were composed by Sullivan . However , even those delegated to his assistants were based on an outline he provided , and in many cases incorporated his suggestions or corrections . Sullivan invariably conducted them ( as well as the entire operas ) on opening night , and they were included in the published scores approved by Sullivan .
Those Sullivan wrote himself include the overtures to Thespis , Iolanthe , Princess Ida , The Yeomen of the Guard , The Gondoliers and The Grand Duke . Sullivan 's authorship of the overture to Utopia , Limited cannot be verified with certainty , as his autograph score is now lost , but it is likely attributable to him , as it consists of only a few bars of introduction , followed by a straight copy of music heard elsewhere in the opera ( the Drawing Room scene ) . Thespis is now lost , but there is no doubt that Sullivan wrote its overture . Very early performances of The Sorcerer used a section of Sullivan 's incidental music to Shakespeare 's Henry the VIII , as he did not have time to write a new overture , but this was replaced in 1884 by one executed by Hamilton Clarke . Of those remaining , the overtures to H.M.S. Pinafore and The Pirates of Penzance are by Alfred Cellier , the overture to Patience is by Eugene d 'Albert , and those to The Mikado and Ruddigore are by Hamilton Clarke ( although the Ruddigore overture was later replaced by one written by Geoffrey Toye ) .
Most of the overtures are in three sections : a lively introduction , a slow middle section , and a concluding allegro in sonata form , with two subjects , a brief development , a recapitulation and a coda . However , Sullivan himself did not always follow this pattern . The overture to Princess Ida , for instance , has only an opening fast section and a concluding slow section . The overture to Utopia Limited is dominated by a slow section , with only a very brief original passage introducing it .
In the 1920s , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company commissioned its musical director at the time , Geoffrey Toye , to write new overtures for Ruddigore and The Pirates of Penzance . Toye 's Ruddigore overture entered the general repertory , and today is more often heard than the original overture by Clarke . Toye 's Pirates overture , however , did not last long and is now presumed lost . Sir Malcolm Sargent devised a new ending for the overture to The Gondoliers , adding the " cachucha " from the second act of the opera . This gave the Gondoliers overture the familiar fast @-@ slow @-@ fast pattern of most of the rest of the Savoy Opera overtures , and this version has competed for popularity with Sullivan 's original version .
= = Alternative versions = =
= = = Translations = = =
Gilbert and Sullivan operas have been translated into many languages , including Portuguese , Yiddish , Hebrew , Swedish , Dutch , Danish , Estonian , Hungarian , Russian , Japanese , French , Italian , Spanish ( reportedly including a version of Pinafore transformed into zarzuela style ) , Catalan and others .
There are many German versions of Gilbert and Sullivan operas , including the popular Der Mikado . There is even a German version of The Grand Duke . Some German translations were made by Friedrich Zell and Richard Genée , librettists of Die Fledermaus and other Viennese operettas , who even translated one of Sullivan 's lesser @-@ known operas , The Chieftain , as ( Der Häuptling ) .
= = = Ballets = = =
Pirates of Penzance - The Ballet ! , created for the Queensland Ballet in 1991
Pineapple Poll , created by John Cranko in 1951 at Sadler 's Wells Theatre ; in repertoire at the Birmingham Royal Ballet . The ballet is based on Gilbert 's 1870 Bab Ballad " The Bumboat Woman 's Story " , as is H.M.S. Pinafore . Cranko expanded the plotline of Gilbert 's poem and added a happy ending . The music is arranged by Sir Charles Mackerras from themes by Sullivan .
= = = Adaptations = = =
Gilbert adapted the stories of H.M.S. Pinafore and The Mikado into children 's books called The Pinafore Picture Book and The Story of The Mikado giving , in some cases , backstory that is not found in the librettos . Many other children 's books have since been written retelling the stories of the operas or adapting characters or events from them . In the 19th century , the most popular Gilbert and Sullivan songs and music were adapted as dance pieces .
Many musical theatre and film adaptations of the operas have been produced , including the following :
The Swing Mikado ( 1938 ; Chicago – all @-@ black cast )
The Hot Mikado ( 1939 ) and Hot Mikado ( 1986 )
The Jazz Mikado ( 1927 , Berlin )
Hollywood Pinafore ( 1945 )
The Cool Mikado ( 1962 film )
The Black Mikado ( 1975 )
Dick Deadeye , or Duty Done ( 1975 animated film )
The Pirate Movie ( 1982 film )
The Ratepayers ' Iolanthe ( 1984 ; Olivier Award @-@ winning musical ) adapted by Ned Sherrin and Alistair Beaton
Metropolitan Mikado ( political satire adapted by Sherrin and Beaton , first performed at Queen Elizabeth Hall ( 1985 ) starring Louise Gold , Simon Butteriss , Rosemary Ashe , Robert Meadmore and Martin Smith )
Di Yam Gazlonim by Al Grand ( 1986 ; a Yiddish adaptation of Pirates ; a New York production was nominated for a 2007 Drama Desk Award )
Pinafore ! ( A Saucy , Sexy , Ship @-@ Shape New Musical ) ( adapted by Mark Savage , first performed at the Celebration Theater in Los Angeles , California in 2001 ; only one character is female , and all but one of the male characters are gay .
Gondoliers : A Mafia @-@ themed adaptation of the opera , broadly rewritten by John Doyle and orchestrated and arranged Sarah Travis , was given at the Watermill Theatre and transferred to the Apollo Theatre in the West End in 2001 . The production utilised Doyle 's signature conceit of the actors playing their own orchestra instruments .
Parson 's Pirates by Opera della Luna ( 2002 )
The Ghosts of Ruddigore by Opera della Luna ( 2003 )
Pinafore Swing , Watermill Theatre ( 2004 @.@ another Doyle adaptation in which the actors double as the orchestra )
= Hurricane Karl ( 1980 ) =
Hurricane Karl was a late @-@ season and unusual tropical cyclone that formed during the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season . A minimal Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , Karl developed at the center of another , larger extratropical cyclone over the North Atlantic . After being classified a subtropical cyclone on November 25 , it became more independent of its parent storm and grew into a full @-@ fledged hurricane . It peaked in intensity on November 26 , and ultimately dissipated as it merged with another system .
Karl holds the record for the northernmost formation of a November tropical or subtropical cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean . It also attained hurricane strength at an unusual latitude , and contributed to one of the most active Novembers on record in terms of tropical cyclones . However , it stayed over open waters and did not have any effects on land . It was the 11th named storm of the season , and due to the lack of damage , its name was not retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Karl originated in a low pressure area that formed along a frontal boundary near the southeastern United States . It approached the Canadian Maritimes the next day and strengthened to below 1000 millibars . On November 24 , the broad cyclone was located south of Newfoundland , and early the next day a mass of convection developed near the core . It evolved into a separate vortex , and due to the lack of inhibiting wind shear , a small cyclone developed . It became a subtropical storm at 0000 UTC before executing a tight counterclockwise loop as it rotated within the larger cyclone . About 18 hours later , the storm strengthened and gained enough tropical characteristics to be designated a hurricane , accompanied by the formation of a pronounced eye feature . At the time , it was situated around 610 miles ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Azores . Although the development of a tropical cyclone within a non @-@ tropical storm is rare , it is not unprecedented . An unnamed hurricane in November 1991 also formed in this manner .
After being classified as a hurricane , Karl gradually strengthened , and its circulation became more distinguished from the surrounding cloudiness . A trough that emerged from North America steered the hurricane eastward , and on November 26 , it reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a central barometric pressure reading of 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) . Karl maintained this strength for approximately 18 hours until beginning to weaken slightly as it accelerated towards the northeast . On November 27 , the storm 's eye became more ragged as the cyclone passed within 230 miles ( 370 km ) of the Azores and started to show signs of deterioration . The trough over the North Atlantic developed into the dominant low pressure area , and Karl turned northward around its periphery . It merged with another approaching system and was declared dissipated by November 28 .
= = Records and impact = =
Hurricane Karl was unusual in several aspects . It developed late in the hurricane season , which runs from June 1 through November 30 , over waters colder than the standard limit for tropical cyclone formation . It marked the farthest @-@ north development of a November tropical or subtropical cyclone on record . While the 1991 unnamed hurricane was farther north , it became a subtropical storm late on October 31 , and had moved south by November 1 . Karl attained Category 1 hurricane status farther north than any other storm ( in any month ) until the 1991 unnamed hurricane became a hurricane at a higher latitude . The storm 's record was also surpassed by Hurricane Noel in 2001 . Karl was reported at the time to be the farthest @-@ east hurricane during the last 10 days of the month of November . Additionally , it maintained hurricane intensity until reaching 45 @.@ 0 ° N , at which point it became extratropical ; only Hurricane Lois in 1966 lasted as a hurricane farther north in the month of November .
When Karl became a hurricane on November 25 , the 1980 season became notable for having two November hurricanes ; the other was Jeanne . This tied 1932 and 1969 for the record of the most November hurricanes , which was later accomplished during the 1994 season . Later , 2001 broke this record with three hurricanes . The cyclone never affected land , and as a result , no deaths or damages occurred . One ship to the northwest of Karl 's center recorded 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) winds and an air pressure of 993 mbar .
= Operation Flax =
Operation Flax was a Western Allied air operation executed during the Tunisia Campaign , as part of the larger North African Campaign of the Second World War . The operation was designed to cut the air supply lines between Italy and the Axis armies in Tunis , Tunisia , in April 1943 . The parallel Allied naval effort was Operation Retribution .
In November 1942 , American and British forces landed in North Africa under Operation Torch . Allied thrusts overran Vichy French Morocco and Algeria and advanced into Tunisia . The danger for the Axis Powers was now apparent . The Allied forces advancing eastward and the British 8th Army advancing westward after the victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein , would trap and destroy the remaining Axis forces in North Africa . In response to the crisis , and the poor state of Axis forces , reinforcements for the German Afrika Korps , Italian Army and Luftwaffe were dispatched by sea and air . These reinforcements duly staved off an immediate defeat in Tunisia , the last region still in Axis hands . The poor state of the roads and rail lines in Algeria meant that Allied forces faced difficult logistic challenges which enabled the Axis to prolong a defence . The inexperience of U.S. forces was also apparent at the Battle of the Kasserine Pass . Nevertheless , the growing number and experience of Allied forces squeezed the Axis toward the northern tip of Tunisia . The Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and Royal Navy operating from Malta took a heavy toll of Axis shipping . However , Axis supplies were still reaching the besieged Afrika Korps by air . By early April , large quantities of Axis manpower was also being evacuated by air . Although the Allies held air superiority by this time , Luftwaffe transports were operating with impunity during darkness .
In order to prevent this the Allied Air Forces , the RAF and the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) — were ordered to conduct operations against Axis air power by day and night in order to prevent their resupply or withdrawal . Owing to bad weather and the need to gather intelligence , the operation , codenamed " Flax " , did not begin until 5 April . Although the Axis put up determined resistance and large scale air battles took place , the Allied Air Forces succeeded in destroying the aerial link between Axis @-@ held Sicily and Italy . During the course of the interdiction operation , an air battle known as the 18 April Palmsonntag Massaker ( " Palm Sunday Massacre " ) took place , in which the German Junkers Ju 52 transport fleets suffered heavy losses over Cape Bon , while evacuating Heer forces escaping from the Allied ground offensive Operation Vulcan . The air operation continued until 27 April . The operation destroyed Axis logistical support . Along with the attempted airlift during the Battle of Stalingrad , Operation Flax inflicted such grievous losses on the German transport fleets that they were unable to recover .
= = Background = =
= = = Strategic situation = = =
The Axis campaign in North Africa was characterised by a lack of consistent concentrated logistics support to their forces in the field . The failure was one of the primary reasons that Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Erwin Rommel could not win a decisive breakthrough against the British 8th Army throughout 1941 — 1942 . Rommel , at points , had recognised Malta as a serious obstacle to Axis logistical lines between Axis @-@ held Europe and their forces in North Africa . Malta lay across their lines of communication and , despite being under siege for two and a half years , it remained an active base for Allied naval and air forces to interdict Axis supply lines for much of this period . Yet Rommel failed to apply enough pressure on the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( German High Command , OKW ) to launch a planned invasion of the island , Operation Herkules . Although Malta became largely ineffective as an offensive base in mid 1942 , later that same year the Allied offensive from Malta became increasingly effective . The Axis defeat at the Second Battle of El Alamein and the Allied landings , Operation Torch , in Western North Africa , threatened to crush the Axis from both East and West . The Germans responded by sending reinforcements to Africa through Vichy @-@ held Tunisia , but by the start of 1943 they were suffering increasing shipping losses to Malta 's forces . Some respite was won for the Axis when the Allies lost the " Run for Tunis " in part owing to rapid German reactions and the difficulty in supplying their armies through the poor Algerian infrastructure . By early 1943 , the Axis had numerical superiority in aircraft ; 690 to the Allies ' 480 .
But for the Axis , the interdiction campaign from Malta caused chronic supply shortages in Africa . By April 1943 , the Allied armies had pushed the supply @-@ starved Axis forces to the northern tip of Tunisia , near its capital Tunis . Despite the desperate situation , the OKW continued to send in significant reinforcement and supply tonnage to the besieged Axis forces by air . To prevent prolonged resistance , the Allies , now aware of the German supply timetables through the use of British Ultra , launched an aerial offensive to destroy this link . It was due to begin in the last week of March 1943 , but bad weather over Tunisia meant that it could not begin until 5 April .
= = = Axis supply situation = = =
The situation in the air , on land and at sea was gradually deteriorating . Axis supply ships had suffered heavy losses between Cape Bon and Sicily . A total of 67 % of all losses were to Allied aircraft . Theo Osterkamp was appointed Jagdführerflieger Sizilien ( Fighter Leader Sicily ) to fly over the area , nicknamed " Death Row " , by Axis shipping . On 7 April 1943 , the organisation was given 148 fighters for these operations . The Luftwaffe reorganised its forces in Tunisia as well . Hans Seidemann was appointed Fliegerkorps Tunis ( Flying Corps Tunisia ) with three commands , Fliegerführer Tunis ( Flying Leader Tunis ) , Mitte ( Middle ) and Gabès , after its headquarters ′ location . Siedmann had the equivalent of 12 Gruppen ( 12 Groups ) and maintained around 300 fighters until mid @-@ April . The German fighter defences also benefited from a rudimentary radar supported early @-@ warning network .
Generalmajor ( Major General ) Ulrich Buchholz — Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of KGzbV 3 — was appointed Lufttransportführer II , Mittelmeer ( Air Transport Leader II , Mediterranean Sea ) on 15 January 1943 . His forces were organised under the Naples @-@ based KGzbV N ( N for Neapel , or Naples ) and the Trapani @-@ based KGzbV S. KGzbV S had to make two missions a day , KGzbV S only one . The formations would be between 80 — 120 aircraft strong . Operations were to be flown at only 150 ft ( 46 m ) in altitude , arriving around noon in order to operate during the Allied " lunch " period . The units — operating mostly the Junkers Ju 52 , brought in 90 tonnes daily and the giant Messerschmitt Me 323s brought some 30 tonnes with their fewer numbers . The logistical effort was made using Indian prisoners of war , who helped unload supplies . The operational method usually involved escort fighters picking up the formation on route . Only one fighter aircraft for every five transports was made available owing to various shortages . The Naples units were met near Trapani , and on the return leg fighters , including Bf 110 Zerstörer , escorted them home . The end of the airlifts at Stalingrad and in the Kuban allowed the expansion of Axis transport aircraft to 185 by 10 March . By the beginning of April , it rose to 426 . The force flew much needed ammunition and fuel to the Axis armies in Africa .
= = = Allied plan = = =
James H. Doolittle commanding Northwest African Strategic Air Force ( NASAF ) was ordered to formulate an air interdiction campaign . He named it Operation Flax . Operation Flax called for Allied fighters to intercept the aerial convoys over the Sicily — Tunisia strait . Allied units were also briefed to carry out major offensive operations against Axis airfields in Tunisia and the overcrowded staging fields in Sicily . They were also ordered to carry out anti — shipping sweeps . Flax was an operation which was unlikely to work more than a few times , as shown by the relative impunity with which the surviving Axis air transports operated at night after the operation had begun . The flight time across the Strait of Sicily was so short that aerial interception could be made only with precise intelligence . The Germans understood this but did not know that their communications had been compromised and were being read by Allied intelligence . Ignorant of their intelligence leaks , they operated by day . Since their enemy had the option of flying by night , and the weather conditions were not ideal for interception operations , the Allies delayed the implementation of Operation Flax until the most German transport aircraft were in operation so that the blow would be as decisive as possible . Allied intelligence listened in to the Y @-@ stations until they were sure they could strike .
The tactical plan included coordinated strikes on Axis airfields carried out by Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress groups to tie down Axis fighter groups . Medium bomber units operating the North American B @-@ 25 Mitchell would fly sweeps over the Gulf of Tunis . They were to be joined by Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning heavy fighters which were also detailed to sweep the area . The presence of the B @-@ 25s would allow the P @-@ 38s to operate in the area without raising the Axis suspicions . It would seem as if they were there to escort the B @-@ 25s , rather than their actual intention , to interdict Axis air transports . Supermarine Spitfire units would sweep the straits further north , catching any enemy aircraft that evaded the P @-@ 38s . More B @-@ 25 and B @-@ 17 units were detailed to strike at Sicilian airfields to catch transports on the ground . The USAAF 9th Air Force was detailed to send its Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator bomb groups against airfields in and around Naples in this capacity as well . On 2 April Doolittle 's superiors , supreme commander of all Allied Air Forces in the Mediterranean , Arthur Tedder and commander of Allied Air Forces in Western North Arica Carl Spaatz , decided to wait for the next suitable window to launch the offensive .
= = Order of battle = =
= = = Allied = = =
The Allied order of battle involved all the major commands in the area at the time . The Supreme Allied Air Force Command was the Mediterranean Air Command ( MAD ) under Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder . Below the supreme command were the sector organisations , the Northwest African Air Forces ( NAAF ) commanded by Carl Spaatz . Directly subordinated to Spaatz was the Northwest African Strategic Air Force ( NASAF ) under James H. Doolittle . The second command was the operational / tactical force , the Northwest African Tactical Air Force ( NATAF ) under Air Marshal Arthur Coningham .
= = = Axis = = =
Martin Harlinghausen commanded Fliegerkorps II ( Air Cops II ) which , under Luftflotte 2 ( Air Fleet 2 ) , controlled Luftwaffe operations in Africa . Attached to Fliegerkorps II were seven different Kampfgeschwader ( Bomber Wings ) under the Corps command ′ s direct control . A large number of Jagdgeschwader ( Fighter Wings ) were also available . The Luftwaffe had the following forces available in April 1943 :
= = American operations = =
= = = Closing the straits = = =
At 06 : 30 on 5 April , 26 P @-@ 38s of the U.S. 1st Fighter Group conducted a sweep over the Sicilian Strait . Meanwhile , 18 B @-@ 25s of the 321st Bomb Group — escorted by 32 P @-@ 38s of the 82nd Fighter Group — set out on a maritime interdiction operation . Six of the P @-@ 38s returned to base for unrecorded reasons . The B @-@ 25s claimed two ferries damaged and a destroyer sunk . One B @-@ 25 was shot down .
The 1st Group arrived over Cape Bon at 08 : 00 . They reported contact with several formations of different types . They estimated 50 — 70 Ju 52s , 20 Bf 109s , four Fw 190s , six Ju 87s and a Fw 189 formed these flights . In fact , the German formation had only 31 Ju 52s , ten Bf 109s , six to seven Bf 110s , four Ju 87s and one Fw 190 in it . The U.S. fighters attacked and a large air battle developed . The 82nd Fighter Group also joined in . The 1st Fighter Group claimed 11 Ju 52s , two Ju 87s , two Bf 109s and the Fw 189 for two P @-@ 38s lost . The 82nd claimed seven Ju 52s , three Ju 87s , three Bf 109s , one Bf 110 and one Me 210 for four P @-@ 38s . Losses are uncertain , and a significant amount of over claiming was done . In fact , German losses amounted to 13 — 14 Ju 52s and about three fighters . Another source states the loss of 13 Ju 52s and two Bf 109s , from 5 . / JG 27 . ( The supposed Fw 189 was no doubt a mis @-@ identified P @-@ 38 . )
= = = Bomber offensive = = =
Later , 18 B @-@ 17s from the 97th Bomb Group bombed Axis airfields at El Aounina . Two Me 323s , two Ju 52s and five Italian transports were destroyed . A second mission was flown to Sid Ahmed . Both raids were flown with Spitfire escorts . Only a few German fighters intercepted , without success . The bombers claimed one German fighter destroyed .
One hour later , 35 B @-@ 25s from the 310th Bomb Group and 18 P @-@ 38s from the 82nd Fighter Group raided Axis airfields in Sicily near Borizzo . Some 80 — 90 Axis aircraft were counted , poorly camouflaged and vulnerable . The attack achieved good results with fragmentation bombs . The attackers were intercepted by 15 Bf 109s , losing two B @-@ 25s . The bombers claimed three Bf 109s while the P @-@ 38s claimed two of the German fighters . The 301st Bomb Group attacked Milo airfield , claiming 52 destroyed on the ground . Actual Axis losses were 13 German and eight Italian aircraft destroyed with 11 German and 30 Italian aircraft damaged . Some 72 B @-@ 17s of the 99th Bomb Group bombed the airfield at Bocca di Falco . They claimed to have seen 100 — 150 aircraft , but the raid only destroyed four Axis aircraft and damaged several . Spitfires claimed two Bf 109s for two losses . Two sweeps by P @-@ 38 groups found nothing further .
The NASAF claimed 201 Axis aircraft destroyed including 40 in the air . German sources only list the loss of 14 Ju 52s in aerial combat and 11 Ju 52s and Me 323s on the ground with 67 damaged . Aside from combat aircraft , the British Official History concludes 27 German and three Italian transports were lost on 5 April .
= = = Fighter offensive = = =
The Operation Flax attacks merged into the preparatory phase of the Sicilian Campaign as air attacks were also helping to erode air defences on the island . While Flax continued on a smaller scale , the emphasis was on fighter operations . On 10 April , Flax was renewed . Some 75 P @-@ 38s of the 1st Fighter Group intercepted 20 Italian Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.82 and around six Macchi C.200s. The battle resulted in 10 transports and two Italian fighters being shot down . Later that morning , 27 P @-@ 38s of the 82nd Fighter Group were escorting 18 B @-@ 25s of the 310th Bomb Group over Cape Bon when 30 Ju 52s were spotted with two Bf 110s , two Ju 87s and just three Ju 88s with them . At first , 11 P @-@ 38s stayed with the B @-@ 25s acting as escort , but then the bombers joined in , flying past the transports and firing on them using their gunners . Around 15 Bf 109s were scrambled from Tunisia to help the transports and they destroyed one P @-@ 38 and damaged three more . However , the Germans had already suffered heavy losses . One P @-@ 38 pilot was killed when he flew into a Bf 110 and some B @-@ 25s were shot up . The Americans claimed 25 victories . The Germans lost 10 Ju 52s , one Ju 88 , one Bf 109 and one Bf 110 . Some Ju 52s managed to ditch and their crews survived . A Spitfire patrol later shot down four more Ju 52s . It is likely the Bf 110s " spotted " in the formation were actually Me 210s from Zerstörergeschwader 1 . RAF and USAAF units also downed a SG 2 Fw 190 on a ferry flight , and another from SKG 210 . An SG 2 Hs 129 was also shot down while another Ju 88 from III . / KG 77 was also shot down .
On 11 April , the 82nd ran into 20 Ju 52s , four Ju 88s , four Bf 110s and seven Bf 109s . The Americans claimed all of the Ju 52s and seven escorts . Actual German and Americans losses are unclear . In the afternoon , 20 of the 82nd ran into 30 unescorted Ju 52s . The transports fought back , losing only five and shooting down one P @-@ 38 . Its pilot was killed . The day 's total amounted to 17 Ju 52s , one SM.82 and two Bf 110s destroyed . The RAF had also been involved in the day 's operations . No. 152 Squadron RAF sent 34 Spitfires to intercept 12 Ju 52s escorted by a handful of Bf 109s . Three Ju 52s were shot down for the loss of two Spitfires , both claimed by Wolfgang Tonne of I. / JG 53 . The German units reported no losses .
The day had been bad for the Luftwaffe . Losses amounted to 18 Ju 52s ; four belonged to III . / KG.z.b.V 1 . Raids by RAF Vickers Wellington bombers continued during the night . Ju 88 night fighters from NJG 2 downed two Wellingtons . The results of the raids are not known .
On 13 April , B @-@ 17s from the 97th and 301st Bomb Groups bombed Sicilian airfields at Castelvetrano and Trapani . The Italians lost 11 SM.82s destroyed and 16 damaged on the ground . At Trapani the Germans lost eight aircraft and 40 damaged for the loss of two B @-@ 17s to the island 's fighter defences consisting of Bf 109s from JG 27 . Battles over the airfields in the afternoon were inconclusive , costing the Axis one Ju 88 from II . / KG 26 and the Allies an RAF a Spitfire from No. 232 Squadron RAF . That night , air raids killed four German fighter pilots from I. / JG 53 while two Ju 88s from II . / NJG 2 and III . / KG 76 were lost .
= = British operations = =
= = = Early sweeps = = =
On 12 April , the RAF Desert Air Force took command over most of the Operation Flax operations . The RAF used sea @-@ looking radar . However , the use of it was not all advantageous as the German formations flew low . The considerable ranges stretched the P @-@ 40 and Spitfires to the limit . The British spread their forces more thinly to maintain continuous coverage . However , on 16 April , 13 Spitfires ran into a large formation of Axis aircraft . The Spitfires shot down seven SM.82s and a Bf 109 for the loss of two . German fighters claimed three Spitfires . One of the two actual victims was Wing Commander Ian " Widge " Gleed of No. 244 Wing RAF . Gleed was possibly the victim of a Leutnant Ernst @-@ Wilhelm Reinert of 4 Staffel JG 77 . At the time of his death Gleed had 14 victories . This near @-@ disaster meant small operations were abandoned . From that point on missions consisted of three P @-@ 40 squadrons covered by one Spitfire squadron .
Later on the 16 April , in a small @-@ scale counter @-@ attack , eight SchlG 10 Fw 190s escorted by 16 Bf 109s of JG 27 led an attack on Allied airfields near Souk el Khemis . They destroyed six A @-@ 20 Havoc bombers . The next day , 17 April , II . / ZG 26 several Bf 110s were shot down by No. 260 Squadron RAF P @-@ 40s on offensive operations . In response , the American 97th Bomb Group dispatched seven B @-@ 17s covered by 40 P @-@ 38s to bomb Palermo airfields . A large air battle developed when 30 Bf 110s and Bf 109s from ZG 26 and JG 27 intercepted . The Bf 110s attacked the bombers while the JG 27 Bf 109s tackled the escort . The Germans claimed five bombers and one fighter for the loss of one Bf 109 . Actual Allied losses are unknown .
= = = Palm Sunday Massacre = = =
The patrols failed to intercept any formations of transports on the afternoon of the 18 April . In the evening , the Ninth Air Force 's 57th Fighter Group sent out all of its squadrons , including the 314th Fighter Squadron of the 324th Fighter Group , under its command . The 57th had already flown unproductive sorties in the afternoon . Still , 47 USAAF P @-@ 40s arrived in the sweep area with 12 Spitfires from No. 92 Squadron RAF . The Spitfires flew high cover at 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) while the P @-@ 40s stayed at around 4 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) . Soon enough , a large formation of 30 Ju 52 was reported by Allied pilots at an altitude of only 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) flying north east on a return flight . Actually , there were 65 Ju 52s , 16 Axis fighters and five Bf 110s . As the Allied fighters began their attacks , the passengers fired machine guns out of the Junkers ′ windows in desperation to fend off the attack . In the air battle that followed , six P @-@ 40s and a Spitfire were shot down . The Americans claimed 146 victories , which was later reduced to 58 or 59 Ju 52s , 14 Macchi C.202s and Bf 109s and two to four Bf 110s . Actual German losses were 24 Ju 52s along with 10 fighters . The German fighter casualties amounted to nine Bf 109s and one Bf 110 . It is also possible some Italian fighters were shot down as well . Along with the 24 Ju 52s destroyed , another 35 were damaged and managed to crash @-@ land all along the Sicilian coastline . The battle became known as the " Palm Sunday Massacre " .
= = = Continuation of offensive = = =
The following day , No. 7 Wing SAAF shot down another 16 Italian SM.82s. The ease with which they caught fire led the Allied pilots to believe they were carrying precious fuel cargoes . Among those units involved were No. 54 Squadron SAAF , No. 2 Squadron SAAF . Another source gives Axis losses as 10 destroyed and four crash landed .
On 22 April , the South African No. 7 Wing sent out 36 P @-@ 40s which intercepted a well escorted Italian formation . The South Africans claimed 12 Ju 52s , two SM 79s , a Ju 87 towing a glider , a Reggiane Re.2001 , two Bf 109s and a Ju 88 for the loss of five Spitfires and three P @-@ 40s . Known Axis losses were 12 SM.79s and a Macchi C.202 ; RAF Spitfires flying from Malta downed another two transports . Later , a flight made in daylight cost the Axis 16 or 17 Me 323 transports destroyed , plus a Macchi C.202 , three German fighters and a Re @-@ 2001 , when they were intercepted by 36 Australian , British and South African P @-@ 40s covered by South African , British and Polish Spitfire units . Four P @-@ 40s were lost and one Spitfire had to force land . The main combatants in the battles were No. 1 Squadron SAAF , No. 112 Squadron RAF , No. 450 Squadron RAAF , I. / JG 27 and II . / JG 27 .
Göring ordered that no more transport flights be made . Albert Kesselring complained that this would deny the Axis forces vital supplies , and Göring once again permitted flights . This time they were to travel via Sardinia , but no more than 60 – 70 flights would be allowed per night ; some 250 had been mounted daily before Flax . The transports also had to run the gauntlet of radar @-@ equipped Bristol Beaufighters but these rarely were successful at intercepting them . One last Allied effort was made by 70 B @-@ 24 Liberators , which bombed airfields around Bari in Italy . Some 54 German aircraft were destroyed and 13 damaged on the ground . The USAAF units claimed 50 .
= = Aftermath = =
The aerial operation had a considerable effect in strangling Axis logistics . The supplies reaching Axis units dwindled , and the Axis armies and air units remaining in Tunisia gradually ran out of fuel , ammunition and other supplies . Having lost most of its airbases , the Luftwaffe also evacuated most of its units . By early May 1943 , only the Italian fighter units , and one German Gruppe ( I. JG 77 ) , remained as the Axis held on to a narrow strip of African coastline near Tunis . Allied air superiority was so overwhelming , that Luftwaffe personnel climbed into fighter fuselages , or squeezed into the cockpits of Bf 109s alongside the pilot rather than risk flying in transport aircraft . Most ground crew and pilots attempted to escape this way . Flying large numbers of personnel in one go and by transport was too dangerous ; 16 personnel were killed in a crash on 29 or 30 April . The last transport missions were flown on 4 May , in which 117 tons of fuel and ammunition was brought in . Some supply drops were attempted ( by II . / Kampfgeschwader 1 ) , but most of the remaining signals , FlaK , transport and administrative staff left were captured when the campaign ended on 13 May 1943 .
= Music of Saint Lucia =
The music of Saint Lucia is home to many vibrant oral and folk traditions and is based on elements derived from the music of Africa , especially rhythmically , and Western Europe , dances like the quadrille , polka and waltz . The banjo and cuatro are iconic Lucian folk instruments , especially a four @-@ stringed banjo called the bwa poye . Celebratory songs called jwé show lyricism , and rhythmic complexity . The most important of the Afro @-@ Lucian Creole folk dances is the kwadril . Music is an integral part of Lucian folk holidays and celebrations , as well as the good @-@ natured rivalry between the La Rose and La Marguerite societies . There is little Western classical music on Saint Lucia , and the country 's popular music industry is only nascent . There are few recording opportunities , though live music and radio remain a vital part of Lucian culture . Popular music from abroad , especially Trinidadian styles like calypso and soca , is widespread .
Music education has long been a part of Lucian public education in the primary school age groups . More recently , it has been introduced to older students , many of whom now participate in String Orchestras , wind ensembles , steelpan bands and other musical enrichment opportunities . There is also a well @-@ known government assisted non @-@ profit music school , the Saint Lucia School of Music . The Ministry of Education sponsors a variety of festivals and other special events . The island is also home to the prestigious Saint Lucia Jazz Festival and the Creole celebration Jounen Kwéyòl .
Saint Lucia , is an island in the Lesser Antilles of the Caribbean .
= = Folk music = =
A typical Saint Lucian folk band is based around the fiddle , cuatro , banjo , guitar and chak @-@ chak ( a rattle ) . The banjo and cuatro are regarded as particularly important in Saint Lucian culture , especially the small , four @-@ stringed bwa poye , or skroud banjo . Saint Lucian dances include moulala , faci and comette ( a derivative of the minuet ) ; however , the kwadril is increasingly viewed as a national symbol . It is a highly stylized and formalized dance that derives from the European quadrille . Jwé is a more informal form of Lucian folk music , and is performed at dances , wakes and other social events ; performers improvise comedic and often biting or lyrics . Music also plays a role in the La Rose and La Marguerite tradition of two rival societies that compete in celebration and form a fundamental part of Lucian culture .
Jwé ( play ) is a form of rural Lucian folk music associated with beach parties , wakes , débòt dances and full moon gatherings . Jwé is performed as an informal , social event that provide the chance for Lucians to show off their verbal skills , and communicate their comedic , social and political commentaries without offending people . Jwé includes both songs for men and women , both of which can be singers , though most Lucian folk instrumentalists are male . A jwé performance is considered good if the audience participates enthusiastically by clapping , responding to the leader and singing and dancing . Some Lucians avoid jwé altogether because of its sexually raunchy lyricism and atmosphere ; nevertheless , elements of jwé have entered mainstream Lucian culture , such as the use of lang dévivé , or saying the opposite of what is meant .
Musical elements of jwé include gém ( game song ) , listwa ( storytelling ) , jwé chanté ( sung songs ) and jwé dansé ( song @-@ play @-@ dance ) . These forms are united by their use of the Creole language , their use of call @-@ and @-@ response singing between a leader and a chorus , with the exception of listwa , and the use of improvisation . Jwé chanté and listwa are purely vocal styles with no accompaniment , nor any traditional dance ; the other two are typically accompanied by a ka drum or sometimes the tibwa percussion sticks , which provides a rhythm for dancers .
Sung jwé , jwé chanté or chanté kont , is mostly part of the funeral wake tradition . A jwé chanté leader uses pantomime to enact scenes from a story , or sometimes just the ribald double entendres from it . The gém ( game song ) are based around a leader who uses his own flourishes on a choreographed dance and improvises witty lyrics , while the audience participates in the performance . Jwé dansé includes four traditional dances . The solo is a couple dance , and the débòt , yonbòt and jwé pòté are all circle dances . The blòtjé is a musical movement found in all jwé dansé styles , occurring , for example , every four beats in the débòt dance .
= = = Kwadril = = =
Quadrille is a Lucian Creole folk dance derived from the European quadrille . It is performed primarily at private parties which are organized by a host in a private home or rented hall , with musicians paid by the host . Kwadrils are held throughout the year , except during Lent . The modern kwadril has declined in popularity ; it had come to be seen as a symbol of colonialism around the time of independence , and was shunned as old @-@ fashioned and out @-@ of @-@ date . More recently , some aspects of Lucian society have come to promote the quadrille as a symbol of Lucian culture . Quadrilles are unlike other Lucian dances in that they must be memorized and choreographed , with only slight room for personal interpretation and improvisation . Learners act as a sort of apprentice for more established performers . A successful performance brings respect and prestige for all participants who dance the correct steps which are traditionally said to " demonstrate control over behavior , manner , and skills " and " symbolize ... a set of special values linked with a higher social class " .
Kwadril music is provided by an ensemble consisting of a four @-@ stringed instrument , the cuatro ( instrument ) , a rattle , the chakchak , bones called zo , a violin , banjo ( skroud , bwa pòyé ) , mandolin and guitar . A kwadril consists of five separate dances : the pwémyé fidji , dézyèm fidji , twazyèm fidji , katwiyèm fidji ( also avantwa or lanmen dwèt ) and gwan won ( also grande rond ) . The musicians may also use a lakonmèt ( mazurka ) , schottische or polka ; the lakonmèt , also called the mazouk , is especially popular and is the only closed couple dance which originated in Saint Lucia .
= = = La Rose and La Marguerite = = =
La Rose and La Marguerite are rival societies that commemorate the Anglo @-@ French heritage of the island ; the factions represent the warring colonial powers , between whose hands Saint Lucia changed fourteen times . La Rose is held on August 30 while La Margurite is held on October 17 . The societies date back to the early 19th century , when each village was home to competing organizations of the Roman Catholic Church . Both societies draw on English royalty traditions and have a number of positions , including the King , Queen , Prince , Princess and various lower titles like the Chief of Police and nurse . La Rose and La Marguerite meet once weekly except during Lent . At these meetings , which are on Saturday for La Rose and Sunday for La Marguerite , members sing or play instruments and dance . La Marguerite meetings feature the membership in a seat chorus with a leader , the chantwèl , standing , while La Rose meetings include instruments like the tanbouwen ( tambourine ) , baha ( wooden trumpet ) , chakchak ( rattles ) , guitar and gwaj ( scraper ) .
The celebrations of both groups differ in that La Rose , the " English " faction , is characterized by noisiness , movement , participation , rhythm and exuberance , while La Marguerite , the " French " faction , is characterized by melody , discipline and restraint . There is a vibrant tradition of women singing factional songs related to this rivalry . Traditions common to both factions include the Omans , a sort of waltz , Marches and the duple rhythm manpa ( or maynan ) dance . Kwadril and lakonmèt are also performed by La Rose .
= = = Other traditional styles = = =
In addition to jwé and other music performed for entertainment , Saint Lucia is also home to styles used only for specific occasions . These include work songs , drinking songs , funereal music and serenades and masquerades . The latter two traditions are nearly extinct in modern Saint Lucia . The masquerade was a celebration held near holidays like Easter and New Year 's Day , which included an orchestra consisting of a tanbou tenbal , chakchak and a bamboo flute . This same ensemble also traditionally performs for cockfights , merry @-@ go @-@ rounds and vocal serenades , called séwinal in Lucian Creole .
The most widespread form of Lucian work song is the chanté siay , which accompanies the sawing of wood . The vocals are performed by a lead singer and two responding singers , accompanied by a ka and tibwa duo . Both instruments are played in an atypical manner . The ka drum is played on the ground rather than upright , and the tibwa percussion sticks are struck against a bamboo or wooden stick rather than the rim of a drum .
Lucian drinking songs are the chanté abwè , which are rarely performed in recent years . Their traditional context , however , is the wibòt celebration , held during Christmas time . Chanté abwè are performed in a game in which the singers , seated at a long table , take turns singing a new song each time their turn comes . Those who lasted the entire evening won prizes , often a bottle of rum .
= = = Bèlè = = =
The bélè tradition is a form of Creole song and couple dance , performed one couple with a leader and chorus . They are performed in several contexts , most notably in funeral wakes . Bélè include the bélè anlè , bélè matjé , bélè anlawis and the bélè atè . The bélè anlawis is the only form which is not responsorial .
= = = = Funeral music = = = =
On Saint Lucia , wakes are held on the first and eighth night after a person has died , in contrast to other Caribbean islands , which hold their wakes on the first and ninth days . Wakes often include music , such as the singing of hymns and drumming . Traditional music for wakes is performed both inside and outside of the deceased 's house . The mourners inside the house sing from a repertoire of songs that are in English and not French Creole , because they are derived from the English @-@ using songs of Lucian churches . The songs include both hymns and sankeys ( gospel songs ) , and are generally responsorial , led by a male singer with the slow , unsyncopated responses of the chorus in unison . The mourners outside the house traditionally perform drumming and a kind of responsorial song performed in Creole and without accompaniment , called kont . These songs often related to the death of the deceased , and may deal with the cause of death , the last words or events surrounding the death . Mourners also dance to both the débòt and bélè , accompanied zo or tibwa and ka .
The villages of La Grace , Piaye and Laborie in the southwest area of Saint Lucia were known for a unique song @-@ dance called the koutoumba . The koutoumba was only performed for the death of a djiné , a person descended from Africans who came to the island in the middle of the 19th century . The koutoumba is unique among Lucian folk dance in that it is performed by a sole dancer and using only two to four lines of text , which is evocative of the song 's atmosphere rather than narrative . The last drummer who knew this tradition died in 1986 .
= = = = Kélé = = = =
Kélé is an Afro @-@ Lucian religious tradition from the Djiné people of the Babonneau region . Only one family , from Resina , in modern Saint Lucia claims to have the religious authority to perform and pass on the kélé rituals . Kélé is based around three deities , Eshu , Shango and Ogun , and is similar to the Nigerian Ogun festival . Kélé 's rituals involve contacting one 's ancestors to ask for protection , especially " good crops , good health , and good fortune " . Kélé has been underground for much of its history , and was only accepted by the Lucian Roman Catholic Church in the early 1960s .
Kélé rituals are accompanied by the drumming of the tanbou manman ( mother drum ) and the tanbou ich ( child drum ) , which play four different rhythms at specified moments ; these are the adan , èrè , koudou and kèré rhythms . Kélé rituals also include singing and dance , as well as feasting , praying to Ogun and the other gods , the smashing of the calabash to appease Eshu at the end of the ceremony , the display of tools made of iron and steel to honor Ogun , and smooth stones to represent Shango , who also receives a ceremonially cleansed sacrificial ram .
= = Popular music = =
Lucian popular music can be traced back to the 1940s , when calypso became a part of the island 's musical culture . Calypso is a lyrical Trinidadian genre , related to several styles found through the Antillean music area . Music scholar Jocelyne Guilbault has called calypso the primary way modern Lucians " express social commentary " . Along with calypso , Lucia has also imported the Trinidadian steelband and soca traditions .
Some Lucian calypsonians recorded in the 1980s , mostly on 45 @-@ RPM discs which remain largely unavailable today . The Lucian music industry is quite small scale , due to the island 's small market , its lack of recording studios and record producers , the widespread bootlegging of cassettes , and the general unavailability of funding for musical ventures . Saint Lucia is home to several radio stations including Radio St. Lucia and Radio Caribbean International , which play a variety of popular music ; since 1989 , St Lucian radio stations have played an increasing number of programs about Lucian culture and in the local Creole tongue .
Modern Saint Lucia has produced a few popular musicians in various styles , but is most closely associated with calypso music . Popular Lucian musicians include Tru Tones , Rameau Poleon , Prolifik , Disturbing Joan and Aimran Simmons . Marie Selipha Sesenne Descartes ( known simply as " Sesenne " ) was named Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire for her work as a chantwelle and in the promotion of Saint Lucian traditional culture and music . Saint Lucian folk dance and theater includes flower dances , masquerades and the Papa Djab festival ; various kinds of music are associated with these celebrations .
= = = Roots revival = = =
In 1969 , three Saint Lucians ( Eric Brandford , Primrose Bledman and Charles Cadet ) collected numerous folk songs for a presentation at the 1969 Expo in Grenada and then again at Guyana 's 1973 Carifesta . Two major folk groups emerged ; they were The Helenites ( led by Clement Springer ) and Joyce Auguste 's The Hewanorra Voices . Auguste later introduced folk music into Saint Lucian music education . By the end of the 1980s , music and other aspects of Lucian culture was an integral part of the Lucian education system .
In the time leading up to independence from the United Kingdom in 1979 , Saint Lucia underwent a profound political and cultural awakening and roots revival which drew on the rise of the black consciousness movement of the United States , the influence of the Caribbean Ecumenical Consultation for Development on local culture and the loosening of restrictions from the powerful Roman Catholic Church on non @-@ Christian cultural elements . Since 1973 , the non @-@ government organization Folk Research Centre which seeks to " promote research into St. Lucian culture " and to " explore and clarify the role of culture in the development of our people " .
= = = Bouyon soca = = =
Bouyon soca typically blends old bouyon music rhythms from the 90s ' and soca music . In recent years Bouyon soca has become popular in the island of Saint Lucia . Saint Lucian artist Ricky T released a song " Pressure boom " in 2007 which blended the two genres and became very popular throughout the English speaking Caribbean .
This style of bouyon is mostly , but not exclusively , produced in Saint Lucia .
= = Government and industry = =
The government has seen value in promoting a music industry , and has formed the Cultural Development Foundation ( CDF ) the statutory body given responsibility for preservation and promotion of Saint Lucian culture and arts. to accomplish this goal . In 1979 , the first @-@ ever M & C Fine Arts Awards were given by Minvielle & Chastanet Ltd , to Saint Lucian artists as an Independence Gift to the Nation ; in the early 2000s , this event was handed over to the newly formed Cultural Development Foundation and is now run as the National Arts Festival . The Folk Research Centre has been a prominent part of Lucian cultural research since 1973 , and has also published the journal Lucian Kaiso , devoted to Lucian calypso , since 1990 . The island 's calypso traditions are also celebrated at the annual kaiposium ( a kaiso symposium ) , held since 1987 . The island 's music industry remains little @-@ known internationally and of small economic importance . The government of Saint Lucia has worked with the OECS to promote the regional music industry through intellectual property law and sponsoring festivals and other activities .
The most important festival in modern Lucian culture is the Jounen Kwéyòl ( International Creole Day ) held annually on October 28 since 1983 . The Jounen Kwéyòl is sponsored by the Bannzil Kwéyòl , an international organization . Lucian activities are run by the Folk Research Centre in conjunction with the National Research and Development Foundation and the Mouvman Kwéyòl Sent Lisi ( St. Lucia Creole Movement ) . Lucian law protects the owners of intellectual property , such as songwriters , through the Copyright Act of 1995 ; copyrights are administered by the Hewanorra Musical Society .
There is also a Saint Lucia Jazz Festival that is a major attraction , and a well @-@ known part of the local music scene . It has been an annual event for fifteen years , and has hosted a variety of jazz stars , in addition to local talent . The 2005 festival was a boost for the local music industry , netting $ 46 million . The Festival is sponsored by a number of corporations and groups , perhaps most significantly BET .
= = Education = =
Music is a part of the curriculum at public schools in Saint Lucia ; it has long been taught in younger grade levels , but was only introduced to secondary education in 1999 . Primary education on Saint Lucia , music and other artistic education is commonly used incidentally to teaching other subjects or for special occasions . About 40 % of the island 's schools engage in general music education , while others spent more time on general group singing or choir , or recorder ensemble performance . In 2003 , a string program was instituted for primary students .
About 70 % of schools teach music at the lower secondary level . Many of the schools that do not normally instruct in music may offer volunteer clubs or other more informal opportunities for musical enrichment . Many Lucian schools have formed ensembles , most commonly a wind ensemble ( 30 % of schools ) , or a steelpan band ( 20 % ) or combo group ( 20 % ) . The public education field has also collaborated with the Saint Lucia School of Music to form the National Youth Choir , String Orchestra and Secondary Schools Wind Ensemble . The governmental Ministry of Education also sponsors a number of festivals and musical special events , both for the benefit of all students and the enrichment of the musically @-@ gifted among them .
The Saint Lucia School of Music is an independent institute of music education that has two branches on the island , one in the north and one in the south . It was established in 1987 , and has a student body of around four hundred students . The School 's professed goal is to provide music education at all levels , to offer community opportunities for musical enrichment , to facilitate the training and professional development of educators , and to establish the school as a musical resource . There is also a notable music Education Centre operated by a vocal group from the fishing village Anse la Raye ; this Centre provides music education opportunities for gifted and underprivileged children from across the island .
= Cave Story =
Cave Story ( 洞窟物語 , Dōkutsu Monogatari ) is a freeware platform @-@ adventure video game released in 2004 for the PC . It was developed over five years by Daisuke " Pixel " Amaya in his free time . Cave Story features 2D platform mechanics and is reminiscent of the classic games the developer played in his youth , such as Metroid .
After its initial self @-@ published release , Cave Story slowly gained popularity on the Internet . It received wide critical acclaim for its compelling story and gameplay . Independent developer Nicalis worked with Amaya to port the game to WiiWare and DSiWare in 2010 . An enhanced version , Cave Story + , was released for Steam in November 2011 , with a Nintendo 3DS release in October 2012 . A 3D remake of the game , titled Cave Story 3D , was developed by Nicalis and published by NIS America for the Nintendo 3DS in November 2011 .
The game focuses on an amnesiac protagonist who awakens in a cave . Through his explorations , he discovers a plot by the Doctor , a megalomaniac who intends to force the inhabitants of the cave to fight for him in his bid to conquer the world . The protagonist is thrust into the position of savior as he endeavors to defeat the Doctor .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls the on @-@ screen character directly using the keyboard or gamepad . The player progresses by navigating platform game puzzles and shooting enemies with the equipped weapon . When the player collects multiple weapons , they may be toggled at any time with the press of a button . Defeating enemies sometimes yields yellow triangular objects , which give experience points to weapons when collected . Weapons may be improved up to level three , but taking damage causes weapons to lose experience and levels . Health and missile capacity upgrades are scattered throughout the game world . The player may interact with a variety of non @-@ player characters and objects .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Cave Story takes place within the cavernous interior of a floating island . The island is populated by Mimigas , a race of sentient , rabbit @-@ like creatures . A particular species of red flower that grows in the island causes the normally peaceful Mimigas , upon ingesting the flower , to temporarily grow to an abnormally large size with great strength and fall into a violent frenzy . The island also conceals an artifact called the Demon Crown , which has vast magical powers . An army of killer robots was sent to the floating island on a previous expedition , seeking to harness the Demon Crown as a weapon for wars on the surface world . These soldiers from the surface slaughtered Mimigas indiscriminately in their search for the crown . Shortly before the game begins , Professor Booster , the Sakamoto family , the " Doctor , " and various assistants formed a scientific party to research the island , but they became stranded .
= = = Story = = =
The player character awakens in a cave with no memory of how he came to be there . He finds a village of Mimigas , who are being persecuted by the Doctor . The Doctor 's servants Misery and Balrog are looking for Sue Sakamoto , a girl who had been transformed into a Mimiga . Not finding her , they mistakenly abduct another Mimiga named Toroko instead . The player finds Sue in the Egg Corridor , where she discovers the eggs of a Sky Dragon , which could allow her to escape the floating island if hatched . Sue attempts to rescue her brother Kazuma , but King , the leader of Mimiga Village , captures her and holds her responsible for Toroko 's kidnapping . Sue tasks the player with retrieving Kazuma from Grasstown . After freeing him , they meet Professor Booster , who reveals that the Doctor plans to use the red flowers on Mimigas to create an army to take over the surface world . Booster sends the player to the Sand Zone to destroy the red flowers before the Doctor can find them . While there , the player meets Curly Brace , a female robot who also has no memories of her past , and Jenka , an old witch who is Misery 's mother and guardian of the red flowers . Jenka calls the player character a " soldier from the surface " , one of many who were sent to the island to slaughter the Mimigas . Balrog manages to obtain the key to the warehouse containing the red flowers from Jenka , who urges the player to stop them . Before the player can reach the warehouse , however , the Doctor samples a red flower on the captured Toroko and gravely injures King , and leaves the player to fight the rabid Toroko , who ultimately dies .
Misery transports the player to the Labyrinth deep inside the island as punishment for interfering with the Doctor 's plans . Curly Brace has also been thrown into the Labyrinth and they cooperate to escape . Balrog helps them to move the boulder blocking the exit , revealing his kind nature . The pair find and defeat the Core , a magical creature whose power keeps the island afloat . However , the Doctor steps in to save it before the island collapses . Depending on certain conditions , the player may rescue Curly Brace , who had sacrificed her air tank to save the player character . When he returns to Mimiga Village , he finds that the Doctor has captured the Mimigas . In the Egg Corridor , Kazuma offers the player a choice to escape the island with him using a Sky Dragon , leading to an alternate ending in which the Doctor conquers the surface world while Kazuma and the player hide in the mountains . The player may instead choose to confront the Doctor and destroy the island 's Core , which would return the Mimigas to normal . The player scales the outer wall of the island to reach the Plantation where the Doctor is using the Mimigas as slave laborers to grow red flowers . The Doctor 's servants capture him and place him in a jail cell with Sue . She is taken away before the player wakes up , but her letter reveals that the Doctor was a member of the research expedition that included Sue 's family and Professor Booster , but he betrayed them once he found the Demon Crown . Sue directs the player to find her mother who may have a plan to stop the Doctor .
If the player saved Curly Brace earlier , the player may find an item to restore her memories . She remembers that the player character 's name is Quote , and that they were not the killer robots who slaughtered Mimigas in the past . Instead , they were sent to destroy the Demon Crown to prevent its power from falling into the wrong hands . Quote finds Sue 's mother , Momorin , who is building a rocket that will allow access to the top of the island where the Doctor resides . After helping her complete the rocket , Quote confronts Misery and the Doctor . The Doctor has purified the essence of the red flowers into a crystal , which allows him to survive even after Quote destroys his body . The Doctor 's spirit possesses the Core of the island , but Quote succeeds in destroying that as well , causing the island to begin falling to Earth . Under certain conditions , the player may proceed into a bonus stage called the Bloodstained Sanctuary where the creator of the Demon Crown , Ballos , is imprisoned . Ballos , Jenka 's brother , was a powerful wizard who went insane after being tortured . Misery forced Ballos to create the Demon Crown , but she and Balrog became cursed to serve whoever possessed it . With the help of Curly Brace , Quote defeats Ballos and stops the source of the negative energy that was causing the island to fall , saving its inhabitants . Balrog saves the two before they are crushed by Ballos ' collapsing prison — he had been sent by Misery as thanks for breaking her curse . Quote , Curly Brace , and Balrog leave the island to live out their days in peace .
= = Development = =
Daisuke Amaya developed Cave Story in his free time over the course of five years . He began the project when he was in college and continued working on it after getting a job as a software developer . He started by writing the title screen music and programming rudimentary character movements . The idea for the cave setting evolved spontaneously when he created a number of enclosed spaces . Amaya admitted this lack of planning caused " problems down the line " because he did not have dedicated map editing and data management tools . Amaya describes the game as having an " old @-@ fashioned feel " , reminiscent of the games he played as a child like Metroid . More importantly , this " retro " design choice allowed him to create a large volume of artwork on his own , which would have been impossible for a 3D game .
At a Game Developers Conference project post @-@ mortem , he emphasized the role of pragmatic design in shaping the game . While designing the main character , Quote , Amaya drew inspiration from Mario 's iconic original appearance — a large , expressive face and a high contrast between his white skin and red shirt make him stand out from the dark cave backgrounds . Most other characters feature either light skin or white clothes for the same reason . To make levels memorable , Amaya designed them around a single theme , such as " warmth " for the Egg Corridor or " arid and oppressive " for the Sand Zone . Instead of a tutorial level , a concept Amaya dislikes , the first level of the game gives the player two paths , one of which is blocked off until retrieving an item from the other path . This setup , inspired by the opening of Metroid , " lets players feel like they 've solved problems on their own " and persists throughout the game . In beta versions of the game , all the enemies were shaped like bars of soap , a concept that evolved into the Balrog character . There was also a " frog prince " character who could travel through water more easily . Elements of this beta were incorporated into the Nintendo 3DS version of the game .
Quote appears as a downloadable character in Bit.Trip Presents ... Runner2 : Future Legend of Rhythm Alien .
= = Versions and ports = =
= = = Ports = = =
Cave Story has been ported to Linux , AROS , MorphOS , AmigaOS 4 and Mac OS X operating systems , PlayStation Portable , Xbox , Dreamcast , GP2X , GP2X Wiz , and the TI graphing calculator . An enhanced port , featuring updated character designs , remixed music and extra game modes , was developed by Nicalis and released on WiiWare on 22 March 2010 in North America and 10 December 2010 in Europe . Nicalis also ported the game to DSiWare on 29 November 2010 in North America and 22 November 2011 in Japan . Although it does not feature the enhanced graphics and sound or some of the extra modes from the Wii version , it does include the Sanctuary Attack mode . There is also a free / libre SDL @-@ based recreation of the original game engine , titled NXEngine , made by programmer Caitlin Shaw , which allows for extended modification of the game , and the creation of ports for additional devices . The game was released for the Nintendo 3DS 's Nintendo eShop service ( separate from the retail 3DS game ) in the United States on 4 October 2012 and in Europe on 1 May 2014 . This version includes the DSiWare version 's Jukebox mode , as well as all the additional modes included in Cave Story + .
= = = Cave Story + = = =
An enhanced PC version titled Cave Story + was released by Nicalis on the Steam service on 22 November 2011 . Cave Story + features an alternative script that differs from the original English translation . This version contains all the additional modes from the WiiWare version , a remastered soundtrack , as well as the option to toggle the style of graphics between the classic style and that of the WiiWare version and the music of the original game , the WiiWare port , or the 3DS update . It also features an exclusive ' Wind Fortress ' level . Recently the game got an update that added exclusive Machine Gun Challenge . The game was included as a bonus game in the Humble Indie Bundle 4 sale in December 2011 , Humble Bundle 7 in December 2012 , and was released on the Desura service in April 2012 .
= = = Cave Story 3D = = =
Cave Story 3D is a 3D version of the game developed by Nicalis and published by NIS America as a retail title for the Nintendo 3DS . It was released on 8 November 2011 in North America , 11 November 2011 in Europe and 26 July 2012 in Japan . The game was built from scratch using 3D character models , featuring a dynamic camera system and another additional level , as well as a remixed soundtrack by Danny Baranowsky . The Japanese version features crossover content from various NIS and other companies ' franchises such as Crazy Climber , Ikki , and Dragon Slayer . In order to devote more time to perfecting the title , Amaya quit his job as a software developer to become director of Cave Story 3D . He remarked that the transition to 3D was difficult because it required the consideration of so many more details .
= = Reception = =
The original Cave Story earned widespread critical acclaim . 1UP.com described it as " so massive that it rivals modern [ Game Boy Advance ] Castlevania and Metroid games in terms of scope and play time " . Matt Miller of Game Informer observed that Cave Story combines elements of Metroid , Ninja Gaiden , Mega Man , The Legend of Zelda , and Castlevania into an " engrossing , challenging , and quite lengthy " whole . Inside Mac Games ascribed the game 's popularity to its " polished feel , engaging storyline , and compelling artwork " . Electronic Gaming Monthly stated that " the burgeoning Western indie game scene owes a tremendous debt to Japanese pioneers like Studio Pixel , whose freeware hit Cave Story proved that with sufficient vision , skill , and passion , a single developer can still craft a deep , compelling action game " . Jonathan Holmes of Destructoid called Cave Story an " important game " , observing its influence on artistic indie games like Braid , as well as the continued relevance of 2D game design ( cf . Capcom 's Mega Man 9 ) . He also compares the game design to that of Shigeru Miyamoto in its ability to teach without tutorials , like at the beginning of Super Mario Bros. In July 2006 , Cave Story earned 1st place in Super PLAY 's list of the 50 best freeware games of all time . In July 2015 , the game placed 14th on USgamer 's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list .
The WiiWare version has received mostly positive reviews , with the central criticism being the 1200 Wii Point price tag ( US $ 12 , £ 10 ) , after years of free play . Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com commended the graphical update , which " sacrifices none of [ the game 's ] classic @-@ influenced charm " . He also remarked that the Classic Controller and Wii Remote are superior to the keyboard input of the PC original . On the issue of price , he explained that " the prospect of Amaya finally earning a little something for the hard work he invested in this masterpiece strikes me as satisfyingly poetic " and " absolutely worth your money " . John Teti of Eurogamer had similar sentiments , but also noted the technical issues with the remixed music , recommending the original soundtrack . Edge compared the remake to The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition , satisfying both modern tastes with its graphical overhaul and old school fans with the option to switch to the original graphics . Daemon Hatfield of IGN felt that Cave Story " belongs on a Nintendo system " and noted gameplay similarities to Blaster Master , in which damage reduces the power of weapons as well . Cave Story was nominated for Game of the Year at the 2010 Nintendo Power Awards , as well as WiiWare Game of the Year .
Criticism of Cave Story 3D echoed that of the WiiWare version . Many reviewers cautioned that the graphical update does not justify the $ 40 initial price point , especially with cheaper or free versions of the game available through download services . Parish defended the release , deriving satisfaction from the game 's availability as a physical cartridge . Holmes praised the dynamic camera system and new graphics , comparing them to classic Disney films . He considers this release to be the " best version of the game , [ but ] not necessarily the definitive version " . Jane Douglas of GameSpot felt that the 3DS Circle Pad was a comfortable fit for the game 's control scheme . Audrey Drake of IGN noted that the 3D effect made it difficult to distinguish certain platforms between background and foreground , a complaint shared by Douglas . Simon Parkin of the UK Official Nintendo Magazine was more critical , citing lack of detail in the 3D models and a too @-@ dark color palette . Japanese magazine Famitsu Weekly 's four reviewers scored it 7 , 7 , 8 , and 8 points out of 10 to a total of 30 out of 40 points , indicating average reviews . This version was nominated for Best Adventure Game at the 2011 Nintendo Power Awards .
= Amina Bokhary controversy =
The Amina Bokhary controversy occurred in Hong Kong in 2010 involving the assault conviction of a wealthy woman from a well @-@ connected political family . Amina Mariam Bokhary , 32 , received a non @-@ custodial sentence and a one @-@ year driving ban following an incident in the aftermath of a road traffic accident when she struck several police officers . As she had committed similar offences in 2001 and 2008 , her resulting probation was seen by some commentators as too lenient .
The perceived leniency in her sentence provoked an uproar in Hong Kong for alleged preferential treatment . In particular , the presiding judge caused outrage when he said in his judgment that Bokhary had an " unblemished background and was born into a good family with caring parents [ and ] an outstanding academic record " . The comment highlighted the public perception of widening inequality and increasing disparities in the balance of political power between different social classes in Hong Kong . The judge came under pressure to reconsider his sentencing , but he declined to amend it upon review . Pundits also blamed the police for charging her with an offence carrying a lesser penalty ; the Department of Justice was forced to appeal her sentence .
Opinion polls carried out indicated that the public 's confidence in the judiciary and the impartiality of the courts had been shaken in light of the incident . In the end , after breaching her conditions of probation , Bokhary was jailed for six weeks . On appeal , her driving ban was further extended by two years .
= = Background to the incident = =
Bokhary is descended from influential Hong Kong families . Her grandfather , Daoud Bokhary , served in the British Indian Army and founded Bokhary Securities . Her father , Syed Bagh Ali Shah , was a council member of the former Stock Exchange of Hong Kong . Her uncle , Kemal , is a judge sitting at the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal , and Kemal 's wife is a High Court judge ; a maternal uncle , Ronald Arculli , was the chairman of Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing and previously member of the Executive Council of Hong Kong .
Bokhary attended university in the United Kingdom and graduated with a first @-@ class honors degree in economics . She has had a string of jobs in the fashion industry , including Sotheby ’ s , LVMH , and Harvey Nichols in Hong Kong . According to her counsel , Bokhary failed to find peace or satisfaction in her personal and professional life after returning to Hong Kong from Britain , and in 2007 was diagnosed with bipolar disorder , for which she was being treated with strong psychotropic drugs and was reportedly undergoing intensive counselling . Her increasing alcohol consumption , combined with her medication , was said to have contributed to her violent outburst in 2008 .
= = = Prior incidents = = =
Bokhary 's first brush with the police was in the early hours of 24 June 2001 , when the manager of a bar in Central district of Hong Kong reported to police that she was causing a disturbance . When police officers arrived and attempted to arrest Bokhary , she hit one officer on the cheek ; it took four officers at the scene to put her in handcuffs . Police also found a plastic bag with small amounts of cocaine on her person . She was found guilty of the assault and fined HK $ 9 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 153 ) . She was held not guilty of cocaine possession because of doubts over the evidence .
Bokhary was involved in a second altercation at around 3 am on 13 July 2008 , again in Central . Short of cash with which to pay the HK $ 17 @.@ 80 taxi fare , she proffered her credit card . When the taxi driver refused , Bokhary angrily flung her credit card in the driver 's face ; she kicked him when he prevented her from leaving the scene . The police were called . As she was being questioned by the two officers , Bokhary struck one of them . She was arrested and charged with common assault and assaulting a police officer . She was on medication and had taken wine prior to the incident . Pleading guilty to both charges in November 2008 , she was sentenced to 240 hours of community service and ordered to pay the driver HK $ 1 @,@ 000 in compensation .
= = Incident and trial = =
Bokhary 's vehicle was involved in a head @-@ on collision with a bus on Stubbs Road shortly after midnight on 27 January 2010 . She refused paramedics ' attempts to put her on a stretcher , returned to her vehicle , and continued to refuse to cooperate . She then attempted to walk away from the scene , but was prevented from doing so by a male police officer , whom she then slapped . She was handcuffed and charged with careless driving , refusing a breathalyser test , and two counts of assault on a police officer . She was released on HK $ 5 @,@ 000 bail .
Scheduled to appear in Eastern Magistrates ' Court on 7 April , Acting Principal Magistrate Bina Chainrai recused herself due to her familiarity with Bokhary ; the defence was granted a further delay , to permit preparation of a medical assessment . She pleaded guilty on 7 July , advancing mental illness in mitigation . On 2 August , she was sentenced to 12 months ' probation and a fine of HK $ 8 @,@ 000 ; her driving licence was suspended for 12 months . As a condition of her probation , she would also enter a treatment programme at the Betty Ford Center in the United States . Passing sentence , magistrate Anthony Yuen Wai @-@ ming stated that her offences would normally result in prison time , but he decided to be lenient because of her mental disorder . Yuen 's comment in his judgment that Bokhary has an " unblemished background and was born into a good family with caring parents [ and ] an outstanding academic record " caused an uproar locally . Her resulting probation was criticised in certain quarters , notably by the police , for its leniency . Between 6 and 7 August , Magistrate Yuen reviewed the case , but did not change his ruling .
= = Reactions = =
Various sectors of society expressed concern over the light sentence ; the Police Inspectors ' Association asked for clearer guidelines on the penalties to be expected in such cases . The Junior Police Officers ' Association also complained that the probation decision could not be seen as a deterrent , but accepted that the court decision had to be respected as the magistrate " would have considered all factors . " The Standard editorial derided Yuen 's reasoning as " unpersuasive " . Kevin Zervos , deputy director of public prosecutions , requested that Yuen rethink his sentence . The police also received criticism for charging Bokhary under the Police Force Ordinance – with a maximum penalty of six months imprisonment – instead of the Offences Against the Person Ordinance , which carries a maximum two @-@ year sentence . Police Director of Crime and Security Xavier Tang responded that the lesser charge had been chosen because officers believed they had a better chance of conviction – she was said to be ready to plead guilty to assaulting police .
= = = Public = = =
An editorial in the South China Morning Post ( SCMP ) criticised Yuen 's for citing her background , family , education and academic achievement as being mitigating factors , which to some implied such would " buy leniency from the courts " . It summarised that " The failure to show any logical connection between family background and the sentence leaves the public with the perception that those with a notable surname are more equal than others . "
With widespread criticism of his decision , the SCMP published on 7 August an explanation by Yuen , in which he said that Bokhary 's behaviour was " consistent with the mental illness she was , and is still , suffering " . He added that sending the defendant to " prison for a few months would air the grievances of the public , but would destroy the rest of the life of the defendant . "
Approximately 300 people protested outside the Legislative Council Building in Central on 8 August , while another 50 , among them retired policemen , joined a Liberal Party @-@ led march from Wan Chai to the Department of Justice building . In a telephone survey of 1 @,@ 100 people conducted from 10 – 13 August by the Hong Kong Research Association , 91 % responded that they felt the sentence was too light . Another survey of 1 @,@ 007 people in the same period by the University of Hong Kong found that confidence in the judiciary had fallen ; respondents ' ratings on " fairness of the judicial system " fell to the lowest level since October 2004 , while " rule of law " indicator and confidence in the " impartiality of the courts " also declined in the month . A Facebook page complaining about the sentence had attracted 42 @,@ 500 participants by 4 August . Another Facebook group allegedly inciting Hong Kong residents to slap police officers was shut down by the site 's administrators . Bokhary 's lawyer Peter Duncan disputes that the widespread perception for Bokhary receiving a light sentence was due to her family 's wealth and connections .
Under public pressure , the Department of Justice ( DoJ ) stated on 4 August that they were considering an appeal against Bokhary 's sentence . In particular , Secretary for Justice Wong Yan @-@ lung described Yuen 's sentence as " inadequate " and stated that he would initiate a review . In a press release on 11 August , the DoJ stated that they had filed the application for leave to review with the Court of Appeal two days earlier .
= = = Legal profession = = =
In response to the increased negative attention on the judiciary , the Hong Kong Bar Association and the Law Society of Hong Kong on 11 August issued a joint statement to " allay misgivings of the public " and to explain the court 's approach , whilst deploring " any attempt to bring public pressure on a Judge or Magistrate to change his or her mind upon a review of sentence " . Senior Counsel Martin Lee also spoke out against the protest , which he described as mob rule and detrimental to the rule of law . Lee said he would have handed down the same sentence as Yuen in light of the facts of the case . Public focus had been expected to remain on Yuen as he is also the judge handling the case of Christina Chan , the protester charged with assaulting a police officer during the 2010 Hong Kong new year march , although the chairman of the Hong Kong Police Officers ' Association stated that the two cases were not comparable . Chan was acquitted of the assault on 3 September .
= = = Pundits = = =
Former legislator Albert Cheng noted that had Bokhary been charged under the Police Ordinance , and not the Offences Against the Person Ordinance , she would have faced a custodial sentence of up to two years ; furthermore , the police failed to charge Bokhary for allegedly assaulting a policewoman at the police station after her arrest ; the police also prosecuted her for careless driving instead of the more serious offence of dangerous driving . Cheng said : " The public certainly has the right to voice its anger against any injustice . But , in this case , its targets shouldn 't be the government or the courts , but Secretary for Justice Wong Yan @-@ lung , who is responsible for prosecutions and all government legal matters . " Legislator and former Secretary for Security , Regina Ip , said : " At the end of the day , the sense of outrage is not about justice and penalties , but about the widening inequality between rich and poor , between the corporate giant and the artless individual , and the yawning asymmetry of money , knowledge and expert power between the haves and have @-@ nots of our society . " Political commentator Michael Chugani agreed that public anger existed due to the belief that Hong Kong society had become too unfair , and that the verdict was confirmation to some of this view . He said that the public outrage responsible for forcing the Department of Justice to appeal against Bokhary 's sentence was unlikely to result in a happy ending because both outcomes were potentially damaging : the jailing of Bokhary would imply the judicial system had succumbed to public pressure ; if she was not jailed , the system would be tarnished by accusations of favouritism .
= = = Probation breach and jail sentence = = =
Bokhary appeared before magistrates court on 23 December 2010 and was sentenced to six weeks in jail for breaking five out of seven conditions of her 2 August probation order – she failed to complete three months ' alcohol rehabilitation in the United States ; failed to report to her probation officer or to participate in programs arranged by same as required ; did not reside as directed ; refused to receive psychiatric and psychological treatment . Her lawyer said Bokhary had become increasingly paranoid as a result of the media attention and felt that “ she had become a target of abuse . ” The court rejected her bail application . Prosecution appealed the sentence – a one @-@ year driving ban and probation order – imposed on Bokhary for failing to provide a breath specimen . The appeal against the probation order was dropped when she was jailed , but at a hearing on 11 January , the Court of Appeal extended Bokhary 's driving ban to three years . She served four weeks of the sentence , and was released on 22 January 2011 .
= Adenosine triphosphate =
Adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) is a nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme often called the " molecular unit of currency " of intracellular energy transfer .
ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism . It is one of the end products of photophosphorylation , aerobic respiration , and fermentation , and is used by enzymes and structural proteins in many cellular processes , including biosynthetic reactions , motility , and cell division . One molecule of ATP contains three phosphate groups , and it is produced by a wide variety of enzymes , including ATP synthase , from adenosine diphosphate ( ADP ) or adenosine monophosphate ( AMP ) and various phosphate group donors . Substrate @-@ level phosphorylation , oxidative phosphorylation in cellular respiration , and photophosphorylation in photosynthesis are three major mechanisms of ATP biosynthesis .
Metabolic processes that use ATP as an energy source convert it back into its precursors . ATP is therefore continuously recycled in organisms : the human body , which on average contains only 250 grams ( 8 @.@ 8 oz ) of ATP , turns over its own body weight equivalent in ATP each day .
ATP is used as a substrate in signal transduction pathways by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids . It is also used by adenylate cyclase , which uses ATP to produce the second messenger molecule cyclic AMP . The ratio between ATP and AMP is used as a way for a cell to sense how much energy is available and control the metabolic pathways that produce and consume ATP . Apart from its roles in signaling and energy metabolism , ATP is also incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the process of transcription . ATP is the neurotransmitter believed to signal the sense of taste .
The structure of this molecule consists of a purine base ( adenine ) attached by the 9 ′ nitrogen atom to the 1 ′ carbon atom of a pentose sugar ( ribose ) . Three phosphate groups are attached at the 5 ′ carbon atom of the pentose sugar . It is the addition and removal of these phosphate groups that inter @-@ convert ATP , ADP and AMP . When ATP is used in DNA synthesis , the ribose sugar is first converted to deoxyribose by ribonucleotide reductase .
ATP was discovered in 1929 by Karl Lohmann , and independently by Cyrus Fiske and Yellapragada Subbarow of Harvard Medical School , but its correct structure was not determined until some years later . It was proposed to be the intermediary molecule between energy @-@ yielding and energy @-@ requiring reactions in cells by Fritz Albert Lipmann in 1941 . It was first artificially synthesized by Alexander Todd in 1948 .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
ATP consists of adenosine – composed of an adenine ring and a ribose sugar – and three phosphate groups ( triphosphate ) . The phosphoryl groups , starting with the group closest to the ribose , are referred to as the alpha ( α ) , beta ( β ) , and gamma ( γ ) phosphates . Consequently , it is closely related to the adenine nucleotide , a monomer of RNA . ATP is highly soluble in water and is quite stable in solutions between pH 6 @.@ 8 and 7 @.@ 4 , but is rapidly hydrolysed at extreme pH . Consequently , ATP is best stored as an anhydrous salt .
ATP is an unstable molecule in unbuffered water , in which it hydrolyses to ADP and phosphate . This is because the strength of the bonds between the phosphate groups in ATP is less than the strength of the hydrogen bonds ( hydration bonds ) , between its products ( ADP and phosphate ) , and water . Thus , if ATP and ADP are in chemical equilibrium in water , almost all of the ATP will eventually be converted to ADP . A system that is far from equilibrium contains Gibbs free energy , and is capable of doing work . Living cells maintain the ratio of ATP to ADP at a point ten orders of magnitude from equilibrium , with ATP concentrations fivefold higher than the concentration of ADP . This displacement from equilibrium means that the hydrolysis of ATP in the cell releases a large amount of free energy .
Two phosphoanhydride bonds ( those that connect adjacent phosphates ) in an ATP molecule are responsible for the high energy content of this molecule . In the context of biochemical reactions , these anhydride bonds are frequently – and sometimes controversially – referred to as high @-@ energy bonds ( despite the fact it takes energy to break bonds ) . Energy stored in ATP may be released upon hydrolysis of the anhydride bonds . The primary phosphate group on the ATP molecule that is hydrolyzed when energy is needed to drive anabolic reactions is the γ @-@ phosphate group . Located the farthest from the ribose sugar , it has a higher energy of hydrolysis than either the α- or β @-@ phosphate . The bonds formed after hydrolysis – or the phosphorylation of a residue by ATP – are lower in energy than the phosphoanhydride bonds of ATP . During enzyme @-@ catalyzed hydrolysis of ATP or phosphorylation by ATP , the available free energy can be harnessed by a living system to do work .
Any unstable system of potentially reactive molecules could potentially serve as a way of storing free energy , if the cell maintained their concentration far from the equilibrium point of the reaction . However , as is the case with most polymeric biomolecules , the breakdown of RNA , DNA , and ATP into simpler monomers is driven by both energy @-@ release and entropy @-@ increase considerations , in both standard concentrations , and also those concentrations encountered within the cell .
The standard amount of energy released from hydrolysis of ATP can be calculated from the changes in energy under non @-@ natural ( standard ) conditions , then correcting to biological concentrations . The net change in heat energy ( enthalpy ) at standard temperature and pressure of the decomposition of ATP into hydrated ADP and hydrated inorganic phosphate is − 30 @.@ 5 kJ / mol , with a change in free energy of 3 @.@ 4 kJ / mol . The energy released by cleaving either a phosphate ( Pi ) or pyrophosphate ( PPi ) unit from ATP at standard state of 1 M are :
ATP + H
2O → ADP + Pi ΔG °
= − 30 @.@ 5 kJ / mol ( − 7 @.@ 3 kcal / mol )
ATP + H
2O → AMP + PPi ΔG ° =
− 45 @.@ 6 kJ / mol ( − 10 @.@ 9 kcal / mol )
These values can be used to calculate the change in energy under physiological conditions and the cellular ATP / ADP ratio . However , a more representative value ( which takes AMP into consideration ) called the Energy charge is increasingly being employed . The values given for the Gibbs free energy for this reaction are dependent on a number of factors , including overall ionic strength and the presence of alkaline earth metal ions such as Mg2 + and Ca2 + . Under typical cellular conditions , ΔG is approximately − 57 kJ / mol ( − 14 kcal / mol ) .
= = = Ionization in biological systems = = =
ATP ( adenosine triphosphate ) has multiple groups with different acid dissociation constants . In neutral solution , ionized ATP exists mostly as ATP4 − , with a small proportion of ATP3 − . As ATP has several negatively charged groups in neutral solution , it can chelate metals with very high affinity . The binding constant for various metal ions are ( given as per mole ) as Mg2 + ( 9554 ) , Na + ( 13 ) , Ca2 + ( 3722 ) , K + ( 8 ) , Sr2 + ( 1381 ) and Li + ( 25 ) . Due to the strength of these interactions , ATP exists in the cell mostly in a complex with Mg2 + .
= = Biosynthesis = =
The ATP concentration inside the cell is typically 1 – 10 mM . ATP can be produced by redox reactions using simple and complex sugars ( carbohydrates ) or lipids as an energy source . For complex fuels to be synthesized into ATP , they first need to be broken down into smaller , more simple molecules . Carbohydrates are hydrolysed into simple sugars , such as glucose and fructose . Fats ( triglycerides ) are metabolised to give fatty acids and glycerol .
The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide is known as cellular respiration and can produce about 30 molecules of ATP from a single molecule of glucose . ATP can be produced by a number of distinct cellular processes ; the three main pathways used to generate energy in eukaryotic organisms are glycolysis and the citric acid cycle / oxidative phosphorylation , both components of cellular respiration ; and beta @-@ oxidation . The majority of this ATP production by a non @-@ photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote takes place in the mitochondria , which can make up nearly 25 % of the total volume of a typical cell .
= = = Glycolysis = = =
In glycolysis , glucose and glycerol are metabolized to pyruvate via the glycolytic pathway . In most organisms , this process occurs in the cytosol , but , in some protozoa such as the kinetoplastids , this is carried out in a specialized organelle called the glycosome . Glycolysis generates a net two molecules of ATP through substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by two enzymes : PGK and pyruvate kinase . Two molecules of NADH are also produced , which can be oxidized via the electron transport chain and result in the generation of additional ATP by ATP synthase . The pyruvate generated as an end @-@ product of glycolysis is a substrate for the Krebs Cycle .
= = = Glucose = = =
In the mitochondrion , pyruvate is oxidized by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex to the acetyl group , which is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide by the citric acid cycle ( also known as the Krebs cycle ) . Every " turn " of the citric acid cycle produces two molecules of carbon dioxide , one molecule of the ATP equivalent guanosine triphosphate ( GTP ) through substrate @-@ level phosphorylation catalyzed by succinyl @-@ CoA synthetase , three molecules of the reduced coenzyme NADH , and one molecule of the reduced coenzyme FADH2 . Both of these latter molecules are recycled to their oxidized states ( NAD + and FAD , respectively ) via the electron transport chain , which generates additional ATP by oxidative phosphorylation . The oxidation of an NADH molecule results in the synthesis of 2 – 3 ATP molecules , and the oxidation of one FADH2 yields between 1 – 2 ATP molecules . The majority of cellular ATP is generated by this process . Although the citric acid cycle itself does not involve molecular oxygen , it is an obligately aerobic process because O2 is needed to recycle the reduced NADH and FADH2 to their oxidized states . In the absence of oxygen the citric acid cycle will cease to function due to the lack of available NAD + and FAD .
The generation of ATP by the mitochondrion from cytosolic NADH relies on the malate @-@ aspartate shuttle ( and to a lesser extent , the glycerol @-@ phosphate shuttle ) because the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH and NAD + . Instead of transferring the generated NADH , a malate dehydrogenase enzyme converts oxaloacetate to malate , which is translocated to the mitochondrial matrix . Another malate dehydrogenase @-@ catalyzed reaction occurs in the opposite direction , producing oxaloacetate and NADH from the newly transported malate and the mitochondrion 's interior store of NAD + . A transaminase converts the oxaloacetate to aspartate for transport back across the membrane and into the intermembrane space .
In oxidative phosphorylation , the passage of electrons from NADH and FADH2 through the electron transport chain powers the pumping of protons out of the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space . This creates a proton motive force that is the net effect of a pH gradient and an electric potential gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane . Flow of protons down this potential gradient – that is , from the intermembrane space to the matrix – provides the driving force for ATP synthesis by ATP synthase . This enzyme contains a rotor subunit that physically rotates relative to the static portions of the protein during ATP synthesis .
Most of the ATP synthesized in the mitochondria will be used for cellular processes in the cytosol ; thus it must be exported from its site of synthesis in the mitochondrial matrix . The inner membrane contains an antiporter , the ADP / ATP translocase , which is an integral membrane protein used to exchange newly synthesized ATP in the matrix for ADP in the intermembrane space . This translocase is driven by the membrane potential , as it results in the movement of about 4 negative charges out of the mitochondrial membrane in exchange for 3 negative charges moved inside . However , it is also necessary to transport phosphate into the mitochondrion ; the phosphate carrier moves a proton in with each phosphate , partially dissipating the proton gradient .
= = = Beta oxidation = = =
Fatty acids can also be broken down to acetyl @-@ CoA by beta @-@ oxidation . Each round of this cycle reduces the length of the acyl chain by two carbon atoms and produces one NADH and one FADH2 molecule , which are used to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation . Because NADH and FADH2 are energy @-@ rich molecules , dozens of ATP molecules can be generated by the beta @-@ oxidation of a single long acyl chain . The high energy yield of this process and the compact storage of fat explain why it is the most dense source of dietary calories .
= = = Fermentation = = =
Fermentation entails the generation of energy via the process of substrate @-@ level phosphorylation in the absence of a respiratory electron transport chain . In most eukaryotes , glucose is used as both an energy store and an electron donor . The equation for the oxidation of glucose to lactic acid is :
C
6H
12O
6 → 2 CH
3CH ( OH ) COOH + 2 ATP
= = = Anaerobic respiration = = =
Anaerobic respiration is the process of respiration using an electron acceptor other than O
2 . In prokaryotes , multiple electron acceptors can be used in anaerobic respiration . These include nitrate , sulfate or carbon dioxide . These processes lead to the ecologically important processes of denitrification , sulfate reduction and acetogenesis , respectively .
= = = ATP replenishment by nucleoside diphosphate kinases = = =
ATP can also be synthesized through several so @-@ called " replenishment " reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of nucleoside diphosphate kinases ( NDKs ) , which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high @-@ energy phosphate donor , and the ATP : guanido @-@ phosphotransferase family .
= = = ATP production during photosynthesis = = =
In plants , ATP is synthesized in thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light @-@ dependent reactions of photosynthesis in a process called photophosphorylation . Here , light energy is used to pump protons across the chloroplast membrane . This produces a proton @-@ motive force and this drives the ATP synthase , exactly as in oxidative phosphorylation . Some of the ATP produced in the chloroplasts is consumed in the Calvin cycle , which produces triose sugars .
= = = ATP recycling = = =
The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0 @.@ 2 moles . The majority of ATP is not usually synthesised de novo , but is generated from ADP by the aforementioned processes . Thus , at any given time , the total amount of ATP + ADP remains fairly constant .
The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 100 to 150 moles of ATP daily , which is around 50 to 75 kg . A human will typically use up his or her body weight of ATP over the course of the day . This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 500 to 750 times during a single day ( 100 / 0 @.@ 2 = 500 ) . ATP cannot be stored , hence its consumption closely follows its synthesis . However a total of around 5 g of ATP is used by cell processes at any time in the body .
= = Regulation of biosynthesis = =
ATP production in an aerobic eukaryotic cell is tightly regulated by allosteric mechanisms , by feedback effects , and by the substrate concentration dependence of individual enzymes within the glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation pathways . Key control points occur in enzymatic reactions that are so energetically favorable that they are effectively irreversible under physiological conditions .
In glycolysis , hexokinase is directly inhibited by its product , glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate , and pyruvate kinase is inhibited by ATP itself . The main control point for the glycolytic pathway is phosphofructokinase ( PFK ) , which is allosterically inhibited by high concentrations of ATP and activated by high concentrations of AMP . The inhibition of PFK by ATP is unusual , since ATP is also a substrate in the reaction catalyzed by PFK ; the biologically active form of the enzyme is a tetramer that exists in two possible conformations , only one of which binds the second substrate fructose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate ( F6P ) . The protein has two binding sites for ATP – the active site is accessible in either protein conformation , but ATP binding to the inhibitor site stabilizes the conformation that binds F6P poorly . A number of other small molecules can compensate for the ATP @-@ induced shift in equilibrium conformation and reactivate PFK , including cyclic AMP , ammonium ions , inorganic phosphate , and fructose @-@ 1,6- and -2,6 @-@ biphosphate .
The citric acid cycle is regulated mainly by the availability of key substrates , particularly the ratio of NAD + to NADH and the concentrations of calcium , inorganic phosphate , ATP , ADP , and AMP . Citrate – the molecule that gives its name to the cycle – is a feedback inhibitor of citrate synthase and also inhibits PFK , providing a direct link between the regulation of the citric acid cycle and glycolysis .
In oxidative phosphorylation , the key control point is the reaction catalyzed by cytochrome c oxidase , which is regulated by the availability of its substrate – the reduced form of cytochrome c . The amount of reduced cytochrome c available is directly related to the amounts of other substrates :
1 ⁄ 2 NADH + cyt cox + ADP + Pi ⇌ 1 ⁄ 2 NAD + + cyt cred + ATP
which directly implies this equation :
<formula>
Thus , a high ratio of [ NADH ] to [ NAD + ] or a high ratio of [ ADP ] [ Pi ] to [ ATP ] imply a high amount of reduced cytochrome c and a high level of cytochrome c oxidase activity . An additional level of regulation is introduced by the transport rates of ATP and NADH between the mitochondrial matrix and the cytoplasm .
= = Functions in cells = =
= = = Metabolism , synthesis , and active transport = = =
ATP is consumed in the cell by energy @-@ requiring ( endergonic ) processes and can be generated by energy @-@ releasing ( exergonic ) processes . In this way ATP transfers energy between spatially separate metabolic reactions . ATP is the main energy source for the majority of cellular functions . This includes the synthesis of macromolecules , including DNA and RNA ( see below ) , and proteins . ATP also plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules across cell membranes , e.g. exocytosis and endocytosis .
= = = Roles in cell structure and locomotion = = =
ATP is critically involved in maintaining cell structure by facilitating assembly and disassembly of elements of the cytoskeleton . In a related process , ATP is required for the shortening of actin and myosin filament crossbridges required for muscle contraction . This latter process is one of the main energy requirements of animals and is essential for locomotion and respiration .
= = = Cell signalling = = =
= = = = Extracellular signalling = = = =
ATP is also a signalling molecule . ATP , ADP , or adenosine are recognised by purinergic receptors . Purinoreceptors might be the most abundant receptors in mammalian tissues .
In humans , this signalling role is important in both the central and peripheral nervous system . Activity @-@ dependent release of ATP from synapses , axons and glia activates purinergic membrane receptors known as P2 . The P2Y receptors are metabotropic , i.e. G protein @-@ coupled and modulate mainly intracellular calcium and sometimes cyclic AMP levels . Though named between P2Y1 and P2Y15 , only nine members of the P2Y family have been cloned , and some are only related through weak homology and several ( P2Y5 , P2Y7 , P2Y9 , P2Y10 ) do not function as receptors that raise cytosolic calcium . The P2X ionotropic receptor subgroup comprises seven members ( P2X1 – P2X7 ) , which are ligand @-@ gated Ca2 + -
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, requires the presence of a divalent cation , almost always magnesium , which binds to the ATP phosphate groups . The presence of magnesium greatly decreases the dissociation constant of ATP from its protein binding partner without affecting the ability of the enzyme to catalyze its reaction once the ATP has bound . The presence of magnesium ions can serve as a mechanism for kinase regulation .
= = ATP analogues = =
Biochemistry laboratories often use in vitro studies to explore ATP @-@ dependent molecular processes . Enzyme inhibitors of ATP @-@ dependent enzymes such as kinases are needed to examine the binding sites and transition states involved in ATP @-@ dependent reactions . ATP analogs are also used in X @-@ ray crystallography to determine a protein structure in complex with ATP , often together with other substrates . Most useful ATP analogs cannot be hydrolyzed as ATP would be ; instead they trap the enzyme in a structure closely related to the ATP @-@ bound state . Adenosine 5 ′ - ( γ @-@ thiotriphosphate ) is an extremely common ATP analog in which one of the gamma @-@ phosphate oxygens is replaced by a sulfur atom ; this molecule is hydrolyzed at a dramatically slower rate than ATP itself and functions as an inhibitor of ATP @-@ dependent processes . In crystallographic studies , hydrolysis transition states are modeled by the bound vanadate ion . However , caution is warranted in interpreting the results of experiments using ATP analogs , since some enzymes can hydrolyze them at appreciable rates at high concentration .
= Jim Hensley =
James Willis " Jim " Hensley ( April 12 , 1920 – June 21 , 2000 ) was an American businessman in the beer industry .
Hensley was born in Texas and moved to Arizona during his youth . He was a bombardier on B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses during World War II and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . After the war he was convicted of illegal distribution of liquor and was also involved in a racetrack operation that was investigated by authorities .
He founded Hensley & Co. in 1955 . Headquartered in Phoenix , it grew to be one of the largest Anheuser @-@ Busch beer distributorships in the nation . One of Arizona 's richest men at the time of his death , Hensley was the father of Cindy Hensley McCain and the father @-@ in @-@ law of United States Senator and 2000 and 2008 presidential candidate John McCain .
= = Early life , military service and family = =
Hensley was born in San Antonio , Texas to Jessie and James L. Hensley . The family was poor and his father was an alcoholic . They lived in the South until moving to Arizona ; Hensley graduated from Phoenix Union High School in 1936 . He married Mary Jeanne Parks , his high school sweetheart , around 1937 , and worked as a paper salesman .
Hensley and his older brother , Eugene , first began working in the liquor distribution business before World War II , being in the employ of Kemper Marley , Sr. , an Arizona rancher who had become wealthy in that business in Phoenix and Tucson following the end of Prohibition . The brothers started the United Liquor Co. in Phoenix and the United Distribution Co. in Tucson .
Jim Hensley then served three years as an officer in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II . He was a bombardier on B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses . On his thirteenth mission , his plane was shot down over the English Channel ; around the same time , his wife gave birth to their daughter , Kathleen Ann Hensley , in February 1943 . In all , his planes were shot down two or three times . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross .
Hensley was injured during his service , and sent to a West Virginia medical facility to recover . There he met Marguerite " Smitty " Johnson ( born Cairo , Illinois , January 16 , 1919 , died Scottsdale , Arizona , October 11 , 2006 , daughter of Swedish American parents ) , who had one daughter , Dixie , from a previous relationship . Hensley divorced his wife , and shortly thereafter married Marguerite on March 29 , 1945 in Memphis , Tennessee while on leave from the USAAF . They would have one child together , Cindy Lou Hensley , born 1954 . Hensley 's first daughter grew up with her mother , but he maintained occasional contact with her .
= = Early business career , legal issues = =
Following his discharge in 1945 , Hensley and his brother went back to work for Marley in his United Sales Company in Phoenix and United Distributors in Tucson . In 1948 , both brothers were prosecuted by the federal government and convicted of multiple counts of falsifying liquor records in a conspiracy to conceal illegal distribution of whiskey against post @-@ war rationing regulations . Jim Hensley received a six @-@ month sentence ( later upheld but suspended by an appeals court ) while his brother received a year in federal prison , and both were fined . In 1953 , Jim Hensley and Marley were charged by federal prosecutors with falsifying liquor records . Defended by future Supreme Court Justice William Rehnquist , they were acquitted .
In December 1952 , the Hensley brothers bought into the Ruidoso Downs racetrack in New Mexico , with Eugene running it and Jim returning to Phoenix . In a May 1953 hearing before the New Mexico State Racing Commission , the Hensley brothers concealed the existence an equal partner , Clarence " Teak " Baldwin , who had been banned from any ownership role due to illegal bookmaking activities . A 1953 New Mexico State Police investigation found further that Kemper Marley was a financial backer for bookmakers and had connections with Baldwin and with the bookmaking operations of organized crime , a conclusion echoed decades later by the Arizona Project investigative reporting team . The Hensley brothers gained their Ruidoso Downs racetrack license in 1953 , as no New Mexico law barred convicted felons from race track ownership , although in 1955 new Governor of New Mexico John F. Simms would say he was " appalled " by the previous administration 's decision to do so . Previous Governor Edwin L. Mechem had defended the approval , saying that the Hensleys had been under constant surveillance and deserved continued attention , but that no action was taken against them because the investigation showed that as race tracks go , all laws apparently were being observed . Jim Hensley would sell his interest in Ruidoso Downs to his brother Eugene in 1955 ( who would in turn sell it to a Marley @-@ connected company in 1969 ) .
= = Hensley & Co . = =
In 1955 , Hensley founded the beer distributorship that would have his name , borrowing $ 10 @,@ 000 against everything he had to buy a small existing distributorship . He was given a state liquor license despite his normally disqualifying past felony conviction . At the start it had 15 workers , sold 73 @,@ 000 cases of beer a year , and had a 6 percent market share . Hensley soon switched to exclusively distributing Anheuser @-@ Busch beer . Under the early names Hensley & Company Distributors and Hensley & Company Wholesale , the company saw decades of steady growth . It was aided by the Phoenix area becoming one of the fastest @-@ growing regions of the country while the company maintained its position as Anheuser @-@ Busch 's only distributor there . Jim Hensley 's tireless sales efforts and the generous wages and benefits he gave employees were also key success factors . By 1980 the business had become quite successful and Jim Hensley was a multi @-@ millionaire . Hensley had also distanced himself from Marley , and had helped set up a local hospital ; nevertheless , he was never fully accepted by the Phoenix establishment .
In 1981 , Hensley hired his new son @-@ in @-@ law John McCain , recently married to his daughter Cindy , as Vice President of Public Relations for Hensley & Co . McCain soon left to begin his Congressional career with a victory in the 1982 election for U.S. House of Representatives . Jim Hensley 's past record with the law , as well as his past connection to Marley ( who was suspected by the police in the 1976 car @-@ bomb murder of Arizona Republic investigative reporter Don Bolles ) , were raised by McCain 's opponent in the 1986 general election campaign for the U.S. Senate . McCain won that election handily .
As his business continued to grow , Hensley became one of Arizona 's richest men , although he never sought publicity . He held most of the controlling stock in Hensley & Co . , although by 2000 his health was poor and he had withdrawn from daily operational control . With 500 employees , annual revenues at the time were about $ 220 million on 20 million cases of beer sold ; Hensley & Co. was the second @-@ largest Anheuser @-@ Busch distributor in the nation , the fifth @-@ largest beer distributorship overall in the nation and the 12th largest privately held company in Arizona . Jim Hensley was a major contributor to charity in the Phoenix metropolitan area as well , starting the Hensley Family Foundation . He also supported groups such as NASCAR and Gilbert Rodeo Days .
Hensley died in Phoenix on June 21 , 2000 . His frequently @-@ amended will left his entire estate to Cindy Hensley McCain , who became the controlling stockholder and chair of the board after his death . His first daughter Kathleen , her husband and children had received substantial ongoing gifts , credit cards , and college tuition payments in the decade before his death , but were left only one modest lump sum from his estate .
= Everglades =
The Everglades ( or Pa @-@ hay @-@ okee ) are a natural region of tropical wetlands in the southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida , comprising the southern half of a large drainage basin and part of the neotropic ecozone . The system begins near Orlando with the Kissimmee River , which discharges into the vast but shallow Lake Okeechobee . Water leaving the lake in the wet season forms a slow @-@ moving river 60 miles ( 97 km ) wide and over 100 miles ( 160 km ) long , flowing southward across a limestone shelf to Florida Bay at the southern end of the state . The Everglades experience a wide range of weather patterns , from frequent flooding in the wet season to drought in the dry season . Writer Marjory Stoneman Douglas popularized the term " River of Grass " to describe the sawgrass marshes , part of a complex system of interdependent ecosystems that include cypress swamps , the estuarine mangrove forests of the Ten Thousand Islands , tropical hardwood hammocks , pine rockland , and the marine environment of Florida Bay .
Human habitation in the southern portion of the Florida peninsula dates to 15 @,@ 000 years ago . Before European colonization , the region was dominated by the native Calusa and Tequesta tribes . With Spanish colonization , both tribes declined gradually during the following two centuries . The Seminole formed from mostly Creek people who had been warring to the North ; they assimilated other peoples and created a new culture . After being forced from northern Florida into the Everglades during the Seminole Wars of the early 19th century , they adapted to the region and were able to resist removal by the United States Army .
Migrants to the region who wanted to develop plantations first proposed draining the Everglades in 1848 , but no work of this type was attempted until 1882 . Canals were constructed throughout the first half of the 20th century , and spurred the South Florida economy , prompting land development . In 1947 , Congress formed the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project , which built 1 @,@ 400 miles ( 2 @,@ 300 km ) of canals , levees , and water control devices . The Miami metropolitan area grew substantially at this time and Everglades water was diverted to cities . Portions of the Everglades were transformed into farmland , where the primary crop was sugarcane . Approximately 50 percent of the original Everglades has been developed as agricultural or urban areas .
Following this period of rapid development and environmental degradation , the ecosystem began to receive notable attention from conservation groups in the 1970s . Internationally , UNESCO and the Ramsar Convention designated the Everglades a Wetland Area of Global Importance . The construction of a large airport 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Everglades National Park was blocked when an environmental study found that it would severely damage the South Florida ecosystem . With heightened awareness and appreciation of the region , restoration began in the 1980s with the removal of a canal that had straightened the Kissimmee River . However , development and sustainability concerns have remained pertinent in the region . The deterioration of the Everglades , including poor water quality in Lake Okeechobee , was linked to the diminishing quality of life in South Florida 's urban areas . In 2000 the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan was approved by congress to combat these problems . To date , it is the most expensive and comprehensive environmental restoration attempt in history , but its implementation has faced political complications .
= = Names = =
The first written record of the Everglades was on Spanish maps made by cartographers who had not seen the land . They named the unknown area between the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of Florida Laguna del Espíritu Santo ( " Lake of the Holy Spirit " ) . The area was featured on maps for decades without having been explored . Writer John Grant Forbes stated in 1811 , " The Indians represent [ the Southern points ] as impenetrable ; and the [ British ] surveyors , wreckers , and coasters , had not the means of exploring beyond the borders of the sea coast , and the mouths of rivers " .
British surveyor John Gerard de Brahm , who mapped the coast of Florida in 1773 , called the area " River Glades " . Both Marjory Stoneman Douglas and linguist Wallace McMullen suggest that cartographers substituted " Ever " for " River " . The name " Everglades " first appeared on a map in 1823 , although it was also spelled as " Ever Glades " as late as 1851 . The Seminole call it Pa @-@ hay @-@ okee , meaning " Grassy Water . " The region was labeled " Pa @-@ hai @-@ okee " on an American military map from 1839 , although it had earlier been called " Ever Glades " throughout the Second Seminole War .
A 2007 survey by geographers Ary J. Lamme and Raymond K. Oldakowski found that the " Glades " has emerged as a distinct vernacular region of Florida . It comprises the interior areas and southernmost Gulf Coast of South Florida , largely corresponding to the Everglades itself . It is one of the most sparsely populated areas of the state .
= = Geology = =
The geology of South Florida , together with a warm , wet , subtropical climate , provides conditions well @-@ suited for a large marshland ecosystem . Layers of porous and permeable limestone create water @-@ bearing rock and soil that affect the climate , weather , and hydrology of South Florida . The properties of the rock underneath the Everglades can be explained by the geologic history of the state . The crust underneath Florida was at one point part of the African region of the supercontinent Gondwana . About 300 million years ago , North America merged with Africa , connecting Florida with North America . Volcanic activity centered on the eastern side of Florida covered the prevalent sedimentary rock with igneous rock . Continental rifting began to separate North America from Gondwana about 180 million years ago . When Florida was part of Africa , it was initially above water , but during the cooler Jurassic Period , the Florida Platform became a shallow marine environment in which sedimentary rocks were deposited . Through the Cretaceous Period , most of Florida remained a tropical sea floor of varying depths . The peninsula has been covered by seawater at least seven times since the bedrock formed .
= = = Limestone and aquifers = = =
Fluctuating sea levels compressed numerous layers of calcium carbonate , sand , and shells . The resulting permeable limestone formations that developed between 25 million and 70 million years ago created the Floridan Aquifer , which serves as the main source of fresh water for the northern portion of Florida . However , this aquifer lies beneath thousands of feet of impermeable sedimentary rock from Lake Okeechobee to the southern tip of the peninsula .
Five geologic formations make up the southern portion of Florida : the Tamiami Formation , Caloosahatchee Formation , Anastasia Formation , Miami Limestone ( or Miami Oolite ) , and the Fort Thompson Formation . The Tamiami Formation is a compression of highly permeable light colored fossiliferous sands and pockets of quartz , 150 feet ( 46 m ) thick . It is named for the Tamiami Trail that follows the upper bedrock of the Big Cypress Swamp , and underlies the southern portion of the Everglades . Between the Tamiami Formation and Lake Okeechobee is the Caloosahatchee Formation , named for the river over it . Much less permeable , this formation is highly calcitic and is composed of sandy shell marl , clay , and sand . Water underneath the Caloosahatchee Formation is typically very mineralized . Both the Tamiami and Caloosahatchee Formations developed during the Pliocene Epoch .
Surrounding the southern part of Lake Okeechobee is the Fort Thompson Formation , made of dense , hard limestone , shells , and sand . Rain water is less likely to erode the limestone to form solution holes — smaller versions of sinkholes that do not intersect with the water table . In this formation the beds are generally impermeable . Underneath the metropolitan areas of Palm Beach County is the Anastasia Formation , composed of shelly limestone , coquina , and sand representing a former mangrove or salt marsh . The Anastasia Formation is much more permeable and filled with pocks and solution holes . The Fort Thompson and Anastasia Formations , and Miami Limestone and ( x ) , were formed during the Sangamon interglacial period .
The geologic formations that have the most influence on the Everglades are the Miami Limestone and the Fort Thompson Formation . The Miami Limestone forms the floor of the lower Everglades . The Miami Limestone is made up of ooids : tiny formations of egg @-@ shaped concentric shells and calcium carbonate , formed around a single grain of sand . The Miami Limestone was formerly named the Miami Oolite , which comprises facies of ooids and fossilized bryozoan organisms . The unique structure was some of the first material used in housing in early 20th @-@ century South Florida . The composition of this sedimentary formation affects the hydrology , plant life , and wildlife above it : the rock is especially porous and stores water during the dry season in the Everglades , and its chemical composition determines the vegetation prevalent in the region . The Miami Limestone also acts as a dam between Fort Lauderdale and Coot Bay .
The metropolitan areas of Miami , Fort Lauderdale , and West Palm Beach are located on a rise in elevation along the eastern coast of Florida , called the Eastern Coastal Ridge , that was formed as waves compressed ooids into a single formation . Along the western border of the Big Cypress Swamp is the Immokolee Ridge ( or Immokolee Rise ) , a slight rise of compressed sand that divides the runoff between the Caloosahatchee River and The Big Cypress . This slight rise in elevation on both sides of the Everglades creates a basin , and forces water that overflows Lake Okeechobee to creep toward the southwest . Under both the Miami Limestone formation and the Fort Thompson limestone lies the Biscayne Aquifer , a surface aquifer that serves as the Miami metropolitan area 's fresh water source . Rainfall and stored water in the Everglades replenish the Biscayne Aquifer directly .
With the rise of sea levels that occurred during the Pleistocene approximately 17 @,@ 000 years ago , the runoff of water from Lake Okeechobee slowed and created the vast marshland that is now known as the Everglades . Slower runoff also created an accumulation of almost 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) of peat in the area . The presence of such peat deposits , dated to about 5 @,@ 000 years ago , is evidence that widespread flooding had occurred by then .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The consistent Everglades flooding is fed by the extensive Kissimmee , Caloosahatchee , Myakka , and Peace Rivers in central Florida . The Kissimmee River is a broad floodplain that empties directly into Lake Okeechobee , which at 730 square miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km2 ) with an average depth of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) , is a vast but shallow lake . Soil deposits in the Everglades basin indicate that peat is deposited where the land is flooded consistently throughout the year . Calcium deposits are left behind when flooding is shorter . The deposits occur in areas where water rises and falls depending on rainfall , as opposed to water being stored in the rock from one year to the next . Calcium deposits are present where more limestone is exposed .
The area from Orlando to the tip of the Florida peninsula was at one point a single drainage unit . When rainfall exceeded the capacity of Lake Okeechobee and the Kissimmee River floodplain , it spilled over and flowed in a southwestern direction to empty into Florida Bay . Prior to urban and agricultural development in Florida , the Everglades began at the southern edge of Lake Okeechobee and flowed for approximately 100 miles ( 160 km ) , emptying into the Gulf of Mexico . The limestone shelf is wide and slightly angled instead of having a narrow , deep channel characteristic of most rivers . The vertical gradient from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is about 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) per mile , creating an almost 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) wide expanse of river that travels about half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) a day . This slow movement of a broad , shallow river is known as sheetflow , and gives the Everglades its nickname , River of Grass . Water leaving Lake Okeechobee may require months or years to reach its final destination , Florida Bay . The sheetflow travels so slowly that water is typically stored from one wet season to the next in the porous limestone substrate . The ebb and flow of water has shaped the land and every ecosystem in South Florida throughout the Everglades ' estimated 5 @,@ 000 years of existence . The motion of water defines plant communities and how animals adapt to their habitats and food sources .
= = Climate = =
The climate of South Florida is located across the broad transition zone between subtropical and tropical climates ( Koppen Cf and Aw ) . Like most regions with this climate type , there are two basic seasons - a " dry season " ( winter ) which runs from November through April , and a " wet season " ( summer ) which runs from May through October . About 70 % of the annual rainfall in south Florida occurs in the wet season - often as brief but intense tropical downpours . The dry season sees little rainfall and dew points and humidity are often quite low . The dry season can be severe at times , as wildfires and water restrictions are often in place .
The annual range of temperatures in south Florida and the Everglades is rather small ( less than 20 F ) - ranging from a monthly mean temperature of around 65 F ( 18 C ) in January , to 83 F ( 29 C ) in July . High temperatures in the hot and wet season ( summer ) typically exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) across inland south Florida ( although coastal locations are cooled by winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean ) , while high temperatures in the dry winter season average in the 70 's F. Frost and freeze is rare across south Florida and the Everglades , annually coastal cities like Miami and Naples report zero days with frost , although a few times each decade low temperatures may fall to 30 to 40 F across South Florida . Annual rainfall averages approximately 62 inches ( 160 cm ) , with the Eastern Coastal Ridge receiving the majority of precipitation and the area surrounding Lake Okeechobee receiving about 48 inches ( 120 cm ) .
Unlike any other wetland system on earth , the Everglades are sustained primarily by the atmosphere . Evapotranspiration — the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth 's land surface to atmosphere — associated with thunderstorms , is the key mechanism by which water leaves the region . During a year unaffected by drought , the rate may reach 40 inches ( 100 cm ) a year . When droughts take place , the rate may peak at over 50 inches ( 130 cm ) , and exceed the amount of rainfall . As water leaves an area through evaporation from groundwater or from plant matter , activated primarily by solar energy , it is then moved by wind patterns to other areas that border or flow into the Everglades watershed system . Evapotranspiration is responsible for approximately 70 – 90 percent of water entering undeveloped wetland regions in the Everglades .
Precipitation during the wet season is primarily caused by air mass thunderstorms and the easterly flow out of the subtropical high ( Bermuda High ) . Intense daytime heating of the ground causes the warm moist tropical air to rise , creating the afternoon thundershowers typical of tropical climates . 2 : 00 PM is the mean time of daily thundershowers across South Florida and the Everglades . Late in the wet season ( August and September ) , precipitation levels reach their highest levels as tropical depressions and lows add to daily rainfall . Occasionally , tropical lows can become severe tropical cyclones and cause significant damage when the make landfall across south Florida . Tropical storms average one a year , and major hurricanes about once every ten years . Between 1871 and 1981 , 138 tropical cyclones struck directly over or close to the Everglades . Strong winds from these storms disperse plant seeds and replenish mangrove forests , coral reefs , and other ecosystems . Dramatic fluctuations in precipitation are characteristic of the South Florida climate . Droughts , floods , and tropical cyclones are part of the natural water system in the Everglades .
= = Formative and sustaining processes = =
The Everglades are a complex system of interdependent ecosystems . Marjory Stoneman Douglas described the area as a " River of Grass " in 1947 , though that metaphor represents only a portion of the system . The area recognized as the Everglades , prior to drainage , was a web of marshes and prairies 4 @,@ 000 square miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km2 ) in size . Borders between ecosystems are subtle or imperceptible . These systems shift , grow and shrink , die , or reappear within years or decades . Geologic factors , climate , and the frequency of fire help to create , maintain , or replace the ecosystems in the Everglades .
= = = Water = = =
Water is the dominant force in the Everglades , shaping the land , vegetation , and animal life in South Florida . Starting at the last glacial maximum , 21 @,@ 000 years ago , continental ice sheets retreated and sea levels rose . This submerged portions of the Florida peninsula and caused the water table to rise . Fresh water saturated the limestone that underlies the Everglades , eroding some of it away , and created springs and sinkholes . The abundance of fresh water allowed new vegetation to take root , and formed convective thunderstorms over the land through evaporation .
As rain continued to fall , the slightly acidic rainwater dissolved the limestone . As limestone wore away , the groundwater came into contact with the land surface and created a massive wetland ecosystem . Although the region appears flat , weathering of the limestone created slight valleys and plateaus in some areas . These plateaus rise and fall only a few inches , but on the subtle South Florida topography these small variations affect both the flow of water and the types of vegetation that can take hold .
= = = Rock = = =
The underlying bedrock or limestone of the Everglades basin affects the hydroperiod , or how long an area within the region stays flooded throughout the year . Longer hydroperiods are possible in areas that were submerged beneath seawater for longer periods of time , while the geology of Florida was forming . More water is held within the porous ooids and limestone than older types of rock that spent more time above sea level . A hydroperiod of ten months or more fosters growth of sawgrass , whereas a shorter hydroperiod of six months or less promotes beds of periphyton , a growth of algae and other microscopic organisms . There are only two types of soil in the Everglades , peat and marl . Where there are longer hydroperiods , peat builds up over hundreds or thousands of years due to many generations of decaying plant matter . Where periphyton grows , the soil develops into marl , which is more calcitic in composition .
Initial attempts at developing agriculture near Lake Okeechobee were successful , but the nutrients in the peat were rapidly removed . In a process called soil subsidence , oxidation of peat causes loss of volume . Bacteria decompose dead sawgrass slowly underwater without oxygen . When the water was drained in the 1920s and bacteria interacted with oxygen , an aerobic reaction occurred . Microorganisms degraded the peat into carbon dioxide and water . Some of the peat was burned by settlers to clear the land . Some homes built in the areas of early farms had to have their foundations moved to stilts as the peat deteriorated ; other areas lost approximately 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of soil depth .
= = = Fire = = =
Fire is an important element in the natural maintenance of the Everglades . The majority of fires are caused by lightning strikes from thunderstorms during the wet season . Their effects are largely superficial , and serve to foster specific plant growth : sawgrass will burn above water , but the roots are preserved underneath . Fire in the sawgrass marshes serves to keep out larger bushes and trees , and releases nutrients from decaying plant matter more efficiently than decomposition . Whereas in the wet season , dead plant matter and the tips of grasses and trees are burned , in the dry season the fire may be fed by organic peat and burn deeply , destroying root systems . Fires are confined by existing water and rainfall . It takes approximately 225 years for one foot ( .30 m ) of peat to develop , but in some locations the peat is less dense than it should be for the 5 @,@ 000 years of the Everglades ' existence . Scientists indicate fire as the cause ; it is also cited as the reason for the black color of Everglades muck . Layers of charcoal have been detected in the peat in portions of the Everglades that indicate the region endured severe fires for years at a time , although this trend seems to have abated since the last occurrence in 940 BCE .
= = Ecosystems = =
= = = Sawgrass marshes and sloughs = = =
Several ecosystems are present in the Everglades , and boundaries between them are subtle or absent . The primary feature of the Everglades is the sawgrass marsh . The iconic water and sawgrass combination in the shallow river 100 miles ( 160 km ) long and 60 miles ( 97 km ) wide that spans from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is often referred to as the " true Everglades " or just " the Glades " . Prior to the first drainage attempts in 1905 , the sheetflow occupied nearly a third of the lower Florida peninsula . Sawgrass thrives in the slowly moving water , but may die in unusually deep floods if oxygen is unable to reach its roots . It is particularly vulnerable immediately after a fire . The hydroperiod for the marsh is at least nine months , and can last longer . Where sawgrass grows densely , few animals or other plants live , although alligators choose these locations for nesting . Where there is more room , periphyton grows . Periphyton supports larval insects and amphibians , which in turn are consumed as food by birds , fish , and reptiles . It also absorbs calcium from water , which adds to the calcitic composition of the marl .
Sloughs , or free @-@ flowing channels of water , develop in between sawgrass prairies . Sloughs are about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) deeper than sawgrass marshes , and may stay flooded for at least 11 months out of the year and sometimes multiple years in a row . Aquatic animals such as turtles , alligators , snakes , and fish thrive in sloughs ; they usually feed on aquatic invertebrates . Submerged and floating plants grow here , such as bladderwort ( Utricularia ) , waterlily ( Nymphaeaceae ) , and spatterdock ( Nuphar lutea ) . Major sloughs in the Everglades system include the Shark River Slough flowing out to Florida Bay , Lostmans River Slough bordering The Big Cypress , and Taylor Slough in the eastern Everglades .
Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes , but with greater plant diversity . The surface is covered in water only three to seven months of the year , and the water is , on average , shallow at only 4 inches ( 10 cm ) deep . When flooded , the marl can support a variety of water plants . Solution holes , or deep pits where the limestone has worn away , may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry , and they support aquatic invertebrates such as crayfish and snails , and larval amphibians which feed young wading birds . These regions tend to border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes .
Alligators have created a niche in wet prairies . With their claws and snouts they dig at low spots and create ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season . Alligator holes are integral to the survival of aquatic invertebrates , turtles , fish , small mammals , and birds during extended drought periods . The alligators then feed upon some of the animals that come to the hole .
= = = Tropical hardwood hammock = = =
Small islands of trees growing on land raised between 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above sloughs and prairies are called tropical hardwood hammocks . They may range from one ( 4 @,@ 000 m ² ) to ten acres ( 40 @,@ 000 m ² ) in area , and appear in freshwater sloughs , sawgrass prairies , or pineland . Hammocks are slightly elevated on limestone plateaus risen several inches above the surrounding peat , or they may grow on land that has been unharmed by deep peat fires . Hardwood hammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees , such as Southern live oak ( Quercus virginiana ) , gumbo limbo ( Bursera simaruba ) , royal palm ( Roystonea ) , and bustic ( Dipholis salicifolia ) that grow in very dense clumps . Near the base , sharp saw palmettos ( Serenoa repens ) flourish , making the hammocks very difficult for people to penetrate , though small mammals , reptiles and amphibians find these islands an ideal habitat . Water in sloughs flows around the islands , creating moats . Though some ecosystems are maintained and promoted by fire , hammocks may take decades or centuries to recover . The moats around the hammocks protect the trees . The trees are limited in height by weather factors such as frost , lightning , and wind ; the majority of trees in hammocks grow no higher than 55 feet ( 17 m ) .
= = = Pineland = = =
Some of the driest land in the Everglades is pineland ( also called pine rockland ) ecosystem , located in the highest part of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod . Some floors , however , may have flooded solution holes or puddles for a few months at a time . The most significant feature of the pineland is the single species of South Florida slash pine ( Pinus elliottii ) . Pineland communities require fire to maintain them , and the trees have several adaptations that simultaneously promote and resist fire . The sandy floor of the pine forest is covered with dry pine needles that are highly flammable . South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat . Fire eliminates competing vegetation on the forest floor , and opens pine cones to germinate seeds . A period without significant fire can turn pineland into a hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines . The understory shrubs in pine rocklands are the fire @-@ resistant saw palmetto ( Serenoa repens ) , cabbage palm ( Sabal palmetto ) , and West Indian lilac ( Tetrazygia bicolor ) . The most diverse group of plants in the pine community are the herbs , of which there are two dozen species . These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms that allow them to sprout quickly after being charred .
Prior to urban development of the South Florida region , pine rocklands covered approximately 161 @,@ 660 acres ( 654 @.@ 2 km2 ) in Miami @-@ Dade County . Within Everglades National Park , 19 @,@ 840 acres ( 80 @.@ 3 km2 ) of pine forests are protected , but outside the park , 1 @,@ 780 acres ( 7 @.@ 2 km2 ) of pine communities remained as of 1990 , averaging 12 @.@ 1 acres ( 49 @,@ 000 m2 ) in area . The misunderstanding of the role of fire also played a part in the disappearance of pine forests in the area , as natural fires were put out and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks . Prescribed fires occur in Everglades National Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years .
= = = Cypress = = =
Cypress swamps can be found throughout the Everglades , but the largest covers most of Collier County . The Big Cypress Swamp is located to the west of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs , and it is commonly called " The Big Cypress . " The name refers to its area rather than the height or diameter of the trees ; at its most conservative estimate , the swamp measures 1 @,@ 200 square miles ( 3 @,@ 100 km2 ) , but the hydrologic boundary of The Big Cypress can be calculated at over 2 @,@ 400 square miles ( 6 @,@ 200 km2 ) . Most of The Big Cypress sits atop a bedrock covered by a thinner layer of limestone . The limestone underneath the Big Cypress contains quartz , which creates sandy soil that hosts a variety of vegetation different from what is found in other areas of the Everglades . The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches ( 140 cm ) of water in the wet season .
Though The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in South Florida , cypress swamps can be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between Lake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods , as well as in sawgrass marshes . Cypresses are deciduous conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions , with buttressed trunks and root projections that protrude out of the water , called " knees " . Bald cypress trees grow in formations with the tallest and thickest trunks in the center , rooted in the deepest peat . As the peat thins out , cypresses grow smaller and thinner , giving the small forest the appearance of a dome from the outside . They also grow in strands , slightly elevated on a ridge of limestone bordered on either side by sloughs . Other hardwood trees can be found in cypress domes , such as red maple , swamp bay , and pop ash . If cypresses are removed , the hardwoods take over , and the ecosystem is recategorized as a mixed swamp forest .
= = = Mangrove and Coastal prairie = = =
Eventually the water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress makes its way to the ocean . Mangrove trees are well adapted to the transitional zone of brackish water where fresh and salt water meet . The estuarine ecosystem of the Ten Thousand Islands , which is comprised almost completely of mangrove forests , covers almost 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 km2 ) . In the wet season fresh water pours out into Florida Bay , and sawgrass begins to grow closer to the coastline . In the dry season , and particularly in extended periods of drought , the salt water creeps inland into the coastal prairie , an ecosystem that buffers the freshwater marshes by absorbing sea water . Mangrove trees begin to grow in fresh water ecosystems when the salt water goes far enough inland .
There are three species of trees that are considered mangroves : red ( Rhizophora mangle ) , black ( Avicennia germinans ) , and white ( Laguncularia racemosa ) , although all are from different families . All grow in oxygen @-@ poor soil , can survive drastic water level changes , and are tolerant of salt , brackish , and fresh water . All three mangrove species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms . Red mangroves have the farthest @-@ reaching roots , trapping sediments that help build coastlines after and between storms . All three types of trees absorb the energy of waves and storm surges . Everglades mangroves also serve as nurseries for crustaceans and fish , and rookeries for birds . The region supports Tortugas pink shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus duorarum ) and stone crab ( Menippe mercenaria ) industries ; between 80 and 90 percent of commercially harvested crustacean species in Florida 's salt waters are born or spend time near the Everglades .
= = = Florida Bay = = =
Much of the coast and the inner estuaries are built of mangroves ; there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay . Thus the marine ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered to be a part of the Everglades watershed and one of the ecosystems connected to and affected by the Everglades as a whole . More than 800 square miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km2 ) of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park , representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries . There are approximately 100 keys in Florida Bay , many of which are mangrove forests . The fresh water coming into Florida Bay from the Everglades creates perfect conditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that are the foundation for animal life in the bay . Sea turtles and manatees eat the grass , while invertebrate animals , such as worms , clams and other mollusks eat the algae formations and microscopic plankton . Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore , and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay . Sea grasses also serve to stabilize the sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves .
= = History = =
= = = Native Americans = = =
Humans arrived in the Florida peninsula approximately 15 @,@ 000 years ago . Paleo @-@ Indians came to Florida probably following large game that included giant sloths , saber @-@ toothed cats , and spectacled bears . They found an arid landscape that supported plants and animals adapted for desert conditions . However , 6 @,@ 500 years ago , climate changes brought a wetter landscape ; large animals became extinct in Florida , and the Paleo @-@ Indians slowly adapted and became the Archaic peoples . They conformed to the environmental changes , and created many tools with the various resources available . During the Late Archaic period , the climate became wetter again , and approximately 3000 BCE the rise of water tables allowed an increase in population and cultural activity . Florida Indians developed into three distinct but similar cultures that were named for the bodies of water near where they were located : Okeechobee , Caloosahatchee , and Glades .
= = = = Calusa and Tequesta = = = =
From the Glades peoples , two major nations emerged in the area : the Calusa and the Tequesta . The Calusa was the largest and most powerful nation in South Florida . It controlled fifty villages located on Florida 's west coast , around Lake Okeechobee , and on the Florida Keys . Most Calusa villages were located at the mouths of rivers or on key islands . The Calusa were hunter @-@ gatherers who lived on small game , fish , turtles , alligators , shellfish , and various plants . Most of their tools were made of bone or teeth , although sharpened reeds were also effective for hunting or war . Calusa weapons consisted of bows and arrows , atlatls , and spears . Canoes were used for transportation , and South Florida tribes often canoed through the Everglades , but rarely lived in them . Canoe trips to Cuba were also common .
Estimated numbers of Calusa at the beginning of the Spanish occupation ranged from 4 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 . The society declined in power and population ; by 1697 their number was estimated to be about 1 @,@ 000 . In the early 18th century , the Calusa came under attack from the Yamasee to the north . They asked the Spanish for refuge in Cuba , where almost 200 died of illness . Soon they were relocated again to the Florida Keys .
Second in power and number to the Calusa in South Florida were the Tequesta . They occupied the southeastern portion of the lower peninsula in modern @-@ day Dade and Broward counties . Like the Calusa , the Tequesta societies centered on the mouths of rivers . Their main village was probably on the Miami River or Little River . Spanish depictions of the Tequesta state that they were greatly feared by sailors , who suspected them of torturing and killing survivors of shipwrecks . Spanish priests attempted to set up missions in 1743 , but noted that the Tequesta were under assault from a neighboring tribe . When only 30 members were left , they were removed to Havana . A British surveyor in 1770 described multiple deserted villages in the region where the Tequesta lived . Common descriptions of Native Americans in Florida by 1820 used only the term " Seminoles " .
= = = = Seminole = = = =
Following the demise of the Calusa and Tequesta , Native Americans in southern Florida were referred to as " Spanish Indians " in the 1740s , probably due to their friendlier relations with Spain . The Creek invaded the Florida peninsula ; they conquered and assimilated what was left of pre @-@ Columbian societies into the Creek Confederacy . They were joined by remnant Indian groups and formed the Seminole , a new tribe , by ethnogenesis . The Seminole originally settled in the northern portion of the territory . In addition , free blacks and fugitive slaves made their way to Florida , where Spain had promised slaves freedom and arms if they converted to Catholicism and pledged loyalty to Spain . These African Americans gradually created communities near those of the Seminole , and became known as the Black Seminoles . The groups acted as allies .
In 1817 , Andrew Jackson invaded Florida to hasten its annexation to the United States , in what became known as the First Seminole War . After Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821 , conflicts between settlers and the Seminole increased as the former tried to acquire lands . The Second Seminole War lasted from 1835 to 1842 , and afterward , the US forcibly removed about 3 @,@ 000 Seminole and 800 Black Seminole to Indian Territory ( now Oklahoma ) , west of the Mississippi River . Many others died in the war . Conflict broke out again in the Third Seminole War from 1855 to 1859 , when a few hundred Seminole fought off US forces from the swamps of the Everglades . The US finally decided to leave them alone , as they could not dislodge them even after this protracted and expensive warfare .
By 1913 , the Seminole in the Everglades numbered no more than 325 . They made a living by hunting and trading with white settlers , and raised domesticated animals . The Seminole made their villages in hardwood hammocks or pinelands , had diets of hominy and coontie roots , fish , turtles , venison , and small game . Their villages were not large , due to the limited size of the hammocks . Between the end of the last Seminole War and 1930 , the people lived in relative isolation from the majority culture .
The construction of the Tamiami Trail , beginning in 1928 and spanning the region from Tampa to Miami , altered their ways of life . Some began to work in local farms , ranches , and souvenir stands . Some of the people who interacted more with European Americans began to move to reservations in the 1940s . These were their bases for reorganizing their government and they became federally recognized in 1957 as the Seminole Tribe of Florida .
People who kept more traditional ways had settlements along the Tamiami Trail and tended to speak the Mikasuki language . They later were federally recognized in 1962 as the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida . As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow , the two groups were closely associated with the Everglades . They struggled to maintain privacy while serving as tourist attractions . They earned money by wrestling alligators and selling craftworks . As of 2008 , the Seminole Tribe of Florida had five reservations , and the lands of the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians were collectively considered a sixth reservation . The two tribes have each developed casino gaming on some of their properties to generate revenue for support , services and economic development .
= = = Exploration = = =
The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood and largely unknown part of the country . An 1840 expedition into the Everglades offered the first printed account for the general public to read about the Everglades . The anonymous writer described the terrain the party was crossing :
" No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it ; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees , and expressly intended as a retreat for the rascally Indian , from which the white man would never seek to drive them " .
The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of both wonder or hatred . During the Second Seminole War an army surgeon wrote , " It is in fact a most hideous region to live in , a perfect paradise for Indians , alligators , serpents , frogs , and every other kind of loathsome reptile . " In 1897 , explorer Hugh Willoughby spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the Harney River to the Miami River . He sent his observations to the New Orleans Times @-@ Democrat . Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome , with numerous springs , and 10 @,@ 000 alligators " more or less " in Lake Okeechobee . The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River , " killing hundreds , but they continued to return " . Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been explored and mapped except for this part of Florida , writing , " ( w ) e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa . "
= = = Drainage = = =
A national push for expansion and progress in the United States occurred in the later part of the 19th century , which stimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use . According to historians , " From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century , the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned . Indeed , it was considered the proper thing to do . " Draining the Everglades was suggested as early as 1837 , and a resolution in Congress was passed in 1842 that prompted Secretary of Treasury Robert J. Walker to request those with experience in the Everglades to give their opinion on the possibility of drainage . Many officers who had served in the Seminole Wars favored the idea . In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries . The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands . Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for any attempts , though the Civil War and Reconstruction halted progress until after 1877 .
After the Civil War , a state agency called the Internal Improvement Fund ( IIF ) , whose purpose was to improve Florida 's roads , canals , and rail lines , was discovered to be deeply in debt . The IIF found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disston interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture . Disston purchased 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land for $ 1 million in 1881 , and he began constructing canals near St. Cloud . At first the canals seemed to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers . They were effective in lowering the groundwater , but it became apparent that their capacity was insufficient for the wet season . Though Disston 's canals did not drain well , his purchase primed the economy of Florida . It made news and attracted tourists and land buyers . Within four years property values doubled , and the population increased significantly .
The IIF was able to invest in development projects due to Disston 's purchase , and an opportunity to improve transportation arose when oil tycoon Henry Flagler began purchasing land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida , as far south as Palm Beach in 1893 . Along the way he built resort hotels , transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations . The land bordering the rail lines was developed as citrus farms . By 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay . Three months after the first train had arrived , the residents of Miami voted to incorporate the town . Miami became a prime destination for extremely wealthy people after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened .
During the 1904 gubernatorial race , the strongest candidate , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward , promoted draining the Everglades . He called the future of South Florida the " Empire of the Everglades " . Soon after his successful election , he began work to " drain that abominable pestilence @-@ ridden swamp " , and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands . In 1907 they established the Everglades Drainage District and began to study how to build the most effective canals , and how to fund them . Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost . Broward was paid by land developer Richard J. Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage . Elected to the Senate in 1910 , Broward died before he could take office . Land in the Everglades was being sold for $ 15 an acre a month after Broward died . Meanwhile , Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them .
= = = Growth of urban areas = = =
With the construction of canals , newly reclaimed Everglades land was promoted throughout the United States . Land developers sold 20 @,@ 000 lots in a few months in 1912 . Advertisements promised within eight weeks of arrival , a farmer could be making a living , although for many it took at least two months to clear the land . Some tried burning off the sawgrass or other vegetation , only to learn that the peat continued to burn . Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in the muck and were useless . When the muck dried , it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms . Though initially crops sprouted quickly and lushly , they just as quickly wilted and died , seemingly without reason .
The increasing population in towns near the Everglades hunted in the area . Raccoons and otters were the most widely hunted for their skins . Hunting often went unchecked ; in one trip , a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters . Water birds were a particular target of plume hunting . Bird feathers were used in women 's hats in the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
In 1886 , 5 million birds were estimated to be killed for their feathers . They were shot usually in the spring , when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting . The plumes , or aigrettes , as they were called in the millinery business , sold for $ 32 an ounce in 1915 — the price of gold . Millinery was a $ 17 million a year industry that motivated plume harvesters to lay in watch of nests of egrets and many colored birds during the nesting season , shoot the parents with small @-@ bore rifles , and leave the chicks to starve . Plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana , New York City , London , and Paris . Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day .
Rum @-@ runners used the Everglades as a hiding spot during Prohibition ; it was so vast there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it . The arrival of the railroad , and the discovery that adding trace elements like copper was the remedy for crops sprouting and dying quickly , soon created a population boom . New towns such as Moore Haven , Clewiston , and Belle Glade sprouted like the crops . Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in South Florida . Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables $ 150 million . Undeveloped land north of Miami sold for $ 30 @,@ 600 an acre . In 1925 , Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) , most of it in real estate advertising . Waterfront property was the most highly valued . Mangrove trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view . Acres of South Florida slash pine were cleared . Some of the pine was for lumber , but most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development .
= = = Flood control = = =
Two catastrophic hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused Lake Okeechobee to breach its levees , killing thousands of people . The government began to focus on the control of floods rather than drainage . The Okeechobee Flood Control District was created in 1929 , financed by both state and federal funds . President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake . Between 1930 and 1937 a dike 66 miles ( 106 km ) long was built around the southern edge of the lake . Control of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers : the United States declared legal limits of the lake to between 14 and 17 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 and 5 @.@ 2 m ) . A massive canal was also constructed 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep through the Caloosahatchee River ; whenever the lake rose too high , the excess water left through the canal . More than $ 20 million was spent on the entire project . Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built . The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 after World War II .
Immediately the effects of the Hoover Dike were seen . An extended drought occurred in the 1930s ; with the wall preventing water from leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water , the Everglades became parched . Peat turned to dust . Salt ocean water intruded into Miami 's wells ; when the city brought in an expert to explain why , he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area 's groundwater — here , it appeared on the surface . In 1939 , a million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km ² ) of Everglades burned , and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami . Scientists who took soil samples before draining did not take into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades make it prone to soil subsidence when it becomes dry . Naturally occurring bacteria in Everglades peat and muck assist with the process of decomposition under water , which is generally very slow , partially due to the low levels of dissolved oxygen . When water levels became so low that peat and muck were at the surface , the bacteria interacted with much higher levels of oxygen in the air , rapidly breaking down the soil . In some places , homes had to be moved to stilts and 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of soil was lost .
= = = = Everglades National Park = = = =
The idea of a national park for the Everglades was pitched in 1928 when a Miami land developer named Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association . It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934 . It took another 13 years to be dedicated on December 6 , 1947 . One month before the dedication of the park , a former editor from The Miami Herald and freelance writer named Marjory Stoneman Douglas released her first book titled The Everglades : River of Grass . After researching the region for five years , she described the history and ecology of the South Florida in great detail . She characterized the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp . The last chapter was titled , " The Eleventh Hour " and warned that the Everglades were dying , although it could be reversed .
= = = = Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project = = = =
The same year the park was dedicated , two hurricanes and the wet season caused 100 inches ( 250 cm ) to fall on South Florida . Though there were no human casualties , agricultural interests lost approximately $ 59 million . In 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes ( C & SF ) , which divided the Everglades into basins . In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas ( WCAs ) , and the Everglades Agricultural Area ( EAA ) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee . In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park . Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA , and released water in dryer times or removed it and pumped it to the ocean in times of flood . The WCAs took up approximately 37 percent of the original Everglades . The C & SF constructed over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of canals , and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades . During the 1950s and 1960s the Miami metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation . Between 1940 and 1965 , 6 million people moved to South Florida : 1 @,@ 000 people moved to Miami every week . Developed areas between the mid @-@ 1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled . Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas .
= = = = Everglades Agricultural Area = = = =
The C & SF established 470 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 900 km2 ) for the Everglades Agricultural Area — 27 percent of the Everglades prior to development . In the late 1920s , agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of manganese sulfate to Everglades muck produced a profitable harvest for vegetables . The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane , though sod , beans , lettuce , celery , and rice are also grown . Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres ( 160 @,@ 000 m2 ) , bordered by canals on two sides , that are connected to larger canals where water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops . The fertilizers used on vegetables , along with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the byproduct of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production , were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA . The introduction of large amounts of these chemicals provided opportunities for exotic plants to take hold in the Everglades . One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient @-@ poor environment , and the introduction of fertilizers began to alter the plant life in the region .
= = = = Jetport proposition = = = =
A turning point came for development in the Everglades at the proposition of an expanded airport after Miami International Airport outgrew its capacities . The new jetport was planned to be larger than O 'Hare , Dulles , JFK , and LAX airports combined , and the chosen location was 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Everglades National Park . The first sentence of the U.S. Department of Interior study of the environmental impact of the jetport read , " Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park " . When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) of raw sewage a day and 10 @,@ 000 short tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) of jet engine pollutants a year , the project met staunch opposition . The New York Times called it a " blueprint for disaster " , and Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition : " It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment . " Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project , and Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded at 79 years old to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it . Nixon instead established Big Cypress National Preserve , announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program .
= = Restoration = =
= = = Kissimmee River = = =
The Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project 's final construction project was straightening the Kissimmee River , a meandering 90 @-@ mile ( 140 km ) -long river that was drained to make way for grazing land and agriculture . The C & SF started building the C @-@ 38 canal in 1962 and the effects were seen almost immediately . Waterfowl , wading birds , and fish disappeared , prompting conservationists and sport fishers to demand the region be restored before the canal was finished in 1971 . In general , C & SF projects had been criticized for being temporary fixes that ignored future consequences , costing billions of dollars with no end in sight . After Governor Bob Graham initiated the Save Our Everglades campaign in 1983 , the first section of the canal was backfilled in 1986 . Graham announced that by 2000 the Everglades would be restored as closely as possible to its pre @-@ drainage state . The Kissimmee River Restoration project was approved by Congress in 1992 . It is estimated that it will cost $ 578 million to convert only 22 miles ( 35 km ) of the canal . The entire project will be complete by 2011 .
= = = Water quality = = =
Further problems with the environment arose when a vast algal bloom appeared in one @-@ fifth of Lake Okeechobee in 1986 . The same year cattails were discovered overtaking sawgrass marshes in Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge . Scientists discovered that phosphorus , used as a fertilizer in the EAA , was flushed into canals and pumped back into the lake . When the lake drained , the phosphorus entered the water in the marshes , changing the nutrient levels . It kept periphyton from forming marl , one of two soils in the Everglades . The arrival of phosphorus allowed cattails to spread quickly . The cattails grew in dense mats — too thick for birds or alligators to nest in . It also dissolved oxygen in the peat , promoted algae , and prohibited growth of native invertebrates on the bottom of the food chain .
At the same time mercury was found in local fish at such high levels that consumption warnings were posted for fishermen . A Florida panther was found dead with levels of mercury high enough to kill a human . Scientists found that power plants and incinerators using fossil fuels were expelling mercury into the atmosphere , and it fell as rain or dust during droughts . The naturally occurring bacteria that reduce sulfur in the Everglades ecosystem were transforming the mercury into methylmercury , and it was bioaccumulating through the food chain . Stricter emissions standards helped lower mercury coming from power plants and incinerators , which in turn lowered mercury levels found in animals , though they continue to be a concern .
The Everglades Forever Act , introduced by Governor Lawton Chiles in 1994 , was an attempt to legislate the lowering of phosphorus in Everglades waterways . The act put the South Florida Water Management District ( SFWMD ) and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection ( DEP ) in charge of testing and enforcing low phosphorus levels : 10 parts per billion ( ppb ) ( down from 500 ppb in the 1980s ) . The SFWMD built Stormwater Treatment Areas ( STAs ) near sugarcane fields where water leaving the EAA flows into ponds lined with lime rock and layers of peat and calcareous periphyton . Testing has shown this method to be more effective than previously anticipated , bringing levels from 80 ppb to 10 ppb .
= = = Invasive species = = =
As a center for trade and travel between the U.S. , the Caribbean , and South America , South Florida is especially vulnerable to invasive species , or species of plants and animals that adapt aggressively to conditions in the Everglades , allowing them to reproduce faster and grow larger than they would naturally in their native environments . Approximately 26 % of all species of fish , reptiles , birds , and mammals in South Florida are exotic — more than in any other part of the U.S. — and the region hosts one of the highest numbers of exotic plant species in the world . Controlling invasive species in 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 900 km2 ) of infested land in South Florida costs authorities about $ 500 million a year .
The Everglades hosts 1 @,@ 392 exotic plant species actively reproducing in the region , outnumbering the 1 @,@ 301 species considered native to South Florida . The melaleuca tree ( Melaleuca quinquenervia ) takes water in greater amounts than other trees . Melaleucas grow taller and more densely in the Everglades than in their native Australia , making them unsuitable as nesting areas for birds with wide wingspans . They also choke out native vegetation . More than $ 2 million has been spent on keeping them out of Everglades National Park .
Brazilian pepper , or Florida holly ( Schinus terebinthifolius ) , has also wreaked havoc on the Everglades , exhibiting a tendency to spread rapidly and to crowd out native species of plants as well as to create inhospitable environments for native animals . It is especially difficult to eradicate and is readily propagated by birds , which eat its small red berries . The Brazilian pepper problem is not exclusive to the Everglades ; neither is the water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) , which is a widespread problem in Florida 's waterways , a major threat to endemic species , and is difficult and costly to eradicate . The Old World climbing fern ( Lygodium microphyllum ) may be causing the most harm to restoration as it blankets areas thickly , making it impossible for animals to pass through . It also climbs up trees and creates " fire ladders " , allowing parts of the trees to burn that would otherwise remain unharmed .
Many pets have escaped or been released into the Everglades from the surrounding urban areas . Some find the conditions quite favorable and have established self @-@ sustaining populations , competing for food and space with native animals . Many tropical fish have been released , but blue tilapias ( Oreochromis aureus ) cause damage to shallow waterways by creating large nests and consuming aquatic plants that protect native young fish .
Native to southern Asia , the Burmese python ( Python molurus bivittatus ) is a relatively new invasive species in the Everglades . This species can grow up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long , and they compete with alligators for the top of the food chain . Florida wildlife officials speculate that escaped pythons have begun reproducing in an environment for which they are well @-@ suited . In Everglades National Park alone , agents removed more than 1 @,@ 200 Burmese pythons from the park as of 2009 , prompting federal authorities to ban four species of exotic snakes , including the Burmese python , in 2012 . The pythons are believed to be responsible for drastic decreases in the populations of some mammals within the park .
The invasive species that causes the most damage to bird populations is the cat ( Felis catus ) , both domestic and feral . Cats that are let outside live close to suburban populations and have been estimated to number 640 per square mile . In such close numbers in historic migratory areas , they have devastating effects on migratory bird populations .
= = = Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan = = =
Though scientists made headway in decreasing mercury and phosphorus levels in water , the natural environment of South Florida continued to decline in the 1990s , and life in nearby cities reflected this downturn . To address the deterioration of the Miami metropolitan area , Governor Lawton Chiles commissioned a report on the sustainability of the area . In 1995 , Chiles published the commission 's findings in a report that related the degradation of the Everglades ecosystems to the lower quality of life in urban areas . The report noted past environmental abuses that brought the state to a position to make a decision . Not acting to improve the South Florida ecosystem , the report predicted , would inevitably cause further and intolerable deterioration that would harm local tourism by 12 @,@ 000 jobs and $ 200 million annually , and commercial fishing by 3 @,@ 300 jobs and $ 52 million annually . Urban areas had grown beyond their capacities to sustain themselves . Crowded cities were facing problems such as high crime rates , traffic jams , severely overcrowded schools , and overtaxed public services ; the report noted that water shortages were ironic , given the 53 inches ( 130 cm ) of rain the region received annually .
In 1999 , an evaluation of the C & SF was submitted to Congress as part of the Water Development Act of 1992 . The seven @-@ year report , called the " Restudy " , cited indicators of harm to the ecosystem : a 50 percent reduction in the original Everglades , diminished water storage , harmful timing of water releases from canals and pumping stations , an 85 to 90 percent decrease in wading bird populations over the past 50 years , and the decline of output from commercial fisheries . Bodies of water including Lake Okeechobee , the Caloosahatchee River , St. Lucie estuary , Lake Worth Lagoon , Biscayne Bay , Florida Bay and the Everglades reflected drastic water level changes , hypersalinity , and dramatic changes in marine and freshwater ecosystems . The Restudy noted the overall decline in water quality over the past 50 years was due to loss of wetlands that act as filters for polluted water . It predicted that without intervention the entire South Florida ecosystem would deteriorate . Water shortages would become common and some cities would have annual water restrictions .
The Restudy came with a plan to stop the declining environmental quality , and this proposal was to be the most expensive and comprehensive ecological repair project in history . The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan ( CERP ) proposed more than 60 construction projects over 30 years to store water that was being flushed into the ocean , in reservoirs , underground aquifers , and abandoned quarries ; add more Stormwater Treatment Areas to filter water that flowed into the lower Everglades ; regulate water released from pumping stations into local waterways and improve water released to Everglades National Park and Water Conservation Areas ; remove barriers to sheetflow by raising the Tamiami Trail and destroying the Miami Canal , and reuse wastewater for urban areas . The cost estimate for the entire plan was $ 7 @.@ 8 billion , and in a bipartisan show of cooperation , CERP was voted through Congress with an overwhelming margin . It was signed by President Bill Clinton on December 11 , 2000 .
Since its signing , the State of Florida reports that it has spent more than $ 2 billion on the various projects . More than 36 @,@ 000 acres ( 150 km2 ) of Stormwater Treatment Areas have been constructed to filter 2 @,@ 500 short tons ( 2 @,@ 300 t ) of phosphorus from Everglades waters . An STA spanning 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 69 km2 ) was constructed in 2004 , making it the largest manmade wetland in the world . Fifty @-@ five percent of the land necessary to acquire for restoration has been purchased by the State of Florida , totaling 210 @,@ 167 acres ( 850 @.@ 52 km2 ) . A plan to hasten the construction and funding of projects was put into place , named " Acceler8 " , spurring the start of six of eight large construction projects , including that of three large reservoirs . However , federal funds have not been forthcoming ; CERP was signed when the U.S. government had a budget surplus , but since then deficits have renewed , and two of CERP 's major supporters in Congress retired . According to a story in The New York Times , state officials say the restoration is lost in a maze of " federal bureaucracy , a victim of ' analysis paralysis ' " . CERP still remains controversial as the projects slated for Acceler8 , environmental activists note , are those that benefit urban areas , and regions in the Everglades in desperate need of water are still being neglected , suggesting that water is being diverted to make room for more people in an already overtaxed environment .
A series of biennial reports from the U.S. National Research Council have reviewed the progress of CERP . The fourth report in the series , released in 2012 , found that little progress has been made in restoring the core of the remaining Everglades ecosystem ; instead , most project construction so far has occurred along its periphery . The report noted that to reverse ongoing ecosystem declines , it will be necessary to expedite restoration projects that target the central Everglades , and to improve both the quality and quantity of the water in the ecosystem . To better understand the potential implications of the current slow pace of progress , the report assessed the current status of ten Everglades ecosystem attributes , including phosphorus loads , peat depth , and populations of snail kites , birds of prey that are endangered in South Florida . Most attributes received grades ranging from C ( degraded ) to D ( significantly degraded ) , but the snail kite received a grade of F ( near irreversible damage ) . The report also assessed the future trajectory of each ecosystem attribute under three restoration scenarios : improved water quality , improved hydrology , and improvements to both water quality and hydrology , which helped highlight the urgency of restoration actions to benefit a wide range of ecosystem attributes and demonstrate the cost of inaction . Overall , the report concluded that substantial near @-@ term progress to address both water quality and hydrology in the central Everglades is needed to reverse ongoing degradation before it is too late .
= = = Air crashes = = =
At least three airplanes have crashed in the Everglades including : Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 705 ( in 1963 ) , Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 ( 1972 ) , and ValuJet Flight 592 ( 1996 ) .
= = = Future of the Everglades = = =
In 2008 , the State of Florida agreed to buy U.S. Sugar and all of its manufacturing and production facilities for an estimated $ 1 @.@ 7 billion . Florida officials indicated they intended to allow U.S. Sugar to process for six more years before dismissing its employees and dismantling the plant . The area , which includes 187 @,@ 000 acres ( 760 km2 ) of land , would then be rehabilitated and water flow from Lake Okeechobee would be restored . In November 2008 , the agreement was revised to offer $ 1 @.@ 34 billion , allowing sugar mills in Clewiston to remain in production . Critics of the revised plan say that it ensures sugarcane will be grown in the Everglades for at least another decade . Further research is being done to address the continuing production of sugarcane in the Everglades to minimize phosphorus runoff .
Everglades restoration received $ 96 million of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 . As a result of the stimulus package , a mile @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) bridge to replace the Tamiami Trail , a road that borders Everglades National Park to the north and has blocked water from reaching the southern Everglades , was begun by the Army Corps of Engineers in December 2009 . The next month work began to reconstruct the C @-@ 111 canal , east of the park that historically diverted water into Florida Bay . Governor Charlie Crist announced the same month that $ 50 million of state funds would be earmarked for Everglades restoration . In May 2010 , 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) of bridges were proposed to be added to the Tamiami Trail .
= A Woman Like Me ( Beyoncé song ) =
" A Woman Like Me " is a song recorded by American recording artist Beyoncé , originally written for and performed in the 2006 film The Pink Panther . It was written by Charmelle Cofield , Ron Lawrence , and Beyoncé and produced by the latter two . It was recorded using multitrack recording where Beyoncé harmonized with herself several times over . " A Woman Like Me " is a moderate R & B song which samples the horn arrangement from Simon Haseley 's " Hammerhead " .
A performance video of the song appeared shortly on the film and the whole performance was included on the film 's DVD . It peaked at number three on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart following its release due to digital sales . The song was remixed by Steve Austin and S @-@ ROC on their respective albums .
= = Background and composition = =
" A Woman Like Me " was written by Charmelle Cofield , Ron Lawrence , and Beyoncé and produced by the latter two . It is performed in the 2006 film The Pink Panther in which Beyoncé stars as Xania . It was originally recorded for the soundtrack album for The Pink Panther but was eventually not used like Beyoncé 's other song " Check on It " . The song was initially written by the people involved in the film ; however Beyoncé partially rewrote some of the lyrics and its melodies and sent " A Woman Like Me " to her team who had to redo it . During an interview , Beyoncé said , " It had the strength of a Tina Turner song but the drama of a Bond tune . ... It definitely fit [ s ] the character . She 's talking a lot of noise in stuff like ' Do you think you can handle a woman like me ? Xania is like that . " It was recorded in New York City using multitrack recording where Beyoncé harmonized with herself several times over . Although the song was never released on an album or as a single , it was later remixed by Steve Austin in the album Hollywood Cole Presents : I 'm the Juggernaut Bitch ! .
" A Woman Like Me " samples the horn arrangement from Simon Haseley 's " Hammerhead " ( 1972 ) . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , " A Woman Like Me " is a moderate R & B song pacing in common time of 80 BPM . Beyoncé 's vocals range from the low musical note of Ab3 to the high note of Eb5 throughout the song . On May 12 , 2008 , S @-@ ROC included a remix of the song as the eleventh track on his 2008 album Roc and a Hard Place . American hip hop recording artist Ab @-@ Soul sampled " A Woman Like Me " on his song " Still a Regular Nigga " , taken from his mixtape Longterm 2 : Lifestyles of the Broke and Almost Famous ( 2010 ) .
= = Reception = =
During a review of the film 's DVD , Damon Smith of the UK @-@ based newspaper Manchester Evening News described the song as " sultry " . Writing for the American Jet magazine , Andrew Schwartz felt that the character Beyoncé portrayed sang an " iconic song " , referring to " A Woman Like Me " . He further noted the track was a " unique collaboration " between Beyoncé and the director of the movie , Shawn Levy , saying that it reflects the singer 's " style and taste " . For the chart issue dated July 1 , 2006 , " A Woman Like Me " peaked at number three on the US Billboard Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles which acts as a twenty five song extension to the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
= = Music video = =
The DVD version of the film includes an exclusive complete performance of the song in the special features . The video shows Beyoncé , as Xania , in two scenes of the film singing on a small stage with two back @-@ up dancers . The entire video is set to look like Beyoncé is performing the song with no microphone . Three different shots were used from five takes for the visual performance of the song in the film . The video is only briefly shown in the film The Pink Panther as part of a scene and was officially fully released after the DVD release . Phil Bacharach of the website DVD Talk wrote that " The lovely Beyoncé takes center stage in two bonus features " in the film , referring to the music video of " Check on It " and the performance of " A Woman Like Me " . He further described the video of the performance of the song as " more interesting " than the music video for " Check on It " which was also included .
= Wiglaf of Mercia =
Wiglaf ( died 839 ) was King of Mercia from 827 to 829 and again from 830 until his death . His ancestry is uncertain : the 820s were a period of dynastic conflict within Mercia and the genealogy of several of the kings of this time is unknown . Wigstan , his grandson , was later recorded as a descendant of Penda of Mercia , so it is possible that Wiglaf was descended from Penda , one of the most powerful seventh @-@ century kings of Mercia .
Wiglaf succeeded Ludeca , who was killed campaigning against East Anglia . His first reign coincided with the continued rise of the rival Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom of Wessex under Egbert . Egbert drove Wiglaf from the throne in 829 , and ruled Mercia directly for a year . Wiglaf recovered the kingdom in 830 , probably by force although it may be that Wiglaf remained subject to Egbert 's overlordship . Mercia never regained the south @-@ eastern kingdoms , but Berkshire and perhaps Essex came back into Mercian control . The causes of the fluctuating fortunes of Mercia and Wessex are a matter of speculation , but it may be that Carolingian support influenced both Egbert 's ascendancy and the subsequent Mercian recovery . Although Wiglaf appears to have restored Mercia 's independence , the recovery was short @-@ lived , and later in the century Mercia was divided between Wessex and the Vikings . Wiglaf died in about 839 , and was eventually succeeded by Beorhtwulf , though one tradition records his son , Wigmund as having reigned briefly . Wiglaf is buried at Repton , near Derby .
= = Historical context = =
Mercia had been the dominant Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom for most of the 8th century , with Offa , who died in 796 , the most powerful king of his time . Coenwulf , who took the Mercian throne shortly after Offa 's death , was able to retain Mercian influence in the kingdoms of Kent , East Anglia and Essex , and made frequent incursions across Offa 's Dyke into what is now Wales . However , Coenwulf 's death , in 821 , marked the beginning of a period in which the political map of England was dramatically redrawn . Although one eleventh @-@ century source claims that Coenwulf 's son , Cynehelm , briefly succeeded to the throne , it is more likely that Ceolwulf , Coenwulf 's brother , was the next king . He reigned for only two years before being deposed .
The next king , Beornwulf , was of no known royal line , though it has been conjectured on the basis of the common initial letter B that he was connected to the later kings Beorhtwulf and Burgred . It was probably Beornwulf whose defeat of the kingdom of Powys and destruction of the fortress of Deganwy are recorded in a Welsh chronicle , the Brut y Tywysogion , in 823 , and it is clear that Mercia was still a formidable military power at that time . However , in 825 Beornwulf was decisively defeated by Egbert of Wessex at the battle of Ellendun , and died the next year in an unsuccessful invasion of East Anglia . His successor , Ludeca , of unknown lineage , also invaded East Anglia , and like Beornwulf died while campaigning there , in 827 . These defeats , in rapid succession , are likely to have exacerbated the apparent dynastic contention for Mercian royal authority . Outside Mercia , the power of the kingdom of Wessex , to the south , was strong and growing when Wiglaf came to the throne .
= = Ancestry = =
Wiglaf 's ancestry is not known for certain . There are two main theories regarding the ancestry of Mercian kings of this period . One is that descendants of different lines of the royal family competed for the throne . In the mid @-@ 7th century , for example , Penda had placed royal kinsmen in control of conquered provinces . A Wigheard , who witnessed a charter in the late 7th century , was possibly a member of this line . The other theory is that a number of kin @-@ groups with local power @-@ bases may have competed for the succession . The sub @-@ kingdoms of the Hwicce , the Tomsæte , and the unidentified Gaini are examples of such power @-@ bases . Marriage alliances could also have played a part . Competing magnates , those called in charters " dux " or " princeps " ( that is , leaders ) , may have brought the kings to power . In this model , the Mercian kings are little more than leading noblemen .
A medieval tradition preserved at Evesham records that Wiglaf 's grandson Wigstan was a descendant of Coenred , who was a grandson of Penda . Wigstan 's grandfathers were Wiglaf and Ceolwulf I ; the tradition might be interpreted to mean that Wiglaf descended from Penda , but it might also be Wiglaf 's wife , Cynethryth , who was descended from Penda . Cynethryth 's name is known from two of Wiglaf 's charters , dated 831 and 836 , and historian Pauline Stafford notes that her name " seems to hark back to the kin of Coenwulf if not earlier royal lines " , but as with Wiglaf himself , nothing certain is known of her ancestry . A different connection is mentioned in the medieval Life of St. Wigstan , which asserts that the " B " and " W " families were related .
Known descendants of Wiglaf include his son , Wigmund , and his grandson , Wigstan , both of whom share the " Wig- " at the start of his name ; alliterative family names are frequent in Anglo @-@ Saxon dynasties and are often thought to suggest possible kinship . Other possible descendants of Wiglaf include the last Mercian king , Ceolwulf II . A large number of duces or praefecti ( ealdormen ) with similar names are found as witnesses in Mercian charters of the late 8th and early 9th centuries , including Wigbald , Wigberht , Wigcga , Wigferth , and Wigheard , but there is no evidence that these nobles were related beyond the similarity of their names .
= = First reign and defeat by Wessex = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records Wiglaf 's accession in the entry for 827 ( erroneously recorded under the year 825 ) . The entry reads " Her Ludecan Myrcna cing 7 his fif ealdormenn mid him man ofsloh , 7 Wiglaf feng to rice " , which means " Here Ludeca , King of Mercia , was killed , and his five ealdormen with him , and Wiglaf succeeded to the kingdom " . In 829 , Egbert of Wessex successfully invaded Mercia and drove Wiglaf from his throne . The immediate consequence of Egbert 's defeat of Beornwulf in 825 at the battle of Ellendun had been the loss of Mercian control over the south @-@ eastern kingdoms of Kent , Sussex , Essex and East Anglia ; Beornwulf 's and Ludeca 's disastrous military expeditions against East Anglia in 826 and 827 also confirmed Mercia 's loss of control of that kingdom . Egbert 's defeat of Wiglaf in 829 completed his domination of southern England , and Egbert went on to receive the submission of Eanred of Northumbria at Dore , on the northern border of Mercia , later that year . These events led the anonymous scribe who wrote the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle to describe Egbert as the eighth bretwalda , or ' Ruler of Britain ' .
Egbert remained in control of Wessex until some time in 830 . He was in power there long enough to issue coins ( struck in London ) bearing the title " Rex M " , for " Rex Merciorum " , or " King of Mercia " .
= = Second reign = =
The Chronicle reports that in 830 , Wiglaf " obtained the kingdom of Mercia again " . Wiglaf 's return to the throne has generally been taken by historians to indicate the end of Egbert 's overlordship of Mercia . In particular , historian Frank Stenton argued that the wording of the Chronicle makes it probable that Wiglaf recovered the kingdom by force , and that if Egbert had given the kingdom to Wiglaf this would have been recorded . A charter of 836 has also been cited as evidence that Wiglaf was acting as an independent ruler at that time ; it records a council at Croft , in Leicestershire , attended by the Archbishop of Canterbury and eleven bishops , including some from West Saxon sees . Wiglaf refers to the assembly as " my bishops , duces , and magistrates " , indicating not only a recovery of control over his own territory , but some level of authority over the southern church . It is significant that Wiglaf was still able to call together such a group of notables ; the West Saxons , even if they were able to do so , held no such councils . Essex , which had been a Mercian dependency , may have been brought back under Mercian overlordship : a King Sigeric of the East Saxons , described as a minister of Wiglaf 's , witnessed a charter in Hertfordshire at some point between 829 and 837 . London , where Egbert apparently lost control of the mint , remained a Mercian town through Wiglaf 's second reign and beyond . Berkshire also appears to have returned to Mercian control , though it is possible that this did not occur until after Wiglaf 's reign . Perhaps more surprisingly , given the new strength of Wessex , it appears that the territory along the middle Thames which had formed the heartland of the Gewisse ( the precursor people of the 9th @-@ century West Saxon state ) remained firmly in Mercian hands . In the west , either Wiglaf or his successor , Beorhtwulf , brought the Welsh back under Mercian control at some point prior to 853 , when a rebellion against Mercia is recorded .
A charter of 831 , which Wiglaf calls " the first year of my second reign " , was issued at Wychbold near Droitwich ; it is significant that Wiglaf makes no reference to any overlordship of Egbert 's in this charter , issued within a year of his recovery of power , and that he acknowledges his temporary deposition . In East Anglia , King Æthelstan minted coins , possibly as early as 827 , but more likely c . 830 after Egbert 's influence was reduced with Wiglaf 's return to power in Mercia . This demonstration of independence on East Anglia 's part is not surprising , as it was probably Æthelstan who was responsible for the defeat and death of both Beornwulf and Ludeca .
Both Wessex 's sudden rise to power in the late 820s , and the subsequent failure to retain this dominant position , have been examined by historians looking for underlying causes . Dynastic uncertainty has been suggested as the reason for Mercia 's collapse ; the 820s were certainly years of instability in the royal line . The lack of detailed information about Mercian and Wessex administration makes other theories hard to evaluate : for example it has been suggested that the West Saxons had a stable tributary system that contributed to its success , or that Wessex 's mixed Saxon and British population , natural frontiers , and capable administrators were key factors .
Another proposed explanation for the events of these years is that Wessex 's fortunes were to some degree dependent on Carolingian support . The Rhenish and Frankish commercial networks collapsed at some time in the 820s or 830s , and in addition , a rebellion broke out in February 830 against Louis the Pious , the first of a series of internal conflicts that lasted through the 830s and beyond . These distractions may have reduced Louis 's ability to support Egbert . In this view , the withdrawal of Frankish influence would have left East Anglia , Mercia and Wessex to find a balance of power not dependent on outside aid .
Wiglaf 's recovery , however , was not complete . Egbert 's influence was certainly reduced after 830 , but Mercia never recovered control of the south @-@ east , except possibly for Essex ; and East Anglia remained independent . It appears that Wulfred , the archbishop of Canterbury at the time of Egbert 's victory , remained loyal to Mercia : his coinage terminates when Egbert 's Kentish coinage begins ; and since a charter of 838 shows Egbert agreeing to return property to the church in Canterbury it is evident that he had seized property from the church earlier . Æthelwulf , Egbert 's son , was king of Kent during his father 's reign , and fear of continuing Mercian influence in Kent may have been the reason he gave estates to Christ Church , Canterbury .
= = Coinage and charters = =
Coins from Wiglaf 's reign are very rare . They can be divided into portrait and non @-@ portrait types ; and of these , only the two non @-@ portrait coins may be from Wiglaf 's second reign . Other than these , there is no evidence of any Mercian coinage until the reign of Wiglaf 's successor , Beorhtwulf , which began in about 840 . This may show that Wiglaf remained subject to Egbert 's overlordship after 830 , though most historians consider Wiglaf to have recovered his independence at that time .
Charters survive from Wiglaf 's reign ; these were documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen , and were witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land . One such charter of Wiglaf 's , granting privileges to the monastery of Hanbury in 836 , does not exempt the monks from the duty of constructing ramparts , indicating a concern for defence . Wessex charters do not begin to show such exemptions until 846 . These clauses are explained by the increasing Viking presence throughout Britain : Viking raids had begun at least as early as 793 , Viking armies were in Kent by 811 , and from 835 Viking raids were a concern for the kings of Wessex .
The 836 charter also contains an early reference to the trimoda necessitas , the set of three obligations that kings of the era placed on their subjects . These duties were the building of royal residences , the obligation to pay feorm , or food rent , to the king , and hospitality to the king 's servants . The privileges granted came at a cost : Wiglaf and one ealdorman received life interests in estates , and another ealdorman was paid six hundred shillings in gold . It is perhaps notable that in common with many other Mercian charters of the 9th century , this grant is of privileges rather than land : the chronicler Bede had commented a century earlier that excessive grants of land to monasteries were leaving kings without land to grant to the nobility , and the Mercian kings may have been responding to this problem .
= = Succession = =
The date of Wiglaf 's death is not given directly in any of the primary sources , but it can be determined from the known chronology of his successors . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that Burgred was driven out of Mercia by the Vikings in 874 , after a reign of twenty @-@ two years , and charter evidence indicates that Burgred succeeded in the first half of 852 . A regnal list credits his predecessor , Beorhtwulf , with a reign of thirteen years , which is consistent with date references in his charters . Hence it would appear that Wiglaf 's reign ended in 839 . A tradition records the death of Wigstan in 849 , and refers to Wigstan 's father , Wigmund , the son of Wiglaf , as having been king , but this is the only evidence for Wigmund having reigned and must be regarded with suspicion . The descent of Beorhtwulf is not known , but it appears that dynastic tension was a continuing factor in the Mercian succession , in contrast to Wessex , where Egbert established a dynasty that lasted with little disturbance throughout the 9th century .
Wiglaf was buried at Repton , in a crypt which still can be seen . The monastery church on the site at that time was probably constructed by Æthelbald of Mercia to house the royal mausoleum ; other burials there include that of Wigstan , Wiglaf 's grandson . The vault and columns in the crypt are not original and may date from Wiglaf 's time rather than Aethelbald 's .
= Frank Gatski =
Frank " Gunner " Gatski ( March 18 , 1921 – November 22 , 2005 ) was an American football center who played for the Cleveland Browns of the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and the National Football League ( NFL ) in the 1940s and 1950s . Gatski was one of the most heralded centers of his era . Known for his strength and consistency , he helped protect quarterback Otto Graham and open up running lanes for fullback Marion Motley as the Browns won seven league championships between 1946 and 1955 . Gatski won an eighth championship after he was traded to the Detroit Lions in 1957 , his final season .
Gatski was born in West Virginia to a coal @-@ mining family . He played for three years on his local high school team before attending Marshall University , where he continued to play football . He joined the U.S. Army in 1942 and went to fight in World War II . Upon his return in 1945 , he finished his collegiate studies at Auburn University in Alabama . After graduating , he tried out and made the roster for the Browns , a team under formation in the new AAFC . He played as a linebacker and backup center for most of his first two years before earning a spot as the starting center . He retained that position as Cleveland continued to dominate after the AAFC dissolved and the Browns were absorbed by the NFL in 1950 . He retired in 1958 , never having missed a game or practice in his career .
After leaving football , Gatski worked briefly as a scout for the Boston Patriots . He then joined a reform school in West Virginia as athletic director and head football coach , staying there until the school closed in 1982 . He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1985 . Marshall retired Gatski 's number 72 in 2005 . He died that year in a nursing home in West Virginia . In 2006 , the East End Bridge in Huntington , West Virginia was renamed the Frank Gatski Memorial Bridge in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Gatski was born in 1921 and raised in Farmington , West Virginia . His father and grandfather were immigrants from Poland , and most of the men in his family worked at the nearby Number Nine Coal Mine Camp . Gatski started at center for three years on his Farmington High School football team , which played on a cow pasture with no scoreboard , bleachers or game clock . He worked in the coal mines during the summers , and went to work in the mines full @-@ time during his senior year in 1939 . Gatski was reserved and aloof , but he was also known as a graceful dancer . " I used to dance a lot in Farmington , " he said in 1949 . " But I like polkas better than jitterbugging . "
= = College and military career = =
In 1940 , Marshall University coach Cam Henderson offered Gatski a chance to attend the West Virginia school on a football scholarship . Gatski accepted . He joined the junior varsity team , where he was the starting center for a season before moving to Marshall 's varsity football team in 1941 . He started 17 games at center and linebacker beginning in 1941 , when Marshall posted a 7 – 1 record . The team faltered the following year , falling to 1 – 7 – 1 as its best players went to serve in the military .
Gatski signed up for an Army reserve unit after the 1942 season as America 's involvement in World War II intensified . Marshall canceled its football program in 1943 as Gatski entered his senior year , but his unit was activated and he was sent with an infantry division to fight in the European theater of World War II . He went to England and followed American troops as they landed in Normandy and marched further into Europe . " I wasn 't in any heavy fighting , " he later said . He was a Private First Class in the Army . Gatski returned from duty in 1945 , but Marshall had yet to resume its football program , so he enrolled at Auburn University in Alabama and finished out his studies , playing part of the season on the school 's football team . " Marshall hadn 't started back up , and I hadn 't played football for two years , " he later explained . " I didn 't want to sit around and do nothing , so I went to Auburn . "
= = Professional career = =
When Gatski graduated , Sam Clagg , a teammate at Marshall , helped get him a tryout with the Cleveland Browns after contacting John Brickels , an assistant coach with West Virginia ties . The Browns were a new team in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and were set to begin play in 1946 . Gatski , who was working in the mines after graduating from Auburn , hitchhiked to Bowling Green , Ohio for the team 's training camp . He did not consider a football career a certainty , and returning to the coal mines where his father had died in an accident was a distinct possibility . " I didn 't know what was going to happen , " he said later . " I just went up there to see what would happen . "
By the time Gatski arrived in Bowling Green , he had acquired the nickname " Gunner " for his strength and speed on the offensive line . Growing up in the rough surroundings of a West Virginia mining town had toughened him up , and he did not mind Cleveland coach Paul Brown 's overbearing perfectionism . As a professional , he later said , " you 're supposed to be able to take that crap . " Initially , Gatski 's prospects of making the team looked dim . Brown had brought in veteran center Mo Scarry to be the starter . But Gatski proved his value to the team with his reliability and work ethic . He made the team and signed a $ 3 @,@ 000 per year contract .
Gatski played mostly as a backup to Scarry and as a linebacker in his first and part of his second season . He became the full @-@ time starter at center in the 1948 season . The Browns , meanwhile , were an immediate success . The team won the AAFC championship every year from 1946 to 1949 , when the league dissolved . Gatski 's role on the offensive line was to help protect quarterback Otto Graham from defenders when he went back to pass . He also helped push away defenders and create space for fullback Marion Motley to run in .
The Browns merged into the more established National Football League ( NFL ) in 1950 . Aided by Gatski 's blocking , the offense and the team continued to succeed . Cleveland won the 1950 NFL championship , and reached the championship game in each of the following five seasons , winning again in 1954 and 1955 . By the time the Browns entered the NFL , Gatski had developed a reputation for consistency , durability and toughness . Brown began keeping only one center on the roster – Gatski . Centers today would complain about that , Walt Michaels , who played with Gatski in the early 1950s , said in later years . Gatski , however , did not mind . " He would take all the snaps , " Michaels said .
Gatski was a quiet man who liked to hunt . He practiced hitting targets with his bow and arrow at League Park in Cleveland , where the Browns trained during the season . He was one of the Browns " Filthy Five " players who did not wash their practice uniforms during the season . Brown called him one of the strongest men on the team 's roster . Graham thought of him as sure protection against opposing linemen . Teammates called him an " iron man " and a " Rock of Gibraltar " . He was named to All @-@ Pro lists in all but one year between 1951 and 1955 and made the Pro Bowl in 1954 and 1955 .
The Browns struggled after Graham retired in 1956 and ended the regular season at 5 – 7 , their first @-@ ever losing record . After the season , Brown traded the 35 @-@ year @-@ old Gatski to the Detroit Lions for a draft pick after Gatski asked for a raise . He only played in the 1957 season with the Lions . Detroit beat the Browns for the NFL championship that year . By the time he retired after the 1957 season , Gatski had played on eight championship teams , a professional football record . Gatski did not miss a practice or a game during his 12 seasons in football .
= = Later life and death = =
After retiring from football , Gatski was a scout for the Boston Patriots for two years before becoming head football coach and athletic director at the West Virginia Industrial School for Boys , a correctional facility for young offenders in Pruntytown , West Virginia . He worked there until the school shut down in 1982 . He hunted and fished in retirement , and was often difficult to reach . He lived on a mountain in West Virginia and did not have a telephone for many years .
Gatski was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1985 as part of a class that included Joe Namath , Pete Rozelle , O.J. Simpson , and Roger Staubach . Gatski said he had not expected to make it into the hall . He had not played for 28 years when he was selected by an old @-@ timers committee . Two decades later , Marshall University retired Gatski 's number 72 during a homecoming game against the University of Alabama at Birmingham . Gatski was the first and remains the only Marshall football player to be so honored .
Gatski died on November 22 , 2005 at a nursing home in Morgantown , West Virginia and was buried at the West Virginia National Cemetery in Grafton . He was married and had seven children . The following year , the East End Bridge in Huntington , West Virginia was renamed the Frank Gatski Memorial Bridge during halftime of a Marshall @-@ UTEP football game .
= Beaumont House =
Beaumont House , occasionally known as Claremont , is an eclectic Romanesque @-@ Classical brick residence located at 631 Glynburn Road in Beaumont , South Australia . Beaumont House was constructed for Augustus Short , the first Anglican bishop of Adelaide and founder of St Peter 's Cathedral .
Beaumont House was constructed on land initially owned by Sir Samuel Davenport , a wealthy Adelaide landlord . Following Short 's move back to England , Davenport purchased the house — the second of five eventual owners . Following three sales between 1907 and 1911 , the house was then transferred to the National Trust of South Australia in 1968 .
= = History = =
The suburb of Beaumont , in the City of Burnside , was founded as a purpose @-@ built village by Sir Samuel Davenport in 1848 . The location of Beaumont to Adelaide , a rapidly developing settlement at the time , made land in the area extremely expensive . Although Adelaide as a new settlement was prospering during the mid @-@ 19th century , still very few people could afford the exclusivity of Beaumont .
Bishop Augustus Short moved from England to Adelaide after the Archbishop of Canterbury offered him the choice of moving to Newcastle — on the coast of New South Wales — or Adelaide , both recently established dioceses . He chose the latter , and was consecrated at Westminster Abbey on St Peter 's Day , 29 June 1847 . He arrived in Adelaide by ship on 28 December 1847 .
= = Construction = =
Short expressed his interest in residing in Beaumont , and was wealthy enough to buy a large allotment of land off the current landowner , Davenport . Between 1849 and 1851 , he had Beaumont House designed and built on a large allotment at the end of Glynburn Road , a major road which serviced the suburb of Beaumont , and linked to more major roads running west into the city of Adelaide along the Adelaide Plains . The Beaumont House estate was given the name ' Claremont ' by Short . The location , in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges , was chosen to catch the cool breezes coming from the sea across the Adelaide Plains .
Bishop Short and his family moved into the house later in 1851 , and resided there until Bishop 's Court , North Adelaide , was ready to be occupied in 1856 . During the same year , Sir Samuel Davenport purchased the house and land from Bishop Short and lived in ' The Lodge ' , a small cottage at the entrance to what became the driveway to Beaumont House , until Short vacated Claremont .
Bishop Short later founded St Peter 's Cathedral , an Anglican church , in 1869 . However , a combination of declining health and disagreements of opinions over the next thirteen years saw him resign his precedence as bishop in 1872 and then as head of the diocese in 1881 . He returned to England on 7 January 1882 . At the time , the Claremont estate was valued at £ 8200 .
A cultivator of olives , Davenport had planted a limited number of olives around Beaumont House in 1852 after he purchased the land the year before . Davenport later expanded his groves by replanting trees and cuttings from Beaumont both in other areas of the allotment and at some of his other properties in the Adelaide Hills . He also planted mulberry trees for producing silk on the estate grounds .
Davenport resided in Beaumont House until his death on 3 September 1906 ; his wife having predeceased him on 6 February 1902 , and they had no children . He left his estate mainly to his nephew Howard Davenport after his death , and both Houses of Parliament in South Australia adjourned for his funeral as an obituaritry to his legacy .
In 1907 the estate was sold to a new owner , Major Vincent , who made extensive alterations to the house . It was then bought by a third owner in five years , Mr Bennet , in 1911 . Upon his death the house was passed on to his widow . Beaumont House was then transferred to the National Trust of South Australia by Bennet 's widow , who had remarried , and her new partner on 24 August 1968 .
= = Architecture and alterations = =
Originally a five @-@ bedroom residence , the Beaumont House estate has been expanded greatly . Most of the structural expansion took place between 1907 and 1911 , when Maj. Vincent owned it ; it has not been expanded or notably altered at all since being donated to the National Trust .
The estate is strongly reminiscent of Romanesque architecture , mainly due to alterations made to the house and grounds by Davenport . A member of the National Trust , the current owner of Beaumont House , explains how Davenport 's travels influenced his styles :
Samuel Davenport was a great world traveller . He was very much involved in the world exposition movement . Every two years there were big world expos happening in different cities around the world . And he would travel to every one of these expos ... I 'm sure that the influences that he picked up in all of his travels are reflected here in Beaumont House .
The olive groves are no longer cultivated on the grounds of Beaumont House , but other notable additions by Davenport to the Romanesque style still remain . The house is occasionally described as ' Mediterranean ' , mostly due to the red Tuscan @-@ styled roof , the olive groves and pillared exterior .
= King Creole =
King Creole is a 1958 American musical drama film directed by Michael Curtiz and starring Elvis Presley , Carolyn Jones , and Walter Matthau . Produced by Hal B. Wallis and based on the 1952 novel A Stone for Danny Fisher by Harold Robbins , the film is about a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old who gets mixed up with crooks and involved with two women .
Presley later indicated that of all the characters he portrayed throughout his acting career , the role of Danny Fisher in King Creole was his favorite . To make the film , Presley was granted a 60 @-@ day deferment from January to March 1958 for beginning his military service . Location shooting in New Orleans was delayed several times by crowds of fans attracted by the stars , particularly Presley .
The film was released by Paramount Pictures on July 2 , 1958 , to both critical and commercial success . The critics were unanimous in their praise of Presley 's performance . King Creole peaked at number five on the Variety box office earnings charts .
The soundtrack song " Hard Headed Woman " reached number one on the Billboard pop singles chart , number two on the R & B chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , while the soundtrack album peaked at number two on the Billboard album chart .
= = Plot = =
Nineteen @-@ year @-@ old high school student Danny Fisher ( Elvis ) works before and after school to support his surviving family : his father ( Dean Jagger ) and sister Mimi ( Jan Shepard ) . After Danny 's mother died , his grieving father lost his job as a pharmacist , and moved his impoverished family to the French Quarter in New Orleans .
At work one morning , Danny rescues Ronnie ( Jones ) from her abusive date . After a taxi ride to Danny 's high school , Ronnie kisses him . Danny responds to witnessing schoolmates ' teasing by kissing Ronnie back and then punching one of them in the face when he makes a teasing remark . Danny 's reaction summons him to the principal 's office ; where Miss Pearson ( Helene Hatch ) , his teacher , tells Principal Evans ( Raymond Bailey ) that Danny will not graduate because of his poor attitude . Mr. Evans is sympathetic , but powerless to help ; so Danny decides to drop out of school to find work , against the wishes of his father , who tries to convince Danny to stay in school .
When Danny leaves the school grounds , three young men lure him into an alley . Their leader , Shark ( Vic Morrow ) , wants revenge for Danny hitting the teasing student at school , who turned out to be his brother . Danny defends himself so well that it impresses Shark , so Shark invites Danny to join his gang . Shark then has Danny to help the gang shoplift at a five @-@ and @-@ dime by singing " Lover Doll " to distract the customers and staff .
Only Nellie ( Dolores Hart ) , who works the snack bar , notices Danny 's complicity in the theft , but she does not turn him in . Danny then invites Nellie to a fictitious party in a hotel room ; finding nobody else there , Nellie starts crying in fear and leaves after admitting that she still wants to see Danny again , but not under those conditions .
Later that night , Danny meets Ronnie again at The Blue Shade nightclub , where Danny is now employed . At first , she pretends not to know him , as she is accompanied by her boyfriend and the club 's owner , Maxie Fields , aka " The Pig " ( Matthau ) . When Maxie does not believe her , she claims she heard Danny sing once . Maxie insists that Danny prove he can sing . His rendition of " Trouble " impresses Charlie LeGrand ( Paul Stewart ) , the honest owner of the King Creole nightclub , the only nightspot in the area not owned by Maxie ; impressed , LeGrand offers Danny a job as a singer at his club .
Meanwhile , Mr. Fisher finds employment as a pharmacist in a local drug store ; but his boss , Mr. Primont ( Gavin Gordon ) --who reluctantly hired Mr. Fisher after his boss made him do so — constantly demeans Mr. Fisher obviously out of retaliation , much to Danny 's embarrassment . That situation makes it easier for Danny to go against his father 's wishes and accept Charlie 's job offer . Danny does ; and when he becomes a hit at the King Creole , Maxie tries to hire him . Danny declines his offer out of loyalty to Charlie .
Shark , now working for Maxie , suggests to Danny they beat up Primont to help his father . One night when Mr. Fisher leaves the store dressed in Primont 's hat and coat ( lent due to a rainstorm ) , Shark recognizes him , but decides to mug him anyway , as that would be even better for Maxie 's purposes . Danny 's father is so badly injured that he needs expensive surgery ; so Maxie pays for a specialist to perform it . Maxie later blackmails Danny into signing with him by threatening to tell his father about his involvement in the mugging , and then does it anyway . Outraged , Danny pummels Maxie for the betrayal and helps Ronnie escape him .
Maxie sends his henchmen after Danny . Shark and another gang member trap him in an alley . Danny knocks out one of his pursuers . Then Shark stabs Danny , but kills himself in the struggle . Ronnie then finds a profusely bleeding Danny and takes him to her house on a bayou to recover . She asks him to forget her sordid past and pretend to love her . Danny replies that it would not be difficult and kisses her . Maxie drives up , accompanied by Dummy ( Jack Grinnage ) , a member of Danny 's former gang . Maxie fatally shoots Ronnie . Dummy , who had been befriended by Danny , grapples with Maxie ; the gun goes off , killing its owner .
Danny returns to the King Creole . He sings the lines " Let 's think of the future , forget the past , you 're not my first love , but you 're my last " to Nellie in the audience . Mr Fisher also shows up to listen to his son sing .
= = Cast = =
Elvis Presley as Danny Fisher
Carolyn Jones as Ronnie , Maxie 's mistress
Walter Matthau as Maxie Fields , the local gangster
Dolores Hart as Nellie , a five @-@ and @-@ dime employee who falls for Danny
Dean Jagger as Mr. Fisher , Danny 's father
Liliane Montevecchi as Forty Nina , a stripper at the King Creole nightclub
Vic Morrow as Shark , Maxie 's lead thug
Paul Stewart as Charlie LeGrand , owner of the King Creole
Jan Shepard as Mimi Fisher , Danny 's sister
Brian G. Hutton as Sal , a member of Shark 's gang .
Jack Grinnage as Dummy , a mute member of Shark 's gang .
Dick Winslow as Eddie Burton
Raymond Bailey as Mr. Evans , the school principal
Gavin Gordon as Mr. Primont , drug store manager and Mr. Fisher 's overbearing boss
= = Production = =
Hal Wallis acquired the rights to A Stone for Danny Fisher in February 1955 for $ 25 @,@ 000 , with the intention of giving the lead role of a New York boxer to either James Dean or Ben Gazzara . The role was originally written for Dean , but the project was cancelled after his death in 1955 . In January 1957 , following the success of an off @-@ Broadway stage version of the story , Presley was suggested as a possible replacement . After negotiations were completed , the character of Fisher was changed from a boxer to a singer and the location was moved from New York to New Orleans .
Wallis selected Michael Curtiz , a noted director of the Hollywood studio system whose works included The Adventures of Robin Hood , Yankee Doodle Dandy and Casablanca . Curtiz decided to shoot the film in black and white for dramatic ambiance and to give the streets a film noir appearance . He also selected an experienced cast to support Presley , including Walther Matthau and Carolyn Jones , as well as Dolores Hart , Presley 's co @-@ star in the 1957 film Loving You . Curtiz instructed a " taken aback " Presley to lose fifteen pounds and shave his sideburns for the role , both of which Presley did .
On December 20 , 1957 , a month before filming was due
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to begin , Presley received his draft notice . Presley and Paramount had to request special permission to defer Presley 's enlistment to allow him to finish the film . Both pointed out to the draft board that a delay in filming would cost them a large sum of money invested in the pre @-@ production of the film . On December 27 , Presley received a 60 @-@ day deferment .
Filming took place between January 20 and March 10 , 1958 , mostly at Paramount Studios in Los Angeles , California , and on location in the French Quarter in New Orleans , Louisiana , while the scene of the bayou was filmed at Lake Pontchartrain . During filming , Presley was constantly moved to avoid the crowds of fans who came to see him on location , which delayed the film @-@ making . Wallis had rented a house for Presley 's privacy , and a second one after one of his assistants noticed that the back of the houses in the block led to the back of the houses on the adjacent street . To escape from the crowds , Presley would climb to the roof of one house and cross over onto the roof of the other . After a fan discovered his path , he resided on the tenth floor of the Beverly Wilshire Hotel , which was rented for the whole cast .
Before filming began , Curtiz was convinced that Presley would be a " conceited boy " , but after a few weeks of working together , he described Presley as a " lovely boy " who would go on to be a " wonderful actor " . Presley , after seeing an early copy of the finished film , thanked Curtiz for giving him the opportunity to show his potential as an actor ; he would later cite Danny Fisher as his favorite role of his acting career . Fourteen days after the completion of King Creole , Presley was officially inducted into the U.S. Army .
= = Reception = =
The film was first shown at Loew 's State Theater in New York City on July 2 , 1958 . During the opening week , it ranked number five in box office earnings on the Variety national survey . Billboard wrote : " Elvis Presley 's new film shapes up as a box @-@ office winner . It 's got plenty of action and characterisation and the star gives his best acting performance to date ... ( the ) Incidents and characters of the original novel are distorted , but the plot stands up well and the dialog is salty and emotion @-@ packed . As Danny , Presley exhibits improved histrionics and provides many moving and tense moments . Carolyn Jones is a knockout as a fallen thrush who would like to love him ; their aborted romance gives the pic its finest scenes . "
Variety declared that the film " Shows the young star [ Presley ] as a better than fair actor " . The New York Times also gave a favorable review : " Mr. Curtiz and his players have got it snugly draped around Mr. Presley 's shoulders . And there it stays , until a limp melodramatic home stretch , even with eight or so of those twitching , gyrating musical interludes . ... These also perfectly typify the Bourbon Street honky @-@ tonks that Mr. Curtiz and his fine photographer , Russ Harlan , have beguilingly drenched with atmosphere . Matching , or balancing , the tunes are at least seven characterizations that supply the real backbone and tell the story of the picture . ... for Mr. Presley , in his third screen attempt , it 's a pleasure to find him up to a little more than Bourbon Street shoutin ' and wigglin ' . Acting is his assignment in this shrewdly upholstered showcase , and he does it , so help us over a picket fence . "
The Spectator , however , criticized the relationship of Presley 's character with his love interests : " The girls in his ( Michael Curtiz 's ) latest film , King Creole , are both played by good , serious actresses : Carolyn Jones .. and Dolores Hart , ... both are shown to be hungrily , desperately , unpridefully in love with him ( Presley 's character ) . They have no existence , except in him ; do nothing but wait for him ; hope for nothing but a little rough affection ... Instead of being kissed , they beg for kisses , which Mr. Presley sulkily and reluctantly hands out now and then , with the air of a small , fastidious boy being press to eat marshmallow and , though he feels a bit sick not quite knowing how to get out of it ... ( it ) really seems to suggest this is a god come down among us for a spell ; and when tender and infinitely patient in spite of the long past of infidelity , nonchalance , and what looks to an observer like plain indifference from him , her lips poised for the kiss that doesn 't come ... As the most extreme example of a contemporary idol , Mr. Presley is pretty fascinating , and , though you may be put off at first by his pale , puffy , bruised looking babyish face , by the weary cherubic decadence you might imagine in Nero , and the excessive greasiness of his excessively long , spiky locks , his films , however bad ( and King Creole is pretty low on his list ) , are well worth taking a look at . "
About Presley 's performance , Down Beat wrote : " Let it be noted that Elvis Presley 's latest , King Creole , is his best picture thus far--comparatively speaking , of course . Maybe about 10 more films ( and as many drama coaches ) from now Elvis might begin to get an inkling of what acting 's all about . " TV @-@ Radio Mirror magazine praised Presley 's acting over his past roles : " Elvis Presley does his strongest acting job so far . Two years ago , Presley on the screen was a laughing stock . But nobody is laughing now " . Meanwhile , The Monthly Film Bulletin criticized the violence depicted in the film and rated the movie a III , denoting poor , stating , " This entangled series of cliches , each with more unlikely motivation than the last , provides the most unattractive Presley vehicle so far . His numbers only offer intermittent relief from the calculated violence and viciousness , and he can do little to balance the disagreeable movie " .
Commonweal lamented the lack of punishment to the main character for his actions , but praised the director for his influence on Presley : " No doubt adults won 't be moved much by " King Creole " one way or the other , but unfortunately teenage audiences may be taken in , especially since Danny is supposed to be a sympathetic character and at the end goes unpunished by the police for his crimes ... It must be said in favor of Director Michael Curtiz that he does succeed in getting Presley to act every now and then , but the cards are stacked in such an obvious manner against Danny that even Montgomery Clift couldn 't have handled the role with conviction . "
Catholic World commented : " Playing a part — an underprivileged youth who , on and off , displays some dignity and honest aspirations — that requires some histrionic effort , Presley shows signs that he is getting the hang of acting . The picture itself , however , after a promising enough beginning turns into a lurid melodramatic hash composed in about equal part of juvenile delinquency , gangsterism and sex . These may be legitimate dramatic subjects but the script gives them an illegitimate viewpoint and leaves muddled moral issues dangling . "
The Florence Times wrote of Presley : " the fellow isn 't a bad actor . Of course , he 's nothing at all sensational and the Academy Award isn 't in danger , but there are Hollywood habitues who 've gotten by for years with less ability . In fact , given the normal amount of the more painstaking type of direction , it is entirely possible that Mr. Wiggle @-@ hips could develop into a really competent actor . As long , however , as he can continue to attract audiences in present proportions there 's little need in worrying with drama schools . " Allrovi rated the movie with four stars out of five , stating : " The film 's highlight is a brief exchange of fisticuffs between Elvis and Walter Matthau . Together with Jailhouse Rock , King Creole is one of the best filmed examples of the untamed , pre @-@ army Elvis Presley " .
= = Home media = =
The film was released on VHS by Paramount Pictures in 1986 . In 2000 , it was re @-@ released in DVD with remastered sound and image , featuring the original theatrical trailer .
= = Soundtrack = =
= Solar System =
The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it , either directly or indirectly . Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly , the largest eight are the planets , with the remainder being significantly smaller objects , such as dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies . Of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly , the moons , two are larger than the smallest planet , Mercury .
The Solar System formed 4 @.@ 6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud . The vast majority of the system 's mass is in the Sun , with most of the remaining mass contained in Jupiter . The four smaller inner planets , Mercury , Venus , Earth and Mars , are terrestrial planets , being primarily composed of rock and metal . The four outer planets are giant planets , being substantially more massive than the terrestrials . The two largest , Jupiter and Saturn , are gas giants , being composed mainly of hydrogen and helium ; the two outermost planets , Uranus and Neptune , are ice giants , being composed mostly of substances with relatively high melting points compared with hydrogen and helium , called ices , such as water , ammonia and methane . All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic .
The Solar System also contains smaller objects . The asteroid belt , which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter , mostly contains objects composed , like the terrestrial planets , of rock and metal . Beyond Neptune 's orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc , which are populations of trans @-@ Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices , and beyond them a newly discovered population of sednoids . Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity . Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets . Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans @-@ Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris . In addition to these two regions , various other small @-@ body populations , including comets , centaurs and interplanetary dust , freely travel between regions . Six of the planets , at least four of the dwarf planets , and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by natural satellites , usually termed " moons " after the Moon . Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects .
The solar wind , a stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun , creates a bubble @-@ like region in the interstellar medium known as the heliosphere . The heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of interstellar wind ; it extends out to the edge of the scattered disc . The Oort cloud , which is thought to be the source for long @-@ period comets , may also exist at a distance roughly a thousand times further than the heliosphere . The Solar System is located in the Orion Arm , 26 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from the center of the Milky Way .
= = Discovery and exploration = =
For many thousands of years , humanity , with a few exceptions , did not recognize or understand the concept of the Solar System . Most people up to the Late Middle Ages – Renaissance believed Earth to be stationary at the centre of the universe and categorically different from the divine or ethereal objects that moved through the sky . Although the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos had speculated on a heliocentric reordering of the cosmos , Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to develop a mathematically predictive heliocentric system . In the 17th century , Galileo Galilei , Johannes Kepler , and Isaac Newton developed an understanding of physics that led to the gradual acceptance of the idea that Earth moves around the Sun and that the planets are governed by the same physical laws that governed Earth . The invention of the telescope led to the discovery of further planets and moons . Improvements in the telescope and the use of unmanned spacecraft have enabled the investigation of geological phenomena , such as mountains , craters , seasonal meteorological phenomena , such as clouds , dust storms and ice caps on the other planets .
= = Structure and composition = =
The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun , a G2 main @-@ sequence star that contains 99 @.@ 86 % of the system 's known mass and dominates it gravitationally . The Sun 's four largest orbiting bodies , the giant planets , account for 99 % of the remaining mass , with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more than 90 % . The remaining objects of the Solar System ( including the four terrestrial planets , the dwarf planets , moons , asteroids , and comets ) together comprise less than 0 @.@ 002 % of the Solar System 's total mass .
Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth 's orbit , known as the ecliptic . The planets are very close to the ecliptic , whereas comets and Kuiper belt objects are frequently at significantly greater angles to it . All the planets and most other objects orbit the Sun in the same direction that the Sun is rotating ( counter @-@ clockwise , as viewed from above Earth 's north pole ) . There are exceptions , such as Halley 's Comet .
The overall structure of the charted regions of the Solar System consists of the Sun , four relatively small inner planets surrounded by a belt of mostly rocky asteroids , and four giant planets surrounded by the Kuiper belt of mostly icy objects . Astronomers sometimes informally divide this structure into separate regions . The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt . The outer Solar System is beyond the asteroids , including the four giant planets . Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt , the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune .
Most of the planets in the Solar System have secondary systems of their own , being orbited by planetary objects called natural satellites , or moons ( two of which are larger than the planet Mercury ) , and , in the case of the four giant planets , by planetary rings , thin bands of tiny particles that orbit them in unison . Most of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation , with one face permanently turned toward their parent .
Kepler 's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects about the Sun . Following Kepler 's laws , each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus . Objects closer to the Sun ( with smaller semi @-@ major axes ) travel more quickly because they are more affected by the Sun 's gravity . On an elliptical orbit , a body 's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year . A body 's closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion , whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion . The orbits of the planets are nearly circular , but many comets , asteroids , and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits . The positions of the bodies in the Solar System can be predicted using numerical models .
Although the Sun dominates the system by mass , it accounts for only about 2 % of the angular momentum . The planets , dominated by Jupiter , account for most of the rest of the angular momentum due to the combination of their mass , orbit , and distance from the Sun , with a possibly significant contribution from comets .
The Sun , which comprises nearly all the matter in the Solar System , is composed of roughly 98 % hydrogen and helium . Jupiter and Saturn , which comprise nearly all the remaining matter , are also primarily composed of hydrogen and helium . A composition gradient exists in the Solar System , created by heat and light pressure from the Sun ; those objects closer to the Sun , which are more affected by heat and light pressure , are composed of elements with high melting points . Objects farther from the Sun are composed largely of materials with lower melting points . The boundary in the Solar System beyond which those volatile substances could condense is known as the frost line , and it lies at roughly 5 AU from the Sun .
The objects of the inner Solar System are composed mostly of rock , the collective name for compounds with high melting points , such as silicates , iron or nickel , that remained solid under almost all conditions in the protoplanetary nebula . Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases , the astronomical term for materials with extremely low melting points and high vapour pressure , such as hydrogen , helium , and neon , which were always in the gaseous phase in the nebula . Ices , like water , methane , ammonia , hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide , have melting points up to a few hundred kelvins . They can be found as ices , liquids , or gases in various places in the Solar System , whereas in the nebula they were either in the solid or gaseous phase . Icy substances comprise the majority of the satellites of the giant planets , as well as most of Uranus and Neptune ( the so @-@ called " ice giants " ) and the numerous small objects that lie beyond Neptune 's orbit . Together , gases and ices are referred to as volatiles .
= = = Distances and scales = = =
The distance from Earth to the Sun is 1 astronomical unit ( 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) , or AU . For comparison , the radius of the Sun is 0 @.@ 0047 AU ( 700 @,@ 000 km ) . Thus , the Sun occupies 0 @.@ 00001 % ( 10 − 5 % ) of the volume of a sphere with a radius the size of Earth 's orbit , whereas Earth 's volume is roughly one millionth ( 10 − 6 ) that of the Sun . Jupiter , the largest planet , is 5 @.@ 2 astronomical units ( 780 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) from the Sun and has a radius of 71 @,@ 000 km ( 0 @.@ 00047 AU ) , whereas the most distant planet , Neptune , is 30 AU ( 4 @.@ 5 × 109 km ) from the Sun .
With a few exceptions , the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun , the larger the distance between its orbit and the orbit of the next nearer object to the Sun . For example , Venus is approximately 0 @.@ 33 AU farther out from the Sun than Mercury , whereas Saturn is 4 @.@ 3 AU out from Jupiter , and Neptune lies 10 @.@ 5 AU out from Uranus . Attempts have been made to determine a relationship between these orbital distances ( for example , the Titius – Bode law ) , but no such theory has been accepted . The images at the beginning of this section show the orbits of the various constituents of the Solar System on different scales .
Some Solar System models attempt to convey the relative scales involved in the Solar System on human terms . Some are small in scale ( and may be mechanical — called orreries ) — whereas others extend across cities or regional areas . The largest such scale model , the Sweden Solar System , uses the 110 @-@ metre ( 361 @-@ ft ) Ericsson Globe in Stockholm as its substitute Sun , and , following the scale , Jupiter is a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 25 @-@ foot ) sphere at Arlanda International Airport , 40 km ( 25 mi ) away , whereas the farthest current object , Sedna , is a 10 @-@ cm ( 4 @-@ in ) sphere in Luleå , 912 km ( 567 mi ) away .
If the Sun – Neptune distance is scaled to 100 metres , then the Sun would be about 3 cm in diameter ( roughly two @-@ thirds the diameter of a golf ball ) , the giant planets would be all smaller than about 3 mm , and Earth 's diameter along with that of the other terrestrial planets would be smaller than a flea ( 0 @.@ 3 mm ) at this scale .
= = Formation and evolution = =
The Solar System formed 4 @.@ 568 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region within a large molecular cloud . This initial cloud was likely several light @-@ years across and probably birthed several stars . As is typical of molecular clouds , this one consisted mostly of hydrogen , with some helium , and small amounts of heavier elements fused by previous generations of stars . As the region that would become the Solar System , known as the pre @-@ solar nebula , collapsed , conservation of angular momentum caused it to rotate faster . The centre , where most of the mass collected , became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc . As the contracting nebula rotated faster , it began to flatten into a protoplanetary disc with a diameter of roughly 200 AU and a hot , dense protostar at the centre . The planets formed by accretion from this disc , in which dust and gas gravitationally attracted each other , coalescing to form ever larger bodies . Hundreds of protoplanets may have existed in the early Solar System , but they either merged or were destroyed , leaving the planets , dwarf planets , and leftover minor bodies .
Due to their higher boiling points , only metals and silicates could exist in solid form in the warm inner Solar System close to the Sun , and these would eventually form the rocky planets of Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars . Because metallic elements only comprised a very small fraction of the solar nebula , the terrestrial planets could not grow very large . The giant planets ( Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune ) formed further out , beyond the frost line , the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid . The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets , allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium , the lightest and most abundant elements . Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the asteroid belt , Kuiper belt , and Oort cloud . The Nice model is an explanation for the creation of these regions and how the outer planets could have formed in different positions and migrated to their current orbits through various gravitational interactions .
Within 50 million years , the pressure and density of hydrogen in the centre of the protostar became great enough for it to begin thermonuclear fusion . The temperature , reaction rate , pressure , and density increased until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved : the thermal pressure equalled the force of gravity . At this point , the Sun became a main @-@ sequence star . The main @-@ sequence phase , from beginning to end , will last about 10 billion years for the Sun compared to around two billion years for all other phases of the Sun 's pre @-@ remnant life combined . Solar wind from the Sun created the heliosphere and swept away the remaining gas and dust from the protoplanetary disc into interstellar space , ending the planetary formation process . The Sun is growing brighter ; early in its main @-@ sequence life its brightness was 70 % that of what it is today .
The Solar System will remain roughly as we know it today until the hydrogen in the core of the Sun has been entirely converted to helium , which will occur roughly 5 billion years from now . This will mark the end of the Sun 's main @-@ sequence life . At this time , the core of the Sun will collapse , and the energy output will be much greater than at present . The outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly 260 times its current diameter , and the Sun will become a red giant . Because of its vastly increased surface area , the surface of the Sun will be considerably cooler ( 2 @,@ 600 K at its coolest ) than it is on the main sequence . The expanding Sun is expected to vaporize Mercury and Venus and render Earth uninhabitable as the habitable zone moves out to the orbit of Mars . Eventually , the core will be hot enough for helium fusion ; the Sun will burn helium for a fraction of the time it burned hydrogen in the core . The Sun is not massive enough to commence the fusion of heavier elements , and nuclear reactions in the core will dwindle . Its outer layers will move away into space , leaving a white dwarf , an extraordinarily dense object , half the original mass of the Sun but only the size of Earth . The ejected outer layers will form what is known as a planetary nebula , returning some of the material that formed the Sun — but now enriched with heavier elements like carbon — to the interstellar medium .
= = Sun = =
The Sun is the Solar System 's star and by far its most massive component . Its large mass ( 332 @,@ 900 Earth masses ) produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium , making it a main @-@ sequence star . This releases an enormous amount of energy , mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light .
The Sun is a G2 @-@ type main @-@ sequence star . Hotter main @-@ sequence stars are more luminous . The Sun 's temperature is intermediate between that of the hottest stars and that of the coolest stars . Stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare , whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars , known as red dwarfs , make up 85 % of the stars in the Milky Way .
The Sun is a population I star ; it has a higher abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium ( " metals " in astronomical parlance ) than the older population II stars . Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars , so the first generation of stars had to die before the Universe could be enriched with these atoms . The oldest stars contain few metals , whereas stars born later have more . This high metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun 's development of a planetary system because the planets form from the accretion of " metals " .
= = Interplanetary medium = =
The vast majority of the Solar System consists of a near @-@ vacuum known as the interplanetary medium . Along with light , the Sun radiates a continuous stream of charged particles ( a plasma ) known as the solar wind . This stream of particles spreads outwards at roughly 1 @.@ 5 million kilometres per hour , creating a tenuous atmosphere that permeates the interplanetary medium out to at least 100 AU ( see § Heliosphere ) . Activity on the Sun 's surface , such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections , disturb the heliosphere , creating space weather and causing geomagnetic storms . The largest structure within the heliosphere is the heliospheric current sheet , a spiral form created by the actions of the Sun 's rotating magnetic field on the interplanetary medium .
Earth 's magnetic field stops its atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind . Venus and Mars do not have magnetic fields , and as a result the solar wind is causing their atmospheres to gradually bleed away into space . Coronal mass ejections and similar events blow a magnetic field and huge quantities of material from the surface of the Sun . The interaction of this magnetic field and material with Earth 's magnetic field funnels charged particles into Earth 's upper atmosphere , where its interactions create aurorae seen near the magnetic poles .
The heliosphere and planetary magnetic fields ( for those planets that have them ) partially shield the Solar System from high @-@ energy interstellar particles called cosmic rays . The density of cosmic rays in the interstellar medium and the strength of the Sun 's magnetic field change on very long timescales , so the level of cosmic @-@ ray penetration in the Solar System varies , though by how much is unknown .
The interplanetary medium is home to at least two disc @-@ like regions of cosmic dust . The first , the zodiacal dust cloud , lies in the inner Solar System and causes the zodiacal light . It was likely formed by collisions within the asteroid belt brought on by gravitational interactions with the planets . The second dust cloud extends from about 10 AU to about 40 AU , and was probably created by similar collisions within the Kuiper belt .
= = Inner Solar System = =
The inner Solar System is the region comprising the terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt . Composed mainly of silicates and metals , the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun ; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn . This region is also within the frost line , which is a little less than 5 AU ( about 700 million km ) from the Sun .
= = = Inner planets = = =
The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense , rocky compositions , few or no moons , and no ring systems . They are composed largely of refractory minerals , such as the silicates , which form their crusts and mantles , and metals , such as iron and nickel , which form their cores . Three of the four inner planets ( Venus , Earth and Mars ) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather ; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features , such as rift valleys and volcanoes . The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet , which designates those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is ( i.e. Mercury and Venus ) .
= = = = Mercury = = = =
Mercury ( 0 @.@ 4 AU from the Sun ) is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet in the Solar System ( 0 @.@ 055 Earth masses ) . Mercury has no natural satellites ; besides impact craters , its only known geological features are lobed ridges or rupes that were probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history . Mercury 's very tenuous atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind . Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately explained . Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant impact ; or , that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun 's energy .
= = = = Venus = = = =
Venus ( 0 @.@ 7 AU from the Sun ) is close in size to Earth ( 0 @.@ 815 Earth masses ) and , like Earth , has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core , a substantial atmosphere , and evidence of internal geological activity . It is much drier than Earth , and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense . Venus has no natural satellites . It is the hottest planet , with surface temperatures over 400 ° C ( 752 ° F ) , most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus , but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere , which suggests that its atmosphere is being replenished by volcanic eruptions .
= = = = Earth = = = =
Earth ( 1 AU from the Sun ) is the largest and densest of the inner planets , the only one known to have current geological activity , and the only place where life is known to exist . Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets , and it is the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed . Earth 's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets , having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21 % free oxygen . It has one natural satellite , the Moon , the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System .
= = = = Mars = = = =
Mars ( 1 @.@ 5 AU from the Sun ) is smaller than Earth and Venus ( 0 @.@ 107 Earth masses ) . It has an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with a surface pressure of 6 @.@ 1 millibars ( roughly 0 @.@ 6 % of that of Earth ) . Its surface , peppered with vast volcanoes , such as Olympus Mons , and rift valleys , such as Valles Marineris , shows geological activity that may have persisted until as recently as 2 million years ago . Its red colour comes from iron oxide ( rust ) in its soil . Mars has two tiny natural satellites ( Deimos and Phobos ) thought to be captured asteroids .
= = = Asteroid belt = = =
Asteroids except for the largest , Ceres , are classified as small Solar System bodies and are composed mainly of refractory rocky and metallic minerals , with some ice . They range from a few metres to hundreds of kilometres in size . Asteroids smaller than one meter are usually called meteoroids and micrometeoroids ( grain @-@ sized ) , depending on different , somewhat arbitrary definitions .
The asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter , between 2 @.@ 3 and 3 @.@ 3 AU from the Sun . It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System 's formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter . The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands , possibly millions , of objects over one kilometre in diameter . Despite this , the total mass of the asteroid belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of Earth . The asteroid belt is very sparsely populated ; spacecraft routinely pass through without incident .
= = = = Ceres = = = =
Ceres ( 2 @.@ 77 AU ) is the largest asteroid , a protoplanet , and a dwarf planet . It has a diameter of slightly under 1 @,@ 000 km , and a mass large enough for its own gravity to pull it into a spherical shape . Ceres was considered a planet when it was discovered in 1801 , and was reclassified to asteroid in the 1850s as further observations revealed additional asteroids . It was classified as a dwarf planet in 2006 when the definition of a planet was created .
= = = = Asteroid groups = = = =
Asteroids in the asteroid belt are divided into asteroid groups and families based on their orbital characteristics . Asteroid moons are asteroids that orbit larger asteroids . They are not as clearly distinguished as planetary moons , sometimes being almost as large as their partners . The asteroid belt also contains main @-@ belt comets , which may have been the source of Earth 's water .
Jupiter trojans are located in either of Jupiter 's L4 or L5 points ( gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing a planet in its orbit ) ; the term " trojan " is also used for small bodies in any other planetary or satellite Lagrange point . Hilda asteroids are in a 2 : 3 resonance with Jupiter ; that is , they go around the Sun three times for every two Jupiter orbits .
The inner Solar System also contains near @-@ Earth asteroids , many of which cross the orbits of the inner planets . Some of them are potentially hazardous objects .
= = Outer Solar System = =
The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large moons . The centaurs and many short @-@ period comets also orbit in this region . Due to their greater distance from the Sun , the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles , such as water , ammonia , and methane than those of the inner Solar System because the lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid .
= = = Outer planets = = =
The four outer planets , or giant planets ( sometimes called Jovian planets ) , collectively make up 99 % of the mass known to orbit the Sun . Jupiter and Saturn are together over 400 times the mass of Earth and consist overwhelmingly of hydrogen and helium ; Uranus and Neptune are far less massive ( < 20 Earth masses each ) and are composed primarily of ices . For these reasons , some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category , " ice giants " . All four giant planets have rings , although only Saturn 's ring system is easily observed from Earth . The term superior planet designates planets outside Earth 's orbit and thus includes both the outer planets and Mars .
= = = = Jupiter = = = =
Jupiter ( 5 @.@ 2 AU ) , at 318 Earth masses , is 2 @.@ 5 times the mass of all the other planets put together . It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium . Jupiter 's strong internal heat creates semi @-@ permanent features in its atmosphere , such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot . Jupiter has 67 known satellites . The four largest , Ganymede , Callisto , Io , and Europa , show similarities to the terrestrial planets , such as volcanism and internal heating . Ganymede , the largest satellite in the Solar System , is larger than Mercury .
= = = = Saturn = = = =
Saturn ( 9 @.@ 5 AU ) , distinguished by its extensive ring system , has several similarities to Jupiter , such as its atmospheric composition and magnetosphere . Although Saturn has 60 % of Jupiter 's volume , it is less than a third as massive , at 95 Earth masses . Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water . The rings of Saturn are made up of small ice and rock particles . Saturn has 62 confirmed satellites composed largely of ice . Two of these , Titan and Enceladus , show signs of geological activity . Titan , the second @-@ largest moon in the Solar System , is larger than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere .
= = = = Uranus = = = =
Uranus ( 19 @.@ 2 AU ) , at 14 Earth masses , is the lightest of the outer planets . Uniquely among the planets , it orbits the Sun on its side ; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic . It has a much colder core than the other giant planets and radiates very little heat into space . Uranus has 27 known satellites , the largest ones being Titania , Oberon , Umbriel , Ariel , and Miranda .
= = = = Neptune = = = =
Neptune ( 30 @.@ 1 AU ) , though slightly smaller than Uranus , is more massive ( equivalent to 17 Earths ) and hence more dense . It radiates more internal heat , but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn . Neptune has 14 known satellites . The largest , Triton , is geologically active , with geysers of liquid nitrogen . Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit . Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by several minor planets , termed Neptune trojans , that are in 1 : 1 resonance with it .
= = = Centaurs = = =
The centaurs are icy comet @-@ like bodies whose orbits have semi @-@ major axes greater than Jupiter 's ( 5 @.@ 5 AU ) and less than Neptune 's ( 30 AU ) . The largest known centaur , 10199 Chariklo , has a diameter of about 250 km . The first centaur discovered , 2060 Chiron , has also been classified as comet ( 95P ) because it develops a coma just as comets do when they approach the Sun .
= = Comets = =
Comets are small Solar System bodies , typically only a few kilometres across , composed largely of volatile ices . They have highly eccentric orbits , generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto . When a comet enters the inner Solar System , its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise , creating a coma : a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye .
Short @-@ period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years . Long @-@ period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years . Short @-@ period comets are thought to originate in the Kuiper belt , whereas long @-@ period comets , such as Hale – Bopp , are thought to originate in the Oort cloud . Many comet groups , such as the Kreutz Sungrazers , formed from the breakup of a single parent . Some comets with hyperbolic orbits may originate outside the Solar System , but determining their precise orbits is difficult . Old comets that have had most of their volatiles driven out by solar warming are often categorised as asteroids .
= = Trans @-@ Neptunian region = =
Beyond the orbit of Neptune lies the area of the " trans @-@ Neptunian region " , with the doughnut @-@ shaped Kuiper belt , home of Pluto and several other dwarf planets , and an overlapping disc of scattered objects , which is tilted toward the plane of the Solar System and reaches much further out than the Kuiper belt . The entire region is still largely unexplored . It appears to consist overwhelmingly of many thousands of small worlds — the largest having a diameter only a fifth that of Earth and a mass far smaller than that of the Moon — composed mainly of rock and ice . This region is sometimes described as the " third zone of the Solar System " , enclosing the inner and the outer Solar System .
= = = Kuiper belt = = =
The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt , but consisting mainly of objects composed primarily of ice . It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun . Though it is estimated to contain anything from dozens to thousands of dwarf planets , it is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies . Many of the larger Kuiper belt objects , such as Quaoar , Varuna , and Orcus , may prove to be dwarf planets with further data . There are estimated to be over 100 @,@ 000 Kuiper belt objects with a diameter greater than 50 km , but the total mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be only a tenth or even a hundredth the mass of Earth . Many Kuiper belt objects have multiple satellites , and most have orbits that take them outside the plane of the ecliptic .
The Kuiper belt can be roughly divided into the " classical " belt and the resonances . Resonances are orbits linked to that of Neptune ( e.g. twice for every three Neptune orbits , or once for every two ) . The first resonance begins within the orbit of Neptune itself . The classical belt consists of objects having no resonance with Neptune , and extends from roughly 39 @.@ 4 AU to 47 @.@ 7 AU . Members of the classical Kuiper belt are classified as cubewanos , after the first of their kind to be discovered , ( 15760 ) 1992 QB1 , and are still in near primordial , low @-@ eccentricity orbits .
= = = = Pluto and Charon = = = =
The dwarf planet Pluto ( 39 AU average ) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt . When discovered in 1930 , it was considered to be the ninth planet ; this changed in 2006 with the adoption of a formal definition of planet . Pluto has a relatively eccentric orbit inclined 17 degrees to the ecliptic plane and ranging from 29 @.@ 7 AU from the Sun at perihelion ( within the orbit of Neptune ) to 49 @.@ 5 AU at aphelion . Pluto has a 3 : 2 resonance with Neptune , meaning that Pluto orbits twice round the Sun for every three Neptunian orbits . Kuiper belt objects whose orbits share this resonance are called plutinos .
Charon , the largest of Pluto 's moons , is sometimes described as part of a binary system with Pluto , as the two bodies orbit a barycentre of gravity above their surfaces ( i.e. they appear to " orbit each other " ) . Beyond Charon , four much smaller moons , Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra , orbit within the system .
= = = = Makemake and Haumea = = = =
Makemake ( 45 @.@ 79 AU average ) , although smaller than Pluto , is the largest known object in the classical Kuiper belt ( that is , a Kuiper belt object not in a confirmed resonance with Neptune ) . Makemake is the brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto . It was named and designated a dwarf planet in 2008 . Its orbit is far more inclined than Pluto 's , at 29 ° .
Haumea ( 43 @.@ 13 AU average ) is in an orbit similar to Makemake except that it is in a 7 : 12 orbital resonance with Neptune . It is about the same size as Makemake and has two natural satellites . A rapid , 3 @.@ 9 @-@ hour rotation gives it a flattened and elongated shape . It was named and designated a dwarf planet in 2008 .
= = = Scattered disc = = =
The scattered disc , which overlaps the Kuiper belt but extends much further outwards , is thought to be the source of short @-@ period comets . Scattered @-@ disc objects are thought to have been ejected into erratic orbits by the gravitational influence of Neptune 's early outward migration . Most scattered disc objects ( SDOs ) have perihelia within the Kuiper belt but aphelia far beyond it ( some more than 150 AU from the Sun ) . SDOs ' orbits are also highly inclined to the ecliptic plane and are often almost perpendicular to it . Some astronomers consider the scattered disc to be merely another region of the Kuiper belt and describe scattered disc objects as " scattered Kuiper belt objects " . Some astronomers also classify centaurs as inward @-@ scattered Kuiper belt objects along with the outward @-@ scattered residents of the scattered disc .
= = = = Eris = = = =
Eris ( 68 AU average ) is the largest known scattered disc object , and caused a debate about what constitutes a planet , because it is 25 % more massive than Pluto and about the same diameter . It is the most massive of the known dwarf planets . It has one known moon , Dysnomia . Like Pluto , its orbit is highly eccentric , with a perihelion of 38 @.@ 2 AU ( roughly Pluto 's distance from the Sun ) and an aphelion of 97 @.@ 6 AU , and steeply inclined to the ecliptic plane .
= = Farthest regions = =
The point at which the Solar System ends and interstellar space begins is not precisely defined because its outer boundaries are shaped by two separate forces : the solar wind and the Sun 's gravity . The limit of the solar wind 's influence is roughly four times Pluto 's distance from the Sun ; this heliopause , the outer boundary of the heliosphere , is considered the beginning of the interstellar medium . The Sun 's Hill sphere , the effective range of its gravitational dominance , is thought to extend up to a thousand times farther and encompasses the theorized Oort cloud .
= = = Heliosphere = = =
The heliosphere is a stellar @-@ wind bubble , a region of space dominated by the Sun , which radiates at roughly 400 km / s its solar wind , a stream of charged particles , until it collides with the wind of the interstellar medium .
The collision occurs at the termination shock , which is roughly 80 – 100 AU from the Sun upwind of the interstellar medium and roughly 200 AU from the Sun downwind . Here the wind slows dramatically , condenses and becomes more turbulent , forming a great oval structure known as the heliosheath . This structure is thought to look and behave very much like a comet 's tail , extending outward for a further 40 AU on the upwind side but tailing many times that distance downwind ; evidence from Cassini and Interstellar Boundary Explorer spacecraft has suggested that it is forced into a bubble shape by the constraining action of the interstellar magnetic field .
The outer boundary of the heliosphere , the heliopause , is the point at which the solar wind finally terminates and is the beginning of interstellar space . Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are reported to have passed the termination shock and entered the heliosheath , at 94 and 84 AU from the Sun , respectively . Voyager 1 is reported to have crossed the heliopause in August 2012 .
The shape and form of the outer edge of the heliosphere is likely affected by the fluid dynamics of interactions with the interstellar medium as well as solar magnetic fields prevailing to the south , e.g. it is bluntly shaped with the northern hemisphere extending 9 AU farther than the southern hemisphere . Beyond the heliopause , at around 230 AU , lies the bow shock , a plasma " wake " left by the Sun as it travels through the Milky Way .
Due to a lack of data , conditions in local interstellar space are not known for certain . It is expected that NASA 's Voyager spacecraft , as they pass the heliopause , will transmit valuable data on radiation levels and solar wind to Earth . How well the heliosphere shields the Solar System from cosmic rays is poorly understood . A NASA @-@ funded team has developed a concept of a " Vision Mission " dedicated to sending a probe to the heliosphere .
= = = Detached objects = = =
90377 Sedna ( 520 AU average ) is a large , reddish object with a gigantic , highly elliptical orbit that takes it from about 76 AU at perihelion to 940 AU at aphelion and takes 11 @,@ 400 years to complete . Mike Brown , who discovered the object in 2003 , asserts that it cannot be part of the scattered disc or the Kuiper belt because its perihelion is too distant to have been affected by Neptune 's migration . He and other astronomers consider it to be the first in an entirely new population , sometimes termed " distant detached objects " ( DDOs ) , which also may include the object 2000 CR105 , which has a perihelion of 45 AU , an aphelion of 415 AU , and an orbital period of 3 @,@ 420 years . Brown terms this population the " inner Oort cloud " because it may have formed through a similar process , although it is far closer to the Sun . Sedna is very likely a dwarf planet , though its shape has yet to be determined . The second unequivocally detached object , with a perihelion farther than Sedna 's at roughly 81 AU , is 2012 VP113 , discovered in 2012 . Its aphelion is only half that of Sedna 's , at 400 – 500 AU .
= = = Oort cloud = = =
The Oort cloud is a hypothetical spherical cloud of up to a trillion icy objects that is thought to be the source for all long @-@ period comets and to surround the Solar System at roughly 50 @,@ 000 AU ( around 1 light @-@ year ( ly ) ) , and possibly to as far as 100 @,@ 000 AU ( 1 @.@ 87 ly ) . It is thought to be composed of comets that were ejected from the inner Solar System by gravitational interactions with the outer planets . Oort cloud objects move very slowly , and can be perturbed by infrequent events , such as collisions , the gravitational effects of a passing star , or the galactic tide , the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way .
= = = Boundaries = = =
Much of the Solar System is still unknown . The Sun 's gravitational field is estimated to dominate the gravitational forces of surrounding stars out to about two light years ( 125 @,@ 000 AU ) . Lower estimates for the radius of the Oort cloud , by contrast , do not place it farther than 50 @,@ 000 AU . Despite discoveries such as Sedna , the region between the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud , an area tens of thousands of AU in radius , is still virtually unmapped . There are also ongoing studies of the region between Mercury and the Sun . Objects may yet be discovered in the Solar System 's uncharted regions .
Currently , the furthest known objects , such as Comet West have aphelia around 70 @,@ 000 AU from the Sun , but as the Oort cloud becomes better known , this may change .
= = Galactic context = =
The Solar System is located in the Milky Way , a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter of about 100 @,@ 000 light @-@ years containing about 200 billion stars . The Sun resides in one of the Milky Way 's outer spiral arms , known as the Orion – Cygnus Arm or Local Spur . The Sun lies between 25 @,@ 000 and 28 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from the Galactic Centre , and its speed within the Milky Way is about 220 km / s , so that it completes one revolution every 225 – 250 million years . This revolution is known as the Solar System 's galactic year . The solar apex , the direction of the Sun 's path through interstellar space , is near the constellation Hercules in the direction of the current location of the bright star Vega . The plane of the ecliptic lies at an angle of about 60 ° to the galactic plane .
The Solar System 's location in the Milky Way is a factor in the evolutionary history of life on Earth . Its orbit is close to circular , and orbits near the Sun are at roughly the same speed as that of the spiral arms . Therefore , the Sun passes through arms only rarely . Because spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of supernovae , gravitational instabilities , and radiation that could disrupt the Solar System , this has given Earth long periods of stability for life to evolve . The Solar System also lies well outside the star @-@ crowded environs of the galactic centre . Near the centre , gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort cloud and send many comets into the inner Solar System , producing collisions with potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth . The intense radiation of the galactic centre could also interfere with the development of complex life . Even at the Solar System 's current location , some scientists have speculated that recent supernovae may have adversely affected life in the last 35 @,@ 000 years , by flinging pieces of expelled stellar core towards the Sun , as radioactive dust grains and larger , comet @-@ like bodies .
= = = Neighbourhood = = =
The Solar System is in the Local Interstellar Cloud or Local Fluff . It is thought to be near the neighbouring G @-@ Cloud but it is not known if the Solar System is embedded in the Local Interstellar Cloud , or if it is in the region where the Local Interstellar Cloud and G @-@ Cloud are interacting . The Local Interstellar Cloud is an area of denser cloud in an otherwise sparse region known as the Local Bubble , an hourglass @-@ shaped cavity in the interstellar medium roughly 300 light @-@ years ( ly ) across . The bubble is suffused with high @-@ temperature plasma , that suggests it is the product of several recent supernovae .
There are relatively few stars within ten light @-@ years of the Sun . The closest is the triple star system Alpha Centauri , which is about 4 @.@ 4 light @-@ years away . Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun @-@ like stars , whereas the small red dwarf , Proxima Centauri , orbits the pair at a distance of 0 @.@ 2 light @-@ year . The stars next closest to the Sun are the red dwarfs Barnard 's Star ( at 5 @.@ 9 ly ) , Wolf 359 ( 7 @.@ 8 ly ) , and Lalande 21185 ( 8 @.@ 3 ly ) .
The largest nearby star is Sirius , a bright main @-@ sequence star roughly 8 @.@ 6 light @-@ years away and roughly twice the Sun 's mass and that is orbited by a white dwarf , Sirius B. The nearest brown dwarfs are the binary Luhman 16 system at 6 @.@ 6 light @-@ years . Other systems within ten light @-@ years are the binary red @-@ dwarf system Luyten 726 @-@ 8 ( 8 @.@ 7 ly ) and the solitary red dwarf Ross 154 ( 9 @.@ 7 ly ) . The closest solitary Sun @-@ like star to the Solar System is Tau Ceti at 11 @.@ 9 light @-@ years . It has roughly 80 % of the Sun 's mass but only 60 % of its luminosity . The closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun orbits the red dwarf Gliese 674 , 15 light years away . It has a mass similar to that of Uranus and an orbital period of just five days . The closest known free @-@ floating planetary @-@ mass object to the Sun is WISE 0855 − 0714 , an object with a mass less than 10 Jupiter masses roughly 7 light @-@ years away .
= = = Comparison with other planetary systems = = =
Compared to other planetary systems the Solar System stands out in lacking planets interior to the orbit of Mercury . The known Solar System also lacks super @-@ Earths ( Planet Nine could be a super @-@ Earth beyond the known Solar System ) . Uncommonly , it has only small rocky planets and large gas giants ; elsewhere planets of intermediate size are typical — both rocky and gas — so there is no " gap " as seen between the size of Earth and of Neptune ( with a radius 3 @.@ 8 times as large ) . Also , these super @-@ Earths have closer orbits than Mercury . This led to hypothesis that all planetary systems start with many close @-@ in planets , and that typically a sequence of their collisions causes consolidation of mass into few larger planets , but in case of the Solar System the collisions caused their destruction and ejection .
The orbits of Solar System planets are nearly circular . Compared to other systems , they have smaller orbital eccentricity . Although there are attempts to explain it partly with a bias in the radial @-@ velocity detection method and partly with long interactions of a quite high number of planets , the exact causes remain undetermined .
= = Visual summary = =
This section is a sampling of Solar System bodies , selected for size and quality of imagery , and sorted by volume . Some omitted objects are larger than the ones included here , notably Eris , because these have not been imaged in high quality .
= Gerald Zahorchak =
Gerald L. Zahorchak is an American educator and the former Secretary of Education for the Pennsylvania Department of Education , a position he held from 2006 to 2010 . Throughout the 1980s and 1990s , Zahorchak worked at various Pennsylvania public school districts in a number of positions , including teacher , football coach , principal , federal programs director , strategic planning coordinator and personnel director . Zahorchak worked as superintendent of the Greater Johnstown School District in Cambria County from 1997 to 2003 , when he was chosen to be Deputy Secretary for Elementary and Secondary Education for the state . Governor Ed Rendell appointed him Secretary of Education in 2005 .
During his tenure as secretary , Zahorchak implemented state funding for pre @-@ kindergarten and full @-@ day kindergarten , developed a new school funding formula , helped increase education funding for school districts , and established the Keystone Exams and the state 's Standards Aligned System . In 2010 , Zahorchak announced he would leave the Secretary of Education position , coinciding with Rendell 's pending departure from the governorship . On April 22 , 2010 , Zahorchak was selected to be superintendent of the Allentown School District in Allentown , Pennsylvania , where he vowed to establish regular updates to families about their students education , improve safety in schools and implement incentives to attract qualified minorities and top education students into teaching positions .
= = Early career = =
A native of Johnstown , Pennsylvania , Zahorchak received a bachelor 's degree master in 1980 from Saint Francis University in Loretto , Pennsylvania , and a master of education degree from Indiana University of Pennsylvania in 1986 . In 1994 , Zahorchak received his doctorate in education from Pennsylvania State University , where he wrote his doctoral dissertation on state policy @-@ making . Zahorchak began his educational career in 1980 at the Greater Johnstown School District in Cambria County , Pennsylvania , where he spent two years an elementary school teacher . In 1985 , he became a middle school reading and language arts in the North Star School District in Somerset County , where he also coached varsity high school football . Zahorchak taught at North Star until 1989 , when he started working at the Shanksville @-@ Stonycreek School District , also in Somerset County . During his three years in the district , he worked as an elementary and secondary principal , as well as a federal programs director . In 1992 , he returned to the North Star School District as a principal and strategic planning coordinator . Zahorchak also previously served as an elected member of the Greater Johnstown School Board , and was a Johnstown city councilman , the Johnston deputy major and president of the Johnstown Rotary in 2003 .
Zahorchak returned to the Greater Johnstown School District in 1996 as a federal programs and personnel director . In 1997 , he was promoted to superintendent , a position he held for six years . During his tenure as superintendent , Zahorchak implemented full @-@ day kindergarten , pre @-@ kindergarten and tutoring programs . He also pursued high school reform and hired reading and math coaches to boost student learning .
= = Early state career = =
In March 2003 , Pennsylvania Secretary of Education Vicki Phillips hired Zahorchak as Deputy Secretary for Elementary and Secondary Education , where he oversaw the education of more than 1 @.@ 8 million children public school children in the state . Zahorchak helped implement the release of Pennsylvania 's first Academic Achievement Reports , and led the development and implementation of support systems for public schools trying to meet No Child Left Behind targets . By 2005 , Zahorchak was making a yearly salary of $ 124 @,@ 458 .
Zahorchak served as acting education secretary from August 2004 , when Phillips left the position , to September 2004 , when Francis Barnes was hired . During the Barnes administration , Governor Ed Rendell encouraged local Pennsylvania school boards to participate in Act 72 , a state property tax @-@ relief program . Act 72 used proceeds from slot @-@ machine gambling to finance property tax cuts from homeowners , and included with spending restrictions in exchange for the tax cuts . Barnes himself did not support the program , and most school boards rejected it because of the spending restrictions . Zahorchak , however voiced support for Act 72 and helped Rendell lobby local school districts to support it , which increased his visibility statewide . Zahorchak claimed Act 72 " includes real property tax relief that shifts more of the responsibility for school funding back to the state " . When Barnes resigned in September 2005 , Zahorchak was again tapped to serve as acting secretary and was widely considered the most qualified candidate for the permanent position , although Governor Ed Rendell engaged in a thorough search for other potential candidates around the state .
= = Secretary of Education = =
Zahorchak was appointed state Secretary of Education on October 5 , 2005 , by Governor Ed Rendell , following the resignation of former Secretary Francis Barnes . He was considered highly regarded by both Democratic and Republican lawmakers involved in education issues . During his Pennsylvania State Senate confirmation hearing in December 2005 , Zahorchak said he supported the state 's $ 44 million Educational Improvement Tax Credit , which provides tax breaks for businesses that support public education programs and private school scholarships . Zahorchak also said he believed basic education should be the state 's primary fiscal educational investment , rather than special education or higher education . The Pennsylvania State Senate Education Committee unanimously approved Zahorchak during his confirmation hearing on December 13 , 2005 , and the full senate unanimously confirmed him on February 7 , 2006 .
Zahorchak was a steady supporter of Rendell 's education proposals . However , he maintained that he could still be an independent voice within the administration , and claimed , " I happen to agree with the outcomes because I 'm in the mix of making determinations of our policy decisions . " In addition to Act 72 , Zahorchak supported a Rendell proposal to require superintendents and principals in struggling school districts to improve math and reading test scores in order to keep their jobs , an idea that was not embraced by the Pennsylvania Legislature . In 2006 , Zahorchak said he supported requiring high @-@ school students to pass exit exams before they could graduate , although he acknowledged implementing such a testing program would be a long and difficult effort . At the time , the state required students to demonstrate proficiency in math and reading before they could graduate , but allowed local districts to decide whether that should entail passing the Pennsylvania System of School Assessment math and reading tests or alternative tests in the subjects . Zahorchak said , " I think it 's a real disservice to graduate a student who 's fundamentally not at the standard level . " However , Zahorchak also said students should be given alternative ways to demonstrate they are ready for college or the work force besides exams .
As secretary , Zahorchak implemented state funding for pre @-@ kindergarten and full @-@ day kindergarten , training for principals , and easier ways to transfer college credits from one school to another . He has managed $ 200 million in Accountability Block Grants that were used for tutoring , math and literacy coaching , and led the development of Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership , a legislative initiative to develop and support educational leaders in the state . In 2008 , Rendell and Zahorchak unveiled the first new school funding formula in about two decades , which set out to more fair than previous formulas and better meet the specific needs of individual school districts . The formula would give more money to districts with large numbers of children living in poverty . Other factors considered under the formula were cost of living , district size , enrollment growth and the amount of students learning to speak English . The formula originally called for increasing Pennsylvania education spending by $ 2 @.@ 6 billion over the next six years , starting with an additional $ 291 million in 2008 – 09 , although the final budget passed by the state reduced that expenditure to $ 274 million .
Zahorchak spearheaded the establishment of the Keystone Exams , state @-@ created math , science and social studies tests that high school students would be required to pass a majority of in order to graduate . The measure was met with criticism by the Pennsylvania School Boards Association and others who felt the plan would be expensive and would undermine local school boards ' authority to set graduation requirements . The PSBA agreed to support the Keystone Exams under a compromise that schools might not have to give the tests if their own final exams are rigorous enough . The Keystone Exams were approved in 2009 and will first take effect starting with the class of 2015 . Zahorchak also established the state 's Standards Aligned System , which created a standardized set of diagnostic tests and curriculum guides for local school districts . The standards were aligned to six components : a curriculum framework , assessment systems , best teaching practices , emotional support practices , proven research resources and best interventions for accommodations for children who struggle . Within two years , most public school districts within Pennsylvania were using Standards Aligned System in some form .
In December 2009 , Zahorchak received an honorary doctor of laws degree from Indiana University of Pennsylvania , making him one of about only 50 people to receive the distinction . In 2010 , Zahorchak helped lead the application for federal funding through Race to the Top , a competitive grant program that encourages innovation and reform throughout public education . Zahorchak said the plan he drafted would double the number of students meeting math and reading proficiency targets by 2014 . About 120 school districts and 59 charter schools representing roughly 650 @,@ 000 students signed on for the application , which could have brought the state $ 400 million . However , Pennsylvania was not included among the states to receive money in the first round of Race to the Top , where funds were awarded only to Delaware and Tennessee for their reform measures . Zahorchak said feedback from the rejected application would be used to strengthen another application in the second round .
Zahorchak announced he would resign as education secretary on May 7 , 2010 . His decision to leave was spurred by the pending end of the Rendell administration , with the governor leaving the office by January 2011 . At the time of his departure , there were no public school districts in the state with more than half of their students testing below basic levels in state standardized tests , although 14 districts fit that criterion before Zahorchak took the job .
= = Post @-@ Secretary career = =
Zahorchak was unanimously selected to be superintendent of the Allentown School District in Allentown , Pennsylvania on April 22 , 2010 . His five @-@ year contract began on July 1 , 2010 , with a starting yearly salary of $ 195 @,@ 000 . Zahorchak is the 16th superintendent of the district , which serves about 18 @,@ 300 students and is the fourth largest public school district in Pennsylvania . He was chosen over four potential candidates , including former Harrisburg School District Superintendent Gerald Kohn , deputy superintendent of St. Louis Public Schools Carlinda Purcell and School District of Philadelphia Regional Superintendent Lucy D. Feria . The Allentown position was the only job Zahorchak sought as he considered leaving the Secretary of Education position .
Zahorchak said he plans to install a system that would provide regular updates to families on the academic performance of their children and push them toward tangible improvement goals . In response to recent student violence problems at the William Allen High School , Zahorchak identified one of his priorities as strengthening the district 's code of conduct and citizenship programs . He also announced he would seek to replace retiring teachers with highly skilled minority candidates , and would create incentive programs to lure top students into teaching positions if they agreed to spend at least five years teaching in Allentown schools .
Shortly after it was announced that all four Allentown School District middle schools failed to meet PSSA standards in 2009 @-@ 10 , Zahorchak proposed a major overhaul that would effectively eliminate all the district 's middle schools and change elementary schools to a kindergarten through eighth grade model . On August 26 , 2010 , the school board approved a study of the district 's facilities which would look into that proposal , or an alternative of building a fifth middle school in East Allentown to reduce the district 's middle school student population per building . The Morning Call said if approved , Zahorchak 's proposal would be " the biggest overhaul of the city 's educational landscape in 30 years " .
On October 14 , the Allentown School Board Education Committee signed off on Zahorchak 's proposed five @-@ year leadership and curriculum plans " Pathways to Success " . The full board will determine whether to adopt it on October 28 . Among the elements of the plan were social supports to help students transition from one grade level to the next , as well as the introduction to students of college information and career choices as early as elementary school , to ensure they understand their options after high school . The plan would also align programs and curricula across the district , establish a network to provide students better access to college courses and tutoring , and a push for more students to take advanced placement courses . Additionally , the plan would require high schoolers to pass mandatory , internationally recognized exit exams to graduate from high school .
The committee signed off on all of Zahorchak 's proposals except for his call to remove four principals in exchange for up to $ 15 million in federal grants that mandate leadership or staff changes as a condition for receiving the money . Zahorchak proposed transferring the principals from the Allen and Dieruff high schools , Central Elementary and Harrison @-@ Morton Middle School to the district 's nonprofit foundation , then use the federal grant money to open a special school for advanced placement and honors students . The committee did not vote or comment on the matter on October 14 . Zahorchak said he still planned to pursue the plan but apologized for speaking to the media about it on October 12 before discussing it with the district and staff , a move that caused angst among the staff and some members of the public .
On March 24 , Zahorchak 's proposal for district wide reform will be put before the Allentown School Board . The plan for reform is based primarily on financial expectations within the district . While the plan calls for the hiring of new teachers who will not be full @-@ time and not on district payroll , it also calls for the termination of 300 + teachers . Staff members from each of the Allentown School District 's schools will attend the meeting in order to overhaul the plan .
By July 1 , 2011 , the school board approved a budget that saw less than 60 professionals educators being furloughed . The budget continued to endorse the Pathways to Success Program .
On August 17 , 2011 , Zahorchak resigned as superintendent and was retained as Director of Strategic Initiatives . Cost savings was cited by the ASD board as the reason for the resignation . Other issues with Zahorchak 's management style , initiatives , and actions were also reported as contributing to the mutually accepted resignation .
= Tree =
In botany , a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem , or trunk , supporting branches and leaves in most species . In some usages , the definition of a tree may be narrower , including only woody plants with secondary growth , plants that are usable as lumber or plants above a specified height . Trees are not a taxonomic group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants to compete for sunlight . In looser senses , the taller palms , the tree ferns , bananas and bamboos are also trees . Trees tend to be long @-@ lived , some reaching several thousand years old . The tallest known tree , a coast redwood named Hyperion , stands 115 @.@ 6 m ( 379 ft ) high . Trees have been in existence for 370 million years . It is estimated that there are just over 3 trillion mature trees in the world .
A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by the trunk . This trunk typically contains woody tissue for strength , and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another . For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier . Below the ground , the roots branch and spread out widely ; they serve to anchor the tree and extract moisture and nutrients from the soil . Above ground , the branches divide into smaller branches and shoots . The shoots typically bear leaves , which capture light energy and convert it into sugars by photosynthesis , providing the food for the tree 's growth and development . Flowers and fruit may also be present , but some trees , such as conifers , instead have pollen cones and seed cones ; others , such as tree ferns , produce spores instead .
Trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the climate . They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store large quantities of carbon in their tissues . Trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants . Tropical rainforests are one of the most biodiverse habitats in the world . Trees provide shade and shelter , timber for construction , fuel for cooking and heating , and fruit for food as well as having many other uses . In parts of the world , forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of land available for agriculture . Because of their longevity and usefulness , trees have always been revered , with sacred groves in various cultures , and they play a role in many of the world 's mythologies .
= = Definition = =
Although " tree " is a term of common parlance , there is no universally recognised precise definition of what a tree is , either botanically or in common language . In its broadest sense , a tree is any plant with the general form of an elongated stem , or trunk , which supports the photosynthetic leaves or branches at some distance above the ground . Trees are also typically defined by height , with smaller plants from 0 @.@ 5 to 10 m ( 1 @.@ 6 to 32 @.@ 8 ft ) being called shrubs , so the minimum height of a tree is only loosely defined . Large herbaceous plants such as papaya and bananas are trees in this broad sense .
A commonly applied narrower definition is that a tree has a woody trunk formed by secondary growth , meaning that the trunk thickens each year by growing outwards , in addition to the primary upwards growth from the growing tip . Under such a definition , herbaceous plants such as palms , bananas and papayas are not considered trees regardless of their height , growth form or stem girth . Certain monocots may be considered trees under a slightly looser definition ; while the Joshua tree , bamboos and palms do not have secondary growth and never produce true wood with growth rings , they may produce " pseudo @-@ wood " by lignifying cells formed by primary growth .
Aside from structural definitions , trees are commonly defined by use , for instance as those plants which yield lumber .
= = Overview = =
The tree growth habit is an evolutionary adaptation found in different groups of plants : by growing taller , trees are able to compete better for sunlight . Trees tend to be long @-@ lived , some reaching several thousand years old , as well as tall . Trees have modified structures such as thicker stems composed of specialized cells that add structural strength and durability , allowing them to grow taller than non @-@ woody plants and to spread out their foliage . They differ from shrubs , which are also woody plants , by usually growing larger and having a single main stem ; but the distinction between a small tree and a large shrub is not always clear , made more confusing by the fact that trees may be reduced in size under harsher environmental conditions such as on mountains and subarctic areas . The tree form has evolved separately in unrelated classes of plants in response to similar environmental challenges , making it a classic example of parallel evolution . With an estimated 100 @,@ 000 species , the number of trees worldwide might total twenty @-@ five percent of all living plant species . The greatest number of these grow in tropical regions and many of these areas have not yet been fully surveyed by botanists , making tree diversity and ranges poorly known .
Trees exist in two different groups of vascular or higher plants , the gymnosperms and the angiosperms . The gymnosperm trees include conifers , cycads , ginkgophytes and gnetales ; they produce seeds which are not enclosed in fruits , but in open structures such as pine cones , and many have tough waxy leaves , such as pine needles . Most angiosperm trees are eudicots , the " true dicotyledons " , so named because the seeds contain two cotyledons or seed leaves . There are also some trees among the old lineages of flowering plants called basal angiosperms or paleodicots ; these include Amborella , Magnolia , nutmeg and avocado , while trees such as bamboo , palms and bananas are monocots .
Wood gives structural strength to the trunk of a tree ; this supports the plant as it grows larger . The vascular system of trees allows water , nutrients and other chemicals to be distributed around the plant , and without it trees would not be able to grow as large as they do . Trees , as relatively tall plants , need to draw water up the stem through the xylem from the roots by the suction produced as water evaporates from the leaves . If insufficient water is available the leaves will die . The three main parts of trees include the root , stem , and leaves ; they are integral parts of the vascular system which interconnects all the living cells . In trees and other plants that develop wood , the vascular cambium allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth . Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem , woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem . The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss . Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth .
Trees are either evergreen , having foliage that persists and remains green throughout the year , or deciduous , shedding their leaves at the end of the growing season and then having a dormant period without foliage . Most conifers are evergreens but larches ( Larix and Pseudolarix ) are deciduous , dropping their needles each autumn , and some species of cypress ( Glyptostrobus , Metasequoia and Taxodium ) shed small leafy shoots annually in a process known as cladoptosis . The crown is a name for the spreading top of a tree including the branches and leaves , while the uppermost layer in a forest , formed by the crowns of the trees , is known as the canopy . A sapling is a young tree .
Many tall palms are herbaceous monocots ; these do not undergo secondary growth and never produce wood . In many tall palms , the terminal bud on the main stem is the only one to develop , so they have unbranched trunks with large spirally arranged leaves . Some of the tree ferns , order Cyatheales , have tall straight trunks , growing up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) , but these are composed not of wood but of rhizomes which grow vertically and are covered by numerous adventitious roots .
= = Distribution = =
The number of trees in the world , according to a 2015 estimate , is 3 @.@ 04 trillion , of which 1 @.@ 39 trillion ( 46 % ) are in the tropics or sub @-@ tropics , 0 @.@ 61 trillion ( 20 % ) in the temperate zones , and 0 @.@ 74 trillion ( 24 % ) in the coniferous boreal forests . The estimate is about eight times higher than previous estimates , and is based on tree densities measured on over 400 @,@ 000 plots . It remains subject to a wide margin of error , not least because the samples are mainly from Europe and North America . The estimate suggests that about 15 billion trees are cut down annually and about 5 billion are planted . In the 12 @,@ 000 years since the start of human agriculture , the number of trees worldwide has decreased by 46 % .
In suitable environments , such as the Daintree Rainforest in Queensland , or the mixed podocarp and broadleaf forest of Ulva Island , New Zealand , forest is the more @-@ or @-@ less stable climatic climax community at the end of a plant succession , where open areas such as grassland are colonised by taller plants , which in turn give way to trees that eventually form a forest canopy .
In cool temperate regions , conifers often predominate ; a widely distributed climax community in the far north of the northern hemisphere is moist taiga or northern coniferous forest ( also called boreal forest ) . Taiga is the world 's largest land biome , forming 29 % of the world 's forest cover . The long cold winter of the far north is unsuitable for plant growth and trees must grow rapidly in the short summer season when the temperature rises and the days are long . Light is very limited under their dense cover and there may be little plant life on the forest floor , although fungi may abound . Similar woodland is found on mountains where the altitude causes the average temperature to be lower thus reducing the length of the growing season .
Where rainfall is relatively evenly spread across the seasons in temperate regions , temperate broadleaf and mixed forest typified by species like oak , beech , birch and maple is found . Temperate forest is also found in the southern hemisphere , as for example in the Eastern Australia temperate forest , characterized by Eucalyptus forest and open acacia woodland .
In tropical regions with a monsoon or monsoon @-@ like climate , where a drier part of the year alternates with a wet period as in the Amazon rainforest , different species of broad @-@ leaved trees dominate the forest , some of them being deciduous . In tropical regions with a drier savanna climate and insufficient rainfall to support dense forests , the canopy is not closed , and plenty of sunshine reaches the ground which is covered with grass and scrub . Acacia and baobab are well adapted to living in such areas .
= = Parts and function = =
= = = Roots = = =
The roots of a tree serve to anchor it to the ground and gather water and nutrients to transfer to all parts of the tree . They are also used for reproduction , defence , survival , energy storage and many other purposes . The radicle or embryonic root is the first part of a seedling to emerge from the seed during the process of germination . This develops into a taproot which goes straight downwards . Within a few weeks lateral roots branch out of the side of this and grow horizontally through the upper layers of the soil . In most trees , the taproot eventually withers away and the wide @-@ spreading laterals remain . Near the tip of the finer roots are single cell root hairs . These are in immediate contact with the soil particles and can absorb water and nutrients such as potassium in solution . The roots require oxygen to respire and only a few species such as the mangrove and the pond cypress ( Taxodium ascendens ) can live in permanently waterlogged soil .
In the soil , the roots encounter the hyphae of fungi . Many of these are known as mycorrhiza and form a mutualistic relationship with the tree roots . Some are specific to a single tree species , which will not flourish in the absence of its mycorrhizal associate . Others are generalists and associate with many species . The tree acquires minerals such as phosphorus from the fungus while it obtains the carbohydrate products of photosynthesis from the tree . The hyphae of the fungus can link different trees and a network is formed , transferring nutrients from one place to another . The fungus promotes growth of the roots and helps protect the trees against predators and pathogens . It can also limit damage done to a tree by pollution as the fungus accumulate heavy metals within its tissues . Fossil evidence shows that roots have been associated with mycorrhizal fungi since the early Paleozoic , four hundred million years ago , when the first vascular plants colonised dry land .
Some trees such as the alders ( Alnus species ) have a symbiotic relationship with Frankia species , a filamentous bacterium that can fix nitrogen from the air , converting it into ammonia . They have actinorhizal root nodules on their roots in which the bacteria live . This process enables the tree to live in low nitrogen habitats where they would otherwise be unable to thrive . The plant hormones called cytokinins initiate root nodule formation , in a process closely related to mycorrhizal association .
It has been demonstrated that some trees are interconnected through their root system , forming a colony . The interconnections are made by the inosculation process , a kind of natural grafting or welding of vegetal tissues . The tests to demonstrate this networking are performed by injecting chemicals , sometimes radioactive , into a tree , and then checking for its presence in neighboring trees .
The roots are , generally , an underground part of the tree , but some tree species have evolved roots that are aerial . The common purposes for aerial roots may be of two kinds , to contribute to the mechanical stability of the tree , and to obtain oxygen from air . An instance of mechanical stability enhancement is the red mangrove that develops prop roots that loop out of the trunk and branches and descend vertically into the mud . A similar structure is developed by the Indian banyan . Many large trees have buttress roots which flare out from the lower part of the trunk . These brace the tree rather like angle brackets and provide stability , reducing sway in high winds . They are particularly prevalent in tropical rainforests where the soil is poor and the roots are close to the surface .
Some tree species have developed root extensions that pop out of soil , in order to get oxygen , when it is not available in the soil because of excess water . These root extensions are called pneumatophores , and are present , among others , in black mangrove and pond cypress .
= = = Trunk = = =
The main purpose of the trunk is to raise the leaves above the ground , enabling the tree to reach the light and survive : the tree can overtop other plants and shade them out . It also performs the task of
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cogs , wooden screws , barrels , coffins , skittles , veneers , artificial limbs , oars , skis , wooden spoons , sports equipment and wooden balls .
Wood is pulped for paper and used in the manufacture of cardboard and made into engineered wood products for use in construction such as fibreboard , hardboard , chipboard and plywood . The wood of conifers is known as softwood while that of broad @-@ leaved trees is hardwood .
= = = Art = = =
Besides inspiring artists down the centuries , trees have been used to create art . Living trees have been used in bonsai and in tree shaping , and both living and dead specimens have been sculpted into sometimes fantastic shapes .
= = = = Bonsai = = = =
Bonsai ( 盆栽 , lit . The art of growing a miniature tree or trees in a low @-@ sided pot or tray ) is the practice of hòn non bộ originated in China and spread to Japan more than a thousand years ago , there are similar practices in other cultures like the living miniature landscapes of Vietnam hòn non bộ . The word bonsai is often used in English as an umbrella term for all miniature trees in containers or pots .
The purposes of bonsai are primarily contemplation ( for the viewer ) and the pleasant exercise of effort and ingenuity ( for the grower ) . Bonsai practice focuses on long @-@ term cultivation and shaping of one or more small trees growing in a container , beginning with a cutting , seedling , or small tree of a species suitable for bonsai development . Bonsai can be created from nearly any perennial woody @-@ stemmed tree or shrub species that produces true branches and can be cultivated to remain small through pot confinement with crown and root pruning . Some species are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics , such as small leaves or needles , that make them appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai and a miniature deciduous forest can even be created using such species as Japanese maple , Japanese zelkova or hornbeam .
= = = = Tree shaping = = = =
Tree shaping is the practice of changing living trees and other woody plants into man made shapes for art and useful structures . There are a few different methods of shaping a tree . There is a gradual method and there is an instant method , the gradual method slowly guides the growing tip along predetermined path ways over time where as the instant method bends and weaves saplings 2 to 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long into a shape that becomes more rigid as they thicken up . Most artists use grafting of living trunks , branches , and roots , for art or functional structures and there are plans to grow " living houses " with the branches of trees knitting together to give a solid , weatherproof exterior combined with an interior application of straw and clay to provide a stucco @-@ like inner surface .
Tree shaping has been practised for at least several hundred years , the oldest known examples being the living root bridges built and maintained by the Khasi people of Meghalaya , India using the roots of the rubber tree ( Ficus elastica ) .
= = = Bark = = =
Cork is produced from the thick bark of the cork oak ( Quercus suber ) . It is harvested from the living trees about once every ten years in an environmentally sustainable industry . More than half the world 's cork comes from Portugal and is largely used to make stoppers for wine bottles . Other uses include floor tiles , bulletin boards , balls , footwear , cigarette tips , packaging , insulation and joints in woodwind instruments .
The bark of other varieties of oak has traditionally been used in Europe for the tanning of hides though bark from other species of tree has been used elsewhere . The active ingredient , tannin , is extracted and after various preliminary treatments , the skins are immersed in a series of vats containing solutions in increasing concentrations . The tannin causes the hide to become supple , less affected by water and more resistant to bacterial attack .
At least 120 drugs come from plant sources , many of them from the bark of trees . Quinine originates from the cinchona tree ( Cinchona ) and was for a long time the remedy of choice for the treatment of malaria . Aspirin was synthesized to replace the sodium salicylate derived from the bark of willow trees ( Salix ) which had unpleasant side effects . The anti @-@ cancer drug Paclitaxel is derived from taxol , a substance found in the bark of the Pacific yew ( Taxus brevifolia ) . Other tree based drugs come from the paw @-@ paw ( Carica papaya ) , the cassia ( Cassia spp . ) , the cocoa tree ( Theobroma cacao ) , the tree of life ( Camptotheca acuminata ) and the downy birch ( Betula pubescens ) .
The papery bark of the white birch tree ( Betula papyrifera ) was used extensively by Native Americans . Wigwams were covered by it and canoes were constructed from it . Other uses included food containers , hunting and fishing equipment , musical instruments , toys and sledges . Nowadays , bark chips , a by @-@ product of the timber industry , are used as a mulch and as a growing medium for epiphytic plants that need a soil @-@ free compost .
= = = Ornamental trees = = =
Trees create a visual impact in the same way as do other landscape features and give a sense of maturity and permanence to park and garden . They are grown for the beauty of their forms , their foliage , flowers , fruit and bark and their siting is of major importance in creating a landscape . They can be grouped informally , often surrounded by plantings of bulbs , laid out in stately avenues or used as specimen trees . As living things , their appearance changes with the season and from year to year .
Trees are often planted in town environments where they are known as street trees or amenity trees . They can provide shade and cooling through evapotranspiration , absorb greenhouse gasses and pollutants , intercept rainfall and reduce the risk of flooding . It has been shown that they are beneficial to humans in creating a sense of well @-@ being and reducing stress . Many towns have initiated tree @-@ planting programmes . In London for example , there is an initiative to plant 20 @,@ 000 new street trees and to have an increase in tree cover of 5 % by 2025 , equivalent to one tree for every resident .
= = = Other uses = = =
Latex is a sticky defensive secretion that protects plants against herbivores . Many trees produce it when injured but the main source of the latex used to make natural rubber is the Pará rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ) . Originally used to create bouncy balls and for the waterproofing of cloth , natural rubber is now mainly used in tyres for which synthetic materials have proved less durable . The latex exuded by the balatá tree ( Manilkara bidentata ) is used to make golf balls and is similar to gutta @-@ percha , made from the latex of the " getah perca " tree Palaquium . This is also used as an insulator , particularly of undersea cables , and in dentistry , walking sticks and gun butts . It has now largely been replaced by synthetic materials .
Resin is another plant exudate that may have a defensive purpose . It is a viscous liquid composed mainly of volatile terpenes and is produced mostly by coniferous trees . It is used in varnishes , for making small castings and in ten @-@ pin bowling balls . When heated , the terpenes are driven off and the remaining product is called " rosin " and is used by stringed instrumentalists on their bows . Some resins contain essential oils and are used in incense and aromatherapy . Fossilized resin is known as amber and was mostly formed in the Cretaceous ( 145 to 66 million years ago ) or more recently . The resin that oozed out of trees sometimes trapped insects or spiders and these are still visible in the interior of the amber .
The camphor tree ( Cinnamomum camphora ) produces an essential oil and the eucalyptus tree ( Eucalyptus globulus ) is the main source of eucalyptus oil which is used in medicine , as a fragrance and in industry .
= = Care = =
Dead trees pose a safety risk , especially during high winds and severe storms , and removing dead trees involves a financial burden , whereas the presence of healthy trees can clean the air , increase property values , and reduce the temperature of the built environment and thereby reduce building cooling costs . During times of drought , trees can fall into water stress , which may cause a tree to become more susceptible to disease and insect problems , and ultimately may lead to a tree 's death . Irrigating trees during dry periods can reduce the risk of water stress and death . Irrigation can be accomplished by use of a garden hose , soaker hose , sprinkler , or modified five @-@ gallon bucket .
= = Mythology = =
Trees have been venerated since time immemorial . To the ancient Celts , certain trees , especially the oak , ash and thorn , held special significance as providing fuel , building materials , ornamental objects and weaponry . Other cultures have similarly revered trees , often linking the lives and fortunes of individuals to them or using them as oracles . In Greek mythology , dryads were believed to be shy nymphs who inhabited trees .
The Oubangui people of west Africa plant a tree when a child is born . As the tree flourishes , so does the child but if the tree fails to thrive , the health of the child is considered at risk . When it flowers it is time for marriage . Gifts are left at the tree periodically and when the individual dies , their spirit is believed to live on in the tree .
Trees have their roots in the ground and their trunk and branches extended towards the sky . This concept is found in many of the world 's religions as a tree which links the underworld and the earth and holds up the heavens . In Norse mythology , Yggdrasil is a central cosmic tree whose roots and branches extend to various worlds . Various creatures live on it . In India , Kalpavriksha is a wish @-@ fulfilling tree , one of the nine jewels that emerged from the primitive ocean . Icons are placed beneath it to be worshipped , tree nymphs inhabit the branches and it grants favours to the devout who tie threads round the trunk . Democracy started in North America when the Great Peacemaker formed the Iroquois Confederacy , inspiring the warriors of the original five American nations to bury their weapons under the Tree of Peace , an eastern white pine ( Pinus strobus ) . In the creation story in the Bible , the tree of life and the knowledge of good and evil was planted by God in the Garden of Eden .
Sacred groves exist in China , India , Africa and elsewhere . They are places where the deities live and where all the living things are either sacred or are companions of the gods . Folklore lays down the supernatural penalties that will result if desecration takes place for example by the felling of trees . Because of their protected status , sacred groves may be the only relicts of ancient forest and have a biodiversity much greater than the surrounding area . Some Ancient Indian tree deities , such as Puliyidaivalaiyamman , the Tamil deity of the tamarind tree , or Kadambariyamman , associated with the kadamba tree were seen as manifestations of a goddess who offers her blessings by giving fruits in abundance .
= = Superlative trees = =
Trees have a theoretical maximum height of 130 m ( 430 ft ) , but the tallest known specimen on earth is believed to be a coast redwood ( Sequoia sempervirens ) at Redwood National Park , California . It has been named Hyperion and is 115 @.@ 6 metres ( 379 ft ) tall . The tallest known broad @-@ leaved tree is a mountain ash ( Eucalyptus regnans ) growing in Tasmania with a height of 99 @.@ 8 m ( 327 ft ) .
The largest tree by volume is believed to be a giant sequoia ( Sequoiadendron giganteum ) known as the General Sherman Tree in the Sequoia National Park in Tulare County , California . Only the trunk is used in the calculation and the volume is estimated to be 1 @,@ 487 m3 ( 52 @,@ 500 cu ft ) .
The oldest living tree with a verified age is also in California . It is a Great Basin bristlecone pine ( Pinus longaeva ) growing in the White Mountains . It has been dated by drilling a core sample and counting the annual rings . It was estimated to be 5060 years old in 2012 .
A little further south , at Santa Maria del Tule , Oaxaca , Mexico , is the tree with the broadest trunk . It is a Montezuma cypress ( Taxodium mucronatum ) known as Árbol del Tule and its diameter at breast height is 11 @.@ 62 m ( 38 @.@ 1 ft ) giving it a girth of 36 @.@ 2 m ( 119 ft ) . The tree 's trunk is far from round and the exact dimensions may be misleading as the circumference includes much empty space between the large buttress roots .
= Mahanoy Creek =
Mahanoy Creek is a 51 @.@ 6 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 83 @.@ 0 km ) tributary of the Susquehanna River in Northumberland and Schuylkill counties , Pennsylvania . There are at least 35 sources of acid mine drainage in the creek 's watershed . Anthracite was mined in the upper part of the Mahanoy Creek watershed in the 19th and 20th centuries . Mahanoy Creek 's tributaries include Schwaben Creek , Zerbe Run , Little Mahanoy Creek , Shenandoah Creek , and North Mahanoy Creek . Little Mahanoy Creek and Schwaben Creek are two streams in the watershed that are unaffected by acid mine drainage . Schwaben Creek has a higher number and diversity of fish species than the main stem .
There are two passive treatment systems in the Mahanoy Creek watershed by the Mahanoy Creek Watershed Association . Coal mining has been done in the watershed since the 19th century and continues to some extent in the 21st century . The watershed is in the Western Middle Anthracite Coal Field .
= = Course = =
Mahanoy Creek 's source is in strip mines in the eastern part of Schuylkill County , near Buck Mountain . It heads west for a short distance before crossing under Pennsylvania Route 54 and entering Mahanoy City , where it picks up the tributary North Mahanoy Creek . Mahanoy Creek continues westward , heading into Mahanoy Township again , and goes through more strip mines . It begins paralleling Bear Ridge for several miles , passing the communities of St. Nicholas and Boston Run before entering Gilberton . In Gilberton , the creek passes under Pennsylvania Route 924 and goes through by the former Mahanoy Plane . Upon leaving Mahanoy Township , the creek enters Butler Township . Soon after entering this township , the creek passes through Girardville , picking up Shenandoah Creek . It parallels Pennsylvania Route 54 for some distance into Ashland . Upon leaving Ashland , the creek stops paralleling Pennsylvania Route 54 and turns south through a gap in Ashland Mountain , leaving behind the strip mines . At Gordon , it picks up Little Mahanoy Creek and then turns west again , meandering out of Butler Township . The creek then briefly meanders through Barry Township before passing into Eldred Township . It flows on the northern side of a mountain in Weiser State Forest . Upon leaving Eldred Township , the creek enters Northumberland County .
Mahanoy Creek enters Northumberland County in East Cameron Township . It flows westward for a number of miles through a valley with Line Mountain to the south and Mahanoy Mountain to the north . The creek passes under Pennsylvania Route 125 in this valley . The creek passes into West Cameron Township , flowing west and goes through the township for several miles . It then flows into Little Mahanoy Township . After a short distance , it leaves behind the Line Mountain / Mahanoy Mountain valley and picks up Zerbe Run . Mahanoy Creek then turns southwest and passes by Dornsife before cutting through a gap between Little Mountain and Line Mountain and exiting Little Mahanoy Township . At this point , the creek enters Jackson Township and picks up Schwaben Creek , its last tributary , after some distance . Mahanoy Creek then meanders west to its mouth on the Susquehanna River north of Herndon and ten miles south of Sunbury .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Mahanoy Creek 's tributaries include Little Mahanoy Creek , Schwaben Creek , Shenandoah Creek , Waste House Run , North Mahanoy Creek , and Zerbe Run . There are also several unofficially named tributaries with local names , such as " Big Run " and " Big Mine Run " . Only Schwaben Creek and Little Mahanoy Creek are unaffected by acid mine drainage .
North Mahanoy Creek starts in unpolluted springs on Locust Mountain and meets the main stem in Mahanoy City . There are strip mines in this tributary 's watershed . Shenandoah Creek , whose tributaries include Kehley Run and Lost Creek , also begins on Locust Mountain and its watershed has an area of 11 @.@ 6 square miles . Shenandoah Creek is contaminated by sewage and mine drainage . The tributary Little Mahanoy Creek starts in Frackville and its watershed has an area of 11 @.@ 6 square miles . No mining has been done in this watershed .
= = Hydrology = =
There are large quantities of dissolved iron and aluminum in the waters of Mahanoy Creek . Additionally , there are trace amounts of various metals , including cobalt , nickel , copper , zinc , and lead , sulfates , manganese , and beryllium . There are traces of numerous other metals in the waters , but their concentrations conform to drinking water standards .
Out of the 35 or more acid mine drainage sources in the Mahanoy Creek watershed , the four most significant ones are the Locust Gap Tunnel , the Packer # 5 Breach , the Packer # 5 Borehole , and the Girard Mine seepage . The 15 most significant sources have discharges of between 29 @,@ 200 liters per minute and 680 liters per minute . The pHs of the sources range from 3 @.@ 9 to 6 @.@ 7 . The iron concentrations at these sites ranges from 2 @.@ 1 to 18 milligrams per liter . The concentrations of manganese ranges from 0 @.@ 95 to 6 @.@ 4 milligrams per liter .
The pH of the stream itself ranges from 3 @.@ 6 to 8 @.@ 4 , while the pH of the abandoned mine drainage ranges from 2 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 4 . The concentration of dissolved oxygen in Mahanoy Creek ranges from 2 @.@ 5 to 13 @.@ 1 milligrams per liter , while the concentration in the watershed 's abandoned mine drainage ranges from 0 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 7 milligrams per liter . The dissolved iron concentration in the stream ranges from under 0 @.@ 01 milligrams per liter to 6 @.@ 8 milligrams per liter . The dissolved iron concentration in the abandoned mine drainage ranges from 0 @.@ 01 to 33 milligrams per liter . The amount of dissolved aluminum in the creek ranges from 0 @.@ 01 to 8 @.@ 9 milligrams per liter and the concentration in the abandoned mine drainage ranges from under 0 @.@ 01 to 17 milligrams per liter . The dissolved manganese concentration in the stream water ranges from 0 @.@ 01 to 9 @.@ 2 milligrams per liter and in the abandoned mine drainage it ranges from under 0 @.@ 01 to 9 @.@ 7 milligrams per liter .
The concentration of dissolved sulfates in the waters of Mahanoy Creek ranges from 4 to 597 milligrams per liter . In the abandoned mine drainage in the creek 's watershed , it ranges from 18 to 787 milligrams per liter . The dissolved nitrates concentration in the stream waters ranges from less than 0 @.@ 01 to 6 milligrams per liter . The concentration in the abandoned mine drainage ranges from less than 0 @.@ 01 to 0 @.@ 4 milligrams per liter . In the stream water , the concentration of dissolved phosphorus ranges from less than 0 @.@ 01 to 0 @.@ 3 milligrams per liter . In the abandoned mine drainage , the range is 0 to 139 milligrams per liter .
The concentration of arsenic is above 0 @.@ 2 micrograms per liter at most sites in the Mahanoy Creek watershed . The maximum concentration is 7 micrograms per liter . The concentration of barium is above 10 micrograms per liter at all sites in the watershed , and the maximum concentration is 75 micrograms per liter . The beryllium concentration is above 0 @.@ 05 micrograms per liter at most sites in the watershed , and in some places is as high as 16 micrograms per liter . The cadmium concentration is above 0 @.@ 02 micrograms per liter in most sites and can be up to 4 micrograms per liter . The maximum chromium concentration is 9 micrograms per liter . Most sites have a concentration of at least 0 @.@ 02 micrograms per liter of cobalt , with a maximum concentration of 530 micrograms per liter . Most sites have a concentration of at least 0 @.@ 5 micrograms per liter of copper , with a maximum concentration of 150 micrograms per liter . The lead concentration is above 0 @.@ 05 micrograms per liter in most sites and can be up to 6 @.@ 4 micrograms per liter .
The maximum nickel concentration in Mahanoy Creek is 895 micrograms per liter and the maximum silver concentration is 0 @.@ 9 micrograms per liter . The concentration of thallium does not exceed 0 @.@ 02 micrograms per liter and the concentration of vanadium does not exceed 1 microgram per liter . The maximum concentration of zinc is 3 @.@ 2 milligrams per liter .
Some water from the Shamokin Creek watershed enters the Mahanoy Creek watershed via various mine tunnels , mainly the Doutyville , Helfenstein , the Locust Gap , and the Centralia Mine discharges . Water from Mahanoy Creek also flows through mine tunnels into Shamokin Creek . The discharge of the creek at various locations ranges from 0 to 320 cubic feet per second . The discharge of acid mine drainage in the creek ranges from 0 to 17 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second . In 2001 , the discharge was typically found to be higher in March than in August .
While there are sewage @-@ treatment plants in the larger communities in the Mahanoy Creek watershed , there are also leaky sewage disposal systems that discharge sewage into the stream 's tributaries . The creek experiences atmospheric disposition , a type of runoff .
= = Geology and geography = =
The watershed of Mahanoy Creek is in the Ridge and Valley Appalachians . The lower part of the creek 's watershed is in the Northern Shale Valleys and Slopes Ecoregion . The Mahanoy Creek watershed is part of a synclinorium that runs from the northeast to the southwest , running between Hunter and Shenandoah . Rock formations in the watershed include the Pottsville Group and the Llewellyn Formation . These are found on the northern side of the creek 's valley .
There are 24 coal beds from the Pennsylvanian subperiod , which are part of the Llewellyn Formation and the Pottsville Formation . The coal beds are 0 @.@ 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 18 m ) to 8 @.@ 3 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) thick . Mining of these coal beds has been done at depths of over 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) underground . There are significant silt deposits on the creek downstream of Ashland . In the watershed , there are a number of close @-@ to @-@ parallel ridges and valleys . These tend to be oriented in the same direction as the creek itself , east to west . The highest elevation in the Mahanoy Creek watershed is 2 @,@ 090 feet ( 640 m ) above sea level in the eastern part of the watershed , not far from Delano . The lowest elevation in the watershed is 420 feet ( 130 m ) at the mouth . The elevations of the ridges tend to be between 1 @,@ 400 feet ( 430 m ) and 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) above sea level , while the valleys are between 600 feet ( 180 m ) and 800 feet ( 240 m ) lower .
The stream bed of Mahanoy Creek has an iron crust near Girardville , but some fish live in that area .
Minerals in the acid mine drainage areas of the Mahanoy Creek watershed include goethite , ferrihydrite , schwertmannite , amorphous aluminum @-@ hydroxysulfates , quartz , muscovite , kaolinite , and gypsum . Red shale of the Mauch Chunk Formation is found in a substantial part of the watershed . The main rock types in the watershed are interbedded sedimentary rock , which occupies 70 percent of the watershed , and sandstone , which occupies 30 percent .
A number of seeps , boreholes , and mine tunnels contribute water to Mahanoy Creek throughout large sections of the watershed . Mined areas in the upper part of the watershed have been said to " resemble a moonscape " . There are numerous large spoil piles in the upper one @-@ third of the watershed . Some buildings the Mahanoy Creek valley are damaged by subsidence due to underground mining .
= = Watershed = =
The area of Mahanoy Creek 's watershed is 157 square miles ( 407 square kilometers ) . The watershed is in Schuylkill , Northumberland , and Columbia County . 42 square miles ( 109 square kilometers ) are located in the Western Middle Anthracite Field . There are at least 35 sources of acid mine drainage in the watershed . The watershed has a population of close to 45 @,@ 000 people as of July 2009 . A tract of land in the Mahanoy Creek watershed has been converted by the Mahanoy Creek Watershed Association into a wetland known as " The Swamp " . It serves as a passive treatment system . This organization has also performed cleanups of the creek at Ashland , Girardville , and Helfenstein . The main stem of the creek is divided into several basins . One basin is the Upper Basin , which is drained by Mahanoy Creek and its tributaries upstream of Shenandoah Creek . It has an area of 21 @.@ 8 square miles . Another basin is the Ashland Basin , which is drained by Mahanoy Creek and its tributaries between Shenandoah Creek and Big Run , not including the Little Mahanoy Creek watershed . The Ashland basin has an area of 17 @.@ 7 square miles . The next basin downstream is the Middle Basin , which drains the area where the creek flows between Mahanoy Mountain and Line Mountain , ending at Zerbe Run . This basin has an area of 38 @.@ 7 square miles . The final basin of Mahanoy Creek is the Lower Basin , which is drained by Mahanoy Creek downstream of Zerbe Run . This basin has an area of 42 @.@ 7 square miles .
The Mahanoy Creek watershed is 66 percent forested land , 21 percent agricultural land , 9 percent barren mined land , and 4 percent developed land . However , the upper part of Mahanoy Creek is 50 percent forested land , 44 percent mined land , 5 percent developed land , and less than 1 percent agricultural land . There are six boroughs in the upper part of the watershed . There are a total of 28 municipalities in the watershed .
The eastern edge of the Mahanoy Creek watershed is marked by Locust Mountain and Vulcan Hill . The southern edge is formed by Broad Mountain , Fisher Ridge , and Line Mountain . The northern edge is formed by Little Mountain , Locust Mountain , and Mahanoy Mountain . The drainage system of the watershed is a trellis pattern , a dentritic pattern , or an angular drainage pattern .
The streams in the Mahanoy Creek watershed tend to meander relatively little , but the main creek meanders somewhat between Gordon and Lavelle and near its mouth .
Mahanoy Creek 's headwaters are close to the edge of the Susquehanna River watershed , near the Schuylkill River watershed .
= = History = =
= = = Early history and naming = = =
Mahanoy Creek 's name comes from a corruption of the Delaware Indian word " mahoni " or " maghonioy " . The former word means " lick " . The area was owned by the Iroquois before European settlers arrived . The community of Mahanoy City is named after Mahanoy Creek .
= = = Modern history = = =
Nathan Beach and several other people filed an application for 34 lots at the headwaters of Mahanoy Creek in 1794 .
The Danville and Pottsville Railroad had a terminus in Girardville , a community of Mahanoy Creek , by 1834 . The Mahanoy Creek Navigation Company formed on March 22 , 1827 . The Mahanoy Creek Canal ran from the Susquehanna River to the coal mines in the upper part of Mahanoy Creek . A canal running from Chester County and Lancaster County to Pittsburgh with a course going through Mahanoy Creek was planned by 1832 .
In the late 19th century , a company piped waste from the production of illuminating gas ( for gas lighting ) into Mahanoy Creek . In Gilberton , Mahanoy Creek used to be underground , but surfaced before 1940 .
Anthracite was mined in the upper part of the Mahanoy Creek watershed from 1840 until 1950 . However , farming was also done in the western part of the watershed in the early 20th century . Most of the deep mines ceased operation by 1960 . Surface mines instead continued mining operations in the watershed . A total of 12 million short tons of anthracite were mined in the creek 's watershed in 1917 . This was 12 % of the anthracite yield of the state of Pennsylvania in that year . In the 1910s , there were 40 washeries and collieries that drained into the creek . Large amounts of culm also flowed into it during this time . The layer of coal silt on the banks of the creek was 40 feet ( 12 m ) by 1940 . Several mines remain active in the 21st century , but they mostly reprocess coal waste .
At least one covered bridge crosses Mahanoy Creek . It is called the Mahanoy Creek Bridge . It was built in 1940 in Northumberland County and is 152 @.@ 9 feet ( 46 @.@ 6 m ) in length . Two passive treatment systems have been installed in the creek 's watershed by the Mahanoy Creek Watershed Association . They are the Mahanoy Creek Aerobic Wetlands , which were created in 2000 ; and the Bolich Property Wetlands , which were created in 2006 .
= = Biology = =
In the fall of 2000 , twelve species of fish were observed during electrofishing . They included black @-@ nosed dace , northern hognosed suckers , shiners , small @-@ mouthed bass , and rock bass .
An October 2001 survey of Mahanoy Creek identified two species of fish each at Ashland and Girardville . There were 20 individuals at the latter location and 22 at the former . There were also 13 species and 134 individuals at Gowen City , and 14 species and 545 individuals at the creek 's mouth . Additionally , 1003 individuals and 20 species of fish were observed at the mouth of the tributary Schwaben Creek . White Suckers were found at each of the aforementioned sites . Other fish species found on Mahanoy Creek and Schwaben Creek include the swallowtail shiner , the rosyface shiner , the river chub , the banded darter , and the shield darter . Brown trout , longnose dace , and blacknose dace have also been observed in the watershed . Historically , deer came to the creek to consume salt .
There are second @-@ growth forests near Kehly Run , a tributary of Mahanoy Creek .
= = Recreation = =
The Pennsylvania State Game Land Number 84 is located immediately south of Mahanoy Creek between Helfenstein and Dornsife . The Sen. James J. Rhoades Nature Trail is a walking trail along the creek in Barry Township . It was dedicated to James J. Rhoades on May 8 , 2010 . Catch and release fishing of smallmouth bass and largemouth bass is permitted on the creek .
= Inflow ( meteorology ) =
Inflow is the flow of a fluid into a large collection of that fluid . Within meteorology , inflow normally refers to the influx of warmth and moisture from air within the Earth 's atmosphere into storm systems . Extratropical cyclones are fed by inflow focused along their cold front and warm fronts . Tropical cyclones require a large inflow of warmth and moisture from warm oceans in order to develop significantly , mainly within the lowest 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) of the atmosphere . Once the flow of warm and moist air is cut off from thunderstorms and their associated tornadoes , normally by the thunderstorm 's own rain @-@ cooled outflow boundary , the storms begin to dissipate . Rear inflow jets behind squall lines act to erode the broad rain shield behind the squall line , and accelerate its forward motion .
= = Thunderstorms = =
Cool air , carried to the ground by thunderstorm downdraft , cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm , destroying its updraft and causing its dissipation . Tornadoes , which form within stronger thunderstorms , grow until they reach their mature stage . This is when the rear flank downdraft of the thunderstorm , fed by rain @-@ cooled air , begins to wrap around the tornado , cutting off the inflow of warm air which previously fed the tornado . When thunderstorms are able to organize into squall lines , a feature known as a rear inflow jet develops to the south of the mid @-@ level circulation associated with its northern bookend vortex . This leads to an erosion of rain within the broad rain shield behind the squall line , and may lead to acceleration of the squall line itself .
= = Tropical cyclones = =
While an initial warm core system , such as an organized thunderstorm complex , is necessary for the formation of a tropical cyclone , a large flux of energy is needed to lower atmospheric pressure more than a few millibars ( 0 @.@ 10 inch of mercury ) . Inflow of warmth and moisture from the underlying ocean surface is critical for tropical cyclone strengthening . A significant amount of the inflow in the cyclone is in the lowest 1 kilometre ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) of the atmosphere .
= = Extratropical cyclones = =
Polar front theory is attributed to Jacob Bjerknes , and was derived from a coastal network of observation sites in Norway during World War I. This theory proposed that the main inflow into a cyclone was concentrated along two lines of convergence , one ahead ( or east ) of the low and another trailing equatorward ( south in the Northern Hemisphere and north in the Southern Hemisphere ) and behind ( or west ) of the low . The convergence line ahead of the low became known as either the steering line or the warm front . The trailing convergence zone was referred to as the squall line or cold front . Areas of clouds and rainfall appeared to be focused along these convergence zones . A conveyor belt , also referred to as the warm conveyor belt , is a term describing the flow of a stream of warm moist air originating within the warm sector ( or generally equatorward ) of an extratropical cyclone in advance of the cold front which slopes up above and poleward ( north in the Northern Hemisphere and south in the Southern Hemisphere ) of the surface warm front . The concept of the conveyor belt originated in 1969 .
The left edge of the conveyor belt is sharp due to higher density air moving in from the west forcing a sharp slope to the cold front . An area of stratiform precipitation develops poleward of the warm front along the conveyor belt . Active precipitation poleward of the warm front implies potential for greater development of the cyclone . A portion of this conveyor belt turns to the right ( left in the Southern Hemisphere ) , aligning with the upper level westerly flow . However , the western portion of this belt wraps around the northwest ( southwest in the Southern Hemisphere ) side of the cyclone , which can contain moderate to heavy precipitation . If the air mass is cold enough , the precipitation falls in the form of heavy snow . Theory from the 1980s talked about the presence of a cold conveyor belt originating north of the warm front and flowing along a clockwise path ( in the northern hemisphere ) into the main belt of the westerlies aloft , but there has been conflicting evidence as to whether or not this phenomenon actually exists .
= Preston Leslie =
Preston Hopkins Leslie ( March 8 , 1819 – February 7 , 1907 ) was the 26th Governor of Kentucky from 1871 to 1875 and territorial governor of Montana from 1887 to 1889 . He ascended to the office of governor by three different means . First , he succeeded Kentucky governor John W. Stevenson upon the latter 's resignation to accept a seat in the United States Senate in 1871 . Later that year , he was elected to a full term as governor , defeating John Marshall Harlan in the general election . Finally , he was appointed territorial governor by President Grover Cleveland .
Leslie was a Confederate sympathizer during the Civil War , but began to adopt a more progressive position during his gubernatorial campaign against Harlan . Though he opposed ratification of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments , he used his influence as governor to effect passage of laws admitting the testimony of blacks in court and providing for an educational system for recently freed slaves . He also helped quell violence perpetrated by the Ku Klux Klan in many areas of the state .
As territorial governor of Montana , Leslie quickly drew the ire of the press for his pro @-@ temperance position . The territory 's political machinery also turned against him , and he was removed from office by President Benjamin Harrison . When Grover Cleveland succeeded Harrison for a second term in office , he appointed Leslie district attorney for Montana . Leslie continued to practice law well into his eighties , and was being considered for a district court judgeship in Montana when he fell ill with pneumonia and died on February 7 , 1907 , at the age of 87 .
= = Early life = =
Preston Leslie was born in Clinton County , Kentucky ( then a part of Wayne County ) , on March 8 , 1819 . He was the second son of Vachel H. and Sarah Hopkins Leslie . He was educated in the public schools , then studied law under Judge Rice Maxey . He worked with his father on the family farm until 1835 , and supported himself by doing odd jobs including driving a stagecoach , running a ferry , and being store clerk . Leslie was admitted to the bar on October 10 , 1840 , and served as the deputy clerk of the Clinton County courts . In 1841 , he relocated to Tompkinsville , Kentucky , where he worked as a farmer . He became county attorney of Monroe County in 1842 .
On November 11 , 1841 , Leslie married Louisa Black ; they had seven children . Louisa died on August 9 , 1858 . Leslie married the widowed Mary Maupin Kuykendall on November 17 , 1859 , fathering three more children . Mary Leslie died September 3 , 1900 .
= = Political career = =
Leslie began his political career by being elected as a Whig to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1844 . He was defeated for a seat in the state Senate in 1846 by a single vote . He continued serving in the House until 1850 , when he won election to the Senate representing Monroe and Barren counties . He then served in the Senate until 1855 . In the 1850s , the Whig Party gradually faded in Kentucky , and Leslie became a Democrat . He declined nominations for a seats in the United States Congress and on the Kentucky Court of Appeals , preferring instead to work on his farm . In 1859 , he moved to Glasgow , Kentucky , in Barren County .
By 1861 , Leslie had built up a prosperous estate and added a plot of land in Texas to his holdings in Kentucky . In December of that year , he and his eldest son traveled to the property with 26 slaves and a large part of the family 's possessions . After establishing his household , Leslie returned to Kentucky and left the Texas estate in the care of his son .
Leslie 's feelings were mixed on the issues central to the Civil War . Known as a " strong Union man " prior to the war , his sympathies switched to the southern cause once the war began . Nevertheless , he believed the South should solve its differences with the North through diplomatic means , and did not favor the idea of secession . He kept a low political profile and refused military service for either side . He returned to the state Senate from 1867 to 1871 , serving as president of that body from 1869 to 1871 .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
On February 13 , 1871 , Governor John W. Stevenson resigned his post to accept a seat in the U.S. Senate . Stevenson had ascended to the governorship on the death of John L. Helm , and had no lieutenant governor . As president of the Senate , Leslie was the ex @-@ officio lieutenant governor , and next in line to succeed Stevenson . A gubernatorial election was already scheduled later in 1871 , and Leslie was among several nominees put forward by the Democrats . Because of Leslie 's opposition to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments , his candidacy was opposed by Henry Watterson , founder of the powerful Louisville Courier @-@ Journal . Despite this , Leslie emerged from a field of Democratic candidates that included future governors John Y. Brown and J. Proctor Knott and former Confederate governor Richard Hawes . John G. Carlisle was chosen as Leslie 's running mate , and was declared by one commentator to be " by odds , the ablest man on the ticket " . Leslie 's opposition to the Southern Railroad bill while serving in the state senate proved a liability with some voters in his own party . Because of his southern sympathies , he was also opposed by the more progressive " New Departure " wing of his party . Nevertheless , he enjoyed support from the Bourbon Democrats in the state , as well as the state 's tobacco interests and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad .
During the campaign , Leslie 's opponent Republican John Marshall Harlan was blasted as a " political weathercock " for having changed his stance on many issues . In one joint debate , Leslie quoted an antebellum speech wherein Harlan had called the Republican platform " revolutionary , and if carried out , would result in the destruction of our free government . " Harlan admitted his inconsistent stands , declaring that he would rather be right than consistent . Meanwhile , Leslie began moving closer to the " New Departure " wing of his party during the course of the campaign . Ultimately , Leslie 's supporters deemed him " sober , conservative , and safe " , and this perception enabled him to defeat Harlan by a considerable margin in the first election in which blacks were allowed to vote .
Leslie laid out an aggressive legislative agenda in his inaugural address to the General Assembly on September 5 , 1871 , but legislators were more concerned with passing the Southern Railroad bill that would create a connection between the railroads of Cincinnati , Ohio , and those of the Southern United States . The line would pass through central Kentucky , opening up trade to the region . It would be funded primarily by capital from Ohio , and would provide competition to the Louisville and Nashville Railroad 's monopoly in the state . Though Leslie wasn 't particularly supportive of the bill , he refused to veto it because of the potential economic benefits to the state . Leslie was also faced with the issue of post @-@ war violence by the Ku Klux Klan . The legislature had refused to pass a law against mob violence in 1871 . In his address to the legislature on December 6 , 1871 , Leslie endorsed legislation that made it illegal to write or post threatening notices and to band together and wear disguises . This proposal enjoyed favorable public opinion , and was passed during the legislature 's next session . With the railroad and violence issues resolved , Governor Leslie urged the legislature to improve the status of blacks in the state , including the creation of an educational system for blacks and the approval of the testimony of blacks in the state 's courts . He commissioned a new geological survey , appointing native Kentuckian Nathaniel Southgate Shaler to head the work . An advocate of the temperance movement , he secured additional regulations on the sale of liquor . Also during Leslie 's tenure , the penal system was improved .
Devout Baptists and teetotalers , Governor and Mrs. Leslie did not serve alcohol in the governor 's mansion and were given a silver service set at the expiration of his term by the Good Templars of Kentucky for their charity to the needy . Following his term in office , Leslie was elected to serve on the Glasgow circuit court , a position he held for six years , beginning in 1881 . He failed in a re @-@ election bid in 1886 by four votes .
= = = Governor of Montana = = =
In 1887 , President Grover Cleveland appointed Leslie to be the Territorial Governor of Montana . Cleveland made the appointment on the recommendation of John Marshall Harlan , Leslie 's opponent in the Kentucky gubernatorial election of 1871 , who was now serving as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court . Leslie soon ran afoul of the local press , who labeled him the " Coldwater Governor " for his stands in favor of temperance . The press 's opinion of him further dimmed when he pardoned a prostitute convicted of grand larceny because the penitentiary was not equipped to accommodate women . He urged the territorial legislature to enact fiscal reforms and improve facilities for the insane and the incarcerated , but he was no match for the political machinery in Montana Territory . His 1889 pocket veto of an appointment bill supported by the legislature was the final straw ; under pressure from Republicans , President Benjamin Harrison replaced Leslie as territorial governor .
Meanwhile , in Kentucky , the state treasurer , " Honest Dick " Tate , had absconded with nearly $ 250 @,@ 000 of the state 's money in 1888 . During the investigation that followed , it was discovered that Leslie , along with several other state officials , had procured personal loans from the state treasury through Tate .
= = Later life and death = =
Following his removal from office , Leslie opened a legal practice in Helena , Montana , partnering with A. J. Craven . President Cleveland in his second term appointed Leslie U.S. district attorney of Montana . He served from 1894 to 1898 .
During his final years practicing law in Helena , Leslie gained widespread acclaim and served as president of the Montana State Bar Association . On a return visit to Kentucky in 1906 , he addressed the legislature , noting how he had helped the state adjust to the " new order " following the Civil War . Montana governor Joseph Toole was circulating a petition to have Leslie named a district court judge when Leslie fell ill with pneumonia . He died February 7 , 1907 and was buried at Forestvale Cemetery in Helena .
= = Memorials = =
Leslie County , Kentucky , was formed in 1878 and was named in his honor .
= Botik of Peter the Great =
The Botik of Peter the Great ( also called St. Nicholas ) was a miniaturized scaled @-@ down warship discovered by Peter the Great at the Royal Izmaylovo Estate in 1688 . It was restored by Karshten Brandt , and Peter learned to sail using the boat on waters near Moscow . It was stored in the Kremlin of Moscow by Peter and later enshrined in St. Petersburg . Peter continued to use it in state ceremonies and ordered that the boat be sailed down the Neva River on 30 August of every year . It was used in state ceremonies of later Russian monarchs , including the wedding of Catherine the Great and Peter III of Russia , as well as the centennial celebration of St. Petersburg . Catherine built a boathouse in the 1760s to store it .
The boat became less important under Soviet rule , along with other objects from the Russian Empire ; however , patriotism during the outbreak of the Second World War led to a renewal of the importance of Peter the Great and the botik along with him . The boat was moved by the Soviets to the Central Naval Museum where it remains today . In 1997 , the boat left Russia for the first time to be displayed at the World Financial Center .
= = Construction and design = =
The botik ( small boat ) was constructed , either in England or by Danes in Russia using an English design , in the 1640s , and was then called the St. Nicholas . The boat originally belonged to Peter the Great 's grandfather ; an earlier theory held that the boat was a gift from Queen Elizabeth to Ivan the Terrible in the 1580s . It is the last remnant of the fleet of wooden boats maintained by Peter 's father , Alexis ; the rest rotted from neglect or were destroyed during the rebellion of Stenka Razin .
The boat has a shallow draft and a single mast ; it measures 7 metres ( 23 ft ) by 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) . It was steered using a tiller connected to a rudder attached to the sternpost . It also has four miniature cannons . Unlike Russian vessels of the time , the boat was designed with the ability to sail against the wind .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
The boat was rediscovered at the Royal Izmaylovo Estate in 1688 by Peter the Great , then aged about sixteen . The derelict boat was pulled from a pile of debris in either a barn or a storeroom . Peter asked Franz Timmerman , a Dutch seaman , what advantage the newly discovered boat had over Russian boats . Timmerman responded that the boat could sail with or against wind and at Peter 's direction sought out another Dutch seaman , Karshten Brandt , to restore it . Peter learned to sail the ship on waters near Moscow .
= = = Peter the Great = = =
In 1701 , Peter had the botik stored in the Kremlin 's Dormition Cathedral . Peter referenced the boat in a draft preface to his 1720 Naval Statute . The published preface was written by Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich who wrote that " the botik served him not only as a childhood pastime , but became the cause of his building a navy , as we now see with wonder " and illustrated this with the metaphor , " great oaks from little acorns grow " . In September of the same year , Prokopovich gave a " Sermon in Praise of the Russian Fleet " where he stated that the boat was " to the navy what the seed is to the tree " and that the boat was " worthy of being clad in gold " .
Peter the Great ordered that the boat be displayed in the Kremlin in 1722 in honor of the Peace of Nystad . It was moved from there to the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in May 1723 . Peter sailed the boat down the Neva River on his birthday , 30 May 1723 , along with a convoy of yachts and other ships of the Admiralty . In August of the same year , Peter sailed the boat in a regatta of the Baltic Fleet from St. Petersburg to Kronshtadt . The boat was placed in the kronverk of the Peter and Paul Fortress on a plinth , inscribed with the words " From the amusement of the child came the triumph of the man " . After the boat took part in ceremonies on the third anniversary of the Peace of Nystad , 30 August 1724 , Peter ordered that it be sailed or rowed to the Alexander Nevsky Monastery every year on 30 August .
= = = Later Russian monarchs = = =
The botik was used in many state ceremonies by later Russian monarchies . The boat appeared in a regatta during the 1745 wedding of Peter III of Russia and Catherine the Great . Wearing naval uniform , Empress Elizabeth escorted the botik . Catherine had a boathouse built inside the fortress to house the botik in the 1760s . The boathouse became a major tourist attraction . In 1803 , during the centennial celebration of St. Petersburg under Alexander I , the boat was featured in a flotilla on the Neva ; it was referred to as the " grandfather of the Russian navy " a name originally given to it by Peter I.
In 1872 , the boat was brought to Moscow in a cortege led by a brother of Alexander II of Russia for the bicentennial celebration of Peter 's birth . It was received by a 101 @-@ gun salute and displayed in the great Moscow fair .
= = = Soviet era = = =
The importance of the boat , like most other memorials from Imperial Russia , was reduced in the early Soviet era . Guidebooks to Leningrad at the time did not reference the boat . The boat was moved to Peterhof in 1928 and remained there until World War II . During the outbreak of World War II , patriotism related to Peter the Great resurfaced . He was referenced as conqueror of Germans and the founder of what became the Soviet Navy . The importance of the boat increased with him , and it was moved to the Central Naval Museum of the St. Petersburg Bourse in September 1940 .
= = = Post @-@ Soviet era = = =
The boat made its first foray outside Russia in 1997 when it was displayed in the Winter Garden Atrium of the World Financial Center in New York City . While being displayed as part of the " St. Petersburg : A Cultural Celebration " festival , the boat was attended to by two preservationists . The preservationists attempted to identify the species of oak used in the boat so that the country of origin could be determined in addition to scraping off dirt and patching cracks .
= Marshall Field and Company Building =
Marshall Field and Company Building or Macy 's at State Street , in Chicago , Illinois , built in 1891 @-@ 1892 , was the flagship location of the Marshall Field and Company , also known as Marshall Field 's chain of department stores and , since 2006 , is the main Chicago mid @-@ western location of the Macy 's ( formerly as the R. H. Macy and Company of New York City , now nationwide chain ) . The building is located in the Chicago " Loop " area of the downtown central business district in Cook County , Illinois , U.S.A. , and it takes up the entire city block bounded clockwise from the west by North State Street , East Randolph Street , North Wabash Avenue , and East Washington Street . Marshall Field 's established numerous important business " firsts " in this building and in a long series of previous elaborate decorative structures on this site for the last century and a half , and it is regarded as one of the three most influential establishments in the nationwide development of the department store and in the commercial business economic history of the United States . Both the building name and the name of the stores formerly headquartered at this building changed names on September 9 , 2006 as a result of the merger of the previous May 's Department Stores ( Marshall Field 's former owner and parent ) with the Federated Department Stores which led to the integration of the Marshall Field 's stores into the Macy 's now nationwide retailing network .
The building , which is the third largest store in the world , was both declared a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 2 , 1978 , and it was designated a Chicago Landmark on November 1 , 2005 . The building architecture is known for its multiple atria ( several balconied atrium - " Great Hall " ) and for having been built in stages over the course of more than two decades . Its ornamentation includes a Louis Comfort Tiffany , ( 1848 @-@ 1933 ) , ( later Tiffany & Co. studios of New York City ) mosaic vaulted ceiling and a pair of well @-@ known outdoor street @-@ corner clocks at State and Washington , and later at State and Randolph Streets , which serve as symbols of the store since 1897 .
= = Business history = =
Although the official corporate name of the retail entity based in this building had been Marshall Field & Company ( nicknamed Marshall Field 's ) from 1881 until 2006 , the store has had five different names since its inception in 1852 as P. Palmer & Co . In 1868 , after bowing out of involvement in day @-@ to @-@ day operations with his new partners of Field , Palmer & Leiter , Potter Palmer convinced Marshall Field and Levi Leiter to move the Field , Leiter & Co. store to a building Palmer owned on State Street at the corner of Washington Street . After being consumed by the " Great Chicago Fire " and splitting the wholesale business from the retail operations , the store resumed operations at State and Washington in a rebuilt structure , now leased from the Singer Sewing Machine Company . In 1877 another fire consumed this building , and when a new Singer Building was built to replace it at the same location in 1879 , Field then put together the financing to purchase it . The business has remained there ever since , and it has added four subsequent buildings to form the integrated structure that is now called the " Marshall Field and Company Building " .
Chicago 's retailing center was State Street in the famous downtown " Loop " after the " Great Chicago Fire " of 1871 , and this center has been anchored by Marshall Field 's and its predecessor companies in this building complex . However , commuter suburbs began to have significant retail districts by the 1920s . In the 1920s , the store created new suburban locations such as Marshall Field and Company Store to remain competitive . After 1950 , with the booming post @-@ World War II economic / social climate with increasing suburban residential and commercial development , saw the construction of first " strip " shopping centers , followed by regional enclosed shopping malls along major thoroughfares and interstate highways such as the " Magnificent Mile " reduced the role of the " Loop " ' s daily significance to many Chicagoans as downtown retail sales slipped and gradually additional business moved outward following first the streetcar lines and then the automobile . Eventually , there was an influx of stores from other parts of the country as the pace of commercial retailing merged , consolidating , and spreading first regionally then nationwide . Nonetheless , the Marshall Field and Company Building has survived at this location . However , with the merger and conversion to Macy 's the emphasis of the store changed and store @-@ branded lines replaced many designer labels , such as Dolce & Gabbana , Prada , Miu Miu and Jimmy Choo , which led to the disassembly of several designer departments of the former Field 's ( see picture below ) .
On September 9 , 2006 , at the time of the stores merger and conversion , the name of the building was officially changed to " Macy 's at State Street " . Around this time of the conversion of Marshall Field 's to Macy 's the building was also the location of vociferous and outraged picketing and protesting by opponents of the merger / conversion and the growth in general of massive business mergers and economic consolidation across the country . After buying out his various partners over the early post @-@ Civil War era , Marshall Field founded the Marshall Field & Company corporate entity that survived 152 years and had arranged before his death , to have this building constructed . The sentimental objections to the conversion that both eliminated the existence of the corporate entity bearing his name and renaming the building bearing his name were widely reported in the national media of newspapers , radio and television .
= = = Business legend = = =
The store housed a business that established new retailing standards and broke many retailing conventions of the day . The company quickly became successful , and by the 1880s it was one of the three largest retailers in the country . Before Marshall Field 's death in 1906 , his company became the largest wholesale and retail dry goods enterprise in the world . The Marshall Field & Company offered the first bridal registry , provided the first in @-@ store dining facilities and established the first European buying office . The former store also was the first to provide personal shopping assistants . In the early 1900s , annual sales topped $ 60 million , and buying branches were located in New York City , London , Paris , Tokyo , Stockholm and Berlin .
The building has hosted the first escalators built in a department store and continues to be the second largest store in the world . Marshall Field took over the operations of the store in 1881 and became the first merchant to post the price of the goods in plain sight , which eliminated the common practice of haggling and charging whatever the buyer would pay . On top of that , Field stood behind his product with his famous slogan that symbolized his willingness to refund the full price of all merchandise ( a policy inherited from early mentor and partner Potter Palmer ) purchased in his store :
= = Building details = =
The 12 @-@ story granite building was constructed in stages between 1891 @-@ 1892 and 1914 on a partitioned block with sections that were added to the building in 1902 , 1906 , 1907 , and 1914 . Although he died before they were constructed , Charles B. Atwood , ( 1849 @-@ 1895 ) , of the D. H. Burnham & Company ( from original 1891 @-@ 1892 structure 's architect Daniel H. Burnham , ( 1846 @-@ 1912 ) , later firm ) , designed the two primary additional sections along State Street ( The north building built in 1902 and the south in 1907 ) . For a time , the building was the largest store in the world at 73 acres ( 300 @,@ 000 m2 ) of floorspace , with the largest book , china , shoe , and toy departments of all the world 's department stores .
The current building has several atria : A Louis Comfort Tiffany , ( 1848 @-@ 1933 ) , ( later Tiffany & Co. studios of New York City ) mosaic vaulted ceiling dome caps a 5 @-@ story balconied atrium in the southwest corner ; the northwest section has a 13 @-@ story skylit atrium , and a newer atrium with a fountain in the center is bridged by double escalator banks . The Tiffany Ceiling is over 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 560 m2 ) , and it is the first iridescent glass dome and it continues to be the largest glass mosaic of its kind . Only Egypt 's 3 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Temple of Karnak , with its 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) columns rivals the four 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) Ionic @-@ style capped granite columns on the State Street façade .
The building is known for its two exterior clocks , which weigh about 7 @.@ 5 short tons ( 6 @.@ 7 long tons ) each , on its northwest and southwest corners along State Street at both Randolph and Washington Streets . The southwest clock at the original Washington Street intersection , known as --- " The Great Clock " , was installed on November 26 , 1897 . Marshall Field envisioned the clock as a beacon for his store which he viewed as a meeting place . The clock was installed after the southwest corner of the store had become a popular meeting place and people began leaving notes for one another on the Marshall Field 's windows . The clock was an attempt to end this practice , and encourage punctuality .
Today , the building is located at 111 North State Street , between Washington and Randolph Streets , within the designated " Loop " Retail Historic District of the Chicago " Loop " , across State Street from the " Block 37 " future construction project , across Randolph Street from the Joffrey Tower , and across Wabash Avenue from The Heritage at Millennium Park . An underground public concourse connects the basement to 25 East Washington Street , which formerly housed the Marshall Field 's Men 's Store . The building is a major hub for the " Chicago Pedway " .
= = Traditions and popular culture = =
The building has several Christmas traditions : it is known as the former production site of " Frango " and for the Walnut Room Christmas tree . It also hosts an ornate decorated display windows series at the street level . The windows display includes thirteen themed windows along State Street that in recent years have displayed the themes of the unfolding of stories of Snow White , Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , Paddington Bear , The Night Before Christmas , Harry Potter , and Cinderella . Annually a three @-@ story tall conifer Christmas tree is brought in for the Holidays season . In an effort to quell opposition to the merger / conversion , Macy 's made a formal statement of its intent to continue the traditions of a 45 @-@ foot ( 13 @.@ 716 m ) Christmas tree , a seventh floor " Frango " viewing kitchen , and animated holiday window displays .
On November 3 , 1945 , American illustrator Norman Rockwell drew a picture of one of the Marshall Field 's Building clocks on the cover of the famous " Saturday Evening Post " magazine , entitled " The Clock Mender " . The Rockwell painting shows a man perched atop a ladder and adjusting one of the Marshall Field 's clock to correspond with his own pocket watch . The old Oriental Theatre in the background proves this depicts the matching " Great Clock " at the northwest corner of the building at State & Randolph Streets . In 1948 , Rockwell donated the original painting , " The Clock Mender " , to the store , where it had hung on the seventh floor ever since . After Target Corporation sold Field 's to the May Department Stores , which later merged with Federated Department Stores in 2005 , the Federated officials discovered a reproduction copy on display . Federated removed the fake copy and asked Target to return the original . The painting has since been donated to the Chicago Historical Society , which had from February 26 , 2000 to May 21 , 2000 been the second stop of the seven @-@ city national tour of " Pictures for the American People " , the first comprehensive Rockwell career exhibition that had been organized by the High Museum of Art of Atlanta and the Norman Rockwell Museum of Stockbridge , Massachusetts and that had also visited the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City , Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , San Diego Museum of Art and Phoenix Art Museum .
In John Dos Passos ' novel The 42nd Parallel ( 1930 ) , character Eric Egstrom is employed at this Marshall Field 's building .
Authors G. K. Chesterton and Sinclair Lewis met in the Field 's department store building 's book department , which resulted in their collaboration on the unpublished play " Mary Queen of Scotch . "
= = Gallery = =
= 2002 West Bengal cyclone =
The 2002 West Bengal cyclone ( JTWC designation : 04B , officially known as Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 04 ) was a deadly tropical cyclone that affected India and Bangladesh in November 2002 . The sixth tropical cyclone and fourth cyclonic storm of the 2002 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , it developed in the Bay of Bengal northeast of Sri Lanka on November 10 , as a tropical depression . After tracking northeast , the system strengthened into a cyclonic storm on November 11 , as maximum sustained winds exceeded 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . On November 12 , it further intensified into a severe cyclonic storm . Later that day , the storm made landfall on Sagar Island in West Bengal with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . After moving inland , it rapidly weakened and dissipated over Bangladesh on November 12 .
Rough seas offshore Odisha caused two fishing trawlers to collide , resulting in 18 fatalities , while two additional trawlers were reported missing . In West Bengal , the storm uprooted trees and dropped heavy rainfall . Throughout India , 124 deaths were confirmed . Strong winds and heavy rainfall in Bangladesh impacted many cities and villages , including the capital city of Dhaka , forcing thousands to evacuate . Ten wooden trawlers carrying 150 men sank offshore Bangladesh , with only 11 reaching safety . Eight additional boats with 60 occupants were reported missing . One death was reported in Bangladesh after a man attempted to cross a swollen river . Overall , there were 49 fatalities in Bangladesh . The storm was attributed to at least 173 fatalities in India , Bangladesh , and offshore areas .
= = Meteorological history = =
Around 0300 UTC on November 10 , a depression developed in the southwestern Bay of Bengal . Three hours later , a bulletin from the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) indicated that BOB 04 formed about 265 km ( 165 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Chennai , India . The system steadily intensified and headed northeastward . At 1200 UTC on November 11 , the depression reached gale force and was upgraded to Cyclonic Storm BOB 04 . At that time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated warnings on Tropical Cyclone 03B . Further strengthening briefly slowed later on November 11 . However , early on the following day , the storm resumed intensification .
At 0600 UTC on November 12 , BOB 04 became a severe cyclonic storm and reached its maximum sustained wind speed of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , in addition to an estimated minimum barometric pressure of 984 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . However , the Regional Meteorological Centre ( RMC ) in Kolkata , India bulletin at 0530 UTC on November 12 , reported maximum sustained winds of only 55 @-@ 75 km / h ( 35 @-@ 45 mph ) . At 0900 UTC on November 12 , it made landfall near Sagar Island , West Bengal with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Shortly after moving inland , the storm rapidly weakened to a depression . The JTWC issued their final advisory on the storm at 1200 UTC on November 12 , while it was centered about 200 km ( 125 mi ) northeast of Kolkata . However , the IMD tracked the cyclone until about six hours later , at which time it dissipated over eastern India .
= = Impact = =
As the storm approached , residents of low @-@ lying areas were advised to seek shelter . According to the Odisha State Disaster Management Authority , the communication system had been activated and collectors in coastal districts were given satellite telephones . Additionally , district authorities collected food , water , and other essential emergency supplies . Offshore Odisha , rough seas caused two trawlers to collide , resulting in 18 fatalities ; their bodies were later found floating Dhamra Port in the Bhadrak district of Odisha . Two additional trawlers were reported missing . Nine fishing trawlers sank offshore West Bengal , with only 66 fishermen accounted for . Initially , as many as 600 were estimated to have been missing , though 250 people swam back to Digha , where most of them received treatment at either a medical clinic or a hospital . According to the Chief Minister of West Bengal , 111 people were still missing offshore West Bengal by late on November 12 . Forty @-@ nine fatalities were confirmed offshore India , while two deaths occurred inland in West Bengal . Later , the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters raised the death toll to 124 .
Prime Minister of Bangladesh Khaleda Zia urged senior officials in Dhaka and coastal districts to prepare for the storm . Officials in Chittagong asked that all 24 ships be moved out of the harbor and river channel . In coastal areas , thousands of Red Crescent volunteers reported for duty in order to assist vulnerable villages in preparation of the storm . Winds destroyed bamboo huts , uprooted trees , and disrupted road transport between towns and villages on the shore of the Bay of Bengal . Torrential rainfall in the area flooded dozens of villages , forcing thousands to evacuate . Heavy precipitation also lashed the capital city of Dhaka , inundating streets , which caused a shutdown of electricity and interrupting public transportation . One death was reported after a man drowned while attempting to cross a river in southern Bhola Island . Ten wooden trawlers carrying 150 men sank near Cox 's Bazar ; only 11 of them were known to have survived . An additional eight fishing boats transporting 60 people was reported missing off of Barisal Division . By November 15 , 47 fishing vessels were still unaccounted for . A navy motor boat also sunk near Kutubdia , though its six crew members swam ashore . In the aftermath of the storm , the number of deaths in Bangladesh rose to 49 .
Overall , the storm resulted in 173 confirmed fatalities . Officials in West Bengal accused the meteorological offices of issuing warnings too late , as most of the fishermen were already in deep sea areas . Immediately following the storm , the Indian Red Cross Society and the Participating National Societies began to assess the situation and plan . At a warehouse in Salt Lake City , Kolkata , the Indian Red Cross Society prepared to distribute 2 @,@ 000 tarpaulins , 2 @,@ 000 blankets , 200 kitchen sets , and 20 @,@ 000 mosquito nets .
= David Meerman Scott =
David Meerman Scott ( born March 25 , 1961 ) is an American online marketing strategist , and author of several books on marketing , most notably The New Rules of Marketing and PR with over 350 @,@ 000 copies in print in more than 25 languages .
The book was inspired by an accidental discovery ( made when he was vice president of marketing at NewsEdge ) that creating useful content oneself and publishing it on @-@ line at virtually no cost was consistently more effective than expensive professional public relations programs . Subsequent books draw from his experience as a real @-@ time bond trader , and his observations about innovative marketing by organizations as diverse as IBM and the rock band The Grateful Dead . Based in Boston , he is also a speaker at conferences and corporate events and he runs seminars about marketing around the world .
= = Early life = =
Scott graduated from Kenyon College in 1983 with a BA in economics . After early jobs as a clerk on several Wall Street bond trading desks , he worked in the online news and information business from 1985 to 2002 . He held executive positions in an electronic information division of Knight @-@ Ridder , at the time one of the world 's largest newspaper companies from 1989 to 1995 . He was based in Tokyo from 1987 to 1993 and in Hong Kong from 1993 to 1995 .
He moved to the Boston area in 1995 and joined Desktop Data , which became NewsEdge Corporation . In his most recent corporate position he was vice president of marketing at NewsEdge until the business was sold to Thomson Corporation in 2002 .
He says " I didn 't plan on becoming a marketing strategist ... I came upon it accidentally ... " At NewsEdge he and his team found that do @-@ it @-@ yourself programs based on creating useful content and publishing it on @-@ line at virtually no cost consistently generated more interest from qualified buyers than expensive profession public relations programs . However , the Thomson Corporation terminated his employment after acquiring NewsEdge . " My ideas were a little too radical for my new bosses . So I started my own business ... " he says .
Since 2001 , he has used Meerman , his middle name , to distinguish himself from other notable people called David Scott such as the David Scott who walked on the moon as the commander of Apollo 15 ( and whom he has met ) .
= = Career = =
= = = Thought = = =
Scott 's ideology " the new rules of marketing & PR " is that marketing and public relations is vastly different on the Web than in mainstream media . He says that the " old rules " of mainstream media ( which he asserts do not work on the Web ) are about " controlling a message " and the only ways to get the message into the public domain using mainstream media is to buy expensive advertising or beg the media to write about you . He says that the rules of marketing and PR on the Web are completely different . Instead of buying or begging your way in , Scott says anybody can earn attention by " publishing their way in " using the tools of social media such as , blogs , podcasts , online news releases , online video , viral marketing , and online media . He believes that , with few exceptions , marketers gain the best return on their investment in content creation when they choose " ungated " publication .
Writing for Forbes , Nick Morgan notes that " David is one of those select few people who saw and understood the social media phenomenon as it began ... "
= = = Speaking engagements = = =
Scott gives over fifty keynote speeches a year all over the world .
= = = Books = = =
Scott is the author of ten books , most notably The New Rules of Marketing and PR : How to Use Social Media , Online Video , Mobile Applications , Blogs , News Releases , and Viral Marketing to Reach Buyers Directly . The fifth edition was published in October 2015 and adds a chapter on aligning sales with this type of marketing and information on the use of Periscope , Meerkat , and Snapchat . It is published in more than 25 languages with more than 350 @,@ 000 copies sold . Writing for The New York Times Magazine , Virginia Heffernan recommended the book " For practical P.R. in the age of Twitter , ... " In an interview on Marketing Update , Scott stated that besides the fast pace of change in marketing , another motivation for the new edition was that the book had been incorporated into the curriculum of many universities . As a result , he plans to publish a new edition in summer every other year . The second edition won praise in The New York Times and Computerworld reviews . The first edition was featured in the BusinessWeek Best Seller List . Related to the book , Scott developed a one @-@ day seminar called New Rules of Marketing , which he teaches to corporate groups around the world .
Other books include Newsjacking : How to inject your ideas into a breaking news story and generate tons of media coverage , ( 2011 , eMobi , ePub ) , Real @-@ Time Marketing and PR : How to Instantly Engage Your Market , Connect With Your Customers , and Create Products that Grow Your Business Now ( 2010 ) , Marketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead : What Every Business Can Learn from the Most Iconic Band in History ( 2010 ) , Marketing the Moon : The Selling of the Apollo Lunar Program ( 2014 ) . and The New Rules of Sales and Service : How to Use Agile Selling , Real @-@ Time Customer Engagement , Big Data , Content , and Storytelling to Grow Your Business
Writing about Newsjacking for Forbes Magazine , Nick Morgan notes that Scott and his publisher , Wiley , " point the way forward " by publishing this book only in electronic formats . He summarizes the idea of newsjacking as the timely creation of material for " the second paragraph " of a news story for journalists to incorporate . The first paragraph is for the basic facts : who @-@ what @-@ why @-@ where @-@ when . The second paragraph is about the implications of the story . Unlike hijacking , newsjacking is not a pejorative term . Kristi Hedges , also writing for Forbes , observes that Scott ' answers [ the question ] " Should I be on Twitter ? " once and for all ' , citing its instantaneous nature and widespread use by journalists . Writing for Fast Company , Wendy Marx cautions those who might be tempted to take the idea too far , " Don 't ... spam reporters ... That will only backfire " .
Real @-@ Time Marketing and PR draws on Scott 's earlier career as an up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ second Wall Street trader , this book highlights how the timely creation of heart felt content can be more important than long leadtime polished pieces . Examples include the Dave Carroll United Breaks Guitars phenomenon . Writing in BtoB Magazine , Christopher Hosford quotes Scott as saying , " The idea of real @-@ time communication ... is the most interesting thing going on in b2b marketing right now " .
Marketing Lessons from the Grateful Dead was coauthored with Brian Halligan , CEO of HubSpot . Scott Kirsner , reviewing the book in the Boston Globe , mentions that the authors say they were inspired in part by an article in the Atlantic by Joshua Green .
Reviewing Marketing the Moon for The Boston Globe , Carolyn Y. Johnson writes that the book documents NASA 's success in placing the Apollo mission at front @-@ of @-@ mind of ordinary people and The Wall Street Journal found the " decadelong surge of public interest in all things lunar " remarkable . Reviewing the book for The New Yorker magazine , Joshua Rothman contrasts the usual " derring @-@ do " presentation of the Apollo program by observing : " Scott and Jurek see it as ... an attempt to convince America , and the world , of its own competence , intelligence , and courage . " In an essay based on the coverage of astronaut celebrity in their book , Scott and Jurek link it to that of aviation predecessors such as Charles Lindbergh . A particularly important facet of the Apollo mission was live television broadcast of the landing . Scott calls this " one of the best decisions ever made . " The book 's foreword is by Captain Eugene Cernan , the twelfth and ( so far ) last man to walk on the moon .
Dan Schawbel interviewed the author about The New Rules of Sales and Service for Forbes magazine . Scott published a free summary of the main points of the book on SlideShare .
In addition Scott has published :
World Wide Rave ( 2009 ) .
To promote this book Scott created several videos including one evocative of the joyous Matt Harding Where is Matt ? series and a series of three in the workplace mockumentary style of both Ricky Gervais 's The Office and the Art of the Sale videos . Comedian Tim Washer plays in two of these series : as victim in the Art of the Sale , but switching roles to oppressor in Riding the Rave .
Tuned In ( 2008 )
Cashing In With Content ( 2005 )
Eyeball Wars : A Novel of Dot @-@ com Intrigue ( 2001 )
Scott also wrote the foreword sections in The New Rules of Social Media , a series of books that he edits for John Wiley & Sons . The first six books in the series are :
Inbound Marketing : Get Found Using Google , Social Media , and Blogs by Brian Halligan and Dharmesh Shah
Get Seen : Online Video Secrets to Building Your Business by Steve Garfield
Social Media Metrics : How to Measure and Optimize Your Marketing Investment by Jim Sterne
Beyond Viral : How to Promote and Sustain Your Brand with Online Video by Kevin Nalty
Content Rules : How to Create Killer Blogs , Podcasts , Videos , Ebooks , Webinars ( and More ) That Engage Customers and Ignite Your Business by Ann Handley and C.C. Chapman
Go Mobile : Location @-@ Based Marketing , Apps , Mobile Optimized Ad Campaigns , 2D Codes and Other Mobile Strategies to Grow Your Business by Jeanne Hopkins and Jamie Turner
= = = Film = = =
In 2015 , Robert Stone announced that a documentary film entitled The Men Who Sold the Moon , based in part on Scott 's book Marketing the Moon , is in production .
= = = Online publications and social media = = =
Scott also generates content on @-@ line :
Several E @-@ books
A blog , Web Ink Now , which was ranked in the now defunct AdAge Power 150 as one of the top marketing blogs
Articles in Huffington Post
He is very active on selected social media sites : Facebook , Twitter , and Google Plus . For example , on July 6 , 2011 Twitter hosted an online town hall at the White House where President Obama answered selected questions from members of Twitter . Scott 's question was the second one of only twenty selected from over 119 @,@ 000 tweets .
= = = Corporate governance = = =
Scott serves on the board of advisors of HubSpot , VisibleGains , Newstex , Nashaquisset , the Massachusetts Air and Space Museum , and Grateful Dead Archive at UC Santa Cruz . He was formerly on the board of directors of Kadient ( now merged with Sant ) and NewsWatch ( acquired by Yahoo ! Japan ) .
= = Personal life = =
Scott is married to Yukari Watanabe Scott . They have one daughter . Scott 's hobbies include collecting space artifacts , attending rock concerts , and surfing .
= Historia Plantarum ( Theophrastus ) =
Theophrastus 's Enquiry into Plants or Historia Plantarum ( Greek : Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία , Peri phyton historia ) was , along with Pliny the Elder 's Natural History and Dioscorides 's De Materia Medica , one of the most important books of natural history written in ancient times , and like them it was influential in the Renaissance . Theophrastus looks at plant structure , reproduction and growth ; the varieties of plant around the world ; wood ; wild and cultivated plants ; and their uses . Book 9 in particular , on the medicinal uses of plants , is one of the first herbals , describing juices , gums and resins extracted from plants , and how to gather them .
Historia Plantarum was written some time between c . 350 BC and c . 287 BC in ten volumes , of which nine survive . In the book , Theophrastus described plants by their uses , and attempted a biological classification based on how plants reproduced , a first in the history of botany . He continually revised the manuscript , and it remained in an unfinished state on his death . The condensed style of the text , with its many lists of examples , indicate that Theophrastus used the manuscript as the working notes for lectures to his students , rather than intending it to be read as a book .
Historia Plantarum was first translated into Latin by Theodore Gaza ; the translation was published in 1483 . Johannes Bodaeus published a frequently cited folio edition in Amsterdam in 1644 , complete with commentaries and woodcut illustrations . The first English translation was made by Sir Arthur Hort and published in 1916 .
= = Book = =
The Enquiry into Plants is in Hort 's parallel text a book of some 400 pages of original Greek , consisting of about 100 @,@ 000 words . It was originally organised into ten books , of which nine survive , though it is possible the surviving text represents all the material , rearranged into nine books rather than the original ten . Along with his other surviving botanical work , On the Causes of Plants , Enquiry into Plants was an important influence on science in the middle ages . On the strength of these books , the first scientific inquiries into plants and one of the first systems of plant classification , Linnaeus called Theophrastus " the father of botany " .
Theophrastus 's two plant books have similar titles to two books on animals by his mentor Aristotle ; Roger French concludes that he was effectively " doing a peripatetic exercise " in identifying regularities in and differences between plants , in the manner of Aristotle with animals . However , he went beyond Aristotle in describing seeds as parts of the plant ; Aristotle , French argues , would never have described semen or embryos as parts of an animal .
Theophrastus made use of a variety of sources for the book , including Diocles on drugs and medicinal plants . Theophrastus claims to have gathered information from drug @-@ sellers ( pharmacopolai ) and root @-@ cutters ( rhizotomoi ) . Plants described include poppy ( mēkōn ) , hemlock , ( kōnion ) , wild lettuce ( thridakinē ) , and mandrake ( mandragoras ) .
The surviving texts are the notes that Theophrastus used in teaching , and they were continually revised . He referred to earlier books in the Lyceum library including Democritus , sometimes preserving fragments of books otherwise lost . He mentions about 500 species of plant .
= = Translations = =
The Enquiry into Plants ( along with the Causes of Plants ) was first translated into Latin by Theodore Gaza by 1454 , circulated in manuscript , and then published at Treviso in 1483 . In its original Greek it first appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius at Venice , 1495 – 98 , from a single corrupt manuscript which has since been lost . Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality , the Codex Urbinas in the Vatican Library , which was not made known to Johann Gottlob Schneider , who with H. F. Link made the first modern critical edition , Leipzig 1818 – 1821 , and the excerpts in the Codex Parisiensis in the Bibliothèque nationale de France .
A good and often @-@ cited edition is that of Johannes Bodaeus , published in Amsterdam in 1644 . This folio edition has the Greek and Latin texts printed in parallel , along with commentaries on the text by Julius Caesar Scaliger and Robert Constantine , and woodcut illustrations of plants . Sir William Thiselton @-@ Dyer described the commentary as " botanically monumental and fundamental " .
The first translation into English , with an introduction and parallel Greek and English texts , was made by Sir Arthur Hort ( 1864 – 1935 ) . It was published simultaneously by William Heinemann in London and G. P. Putnam 's Sons in New York , as a two @-@ volume book Theophrastus Enquiry into Plants and minor works on odours and weather signs in 1916 .
Three older German editions with commentaries are described by Hort as indispensable : Schneider and Link 's 1818 – 1821 edition already mentioned ; Kurt Polycarp Joachim Sprengel 's 1822 edition from Halle ; and Christian Friedrich Heinrich Wimmer 's 1842 edition from Breslau .
= = Contents = =
Enquiry into Plants classifies plants according to how they reproduce , their localities , their sizes , and their practical uses including as foods , juices , and herbs .
The books describe the natural history of plants as follows :
= = = Book 1 : Plant anatomy = = =
Theophrastus tours plant anatomy , including leaves ( phylla ) , flowers , catkins , fruits ( karpoi ) , seeds , roots ( rhiza ) , and wood .
Plants are classified as trees , shrubs , herbaceous perennials , and annual herbs ( poai ) ; these divisions are acknowledged to be rough and ready , as is the division into wild or cultivated , whereas the aquatic / terrestrial division appeared to be natural . Theophrastus notes that some plants are irregular , while the silver fir has branches always opposite each other and other plants have branches equally spaced or in rows . Figs have the longest roots , while the banyan sends roots down from the shoots , forming a circle of roots at a distance all round the trunk .
= = = Book 2 : Tree and plant propagation = = =
Theophrastus writes that plants can grow spontaneously , from seed , or from vegetative parts of the plant . Plants with bulbs grow from those . Soil and climate influence growth . Some plants change into others unless care is taken , so bergamot turns into mint , and wheat turns into darnel . He reports that if celery is trodden after sowing , it will become curly , and that figs are the easiest trees to propagate , whereas date palms have to be grown from several seeds together , and they like irrigation , dung , salt ( at the age of one year ) and being transplanted . Other kinds of palm have different habits and fruits . He notes that gall insects come out of wild figs and make the cultivated figs swell , which helps to prevent premature shedding of the fruit . The male spathe of the date palm is cut off and brought to the female , and its dust is shaken over the female tree to make it fruit .
= = = Book 3 : Wild trees = = =
Theophrastus asserts that all wild trees grow from seed or from roots . He mentions that the philosophers spoke of spontaneous generation , as when Anaxagoras claims the air contains the seeds of every plant , whereas Diogenes believed plants arose when water mixed with earth . In places like Crete , Theophrastus writes that native plants spring up if the ground is simply disturbed , and that wild trees are generally more vigorous than cultivated ones , give fruit later , and like cold and hilly terrain . He asserts that trees which can grow both on hill and plain grow better and taller when grown on the plain .
The book offers numerous examples of Theophrastus 's note @-@ like style , with lists of species interspersed among the general explanations . For example , " Now among wild trees those are evergreen which were mentioned before , silver @-@ fir fir ' wild pine ' box andrachne yew Phoenician cedar terebinth alaternus hybrid arbutus bay holm @-@ oak holly cotoneaster kermes @-@ oak tamarisk ; but all the others shed their leaves ... "
= = = Book 4 : Trees and shrubs from abroad = = =
Theophrastus describes trees and shrubs from different places and habitats , as for instance a sheltered part of the Arcadia region near Krane in a deep valley where the sun never reaches , and the silver @-@ fir trees are exceptionally tall . He looks into the plants of Egypt , Libya , Asia , northern regions , and then aquatic plants from the Mediterranean , wetlands especially in Egypt , reeds and rushes . He also considers factors that limit the life of plants including diseases and weather damage .
= = = Book 5 : Wood = = =
Theophrastus describes the wood of different trees , the effects of climate on wood , of knots and ' coiling ' in timber and other differences in quality . He discusses which woods to use for specific purposes such as for carpentry , shipbuilding and for building houses , and the making of charcoal . The most useful trees are said to be silver @-@ fir and fir , and they have the best wood in the largest sizes ; the silver @-@ fir is softer than the fir , and its wood has layers like an onion , and is made entirely of these layers . The strongest and most attractive wood is smooth , without knots . In Syria , terebinth wood is dark and close @-@ grained , Theophrastus reports , and used both for the handles of daggers and , turned on the lathe , for making cups . He claims that the hardest timber is of oak and holm oak , while elm warps the least , so it is used for the pivots and sockets of doors , which must be straight . The wood of palms is light and soft like cork @-@ oak , but is tougher and less brittle , so it is good for carving images . Timber from the cedar , ebony , box , olive , oak and sweet chestnut keeps well and resists decay . He asserts that Tamarisk wood from Greece is weak , but from the Arabian island of Tylos it is as strong as kermes @-@ oak . The wood of oak and the knotted parts of fir and silver @-@ fir are described as the hardest to work . Ships are generally made of silver @-@ fir , fir , and Syrian cedar ; in Cyprus they use Aleppo pine which is better than the fir that grows there . Theophrastus records that in the lowlands of Italy ( the country of the Latins ) they grow bay , myrtle and excellent beech trees long enough for the whole length of a ship .
= = = Book 6 : Undershrubs , with thorns or without = = =
Theophrastus classifies undershrubs as spiny , such as thistle , eryngo and safflower , and spineless , such as marjoram , savory , sage , horehound , and balm . He notes that some have a hollow stem , such as deadly nightshade and hemlock . Roses , he writes , vary in number of petals , roughness of bark , colour and scent ; they have five , twelve , twenty or more petals , and those with the sweetest scent come from Cyrene , and are used for making perfume . The times of flowering of different species are listed .
= = = Book 7 : Pot @-@ herbs = = =
Theophrastus reports that cabbage , radish and turnip are sown in July after the summer solstice , along with beet , lettuce , mustard and coriander . Leeks , celery , onion and orache are sown in January . Cucumber , gourds , basil , purslane and savory , in contrast , he writes , are sown in April . Ripe seeds do not germinate at once but wait for the right time . He asserts that all the herbs can be grown from seed , while rue , marjoram and basil can be raised from cuttings , and garlic , onion and other bulbs are grown from their roots . All the flowers of a herb appear at one time , except for basil which puts out a series of flowers starting low on the plant . Cumin has the most fruits , but it is said you have to curse and insult the plant to get a good crop . Theophrastus describes varieties of some herbs , for instance that the white lettuce is sweetest and tenderest , while there are many kinds of onion , with Sardian , Cnidian , Samothracian and Ascalonian varieties from those regions . Garlic is said to be planted close to the solstice ; the Cyprian variety is largest and is used in salads . All herbs except rue are said to like dung . Of the wild herbs , Theophrastus reports that some such as cat 's ear are edible , whereas others like dandelion are too bitter to be worth eating .
= = = Book 8 : Cereals and legumes = = =
Theophrastus groups together the cereals and the legumes ( peas and beans ) , and includes millet and other many @-@ seeded plants like sesame also . These can only be grown from seed . They can be sown early , as with wheat , barley and beans , or in spring after the equinox , for plants like lentils , tares and peas . Vetch and chickpeas can , he reports , be sown at either season . When sprouting , beans form a shape like a penis , from which the root grows down and the leafy stem upwards . Wheat and barley flower for four or five days , whereas the legumes flower for much longer . Theophrastus reports that these plants grow differently according to the region , so for instance crops in Salamis appear earlier than those elsewhere in Attica . Wheat varieties are recorded as being named for their localities ; they differ in colour , size , growth habit and food value . In a place near Bactra in Asia the wheat grains are said to grow as big as the stone of an olive , whereas pulses do not in Theophrastus 's view vary to the same extent .
= = = Book 9 : Medicinal uses of plants = = =
This book is one of the first herbals , admittedly much simpler than those of Nicander , Dioscorides or Galen . Theophrastus covers juices ( chylismos ) , gums , and resins , the uses of some hundreds of plants as medicines , and how to gather them .
Resin is gathered by tapping trees including silver @-@ fir and Aleppo pine ; the best resin is from the terebinth . On Mount Ida in Crete the people gather pitch from Corsican pine and Aleppo pine . Gums such as frankincense , myrrh and balsam of Mecca are gathered either by cutting the plant or naturally . Frankincense and myrrh are gathered into the closely guarded temple of the Sabaeans . Cassia and cinnamon also come from the Arabian peninsula .
Drug collectors have certain traditions which may be accurate or may be exaggerated . Precautions are rightly taken when gathering hellebore , and men cannot dig it up for long ; whereas the story that the peony must be dug up at night for fear that a woodpecker will watch and cause the man a rectal prolapse is a mere superstition . Similarly the idea that you must mark three circles around a mandrake plant with a sword , and speak of the mysteries of love while cutting it , is just far @-@ fetched .
Apart from Greece itself , medicinal plants are produced in Italy in Tyrrhenia , as Aeschylus records , and Latium ; and in Egypt , which as Homer mentions is the source of the drug nepenthes that makes men forget sorrow and passion . The best hemlock comes from Susa , while dittany , useful in childbirth , comes only from Crete . Wolfsbane comes from Crete and Zakynthos ; it can be made into a poison that causes death a year or more after taking it , and there is no antidote . Hemlock is a poison which brings a painless death ; pepper and frankincense are antidotes for it . Strykhnos causes madness , but oleander root in wine makes people gentle and cheerful . Birthwort has many uses including for bruises on the head , snakebite , and prolapse of the uterus .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ancient = = =
Pliny the Elder made frequent use of Theophrastus , including his books on plants , in his Natural History ; the only authors he cited more often were Democritus and Varro .
John Scarborough comments that " The list of herbals assembled in Historia Plantarum IX became the direct ancestor of all later drug treatises in antiquity , and many traces of Theophrastus 's ( and Diocles 's ) original observations survive in the Materia Medica of Dioscorides . The analysis of the various plants and plant derivatives shows that the Greek rhizotomoi and drug @-@ vendors had collected much valuable information on the medical employment of plants , and Theophrastus invented a format for this type of information that would be followed after his own time . "
= = = Mediaeval and Renaissance = = =
Theophrastus was barely known in the Middle Ages ; his writings were rediscovered only in the fifteenth century , when Greek manuscripts were uncovered in the Vatican , and the pope Nicholas V asked Theodorus Gaza to translate them into Latin . The effect was to stimulate Renaissance scholars to restart the exploration of plant taxonomy . The science of botany was founded as these scholars engaged with the accounts of plants , and especially of their medicinal uses , together with a newly critical reaction to mediaeval pharmacology , which was based on unthinking acceptance of the Natural History of Pliny the Elder and the De Materia Medica of Dioscorides . By the same token , however , Theophrastus ( and Aristotle ) fell abruptly out of use around 1550 , as classical botany and zoology were effectively assimilated into Renaissance thought in the form of illustrated encyclopedias — which were still heavily based on classical writings . Andrea Cesalpino made use of Theophrastus in his philosophical book on plants , De Plantis ( 1583 ) . The Italian scholar Julius Caesar Scaliger 's accurate and detailed commentaries on the Historia Plantarum were published in Leyden in 1584 , after his death .
= = = Modern = = =
The Chicago Botanic Garden describes Historia Plantarum as the " first great botanical work " of Theophrastus , " the first real botanist " ; it states of the 1483 edition printed by Bartolomeo Confalonieri in Treviso that " all taxonomy of plants starts with this modest book " , centuries before the modern taxonomy of Linnaeus . Anna Pavord observes in her 2005 book The Naming of Names that Theophrastus made the first ever classification of plants , and Pliny the Elder , now much better known , used much of his material .
= = = Text = = =
Hort , Arthur ; Theophrastus ( 1916 ) . Theophrastus : Enquiry into Plants ( Loeb Classical Library ed . ) . London and New York : William Heinemann and G.P. Putnam 's Sons .
= = = Commentary = = =
Einarson , Benedict ( January 1976 ) . " The Manuscripts of Theophrastus ' Historia Plantarum " . Classical Philology 71 ( 1 ) : 67 – 76 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 366234 . JSTOR 268519 .
Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library ( 2014 ) . " Theophrastus and the nature of plants " . University of Toronto . Retrieved 2 June 2014 .
French , Roger ( 1994 ) . Ancient Natural History : Histories of Nature . Routledge. pp. 92 – 99 . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 11545 @-@ 0 .
Grafton , Anthony ; Most , Glenn W. ; Settis , Salvatore ( editors ) ( 2010 ) . The Classical Tradition . Harvard University Press . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Scarborough , John ( 1978 ) . " Theophrastus on Herbals and Herbal Remedies " . Journal of the History of Biology 11 ( 2 ) : 353 – 385 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / bf00389304 . JSTOR 4330714 .
Schmitt , Charles B. ( 1971 ) . " Theophrastus in the Middle Ages " . Viator 2 : 257 – 270 .
Sengbusch , Peter v. " First Scientific Descriptions " . University of Hamburg . Retrieved 2 June 2014 .
= Don 't Rush ( song ) =
" Don 't Rush " is a song by American pop recording artist Kelly Clarkson , from her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One ( 2012 ) . Written by Blu Sanders , Natalie Hemby , and Lindsay Chapman , and produced by Dann Huff , it features country music singer Vince Gill on backing vocals . The song premiered on WSIX @-@ FM radio station on October 29 , 2012 , and was made available for purchase on iTunes store on the following day . It was officially sent to country radio stations on November 15 , 2012 . Musically , " Don 't Rush " is a country song with influences of country soul and soft rock . It is Clarkson 's second country single as a main act .
" Don 't Rush " received critical acclaim from music critics who praised its production for resonating the sound of country songs from the early 1970s and 1980s . Despite that , some critics felt the song is not as powerful as " Don 't You Wanna Stay " , Clarkson 's country duet with Jason Aldean . It was nominated at various music industry awards , including a Grammy Award nomination for Best Country Duo / Group Performance at the 56th Grammy Awards . Commercially , the single enjoyed a moderate success in the United States , peaking at number 23 on the Hot Country Songs and at number 87 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It is Clarkson 's fifth country chart entry , and Gill 's biggest country hit since " The Reason Why " in 2006 . The song 's first live performance was on the 46th Annual Country Music Association Awards on November 1 , 2012 . The song 's accompanying music video is composed of the live footage from the Country Music Association awards which was directed by Paul Miller .
= = Background and release = =
" Don 't Rush " was originally written by Natalie Hemby and Blu Sanders in 2008 . The idea of writing the song came from Hemby . She explained " My friend Blu Sanders and I were together , and he goes , ‘ Have you ever met Lindsay Champan ? ’ And I was like , ‘ Nope ! ’ Basically he was like , ‘ Why don ’ t we write with her ? She has an absolutely gorgeous R & B voice . ’ He was like ‘ Let ’ s get together and see what we can develop . " Hemby also admitted that the song was written for Lindsay Chapman because the song 's genre fit Chapman 's musical direction at that time . She added , " It had an Al Green @-@ ish feel with a ' 70s throwback kind of vibe , and that 's kind of what we were going for with her sound . " Once the collaboration was completed , the song was never recorded and Hemby said that it " just kind of fell by the wayside " . Being a good friend with Clarkson , Sanders decided to take the initiative to send the song with a few other songs to the singer .
According to Clarkson , when she first heard the song in March 2012 , she decided to put it on hold . She explained , " My goal as a singer is to capture the sentiment of a song and emote what the feeling is . I 'm in a relationship and super happy , and I don 't think I would have been able to sing this song eight months ago . Love should be celebrated , and this is a great description of where I 'm at in my life . This is a couple 's skate , not an all skate song . " " Don 't Rush " is one of the three new tracks ( the other two being " Catch My Breath " and " People Like Us " ) that Clarkson recorded for her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One . In an interview with Billboard , Clarkson expressed her excitement of recording the song , saying
People have been wanting me to release something specifically for country radio for years , but I didn 't want to just release something that has a steel guitar on it [ ... ] I wanted to release something I 'm proud of , and we finally found that song . It 's my favorite kind of country music ; it 's like 1980s , 1990s country music , that throwback , two @-@ steppin ' style . And I 'm freakin ' stoked I got Vince Gill to sing on it with me , so I win ' cause he 's like one of my favorite people .
" Don 't Rush " is Clarkson 's second country single as a main act and her fourth overall . Her first solo country single was the country remix version of " Mr. Know It All " . It is also her fourth country duet with other artists . She first collaborated with Reba McEntire on the 2007 country version of " Because of You " , followed by a collaboration with Jason Aldean on " Don 't You Wanna Stay " , and another duet with Blake Shelton on a song entitled " There ’ s a New Kid in Town " . The song premiered on WSIX @-@ FM radio station on October 29 , 2012 . It was made available for purchase on iTunes Store the following day , on October 30 , 2012 , as the second single of the album . It received an immediate response from fans and an overwhelming demand from radio stations following Clarkson 's performance of the song on Country Music Association Awards on November 1 , 2012 . The song was officially sent to country radio stations on November 15 , 2012 .
= = Composition = =
" Don 't Rush " is a country song written by Blu Sanders , Natalie Hemby and Lindsay Dawn Chapman , and produced by Dann Huff . It features American country singer @-@ songwriter Vince Gill . The song is set in a " drowsy , take @-@ it @-@ easy beat " which is composed of a layer of Clarkson 's and Gill 's soulful harmonies . The song begins with a breezy soft @-@ rock tune . In the first verse , Clarkson sings " I see the way you ’ re looking at me / Baby know I ’ m feeling it too / We can just light up every candle / Move from room to room " which was ensued by the sound of Gill 's guitar . As the song launches into the chorus , both Clarkson and Gill are heard singing " Stopping every minute just because you 're in it / Wishing everyday was Sunday , you 're right next to me / It 's how it 's supposed to be " , a vocal chorus deemed as " slightly awkward " by Will Hermes of Rolling Stone . In the final chorus , the pair pauses before the key changes at minute three .
Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine praised the production of the song for its light @-@ handed approach which resonates the early- ' 80s work of artists like Barbara Mandrell and Ronnie Milsap . Mark Blankenship of Logo also opined that the song " sounds like an easy listening hit from the 1970s or 1980s , with gently groovy music underneath a laid @-@ back vocal . " It is noted that the sound of Hammond organ is instrumental in resonating the vibe of early 1980s in the song . Zara Golden of VH1 called the instrumentation of the song as " bright and breezy " and remarked that it is more soft @-@ rock @-@ y than " Don 't You Wanna Stay " . Sam Lansky of Idolator noted that Clarkson 's restrained vocals are imbued with a country twang which is suitable for the song 's country instrumentation . She also added that having a duet partner in the song " brings Clarkson 's impressively emotive vocals to life " .
Lyrically , the song finds Clarkson taking her time in love , and crooning about praising her lover . Sam Wilbur of AOL Radio is contented with the song 's central theme , writing " It 's a simple , laid back love song that is a nice change of pace for Clarkson who , along with ' Catch My Breath , ' is singing more about love and happiness , instead of break @-@ ups and heartbreak . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Don 't Rush " has generally received critical acclaim from music critics . Rachel Brodsky of MTV gave a positive review towards the song , writing " It 's true -- we 're not totally used to hearing Kelly exploring her country side ( though she is from Texas , so go figure ) , but judging by the vocals on " Don 't Rush , " we think we could get used to Country Kelly " . Sam Wilbur of AOL Radio complimented the song for being " a feel @-@ good track with a nostalgic , classic country feel " . Billy Dukes of Taste of Country gave the song four stars and a half , writing " It ’ s difficult for a female vocalist to sound sexy without drawing criticism . Clarkson ’ s voice is a wine and roses romance , instead of the wanton yearn of a beauty in a too @-@ short skirt . The original ‘ American Idol ’ may have found her niche . " Michaelangelo Matos of New York Post gave the song three stars out of five and praised Clarkson for " getting completely into character " and successfully delivering the emotion of the song . Mark Blankenship of Logo complimented Clarkson for embracing her country side . Calling the song as " a good song " , he concluded his review by writing " Even better , it ’ s a flirty , seductive love song , not a furious break @-@ up anthem , which is a nice change after ten years of Kelly ’ s heartbroken rage . " Chuck Dauphin of Billboard ranked " Don 't Rush " at number eight in his list of Top 10 Country Songs of 2012 , writing " One of the most luscious sounding love songs I have heard in a while . It 's the definition of ' Ear Candy . ' If you ’ re not in love , you 'll want to be after hear it . "
The song was nominated for Vocal Event of the Year at the 2013 Academy of Country Music Awards , Musical Event of the Year at the 2013 Country Music Association Awards , and a Grammy Award for Best Country Duo / Group Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Following Clarkson 's performance of the song in the Country Music Association Awards , " Don 't Rush " sold 41 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads and debuted at number 35 on the Hot Digital Songs as well as at number 97 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending November 17 , 2012 . The following week , the song jumped to a new peak on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 89 . It also debuted on the Hot Country Songs at number 25 on the week ending November 17 , 2012 and becomes Clarkson 's fifth country hit on the chart , following " A Moment Like This " , " Because of You " , " Don 't You Wanna Stay " and " Mr. Know It All " . With " Don 't Rush " debuting at number 25 , it also becomes Gill 's highest debuting song on the Hot Country Songs and it is his biggest hit since his song " Building Bridges " , peaked at number four on the chart on September 2006 . The song has since peaked at number 23 on the Hot Country Songs on the week ending November 24 , 2012 . As of March 20 , 2013 , " Don 't Rush " has sold 215 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States . In Canada , " Don 't Rush " entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number 53 on the week ending November 24 , 2012 . On April 18 , 2013 , the song re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at a new peak of 87 , following Clarkson 's performance on the ACM Awards . By May , 2013 " Don 't Rush " has sold over 346 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Live performances and usage in media = =
Clarkson and Gill performed the song for the first time on the 46th Annual Country Music Association Awards on November 1 , 2012 . Their performance earned positive reviews ; Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly deemed it as " smoky , smooth , soulful , and understated " . Natalie Finn of E ! noted that their performance of " Don 't Rush " reminisces " Islands in the Stream " , and welcomed Clarkson 's venture to country music . Story Gilmore of Neon Limelight remarked , " The two stars dazzled by simply singing , and singing well for their performance . Kelly sang flawlessly alongside Vince as the country icon strummed on his guitar while adding smooth vocals . " The song 's accompanying music video is composed of the live footage from the Country Music Association awards which was directed by Glenn Weiss . On February 28 , 2013 , Clarkson took the stage to perform the single during the Country Radio Seminar concert . Wearing a T @-@ shirt with the logo of Drug Abuse Resistance Education , she was joined by Jason Sellers who sang Gill 's part . Clarkson also performed the song on the Academy of Country Music Awards on April 7 , 2013 , again with Sellers singing Gill 's part .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded by Steve Marcantonio at Sound Stage Studios , Nashville , Tennessee ; mixed by Justin Niebank at Blackbird Studios , Nashville , Tennessee .
Personnel
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Release history = =
= Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! =
Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! ( スーパーパンチアウト ！ ！ , Sūpā Panchi @-@ Auto ! ! ) is a boxing video game developed and published by Nintendo for the SNES . It was released on September 14 , 1994 in North America and again in the same region in 1996 . It was released in Europe on January 26 , 1995 for the same console and in Japan in 1998 for the Nintendo Power flash RAM cartridge series and the Super Famicom . The game was released for the Wii 's Virtual Console in Europe on March 20 , 2009 , in North America on March 30 , 2009 , and in Japan on July 7 , 2009 . The game was also released on the New Nintendo 3ds eShop on May 5 , 2016 . It is the fourth game in the Punch @-@ Out ! ! series , taking place after the Punch @-@ Out ! ! game for the NES .
In Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! the player controls Little Mac , as he fights his way to become the World Video Boxing Association champion . Players , fighting from a " behind the back " perspective , must knockout their opponent in three minutes to win . Players can launch jabs , hooks , and uppercuts against their opponents as well as block , dodge , and duck opponents ' attacks . Nintendo Integrated Research and Development , led by Genyo Takeda , Minoru Arakawa and Makoto Wada , developed the game . It also featured voice acting by Charles Martinet .
The game received praise from reviewers for its cartoon @-@ like style , its colorful , outlandish opponents , simple gameplay controls , and replay value . The game also featured colorful , detailed graphics , which included the usage of transparency that facilitates the game 's " behind the back " perspective . Other reviewers had said that this game lacked the overall appeal , gameplay , or audience of its predecessor .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay in Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! is similar to that of its arcade and NES / FC predecessors . The player controls a nameable boxer as he fights his way to become W.V.B.A. Champion . The player controls the boxer from a third @-@ person perspective , with him being translucent on the screen . Players can attack their opponents with jabs to the face or with body blows from either hand . The opponent can deflect punches , so players must aim at the opponent 's open spot ( where the gloves are not ) to connect . Depending on the opponents ' stances , they will guard themselves differently , so players need to use the correct punches .
As in the first two arcade games of the series , players have a power meter , located on the bottom of the screen . The meter fills up as the player lands punches against the opponent , and it goes down as the player gets hit . When the power meter fills up completely , the player will be able to launch knockout punches such as uppercuts , hooks , and rapid punches . These punches have a slight delay in execution , but they cause more damage to the opponent . Players can also build power as the match progresses , as indicated by the background color behind the player 's face on the upper left corner of the screen , which goes from blue to green to yellow to red . The player reaches " Power @-@ Up " status when the background color reaches red . During this status , the player 's punch speed and power increase . They lose their Power @-@ Up status if they are knocked down .
Players can avoid attacks from their opponents by dodging to the left or right or by ducking , but players cannot punch while dodging or ducking , nor can they duck body blows . They can also block attacks to either the head or the body , but they cannot block strong punches ; strong punches must be avoided by dodging or ducking . Depending on the situation , the player must strategically block , dodge , or duck in order to avoid an opponent 's attack . Players can also capitalize on the opponent 's attacks by launching counter @-@ punches immediately after avoiding an attack .
Both the player and the opponent have stamina meters , both displayed on the top of the screen . The meters decrease when either boxer gets hit by a punch . Boxers will get knocked down if their stamina meter runs out . Faster knockdowns will cause that boxer to recover less stamina upon getting up ; the same happens if a boxer is knocked down by a knockout punch . Either boxer will lose if they cannot stand up before the count of ten after being knocked down ( resulting in a knockout or KO ) or if they are knocked down three times in the match ( resulting in a technical knockout or TKO ) . The player can also recover some stamina while the opponent is down by pressing the buttons on the controller .
The player has three minutes to knock out the opponent . After three minutes , the match ends , and the player loses ; the player cannot win by a decision . After losing , the player can use a continue and fight a rematch . The game ends after all continues have been used ; the player must fight all opponents in the current circuit again . The game consists of four circuits in which the player must become the champion . The player can retry any circuit that has already been beaten . The game has a battery – backed memory in which players can save their data and records for future play .
= = Development = =
Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! was released in North America October 1994 and in Europe on January 26 , 1995 ( 1995 @-@ 01 @-@ 26 ) . It was rereleased in North America in 1996 , and it was released in Japan as part of the Nintendo Power flash RAM cartridge series on March 1 , 1998 . In addition , Electronic Arts included the game as an unlockable bonus item along with its protagonist as an unlockable boxer in the Nintendo GameCube version of Fight Night Round 2 as part of Nintendo 's deal of featuring Nintendo characters in the Nintendo GameCube versions of some EA Sports titles . The game was later released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service in Europe and Australia on March 20 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 03 @-@ 20 ) , in North America on March 30 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 03 @-@ 30 ) and in Japan on March 30 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 03 @-@ 30 ) . Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! is the fourth game in the Punch @-@ Out ! ! series and was developed by Nintendo Integrated Research and Development and was produced by Minoru Arakawa , Genyo Takeda and Makoto Wada . Voice actor Charles Martinet was credited for providing the voices of the boxers , the referee and the announcer . Nintendo IRD was developing this game simultaneously with Zoda 's Revenge : StarTropics II . The game is the closest arcade @-@ to @-@ home console translation of the Punch @-@ Out ! ! and Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! arcades ; however , like the NES titles , the SNES title is not a direct port . Shortly before the game was finished and released , some screenshots and video footage of the prototype were shown in a video preview of the game , as well as in an issue of Nintendo Power magazine and two official television commercials , which all showed the protagonist of the game with a different look as well as the announcer having a different voice compared to the ones in the final version seen in the finished and released version .
= = Reception = =
Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! received a rave review in GamePro . The reviewer praised the game 's good controls , " deceptive challenge " , sprite layouts , animations , and sounds which " juice the game 's intensity level " . He stated the game 's one flaw was " the lack of an easy @-@ to @-@ use two @-@ player mode . " The magazine ran alternate reviews by Fred Doughty and Mark Guinane , winners of the 1994 Blockbuster Video World Game Championship . They also gave the game positive assessments , praising the easy @-@ to @-@ learn controls , high challenge level , and artistic design of the characters . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's two sports game reviewers criticized the game 's unrealistic style , but nonetheless acknowledged that " it still has fantastic game play . "
Several reviewers praised Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! overall for not trying to be realistic , for the originality of its different opponents , and for its simple controls . Chris Scullion from Official Nintendo Magazine praises the game for its outlandish characters , addictive gameplay , and simple controls . He adds that Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! is " superb way to prepare for the upcoming Wii [ Punch @-@ Out ! ! ] title " . Scullion states that " the thing that makes Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! interesting ( along with the rest of the games in the series ) is that it 's not a realistic boxing game " . He adds that the opponents in the game are " the real stars of the show " , with each opponent having a unique personality , traits , and boxing styles . Skyler Miller from Allgame , like Scullion , praised the game for its simple , responsive controls , for its colorful , detailed opponents , and for its usage of the Super NES 's transparent color palette for the fighter , which facilitates the " behind the back " perspective . He also appreciates the game 's sound and music , in particular the usage of real voice for the announcer . Game Players magazine applauded the game 's " large , colorful graphics and easy @-@ to @-@ learn controls " .
Reviewers have praised Super Punch @-@ Out ! ! for its other unique features and for its rewarding difficulty . Game Informer magazine praised the game for its time attack mode , which recorded and kept track of the fastest knockouts for each opponent . Miller also commended the time attack mode , adding to the game 's replay value . Another review from VideoGames & Computer Entertainment magazine lauded the game for a fair difficulty curve , stating that it " is a really tough game , but it 's one in which repeated playing ( and you will be playing it a lot ) really pays off " . Lucas Thomas from IGN , while praising the game overall , says that the game lacks the overall appeal that the NES version had and that he recommends the NES version over this version . He notes that the sound is " Not as memorable as the music from the NES game , but [ is ] more varied " . He says that many people who are familiar with the NES version have to relearn new attack patterns from different opponents . Thomas also notes that the game did not have as large an audience as the NES version enjoyed .
= Guy Fawkes =
Guy Fawkes ( / ˈɡaɪ ˈfɔːks / ; 13 April 1570 – 31 January 1606 ) , also known as Guido Fawkes , the name he adopted while fighting for the Spanish , was a member of a group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 .
Fawkes was born and educated in York . His father died when Fawkes was eight years old , after which his mother married a recusant Catholic . Fawkes converted to Catholicism and left for the continent , where he fought in the Eighty Years ' War on the side of Catholic Spain against Protestant Dutch reformers in the Low Countries . He travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England without success . He later met Thomas Wintour , with whom he returned to England .
Wintour introduced Fawkes to Robert Catesby , who planned to assassinate King James I and restore a Catholic monarch to the throne . The plotters leased an undercroft beneath the House of Lords , and Fawkes was placed in charge of the gunpowder they stockpiled there . Prompted by the receipt of an anonymous letter , the authorities searched Westminster Palace during the early hours of 5 November , and found Fawkes guarding the explosives . Over the next few days , he was questioned and tortured , and eventually he confessed . Immediately before his execution on 31 January , Fawkes fell from the scaffold where he was to be hanged and broke his neck , thus avoiding the agony of the mutilation that followed .
Fawkes became synonymous with the Gunpowder Plot , the failure of which has been commemorated in Britain since 5 November 1605 . His effigy is traditionally burned on a bonfire , commonly accompanied by a fireworks display .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Guy Fawkes was born in 1570 in Stonegate , York . He was the second of four children born to Edward Fawkes , a proctor and an advocate of the consistory court at York , and his wife , Edith . Guy 's parents were regular communicants of the Church of England , as were his paternal grandparents ; his grandmother , born Ellen Harrington , was the daughter of a prominent merchant , who served as Lord Mayor of York in 1536 . Guy 's mother 's family were recusant Catholics , and his cousin , Richard Cowling , became a Jesuit priest . Guy was an uncommon name in England , but may have been popular in York on account of a local notable , Sir Guy Fairfax of Steeton .
The date of Fawkes 's birth is unknown , but he was baptised in the church of St. Michael le Belfrey on 16 April . As the customary gap between birth and baptism was three days , he was probably born about 13 April . In 1568 , Edith had given birth to a daughter named Anne , but the child died aged about seven weeks , in November that year . She bore two more children after Guy : Anne ( b . 1572 ) , and Elizabeth ( b . 1575 ) . Both were married , in 1599 and 1594 respectively .
In 1579 , when Guy was eight years old , his father died . His mother remarried several years later , to the Catholic Dionis Baynbrigge ( or Denis Bainbridge ) of Scotton , Harrogate . Fawkes may have become a Catholic through the Baynbrigge family 's recusant tendencies , and also the Catholic branches of the Pulleyn and Percy families of Scotton , but also from his time at St. Peter 's School in York . A governor of the school had spent about 20 years in prison for recusancy , and its headmaster , John Pulleyn , came from a family of noted Yorkshire recusants , the Pulleyns of Blubberhouses . In her 1915 work The Pulleynes of Yorkshire , author Catharine Pullein suggested that Fawkes 's Catholic education came from his Harrington relatives , who were known for harbouring priests , one of whom later accompanied Fawkes to Flanders in 1592 – 1593 . Fawkes 's fellow students included John Wright and his brother Christopher ( both later involved with Fawkes in the Gunpowder Plot ) and Oswald Tesimond , Edward Oldcorne and Robert Middleton , who became priests ( the latter executed in 1601 ) .
After leaving school Fawkes entered the service of Anthony Browne , 1st Viscount Montagu . The Viscount took a dislike to Fawkes and after a short time dismissed him ; he was subsequently employed by Anthony @-@ Maria Browne , 2nd Viscount Montagu , who succeeded his grandfather at the age of 18 . At least one source claims that Fawkes married and had a son , but no known contemporary accounts confirm this .
= = = Military career = = =
In October 1591 Fawkes sold the estate in Clifton that he had inherited from his father . He travelled to the continent to fight in the Eighty Years War for Catholic Spain against the new Dutch Republic and , from 1595 until the Peace of Vervins in 1598 , France . Although England was not by then engaged in land operations against Spain , the two countries were still at war , and the Spanish Armada of 1588 was only five years in the past . He joined Sir William Stanley , an English Catholic and veteran commander in his mid @-@ fifties who had raised an army in Ireland to fight in Leicester 's expedition to the Netherlands . Stanley had been held in high regard by Elizabeth I , but following his surrender of Deventer to the Spanish in 1587 he , and most of his troops , had switched sides to serve Spain . Fawkes became an alférez or junior officer , fought well at the siege of Calais in 1596 , and by 1603 had been recommended for a captaincy . That year , he travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England . He used the occasion to adopt the Italian version of his name , Guido , and in his memorandum described James I as " a heretic " , who intended " to have all of the Papist sect driven out of England . " He denounced Scotland , and the King 's favourites among the Scottish nobles , writing " it will not be possible to reconcile these two nations , as they are , for very long " . Although he was received politely , the court of Philip III was unwilling to offer him any support .
= = Gunpowder Plot = =
In 1604 Fawkes became involved with a small group of English Catholics , led by Robert Catesby , who planned to assassinate the Protestant King James and replace him with his daughter , third in the line of succession , Princess Elizabeth . Fawkes was described by the Jesuit priest and former school friend Oswald Tesimond as " pleasant of approach and cheerful of manner , opposed to quarrels and strife ... loyal to his friends " . Tesimond also claimed Fawkes was " a man highly skilled in matters of war " , and that it was this mixture of piety
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@-@ Wynn , the long @-@ serving Conservative Member of Parliament for Montgomeryshire .
= = Composition = =
In late 1833 Etty was commissioned by Williams @-@ Wynn to paint a portrait of two of his seven children . Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball depicts Williams @-@ Wynn 's daughters Charlotte and Mary , dressing up in lavish Italian @-@ style costume . Although their dress is generally described as Italian , Dennis Farr 's 1958 biography of Etty speculates that elements of the costumes were possibly intended to be Russian , based on Charlotte 's headdress . The Italian @-@ style clothing likely represents the high level of interest in Italian culture in early 19th @-@ century England . The popularity of the style of music now known as bel canto , widely associated with Italy , was at its peak ; likewise , the Italian plays of William Shakespeare had become extremely popular in the period . Etty , who had spent a good deal of time in Venice and other Italian cities , would have been very familiar with Italian clothing designs , and the costumes worn by the Williams @-@ Wynn sisters closely resemble those of women in Venetian scenes painted by Etty , such as 1831 's Window in Venice , During a Fiesta . As art historian Leonard Robinson points out , despite the title the sisters are not in fact shown preparing for the ball , but are fully dressed . The style of the work reflects that of Thomas Lawrence , who had been Etty 's teacher in 1807 – 08 , as well as that of Joshua Reynolds , of whom Etty was a great admirer and of whose works Etty had often made copies as an exercise .
The sisters are depicted in three @-@ quarter length portrait ; Charlotte , the eldest , stands and helps Mary , who is seated , to decorate her hair with a ribbon and a rose . Their arrangement is similar to the positioning of the central female figures of Etty 's The Lute Player , painted around the same time , and Farr views Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball as a direct continuation of the theme of that work . ( The Lute Player was exhibited at the British Institution in early 1835 alongside Turner 's The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons , and was somewhat overshadowed by it . The Spectator commented that in comparison to the vibrant colours of the Turner , The Lute Player looked " as if mud had been the vehicle of the pigment " . )
The painting 's depiction of preparation for a fancy dress party would have been familiar to Etty 's generally wealthy audience . In both London and the English provincial cities , such balls and parties had become extremely fashionable by the 1830s . Though conservative in comparison to some costumes worn at contemporary fancy dress events , the richness of the design of the sisters ' dress indicates the high status of the Williams @-@ Wynn family in fashionable circles .
Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball took Etty some time to complete in comparison to his usual work , and he apologized to the sisters for his " inability to render [ repeated sittings for him ] less tedious " . He justified the slowness of the process by saying that he was not simply trying to capture the Williams @-@ Wynn sisters ' appearance , but " to make a fine work of Art as well as a resemblance " .
I can only regret I had it not in my power to render it less tedious . A mere " likeness " may be manufactured in a few sittings . If it is desirable to make a fine work of Art as well as a resemblance , it becomes another affair . This has led me to extend my attention to it , beyond the limits usually assigned to Portrait . I am sure , if rightly viewed , the time will not be deemed uselessly employed . " What is worth doing at all , is worth doing well . " — " Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do , do it with all thy might ! "
= = Reception = =
Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball was one of eight works exhibited by Etty at the 1835 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition , the others being The Bridge of Sighs , Phaedria and Cymochles on the Idle Lake , Study from a Young Lady : A York Beauty , Study of the Head of a Youth , Venus and her Satellites , The Warrior Arming and Wood Nymphs Sleeping : Satyr Bringing Flowers . Art historian Sarah Burnage believes Etty 's choice of Venus and her Satellites may have been to draw attention to similarities with Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball and possibly to link the Williams @-@ Wynn sisters ' beauty with the legendary Venus .
Reviewers , even those usually hostile to Etty , were generally positive about the work , and towards Etty 's demonstration of his ability to paint a major piece depicting visual matter that did not depend on nudity or sensuality . Leigh Hunt 's London Journal noted that they were " glad to see him turn his abilities into a channel acknowledgedly more profitable than others are apt to be , and we heartily wish him success in it " ; the same reviewer did , however , savagely criticise Venus and her Satellites for its gratuitous nudity and a " total absence of soul " .
= = Legacy = =
Although Etty painted many private portraits of his friends and acquaintances , he produced very few publicly exhibited portraits , fewer than 30 of which were shown during his lifetime . Portraiture was seen as a vulgar and generally worthless form of painting throughout much of the 19th century , and portrait painters continued to be disparaged as a greedy and unimaginative group who survived by feeding the vanity of the emerging middle class . Other than Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball , critics generally disliked his portraits , preferring his history paintings in spite of reservations over his depictions of nudity . Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball did , however , serve as an indication that Etty could successfully paint works as commissions for the English elite , boosting his status and leading to further commissions . Etty died in November 1849 and soon fell from fashion ; by the late 19th century the cost of all his paintings had fallen below their original prices . Charlotte Williams @-@ Wynn became a noted letter writer and diarist ; Mary Williams @-@ Wynn married Member of Parliament James Milnes Gaskell . Both Charlotte and Mary died in April 1869 .
Preparing for a Fancy Dress Ball was exhibited in a major retrospective of Etty 's works at the Royal Society of Arts in June 1849 , but after that was not exhibited publicly for 160 years . Charlotte Williams @-@ Wynn had died childless , and the painting was inherited by the family of Mary Williams @-@ Wynn . In 1982 it was sold to a private collector by Mary Williams @-@ Wynn 's great @-@ granddaughter Mrs Lewis Motley . The York Art Gallery purchased the work in 2009 for £ 120 @,@ 000 with the assistance of the Art Fund and the V & A / MLA Purchase Grant Fund , and it formed part of a major exhibition of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .
= Dwellers of the Forbidden City =
Dwellers of the Forbidden City is an adventure module , or pre @-@ packaged adventure booklet , ready for use by Dungeon Masters in the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) fantasy role @-@ playing game . The adventure was first used as a module for tournament play at the 1980 Origins Game Fair , and was later published by TSR in 1981 for use with the first edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules . The module was written by game designer David " Zeb " Cook , who partly ascribes his hiring by TSR to his work on this module . In the adventure , the characters are hired to find an object taken to a lost oriental @-@ style city , which has been taken over by a cult of snake @-@ worshipers , the yuan @-@ ti , and their servants , the mongrelmen and tasloi . The module was ranked as the 13th greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine for the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game in 2004 .
= = Plot summary = =
The adventure begins when the player characters hear reports of bandits waylaying and attacking caravans in a jungle region . Most of the ambushed merchants and guards have been killed , but the few who have returned alive tell fantastic stories about deformed plants and deadly beasts in the jungle . The stolen goods taken from the caravans provide an impetus for the characters to enter the jungles in search of this lost treasure .
After a long and perilous journey , the player characters encounter some friendly native people and are invited to stay in their village . The characters learn from the village 's chief about the dangers of creatures called the yuan @-@ ti and their servants , the tasloi , and that these creatures recently kidnapped the chief 's son , taking him into the jungle . The chief and village shaman tell the player characters about a " forbidden city " in the jungle which they believe houses the ghosts of their dead enemies , and they supply the characters with guides to show the party the way to this forbidden city .
The adventuring environment in this module allows for both action and intrigue . The player characters can recruit allies from the various power groups and factions within the city , namely the bugbears , mongrelmen , and bullywugs , or else help pit these factions against each other for their own benefit .
= = Publication history = =
Dwellers of the Forbidden City was first used in Dungeons & Dragons tournament play at the Origins Game Fair in 1980 . The module was published in 1981 by TSR for the first edition of the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules , and consisted of a thirty @-@ two page booklet with an outer folder . The module was written by David " Zeb " Cook , with cover art by Erol Otus and interior art by James Holloway , Jim Roslof , Harry Quinn , and Stephen D. Sullivan .
Dwellers of the Forbidden City is the first of the mostly unrelated and unconnected Intermediate series ( I @-@ series ) of modules designed for characters at between 4th and 8th levels . The module was originally intended to bear the code S4 , but the code was reassigned to Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth before Dwellers was published . As published , the adventure bears the code I1 . It was one of the first adventures written by Cook , and he attributed an early version of the module to his being hired at TSR . Cook would become the lead designer for the second edition of the AD & D rules , which debuted in 1989 , and years later , he became the lead designer on the City of Villains MMORPG .
The adventure was instrumental in introducing the yuan @-@ ti as a new species of antagonists . Much like the drow from the Queen of the Spiders Series , the yuan @-@ ti have been featured in a number of 1st , 2nd and 3rd Edition books for the D & D game , and are one of the few species that Wizards of the Coast did not keep open for the Open Game License . The yuan @-@ ti have also been expanded from their introduction in this module to other game worlds , in particular the Forgotten Realms campaign setting . Other new monsters introduced to the game through this module include the aboleth , bullywug , mongrelman , tasloi , and yellow musk creeper .
The module was set in the World of Greyhawk campaign setting , and was later used to add detail to the continent of Hepmonaland in Greyhawk supplements . In the Greyhawk accessory The Scarlet Brotherhood , by Sean K. Reynolds , the Forbidden City was named Xuxulieto , and the mountains wherein it lies are called the Xaro Mountains .
= = Reception = =
While Different Worlds described it as " a good buy " , RPGnet gave it a slightly more favorable rating of nearly 6 @.@ 8 ( " Good " ) . Latter day D & D writer James Wyatt described it as the first " Super adventure " , and lamented that with another hundred pages of fleshing out , it could have been as memorable as the landmark Temple of Elemental Evil .
Jim Bambra of White Dwarf reviewed the adventure in the magazine 's " Open Box " feature and gave it an overall rating of 5 out of 10 , commenting that while presentation of the module was quite good ( 8 / 10 ) , it seemed to be " hastily thrown together " . Bambra gave the adventure playability and enjoyment ratings of 5 / 10 , and skill and complexity ratings of 6 / 10 . He felt the adventure was " very mundane " and " lacks any real cohesion " . Bambra noted that parts of the adventure were created for tournament play . The tournament section deals with getting into the city , and he felt the rest of the module seemed to be tacked on to that . He did like the mini @-@ campaign included in the adventure , and the ideas included on how to expand on it . However , he felt that any Dungeon Master who used Dwellers of the Forbidden City would have to expend so much effort to make it more than " just a series of encounters , " that they were better off " starting from scratch " . Bambra concluded that this adventure was " just not worth considering " with all the other better quality modules available from TSR .
Dwellers of the Forbidden City was ranked the 13th greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine for the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game in 2004 . Judge Eric L. Boyd described it as a " classic adventure " in which Cook created a " lost city jungle in the great tradition of Edgar Rice Burroughs " . The players " battle their way into the city through a labyrinth of traps and monsters or find their own way into the sprawling , jungle @-@ cloaked ruins ... Cook provides a host of backgrounds to motivate exploration of the city , but the map itself is motivation enough . " Judge Wolfgang Baur , editor of Dungeon magazine , described the adventures thus : " This adventure may be best remembered for its monsters — it was from Forbidden City that D & D gained the Aboleth , the mongrel @-@ man , the tasloi , and the yuan @-@ ti . The aboleth that guarded one of the entrances to the city was worshipped by the local mongrelmen as a god . "
= Jayne Mansfield =
Jayne Mansfield ( born Vera Jayne Palmer ; April 19 , 1933 – June 29 , 1967 ) was an American actress in film , theatre , and television . Mansfield became a major Broadway star in 1955 , a major Hollywood star in 1956 , and a leading celebrity in 1957 . She was also a nightclub entertainer , a singer , and one of the early Playboy Playmates . She was a major Hollywood sex symbol of the 1950s and early 1960s and 20th Century Fox 's main sex symbol actress , alongside Marilyn Monroe . She was also known for her well @-@ publicized personal life and publicity stunts , such as wardrobe malfunctions .
While Mansfield 's film career was short lived , she had several box @-@ office successes and won a Theatre World Award and a Golden Globe . She enjoyed success in the role of fictional actress Rita Marlowe , both in the 1955 – 1956 Broadway version and the 1957 Hollywood film version of Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? . Her other major movie performances were for The Girl Can 't Help It ( 1956 ) , The Wayward Bus ( 1957 ) , and Too Hot to Handle ( 1960 ) . In the sexploitation film Promises ! Promises ! ( 1963 ) , she became the first major American actress to have a nude starring role in a Hollywood motion picture . Mansfield 's professional name came from her first husband , public relations professional Paul Mansfield . In 1967 , Mansfield was killed in a car crash at the age of 34 , along with two others .
= = Early life and education = =
Jayne Mansfield was born Vera Jayne Palmer on April 19 , 1933 , in Bryn Mawr , Pennsylvania . She was the only child of Herbert William Palmer ( 1904 – 1936 ) , who was of German and English ancestry , and Vera ( Jeffrey ) Palmer ( 1903 – 2000 ) , of English origin . She inherited more than $ 90 @,@ 000 from her maternal grandfather Thomas ( $ 738 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) and more than $ 36 @,@ 000 from her maternal grandmother , Beatrice Mary Palmer , in 1958 ( $ 295 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) .
She spent her early childhood in Phillipsburg , New Jersey , where her father was an attorney practising with future New Jersey governor Robert B. Meyner . In 1936 , her father Herbert William Palmer died of a heart attack while driving a car with his wife and daughter . In 1939 Vera married sales engineer Harry Lawrence Peers , and the family moved to Dallas , Texas , where she was known as Vera Jayne Peers .
As a child she wanted to be a Hollywood star like Shirley Temple , as did many other young girls of her time . She graduated from Highland Park High School in 1950 . At the age of 12 , she took lessons in ballroom dance . While in high school , Palmer took lessons in violin , piano and viola . She also studied Spanish and German . She consistently received high B 's in school , including mathematics .
She married Paul James Mansfield on May 10 , 1950 . Their daughter , Jayne Marie Mansfield , was born on November 8 , 1950 . After marriage , Mansfield and her husband enrolled in Southern Methodist University to study acting . In 1951 , she moved to Austin , Texas , with her husband , and studied dramatics at the University of Texas at Austin , until her junior year . There she worked as a nude model for art classes , sold books door to door , and worked as a receptionist of a dance studio . She also joined the Curtain Club , a popular campus theatrical society that featured Tom Jones , Harvey Schmidt , Rip Torn , and Pat Hingle among its members of that time .
In 1952 , she moved back to Dallas and for several months was a student of actor Baruch Lumet , father of director Sidney Lumet and founder of Dallas Institute of Performing Arts . Lumet called Mansfield and Rip Torn his " kids " , and provided her private lessons . Then she spent a year at Camp Gordon , Georgia ( a US Army training facility ) when Paul Mansfield served in the United States Army Reserve in the Korean War .
They moved to Los Angeles in 1954 , where Mansfield studied Theater Arts at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) during the summer , and returned to Texas to spend the fall quarter at Southern Methodist University . She managed to maintain a B grade average , between a variety of odd jobs , including selling popcorn at the Stanley Warner Theatre , teaching dance , vending candy at a movie theater , modeling part @-@ time at the Blue Book Model Agency , and working as a photographer at Esther Williams ' Trails Restaurant .
= = Early career = =
While attending The University of Texas at Austin , Mansfield won several beauty contests , including : Miss Photoflash , Miss Magnesium Lamp , and Miss Fire Prevention Week . The only title she refused was Miss Roquefort Cheese , because she believed it " ... just didn 't sound right . " Mansfield accepted a bit part in a B @-@ grade film titled Prehistoric Women ( produced by Alliance Productions , alternatively titled The Virgin Goddess ) in 1950 . In 1952 , while in Dallas , she and Paul Mansfield participated in small local @-@ theater productions of The Slaves of Demon Rum and Ten Nights in a Barroom , and Anything Goes in Camp Gordon , Georgia . After Paul Mansfield left for military service , Mansfield first appeared on stage in a production of Arthur Miller 's Death of a Salesman on October 22 , 1953 , with the players of the Knox Street Theater , headed by Lumet .
While at UCLA , she entered the Miss California contest ( hiding her marital status ) , and won the local round before withdrawing . She also won many small and local beauty pageants , including Miss Photoflash , Miss Magnesium Lamp , Miss Fire Prevention Week , Gas Station Queen , Miss Analgesin , Cherry Blossom Queen , Miss Third Platoon , Miss Blues Bonnet of Austin , Miss Direct Mail , Miss Electric Switch , Miss Fill @-@ er @-@ up , Miss Negligee , Nylon Sweater Queen , Miss One for the Road , Miss Freeway , Hot Dog Ambassador , Miss Geiger Counter , Best Dressed Woman of Theater , Miss 100 % Pure Maple Syrup , Miss July Fourth , Miss Texas Tomato , Miss Standard Foods , Miss Orchid , Miss Potato Soup , Miss Lobster , Miss United Dairies and Miss Chihuahua Show .
Early in her career , her prominent breasts were considered problematic , and led to her losing her first professional assignment — an advertising campaign for General Electric that depicted young women in bathing suits relaxing around a pool . Emmeline Snively , head of the Blue Book Model Agency , sent her to photographer Gene Lester , which led to her short @-@ lived assignment in the General Electric commercial . In 1954 , she auditioned at both Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros. for a part in The Seven Year Itch , but failed to impress . She also auditioned at Paramount for Joan of Arc — a project that was never completed — and failed again . That year , she landed her first acting assignment in Lux Video Theatre , a series on CBS ( An Angel Went AWOL , October 21 , 1954 ) . In the show , she sat at the piano and delivered a few lines of dialogue for $ 300 ( $ 3 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) .
She posed nude for the February 1955 issue of Playboy , modelling in pajamas raised so that the bottoms of her breasts showed . This increased the magazine 's circulation and helped launch Mansfield 's career . Playboy had begun publishing from publisher – editor Hugh Hefner 's kitchen in 1953 , but became popular in the first decade of publication — riding on the popularity of its early Playmates like Mansfield , Marilyn Monroe , Bettie Page and Anita Ekberg . Beginning in February 1955 , she formed a long @-@ standing relationship with Playboy . Shortly afterward , she posed for the Playboy calendar covering her breasts with her hands . Playboy featured Jayne every February from 1955 to 1958 , and again in 1960 .
In August 1956 , Paul Mansfield claimed custody of their daughter , claiming Jayne was an unfit mother because she appeared nude in Playboy . In 1964 , the magazine repeated the pictorial . Photos from that pictorial were reprinted in a number of Playboy issues , including : December 1965 ( " The Playboy Portfolio of Sex Stars " ) , January 1979 ( " 25 Beautiful Years " ) , January 1984 ( " 30 Memorable Years " ) , January 1989 ( " Women of the Fifties " ) , January 1994 ( " Remember Jayne " ) , November 1996 ( " Playboy Gallery " ) , August 1999 ( " Playboy 's Sex Stars of the Century " ; Special edition ) , and January 2000 ( " Centerfolds of the Century " ) . In the week following her first Playboy appearance , Mansfield caught Hollywood and media attention by dropping her bikini @-@ top at a press junket for the Jane Russell film Underwater ! ( RKO , 1955 ) .
= = Film career = =
= = = Career beginnings ( 1954 – 1955 ) = = =
Mansfield 's first film part was a supporting role in Female Jungle , a low @-@ budget drama completed in ten days while she was still a student at UCLA . Her part was filmed over a span of just a few days , and she was paid $ 150 ( $ 1 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) . The film was released unofficially in early 1955 . In February 1955 , James Byron , her manager and publicist , negotiated a seven @-@ year contract with Warner Brothers , who were intrigued by her publicity antics . The contract initially paid her $ 250 a week ( $ 2 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) and landed her two films — one for an insignificant role and another unreleased for two years . She filed for separation from Paul Mansfield that January . Mansfield was given bit parts in Pete Kelly 's Blues ( 1955 ) , starring Jack Webb , and Hell on Frisco Bay ( 1955 ) , starring Alan Ladd . She acted in one more movie with Warner Brothers — another small , but significant role opposite Edward G. Robinson in the courtroom @-@ drama Illegal ( 1955 ) . Dissatisfied with the Warner contract , she hired attorney Greg Bautzer to get out of it .
Then her agent , William Shiffrin , signed her to play fictional film star Rita Marlowe in the Broadway play Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? with Orson Bean and Walter Matthau . It became her first major performance , garnering her critical attention , although not always positive , and public popularity . After securing the part in the show , she accepted producer Louis W. Kellman 's offer to play a dramatic role in The Burglar ( 1957 ) , director Paul Wendkos 's film adaptation of David Goodis ' novel . The film was done in film noir style , and Mansfield appeared alongside Dan Duryea and Martha Vickers . The Burglar was released two years later , when Mansfield 's fame was at its peak . She was successful in this straight dramatic role , though most of her subsequent film appearances were either comedic or capitalized on her sex appeal . It was Kellman 's first major venture , and he claimed to have " discovered " Mansfield .
= = = Film stardom ( 1955 – 1958 ) = = =
Mansfield returned to Hollywood on May 3 , 1956 , wearing a $ 20 @,@ 000 mink coat ( $ 174 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) but without any work . Twentieth Century @-@ Fox immediately signed a six @-@ year contract with her in an effort to mold her as a successor to the increasingly difficult Marilyn Monroe , their resident blonde bombshell , who was separated from the studio at the time . Mansfield was still under contract to Broadway and continued playing Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? on the stage .
Mansfield received her first starring film role as Jerri Jordan in the Frank Tashlin 's The Girl Can 't Help It ( 1956 ) . The film , originally titled Do @-@ Re @-@ Mi , featured a high @-@ profile cast of contemporary Rock @-@ n @-@ Roll and R & B artists including Gene Vincent , Eddie Cochran , Fats Domino , The Platters , and Little Richard . The Girl Can 't Help It was released in December 1956 and became one of the year 's biggest successes , both critically and financially . Fox thereby bought Mansfield out of her Broadway contract for $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 870 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) and shut the production of Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? down after 444 performances . Soon afterwards , Fox started promoting Mansfield as " Marilyn Monroe king @-@ sized " , in an effort to threaten Monroe to return to the studio and finish the contract she had committed to .
Mansfield then played a dramatic role in The Wayward Bus ( 1957 ) adapted from John Steinbeck 's novel . In this film , she attempted to move away from her " blonde bombshell " image and establish herself as a serious actress . It enjoyed moderate success at the box office , and Mansfield won a Golden Globe in 1957 for New Star of the Year ( beating Carroll Baker and Natalie Wood ) for her performance as a " wistful derelict " . It was " generally conceded to have been her best acting " , according to The New York Times , in a fitful career hampered by her flamboyant image , distinctive voice ( " a soft @-@ voiced coo punctuated with squeals " ) , voluptuous figure and limited acting range .
In 1957 , Tashlin cast Mansfield in the film version of the Broadway show Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? reprising her role of Rita Marlowe alongside co @-@ stars Tony Randall and Joan Blondell . Fox launched their new blonde bombshell with a forty @-@ day sixteen @-@ country tour of Europe for the studio . She attended the premiere of film ( released as Oh ! For a man in the UK ) in London , and met the Queen of England as part of the tour .
Mansfield 's fourth starring role in a Hollywood film was in Kiss Them for Me ( 1957 ) , for which she received prominent billing alongside Cary Grant . However , in the film itself she is little more than comic relief ; Grant 's character prefers a sleek , demure redhead played by fashion model Suzy Parker . Kiss Them for Me was described as " vapid " and " ill @-@ advised " , and was a critical and box office flop . The film was Mansfield 's final starring role in a mainstream Hollywood studio film . It also marked one of the last attempts by 20th Century @-@ Fox to publicize her .
The continuing publicity surrounding Mansfield 's physical appearance failed to sustain her career . Fox gave her a leading role opposite Kenneth More in The Sheriff of Fractured Jaw ( 1958 ) , a western comedy filmed on location in England . In the film Mansfield sang three songs , but the studio had her voiced dubbed by singer Connie Francis . When the film was released in the United States in 1959 , it was Mansfield 's last mainstream film success . Mansfield was offered a part opposite James Stewart and Jack Lemmon in the romantic comedy Bell , Book and Candle ( 1958 ) , but had to turn it down because of her pregnancy . Thereafter , Fox attempted to cast Mansfield opposite Paul Newman in Rally ' Round the Flag , Boys ! ( 1958 ) , his ill @-@ fated first attempt at comedy . After intense lobbying by Newman and Joanne Woodward , however , she was replaced by Mansfield 's Wayward Bus co @-@ star Joan Collins .
= = = Career decline ( 1959 – 1963 ) = = =
With decreased demand for big @-@ breasted blonde bombshells and an increased negative backlash against her excessive publicity , she became a box @-@ office has @-@ been by the early 1960s , but she remained a popular celebrity , continuing to attract large crowds outside the United States by way of lucrative and successful nightclub acts .
Despite her publicity and popularity , Mansfield had no quality film roles after 1959 . She was also unable to fulfill a third of her time contracted to Fox because of her repeated pregnancies . Fox stopped viewing her as major Hollywood star material , and started loaning her out to foreign productions until the end of her contract in 1962 . She was first loaned out to English studios and then to Italian studios for a series of low @-@ budget films , many of them obscure and some considered lost .
In 1959 , Fox cast her in two independent gangster films filmed in the United Kingdom : The Challenge and Too Hot to Handle . Both films were low @-@ budget , and their American releases were delayed . Too Hot to Handle was not released in the United States until 1961 ( as Playgirl After Dark ) , and The Challenge in 1963 ( as It Takes a Thief ) . In the United States , censors objected to a scene in Too Hot to Handle where Mansfield , wearing silver netting with sequins painted over her nipples , appeared nearly nude .
When Mansfield returned to Hollywood in mid @-@ 1960 , 20th Century @-@ Fox cast her in It Happened in Athens ( 1962 ) . She received first billing above the title , but only appeared in a supporting role . It Happened in Athens starred Trax Colton , a handsome newcomer and an unknown whom Fox was trying to mold into a heartthrob . This Olympic Games @-@ based film was shot in Greece in fall 1960 , but was unreleased until June 1962 . It was a box office failure , and Mansfield 's 20th Century @-@ Fox contract was dropped .
In 1961 , Mansfield signed on for an above @-@ the @-@ title billing minor role in The George Raft Story . Starring Ray Danton as Raft , the film showcased Mansfield as a glamorous film star in a small part . Soon after the release of The George Raft Story , Mansfield returned to European films . Over the next few years she appeared primarily in low @-@ budget foreign films such as : Heimweh nach St. Pauli ( 1963 , Germany ) , L 'Amore Primitivo ( 1964 , Italy ) , Panic Button ( 1964 , Italy ) and Einer frisst den anderen ( 1964 , Germany ) .
In 1963 , Tommy Noonan persuaded Mansfield to become the first mainstream American actress to appear nude in a starring role in the film Promises ! Promises ! . Nude photographs of Mansfield on the set were published in the June 1963 issue of Playboy , which resulted in obscenity charges against Hugh Hefner in Chicago city court . Promises ! Promises ! was banned in Cleveland , but enjoyed box @-@ office success elsewhere . As a result of the film 's success , Mansfield landed on the Top 10 list of box @-@ office attractions for that year .
= = = Final years ( 1964 – 1967 ) = = =
Soon after her success in Promises ! Promises ! Mansfield was chosen from many other actresses to replace the recently deceased Marilyn Monroe in Kiss Me , Stupid , a 1964 romantic comedy that would co @-@ star Dean Martin . She turned the role down due to her pregnancy with daughter Mariska Hargitay ( known best for her role as Detective Olivia Benson on the television show Law & Order : Special Victims Unit ) , and was replaced by Kim Novak . That same year , Mansfield appeared in a salacious @-@ for @-@ its @-@ time pinup book called " Jayne Mansfield for President : the White House or Bust , " which was promoted on billboards ; the photographs were taken by commercial and fine art photographer David Attie . In 1966 Mansfield was cast in Single Room Furnished , directed by then @-@ husband Matt Cimber . The film required Mansfield to portray three different characters , and was her first starring dramatic role in several years . It was briefly released in 1966 , but did not enjoy a full release until 1968 , almost a year after her death .
After Single Room Furnished wrapped , Mansfield was cast opposite Mamie Van Doren and Ferlin Husky in The Las Vegas Hillbillys ( 1966 ) , a low @-@ budget comedy from Woolner Brothers . It was her first country and western film , and she promoted it through a 29 @-@ day tour of major U.S. cities , accompanied by Ferlin Husky , Don Bowman , and other country musicians . Before filming began , Mansfield said she would not " share any screen time with the drive @-@ in 's answer to Marilyn Monroe , " meaning Van Doren . Though their characters do share one scene , Mansfield and Van Doren filmed their parts at different times , later edited together .
Mansfield 's wardrobe relied on the shapeless styles of the 1960s to hide her weight gain after the birth of her fifth child . Despite career setbacks , Mansfield remained a highly visible celebrity during the early 1960s , through her publicity antics and stage performances . In early 1967 , Mansfield filmed her last film role : a cameo in A Guide for the Married Man , a comedy starring Walter Matthau , Robert Morse , and Inger Stevens . Mansfield is listed as one of the technical advisers , along with other popular stars in the opening credits .
= = Stage career = =
Mansfield acted both on stage and in films . She was a student of acting , theater arts and dramatics in college and with Baruch Lumet . She started acting with campus clubs and summer stock theatre . Her first big break was on Broadway with Will success spoil Rock Hunter , for which she won a Theatre World Award as the most promising actress . In her later career she was more busy on stage , performing and making appearances with her nightclub acts , club engagements and performance tours . By 1960 , she made personal appearances for everything from supermarket promotions to drug store openings , at $ 10 @,@ 000 per appearance ( $ 80 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) .
= = = Theater = = =
During her tenure at Dallas , she and Paul Mansfield participated in a number of local theater productions . Between 1951 and 1953 she acted in The Slaves of Demon Rum , Ten Nights in a Barroom and Anything Goes . Her performance in an October 1953 production of Arthur Miller 's Death of a Salesman in Dallas , Texas , attracted Paramount Pictures to audition her . Lumet trained her for the audition . In 1955 , she went to New York and appeared in the Broadway production of George Axelrod 's comedy Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? , also featuring Orson Bean and Walter Matthau . She starred as Rita Marlowe ( a wild , blonde Hollywood starlet a la Monroe ) in the musical spoofing Hollywood in general and Marilyn Monroe in particular . Her wardrobe in the play , namely a bath @-@ towel , caused a sensation . Brooks Atkinson of the New York Times described the " commendable abandon " of her scantily clad rendition of Rita Marlowe in the play as " a platinum @-@ pated movie siren with the wavy contours of Marilyn Monroe " . She performed in 450 shows of the play between 1955 and 1956 . She was considered one of the biggest Broadway @-@ to @-@ Hollywood success stories .
In 1964 , she performed in stage productions of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes at Carousel Theater and Bus Stop at Yonker Playhouse . Both co @-@ starred Mickey Hargitay and were well @-@ reviewed . Mansfield toured small towns in the US alternating between the two plays . In 1965 , she performed in another pair of plays – Rabbit Habit at Latin Quarter and Champagne Complex at Pabst Theater . Both were directed by Matt Cimber and were poorly reviewed .
= = = Nightclub = = =
In February 1958 , Tropicana Las Vegas launched Mansfield 's striptease revue The Tropicana Holiday ( produced by Monte Proser , co @-@ starring Mickey Hargitay ) under a four weeks contract that was extended to eight . The opening night raised $ 20 @,@ 000 for March of Dimes ( $ 164 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) . She received $ 25 @,@ 000 per week for her performance as Trixie Divoon in the show ( $ 205 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , while her contract with 20th Century Fox was paying her $ 2 @,@ 500 per week ( $ 21 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) . She had a million @-@ dollar policy with Lloyd 's of London in case of Hargitay dropping her as he whirled Mansfield around for the show . When her film offers disappeared , Mansfield turned to Las Vegas again . In December 1960 , Dunes hotel and casino launched Mansfield 's revue The House of Love ( produced by Jack Cole , co @-@ starring Hargitay ) . She received $ 35 @,@ 000 a week as her salary ( $ 280 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , which was the highest in her career .
Her wardrobe for the shows at Tropicana and Dunes featured a gold mesh dress with sequins to cover her nipples and pubic region . That controversial sheer dress was referred to as " Jayne Mansfield and a few sequins " . In early 1963 , she performed in her first club engagement outside Las Vegas , at Plantation Supper Club in Greensboro , North Carolina , earning $ 23 @,@ 000 in a week ( $ 178 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , and then at Iroquois Gardens in Louisville , Kentucky . She returned to Las Vegas in 1966 , but her show was staged at Fremont Street , away from the Strip where Tropicana and Dunes was . Her last nightclub act French Dressing was at Latin Quarter in New York in 1966 , also repeated at Tropicana . It was a modified version of the Tropicana show , and ran for six weeks with fair success .
Her nightclub career became inspirations for films , documentaries and a musical album . 20th Century Fox Records recorded The House of Love for an album entitled Jayne Mansfield Busts Up Las Vegas in 1962 . She played the roles of burlesque entertainer Midnight Franklin in Too Hot to Handle ( 1960 ) and Las Vegas show girl Tawni Downs in The Las Vegas Hillbillys ( 1966 ) . In 1967 , independent documentary Spree ( alternative title Las Vegas by Night ) on the antics of Las Vegas entertainers was released . The film , narrated as a part of a travelogue of Vic Damone and Juliet Prowse , featured Mansfield , Hargitay , Constance Moore and Clara Ward as guest stars . Mansfield strips and sings " Promise Her Anything " from the film Promises ! Promises ! . A court order prohibited using any of the guest stars to promote the film .
= = Television career = =
Mansfield 's first leading role on television was with NBC 's Sunday Spectacular " The Bachelor " in 1956 . In her first appearance on British television in 1957 she recited from Shakespeare ( including a line from Hamlet ) and played piano and violin . Her notable performances in television dramas included episodes of Burke 's Law , Alfred Hitchcock Presents , The Red Skelton Hour ( three episodes ) , Kraft Mystery Theater and Follow the Sun . Mansfield 's performance in her first series Follow the Sun ( " The Dumbest Blonde " ; Season 1 , Episode 21 ; February 4 , 1962 ; produced by 20th Century Fox Television ) was hailed as the advent of " a new and dramatic Jayne Mansfield " . She appeared on a number of game shows including Talk it up , Down You Go ( as a regular panelist in ) , The Match Game ( one rare episode has her as a team captain ) , and What 's My Line ? ( as a special mystery guest ) .
She performed in a number of variety shows including The Jack Benny Program ( on which she played violin ) , The Steve Allen Show and The Jackie Gleason Show ( during the mid @-@ 1960s , when the show was the second @-@ highest @-@ rated program in the U.S. ) . In November 1957 , she was portrayed in one of her nightclub acts in a special episode of The Perry Como Show ( Holiday in Las Vegas ) , which created " a situation " for the audience according to NBC , the television network that broadcast the show . She was a guest on three episodes of The Bob Hope Show touring team . In 1957 , she toured United States Pacific Command areas of Hawaii , Okinawa , Guam , Tokyo and Korea with Bob Hope for the United Service Organizations for 13 days appearing as a comedian ; and in 1961 , toured Newfoundland , Labrador and Baffin Island for a Christmas special . Her talk show career includes a large number of appearances . She appreciated the publicity and appeared frequently in the talk format . . One of her more notable appearances on a variety show was on The Ed Sullivan Show ( Season 10 , Episode 35 ; May 26 , 1957 ) right after her success with Rock Hunter . In the show she played violin with a six @-@ person back @-@ up . After the show she exclaimed , " Now I am really national . Momma and Dallas see the Ed Sullivan show ! "
By 1958 , she charged $ 20 @,@ 000 per episode for television performance ( $ 164 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) . In 1964 , Mansfield turned down the role of Ginger Grant on the up @-@ and @-@ coming television sitcom Gilligan 's Island . Although her acting roles were becoming marginalized , Mansfield rejected the part as it epitomized the stereotype she wished to rid herself of . The part eventually went to Tina Louise . A widespread rumor that Jayne Mansfield had a breast @-@ flashing dress mishap at the 1957 Academy Awards was found baseless by Academy researchers . Ten days before her death , she read To the Virgins , to Make Much of Time , a poem by Robert Herrick about early death on The Joey Bishop Show ( Mansfield 's last television appearance ) .
As late as the mid @-@ 1980s , Mansfield remained one of the biggest television draws . In 1980 , The Jayne Mansfield Story aired on CBS starring Loni Anderson in the title role and Arnold Schwarzenegger as Mickey Hargitay . It was nominated for three Emmy Awards . She was featured in the A + E Networks TV series Biography in an episode titled Jayne Mansfield : Blonde Ambition . The TV series won an Emmy Award in outstanding non @-@ fiction TV series category in 2001 . A & E again featured her life in another TV serial , Dangerous Curves , in 1999 . In 1988 , her story and archival footage was a part of TV documentary Hollywood Sex Symbols .
= = Music career = =
Mansfield had classical training in piano and violin . She sang in film soundtracks , on stage for her theatrical and nightclub performances , and had singles and albums published . After her death , Mansfield became an inspiration for punk @-@ rock musicians .
= = = Soundtracks = = =
Mansfield sang in English and German for a number of her films , including The Girl Can 't Help It ( " Ev 'rytime " and " Rock Around the Rock Pile " ) , Illegal ( " Too Marvelous for Words " ) , The Las Vegas Hillbillys ( " That makes it " ) , Too Hot to Handle ( " Too Hot To Handle " , " You Were Made For Me " , " Monsoon " and " Midnight " ) , Homesick for St. Pauli ( " Wo Ist Der Mann " and " Snicksnack Snuckelchen " ) , The Challenge ( " The Challenge of Love " ) , The Sheriff of Fractured Jaw ( " Strolling Down The Lane With Billy " and " If The San Francisco Hills Could Only Talk " ) , and Promises ! Promises ! ( " I 'm in Love " , alternative title " Lullaby of Love " ) . In The Sheriff of Fractured Jaw she lip synced to the voice of Connie Francis for " In The Valley Of Love " , while signing two other songs .
= = = Live performances = = =
In 1958 , an orchestra was recorded for the 31st Academy Awards ceremony with Jack Benny on first violin , Jayne Mansfield on violin , Dick Powell on trumpet , Robert Mitchum on woodwind , Fred Astaire on drums and Jerry Lewis as conductor ; however , the performance was canceled . She played violin with a six @-@ musician back @-@ up ensemble on The Ed Sullivan Show , and sang " Too Marvelous for Words " for The Jack Benny Program ( " Jack Takes Boat to Hawaii " ; Episode 9 , Season 14 ; November 26 , 1963 ) . She sang in her club performances regularly featuring songs like Call Me , This Queen has her aces in all the right places , Plain Jane , Quando @-@ Quando , Besame Mucho , and the song made famous by Marilyn Monroe — Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend .
= = = Albums = = =
In 1962 , 20th Century Fox Records released an album titled Jayne Mansfield Busts Up Las Vegas , which was a recording of her Las Vegas revue The House of Love . In 1964 MGM Records released a novelty album called Jayne Mansfield : Shakespeare , Tchaikovsky & Me , in which Mansfield recited Shakespeare 's sonnets and poems by Marlowe , Browning , Wordsworth , and others against a background of Tchaikovsky 's music . The album cover depicted a bouffant @-@ coiffed Mansfield with lips pursed and breasts barely covered by a fur stole , posing between busts of Tchaikovsky and Shakespeare . The New York Times described the album a reading of " 30 @-@ odd poems in a husky , urban , baby voice " . The reviewer went on to remark that " Miss Mansfield is a lady with apparent charms , but reading poetry is not one of them . "
= = = Singles = = =
Jimi Hendrix played bass and added lead in his session musician days for Mansfield in 1965 on two songs ( " As The Clouds Drift By " and " Suey " ) , released as a 45 @-@ rpm single released by London Records in 1966 . Ed Chalpin , the record producer , claimed that Mansfield played all the instruments on the singles . According to Hendrix historian Steven Roby ( Black Gold : The Lost Archives Of Jimi Hendrix , Billboard Books ) , this collaboration occurred because they shared the same manager . Wo ist der Mann sung in German and released by Polydor Records in Austria was much in demand immediately after its release in August 1963 . The A @-@ side featured Hans Last 's Scnicksnack @-@ Snuckelchen . Two original soundtracks from The Las Vegas Hillbillys — That Makes It ( an answer to The Big Bopper 's " Chantilly Lace " ) on side @-@ A and Little Things Mean a Lot on side @-@ B — was released in 1964 on the Original Sound label .
= = Personal life = =
Film critic and exploitation movie expert Whitney Williams wrote of Mansfield in Variety in 1967 that " her personal life out @-@ rivaled any of the roles she played " . Mansfield was married three times , divorced twice , and had five children . She was ( reportedly ) intimately involved with numerous individuals , including Claude Terrail ( owner of the Paris restaurant Tour d 'Argent ) , Robert F. Kennedy , John F. Kennedy , Brazilian billionaire Jorge Guinle , her attorney Samuel S. Brody , Las Vegas entertainer Nelson Sardelli , and producer Enrico Bomba . She met John F. Kennedy through his brother @-@ in @-@ law Peter Lawford at Palm Springs , California in 1960 , before he had his alleged affair with Marilyn Monroe , but the alleged affair did not last . At her death , Mansfield was accompanied by Sam Brody , her lawyer and alleged lover at the time .
She had a daughter with her first husband , public relations professional Paul Mansfield . She was the mother of three children from her second marriage to actor / bodybuilder Mickey Hargitay . She also had a son with her third husband , film director Matt Cimber .
= = = First marriage = = =
Jayne met Paul Mansfield , a popular student at Highland Park High School , Dallas , at a party on Christmas Eve of 1949 . On May 6 , 1950 , they married in Fort Worth , Texas . At the time of their marriage , Jayne was 17 , and three months pregnant . Paul Mansfield was 20 . While most major biographies put the date at May 6 , some sources say the marriage was on May 10 , 1950 . According to biographer Raymond Strait , she had an earlier " secret " marriage on January 28 , after which she conceived her first child . On November 8 , 1950 , Mansfield gave birth to their daughter , Jayne Marie Mansfield . Some sources cite Paul Mansfield as the father of her child , while others allege the pregnancy was the result of date rape .
Paul Mansfield hoped the birth of their child would discourage her interest in acting . When it did not , he agreed to move to Los Angeles in late 1954 to help further her career . In 1952 , she juggled motherhood and classes at the University of Texas . Early in 1952 , Paul was called to the United States Army Reserve for the Korean War . While he served in the army , she spent a year at Camp Gordon , Georgia . Her life became easier with Paul 's army allotment . Coming back from the Korean War in 1954 , he took a job with a small newspaper in East Los Angeles , California , and lived in a small apartment in Van Nuys , Los Angeles , with Jayne and her pets — a Great Dane , three cats named Sabina , Romulus , and Ophelia , two chihuahuas , a poodle dyed pink , and a rabbit . While in California , she left Jayne Marie with her maternal grandparents and spent the summer semester at UCLA .
After a series of marital rows around Jayne 's ambitions , infidelity , and animals , they decided to annul the marriage . It was a long process . In February 1955 , Jayne filed for separate maintenance , and in August 1956 , Paul filed for custody of their daughter Jayne Marie . Jayne divorced Paul Mansfield in California on October 21 , 1956 . Paul Mansfield divorced her in Texas on March 16 , 1957 , on the grounds of mental cruelty . They finally received their divorce papers on January 8 , 1958 . After the divorce , she decided to keep " Mansfield " as her professional name . Paul Mansfield remarried , settled into the public relations business and moved to Chattanooga , Tennessee — but failed to win custody suits over Jayne Marie or restrain her from traveling abroad with her mother .
Two weeks before her mother 's death in 1967 , 16 @-@ year @-@ old Jayne Marie accused her mother 's boyfriend at that time , Sam Brody , of beating her . The girl 's statement to officers of the Los Angeles Police Department the following morning implicated her mother in encouraging the abuse , and days later a juvenile court judge awarded temporary custody of Jayne Marie to Paul 's uncle William W. Pigue and his wife Mary . Following her 18th birthday , Jayne Marie complained that she had not received her inheritance from the Mansfield estate or heard from her father since Jayne 's death .
= = = Second marriage = = =
Mansfield met her second husband Mickey Hargitay at the Latin Quarter in New York on May 13 , 1956 , where he was performing as a member of the chorus line in Mae West 's show . Hargitay was an actor and bodybuilder who had won the Mr. Universe competition in 1955 . Mansfield immediately fell for him , which subsequently resulted in a squabble with West . In the ensuing row Mr. California , Chuck Krauser , beat up Hargitay . Krauser was arrested and released on a $ 300 bond ( $ 3 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) .
Hargitay proposed to Mansfield with a $ 5 @,@ 000 10 @-@ carat diamond ring on November 6 , 1957 ( $ 211 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , right after she returned from her 40 @-@ day European tour . On January 13 , 1958 , days after her divorce from Paul was finalized , Mansfield married Hargitay at the Wayfarers Chapel in Rancho Palos Verdes , California . The unique glass chapel made public and press viewing of the wedding easy . Mansfield wore a sensational pink skintight wedding gown made of sequins with a 30 @-@ yard flounce .
Hargitay 's first film appearance with Mansfield was a bit part in Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? . The couple became a popular publicity and performing team touring widely in stage shows , wherein Jayne 's leopard @-@ spot bikini became a topic of discussion and newspaper coverage . Hargitay 's tossing her around his waist and spinning her in wide circles as a highlight of her shows made more headlines . On screen , he was Mansfield 's male lead in her Italian ventures — The Loves of Hercules and L 'Amore Primitivo , and a major supporting character in Promises ! Promises ! . On stage , he was the male lead in The Tropicana Holiday , The House of Love , French Dressing and other nightclub acts .
They were also popular for their personal appearances in television shows such as Bob Hope Christmas Specials . Mansfield and Hargitay had a number of business holdings , including the Hargitay Exercise Equipment Company , Jayne Mansfield Productions , and Eastland Savings and Loan . She co @-@ wrote the autobiographical book Jayne Mansfield 's Wild , Wild World with Hargitay . The book also contained 32 pages of black @-@ and @-@ white photographs from the film on glossy paper .
Mansfield 's son Zoltan was in the news when a lion named Sammy attacked him and bit his neck while he and his mother were visiting the theme park Jungleland USA in Thousand Oaks , California on November 23 , 1966 . He suffered from severe head trauma , underwent three surgeries at Community Memorial Hospital in Ventura , California , including a six @-@ hour brain surgery , and contracted meningitis . He recovered . Mansfield 's attorney Sam Brody sued the theme park on her behalf for $ 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 11 @,@ 355 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) . The negative publicity led to closure of the theme park .
In 1962 , she had a well @-@ publicized affair with Enrico Bomba , the Italian producer and production manager of her film Panic Button . Hargitay accused Bomba of sabotaging their marriage . In 1963 , she had another well @-@ publicized relationship with singer Nelson Sardelli , whom she said she planned to marry when her divorce from Mickey Hargitay was finalized . The couple divorced in Juarez , Mexico , in May 1963 , where Nelson Sardelli accompanied Mansfield in her legal preparations . She had previously filed for divorce on May 4 , 1962 , but told reporters " I 'm sure we will make it up . " Their acrimonious divorce had the actress accusing Hargitay of kidnapping one of her children to force a more favorable financial settlement .
= = = Between marriages = = =
After their divorce , Mansfield discovered she was pregnant . Since being an unwed mother would have killed her career , Mansfield and Hargitay announced they were still married . Mariska was born January 23 , 1964 , after the actual divorce but before California ruled it valid . Mariska later became an actress , best known for her role as Olivia Benson in Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . After her birth , Mansfield sued to get the Juarez divorce declared legal and won . The divorce was recognized in the United States on August 26 , 1964 . Shortly after Mansfield 's funeral , Mickey Hargitay sued his former wife 's estate for more than $ 275 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @.@ 95 million in 2016 dollars ) to support the children whom he and his third ( and last ) wife , Ellen Siano , would raise . Hargitay was appointed the guardian of Micky , Zoltan and Mariska by a court decree in June 1967 , though they went on living with their mother . He married airline stewardess Ellen Siano in 1968 , who accompanied him to New Orleans when he went to pick up his three children with Mansfield after her death . In January 1969 , he lost his claim of $ 275 @,@ 533 from Mansfield 's estate to support the three children ( $ 1 @,@ 778 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) . Towards the very end of her life and some time after her divorce with Hargitay , Mansfield told her ex @-@ husband , on a television talk show , she was sorry for all the trouble she gave him .
= = = Third marriage = = =
Mansfield became involved with her third husband Matt Cimber ( a.k.a. Matteo Ottaviano , né Thomas Vitale Ottaviano ) , an Italian @-@ born film director , when he directed her in a well @-@ reviewed stage production of Bus Stop in Yonkers , New York costarring Hargitay . She married him on September 24 , 1964 , in Mulegé , Baja California Sur , Mexico . The couple separated on July 11 , 1965 , and filed for divorce on July 20 , 1966 . Cimber took over the management of her career during their marriage , and guided her through a series of increasingly tawdry projects like Promises , Promises and The Las Vegas Hillbillys . Her marriage to Cimber began to collapse in the wake of Mansfield 's alcohol abuse , open infidelities and her disclosure to Cimber that she had only been happy with her former lover , Nelson Sardelli . Work on Mansfield 's film , Single Room Furnished directed by Cimber ( 1966 ) was suspended .
Mansfield at the time had descended into alcoholism , drunken brawls and cheap burlesque shows . By July 1966 , Mansfield started living with her attorney Sam Brody , who had frequent drunken brawls with her and mistreated her eldest daughter Jayne Marie . Sam 's wife Beverly Brody filed a divorce suit naming Mansfield as the " 41st other woman " in Sam 's life . Cimber 's divorce from the actress was pending when she was killed . The couple had one son , Antonio Raphael Ottaviano ( a.k.a. Tony Cimber , born October 18 , 1965 ) . Mansfield 's youngest child , Tony was raised by his father , Matt Cimber and his third wife , dress designer Christy Hilliard Hanak , whom he married on December 2 , 1967 . Tony Cimber later worked as an announcer for Married ... with Children and a producer for Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling .
= = Image = =
She was a major Hollywood sex symbol of the 1950s and early 1960s and 20th Century Fox 's alternative to Marilyn Monroe . She came to be known as the " Working Man 's Monroe " . She was one of Hollywood 's original blonde bombshells , and , although many people have never seen her movies , Mansfield remains one of the most recognizable icons of 1950s celebrity culture .
According to Hollywood historian and biographer James Robert Parish , Mansfield 's hourglass figure ( she claimed dimensions of 40 @-@ 21 @-@ 35 ) , unique sashaying walk , breathy baby talk and cleavage @-@ revealing costumes made a lasting impact on popular culture . According to Hollywood historian Andrew Nelson , she was seen as Hollywood 's gaudiest , boldest D @-@ cupped B @-@ grade actress from 1955 until the early 1960s .
Frequent references have been made to Mansfield 's very high IQ , which she claimed was 163 . In addition to English , she spoke four other languages . She learned French , Spanish , and German in high school , and she studied Italian in 1963 . Reputed to be Hollywood 's " smartest dumb blonde " , she later complained that the public did not care about her brains : " They 're more interested in 40 – 21 – 35 , " she said .
= = = Blonde = = =
A natural brunette , Mansfield had her hair bleached and colored platinum blonde when she moved to Los Angeles , and became one of the early " blonde bombshells " , along with Marilyn Monroe , Betty Grable and Mamie Van Doren . In 1958 , she also had her eyebrows dyed platinum . Following Jean Harlow ( who started the trend with her film Bombshell ) , Monroe , Mansfield , Van Doren and Diana Dors helped establish the stereotype typified by a combination of curvaceous physique , very light @-@ colored hair and a perceived lack of intelligence . A review of English @-@ language tabloids shows it to be one of the most persistent blonde stereotypes — along with busty blonde , and blonde babe .
Mansfield , Monroe and Barbara Windsor have been described as representations of a historical juncture of sexuality in comedy and popular culture . Academics also added Anita Ekberg and Bettie Page to the list of catalysts of the trend of exaggerated female sexuality , besides Mansfield and Monroe . M. Thomas Inge describes Mansfield , Monroe and Jane Russell as personification of the bad girl in popular culture . Monroe , Mansfield , Judy Holliday and Goldie Hawn are also identified to have established the stereotype of the " dumb blonde " , typified by their combination of overt sexuality and apparent inability to understand everyday life . Instead of the asexualized and virginal " nice girls " of earlier films , the pneumatic blonde bombshells took over the screen in the 1950s to become a cult that has been consistently emulated from that era onward . Social historian Joan Jacobs Brumberg described the 1950s as " an era distinguished by its worship of full @-@ breasted women " and attributes the paradigm shift to Mansfield and Monroe . Patricia Vettel @-@ Becker made that observation more specific by attributing the phenomenon to Playboy and the appearance of Mansfield and Monroe in the magazine .
= = = Rivalry = = =
Throughout her career , Mansfield was compared by the media to the reigning sex symbol of the period , Marilyn Monroe . 20th Century Fox groomed her , as well as Sheree North , to substitute Monroe , their resident " blonde bombshell " , while Universal Pictures launched Van Doren as their substitute . The studio launched Mansfield , their new bombshell , with a grand 40 @-@ day tour of England and Europe from September 25 to November 6 , 1957 . She adopted Monroe 's vocal mannerisms instead of her original husky voice and Texan speech , performed in two plays that were based on Marilyn Monroe vehicles — Bus Stop and Gentlemen Prefer Blondes , and her role in The Wayward Bus was strongly influenced by Monroe 's character in Bus Stop .
Other studios also tried to find their own version of Monroe . Columbia Pictures tried it with Cleo Moore , Warner Bros. with Carroll Baker , Paramount Pictures with Anita Ekberg , and Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer with Barbara Lang , while Diana Dors was dubbed as England 's answer to Mansfield . Jacqueline Susann wrote , " When one studio has a Marilyn Monroe , every other studio is hiring Jayne Mansfield and Mamie Van Doren . " The crowd of contenders also included Sheree North , Kim Novak , Joi Lansing , Beverly Michaels , Barbara Nichols and Greta Thyssen , and even two brunettes — Elizabeth Taylor and Jane Russell . Mamie Van Doren , Diana Dors and Kim Novak also acted in various productions of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes . Even when Mansfield 's film roles were drying up she was widely considered Monroe 's primary rival ; Mansfield considered Mamie Van Doren her professional nemesis . At one point , Monroe , Mansfield , and Mamie were known as The Three M 's .
= = = Anatomy = = =
Because of her striking figure , newspapers in the 1950s routinely published her body measurements , which once led to evangelist Billy Graham exclaiming , " This country knows more about Jayne Mansfield 's statistics than the Second Commandment . " Mansfield claimed a 41 @-@ inch bust line and a 22 @-@ inch waist when she made her Broadway debut in 1955 , though some scholars dispute those figures . She was known as the Cleavage Queen and the Queen of Sex and Bosom .
Mansfield 's breasts fluctuated in size , it was said , from her pregnancies and nursing her five children . Her smallest bust measurement was 40D ( 102 cm ) , which was constant throughout the 1950s , and her largest was 46DD ( 117 cm ) , measured by the press in 1967 . According to Playboy , her vital statistics were 40D @-@ 21 @-@ 36 ( 102 @-@ 53 @-@ 91 cm ) on her 5 ' 6 " ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) frame . According to her autopsy report , she was 5 ' 8 " ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) .
It has been claimed that her bosom was a major force behind the development of the 1950s brassieres , including the whirlpool bra , cuties , the shutter bra , the action bra , latex pads , cleavage @-@ revealing designs , and uplifted outlines . R. L. Rutsky and Bill Osgerby have claimed that it was Mansfield , along with Marilyn Monroe and Brigitte Bardot , who made the bikini popular . Drawing on the Freudian concept of fetishism , British science fiction writer and socio @-@ cultural commentator J. G. Ballard commented that Mae West , Mansfield and Monroe 's breasts " loomed across the horizon of popular consciousness . " But , as the 1960s approached , according to Dave Kehr , the anatomy that had made her a star turned her into a joke . In this decade , the female body ideal shifted to appreciate the slim waif @-@ like features popularized by supermodel Twiggy , actress Audrey Hepburn and others , demarcating the demise of the busty blonde bombshells .
= = Publicity = =
Mansfield 's publicity drive was one of the best in Hollywood . For publicity she gave up all privacy , keeping her doors always open to photographers . In 1954 , the day before Christmas she walked into publicist James Byron 's office with a gift and asked him to supervise her publicity . From that time till the end of 1961 , Byron shaped much of her publicity . Byron appointed most people in her team — William Shiffrin ( press agent ) , Greg Bautzer ( attorney ) and Charles Goldring ( business manager ) , and constantly planted bits of publicity material in the media . She appeared in about 2 @,@ 500 newspaper photographs between September 1956 and May 1957 , and had about 122 @,@ 000 lines of newspaper copy written about her during this time .
Because of the successful media blitz , she quickly became a household name . In 1960 , Mansfield topped press polls for more words in print than anyone else in the world , made more personal appearances than a political candidate , and was regarded as the world 's most @-@ photographed Hollywood celebrity . She made news on a regular basis , from dresses falling off , to clothing that burst strategically at the seams , to low cut dresses worn without a bra . Things started to get over the top , even by her standards , when she took charge of her own publicity without advice . According to Shiffrin , " She became a freak . " James Bacon wrote in the Los Angeles Herald @-@ Examiner in 1973 , " Here was a girl with real comedy talent , spectacular figure and looks and yet ridiculed herself out of business by outlandish publicity . "
Mansfield received her first truly negative publicity when she and Hargitay pleaded poverty when Mary Hargitay requested additional child support for Tina Hargitay in September 1958 . Mary was Mickey 's first wife , divorced on September 6 , 1956 , and Tina his nine @-@ year @-@ old first child . Mansfield said that she slept on the floor of her mansion , was unable to buy furniture , and spent only $ 71 on Jayne Marie ( $ 1 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) . During this marriage she had three children , Miklós Jeffrey Palmer Hargitay ( born December 21 , 1958 ) , Zoltán Anthony Hargitay ( born August 1 , 1960 ) , and Mariska Hargitay ( born January 23 , 1964 ) .
= = = Publicity stunts = = =
In January 1955 Mansfield appeared at a Silver Springs , Florida , press junket promoting the film Underwater ! , starring Jane Russell . Mansfield purposely wore a too @-@ small red bikini , lent to her by photographer friend Peter Gowland . When she dove into the pool for photographers , her top came off , creating a burst of media attention . The ensuing publicity led to Warner Bros. and Playboy approaching her with offers . In June 8 of the same year , her dress fell down to her waist twice in a single evening — once at a movie party , and later at a nightclub . In February 1958 , she was stripped to the waist at a Mardi Gras party in Rio de Janeiro . In June 1962 , she shimmied out of her polka @-@ dot dress in a Rome nightclub . In the three years since making her Broadway debut in Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? , Mansfield had become the most controversial star of the decade .
In April 1957 , her breasts were the focus of a notorious publicity stunt intended to deflect media attention from Sophia Loren during a dinner party in the Italian star 's honor . Photographs of the encounter were published around the world . The best @-@ known photo showed Loren 's gaze falling on the cleavage of the American actress ( who was seated between Loren and her dinner companion , Clifton Webb ) when Mansfield leaned over the table , allowing her breasts to spill over her low neckline and exposing one nipple . The Jayne Mansfield @-@ Sophia Loren photo inspired a number of later photographers . The photograph of that episode was a UPI sensation , appearing in newspapers and magazines with the word " censored " hiding the actress 's exposed bosom .
At the same time , the world 's media were quick to condemn Mansfield 's stunts . One editorial columnist wrote , " We are amused when Miss Mansfield strains to pull in her stomach to fill out her bikini better ; but we get angry when career @-@ seeking women , shady ladies , and certain starlets and actresses ... use every opportunity to display their anatomy unasked " . By the late 1950s , Mansfield began to generate a great deal of negative publicity because of repeated exposure of her breasts in carefully staged public " accidents " . Richard Blackwell , her wardrobe designer ( who also designed for Jane Russell , Dorothy Lamour , Peggy Lee and Nancy Reagan ) , dropped her from his client list because of those accidents . In April 1967 , Los Angeles Times wrote , " She confuses publicity and notoriety with stardom and celebrity and the result is very distasteful to the public . "
= = = Signature color = = =
Mansfield adopted pink as her color in 1954 and was associated with pink for the rest of her career . Her original choice was purple , but she thought it too close to lavender , Kim Novak 's signature color . " It must have been the right decision , " she said , " because I got more column space from pink than Kim Novak ever did from lavender . " For her wedding to Hargitay she wore a tight @-@ fitting gown of pink lace with a flounce of 30 yards of pink tulle ( designed by a 20th Century @-@ Fox costume designer ) , and at the reception she had Hargitay drink pink champagne . In November 1957 ( shortly before their marriage ) , Mansfield bought the 40 @-@ room Mediterranean @-@ style mansion ( formerly owned by Rudy Vallée ) at 10100 Sunset Boulevard in Beverly Hills . Much of the money to buy the house came from her inheritance from Elmer Palmer , her maternal grandfather . Mansfield had the house painted pink , with cupids surrounded by pink fluorescent lights , pink fur in the bathrooms , a pink heart @-@ shaped bathtub and a fountain spurting pink champagne ; she then dubbed it the " Pink Palace " . Hargitay ( a plumber and carpenter before taking up bodybuilding ) built the pink heart @-@ shaped swimming pool . The year after reconstructing the " Pink Palace " as a " pink landmark " , she began riding a pink Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz convertible with tailfins , then the only pink Cadillac in Hollywood . Though Elvis Presley 's Pink Cadillac came about in 1955 , it was in Memphis , Tennessee .
= = = Religion = = =
In August 1963 , Jayne Mansfield decided to convert to Catholicism . Although she never actually converted , she did attend Catholic services when she was in Europe , and followed Catholic practices when she was involved with a Catholic partner ( including Hargitay , Sardelli and Cimber ) .
In May 1967 , her performance at the Mount Brandon Hotel in Tralee , Ireland , was canceled because Catholic clergy condemned it . She wanted to marry Cimber in a Catholic ceremony , but was unable to find a priest who would perform the ceremony . While involved with Brody , she also showed interest in Judaism .
In San Francisco for the 1966 Film Festival , Mansfield visited the Church of Satan with Sam Brody ( her lawyer and boyfriend ) to meet Anton LaVey , the church 's founder . LaVey awarded Mansfield a medallion and the title " High Priestess of San Francisco 's Church of Satan " . The media enthusiastically covered the meeting and the events surrounding it , identifying her as a Satanist and romantically involved with LaVey . That meeting remained a much @-@ publicized and oft @-@ quoted event of her life , as well as the history of the Church of Satan . Additionally , Karla LaVey confirmed in a 1992 interview with Joan Rivers that Mansfield was indeed a practicing Satanist and that she had a romantic relationship with Anton LaVey . Her funeral ceremony was conducted by a Methodist minister .
= = Death = =
Mansfield was in Biloxi , Mississippi , for an engagement at the Gus Stevens Supper Club . After two appearances the evening of June 28 , 1967 , Mansfield , her lover Sam Brody , their driver Ronnie Harrison ( age 20 ) , and three of Mansfield 's children – Miklós , Zoltán and Mariska – departed Biloxi after midnight in Stevens ' 1966 Buick Electra 225 . Their destination was New Orleans , where Mansfield was scheduled to appear on WDSU 's " Midday Show " at noon the next day . At approximately 2 : 29 a.m. , on U.S. Highway 90 east of the Rigolets Bridge ( at approximately 30 ° 05 ′ 26 ″ N 89 ° 46 ′ 54 ″ W ) the Buick crashed at high speed into the rear of a tractor @-@ trailer that had slowed behind a truck spraying mosquito fogger and which was shrouded in the insecticide fog . The three adults in the front seat were killed instantly . The children , who were asleep in the rear seat , survived with minor injuries .
Reports that Mansfield was decapitated are untrue , although she suffered severe head trauma . The urban legend was spawned by the appearance in police photographs of a crashed car with its top virtually sheared off , and what resembled a blonde @-@ haired head tangled in the car 's smashed windshield . However , this was a wig Mansfield was wearing and possibly parts of her actual hair and scalp . The death certificate stated that the immediate cause of Mansfield 's death was a " crushed skull with avulsion of cranium and brain " . After her death , the NHTSA recommended requiring an underride guard ( a strong bar made of steel tubing ) on all tractor @-@ trailers , although the trucking industry was slow to adopt this change . This bar is known as a " Mansfield bar " , or an " ICC bar " .
Mansfield 's funeral took place on July 3 in Pen Argyl , Pennsylvania . It was conducted by Rev. Charles Montgomery , a pastor of the Zion Methodist Church ( which was later destroyed by fire in February 1970 and rebuilt as Grace United Methodist Church ) . The funeral was private , a service held at the chapel of the Pullis Funeral Home . Of her three husbands , only Mickey Hargitay was present at the funeral . She is interred in Fairview Cemetery , southeast of Pen Argyl , beside her father Herbert William Palmer . Her heart @-@ shaped gravestone reads , " We Live to Love You More Each Day " . A cenotaph was placed in the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Hollywood by the Jayne Mansfield Fan Club , but incorrectly cites her year of birth as 1938 ( Mansfield tended to provide incorrect information about her age ) . In 1968 , two wrongful @-@ death lawsuits were filed on behalf of Jayne Marie Mansfield and Matt Cimber , the former for $ 4 @.@ 8 million ( $ 40 @.@ 4 million in 2016 dollars ) and the latter for $ 2 @.@ 7 million ( $ 22 @.@ 7 million in 2016 dollars ) .
= = Recognition = =
In February 1955 , Mansfield was the Playmate of the Month in Playboy , in which she subsequently appeared more than 30 times .
She received a Theatre World Award ( Promising Personality ) for Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? in 1956 .
She received a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 8 , 1960 for her contribution to motion pictures .
She received a Golden Globe Award ( New Star of the year , Actress ) for Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? in 1957 .
On Mother 's Day of 1960 , the Mildred Strauss Child Care Chapter of Mount Sinai Hospital , New York City declared her family as the " Family of the Year " .
Italian film , radio and television journalists awarded her the Silver Mask award in 1962 .
Mansfield received the Oscar of the Two World award in Italy .
In 1963 , Mansfield was voted one of the top @-@ 10 box @-@ office attractions by an organization of American theater owners for her performance in Promises ! Promises ! ( a film banned in parts of the U.S. ) .
In 1968 , Hollywood Publicists Guild declared a " Jayne Mansfield Award " would be given to the actress who received the maximum exposure and publicity in a year . Raquel Welch was the first winner of the award in 1969 .
= = Legacy = =
Mansfield left behind five children , three ex @-@ husbands , a crumbling estate including the Pink Palace , a large number of followers , and a lasting impact on popular culture .
= = = Estate = = =
After Mansfield 's death , Hargitay , Cimbers , Vera Peers ( Jayne Mansfield 's mother ) , William Pigue ( Jayne Marie 's legal guardian ) , and Charles Goldring ( Jayne Mansfield 's business manager ) , as well as Bernard B. Cohen and Jerome Webber ( both administrators of the estate ) filed suits to gain control of her estate without success . Mansfield 's estate was appraised initially at $ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 3 @,@ 506 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , including the " Pink Palace " estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 584 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , a sports car sold for $ 7 @,@ 000 ( $ 41 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , her jewelry , and Sam Brody 's $ 185 @,@ 000 estate left to her by his last testimony ( $ 1 @,@ 081 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) . In 1971 , Beverly Brody sued the Mansfield estate for $ 325 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 899 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) worth of presents and jewelry given to Jayne by Sam Brody , which was settled out of court . However , four of her elder children ( Jayne Marie , Mickey , Zoltan and Mariska ) went to court in 1977 to find that approximately $ 500 @,@ 000 in debt that Mansfield had incurred ( $ 2 @,@ 922 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , including $ 11 @,@ 000 for lingerie ( $ 64 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , $ 11 @,@ 600 for plumbing of the heart @-@ shaped swimming pool ( $ 68 @,@ 000 in 2016 dollars ) , and litigation had left the estate insolvent .
The Pink Palace was sold . Its subsequent owners included Ringo Starr , Cass Elliot and Engelbert Humperdinck . In 2002 Humperdinck sold it to developers , and the house was demolished in November of that year . What remained of her estate subsequently came under the management of CMG Worldwide , an intellectual property @-@ management company .
= = = Following = = =
Several entertainers have been dubbed as the " new Jayne Mansfield " , including Italian actress Marisa Allasio and professional wrestler Missy Hyatt . Actress , model and Playmate of the Year ( 1993 ) Anna Nicole Smith was dubbed " a Jayne Mansfield for the ' 90s " because of her physical resemblance to Mansfield , similar desperation , and a mix of glamour and tragedy . Drag queen and actor Divine was selected by film maker John Waters to parody Mansfield in Mondo Trasho .
By the mid @-@ 1950s , there were many Jayne Mansfield fanclubs in United States and outside . The Jayne Mansfield Fan Club , headed by Sabin Gray , was very active in the 1980s , and was cited by Los Angeles Daily News as one of the major fan clubs for a Hollywood star . In 1992 , a second fan club named Simply Davoon was founded by Mike DiGiacomo , which lent its picture collection to Jocelyn Faris to illustrate Jayne Mansfield : A bio bibliography . Frank Ferruccio , head of Mansfield 's Online Fan Club , lent his collection of Mansfield memorabilia to Slate Belt Heritage Center in Bangor , Pennsylvania , wrote two books on her , and organized a large fan gathering on her 75th birthday at Fairview Cemetery . Farruccio and the Online Fan Club has been visiting her grave in Pen Argyl with a fans to commemorate her birth and death anniversaries since the mid @-@ 1990s on her birthdays .
= = Biographies = =
= = = Internet = = =
" Official Biography " . CMG Worldwide . Retrieved July 2 , 2012 .
" Biography " . Biography.com. Retrieved July 2 , 2012 .
" Biography " . St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture . Retrieved July 2 , 2012 .
" Biography " . Salon.com. Retrieved July 2 , 2012 .
" Biography " . The New York Times . Retrieved July 2 , 2012 .
" Timeline " . Philadelphia Weekly . Retrieved July 2 , 2012 .
" Timeline " . Twoop.com. Retrieved July 2 , 2012 .
= = = Books = = =
Michael Feeney Callan ( 1986 ) Pink Goddess : The Jayne Mansfield Story . W H Allen . ISBN 978 @-@ 0863791642
Mann , May ( 1974 ) . Jayne Mansfield : A Biography . Abelard @-@ Schuman . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 200 @-@ 72138 @-@ 7 .
Strait , Raymond ( 1974 ) . Tragic Secret Life of Jayne Mansfield . Robert Hale . ISBN 0709155433 .
Saxton , Martha ( 1975 ) . Jayne Mansfield and the American Fifties . New York : Houghton Mifflin . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 395 @-@ 20289 @-@ 0 .
Jackson , Jean @-@ Pierre ( 1984 ) . Jayne Mansfield ( in French ) . Edilig . ISBN 2856010814 .
Luijters , Guus ( June 1988 ) . Sexbomb : The Life and Death of Jayne Mansfield . Secaucus , NJ : Citadel . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8065 @-@ 1049 @-@ 1 .
Strait , Raymond ( 1992 ) . Here They Are Jayne Mansfield . New York : S.P.I. Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56171 @-@ 146 @-@ 8 .
Betrock , Alan ( 1993 ) . Jayne Mansfield Vs . Mamie Van Doren : Battle of the Blondes ( A Pictorial History ) . Shake Books . ISBN 0962683345 .
Faris , Jocelyn ( November 1994 ) . Jayne Mansfield : A Bio @-@ Bibliography . Westport , CT : Greenwood Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 28544 @-@ 8 .
Feruccio , Frank ( 2007 ) . Diamonds to Dust : The Life and Death of Jayne Mansfield . Outskirts Press . ISBN 1432712411 .
Jordan , Jessica Hope ( 2009 ) . The Sex Goddess In American Film 1930 – 1965 : Jean Harlow , Mae West , Lana Turner and Jayne Mansfield . Cambria Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60497 @-@ 663 @-@ 2 .
Feruccio , Frank ( 2010 ) . Did Success Spoil Jayne Mansfield ? Her Life in Pictures & Text . Outskirts Press . ISBN 1432761234 .
AFFECTIONATELY , JAYNE MANSFIELD by Richard Koper
Fischer , Walter ( 2016 ) . California Infernal . ISBN 978 @-@ 91 @-@ 983243 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 . Trapart Books , California Infernal , Anton LaVey & Jayne Mansfield , as portrayed by Walter Fischer
= = = Video = = =
Jayne Mansfield : Blonde Ambition . A + E Networks . 2004 .
= Precedent fact errors in Singapore law =
Errors as to precedent facts , sometimes called jurisdictional facts , in Singapore administrative law are errors committed by public authorities concerning facts that must objectively exist or not exist before the authorities have the power to take actions or make decisions under legislation . If an error concerning a precedent fact is made , the statutory power has not been exercised lawfully and may be quashed by the High Court if judicial review is applied for by an aggrieved person . The willingness of the Court to review such errors of fact is an exception to the general rule that the Court only reviews errors of law .
In the United Kingdom , the House of Lords has held that the nature of the decision @-@ making process that the public authority is required to engage in determines whether a matter falls into the precedent fact category . If the process is complex and much discretion is accorded to the authority by the empowering statute , the court is unlikely to find that a precedent fact is involved . On the other hand , where an administrative decision interferes with an individual 's liberty , the matter will be considered within the precedent fact category unless Parliament has explicitly excluded judicial review . If Parliament intends to do so , it must make its meaning crystal clear .
As Singapore inherited English administrative law upon independence , the Singapore courts have adopted the UK position , holding that it is necessary to construe the relevant statutory provisions to ascertain whether Parliament has expressed an intention in plain and unequivocal words to take a discretion conferred on the executive out of the precedent fact category .
= = Introduction = =
= = = Distinction between errors of law and errors of fact = = =
Errors of law committed by public authorities when they act or make decisions are within the jurisdiction of the High Court of Singapore to correct by way of judicial review . On the other hand , the Court is generally unwilling to intervene where the alleged error is one that concerns the facts of the matter . The rationale for this rule is that it is the Court 's role in judicial review of administrative action to scrutinize the legality and not the merits of the decisions of public authorities .
It has been said that an error of fact involves a situation where there are new or different primary facts yet to be put before the court , such as a new witness , or what people saw or heard , whereas an error of law involves a misinterpretation of a statutory word or phrase with regard to such facts . However , this distinction is debatable , and the view has been taken that courts sometimes simply regard a matter as one involving an error of law if they wish to adopt an interventionist approach , and seek to allow judicial review to take place .
In Re Fong Thin Choo ( 1991 ) , the High Court accepted that if an authority 's discretion depends on the existence of certain facts , the court must ensure that those facts exist and have been taken into account by the authority , that the authority has exercised its discretion on a proper self @-@ direction as to those facts , and that the authority has not taken into account matters it ought not to have considered . Law professor Thio Li @-@ ann has expressed the view that this decision indicates a court is primarily concerned with whether an error that has been committed is serious – if so , the court will exercise judicial review , regardless of whether the error is jurisdictional or non @-@ jurisdictional in nature . " Since the law / fact boundary becomes indistinct , this fudges the conceptual moorings of judicial review as confined to scrutinising legal error . An intrusive review of factual findings threatens to turn review into appeal . "
= = = Mixed fact and law = = =
Occasionally , the distinction between errors of law and errors of fact can be fuzzy . Where a public authority is alleged to have committed an error of mixed fact and law , the High Court is more likely to leave the matter to the authority and decline to intervene . This can be the case where a statutory term evaluated by the authority is so general and ambiguous that reasonable people may peg different meanings to it . In such a situation , it is generally left to the authority to evaluate the meaning of the term . This is illustrated by Puhlhofer v. Hillingdon London Borough Council ( 1986 ) , which involved a public authority that bore a statutory responsibility for providing homeless people with accommodation . The applicants were a married couple who lived with their two children in a single room in a guest house . Their application for permanent accommodation was rejected because the authority claimed they were not " homeless " within the meaning of the statute . The House of Lords upheld this decision , determining that the issue of whether the applicants had accommodation was a question of fact to be determined by the public authority :
Where the existence or non @-@ existence of a fact is left to the judgment and discretion of a public body and that fact involves a broad spectrum ranging from the obvious to the debatable to the just conceivable , it is the duty of the court to leave the decision of that fact to the public body to whom Parliament has entrusted the decision @-@ making power save in a case where it is obvious that the public body , consciously or unconsciously , are acting perversely .
= = Errors as to precedent facts = =
An error as to a jurisdictional , or precedent , fact is an exception to the general rule that the High Court does not judicially review errors of fact . Under the threefold classification of the broad grounds of judicial review set out in
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Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service ( " the GCHQ case " , 1983 ) – illegality , irrationality and procedural impropriety – an error as to a precedent fact may be regarded as a form of illegality .
An error as to a precedent fact , if committed , deprives the public authority of power to take the action or make the decision in question . The existence or non @-@ existence of the fact , as the case may be , is a condition precedent or prerequisite to the exercise of the power . An example of an error of this nature can be found in the United Kingdom case White & Collins v. Minister of Health ( 1939 ) . In that case , under the relevant statute , the authority could only issue a compulsory purchase order affecting the applicants ' land if it was not part of , among other things , a park . A minister confirmed the purchase order but the Court of Appeal of England and Wales held that it should be quashed , finding that the minister could not exercise power to acquire the land since it was part of a park . Whether the land was or was not a park was a precedent fact , and the minister had committed an error concerning this fact .
= = = United Kingdom position = = =
Courts in the United Kingdom have stated that the precedent fact doctrine is not applicable to all statutes . In Zamir v. Secretary of State for the Home Department ( 1980 ) , it was held that the statute in question did not fall into the " precedent fact " category , having regard to the discretionary nature of the power conferred on the public authority . The appellant Zamir , a Pakistani immigrant , was granted an entry certificate to enter the country on the basis that he was unmarried and intending to join his father , who had lived in England since 1962 , as a dependent . Less than three months after the issuance of the certificate , the appellant married , and about a month later , in March 1976 , he arrived in the UK at London Heathrow Airport and was granted leave by an immigration officer to enter the country for an indefinite period . The officer did not ask if the appellant was married and neither did the appellant volunteer this information . A son was subsequently born in Pakistan to the appellant and his wife , and in 1978 the appellant 's wife and son applied for permission to join the appellant in the UK . At that point , the validity of the appellant 's entry into the country in 1976 was queried . Following investigations , he was detained with a view to removal from the UK on the ground that he had obtained an entry certificate by deception . His detention was found to be lawful by the Divisional Court and the Court of Appeal . Before the House of Lords , one of the legal issues that arose was the basis for judicial review of the conclusion of the Home Secretary or the immigration officer that the appellant 's leave to enter the UK was vitiated by deception .
Counsel for the appellant argued that this was not a case of a decision reviewable on ordinary administrative law grounds , but rather a case where the exercise of the power depended " upon the precedent establishment of an objective fact " . However , the House of Lords disagreed with the argument . It held that the nature and process of the decision conferred upon immigration officers was inconsistent with the requirements for the establishment of any precedent facts . This was because the immigration officer had to consider a " complex of statutory rules and non @-@ statutory guidelines and other documentary evidence whose genuineness is doubtful , statements which cannot be verified , misunderstandings as to what was said , practices and attitudes in a foreign state which have to be estimated . There is room for appreciation , even for discretion . " On the other hand , the court was not well placed to determine which of several conflicting statements made by the appellant were true , or to decide if other factors were material to the immigration officer 's decision . The court had to determine the case based on affidavit evidence and , though cross @-@ examination on such evidence was permissible , this did not usually occur in practice . As the case did not fall into the precedent fact category , the court was unable to judicially review the decision .
The House of Lords modified its holding in Zamir in the later decision Khera v. Secretary of State for Home Department ; Khawaja v. Secretary of State for the Home Department ( " Khawaja " , 1983 ) . The facts of this case , which involved two separate appellants , were similar to those of Zamir . Khera had entered the country by allegedly deceiving a medical officer into thinking he was not married . An answer to the contrary would have precluded him from being given leave to enter the UK . The other appellant , Khawaja , having unsuccessfully applied for a UK visa in Brussels , entered the UK by flying into Manchester , saying he would stay for one week and then return to Brussels to continue his studies . Facts later surfaced proving that , at the time of his entry , contrary to his declaration that he was single , he had been married to a woman who had entered the UK on the same flight but had been attended to by a different immigration officer and was granted indefinite leave to remain in the UK as a returning resident . Both of them were detained as " illegal immigrants " .
The House of Lords held that Zamir ought not to be followed as its reasoning would affect the judicial protection of those whose liberty the executive is seeking to interfere with . Lord Fraser of Tullybelton , who was one of the judges hearing the Zamir appeal , said that the case had wrongly stated the court 's function as only seeing if there were reasonable grounds for decisions made by the immigration authorities . In his view :
An immigration officer is only entitled to order the detention and removal of a person who has entered the country by virtue of an ex facie valid permission if the person is an illegal entrant . That is a " precedent fact " which has to be established . It is not enough that the immigration officer reasonably believes him to be an illegal entrant if the evidence does not justify his belief . Accordingly , the duty of the court must go beyond inquiring only whether he had reasonable grounds for his belief .
According to Lord Scarman , Zamir limited the scope of judicial review to the Wednesbury principle – in other words , the court will not intervene to quash a decision of a statutory authority unless it can be shown that the authority acted unreasonably . He held that although the principle is correct in appropriate circumstances , " it cannot extend to interference with liberty unless Parliament has unequivocably enacted that it should " . He emphasized that if Parliament wished to exclude judicial review of the exercise of a power that restrained liberty , " it must make its meaning crystal clear " . On the facts , since Parliament had not clearly expressed any intention to exclude judicial review of discretion exercised by the immigration authorities , the statutory provision in question fell within the precedent fact category . Ultimately , Khera 's appeal was allowed as the authorities had not successfully demonstrated that he had obtained permission to enter the UK by deception . Conversely , since Khawaja had clearly deceived an immigration officer concerning his marital status , his appeal was dismissed .
= = = Singapore position = = =
The courts in Singapore have followed the legal position on errors as to precedent facts in the United Kingdom . This is illustrated by the High Court case Lau Seng Poh v. Controller of Immigration ( 1985 ) , which held that if a precedent fact is a prerequisite to the exercise of executive power , the court is responsible for deciding if the precedent fact has been satisfied . This principle was affirmed by the Court of Appeal case Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) , which applied the principle set out in Khawaja and its departure from the approach taken in Zamir .
In the case , the Court examined whether it could review the executive 's discretionary power under sections 8 and 10 of the Internal Security Act ( " ISA " ) . Section 8 empowers the Minister for Home Affairs to make an order directing that a person be detained without trial if the President is satisfied that detention is necessary to prevent the person from endangering , among other things , the security or public order of Singapore , while section 10 allows the Minister to suspend detention orders and to revoke suspensions as he or she thinks fit .
Delivering the judgment of the Court , Chief Justice Wee Chong Jin held that the scope of judicial review depends on whether a precedent fact is involved . If the discretion falls outside the precedent fact category , the scope of judicial review is limited to the normal judicial review principles of illegality , irrationality ( that is , Wednesbury unreasonableness ) and procedural impropriety . On the other hand , if one or more precedent facts are involved , the scope of judicial review " extends to deciding whether the evidence justifies the decision " . However :
[ W ] hether a particular discretionary power is subject to any jurisdictional or precedent fact depends on the construction of the legislation which creates that power . A discretionary power may be required to be exercised based on objective facts but Parliament may decide to entrust all relevant decisions of these facts as well as the application to the facts of the relevant rules and any necessary exercise of discretion to the decision maker , in which case the scope of review would be limited to Wednesbury principles . So long as Parliament makes its intention clear , the scope of review would be so limited , even where the liberty of the subject is concerned .
The Court decided that both sections 8 and 10 of the ISA fell outside the precedent fact category . Section 8 ( 1 ) expressly stated , " in plain and unequivocal terms , that it is for the President to be satisfied that detention is necessary with a view to preventing the detainee from acting in any manner prejudicial to national security and the decision had been entrusted to the President " . Similarly , the decision whether there was evidence to revoke an order under section 10 in the public interest had expressly been entrusted to the Minister by the Act . In addition , since the Court was of the view that the judicial process was not suitable for determining issues involving national security , it did not think that Parliament could have intended for a court of law to determine whether , on the evidence , a detainee was likely to pose a security risk . Consequently , the Court could not go beyond determining if the detention decisions violated administrative law rules relating to illegality , irrationality or procedural impropriety .
In contrast , in Fong Thin Choo , the High Court expressed the view that under regulation 12 ( 6 ) of the Customs Regulations 1979 , the fact that goods had not been exported from Singapore was a precedent fact to the customs officer 's power to require the owner of the goods to pay customs duty . Therefore , the Court had to decide whether the customs officer 's decision was justified by the evidence , and not merely whether there was some evidence on which he could reasonably have reached his decision . However , the Court did not pursue the point since the applicant had not argued the case on this basis .
= = = Cases = = =
Zamir v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [ 1980 ] UKHL 14 , [ 1980 ] A.C. 930 , H.L. ( UK ) .
Khera v. Secretary of State for the Home Department ; Khawaja v. Secretary of State for the Home Department [ 1983 ] UKHL 8 , [ 1984 ] A.C. 74 , H.L. ( UK ) ( " Khawaja " ) .
Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs [ 1988 ] SGCA 16 , [ 1988 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 525 , Court of Appeal ( Singapore ) , archived from the original on 24 December 2011 .
Re Fong Thin Choo [ 1991 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 774 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Leyland , Peter ; Anthony , Gordon ( 2009 ) , " Illegality II " , Textbook on Administrative Law ( 6th ed . ) , Oxford ; New York , N.Y. : Oxford University Press , pp. 258 – 283 at 273 – 274 , para . 11 @.@ 6 @.@ 1 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 921776 @-@ 2 .
= = = Articles = = =
Grubb , Andrew ( November 1983 ) , " Illegal Immigrants — ' Nothing to Declare ' — The House of Lords Rethinks " , Cambridge Law Journal 42 ( 2 ) : 183 – 186 at 185 – 186 , doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / s0008197300112942 , JSTOR 4506541 .
Harrison , N.J. ( 1985 ) , " The Search for the Precedent Facts " , Trent Law Journal 9 : 61 – 69 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 23 January 2012 .
Williams , Rebecca A. ( 2007 ) , " When is an Error Not an Error ? Reform of Jurisdictional Review of Error of Law and Fact " ( PDF ) , Public Law : 793 – 808 , SSRN 1155065 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 14 July 2010 .
= = = Books = = =
Cane , Peter ( 2004 ) , " Substantive Review [ ch . 9 ] " , An Introduction to Administrative Law ( 4th ed . ) , Oxford : Clarendon Press , pp. 228 – 261 at 245 – 249 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 926898 @-@ 6 .
Craig , Paul [ P. ] ( 2008 ) , " Review of Fact and Evidence [ ch . 15 ] " , Administrative Law ( 6th ed . ) , London : Sweet & Maxwell , pp. 475 – 499 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84703 @-@ 283 @-@ 6 .
Wade , William ; Forsyth , Christopher ( 2009 ) , " Jurisdiction over Fact and Law [ ch . 8 ] " , Administrative Law ( 10th ed . ) , Oxford : Oxford University Press , pp. 211 – 236 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 923161 @-@ 4 .
Lord Woolf ; Jowell , Jeffrey [ L. ] ; Le Sueur , Andrew [ P. ] ; Donnelly , Catherine M [ ary ] ( 2007 ) , " Concepts of Jurisdiction and Lawful Administration [ ch . 4 ] " , De Smith 's Judicial Review ( 6th ed . ) , London : Sweet & Maxwell , pp. 177 – 222 at 200 – 201 , paras . 4 – 047 – 4 – 048 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84703 @-@ 467 @-@ 0 .
= Japanese aircraft carrier Shōhō =
Shōhō ( Japanese : 祥鳳 , " Auspicious Phoenix " or " Happy Phoenix " ) was a light aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy . Originally built as the submarine support ship Tsurugizaki in the late 1930s , she was converted before the Pacific War into an aircraft carrier and renamed . Completed in early 1942 , the ship supported the invasion forces in Operation MO , the invasion of Port Moresby , New Guinea , and was sunk by American carrier aircraft on her first combat operation during the Battle of the Coral Sea on 7 May . Shōhō was the first Japanese aircraft carrier to be sunk during World War II .
= = Design , construction and conversion = =
Shōhō and her sister Zuihō were designed to be easily modified as an oil tanker , submarine tender , or aircraft carrier as needed . Shōhō was laid down by the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 3 December 1934 as the submarine tender Tsurugizaki . She was launched on 1 June 1935 and completed on 15 January 1939 . Not long after the ship was initially completed , she began reconstruction as an aircraft carrier in 1941 . Her superstructure was removed and replaced by a flight deck with a hangar for her aircraft below . Renamed Shōhō , the conversion was finished on 26 January 1942 .
After her conversion , Shōhō had a length of 205 @.@ 5 meters ( 674 ft 2 in ) overall . She had a beam of 18 @.@ 2 meters ( 59 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 meters ( 21 ft 7 in ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 443 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 262 long tons ) at standard load . As part of her conversion , her original diesel engines , which had given her a top speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) , were replaced by a pair of destroyer @-@ type geared steam turbine sets with a total of 52 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 39 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving one propeller . Steam was provided by four Kampon water @-@ tube boilers and Shōhō now had a maximum speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . The boilers exhausted through a single downturned starboard funnel and she carried 2 @,@ 642 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 600 long tons ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 7 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 400 km ; 9 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Her crew numbered 785 officers and men .
Shōhō 's flight deck was 180 meters ( 590 ft 6 in ) long and had a maximum width of 23 meters ( 75 ft 6 in ) . The ship was designed with a single hangar 124 meters ( 406 ft 10 in ) long and 18 meters ( 59 ft ) wide . The hangar was served by two octagonal centerline aircraft elevators . The forward elevator was 13 by 12 metres ( 42 ft 8 in by 39 ft 4 in ) in size and the smaller rear elevator measured 12 by 10 @.@ 8 metres ( 39 ft 4 in by 35 ft 5 in ) . She had arresting gear with six cables , but she was not fitted with an aircraft catapult . Shōhō was a flush @-@ deck design and lacked an island superstructure . She was designed to operate 30 aircraft .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of eight 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in twin mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull . Shōhō was also initially equipped with four twin 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , also in sponsons along the sides of the hull .
= = Service history = =
Shōhō was commissioned on 30 November 1941 and Captain Izawa Ishinosuke became her commanding officer . While still fitting @-@ out , the ship was assigned to the Fourth Carrier Division of the 1st Air Fleet on 22 December . On 4 February 1942 , she ferried aircraft to Truk , where she remained until 11 April before returning to Yokosuka .
In late April 1942 , Shōhō was assigned to Operation MO and arrived in Truk on 29 April . The following day , she departed Truk with the cruisers Aoba , Kinugasa , Furutaka , and Kako of Cruiser Division 6 under the command of Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō . They formed the Main Force of the operation . Due to aircraft shortages , her aircraft complement consisted of only four obsolete Mitsubishi A5M4 " Claude " and eight modern Mitsubishi A6M2 " Zero " fighters plus six Nakajima B5N2 " Kate " torpedo bombers . Covering the other elements of Operation MO was the Striking Force that consisted of the fleet carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku .
= = = Battle of the Coral Sea = = =
After covering the landings on Tulagi on 3 May , Shōhō headed north to cover the invasion convoy the next day and was not present when aircraft from the American carrier Yorktown attacked Japanese shipping at Tulagi . This air strike confirmed that at least one American carrier was in the vicinity , but the Japanese had no idea of its location . They launched a number of reconnaissance aircraft the following day to search for the Americans , but without result . One Kawanishi H6K " Mavis " flying boat spotted Yorktown , but was shot down by one of Yorktown 's Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters before she could radio a report . US Army Air Force ( USAAF ) aircraft spotted Shōhō southwest of Bougainville Island on 5 May , but she was too far north to be attacked by the American carriers , which were refueling . That day , Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher received Magic intelligence that placed the three Japanese carriers known to be involved in Operation MO near Bougainville , and predicted 10 May as the date of the invasion . It also predicted airstrikes by the Japanese carriers in support of the invasion several days before 10 May . Based on this information , Fletcher planned to complete refuelling his ships on 6 May and move closer to the eastern tip of New Guinea to be in a position to locate and attack Japanese forces on 7 May .
Another H6K spotted the Americans during the morning of 6 May and successfully shadowed them until 14 : 00 . The Japanese , however , were unwilling or unable to launch air strikes in poor weather or without updated spot reports . Both sides believed they knew where the other force was , and expected to fight the next day . The Japanese were the first to spot the Americans when one aircraft found the oiler Neosho escorted by the destroyer Sims at 0722 , south of the Strike Force . These ships were misidentified as a carrier and a cruiser and the carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku launched an airstrike 40 minutes later that sank Sims and damaged Neosho badly enough that she had to be scuttled a few days later . The American carriers were west of the Strike Force , not south , and they were spotted by other Japanese aircraft shortly after the carriers had launched their attack on Neosho and Sims .
American reconnaissance aircraft reported two Japanese heavy cruisers northeast of Misima Island in the Louisiade Archipelago off the eastern tip of New Guinea at 07 : 35 and two carriers at 08 : 15 . An hour later , Fletcher ordered an airstrike launched , believing that the two carriers reported were Shōkaku and Zuikaku . Lexington and Yorktown launched a total of 53 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers and 22 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo planes escorted by 18 F4F Wildcats . The 0815 report turned out to be miscoded , as the pilot had intended to report two heavy cruisers , but USAAF aircraft had spotted Shōhō , her escorts and the invasion convoy in the meantime . As the latest spot report plotted only 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) away from the 0815 report , the aircraft en route were diverted to this new target .
Shōhō and the rest of the Main Force were spotted by aircraft from Lexington at 10 : 40 . At this time , Shōhō 's combat air patrol ( CAP ) consisted of two A5Ms and one A6M Zero . The Dauntlesses began their attack at 11 : 10 as the three Japanese fighters attacked them in their dive . None of the dive bombers hit Shōhō , which was maneuvering to avoid their bombs ; one Dauntless was shot down by the Zero after it had pulled out of its dive and several others were damaged . The carrier launched three more Zeros immediately after this attack to reinforce its CAP . The second wave of Dauntlesses began their attack at 11 : 18 and they hit Shōhō twice with 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) bombs . These penetrated the ship 's flight deck and burst inside her hangars , setting the fuelled and armed aircraft there on fire . A minute later , the Devastators began dropping their torpedoes from both sides of the ship . They hit Shōhō five times and the damage from the hits knocked out her steering and power . In addition , the hits flooded both engine and boiler rooms . Yorktown 's aircraft trailed those from Lexington , and the former 's Dauntlesses began their attacks at 11 : 25 , hitting Shōhō with another eleven 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound bombs by Japanese accounts and the carrier came to a complete stop . Yorktown 's Devastators trailed the rest of her aircraft and attacked at 11 : 29 . They claimed ten hits , although Japanese accounts acknowledge only two . As the Devastators were exiting the area , they were attacked by the CAP , but the Wildcats protecting the torpedo bombers shot down two A5Ms and an A6M Zero . Total American losses to all causes were three Dauntlesses . After his attack , Lieutenant Commander Robert E. Dixon , commander of Lexington 's Dive bombers , radioed his famous message to the American carriers : " Scratch one flat top ! "
With Shōhō hit by no fewer than 13 bombs and 7 torpedoes , Captain Izawa ordered the ship abandoned at 11 : 31 . She sank four minutes later . Some 300 men successfully abandoned the ship , but they had to wait to be rescued as Gotō ordered his remaining ships to head north at high speed to avoid any further airstrikes . Around 14 : 00 , he ordered the destroyer Sazanami to return to the scene and rescue the survivors . She found only 203 , including Captain Izawa . The rest of her crew of 834 died during the attack or in the water awaiting rescue . Shōhō was the first Japanese aircraft carrier lost during the war .
= Norodom Sihanouk =
Norodom Sihanouk ( Khmer : នរោត ្ តម សីហនុ ; 31 October 1922 – 15 October 2012 ) was the King of Cambodia from 1941 to 1955 and again from 1993 to 2004 . Affectionately known to the Cambodian people as Samdech Euv ( Khmer : សម ្ តេចឪ , father prince ) , Sihanouk became king in 1941 . After the Second World War , he campaigned for Cambodia 's independence from French rule , which took place in 1953 . In 1955 , Sihanouk abdicated the throne in favour of his father Norodom Suramarit , and went on to form the political organisation Sangkum . Sihanouk led the Sangkum to victory in the 1955 general elections , and became the Prime Minister of Cambodia . After his father 's death in 1960 , Sihanouk introduced a constitutional amendment which made him the Head of State of Cambodia , a position which he held until 1970 . Between 1955 and 1970 , Sihanouk governed Cambodia under one @-@ party rule , and cracked down on political dissent from the Democrat party and Pracheachon . While he was officially neutral in foreign relations , in practice he was friendlier toward communist countries , particularly China , than to the United States and its anti @-@ Communist allies .
In March 1970 Sihanouk was overthrown by Lon Nol and Sisowath Sirik Matak , paving the way for the formation of Khmer Republic . He fled to China and North Korea and went on to form a government @-@ in @-@ exile and resistance movement known as the Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea ( GRUNK ) and National United Front of Kampuchea , respectively . As GRUNK 's leader , Sihanouk lent support to the Khmer Rouge , which fought against the Khmer Republic in the Cambodian Civil War . After the Khmer Rouge won , a new government , Democratic Kampuchea , was formed . Subsequently , Sihanouk returned to Cambodia and became its figurehead head of state . In 1976 Sihanouk resigned from his position , leading to his house arrest . He was incarcerated until 1979 , when Vietnamese forces overthrew the Khmer Rouge . Sihanouk went into exile again , and in 1981 he formed FUNCINPEC , a resistance party . The following year , Sihanouk was appointed as the President of the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea ( CGDK ) , consisting of the three anti @-@ Vietnamese resistance factions – FUNCINPEC , Khmer Rouge and the Khmer People 's National Liberation Front ( KPNLF ) .
In the late 1980s , informal talks were carried out to end hostilities between the People 's Republic of Kampuchea ( PRK ) and resistance factions under the CGDK . In 1990 the Supreme National Council of Cambodia ( SNC ) was formed as a transitional body to oversee Cambodia 's sovereign matters , with Sihanouk as its president . In 1991 peace accords were signed , and the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia ( UNTAC ) was established the following year . The UNTAC organised general elections in 1993 , and a coalition government , jointly led by his son Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen , was subsequently formed . In June 1993 Sihanouk was reinstated as Cambodia 's Head of State , and in September 1993 was appointed king . In 2004 Sihanouk abdicated again in favour of another son , Norodom Sihamoni , who succeeded him as king . He was known as the King father until his death in 2012 . Sihanouk pursued an artistic career during his lifetime , and wrote several musical compositions . He produced 50 films between 1966 and 2006 , at times directing and acting in them .
= = Early life and first reign = =
Norodom Sihanouk was the only child born of the union between Norodom Suramarit and Sisowath Kossamak . His parents , who heeded the royal court astrologer 's advice that he risked dying at a young age if he was raised under parental care , placed him under the care of Kossamak 's grandmother , Pat . When Pat died , Kossamak brought Sihanouk to live with his paternal grandfather , Norodom Sutharot . Sutharot delegated parenting responsibilities to his daughter , Norodom Ket Kanyamom . Sihanouk received his primary education at the Francois Baudoin school and Nuon Moniram school in Phnom Penh . During this time , he received financial support from his maternal grandfather , Sisowath Monivong , to head an amateur performance troupe and soccer team . In 1936 Sihanouk was sent to Saigon , where he pursued his secondary education at Lycée Chasseloup Laubat , a boarding school .
When the reigning king Monivong died on 23 April 1941 , the Governor @-@ General of French Indochina , Jean Decoux chose Sihanouk to succeed him . Sihanouk 's appointment as king was formalised the following day by the Cambodian crown council , and his coronation ceremony took place on 3 May 1941 . During the Japanese occupation of Cambodia , he dedicated most of his time to sports , filming , and the occasional tour to the countryside . In March 1945 the Japanese military , which had occupied Cambodia since August 1941 , dissolved the nominal French colonial administration . Under pressure from the Japanese , Sihanouk proclaimed Cambodia 's independence and assumed the position of prime minister while serving as king at the same time .
As prime minister , Sihanouk revoked a decree issued by the last resident superior of Cambodia , Georges Gautier , to romanise the Khmer alphabet . Following the Surrender of Japan in August 1945 , nationalist forces loyal to Son Ngoc Thanh launched a coup , which led to Thanh becoming prime minister . When the French returned to Cambodia in October 1945 , Thanh was dismissed and replaced by Sihanouk 's uncle Sisowath Monireth . Monireth negotiated for greater autonomy in managing Cambodia 's internal affairs . A Modus Vivendi was signed in January 1946 whereby Cambodia was granted full autonomy within the French Union . A joint French @-@ Cambodian commission was set up after that to draft Cambodia 's constitution , and in April 1946 , Sihanouk introduced clauses which provided for an elected parliament on the basis of universal male suffrage as well as press freedom . The first constitution was signed into effect by Sihanouk in May 1947 . Around this time , Sihanouk made two trips to Saumur , France where he attended military training at the Armoured Cavalry Branch Training School in 1946 , and again in 1948 . He was made a reserve captain for the French army .
In early 1949 Sihanouk traveled to Paris with his parents to negotiate with the French government for more autonomy over Cambodia . The Modus Vivendi was replaced by a new Franco @-@ Khmer treaty , which recognised Cambodia as " independent " within the French Union . In practice , the treaty granted only limited self @-@ rule to Cambodia . While Cambodia was given free rein in managing its foreign ministry and to a lesser extent , its defence , most of the other ministries remained under French control . Meanwhile , dissenting legislators from the national assembly started attacking the government led by prime minister Penn Nouth over its failure to resolve deepening financial and corruption problems plaguing the country . The dissenting legislators , led by Yem Sambaur , who had defected from the Democrat party in November 1948 , deposed Penn Nouth . Yem Sambaur replaced him , but his appointment did not sit well with the Democrats , who in turn pressured Sihanouk to dissolve the national assembly and hold elections .
Sihanouk , who by now had tired of the political squabbling , dissolved the assembly in September 1949 , but opted to rule by decree for the next two years before general elections were held , which the Democrats won . In October 1951 Thanh returned to Cambodia and was received by 100 @,@ 000 supporters , a spectacle which Sihanouk saw as an affront to his regal authority . Thanh disappeared six months later , presumably to join the Khmer Issarak . Sihanouk ordered the Democrat @-@ led government to arrest Thanh but was ignored . Subsequently , civil demonstrations rallying against the monarchy and the French broke out in the countryside , alarming Sihanouk , who began to suspect that the Democrats had played a complicit role in them . In June 1952 Sihanouk dismissed the Democrat nominee Huy Kanthoul and made himself prime minister . A few days later , Sihanouk privately confided in exasperation to the US chargé d 'affaires , Thomas Gardiner Corcoran , that parliamentary democracy was unsuitable for Cambodia .
In January 1952 Sihanouk re @-@ appointed Penn Nouth as prime minister before leaving for France . Once there , Sihanouk wrote to French president Vincent Auriol requesting that he grant Cambodia full independence , citing widespread anti @-@ French sentiment among the Cambodian populace . Auriol deferred Sihanouk 's request to the French commissioner for overseas territories , Jean Letourneau , who promptly rejected it . Subsequently , Sihanouk traveled to Canada and the United States , where he gave radio interviews to present his case . He took advantage of the prevailing anti @-@ communist sentiment in those countries , arguing that Cambodia faced a Communist threat similar to that of the Viet Minh in Vietnam , and that the solution was to grant full independence to Cambodia . Sihanouk returned to Cambodia in June 1953 , taking up residence in Siem Reap . He organised public rallies calling for Cambodians to fight for independence , and formed a citizenry militia which attracted about 130 @,@ 000 recruits .
In August 1953 France agreed to cede control over judicial and interior affairs to Cambodia , and subsequently the defense ministry as well in October 1953 . At the end of the month , Sihanouk went to Phnom Penh , where he declared Cambodia 's independence from France on 9 November 1953 . In May 1954 Sihanouk sent two of his cabinet ministers , Nhiek Tioulong and Tep Phan , to represent Cambodia at the Geneva Conference . The agreements signed for Cambodia affirmed the country 's independence and allowed it to seek military aid from any country without restrictions . At the same time , Sihanouk 's relations with the governing Democrat party remained strained , as they were wary of his growing influence in politics . To counter Democrat opposition , Sihanouk held a national referendum to gauge public approval for his efforts to seek national independence . While the results showed 99 @.@ 8 percent approval , Australian historian Milton Osborne noted that open balloting was carried out and voters were cowed into casting an approval vote under police surveillance .
= = Sangkum era = =
= = = Abdication and entry into politics = = =
On 2 March 1955 Sihanouk abdicated the throne , and was in turn succeeded by his father , Suramarit . In his abdication speech , Sihanouk explained that he was abdicating in order to extricate himself from the " intrigues " of palace life and allow easier access to common folk as an " ordinary citizen " . According to Osborne , Sihanouk 's abdication earned him the freedom to pursue politics while continuing to enjoy the deference that he had received from his subjects when he was king . In April 1955 Sihanouk formed his own political party , the Sangkum , and expressed interest in competing in the general elections slated to be held in September 1955 . While the Sangkum was , in effect , a political party , Sihanouk argued that the Sangkum should be seen as a political " organisation " , and explained that he could accommodate people with differing political orientations on the sole condition that they pledged fealty to the monarchy .
Soon after , the Sangkum absorbed several political parties with different political orientations such as the Khmer Renovation Party , People 's Party , and Liberal Party . At the same time , Sihanouk was running out of patience with the Democrat party and the left @-@ wing Pracheachon , as both had refused to merge into his party and had campaigned against him . He appointed as director of national security Dap Chhuon , who ordered the national police to jail their leaders and break up their election rallies . When elections were held , the Sangkum received 83 percent of all valid votes . They took up all seats in the National Assembly , replacing the Democrats , which had until then been the majority party . The following month , Sihanouk was appointed prime minister .
= = = Premiership ( 1955 – 60 ) = = =
Once in office , Sihanouk introduced several constitutional changes , including extending suffrage to women , adopting Khmer as the sole official language of the country and making Cambodia a constitutional monarchy by vesting policy @-@ making powers in the prime minister rather than the king . He viewed socialism as an ideal concept for establishing social equality and fostering national cohesion within newly independent Cambodia . In March 1956 he embarked on a national programme of " Buddhist socialism " , promoting socialist principles on the one hand while maintaining the kingdom 's Buddhist culture on the other . Between 1955 and 1960 , Sihanouk resigned and retook the post of prime minister several times , citing fatigue caused by overwork . The National Assembly nominated experienced politicians such as Sim Var and San Yun to become prime minister whenever Sihanouk took leave , but they similarly relinquished their posts each time , several months into their term , as cabinet ministers repeatedly disagreed over public policy matters .
In May 1955 Sihanouk accepted military aid from the US . The following January , when he was in the Philippines on a state visit , Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) operatives attempted to sway him into placing Cambodia under Southeast Asia Treaty Organization ( SEATO ) protection . Subsequently , Sihanouk began to suspect that the US was attempting to undermine his government and that it was lending covert support to the Democrat party , now without parliamentary representation , for that purpose . On the other hand , Sihanouk developed a good impression of China , whose premier Zhou Enlai , gave him a warm reception on his first visit there in February 1956 . They signed a friendship treaty , in which China promised US $ 40 million in economic aid to Cambodia . When Sihanouk returned from China , Sarit Thanarat and Ngo Dinh Diem , leaders of Thailand and South Vietnam , respectively , both with pro @-@ American sympathies , started to accuse him as pro @-@ Communist . South Vietnam briefly imposed a trade embargo on Cambodia , preventing trading ships from travelling up the Mekong river to reach Phnom Penh , via Saigon . While Sihanouk professed that he was pursuing a policy of neutrality , Sarit and Diem remained distrustful of him , more so after he established formal diplomatic relations with China in 1958 .
The Democrat party continued to criticize the Sangkum and Sihanouk in their newspaper , much to Sihanouk 's consternation . In August 1957 Sihanouk finally lost patience , calling out Democrat leaders for a debate . Five of them attended . At the debate , held at the royal palace , Sihanouk spoke in a belligerent tone , challenging the Democrat leaders to present evidence of malfeasance in his government and inviting them to join the Sangkum . The Democrat leaders gave hesitant responses , and according to American historian David P. Chandler , it gave the audience the impression that they were disloyal to the monarchy . The debate led to the effective demise of the Democrat party , as its leaders were subsequently beaten up by government soldiers , with Sihanouk 's tacit approval . With the Democrats vanquished , Sihanouk focused on preparing for general elections , slated to be held in March 1958 . He drafted left @-@ wing politicians , including Hou Yuon , Hu Nim , and Chau Seng , to stand as Sangkum candidates , with a view to winning left @-@ wing support from the Pracheachon . The Pracheachon on their part fielded five candidates for the elections . However , four of them withdrew , as they were prevented by the national police from holding any election rallies . When voting took place , the Sangkum won all seats in the national assembly .
In December 1958 Ngo Dinh Nhu – Diem 's younger brother and chief adviser – broached the idea of orchestrating a coup to overthrow Sihanouk . Nhu contacted Dap Chhuon , Sihanouk 's Interior Minister , who was known for his pro @-@ American sympathies , to prepare for the coup against his boss . Chhuon received covert financial and military assistance from Thailand , South Vietnam , and the CIA . In January 1959 Sihanouk learned of the coup plans through intermediaries who were in contact with Chhuon . The following month , Sihanouk sent the army to capture Chhuon , who was summarily executed as soon as he was captured , effectively ending the coup attempt . Sihanouk then accused South Vietnam and the United States of orchestrating the coup attempt . Six months later , on 31 August 1959 , a small packaged lacquer gift , which was fitted with a parcel bomb , was delivered to the royal palace . Norodom Vakrivan , the chief of protocol , was killed instantly when he opened the package . Sihanouk 's parents , Suramarit and Kossamak , who were sitting in another room not far from Vakrivan , narrowly escaping unscathed . An investigation traced the origin of the parcel bomb to an American military base in Saigon . While Sihanouk publicly accused Ngo Dinh Nhu of masterminding the bomb attack , he secretly suspected that the US was also involved . The incident deepened his distrust of the US .
= = = Initial years as Head of State ( 1960 – 65 ) = = =
After several months of poor health , Suramarit , Sihanouk 's father , died on 3 April 1960 which Sihanouk blamed upon the shock that his father had received from the parcel bomb attack . The following day , the royal throne council met to choose Monireth as regent . Over the next two months , Sihanouk introduced constitutional amendments to create the new post of Head of State of Cambodia , which provided ceremonial powers equivalent to that of the king . A referendum held on 5 June 1960 approved Sihanouk 's proposals , and Sihanouk was formally appointed Head of State on 14 June 1960 . As the head of state , Sihanouk took over various ceremonial responsibilities of the king , such as holding public audiences and leading the Royal Ploughing Ceremony . At the same time , he continued to play an active role in politics as Sangkum 's leader .
In 1961 Pracheachon 's spokesperson , Non Suon , criticized Sihanouk for failing to tackle inflation , unemployment , and corruption in the country . Non Suon 's criticisms gave Sihanouk the impetus to arrest Pracheachon leaders , and according to him , he had discovered plans by their party to monitor local political developments on behalf of foreign powers . In May 1962 Tou Samouth , Pracheachon 's secretary @-@ general , disappeared , and its ideological ally , the Communist Party of Kampuchea , suspected that Samouth had been secretly captured and killed by police . However , Sihanouk allowed Sangkum 's left @-@ wing politicians to run again in the 1962 general elections , which they all won . He even appointed two left @-@ wing politicians , Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan , as secretaries for planning and commerce , respectively , after the election .
In November 1962 Sihanouk called on the US to stop supporting the Khmer Serei , which he believed they had been secretly doing through the CIA . He threatened to reject all economic aid from the US if they failed to respond to his demands , a threat he later carried out on 19 November 1963 . At the same time , Sihanouk also nationalised the country 's entrepot trade , banking sector , and distillery industries . To oversee policy and regulatory matters on the country 's entrepot trade , he set up the National Export @-@ Import Corporation and Statutory Board , better known as " SONEXIM " . When Sarit , Diem , and US president John F. Kennedy died in November and December 1963 , Sihanouk rejoiced over their deaths , as he accused them of attempting to destabilise Cambodia . He organised concerts and granted civil servants extra leave time to celebrate the occasion . When the US government protested Sihanouk 's celebrations , he responded by recalling the Cambodian ambassador to the US , Nong Kimny .
In early 1964 Sihanouk signed a secret agreement with North Vietnam and the Viet Cong , allowing Chinese military aid meant for them to be delivered through Sihanoukville 's port . In turn , the Cambodian army would be paid for delivering food supplies to the Viet Cong , and at the same time skim off 10 percent of all military hardware supplies . In addition , he also allowed the Viet Cong to build a trail through eastern Cambodia , so that their troops could receive war supplies from North Vietnam . The trail later became known as the Sihanouk Trail . When the US learned of Viet Cong presence in eastern Cambodia , they started a bombing campaign over it , spurring Sihanouk to sever diplomatic ties with the US in May 1965 . As a result of this secret agreement , Communist countries , including China , the Soviet Union , and Czechoslovakia , provided military aid to Cambodia .
= = = Continued leadership as Head of State ( 1966 – 70 ) = = =
In September 1966 general elections were held , and Sangkum legislators with conservative and right @-@ wing sympathies dominated the national assembly . In turn , they nominated Lon Nol , a military general who shared their political sympathies , as prime minister . However , their choice did not sit well with Sihanouk . To counterbalance conservative and right @-@ wing influence , in October 1966 Sihanouk set up a shadow government made up of Sangkum legislators with left @-@ wing sympathies . At the end of the month , Lon Nol offered to resign from his position , but was ironically stopped from doing so by Sihanouk . In April 1967 the Samlaut Uprising occurred , with local peasants fighting against government troops in Samlaut , Battambang . As soon as government troops managed to quell the fighting , Sihanouk began to suspect that three left @-@ wing Sangkum legislators – Khieu Samphan , Hou Yuon and Hu Nim – had incited the rebellion . When Sihanouk threatened to charge Khieu Samphan and Hou Yuon before a military tribunal , they fled into the jungle to join the Khmer Rouge , leaving Hu Nim behind .
Lon Nol resigned as prime minister in early May 1967 , and Sihanouk appointed Son Sann in his place . At the same time , Sihanouk replaced conservative @-@ leaning ministers appointed by Lon Nol with technocrats and left @-@ leaning politicians . In the later part of the month , after receiving news that the Chinese embassy in Cambodia had published and distributed Communist propaganda to the Cambodian populace praising the Cultural Revolution , Sihanouk accused China of supporting local Chinese Cambodians in engaging in " contraband " and " subversive " activities . In August 1967 Sihanouk sent to China his Foreign Minister , Norodom Phurissara , who unsuccessfully urged Zhou to stop the Chinese embassy from disseminating Communist propaganda . In response , Sihanouk closed the Cambodia – Chinese Friendship Association in September 1967 . When the Chinese government protested , Sihanouk threatened to close the Chinese embassy in Cambodia . Zhou stepped in to placate Sihanouk , and compromised by instructing its embassy to send its publications to Cambodia 's information ministry for vetting prior to distribution .
As relations with China worsened , Sihanouk pursued rapprochement with the US . He learned that Kennedy 's widow , Jacqueline Kennedy , had expressed a desire to see Angkor Wat . Seeing this as an opportunity to restore relations with the US , Sihanouk invited her to visit Cambodia and personally hosted her visit in October 1967 . Jacqueline Kennedy 's visit paved the way for Sihanouk to meet with Chester Bowles , the US ambassador to India . To Bowles , Sihanouk expressed his willingness to restore bilateral relations with the US , hinted at the presence of Viet Cong troops in Cambodia , and suggested he would turn a blind eye should US forces enter Cambodia to attack the Viet Cong . Bowles relayed Sihanouk 's message to the US government , and in March 1969 , they launched Operation Menu , a bombing campaign covering parts of eastern Cambodia . The bombing forced the Viet Cong to flee from their jungle sanctuaries and seek refuge in populated towns and villages . As a result , Sihanouk became concerned that Cambodia might get drawn into fighting in the Vietnam War . In June 1969 he extended diplomatic recognition to the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam ( PRGSV ) , hoping that he could get the Viet Cong troops under its charge to leave Cambodia should they win the war . At the same time , he also openly admitted the presence of Viet Cong troops in Cambodia for the first time , prompting the US to restore formal diplomatic relations with Cambodia three months later .
As the Cambodian economy was stagnating due to systemic corruption , Sihanouk opened two casinos – in Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville – in January 1969 . While the casinos satisfied his aim of generating state revenues of up to 700 million riels in that year , it also caused a sharp increase in the number of bankruptcies and suicides . In August 1969 Lon Nol was reappointed as Prime Minister , with Sisowath Sirik Matak as his deputy . Two months later , Lon Nol left Cambodia to seek medical treatment , leaving Sirik Matak to run the government . Between October and December 1969 , Sirik Matak instituted several policy changes that ran contrary to Sihanouk 's wishes , such as allowing private banks to re @-@ open in the country and devaluing the riel . He also encouraged ambassadors to write to Lon Nol directly , instead of going through Sihanouk , angering the latter . In early January 1970 Sihanouk left Cambodia for medical treatment in France . Shortly after he left , Sirik Matak took the opportunity to close down the casinos .
= = Deposition , GRUNK and Khmer Rouge years = =
On 11 March 1970 a large protest took place outside the North Vietnamese and PRGSV embassies , as protesters demanded Viet Cong troops withdraw from Cambodia . The protests turned chaotic , as protesters looted both embassies and set them on fire , alarming Sihanouk . Sihanouk , who was in Paris at the time , contemplated between returning to quell the situation , and visiting Moscow , Beijing , and Hanoi . He opted for the latter , thinking that he could persuade its leaders to recall Viet Cong troops to their jungle sanctuaries , where they had originally established themselves between 1964 and 1969 . Five days later , Oum Mannorine , the half @-@ brother of Sihanouk 's wife Monique , was summoned to the National Assembly to answer corruption charges . On that night after the hearing , Mannorine ordered troops under his command to arrest Lon Nol and Sirik Matak , but ended up getting arrested by Lon Nol 's troops instead . On 18 March 1970 the National Assembly voted to depose Sihanouk , allowing Lon Nol to assume emergency powers .
On that day , Sihanouk was in Moscow meeting Soviet foreign minister Alexei Kosygin , who broke the news to him . From Moscow , Sihanouk flew to Beijing , where he was received by Zhou . Zhou arranged for the North Vietnamese Prime Minister , Pham Van Dong to fly to Beijing from Hanoi and meet with Sihanouk . Both Zhou and Dong encouraged Sihanouk to rebel against Lon Nol and promised him military and financial support . On 23 March 1970 , Sihanouk announced the formation of his resistance movement , the National United Front of Kampuchea ( FUNK ) . He encouraged the Cambodian populace to join him and fight against Lon Nol 's government . Khmer Rouge soldiers broadcast Sihanouk 's message in the Cambodian countryside , which roused demonstrations rooting for his cause that were brutally suppressed by Lon Nol 's troops . Sometime later , on 5 May 1970 , Sihanouk announced the formation of a government @-@ in @-@ exile known as the Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea ( GRUNK ) , leading Communist countries including China , North Vietnam , and North Korea to break relations with the Lon Nol regime . In Phnom Penh , a military trial convened on 2 July 1970 , whereby Sihanouk was charged with treason and corruption in his capacity as Head of State . After a three @-@ day trial , the judges ruled Sihanouk guilty of both charges and sentenced to him death in absentia on 5 July 1970 .
Between 1970 and 1975 , Sihanouk took up residence in state guesthouses at Beijing and Pyongyang , courtesy of the Chinese and North Korean governments , respectively . In February 1973 Sihanouk traveled to Hanoi , where he started on a long journey with Khieu Samphan and other Khmer Rouge leaders . The convoy proceeded along the Ho Chi Minh trail and reached the Cambodian border at Stung Treng Province the following month . From there , they traveled across the provinces of Stung Treng , Preah Vihear , and Siem Reap . Throughout this entire leg of the journey , Sihanouk faced constant bombardment from American planes participating in Operation Freedom Deal . At Siem Reap , Sihanouk visited the temples of Angkor Wat , Banteay Srei , and Bayon . In August 1973 Sirik Matak wrote an open letter calling on Sihanouk to bring the Cambodian Civil War to an end and suggesting the possibility of his return to the country . When the letter reached Sihanouk , he angrily rejected Sirik Matak 's advances .
After the Khmer Republic fell to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975 , a new regime under its charge , Democratic Kampuchea , was formed . Sihanouk was appointed as its Head of State , a ceremonial position . In September 1975 , Sihanouk briefly returned to Cambodia to inter the ashes of his mother , before going abroad again to lobby for diplomatic recognition of Democratic Kampuchea . He returned on 31 December 1975 and presided over a meeting to endorse the constitution of Democratic Kampuchea . In February 1976 Khieu Samphan took him on a tour across the Cambodian countryside . Sihanouk was shocked to see the use of forced labour and population displacement carried out by the Khmer Rouge government , known as the Angkar . Following the tour , Sihanouk decided to resign as the Head of State . The Angkar initially rejected his resignation request , though they subsequently accepted it in mid @-@ April 1976 , retroactively backdating it to 2 April 1976 .
From this point onwards Sihanouk was kept under house arrest at the royal palace . In September 1978 he was removed to another apartment in Phnom Penh 's suburbs , where he lived until the end of the year . Throughout his confinement , Sihanouk made several unsuccessful requests to the Angkar to travel overseas . On New Year 's Day of 1979 , Sihanouk was taken from Phnom Penh to Sisophon , where they stayed for three days until 5 January , when they were taken back to Phnom Penh . Sihanouk was taken to meet Pol Pot , who briefed him on the Angkar 's plans to repulse Vietnamese troops , which had since invaded parts of eastern Cambodia in December 1978 . On 6 January 1979 , Sihanouk flew to Beijing from Phnom Penh , where he was greeted by Zhou Enlai 's successor , Deng Xiaoping . Three days later , Sihanouk flew from Beijing to New York to attend the UN Security Council , where he simultaneously condemned the Khmer Rouge for orchestrating the Cambodian genocide as well as the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia . Sihanouk subsequently sought asylum in China after making two unsuccessful asylum applications with the US and France .
= = FUNCINPEC and CGDK years = =
After the Khmer Rouge regime was overthrown , a new Cambodian government supported by Vietnam , the People 's Republic of Kampuchea ( PRK ) , was established . The Chinese leader , Deng Xiaoping , was unhappy with Vietnam 's influence over the PRK government . Deng proposed to Sihanouk that he co @-@ operate with the Khmer Rouge to overthrow the PRK government , but rejected it , as he opposed the genocidal policies pursued by the Khmer Rouge while they were in power . In March 1981 Sihanouk established a resistance movement , FUNCINPEC which was complemented by a small resistance army known as Armée Nationale Sihanoukiste ( ANS ) . He appointed In Tam , who had briefly served as Prime Minister in the Khmer Republic , as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of ANS . The ANS needed military aid from China , and Deng seized the opportunity to sway Sihanouk into collaborating with the Khmer Rouge . Sihanouk reluctantly agreed , and started talks in March 1981 with the Khmer Rouge and the Son Sann @-@ led Khmer People 's National Liberation Front ( KPNLF ) on a unified anti @-@ PRK resistance movement .
After several rounds of negotiations mediated by Deng and Singapore 's prime minister Lee Kuan Yew , FUNCINPEC , KPNLF , and the Khmer Rouge agreed to form the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea ( CGDK ) in June 1982 . The CGDK was headed by Sihanouk , and functioned as a government @-@ in @-@ exile . As CGDK chairperson , Sihanouk unsuccessfully negotiated , over the next five years , with the Chinese government to broker a political settlement to end the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia . During this period , Sihanouk appointed two of his sons , Norodom Chakrapong and Norodom Ranariddh , to lead the ANS . Chakrapong was appointed as the deputy chief @-@ of @-@ staff for the ANS in March 1985 , while Ranariddh was minted to the twin positions of commander @-@ in @-@ chief and the chief @-@ of @-@ staff of the ANS in January 1986 , replacing Tam . In December 1987 the Prime Minister of the PRK government , Hun Sen , first met with Sihanouk to discuss ending the protracted Cambodian – Vietnamese War . The following July , the then @-@ foreign minister of Indonesia , Ali Alatas , brokered the first round of meetings between the four warring Cambodian factions consisting of FUNCINPEC , Khmer Rouge , KPNLF , and the PRK government over the future of Cambodia . Two more rounds of meetings were held in February and May 1989 ; since all were held near Jakarta , they became known as the Jakarta Informal Meetings ( JIM ) .
In July 1989 Ali Alatas joined French foreign minister Roland Dumas in opening the Paris Peace Conference , where discussions took place regarding plans for Vietnamese troop withdrawal and power @-@ sharing arrangements in a hypothetical future Cambodian government . The following month , Sihanouk resigned as president of FUNCINPEC but remained in the party as an ordinary member . In September 1990 the United Nations ( UN ) sponsored the establishment of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia ( SNC ) , an administrative body responsible for overseeing the sovereign affairs of Cambodia for an interim period until UN @-@ sponsored elections were held . The creation of the SNC was subsequently ratified with United Nations Security Council Resolution 668 . In July 1991 Sihanouk left FUNCINPEC altogether and was elected as the chairperson of the SNC .
= = UNTAC administration era = =
On 23 October 1991 Sihanouk led the FUNCINPEC , Khmer Rouge , KPNLF , and PRK into signing the Paris Peace Accords . The accords recognised the SNC as a " legitimate representative of Cambodian sovereignty " and created the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia ( UNTAC ) to serve as a transitional government between 1992 and 1993 . In turn , UNTAC was given the mandate to station peacekeeping troops in Cambodia to supervise the disarmament of troops from the four warring Cambodian factions and to carry out national elections by 1993 . Sihanouk subsequently returned to Phnom Penh on 14 November 1991 . Together with Hun Sen , Sihanouk rode in an open top limousine from Pochentong Airport all the way to the royal palace , greeting city residents who lined the streets to welcome his return . The UNTAC administration was set up in February 1992 , but stumbled in its peacekeeping operations as the Khmer Rouge refused to cooperate in disarmament . In response , Sihanouk urged UNTAC to abandon the Khmer Rouge from the peacekeeping process on two occasions , in July and September 1992 . During this period , Sihanouk mostly resided in Siem Reap and occasionally traveled by helicopter to supervise election preparations in KPNLF , FUNCINPEC , and Khmer Rouge resistance bases .
Sihanouk left in November 1992 to seek medical treatment in Beijing , where he stayed for the next six months until his return to Cambodia in May 1993 , on the eve of elections . While in Beijing , Sihanouk proposed a Presidential system government for Cambodia to then @-@ UN secretary @-@ general Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali , but soon dropped the idea after facing opposition from the Khmer Rouge . When general elections were held , FUNCINPEC , now headed by Sihanouk 's son Norodom Ranariddh , won , while the Cambodian People 's Party ( CPP ) headed by Hun Sen came in second . The CPP was unhappy with the election results , and on 3 June 1993 Hun Sen and Chea Sim called on Sihanouk to lead the government . Sihanouk complied , and announced the formation of a Provisional National Government ( PRG ) headed by him , with Hun Sen and Ranariddh as his deputies . Ranariddh was surprised at Sihanouk 's announcement , as he had not been informed of his father 's plans , and joined Australia , China , the United Kingdom , and the United States in opposing the plan . The following day , Sihanouk rescinded his announcement through a national radio broadcast .
On 14 June 1993 Sihanouk was reinstated as the head of state in a constituent assembly session presided over by Ranariddh , who took the opportunity to declare the 1970 coup d 'état which overthrew Sihanouk as " illegal " . As Head of State , Sihanouk renamed the Cambodian military to its pre @-@ 1970 namesake , the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces . He also issued orders to officially rename the country from the State of Cambodia to simply " Cambodia " , reinstating Nokor Reach as the National Anthem of Cambodia with some minor modifications to its lyrics , and the Cambodian flag to its pre @-@ 1970 design . At the same time , Sihanouk appointed Ranariddh and Hun Sen co @-@ prime ministers , with equal powers . This arrangement , which was provisional , was ratified by the Constituent Assembly on 2 July 1993 . On 30 August 1993 Ranariddh and Hun Sen met with Sihanouk and presented two draft constitutions , one of them stipulating a constitutional monarchy headed by a king , and another a republic led by a head of state . Sihanouk opted for the draft stipulating Cambodia a constitutional monarchy , which was ratified by the constituent assembly on 21 September 1993 .
= = Second reign = =
The new constitution came into force on 24 September 1993 , and Sihanouk was reinstated as the King of Cambodia . A permanent coalition government was formed between FUNCINPEC , CPP and a third political party , the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party ( BLDP ) . In turn , Sihanouk made Ranariddh and Hun Sen First and Second Prime Ministers , respectively . Shortly after that , Sihanouk left for Beijing , where he spent several months for cancer treatment . In April 1994 Sihanouk returned , and the following month called the government to hold new elections so that the Khmer Rouge could be co @-@ opted into the government . Both Ranariddh and Hun Sen rejected his suggestion , but Sihanouk pressed on , and further proposed a national unity government consisting of FUNCINPEC , CPP , and the Khmer Rouge headed by him . Again , both prime ministers rejected Sihanouk 's proposal , arguing that Khmer Rouge 's past intransigent attitude made the proposal unrealistic . Sihanouk backed down , and expressed frustration that Hun Sen and Ranariddh had been ignoring him . As both Norodom Sirivudh and Julio Jeldres , his younger half @-@ brother and official biographer , respectively , saw it , this was a clear sign that the monarchy 's ability to exert control over national affairs had diminished , at least vis @-@ a @-@ vis the prime ministers .
In July 1994 one of his sons , Norodom Chakrapong , led a failed coup attempt to topple the government . Following the coup attempt , Chakrapong took refuge in a hotel in Phnom Penh , but government troops soon discovered his hideout and surrounded the hotel . Chakrapong called Sihanouk , who negotiated with government representatives to allow him to go into exile in Malaysia . The following November , Sirivudh was accused of plotting to assassinate Hun Sen and imprisoned . Sihanouk intervened to have Sirivudh detained at the interior ministry 's headquarters , convinced that there was a secret plan to kill the latter if he were to remain in prison . After Sirivudh was relocated to the safer location , Sihanouk appealed to Hun Sen that Sirivudh be allowed to go into exile in France together with his family . Subsequently , Hun Sen accepted his offer .
Relations between the two co @-@ prime ministers , Ranariddh and Hun Sen , deteriorated from March 1996 , when the former accused the CPP of repeatedly delaying the allocation process of low @-@ level government posts to FUNCINPECs . Ranariddh threatened to pull out of the coalition government and hold national elections in the same year if his demands were not met , stoking unease among Hun Sen and other CPP officials . The following month , Sihanouk presided over a meeting between several royal family members and senior FUNCINPEC officials in Paris . Sihanouk attempted to reduce tensions between FUNCINPEC and the CPP by assuring that FUNCINPEC would not leave the coalition government and that there were no reactionary elements planning to bring down Hun Sen or the CPP . In March 1997 Sihanouk expressed his willingness to abdicate the throne , claiming that rising anti @-@ royalist sentiment among the populace was threatening the monarchy 's existence . In response , Hun Sen tersely warned Sihanouk that he would introduce constitutional amendments to prohibit members of the royal family from participating in politics if he followed through on his suggestion . As Widyono saw it , Sihanouk remained popular with the Cambodian electorate , and Hun Sen feared that , should he abdicate and enter politics , he would win in any future elections , thereby undercutting CPP 's political clout .
In July 1997 , violent clashes erupted in Phnom Penh between infantry forces separately allied to the CPP and FUNCINPEC , which effectively led to Ranariddh 's ousting after FUNCINPEC forces were defeated . Sihanouk voiced displeasure with Hun Sen for orchestrating the clashes , but refrained from calling Ranariddh 's ouster a " coup d 'etat " , a term which FUNCINPEC members used . When the National Assembly elected Ung Huot as the First Prime Minister to replace Ranariddh on 6 August 1997 , Sihanouk charged that Ranariddh 's ouster was illegal and renewed his offer to abdicate the throne , a plan which did not materialize . In September 1998 Sihanouk meditated political talks in Siem Reap after the FUNCINPEC and the Sam Rainsy Party ( SRP ) staged protests against the CPP @-@ led government for irregularities over the 1998 general elections . The talks broke down at the end of the month after Hun Sen narrowly escaped an assassination attempt , which he accused Sam Rainsy of masterminding . Two months later , in November 1998 , Sihanouk brokered a second round of political talks between the CPP and FUNCINPEC whereby an agreement was reached for another coalition government between the CPP and FUNCINPEC .
Sihanouk maintained a monthly bulletin in which he wrote commentaries on political issues and posted old photos of Cambodia in the 1950s and 1960s . In 1997 a character known by the name of " Ruom Rith " first appeared in his monthly bulletin , expressing critical comments on Hun Sen and the government . Hun Sen became offended by Ruom Rith 's criticisms , and on at least two occasions in 1998 and 2003 persuaded Sihanouk to stop publishing his comments . According to Ranariddh , Ruom Rith was an alter ego of Sihanouk , a claim which the latter vehemently denied . In July 2002 Sihanouk expressed concern over the absence of detailed constitutional provisions over the organization and functioning of the Cambodian throne council . When Hun Sen rejected Sihanouk 's concern , the latter followed up in September 2002 by threatening to abdicate , so as to force the throne council to convene and elect a new monarch .
In July 2003 general elections were held again , and the CPP won . However , they failed to secure two @-@ thirds of all parliamentary seats , as required by the constitution to form a new government . The two runner @-@ up parties of the election , FUNCINPEC and SRP , blocked the CPP from doing so . Instead , in August 2003 they filed complaints with the Constitutional Council over alleged electoral irregularities . After their complaints were rejected , FUNCINPEC and SRP threatened to boycott the swearing @-@ in ceremony of parliamentarians . Sihanouk coaxed both parties to change their decision , stating that he would abstain from presiding over the ceremony as well if they did not comply with his wishes . Both parties eventually backed off from their threats , and the swearing @-@ in ceremony was held in October 2003 , with Sihanouk in attendance . The CPP , FUNCINPEC , and SRP held additional talks into 2004 to break the political stalemate , but to no avail . At the same time , Sihanouk proposed a unity government jointly led by politicians from all three political parties , which Hun Sen and Ranariddh both rebuffed .
= = Abdication and final years = =
On 6 July 2004 in an open letter , Sihanouk announced his plans to abdicate . At the same time , he criticised Hun Sen and Ranariddh for ignoring his suggestions on how to resolve the political stalemate of the past year . Meanwhile , Hun Sen and Ranariddh had agreed to introduce a constitutional amendment that provided for an open voting system , requiring parliamentarians to select cabinet ministers and the president of the National Assembly by a show of hands . Sihanouk disapproved of the open voting system , calling upon Senate President Chea Sim not to sign the amendment . When Chea Sim heeded Sihanouk 's advice , he was ferried out of the country shortly before the National Assembly convened to vote on the amendment on 15 July . On 17 July 2004 , the CPP and FUNCINPEC agreed to form a coalition government , leaving SRP out as an opposition party . On 6 October 2004 , Sihanouk wrote a letter calling for the throne council to convene and select a successor . The National Assembly and Senate both held emergency meetings to pass laws allowing for the abdication of the monarch . On 14 October 2004 the throne council unanimously voted to select Norodom Sihamoni as Sihanouk 's successor . Sihamoni was crowned as the King of Cambodia on 29 October 2004 .
In March 2005 Sihanouk accused Thailand , Laos , and Vietnam of encroaching into Cambodian territory , through unilateral border demarcation exercises without Cambodian participation . Two months later , Sihanouk formed the Supreme National Council on Border Affairs ( SNCBA ) , which he headed , to address these concerns . While the SRP and Chea Sim expressed support for Sihanouk for the formation of the SNCBA , Hun Sen decided to form a separate body , National Authority on Border Affairs ( NABA ) , to deal with border concerns , with SNCBA to serve only as an advisory body . After Hun Sen signed a border treaty with Vietnam in October 2005 , Sihanouk dissolved the SNCBA . In August 2007 the Cambodian Action Committee for Justice and Equity , a US @-@ based human rights NGO , called for Sihanouk 's State immunity to be lifted , so as to allow him to testify in the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia ( ECCC ) . Sihanouk responded to the call by inviting the ECCC public affairs officer , Peter Foster , for a discussion session on his personal experience under the Khmer Rouge regime . Both Hun Sen and FUNCINPEC criticized the suggestion , with the latter accusing the NGO of being disrespectful . The ECCC subsequently rejected Sihanouk 's invitation .
The following year , bilateral relations between Thailand and Cambodia became strained due to overlapping claims on the land area surrounding Preah Vihear Temple . Sihanouk issued a communique in July 2008 emphasizing the Khmer architecture of the temple as well as ICJ 's 1962 ruling of the temple in favour of Cambodia . In August 2009 Sihanouk stated that he would stop posting messages on his personal website as he was getting old , making it difficult for him to keep up with his personal duties . Between 2009 and 2011 , Sihanouk spent most of his time in Beijing for medical care . He made a final public appearance in Phnom Penh on his 89th birthday and 20th anniversary of the Paris Peace Accords on 30 October 2011 . Thereafter , Sihanouk expressed his intent to stay in Cambodia indefinitely , but returned to Beijing in January 2012 for further medical treatment at the advice of his Chinese doctors .
= = Death and funeral = =
In January 2012 Sihanouk issued a letter to express his wish to be cremated after his death , and for his ashes to be interred in a golden urn . A few months later , in September 2012 , Sihanouk said that he would not return to Cambodia from Beijing for his 90th birthday , citing fatigue . On 15 October 2012 Sihanouk died of a heart attack at 1 : 20 am , Phnom Penh time . When the news broke , Sihamoni , Hun Sen , and other government officials flew to Beijing to pay their last respects . The Cambodian government announced an official mourning period of seven days between 17 October and 24 October 2012 , and state flags were ordered to fly at one @-@ third height . Two days later , Sihanouk 's body was brought back from Beijing on an Air China flight , and about 1 @.@ 2 million people lined the streets from the airport to the royal palace to witness the return of Sihanouk 's cortege .
In late November 2012 , Hun Sen said that Sihanouk 's funeral and cremation were to be carried out in February 2013 . Sihanouk 's body lay in state at the royal palace for the next three months until the funeral was held on 1 February 2013 . A 6 @,@ 000 @-@ metre ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) street procession was held , and Sihanouk 's body was subsequently kept at the royal crematorium until 4 February 2013 when his body was cremated . The following day , the royal family scattered some of Sihanouk 's ashes into the Tonle Sap river , while the rest were kept in the palace 's throne hall for about a year . In October 2013 a stupa featuring a bronze statue of Sihanouk was inaugurated next to the Independence Monument . In July 2014 Sihanouk 's ashes were interred at the silver pagoda next to those of one of his daughters , Kantha Bopha .
= = Artistic works = =
= = = Film @-@ making = = =
Sihanouk produced about 50 films throughout his lifetime . He developed an interest in the cinema at a young age , which he attributed to frequent trips to the cinema with his parents . Shortly after becoming king in 1941 , Sihanouk made a few amateur films , and sent Cambodian students to study film @-@ making in France . When the film Lord Jim was released in 1965 , Sihanouk was vexed with the negative portrayal it gave of Cambodia . In response , Sihanouk produced his first feature film , Apsara , in 1966 . He went on to produce , direct , and act in eight more films between 1966 and 1969 , roping in members of the royal family and military generals to star in his films . Sihanouk expressed that his films were created with the intent of portraying Cambodia in a positive light ; Milton Osborne also noted that the films were filled with Cold War and nationalist propaganda themes . Sihanouk 's former adviser , Charles Meyer , said that his films created from the 1960s were of amateur standard , while the director of Reyum Institute , Ly Daravuth , similarly commented in 2006 that his films lacked artistic qualities .
In 1967 one of his films , The Enchanted Forest was nominated at the 5th Moscow International Film Festival . In 1968 Sihanouk launched the Phnom Penh International Film Festival , which was held for a second time in 1969 . In both years , a special award category was designated , the Golden Apsara Prize , of which Sihanouk was its only nominee and winner . After Sihanouk was ousted in 1970 , he ceased producing films for the next seventeen years until 1987 . In 1997 Sihanouk received a special jury prize from the International Film Festival of Moscow , where he revealed that he had received a budget ranging from US $ 20 @,@ 000 to US $ 70 @,@ 000 for each of his film productions from the Cambodian government . Six years later , Sihanouk donated his film archives to the École française d 'Extrême @-@ Orient in France and Monash University in Australia . In 2006 he produced his last film , Miss Asina , and then declared his retirement from film @-@ making in May 2010 .
= = = Music = = =
Sihanouk wrote at least 48 musical compositions between the late 1940s and the early 1970s , combining both traditional Khmer and Western themes into his works . From the 1940s until the 1960s , Sihanouk 's compositions were mostly based on sentimental , romantic and patriotic themes . Sihanouk 's romantic songs reflected his numerous romantic liaisons , particularly his relationship with his wife Monique , and compositions such as " My Darling " and " Monica " were dedicated to her . He also wrote nationalistic songs , meant to showcase the beauty of provincial towns and at the same time foster a sense of patriotism and national unity among Cambodians . Notable compositions , such as " Flower of Battambang " , " Beauty of Kep City " , " Phnom Kulen " , and " Phnom Penh " , are examples of these . A few of his other compositions , including " Luang Prabang " , " Nostalgia of China " , and " Goodbye Bogor " were sentimental songs about neighbouring countries including Laos , Indonesia , and China .
After he was ousted as head of state in 1970 , Sihanouk wrote several revolutionary @-@ style songs that praised the leaders of Communist countries , including " Hommage Khmer au Maréchal Kim Il Sung " and " Merci , Piste Ho Chi Minh " . They were intended to show his gratitude toward the Communist leaders , which had supported GRUNK between 1970 and 1975 . From a young age , Sihanouk learned to play several musical instruments including the clarinet , saxophone , piano , and accordion . In the 1960s Sihanouk led a musical band made up of his relatives , who would perform French songs and his own personal compositions for diplomats at the royal palace . In his tours across Cambodian provinces , Sihanouk was accompanied by the royal military orchestra and Cambodian pop singers . Later , while Sihanouk was living in exile during the 1980s , he hosted concerts to entertain diplomats whenever he visited the United Nations Headquarters in New York City . After he was reinstated as king in 1993 , Sihanouk continued to perform in concerts held at the royal palace on an occasional basis .
= = Titles and styles = =
Sihanouk was known by many formal and informal titles throughout his lifetime , and the Guinness Book of World Records identifies Sihanouk as the royal who had served the greatest variety of state and political offices . When Sihanouk became king in 1941 , he was bestowed with the official title of " Preah Bat Samdech Preah Norodom Sihanouk Varman " , which he used for both reigns between 1941 and 1955 and again from 1993 to 2004 . He reverted to the title of Prince after he abdicated 1955 , and in that year was given by his father and successor the title of " Samdech Preah Upayuvareach " , which translates in English as " The Prince who has been King " . Starting from the early 1960s when he became the Head of State , Sihanouk was affectionately known to most Cambodians as " Samdech Euv " , which translates as the " Prince Father " in English .
In 2004 , after his second abdication , Sihanouk became known as the King Father of Cambodia , with the official title of " Preah Karuna Preah Bat Sâmdach Preah Norodom Sihanouk Preahmâhaviraksat " ( Khmer : ព ្ រះករុណាព ្ រះបាទសម ្ តេចព ្ រះ នរោត ្ តម សីហនុ ព ្ រះមហាវីរក ្ សត ្ រ ) . He was also referred to by another honorific , " His Majesty King Norodom Sihanouk The Great Heroic King King @-@ Father of Khmer independence , territorial integrity and national unity " ( ព ្ រះករុណា ព ្ រះបាទសម ្ ដេចព ្ រះ នរោត ្ តម សីហនុ ព ្ រះមហាវីរក ្ សត ្ រ ព ្ រះវររាជបិតាឯករាជ ្ យ បូរណភាពទឹកដី និងឯកភាពជាតិខ ្ មែរ ) . At the same time , he issued a royal decree requesting to be called " Samdech Ta " or " Samdech Ta @-@ tuot " , which translates as " Grandfather " and " Great @-@ grandfather " , respectively , in English . When Sihanouk died in October 2012 , he was bestowed by his son Sihamoni with the posthumous title of " Preah Karuna Preah Norodom Sihanouk Preah Borom Ratanakkot " ( Khmer : ព ្ រះករុណាព ្ រះនរោត ្ តម សីហនុ ព ្ រះបរមរតនកោដ ្ ឋ ) , which literally translates as " The King who lies in the Diamond Urn " in English .
= = Personal life = =
Sihanouk 's name is derived from two Sanskrit words " Siha " and " Manu " , which translates as " Lion " and " Jaws " , respectively , in English . He was fluent in Khmer , French , and English , and also learned Greek and Latin in high school . In his high school days , Sihanouk played soccer , basketball , volleyball , and also took up horse riding . He suffered from diabetes and depression in the 1960s , which flared up again in the late 1970s while living in captivity under the Khmer Rouge . In November 1992 Sihanouk suffered a stroke caused by the thickening of the coronary arteries and blood vessels . In 1993 he was diagnosed with B cell lymphoma in the prostate and was treated with chemotherapy and surgery . Sihanouk 's lymphoma went into remission in 1995 , but returned again in 2005 in the gastric region . He suffered a third bout of lymphoma in 2008 , and after prolonged treatment it went into remission the following year .
In 1960 Sihanouk built a personal residence at Chamkarmon District where he lived over the next ten years as the Head of State . Following his overthrow in 1970 , Sihanouk took up residence in Beijing , where he lived at the Diaoyutai State Guesthouse in the first year of his stay . In 1971 Sihanouk moved to a larger residence in the city that once housed the French embassy . The residence was equipped with a temperature @-@ adjustable swimming pool , cinema and seven chefs to cook his meals . In 1974 North Korean leader Kim Il @-@ sung built Changsuwon , a 40 @-@ room mansion , for Sihanouk . Changsuwon was built near an artificial lake , and Sihanouk spent time taking boat trips there and also shot a few films within the compound . In August 2008 Sihanouk declared his assets on his website , which according to him consisted of a small house in Siem Reap and 30 @,@ 000 Euros of cash savings stored in a French bank . He also stated that his residences in Beijing and Pyongyang were guesthouses owned by the governments of China and North Korea , respectively , and that they did not belong to him .
= = = Family = = =
In April 1952 Sihanouk married Paule Monique Izzi , the daughter of Pomme Peang – a Cambodian lady , and Jean @-@ François Izzi , a French banker of Italian ancestry . Monique became Sihanouk 's lifelong partner , and in the 1990s she changed her name to Monineath . Before his marriage to Monique , Sihanouk had married five other women including Phat Kanhol , Sisowath Pongsanmoni , Sisowath Monikessan , Mam Manivan Phanivong , and Thavet Norleak . Monikessan died of childbirth in 1946 , and his marriages to the other women all ended in divorce . Sihanouk sired fourteen children with five different wives except for Thavet Norleak , who bore him no children . During the Khmer Rouge years , five children and fourteen grandchildren disappeared ; Sihanouk believed they were killed by the Khmer Rouge .
Sihanouk had the following issue :
= = = Ancestry = = =
= = = Books = = =
Burchett , William G. ; Norodom , Sihanouk ( 1973 ) . My War with the CIA : Cambodia 's fight for survival . United States of America : Penguin Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 021689 @-@ 8 .
Chandler , David P. ( 1991 ) . The Tragedy of Cambodian History : Politics , War and Revolutions since 1945 . United States of America : Yale University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 05752 @-@ 0 .
Chin , Kin Wah ( 2005 ) . Southeast Asian Affairs 2005 . National University of Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies . ISBN 981 @-@ 230 @-@ 306 @-@ 5 .
Findlay , Trevor ( 1995 ) . Cambodia – The Legacy and Lessons of UNTAC – SIPRI Research Report No. 9 ( PDF ) . Stockholm International Peace Research Institute . Solna , Sweden : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 829186 @-@ 8 . Retrieved 22 May 2016 .
Jeldres , Julio A ( 2003 ) . The Royal House of Cambodia . Phnom Penh Cambodia : Monument Books . OCLC 54003889 .
Jeldres , Julio A ( 2005 ) . Volume 1 – Shadows Over Angkor : Memoirs of His Majesty King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia . Phnom Penh Cambodia : Monument Books . ISBN 974 @-@ 92648 @-@ 6 @-@ X.
Marlay , Ross ; Neher , Clark D. ( 1999 ) . Patriots and Tyrants : Ten Asian Leaders . Lanham , Maryland , United States of America : Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 0 @-@ 8476 @-@ 8442 @-@ 3 .
Mehta , Harish C. & Julie B. ( 2013 ) . Strongman : The Extraordinary Life of Hun Sen : The Extraordinary Life of Hun Sen. Singapore : Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd . ISBN 981 @-@ 4484 @-@ 60 @-@ 1 .
Mehta , Harish C. ( 2001 ) . Warrior Prince : Norodom Ranariddh , Son of King Sihanouk of Cambodia . Singapore : Graham Brash . ISBN 981 @-@ 218 @-@ 086 @-@ 9 .
Narong , Men S. ( 2007 ) . Who 's Who , The Most Influential People in Cambodia . Phnom Penh Cambodia : Media Business Networks . ISBN 99950 @-@ 66 @-@ 00 @-@ 9 .
Osborne , Milton E ( 1994 ) . Sihanouk Prince of Light , Prince of Darkness . Honolulu , Hawaii , United States of America : University of Hawaii Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8248 @-@ 1639 @-@ 1 .
Peou , Sorpong ( 2000 ) . Intervention and Change in Cambodia : Towards Democracy ? . National University of Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies . ISBN 981 @-@ 230 @-@ 042 @-@ 2 .
Summers , Laura ( 2003 ) . The Far East and Australasia 2003 . New York , United States of America : Psychology Press. pp. 227 – 243 . ISBN 1 @-@ 85743 @-@ 133 @-@ 2 .
Widyono , Benny ( 2008 ) . Dancing in Shadows : Sihanouk , the Khmer Rouge , and the United Nations in Cambodia . Lanham , Maryland , United States of America : Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 0 @-@ 7425 @-@ 5553 @-@ 4 .
= = = Reports = = =
Baumgärtel , Tilman ( 2010 ) . " KON – The Cinema of Cambodia " . Department of Media and Communication – Royal University of Phnom Penh . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 27 August 2015 . Retrieved 8 July 2015 .
Cohen , Arthur ( 9 April 1968 ) . " Intelligence Report – Ten Years of Chinese Communist Foreign Policy " . Central Intelligence Agency ( Directorate of Intelligence ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 27 August 2015 . Retrieved 18 June 2015 .
Jeldres , Julio ( September 2012 ) . " A Personal Reflection on Norodom Sihanouk and Zhou Enlai : An Extraordinary Friendship on the Fringes of the Cold War " . Cross @-@ Currents : East Asian History and Culture Review ( 4 ) : 53 – 64 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 30 September 2015 . Retrieved 1 September 2015 .
Kinetz , Erika ; Kimsong , Kay ; Wasson , Erik ; Chan Thul , Prak ( 31 October 2006 ) . " His Majesty 's Norodom Sihanouk 's 84th Birthday – A special supplement to The Cambodia Daily " . The Cambodia Daily . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 17 August 2015 . Retrieved 9 July 2015 .
Scott @-@ Maxwell , Aline ( January 2008 ) . " Royal songs and royal singing : Music in the Norodom Sihanouk archival collection , Monash University Library " . Fontes Artis Musicae 5 ( 1 ) : 180 – 190 . JSTOR 23512420 .
Wemaere , Séverine ( managing director ) ( 1 June 2013 ) . " Memory ! International Film Heritage Festival " . Technicolor Film Foundation . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 27 August 2015 . Retrieved 8 July 2015 .
= Better Off Ted =
Better Off Ted is an American satirical situation comedy series , created by Victor Fresco ( known for his other television series Andy Richter Controls the Universe and the short @-@ lived show Life on a Stick ) , who also served as the show 's executive producer . The series ran on the ABC network from March 18 , 2009 to January 26 , 2010 .
Better Off Ted focuses on the protagonist , Ted Crisp ( Jay Harrington ) , a single father and the well @-@ respected and beloved head of a research and development department at the fictional , soulless conglomerate of Veridian Dynamics . Ted narrates the series ' events by regularly breaking the fourth wall and directly addressing the audience as the show 's on @-@ camera narrator . Supporting characters include Ted 's supervisor Veronica Palmer ( Portia de Rossi ) , co @-@ worker and love interest Linda Zwordling ( Andrea Anders ) , his daughter Rose ( Isabella Acres ) , and laboratory scientists Phillip Myman ( Jonathan Slavin ) and Lem Hewitt ( Malcolm Barrett ) .
The series received critical acclaim , with particular praise going towards its witty and satirical humor . Its second season holds a score of 84 out of 100 on Metacritic . However , despite such positive feedback , the show 's debut only drew in 5 @.@ 64 million viewers and continued to have extremely low ratings . Although many expressed skepticism that it would return , it was renewed for a second season . On May 13 , 2010 , ABC officially canceled the series due to low viewing figures . Two episodes were unaired in the United States , but are available to view on Netflix , Amazon Video on Demand , Xbox Live Marketplace , and iTunes .
= = Conception = =
= = = Origin = = =
Victor Fresco , the show 's creator , has cited his being a new parent as inspiration for the show . In an interview with NPR , he discussed how having a kid piqued his interest to develop a show about the disconnection between a person 's public and personal lives , such as how parents teach their kids to be moral , yet work for giant corporations . According to Fresco , Ted Crisp is the single father and his daughter serves as his moral compass . Fresco stated that since he 's worked for a few giant companies , he didn 't base Veridian Dynamics on any specific corporation . The show 's name was based on the idea that a person is better off if they are Ted , that essentially the average person wants to be Ted . Fresco has stated that he wasn 't a fan of the show 's title , but hadn 't spoken of changing it .
= = = Casting = = =
In casting his crew , Fresco and his team worked fairly quickly . " You don 't have a lot of time to cast , unfortunately , and it 's the most important thing in the show , I think . " says Fresco , " Good casting can transcend mediocre material but the best material in the world cannot transcend the mediocre casting . It 's all about casting and I think we got really lucky in all five of these regulars . "
Fresco approached Jonathan Slavin , with whom he had previously worked on the sitcom Andy Richter Controls the Universe , about playing the role of Phil . Being a fan of Slavin 's work , he thought he 'd be great for the role . Andrea Anders , whom Fresco previously enjoyed on The Class , and Malcolm Barrett were cast for the roles of Linda and Lem respectively . Portia de Rossi met with Fresco about the role of Veronica . Fresco assessed during their meeting that de Rossi was completely convinced that the role was perfect for her and that she was born to play it . He thought de Rossi nailed the role and cast her . When asked what drew her to the role , de Rossi replied , " I 'm really attracted to strong women . " De Rossi further went on to say , " I kind of had to throw myself at [ Fresco ] . I told him I 'd played this character who had similar qualities , very work driven , strong , insensitive , slightly chilly . I had to convince him I could play this character well and could play a character of this nature . " Jay Harrington was the first person Fresco met with when trying to cast someone as Ted Crisp . Although Fresco really liked Harrington , he decided to see more people before casting the role . After five weeks , Harrington was cast .
= = = Plot = = =
Better Off Ted revolves around the employees of a stereotypically evil company . The company , Veridian Dynamics , experiments on its employees , twists the truth , and will stop at nothing to achieve its goals . It has been mentioned that Veridian has swayed presidential elections , created killer pandas and robots , weaponized pumpkins , and that there are only three governments left in the world which are more powerful than Veridian . Although not promoted as such , and rarely the focus of storylines , the show 's frequent references to futuristic technologies , killer robots , sentient computers , etc . , places Better Off Ted at least partially in the science fiction genre .
Most of the characters are fully aware of Veridian 's nature , and often try to manipulate the system in order to stop bad things from happening to them ( and sometimes to mitigate the evil effects of some of Veridian 's projects ) . They are also all susceptible to the potential rewards the company can offer despite the consequences of their actions , such as the company 's attempt to hire Lem 's mother , or the company 's introduction of scented light bulbs with known flaws . Much of the comedy of the show comes from the characters ' navigation of these morally ambiguous areas .
Jay Harrington , who plays Ted Crisp on the show , serves
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, and two separate art departments , one of which focused on the flora and fauna of Pandora , and another that created human machines and human factors . In September 2006 , Cameron was announced to be using his own Reality Camera System to film in 3 @-@ D. The system would use two high @-@ definition cameras in a single camera body to create depth perception .
While these preparations were underway , Fox kept wavering in its commitment to Avatar because of its painful experience with cost overruns and delays on Cameron 's previous picture , Titanic , even though Cameron rewrote the script to combine several characters together and offered to cut his fee in case the film flopped . Cameron installed a traffic light with the amber signal lit outside of co @-@ producer Jon Landau 's office to represent the film 's uncertain future . In mid @-@ 2006 , Fox told Cameron " in no uncertain terms that they were passing on this film , " so he began shopping it around to other studios , and showed his proof @-@ of @-@ concept to Dick Cook ( then chairman of the Walt Disney Studios ) . However , when Disney attempted to take over , Fox exercised its right of first refusal . In October 2006 , Fox finally agreed to commit to making Avatar after Ingenious Media agreed to back the film , which reduced Fox 's financial exposure to less than half of the film 's official $ 237 million budget . After Fox accepted Avatar , one skeptical Fox executive shook his head and told Cameron and Landau , " I don 't know if we 're crazier for letting you do this , or if you 're crazier for thinking you can do this ... "
In December 2006 , Cameron described Avatar as " a futuristic tale set on a planet 200 years hence ... an old @-@ fashioned jungle adventure with an environmental conscience [ that ] aspires to a mythic level of storytelling " . The January 2007 press release described the film as " an emotional journey of redemption and revolution " and said the story is of " a wounded former Marine , thrust unwillingly into an effort to settle and exploit an exotic planet rich in biodiversity , who eventually crosses over to lead the indigenous race in a battle for survival " . The story would be of an entire world complete with an ecosystem of phantasmagorical plants and creatures , and native people with a rich culture and language .
Estimates put the cost of the film at about $ 280 – 310 million to produce and an estimated $ 150 million for marketing , noting that about $ 30 million in tax credits will lessen the financial impact on the studio and its financiers . A studio spokesperson said that the budget was " $ 237 million , with $ 150 million for promotion , end of story . "
= = = Themes and inspirations = = =
Avatar is primarily an action @-@ adventure journey of self @-@ discovery , in the context of imperialism and deep ecology . Cameron said his inspiration was " every single science fiction book I read as a kid " , and that he was particularly striving to update the style of Edgar Rice Burroughs 's John Carter series and the deep jungles of Pandora were visualized from Disney 's 37th animated film , Tarzan . He acknowledged that Avatar shares themes with the films At Play in the Fields of the Lord , The Emerald Forest , and Princess Mononoke , which feature clashes between cultures and civilizations , and with Dances with Wolves , where a battered soldier finds himself drawn to the culture he was initially fighting against .
In a 2007 interview with Time magazine , Cameron was asked about the meaning of the term Avatar , to which he replied , " It 's an incarnation of one of the Hindu gods taking a flesh form . In this film what that means is that the human technology in the future is capable of injecting a human 's intelligence into a remotely located body , a biological body . "
The look of the Na 'vi – the humanoids indigenous to Pandora – was inspired by a dream that Cameron 's mother had , long before he started work on Avatar . In her dream , she saw a blue @-@ skinned woman 12 feet ( 4 m ) tall , which he thought was " kind of a cool image " . Also he said , " I just like blue . It 's a good color ... plus , there 's a connection to the Hindu deities , which I like conceptually . " He included similar creatures in his first screenplay ( written in 1976 or 1977 ) , which featured a planet with a native population of " gorgeous " tall blue aliens . The Na 'vi were based on them .
For the love story between characters Jake and Neytiri , Cameron applied a star @-@ crossed love theme , and acknowledged its similarity to the pairing of Jack and Rose from his film Titanic . An interviewer stated , " Both couples come from radically different cultures that are contemptuous of their relationship and are forced to choose sides between the competing communities . " Cameron felt that whether or not the Jake and Neytiri love story would be perceived as believable partially hinged on the physical attractiveness of Neytiri 's alien appearance , which was developed by considering her appeal to the all @-@ male crew of artists . Though Cameron felt Jake and Neytiri do not fall in love right away , their portrayers ( Worthington and Saldana ) felt the characters do . Cameron said the two actors " had a great chemistry " during filming .
For the film 's floating " Hallelujah Mountains " , the designers drew inspiration from " many different types of mountains , but mainly the karst limestone formations in China . " According to production designer Dylan Cole , the fictional floating rocks were inspired by Mount Huang ( also known as Huangshan ) , Guilin , Zhangjiajie , among others around the world . Director Cameron had noted the influence of the Chinese peaks on the design of the floating mountains .
To create the interiors of the human mining colony on Pandora , production designers visited the Noble Clyde Boudreaux oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico during June 2007 . They photographed , measured and filmed every aspect of the platform , which was later replicated on @-@ screen with photorealistic CGI during post @-@ production .
Cameron said that he wanted to make " something that has this spoonful of sugar of all the action and the adventure and all that " but also have a conscience " that maybe in the enjoying of it makes you think a little bit about the way you interact with nature and your fellow man " . He added that " the Na 'vi represent something that is our higher selves , or our aspirational selves , what we would like to think we are " and that even though there are good humans within the film , the humans " represent what we know to be the parts of ourselves that are trashing our world and maybe condemning ourselves to a grim future " .
Cameron acknowledges that Avatar implicitly criticizes the United States ' role in the Iraq War and the impersonal nature of mechanized warfare in general . In reference to the use of the term shock and awe in the film , Cameron said , " We know what it feels like to launch the missiles . We don 't know what it feels like for them to land on our home soil , not in America . " He said in later interviews , " ... I think it 's very patriotic to question a system that needs to be corralled ... " and , " The film is definitely not anti @-@ American . " A scene in the film portrays the violent destruction of the towering Na 'vi Hometree , which collapses in flames after a missile attack , coating the landscape with ash and floating embers . Asked about the scene 's resemblance to the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center , Cameron said he had been " surprised at how much it did look like September 11 " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for Avatar began in April 2007 in Los Angeles and Wellington , New Zealand . Cameron described the film as a hybrid with a full live @-@ action shoot in combination with computer @-@ generated characters and live environments . " Ideally at the end of the day the audience has no idea which they 're looking at , " Cameron said . The director indicated that he had already worked four months on nonprincipal scenes for the film . The live action was shot with a modified version of the proprietary digital 3 @-@ D Fusion Camera System , developed by Cameron and Vince Pace . In January 2007 , Fox had announced that 3 @-@ D filming for Avatar would be done at 24 frames per second despite Cameron 's strong opinion that a 3 @-@ D film requires higher frame rate to make strobing less noticeable . According to Cameron , the film is composed of 60 % computer @-@ generated elements and 40 % live action , as well as traditional miniatures .
Motion @-@ capture photography lasted 31 days at the Hughes Aircraft stage in Playa Vista in Los Angeles . Live action photography began in October 2007 at Stone Street Studios in Wellington , New Zealand , and was scheduled to last 31 days . More than a thousand people worked on the production . In preparation of the filming sequences , all of the actors underwent professional training specific to their characters such as archery , horseback riding , firearm use , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . They received language and dialect training in the Na 'vi language created for the film . Before shooting the film , Cameron also sent the cast to the Hawaiian tropical rainforests to get a feel for a rainforest setting before shooting on the soundstage .
During filming , Cameron made use of his virtual camera system , a new way of directing motion @-@ capture filmmaking . The system shows the actors ' virtual counterparts in their digital surroundings in real time , allowing the director to adjust and direct scenes just as if shooting live action . According to Cameron , " It 's like a big , powerful game engine . If I want to fly through space , or change my perspective , I can . I can turn the whole scene into a living miniature and go through it on a 50 to 1 scale . " Using conventional techniques , the complete virtual world cannot be seen until the motion @-@ capture of the actors is complete . Cameron said this process does not diminish the value or importance of acting . On the contrary , because there is no need for repeated camera and lighting setups , costume fittings and make @-@ up touch @-@ ups , scenes do not need to be interrupted repeatedly . Cameron described the system as a " form of pure creation where if you want to move a tree or a mountain or the sky or change the time of day , you have complete control over the elements " .
Cameron gave fellow directors Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson a chance to test the new technology . Spielberg said , " I like to think of it as digital makeup , not augmented animation ... Motion capture brings the director back to a kind of intimacy that actors and directors only know when they 're working in live theater . " Spielberg and George Lucas were also able to visit the set to watch Cameron direct with the equipment .
To film the shots where CGI interacts with live action , a unique camera referred to as a " simulcam " was used , a merger of the 3 @-@ D fusion camera and the virtual camera systems . While filming live action in real time with the simulcam , the CGI images captured with the virtual camera or designed from scratch , are superimposed over the live action images as in augmented reality and shown on a small monitor , making it possible for the director to instruct the actors how to relate to the virtual material in the scene .
= = = Visual effects = = =
A number of innovative visual effects techniques were used during production . According to Cameron , work on the film had been delayed since the 1990s to allow the techniques to reach the necessary degree of advancement to adequately portray his vision of the film . The director planned to make use of photorealistic computer @-@ generated characters , created using new motion capture animation technologies he had been developing in the 14 months leading up to December 2006 .
Innovations include a new system for lighting massive areas like Pandora 's jungle , a motion @-@ capture stage or " volume " six times larger than any previously used , and an improved method of capturing facial expressions , enabling full performance capture . To achieve the face capturing , actors wore individually made skull caps fitted with a tiny camera positioned in front of the actors ' faces ; the information collected about their facial expressions and eyes is then transmitted to computers . According to Cameron , the method allows the filmmakers to transfer 100 % of the actors ' physical performances to their digital counterparts . Besides the performance capture data which were transferred directly to the computers , numerous reference cameras gave the digital artists multiple angles of each performance . A technically challenging scene was near the end of the film when the computer @-@ generated Neytiri held the live action Jake in human form , and attention was given to the details of the shadows and reflected light between them .
The lead visual effects company was Weta Digital in Wellington , New Zealand , at one point employing 900 people to work on the film . Because of the huge amount of data which needed to be stored , cataloged and available for everybody involved , even on the other side of the world , a new cloud computing and Digital Asset Management ( DAM ) system named Gaia was created by Microsoft especially for Avatar , which allowed the crews to keep track of and coordinate all stages in the digital processing . To render Avatar , Weta used a 10 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 930 m2 ) server farm making use of 4 @,@ 000 Hewlett @-@ Packard servers with 35 @,@ 000 processor cores with 104 terabytes of RAM and three petabytes of network area storage running Ubuntu Linux , Grid Engine cluster manager , and 2 of the animation software and managers , Pixar 's RenderMan and Pixar 's Alfred queue management system . The render farm occupies the 193rd to 197th spots in the TOP500 list of the world 's most powerful supercomputers . A new texturing and paint software system , called Mari , was developed by The Foundry in cooperation with Weta . Creating the Na 'vi characters and the virtual world of Pandora required over a petabyte of digital storage , and each minute of the final footage for Avatar occupies 17 @.@ 28 gigabytes of storage . Often , it would take each frame of the movie several hours to render . To help finish preparing the special effects sequences on time , a number of other companies were brought on board , including Industrial Light & Magic , which worked alongside Weta Digital to create the battle sequences . ILM was responsible for the visual effects for many of the film 's specialized vehicles and devised a new way to make CGI explosions . Joe Letteri was the film 's visual effects general supervisor .
= = = Music and soundtrack = = =
Composer James Horner scored the film , his third collaboration with Cameron after Aliens and Titanic . Horner recorded parts of the score with a small chorus singing in the alien language Na 'vi in March 2008 . He also worked with Wanda Bryant , an ethnomusicologist , to create a music culture for the alien race . The first scoring sessions were planned to take place in early 2009 . During production , Horner promised Cameron that he would not work on any other project except for Avatar and reportedly worked on the score from four in the morning till ten at night throughout the process . He stated in an interview , " Avatar has been the most difficult film I have worked on and the biggest job I have undertaken . " Horner composed the score as two different scores merged into one . He first created a score that reflected the Na 'vi way of sound and then combined it with a separate " traditional " score to drive the film . British singer Leona Lewis was chosen to sing the theme song for the film , called " I See You " . An accompanying music video , directed by Jake Nava , premiered December 15 , 2009 , on MySpace .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Promotions = = =
The first photo of the film was released on August 14 , 2009 , and Empire released exclusive images from the film in its October issue . Cameron , producer Jon Landau , Zoe Saldana , Stephen Lang , and Sigourney Weaver appeared at a panel , moderated by Tom Rothman , at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con on July 23 . Twenty @-@ five minutes of footage was screened in Dolby 3D . Weaver and Cameron appeared at additional panels to promote the film , speaking on the 23rd and 24th respectively . James Cameron announced at the Comic @-@ Con Avatar Panel that August 21 will be ' Avatar Day ' . On this day , the trailer was released in all theatrical formats . The official game trailer and toy line of the film were also unveiled on this day .
The 129 @-@ second trailer was released online on August 20 , 2009 . The new 210 @-@ second trailer was premiered in theatres on October 23 , 2009 , then soon after premiered online on Yahoo ! on October 29 , 2009 , to positive reviews . An extended version in IMAX 3D received overwhelmingly positive reviews . The Hollywood Reporter said that audience expectations were coloured by " the [ same ] establishment skepticism that preceded Titanic " and suggested the showing reflected the desire for original storytelling . The teaser has been among the most viewed trailers in the history of film marketing , reaching the first place of all trailers viewed on Apple.com with 4 million views . On October 30 , to celebrate the opening of the first 3 @-@ D cinema in Vietnam , Fox allowed Megastar Cinema to screen exclusive 16 minutes of Avatar to a number of press . The three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute trailer of the film premiered live on November 1 , 2009 , during a Dallas Cowboys football game at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington , Texas , on the Diamond Vision screen , one of the world 's largest video displays , and to TV audiences viewing the game on Fox . It is said to be the largest live motion picture trailer viewing in history .
The Coca @-@ Cola Company collaborated with Fox to launch a worldwide marketing campaign to promote the film . The highlight of the campaign was the website AVTR.com. Specially marked bottles and cans of Coca @-@ Cola Zero , when held in front of a webcam , enabled users to interact with the website 's 3 @-@ D features using augmented reality ( AR ) technology . The film was heavily promoted in an episode of the Fox Network series Bones in the episode " The Gamer In The Grease " ( Season 5 , Episode 9 ) . Avatar star Joel David Moore has a recurring role on the program , and is seen in the episode anxiously awaiting the release of the film . A week prior to the American release , Zoe Saldana promoted the film on Adult Swim when she was interviewed by an animated Space Ghost . McDonald 's had a promotion mentioned in television commercials in Europe called " Avatarize yourself " , which encouraged people to go to the website set up by Oddcast , and use a photograph of themselves to change into a Na 'vi .
= = = Books = = =
Avatar : A Confidential Report on the Biological and Social History of Pandora , a 224 @-@ page book in the form of a field guide to the film 's fictional setting of the planet of Pandora , was released by Harper Entertainment on November 24 , 2009 . It is presented as a compilation of data collected by the humans about Pandora and the life on it , written by Maria Wilhelm and Dirk Mathison . HarperFestival also released Wilhelm 's 48 @-@ page James Cameron 's Avatar : The Reusable Scrapbook for children . The Art of Avatar was released on November 30 , 2009 , by Abrams Books . The book features detailed production artwork from the film , including production sketches , illustrations by Lisa Fitzpatrick , and film stills . Producer Jon Landau wrote the foreword , Cameron wrote the epilogue , and director Peter Jackson wrote the preface . In October 2010 , Abrams Books also released The Making of Avatar , a 272 @-@ page book that detailed the film 's production process and contains over 500 color photographs and illustrations .
In a 2009 interview , Cameron said that he planned to write a novel version of Avatar after the film was released . In February 2010 , producer Jon Landau stated that Cameron plans a prequel novel for Avatar that will " lead up to telling the story of the movie , but it would go into much more depth about all the stories that we didn 't have time to deal with " , saying that " Jim wants to write a novel that is a big , epic story that fills in a lot of things " . In August 2013 it was announced that Cameron hired Steven Gould to pen four standalone novels to expand the Avatar universe .
= = = Video games = = =
Cameron chose Ubisoft Montreal to create an Avatar game for the film in 2007 . The filmmakers and game developers collaborated heavily , and Cameron decided to include some of Ubisoft 's vehicle and creature designs in the film . James Cameron 's Avatar : The Game was released on December 1 , 2009 , for most home video game consoles ( PS3 , Xbox 360 , Wii , Nintendo DS , iPhone ) , Microsoft Windows and December 8 for PSP .
= = = Action figures and postage stamps = = =
Mattel Toys announced in December 2009 that it would be introducing a line of Avatar action figures . Each action figure will be made with a 3 @-@ D web tag , called an i @-@ TAG , that consumers can scan using a web cam , revealing unique on @-@ screen content that is special to each specific action figure . A series of toys representing six different characters from the film were also distributed globally in McDonald 's Happy Meals .
In December 2009 , France Post released a special limited edition stamp based on Avatar , coinciding with the film 's worldwide release .
= = = Theme park attraction = = =
In 2011 , Cameron , Lightstorm , and Fox entered an exclusive licensing agreement with The Walt Disney Company to feature Avatar @-@ themed attractions at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts worldwide , including a themed land for Disney 's Animal Kingdom in Lake Buena Vista , Florida . At Disney 's 2013 D23 Expo , Disney announced that the area would include two attractions . Construction began in 2014 and is set to open in 2017 .
= = Release = =
= = = Initial screening = = =
Avatar premiered in London on December 10 , 2009 , and was released theatrically worldwide from December 16 to 18 . The film was originally set for release on May 22 , 2009 , during filming , but was pushed back to allow more post @-@ production time ( the last shots were delivered in November ) , and to give more time for theatres worldwide to install 3D projectors . Cameron stated that the film 's aspect ratio would be 1 @.@ 78 : 1 for 3D screenings and that a 2 @.@ 39 : 1 image would be extracted for 2D screenings . However , a 3D 2 @.@ 39 : 1 extract was approved for use with constant @-@ image @-@ height screens ( i.e. screens which increase in width to display 2 @.@ 39 : 1 films ) . During a 3D preview showing in Germany on December 16 , the movie 's DRM ' protection ' system failed , and some copies delivered could not be watched at all in the theaters . The problems were fixed in time for the public premiere . Avatar was released in a total of 3 @,@ 457 theatres in the US , of which 2 @,@ 032 theatres ran it in 3D . In total 90 % of all advance ticket sales for Avatar were for 3D screenings .
Internationally , Avatar opened on a total of 14 @,@ 604 screens in 106 territories , of which 3 @,@ 671 were showing the film in 3D ( producing 56 % of the first weekend gross ) . The film was simultaneously presented in IMAX 3D format , opening in 178 theaters in the United States on December 18 . The international IMAX release included 58 theaters beginning on December 16 , and 25 more theaters were to be added in the coming weeks . The IMAX release was the company 's widest to date , a total of 261 theaters worldwide . The previous IMAX record opening was Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , which opened in 161 IMAX theatres in the US , and about 70 international . 20th Century Fox Korea adapted and later released Avatar in 4D version , which included " moving seats , smells of explosives , sprinkling water , laser lights and wind " .
= = = Box office = = =
= = = = General = = = =
Avatar was released internationally on more than 14 @,@ 000 screens . It earned $ 3 @,@ 537 @,@ 000 from midnight screenings domestically ( United States and Canada ) , with the initial 3D release limited to 2 @,@ 200 screens . The film earned $ 26 @,@ 752 @,@ 099 on its opening day , and $ 77 @,@ 025 @,@ 481 over its opening weekend , making it the second @-@ largest December opening ever behind I Am Legend , the largest domestic opening weekend for a film not based on a franchise ( topping The Incredibles ) , the highest opening weekend for a film entirely in 3D ( breaking Up 's record ) , the highest opening weekend for an environmentalist film ( breaking The Day After Tomorrow 's record ) , and the 40th largest opening weekend in North America , despite a blizzard that blanketed the East Coast of the United States and reportedly hurt its opening weekend results . The film also set an IMAX opening weekend record , with 178 theaters generating approximately $ 9 @.@ 5 million , 12 % of the film 's $ 77 million ( at the time ) North American gross on less than 3 % of the screens .
International markets generating opening weekend tallies of at least $ 10 million were for Russia ( $ 19 @.@ 7 million ) , France ( $ 17 @.@ 4 million ) , the UK ( $ 13 @.@ 8 million ) , Germany ( $ 13 @.@ 3 million ) , South Korea ( $ 11 @.@ 7 million ) , Australia ( $ 11 @.@ 5 million ) and Spain ( $ 11 @.@ 0 million ) . Avatar 's worldwide gross was US $ 241 @.@ 6 million after five days , the ninth largest opening @-@ weekend gross of all time , and the largest for a non @-@ franchise , non @-@ sequel and original film . 58 international IMAX screens generated an estimated $ 4 @.@ 1 million during the opening weekend .
Revenues in the film 's second weekend decreased by only 1 @.@ 8 % in domestic markets , marking a rare occurrence , earning $ 75 @,@ 617 @,@ 183 , to remain in first place at the box office and recording the biggest second weekend of all time ( since surpassed by Marvel 's The Avengers ) . The film experienced another marginal decrease in revenue in its third weekend , dropping 9 @.@ 4 % to $ 68 @,@ 490 @,@ 688 domestically , remaining in first place at the box office , to set a third @-@ weekend record .
Avatar crossed the $ 1 billion mark on the 19th day of its international release , making it the first film to reach this mark in only 19 days ( a record now matched by both Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 in 2011 and The Avengers in 2012 ) . It became the fifth film grossing more than $ 1 billion worldwide , and the only film of 2009 to do so . In its fourth weekend , Avatar continued to lead the box office domestically , setting a new all @-@ time fourth @-@ weekend record of $ 50 @,@ 306 @,@ 217 , and becoming the highest @-@ grossing 2009 release in the United States . In the film 's fifth weekend , it set the Martin Luther King Day weekend record , grossing $ 54 @,@ 401 @,@ 446 , and set a fifth @-@ weekend record with a take of $ 42 @,@ 785 @,@ 612 . It held the top spot to set the sixth and seventh weekend records earning $ 34 @,@ 944 @,@ 081 and $ 31 @,@ 280 @,@ 029 respectively . It was the fastest film to gross $ 600 million domestically , on its 47th day in theatres .
On January 31 , it became the first film to earn over $ 2 billion worldwide , and it became the first film to gross over $ 700 million in North America , on February 27 , after 72 days of release . It remained at number one at the domestic box office for seven consecutive weeks – the most consecutive No. 1 weekends since Titanic spent 15 weekends at No.1 in 1997 and 1998 – and also spent 11 consecutive weekends at the top of the box office outside the United States and Canada , breaking the record of nine consecutive weekends set by Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest . By the end of its first theatrical release Avatar had grossed $ 749 @,@ 766 @,@ 139 in the U.S. and Canada , and $ 1 @,@ 999 @,@ 298 @,@ 189 in other territories , for a worldwide total of $ 2 @,@ 749 @,@ 064 @,@ 328 .
Including the revenue from a re @-@ release of Avatar featuring extended footage , Avatar grossed $ 760 @,@ 507 @,@ 625 in the U.S. and Canada , and $ 2 @,@ 027 @,@ 457 @,@ 462 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 2 @,@ 787 @,@ 965 @,@ 087 with 72 @.@ 7 % of its total worldwide gross in international markets . Avatar has set a number of box office records during its release : on January 25 , 2010 , it surpassed Titanic 's worldwide gross to become the highest @-@ grossing film of all time worldwide 41 days after its international release , just two days after taking the foreign box office record . On February 2 , 47 days after its domestic release , Avatar surpassed Titanic to become the highest @-@ grossing film of all time in Canada and the United States . It became the highest @-@ grossing film of all time in at least 30 other countries and is the first film to earn over $ 2 billion in foreign box office receipts . IMAX ticket sales account for $ 243 @.@ 3 million of its worldwide gross , more than double the previous record .
Box Office Mojo estimates that after adjusting for the rise in average ticket prices , Avatar would be the 14th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time in North America . Box Office Mojo also observes that the higher ticket prices for 3D and IMAX screenings have had a significant impact on Avatar 's gross ; it estimated , on April 21 , 2010 , that Avatar had sold approximately 75 million tickets in North American theatres , more than any other film since 1999 's Star Wars Episode I : The Phantom Menace . On a worldwide basis , when Avatar 's gross stood at $ 2 billion just 35 days into its run , The Daily Telegraph estimated its gross was surpassed by only Gone with the Wind ( $ 3 @.@ 0 billion ) , Titanic ( $ 2 @.@ 9 billion ) and Star Wars ( $ 2 @.@ 2 billion ) after adjusting for inflation to 2010 prices , with Avatar ultimately winding up with $ 2 @.@ 8 billion by the end of its run in 2010 . Reuters even placed it ahead of Titanic after adjusting the global total for inflation .
= = = = Commercial analysis = = = =
Before its release , various film critics and fan communities predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office , in line with predictions made for Cameron 's previous blockbuster Titanic . This criticism ranged from Avatar 's film budget , to its concept and use of 3 @-@ D " blue cat people " . Slate magazine 's Daniel Engber complimented the 3D effects , but criticized them for reminding him of certain CGI characters from the Star Wars prequel films and for having the " uncanny valley " effect . The New York Times noted that 20th Century Fox executives had decided to release Alvin and the Chipmunks : The Squeakquel alongside Avatar , calling it a " secret weapon " to cover any unforeseeable losses at the box @-@ office .
Box office analysts , on the other hand , estimated that the film would be a box office success . " The holy grail of 3 @-@ D has finally arrived , " said an analyst for Exhibitor Relations . " This is why all these 3 @-@ D venues were built : for Avatar . This is the one . The behemoth . " The " cautionary estimate " was that Avatar would bring in around $ 60 million in its opening weekend . Others guessed higher . There were also analysts who believed that the film 's three @-@ dimensionality would help its box office performance , given that recent 3D films had been successful .
Cameron said he felt the pressure of the predictions , but that pressure is good for film @-@ makers . " It makes us think about our audiences and what the audience wants , " he stated . " We owe them a good time . We owe them a piece of good entertainment . " Although he felt Avatar would appeal to everyone and that the film could not afford to have a target demographic , he especially wanted hard @-@ core science @-@ fiction fans to see it : " If I can just get ' em in the damn theater , the film will act on them in the way it 's supposed to , in terms of taking them on an amazing journey and giving them this rich emotional experience . " Cameron was aware of the sentiment that Avatar would need significant " repeat business " just to make up for its budget and achieve box office success , and believed Avatar could inspire the same " sharing " reaction as Titanic . He said that film worked because , " When people have an experience that 's very powerful in the movie theatre , they want to go share it . They want to grab their friend and bring them , so that they can enjoy it . They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life . "
After the film 's release and unusually strong box office performance over its first two weeks , it was debated as the one film capable of surpassing Titanic 's worldwide gross , and its continued strength perplexed box office analysts . Other films in recent years had been cited as contenders for surpassing Titanic , such as 2008 's The Dark Knight , but Avatar was considered the first film with a genuine chance to do so , and its numbers being aided by higher ticket prices for 3D screenings did not fully explain its success to box office analysts . " Most films are considered to be healthy if they manage anything less than a 50 % drop from their first weekend to their second . Dipping just 11 % from the first to the third is unheard of , " said Paul Dergarabedian , president of box @-@ office analysis for Hollywood.com. " This is just unprecedented . I had to do a double take . I thought it was a miscalculation . " Analysts predicted second place for the film 's worldwide gross , but most were uncertain about it surpassing Titanic because " Today 's films flame out much faster than they did when Titanic was released . " Brandon Gray , president of Box Office Mojo , believed in the film 's chances of becoming the highest @-@ grossing film of all time , though he also believed it was too early to surmise because it had only played during the holidays . He said , " While Avatar may beat Titanic 's revenue record , it will be tough , and the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance . Ticket prices were about $ 3 cheaper in the late 1990s . " Cameron said he did not think it was realistic to " try to topple Titanic off its perch " because it " just struck some kind of chord " and there had been other good films in recent years . He changed his prediction by mid @-@ January . " It 's gonna happen . It 's just a matter of time , " he said .
Though analysts have been unable to agree that Avatar 's success is attributable to one primary factor , several explanations have been advanced . First , January is historically " the dumping ground for the year 's weakest films " , and this also applied to 2010 . Cameron himself said he decided to open the film in December so that it would have less competition from then to January . Titanic capitalized on the same January predictability , and earned most of its gross in 1998 . Additionally , Avatar established itself as a " must @-@ see " event . Gray said , " At this point , people who are going to see Avatar are going to see Avatar and would even if the slate was strong . " Marketing the film as a " novelty factor " also helped . Fox positioned the film as a cinematic event that should be seen in the theatres . " It 's really hard to sell the idea that you can have the same experience at home , " stated David Mumpower , an analyst at BoxOfficeProphets.com. The " Oscar buzz " surrounding the film and international viewings helped . " Two @-@ thirds of Titanic 's haul was earned overseas , and Avatar [ tracked ] similarly ... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was No. 1 in all of them " , and the markets " such as Russia , where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998 , are white @-@ hot today " with " more screens and moviegoers " than before .
According to Variety , films in 3D accumulated $ 1 @.@ 3 billion in 2009 , " a threefold increase over 2008 and more than 10 % of the total 2009 box @-@ office gross " . The increased ticket price – an average of $ 2 to $ 3 per ticket in most markets – helped the film . Likewise , Entertainment Weekly attributed the film 's success to 3D glasses , but also to its " astronomic word @-@ of @-@ mouth " . Not only do some theaters charge up to $ 18 @.@ 50 for IMAX tickets , but " the buzz " created by the new technology was the possible cause for sold @-@ out screenings . Gray said Avatar having no basis in previously established material makes its performance remarkable and even more impressive . " The movie might be derivative of many movies in its story and themes , " he said , " but it had no direct antecedent like the other top @-@ grossing films : Titanic ( historical events ) , the Star Wars movies ( an established film franchise ) , or The Lord of the Rings ( literature ) . It was a tougher sell ... "
= = = Critical reception = = =
See also : Themes in Avatar for more reviews
The film received mostly positive reviews . On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 83 % based on 292 reviews , with a rating average of 7 @.@ 4 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads " It might be more impressive on a technical level than as a piece of storytelling , but Avatar reaffirms James Cameron 's singular gift for imaginative , absorbing filmmaking . " On Metacritic — which assigns a weighted mean score , the film has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 35 critics , indicating " universal acclaim " . CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinemagoers gave Avatar was " A " on an A + to F scale . Every demographic surveyed was reported to give this rating . These polls also indicated that the main draw of the film was its use of 3D .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called the film " extraordinary " and gave it four stars out of four . " Watching Avatar , I felt sort of the same as when I saw Star Wars in 1977 , " he said , adding that like Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring , the film " employs a new generation of special effects " and it " is not simply a sensational entertainment , although it is that . It 's a technical breakthrough . It has a flat @-@ out Green and anti @-@ war message " . A. O. Scott of At The Movies also compared his viewing of the film to the first time he viewed Star Wars and he said " although the script is a little bit ... obvious , " it was " part of what made it work " . Todd McCarthy of Variety praised the film , saying " The King of the World sets his sights on creating another world entirely in Avatar , and it 's very much a place worth visiting . " Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review . " The screen is alive with more action and the soundtrack pops with more robust music than any dozen sci @-@ fi shoot- ' em @-@ ups you care to mention , " he stated . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded Avatar a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four star rating and wrote in his print review " It extends the possibilities of what movies can do . Cameron 's talent may just be as big as his dreams . " Richard Corliss of Time magazine thought that the film was " the most vivid and convincing creation of a fantasy world ever seen in the history of moving pictures . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times thought the film has " powerful " visual accomplishments but " flat dialogue " and " obvious characterization " . James Berardinelli of ReelViews praised the film and its story , giving it four out of four stars ; he wrote " In 3 @-@ D , it 's immersive – but the traditional film elements – story , character , editing , theme , emotional resonance , etc . – are presented with sufficient expertise to make even the 2 @-@ D version an engrossing 2 ½ -hour experience . "
Avatar 's underlying social and political themes attracted attention . Armond White of the New York Press wrote that Cameron used " villainous American characters " to " misrepresent facets of militarism , capitalism , and imperialism " . Russell D. Moore of The Christian Post concluded that " propaganda exists in the film " and stated " If you can get a theater full of people in Kentucky to stand and applaud the defeat of their country in war , then you 've got some amazing special effects . " Some commentators sympathetic to anarcho @-@ primitivism have even praised the film as a manifesto for their cause . Adam Cohen of The New York Times was more positive about the film , calling its anti @-@ imperialist message " a 22nd @-@ century version of the American colonists vs. the British , India vs. the Raj , or Latin America vs. United Fruit " . Ross Douthat of The New York Times opined that the film is " Cameron 's long apologia for pantheism ... Hollywood 's religion of choice for a generation now " , while Saritha Prabhu of The Tennessean called the film a " misportrayal of pantheism and Eastern spirituality in general " , and Maxim Osipov of The Hindustan Times , on the contrary , commended the film 's message for its overall consistency with the teachings of Hinduism in the Bhagavad Gita . Annalee Newitz of io9 concluded that Avatar is another film that has the recurring " fantasy about race " whereby " some white guy " becomes the " most awesome " member of a non @-@ white culture . Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune called Avatar " the season 's ideological Rorschach blot " , while Miranda Devine of The Sydney Morning Herald tbought that " It [ was ] impossible to watch Avatar without being banged over the head with the director 's ideological hammer . " Nidesh Lawtoo believed that an essential , yet less visible social theme that contributed to Avatar 's success concerns contemporary fascinations with virtual avatars and " the transition from the world of reality to that of virtual reality . " .
Critics and audiences have cited similarities with other films , literature or media , describing the perceived connections in ways ranging from simple " borrowing " to outright plagiarism . Ty Burr of the Boston Globe called it " the same movie " as Dances with Wolves . Like Dances with Wolves , Avatar has been characterized as being a " white savior " movie , in which a " backwards " native people is impotent without the leadership of a member of the invading white culture . Parallels to the concept and use of an avatar are in Poul Anderson 's 1957 novelette " Call Me Joe " , in which a paralyzed man uses his mind from orbit to control an artificial body on Jupiter . Cinema audiences in Russia have noted that Avatar has elements in common with the 1960s Noon Universe novels by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky , which are set in the 22nd century on a forested world called Pandora with a sentient indigenous species called the Nave . Various reviews have compared Avatar to the films FernGully : The Last Rainforest , Pocahontas and The Last Samurai . NPR 's Morning Edition has compared the film to a montage of tropes , with one commentator stating that Avatar was made by mixing a bunch of film scripts in a blender . Gary Westfahl wrote that " the science fiction story that most closely resembles Avatar has to be Ursula K. Le Guin 's novella " The Word for World Is Forest " ( 1972 ) , another epic about a benevolent race of alien beings who happily inhabit dense forests while living in harmony with nature until they are attacked and slaughtered by invading human soldiers who believe that the only good gook is a dead gook . " The science fiction writer and editor Gardner Dozois said that along with the Anderson and Le Guin stories , the " mash @-@ up " included Alan Dean Foster 's 1975 novel , Midworld . Some sources saw similarities to the artwork of Roger Dean , which featured fantastic images of floating rock formations and dragons . In 2013 , Dean sued Cameron and Fox , claiming that Pandora was inspired by 14 of his images . Dean sought damages of $ 50m . Dean 's case was dismissed in 2014 , and the Hollywood Reporter noted that Cameron has won multiple Avatar idea theft cases .
Avatar received compliments from filmmakers , with Steven Spielberg praising it as " the most evocative and amazing science @-@ fiction movie since Star Wars " and others calling it " audacious and awe inspiring " , " master class " , and " brilliant " . Noted art director @-@ turned @-@ filmmaker Roger Christian is also a noted fan of the film . On the other hand , Duncan Jones said : " It 's not in my top three James Cameron films . ... [ A ] t what point in the film did you have any doubt what was going to happen next ? " . Time ranked Avatar number 3 in their list of " The 10 Greatest Movies of the Millennium ( Thus Far ) " also earning it a spot on the magazine 's All @-@ TIME 100 list , and IGN listed Avatar as number 22 on their list of the top 25 Sci @-@ Fi movies of all time .
= = = Accolades = = =
Avatar won the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography , and Best Visual Effects , and was nominated for a total of nine , including Best Picture and Best Director . Avatar also won the 67th Golden Globe Awards for Best Motion Picture – Drama and Best Director , and was nominated for two others . At the 36th Saturn Awards , Avatar won all ten awards it was nominated for : Best Science Fiction Film , Best Actor , Best Actress , Best Supporting Actor , Best Supporting Actress , Best Director , Best Writing , Best Music , Best Production Design and Best Special Effects .
The New York Film Critics Online honored the film with its Best Picture award . The film also won the Critics ' Choice Awards of the Broadcast Film Critics Association for Best Action Film and several technical categories , out of nine nominations . It won two of the St. Louis Film Critics awards : Best Visual Effects and Most Original , Innovative or Creative Film . The film also won the British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) award for Production Design and Special Visual Effects , and was nominated for seven others , including Best Film and Director . The film has received numerous other major awards , nominations and honors .
= = = Extended theatrical re @-@ release = = =
In July 2010 , Cameron confirmed that there would be an extended theatrical re @-@ release of the film on August 27 , 2010 , exclusively in 3D theaters and IMAX 3D . Avatar : Special Edition includes an additional nine minutes of footage , all of which is CG , including an extension of the sex scene and various other scenes that were cut from the original theatrical film . This extended re @-@ release resulted in the film 's run time approaching the current IMAX platter maximum of 170 minutes , thereby leaving less time for the end credits . Cameron stated that the nine minutes of added scenes cost more than $ 1 million a minute to produce and finish . During its 12 @-@ week re @-@ release , Avatar : Special Edition grossed an additional $ 10 @.@ 74 million in North America and $ 22 @.@ 46 million overseas for a worldwide total of $ 33 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Home media = = =
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the US on April 22 , 2010 and in the UK on April 26 . The US release was not on a Tuesday as is the norm , but was done to coincide with Earth Day . The first DVD and Blu @-@ ray release does not contain any supplemental features other than the theatrical film and the disc menu in favor of and to make space for optimal picture and sound . The release also preserves the film 's native 1 @.@ 78 : 1 ( 16 : 9 ) format as Cameron felt that was the best format to watch the film . The Blu @-@ ray disc contains DRM ( BD + 5 ) which some Blu @-@ ray players might not support without a firmware update .
Avatar set a first @-@ day launch record in the U.S. for Blu @-@ ray sales at 1 @.@ 5 million units sold , breaking the record previously held by The Dark Knight ( 600 @,@ 000 units sold ) . First @-@ day DVD and Blu @-@ ray sales combined were over four million units sold . In its first four days of release , sales of Avatar on Blu @-@ ray reached 2 @.@ 7 million in the United States and Canada – overtaking The Dark Knight to become the best ever selling Blu @-@ ray release in the region . The release later broke the Blu @-@ ray sales record in the UK the following week . In its first three weeks of release , the film sold a total of 19 @.@ 7 million DVD and Blu @-@ ray discs combined , a new record for sales in that period . As of July 18 , 2012 , DVD sales ( not including Blu @-@ ray ) totaled over 10 @.@ 5 million units sold with $ 190 @,@ 806 @,@ 055 in revenue . Avatar retained its record as the top @-@ selling Blu @-@ ray in the US market until January 2015 when Disney 's Frozen surpassed it .
The Avatar Three @-@ Disc Extended Collector 's Edition on DVD and Blu @-@ ray was released on November 16 , 2010 . Three different versions of the film are present on the discs : the original theatrical cut , the special edition cut , and a collector 's extended cut ( with the DVD set spreading them on two discs , but the Blu @-@ ray set presenting them on a single disc ) . The collector 's extended cut contains 6 more minutes of footage , thus making it 16 minutes longer than the original theatrical cut . Cameron mentioned , " you can sit down , and in a continuous screening of the film , watch it with the Earth opening " . He stated the " Earth opening " is an additional 4 ½ minutes of scenes that were in the film for much of its production but were ultimately cut before the film 's theatrical release . The release also includes an additional 45 minutes of deleted scenes and other extras .
Cameron initially stated that Avatar would be released in 3D around November 2010 , but the studio issued a correction : " 3 @-@ D is in the conceptual stage and Avatar will not be out on 3D Blu @-@ ray in November . " In May 2010 , Fox stated that the 3D version would be released some time in 2011 . It was later revealed that Fox had given Panasonic an exclusive license for the 3D Blu @-@ ray version and only with the purchase of a Panasonic 3DTV . The length of Panasonic 's exclusivity period is stated to last until February 2012 . On October 2010 , Cameron stated that the standalone 3D Blu @-@ ray would be the final version of the film 's home release and that it was , " maybe one , two years out " . On Christmas Eve 2010 , Avatar had its 3D television world premiere on Sky .
On August 13 , 2012 , Cameron announced on Facebook that Avatar would be released globally on Blu @-@ ray 3D . The Blu @-@ ray 3D version was finally released on October 16 , 2012 .
= = Sequels = =
In 2006 , Cameron stated that if Avatar was successful , he hoped to make two sequels to the film . In 2010 , he said the film 's widespread success confirmed that he would . He included certain scenes in the first film for future story follow @-@ ups . Cameron planned to shoot the sequels back @-@ to @-@ back and to begin work " once the novel is nailed down " . He stated that the sequels would widen the universe while exploring other moons of Polyphemus . The first sequel would focus on the ocean of Pandora and also feature more of the rainforest . He intended to capture footage for this sequel at the bottom of the Mariana Trench using a deepwater submersible . In 2011 , Cameron stated that he was just starting to design the ocean ecosystem of Pandora and the other worlds to be included in the story . The storyline , although continuing the environmental theme of the first film , would not be " strident " since the film will concentrate on entertainment .
The sequels would continue to follow the characters of Jake and Neytiri . Cameron implied that the humans would return as the antagonists of the story . Worthington and Saldana signed on to reprise their roles in the sequels . In 2010 , Cameron confirmed that Sigourney Weaver and Stephen Lang were also expected to return despite the demise of their characters . The sequels were originally scheduled for release in December 2014 and 2015 . In 2011 , Cameron stated his intention to film the sequels at a higher frame rate than the industry standard 24 frames per second , in order to add a heightened sense of reality .
In 2012 , Cameron first mentioned a possible third sequel . That year , Cameron stated that the sequels were being written as " separate stories that have an overall arc inclusive of the first film " , with the second having a clear conclusion instead of a cliffhanger to the next film . Cameron expected to release Avatar 2 in 2015 . In 2013 , it was confirmed that there would be three sequels . Screenwriters were also announced : Josh Friedman for the first , Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver for the second , and Shane Salerno for the third . Production was re @-@ scheduled for 2014 with the films to be released in December 2016 , 2017 , and 2018 . Steven Gould was engaged to write four novels based on the films . Later that year , Cameron announced that the sequels would be filmed in New Zealand , with performance capture to take place in 2014 . An agreement with the New Zealand government required at least one world premiere to be held in Wellington and at least NZ $ 500 million ( approximately US $ 410 million at December 2013 exchange rates ) to be spent on production activity in New Zealand , including live @-@ action filming and visual effects . The New Zealand government announced it would raise its baseline tax rebate for filmmaking from 15 % to 20 % , with 25 % available to international productions in some cases and 40 % for New Zealand productions ( as defined by section 18 of the New Zealand Film Commission Act 1978 ) .
In April 2014 , Cameron expected to finish the three scripts within six weeks , stating that all three sequels would be in production simultaneously and were still slated for December 2016 to 2018 releases . He stated that although Friedman , Jaffa and Silver , and Salerno are each co @-@ writing one sequel with him , they at first all worked together on all three scripts : " I didn 't assign each writer which film they were going to work on until the last day . I knew if I assigned them their scripts ahead of time , they 'd tune out every time we were talking about the other movie . " " We ... worked out every beat of the story across all three films so it all connects as one , sort of , three @-@ film saga . " Cameron also stated that Weaver would be featured in all three sequels and that her character Grace Augustine would be alive . In March 2015 , however , Weaver said that she will play a new character in the next film .
By 2015 , the scheduled release dates for the sequels were each delayed by another year , with the first sequel expected to be released in December 2017 ; Cameron called the writing process " a complex job " . In June 2015 , James Horner , who was reported to be engaged to write music for the franchise , was killed in a plane crash . In December , Cameron stated that he was " doing another pass through all three scripts ... Just refining . That ’ s in parallel with the design process . The design process is very mature at this point . We ’ ve been designing for about a year and a half . All the characters , settings and creatures are all pretty much [ set ] . " The following month , Fox announced a further release delay .
As of February 2016 , production of the sequels was scheduled to begin in April 2016 in New Zealand . In April 2016 , Cameron announced at CinemaCon that there will be four Avatar sequels , all of which will be filmed simultaneously , with release dates in December 2018 , 2020 , 2022 and 2023 , respectively .
= Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix =
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the fifth novel in the Harry Potter series , written by J. K. Rowling . It follows Harry Potter 's struggles through his fifth year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry , including the surreptitious return of the antagonist Lord Voldemort , O.W.L. exams , and an obstructive Ministry of Magic . The novel was published on 21 June 2003 by Bloomsbury in the United Kingdom , Scholastic in the United States , and Raincoast in Canada . Five million copies were sold in the first 24 hours of publication . It is the longest book of the series .
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix has won several awards , including being named an American Library Association Best Book for Young Adults in 2003 . The book has also been made into a film , which was released in 2007 , and into a video game by Electronic Arts .
= = Plot = =
During another summer with his Aunt Petunia and Uncle Vernon , Harry Potter and Dudley are attacked by dementors . After using magic to save Dudley and himself , Harry is expelled from Hogwarts , but the decision is later rescinded . Harry is whisked off by a group of wizards to Number 12 , Grimmauld Place , the home of his godfather , Sirius Black . The house also serves as the headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix , of which Mr. and Mrs. Weasley , Remus Lupin , Mad @-@ Eye Moody , and Sirius are members . Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger explain that the Order of the Phoenix is a secret organisation led by Hogwarts headmaster Albus Dumbledore , dedicated to fighting Lord Voldemort and his followers , the Death Eaters . From the members of the Order , Harry and the others learn that Voldemort is seeking an object that he did not have prior to his first defeat , and assume this object to be a weapon of some sort . Harry learns that the Ministry of Magic , led by Cornelius Fudge , is refusing to acknowledge Voldemort 's return because of the trouble that doing so would cause , and has been running a smear campaign against him and Dumbledore .
At Hogwarts , Harry learns that Dolores Umbridge , a senior employee under the Minister of Magic , Cornelius Fudge , will be the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher . Umbridge and Harry clash , as she , like Fudge , refuses to believe that Voldemort has returned . She punishes Harry for his rebellious outbursts by having him write " I must not tell lies " with a cursed quill that carves the phrase into his skin . She also refuses to teach her students how to perform defensive spells , prompting Harry , Ron and Hermione to form their own Defence Against the Dark Arts group ( with students from Gryffindor , Ravenclaw and Hufflepuff ) , which they call Dumbledore 's Army . Many students sign up , including Neville Longbottom , Fred and George Weasley , Ginny Weasley and Luna Lovegood . The club meets in the Room of Requirement to learn and practise Defence spells under Harry 's instruction .
Meanwhile , Rubeus Hagrid has not yet returned from the secret mission given to him by Dumbledore at the end of the previous book , and is absent for the first part of the school year . Upon his return , Harry , Ron , and Hermione learn that his mission , which was mostly unsuccessful , was to seek out the last giants to stop them from joining Lord Voldemort . Dolores Umbridge has been steadily amassing more and more power and influence at the school , and as she begins regularly inspecting Hagrid 's Care of Magical Creatures lessons , it is clear that she intends to get rid of him .
One night , Harry has a vision through the eyes of Voldemort 's snake Nagini , possessed by Voldemort , attacking Ron 's father Arthur Weasley . Harry informs Professor McGonagall and Dumbledore , and Mr. Weasley is rescued . Dumbledore arranges for Harry to take Occlumency lessons with Professor Snape to protect his mind against further invasions by Voldemort .
Umbridge finally sacks Professor Trelawney , the Divination teacher ; However , she is outraged when Professor Dumbledore undermines her power by allowing Trelawney to continue living at the school , and hires Firenze , a centaur , to take her place , in spite of Umbridge 's prejudice against part @-@ humans . Soon after , Umbridge is given a tip @-@ off about Dumbledore 's Army by Marietta Edgecomb , who in doing so unwittingly activates a curse set by Hermione which disfigures her face . When Dumbledore takes responsibility for the illegal organisation , he is forced to leave the school and go into hiding . Dolores Umbridge becomes headmistress , and Fred and George cause pandemonium around the school in revenge .
During one Occlumency lesson , Snape is called away and Harry , left alone , looks into Snape 's pensieve , viewing a memory of his time as a student at Hogwarts . Harry sees his father , James Potter , and Sirius bullying Snape . Snape catches Harry and , enraged , refuses to continue the lessons . Distraught , Harry talks to Sirius and Lupin by using Floo powder through the fireplace in Umbridge 's own office , under cover of a distraction by Fred and George . The twins then leave Hogwarts to start a joke @-@ shop in Diagon Alley .
Suspecting that he will be next teacher to be sacked by Umbridge , Hagrid confesses to Harry , Ron and Hermione that he has brought his giant half @-@ brother , Grawp , to Hogwarts , and hidden him in the Forbidden Forest , with the intention of eventually introducing him to human society . Hagrid asks the three of them to look after Grawp if he himself must leave the school . Sure enough , Umbridge leads a party of Aurors to attack Hagrid in his house one night . Hagrid overpowers them and flees the school . McGonagall , trying to disrupt the violence , is badly injured and is put in St. Mungo 's Hospital .
On the last day of OWL tests , Harry has a vision of Sirius being tortured by Voldemort in the Department of Mysteries . He tries again to illegally use Umbridge 's office fire to communicate with the Order of the Phoenix 's headquarters to make sure the vision was genuine , and is told by Kreacher the house @-@ elf that Sirius is indeed at the Ministry , before Umbridge catches Harry and his friends in the act . Snape is summoned to provide Veritaserum in order to question Harry , but he claims to have no further stocks of the potion left . Remembering that Snape is also a member of the Order of the Phoenix , Harry gives him a cryptic warning about Sirius 's fate , but Snape claims to have not understood it .
Umbridge decides to use the illegal Cruciatus Curse on Harry to interrogate him on Sirius 's whereabouts . She also reveals she herself ordered the dementor attack on him , intending to have him either silenced or discredited . Hermione intervenes and in order to create a distraction , convinces Umbridge that they are hiding a weapon of Dumbledore 's in the Forbidden Forest . Harry and Hermione lead her into an area of the forest inhabited by centaurs , where Umbridge provokes them into taking her captive . The centaurs are furious upon learning that Hermione used them to do her bidding and turn on the pair , but Grawp arrives and clashes with the centaurs , allowing Harry and Hermione to escape .
Luna , Ron , Ginny , and Neville join them in the forest and all six fly to the Ministry on thestrals , expecting to find and rescue Sirius . Once in the Department of Mysteries , Harry realises that his vision was falsely planted by Voldemort ; however , he finds a glass sphere that bears his and the Dark Lord 's names . Death Eaters led by Lucius Malfoy attack in order to capture the sphere , which is a recording of a prophecy concerning Harry and Lord Voldemort , which is revealed to be the object Voldemort has been trying to obtain for the whole year , the Dark Lord believing that there was something he missed when he first heard the prophecy . Lucius explains that only the subjects of the prophecies , in this case Harry or Voldemort , can safely remove them from the shelves . Harry and his friends , soon joined by members of the Order , enter a battle with the Death Eaters . Amidst the chaos , Bellatrix Lestrange kills Sirius and Harry faces Voldemort . Voldemort attempts to kill Harry , but Dumbledore prevents him and climactically fights the Dark Lord to a stalemate . In the midst of the duel , Voldemort unsuccessfully tries to possess Harry in an attempt to get Dumbledore to kill the boy . Dumbledore does not do so and Voldemort escapes just as Cornelius Fudge appears , finally faced with first @-@ hand evidence that Voldemort has truly returned .
In his office , Dumbledore explains that Snape had understood Harry 's cryptic warning , and had subsequently contacted Sirius , learning that he was still at Grimmauld Place . After Harry failed to return from the Forbidden Forest , Snape deduced that he had gone to the Department of Mysteries and alerted the Order of the Phoenix , allowing them to travel there and save Harry and his friends . It is revealed that during the Christmas holidays , Kreacher had interpreted a command of Sirius 's as an order to leave the house , and went to Narcissa Malfoy , the wife of Lucius , and told them about Harry and Sirius 's close relationship ; Voldemort subsequently realised that he could lure Harry to the Department of Mysteries by tricking him into thinking that Sirius was in danger there .
Dumbledore then explains the prophecy : Before Harry was born , Professor Trelawney predicted that a boy with the power to defeat Voldemort would be born , would be marked as an equal by Voldemort and have power unknown to him , and that one of the pair must kill the other , for " neither can live while the other survives " . Voldemort learnt of the first part of the prophecy , and subsequently tried to murder Harry in the belief that he could prevent it from coming true , unaware that he would grant Harry power by doing so . Dumbledore tells Harry that he must stay with the Dursleys for one last summer because by taking Harry into her home , his Aunt Petunia , Lily 's sister , seals the protection that Harry 's mother afforded him when she died ; as long as he is there , he is safe from Voldemort and his followers .
Harry comes to terms with the responsibility of the prophecy , but mourns for the loss of his godfather . Luna comforts him , telling him about her and her father 's belief in heaven . Harry then finds an old hand @-@ held mirror in his dormitory that was a gift from Sirius . He realises that Sirius would not want him to be depressed on the matter , and resolves to continue fighting Voldemort still .
= = Publication and release = =
Potter fans waited three years between the releases of the fourth and fifth books . Before the release of the fifth book , 200 million copies of the first four books had already been sold and translated into 55 languages in 200 countries . As the series was already a global phenomenon , the book forged new pre @-@ order records , with thousands of people queuing outside book stores on 20 June 2003 to secure their copy at midnight . Despite the security , thousands of copies were stolen from an Earlestown , Merseyside warehouse on 15 June 2003 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was met with mostly positive reviews , and received several awards . The book was cited as an American Library Association Best Book for Young Adults and as an American Library Association Notable Book , both in 2004 . It also received the Oppenheim Toy Portfolio 2004 Gold Medal along with several other awards .
The novel was also well received by critics . Rowling was praised for her imagination by USA Today writer Deirdre Donahue . Most of the negative reviewers were concerned with the violence contained in the novel and with morality issues occurring throughout the book .
The New York Times writer John Leonard praised the novel , saying " The Order of the Phoenix starts slow , gathers speed and then skateboards , with somersaults , to its furious conclusion .... As Harry gets older , Rowling gets better . " However , he also criticises " the one @-@ note Draco Malfoy " and the predictable Lord Voldemort . Another review by Julie Smithouser , of the Christian @-@ right group Focus on the Family , said the book was , " Likely to be considered the weakest book in the series , Phoenix does feel less oppressive than the two most previous novels . " Smithouser 's main criticism was that the book was not moral . Harry lies to authority to escape punishment , and that , at times , the violence is too " gruesome and graphic . "
= = = Predecessors and sequels = = =
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the fifth book in the Harry Potter series . The first book in the series , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was first published by Bloomsbury in 1997 with an initial print @-@ run of 500 copies in hardback , three hundred of which were distributed to libraries . By the end of 1997 , the UK edition won a National Book Award and a gold medal in the 9 to 11 year @-@ olds category of the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize . The second novel , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , was published in the UK on 2 July 1998 . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999 . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 simultaneously by Bloomsbury and Scholastic . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book from the series , yet the second shortest film at 2 hours and 18 minutes .
After the publishing of Order of the Phoenix , the sixth book of the series , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , was published on 16 July 2005 , and sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release . The seventh and final novel , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , was published 21 July 2007 . The book sold 11 million copies within 24 hours of its release : 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the UK and 8 @.@ 3 million in the US .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
In 2007 , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was released in a film version directed by David Yates and written by Michael Goldenberg . The film was produced by David Heyman 's company , Heyday Films , alongside David Barron . The budget was reportedly between £ 75 and 100 million ( US $ 150 – 200 million ) , and it became the unadjusted eleventh @-@ highest grossing film of all time , and a critical and commercial success . The film opened to a worldwide 5 @-@ day opening of $ 333 million , third all @-@ time , and grossed $ 938 @.@ 4 million in total , second to Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End for the greatest total of 2007 .
= = = Video games = = =
A video game adaptation of the book and film versions of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was made for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , PSP , Nintendo DS , Wii , Game Boy Advance and Mac OS X. It was released on 25 June 2007 in the U.S. , 28 June 2007 in Australia and 29 June 2007 in the UK and Europe for PlayStation 3 , PSP , PlayStation 2 , Windows and 3 July 2007 for most other platforms . The games were published by Electronic Arts .
The book is also depicted in the 2011 video game Lego Harry Potter : Years 5 – 7 .
= = Translations = =
The first official foreign translation of the book appeared in Vietnamese on 21 July 2003 , when the first of twenty @-@ two instalments was released . The first official European translation appeared in Serbia and Montenegro in Serbian , by the official publisher Narodna Knjiga , in early September 2003 . Other translations appeared later ( e.g. in November 2003 in Dutch and German ) . The English @-@ language version has topped the best @-@ seller list in France , while in Germany and the Netherlands an unofficial distributed translation process has been started on the Internet .
= Hugh Boustead =
Colonel Sir John Edmond Hugh Boustead , KBE , CMG , DSO , MC & Bar ( 14 April 1895 – 3 April 1980 ) , was a British military officer , modern pentathlete , and diplomat who served in numerous posts across several Middle Eastern countries , including ambassador to Abu Dhabi from 1961 to 1965 . The son of a tea planter from Sri Lanka , Boustead began his career with the Royal Navy , but soon joined the British Army to fight in the trenches during World War I , where he earned his first of two Military Crosses . Following an appearance at the 1920 Summer Olympics , Boustead spent several years as a mountaineer and explorer prior to being appointed commander of the Sudan Camel Corps , with whom he served through World War II . He then embarked on a diplomatic career until his 1965 retirement and published an autobiography , The Wind of Morning , in 1971 , nine years prior to his death in Dubai .
= = Early life = =
Boustead was born on 14 April 1895 in Nuwara Eliya , Sri Lanka , the son of a local tea planter who later became a director of The Imperial Ethiopian Rubber Company . He was educated at the Cheam School and attended Britannia Royal Naval College ( then Royal Naval College , Dartmouth ) prior to the onset of World War I , where he began the conflict as a midshipman in the Royal Navy , having attained that rank on 15 January 1913 . On 15 May 1915 he was promoted to acting Sub @-@ Lieutenant , but deserted this post one month later while on leave in Simon 's Town to engage in trench warfare as a member of the Transvaal Scottish Regiment from South Africa . He earned a Military Cross at the Battle of Arras , which was gazetted on 26 July 1917 with the citation :
SOUTH AFRICAN FORCE .
2nd Lt. Hugh Boustead , Infy .
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . As intelligence and sniping officer he showed great skill and initiative in posting the snipers . His fine leadership and good disposition largely contributed to the success of the operation .
Boustead received the honour from George V of the United Kingdom on 15 August 1917 and transferred to the British Indian Army ten days later . He was posted to the 2nd battalion 4th Gurkha Rifles . He was promoted to lieutenant on 6 August 1918 . He returned to the South African Army on 30 September 1918 . A Bar to the MC followed , for actions on 25 August 1919 at Kardel , fighting alongside the Cossacks against the Bolshevik Red Army . The citation was gazetted on 23 April 1920 and read :
SOUTH AFRICAN FORCE .
2nd Lt. ( A. / Capt. ) Hugh Boustead , M.C. S. Afr . Infy .
For conspicuous gallantry at Kardel , on the 25th August , 1919 , when by the skilful manner in which he personally handed Lewis guns he assisted in beating off several hostile cavalry attacks , and by his example greatly inspired the Lewis @-@ gun sections of the Russian regiment to which he was attached .
( M.C. gazetted 26th July , 1917 . )
At this time he was officially an " Instr [ uctor ] , Physical Training " with the infantry . His gallantry eventually led to the pardoning of his earlier desertion .
= = Career = =
A boxing champion in the lightweight division during his service with the British army , Boustead was recruited to captain the British team in the modern pentathlon at the 1920 Summer Olympics . He finished joint 14th in a field of 23 competitors in his only Olympic appearance . He then continued his military career and , after transferring to the Gordon Highlanders , he was seconded from them to serve in Sudan beginning 19 November 1924 . A seasoned explorer , he participated in both the 1926 British expedition to Kangchenjunga and the 1933 expedition to Mount Everest , organized his own mountaineering expedition in Sikkim , explored the Libyan desert with Ralph Alger Bagnold in 1932 , and traversed the wastes of Greenland .
Boustead was promoted to the rank of captain on 1 March 1927 and served as a General Staff Officer , Third Grade from 22 July 1929 to 26 November 1930 . He was promoted to local major on 3 February 1931 , a secondment that culminated in his appointment as commander of the Sudan Camel Corps later that year . He was then promoted to local lieutenant colonel on 17 October 1931 and awarded a brevet majority on 1 January 1933 . He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1934 King 's Birthday Honours . His secondment ended on 19 November 1934 and he returned to regimental duty with the Gordons in his substantive rank of captain . He retired in April 1935 to begin a career with the Sudan Political Service and spent five years as District Commissioner in Darfur .
Boustead rejoined the military following the onset of World War II to raise , train , and command the Sudanese Frontier Force . As a local Lieutenant @-@ Colonel and commander of its Camel Corps he led some of the units that helped restore Emperor Haile Selassie I to the throne of Ethiopia in 1941 . For his actions in this conflict , he was recommended for the Distinguished Service Order by Orde Wingate on 15 August 1941 , which he received on 30 December 1941 , being Mentioned in Despatches on the same date . His World War II service officially ended on 7 December 1946 and the honorary rank of Colonel was bestowned upon him .
After the conflict Boustead served as a diplomat in several Middle Eastern countries including Sudan , Yemen , and Oman , prior to spending nine years ( 1949 @-@ 1958 ) as a Resident Adviser in the Aden Protectorate . His next post was the then @-@ Sultanate of Muscat and Oman , where held the position of Development Secretary . He was appointed political agent ( then equivalent to ambassador ) of Abu Dhabi in 1961 , a post that he held until 1965 . He was promoted Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the New Year Honours that year , and presented with the Lawrence of Arabia Memorial Medal of the Royal Society for Asian Affairs .
= = Later life = =
Following his 1965 retirement Boustead went on a lecture tour in the United States and eventually settled down in Mazyed , Al Ain , where he was asked by Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan to oversee his stable of horses in Al Ain . In 1971 he published his autobiography , The Wind of Morning , which was well received . In addition to his knighthood , DSO , and receiving the Military Cross and Bar , he was appointed Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in the 1954 Queen 's Birthday Honours and awarded the St George 's Military Medal with 1 Palm by Haile Selassie . He died on 3 April 1980 in Dubai at the age of 84 , having never married . At Boustead 's death , British MP Richard Luce claimed that no one had a greater impact in " cement [ ing ] relations between the British and the Arabs " as Boustead .
= Tomb of Antipope John XXIII =
The Tomb of Antipope John XXIII is the marble @-@ and @-@ bronze tomb monument of Antipope John XXIII ( Baldassare Cossa , c . 1360 – 1419 ) , created by Donatello and Michelozzo for the Florence Baptistry adjacent to the Duomo . It was commissioned by the executors of Cossa 's will after his death on December 22 , 1419 and completed during the 1420s , establishing it as one of the early landmarks of Renaissance Florence . According to Ferdinand Gregorovius , the tomb is " at once the sepulchre of the Great Schism in the church and the last papal tomb which is outside Rome itself " .
Cossa had a long history of cooperation with Florence , which had viewed him as the legitimate pontiff for a time during the Western Schism . The tomb monument is often interpreted as an attempt to strengthen the legitimacy of Cossa 's pontificate by linking him to the spiritually powerful site of the Baptistry . The evocation of papal symbolism on the tomb and the linkage between Cossa and Florence have been interpreted as a snub to Cossa 's successor Pope Martin V or vicarious " Medici self @-@ promotion " , as such a tomb would have been deemed unacceptable for a Florentine citizen .
The tomb monument 's design included figures of the three Virtues in niches , Cossa 's family arms , a gilded bronze recumbent effigy laid out above an inscription @-@ bearing sarcophagus supported on corbel brackets , and above it a Madonna and Child in a half @-@ lunette , with a canopy over all . At the time of its completion , the monument was the tallest sculpture in Florence , and one of very few tombs within the Baptistry or the neighboring Duomo . The tomb monument was the first of several collaborations between Donatello and Michelozzo , and the attribution of its various elements to each of them has been debated by art historians , as have the interpretations of its design and iconography .
= = Antipope John XXIII = =
Antipope John XXIII had a complicated life , legacy , and relationship with the city of Florence . Baldassare Cossa was a Neapolitan nobleman who grew up in Bologna . Pope Boniface IX elevated Cossa to the Archdiocese of Bologna in 1396 and made him a cardinal in 1402 . After the Council of Pisa in 1409 , Cossa encouraged rebellion against Pope Gregory XII , who refused to resign . Cossa was deprived of his cardinalate , but it was restored by Antipope Alexander V , who had been elected by the council .
Cossa succeeded Alexander V as John XXIII in 1410 . John XXIII was acknowledged as pope by France , England , Bohemia , Prussia , Portugal , parts of the Holy Roman Empire , and numerous Northern Italian city states , including Florence and Venice ; however , the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII was regarded as pope by the Kingdoms of Aragon , Castile , and Scotland and Gregory XII was still favored by Ladislaus of Naples , Carlo I Malatesta , the princes of Bavaria , Louis III , Elector of the Palatinate , and parts of Germany and Poland .
When Ladislaus of Naples conquered Rome in 1413 , John XXIII was forced to flee to Florence . He was compelled by Sigismund , Holy Roman Emperor , to convoke the Council of Constance in 1414 , although when the threat to his pontificate and possibly his person became apparent , he fled in 1415 . Although he expected his departure would disperse the council , the members of which he called to join him under the protection of Frederick IV , Duke of Austria , it continued to operate where they were . As John XXIII tried to make his way towards the territory of John II , Duke of Burgundy , Frederick IV surrendered him to the custody of Sigismund and the Council , and he was imprisoned by Louis III .
In the meantime , the Council deposed John XXIII on May 29 , 1415 and elected Pope Martin V on November 11 , 1417 ; Martin V proceeded to Florence in February 1419 . Cossa was ransomed by the Republic of Florence in 1419 ( Louis III had abandoned the allegiance of Sigismund in 1417 ) , as orchestrated by Giovanni di Bicci de ' Medici . His ransom may have been a reward for past assistance to Florence , or a manoeuvre to put pressure on Martin V ( still in Florence ; he would arrive in Rome in September 1420 ) , or both . Cossa had helped Florence conquer Pisa in 1405 in his capacity as Papal legate to Bologna and , as pope , had designated the Medici bank as the depository @-@ general for the papal finances .
In Florence , Cossa submitted to Martin V on June 14 , 1419 and was rewarded with a cardinal 's hat on June 26 , only to die on December 22 . Although given the title of Cardinal Bishop of Tusculum , Cossa called himself " Cardinal of Florence " .
= = = Funeral = = =
Cossa 's body was moved to the Baptistry and the nine @-@ day funeral , as prescribed by the Ordo Romanus , was well @-@ attended by the Florentine elite and the papal court . Cossa 's corpse was crowned with a white mitre with his cardinal 's hat at his feet on the funerary bier during the rituals , which took place entirely within the Baptistry and Duomo . The first three days of ceremonies celebrated in turn Cossa 's role as cardinal and pope , his role as an ally of Florence , and his role as a private citizen . He received a temporary burial until the tomb was complete .
= = Commissioning = =
The commissioning of Cossa 's tomb monument was negotiated for about a decade following Cossa 's death . Cossa 's last will and testament — written on his death bed on December 22 , 1419 — made several of the customary Florentine civic bequests , acts of charity , and traditional ecclesiastical courtesies , but the bulk of his estate was left to his nephews Michele and Giovanni . The bequests to his nephews took priority , and his estate remained disputed by various creditors while the tomb was being completed .
Cossa designated four prominent Florentines as his executors : Bartolommeo di Taldo Valori , Niccolò da Uzzano , Giovanni di Bicci de ' Medici , and Vieri Guadagni , allowing any two of the executors to act on behalf of all four , as Valori and Medici appear to have done . Valori died on September 2 , 1427 , by which time Guadagni was also deceased and Uzzano had long lost interest , leaving the remaining work of commissioning entirely to Giovanni , or — more likely — Cosimo de ' Medici .
The executors claimed that Cossa had revealed his desire for burial in the Baptistry to them but had been too modest to request it in his will . Most later scholars accept this testimony of the executors , attributing Cossa with " tact — and tactics " , although at least one has postulated that the executors chose the site of the Baptistry against Cossa 's wishes .
Documentary records indicate that , on January 9 , 1421 , Palla Strozzi , on behalf of the Arte di Calimala , the guild who were responsible for the upkeep of the Baptistry , authorized a " breve et honestissima " ( " small and inconspicuous " ) monument in the Baptistry , but not the chapel requested by Cossa 's will ; present scholarship accepts Strozzi 's assertion that burial within the Baptistry was a considerable honor , perhaps beyond the status of Cossa . After this meeting , there are no extant records from the Calimala regarding the tomb as the bulk of documents from the 1420s have been lost , although the notes of Senatore Carlo Strozzi , who went through the records , are extant .
The Calimala 's acquiescence is traditionally explained by Cossa 's donation of the relic of the right index finger of John the Baptist ( and 200 florins for an appropriate reliquary ) to the Baptistry . With this finger John was believed to have pointed to Jesus , saying " Ecce Agnus Dei " ( " Behold the lamb of God " ) in John 1 : 29 . The long and complicated history of the relic would only have increased the legendary status of the finger : Philotheus Kokkinos , Patriarch of Constantinople presented it in 1363 to Pope Urban V , who passed it to his successors Gregory XI and Urban VI , who was dispossessed of it during the siege of Nocera , after which John XXIII bought it for 800 florins and wore it on his person before hiding it in the monastery of Santa Maria degli Angeli .
= = Completion = =
The chronology of the tomb monument 's completion is not precisely known , but portions can be determined from various sources . According to the passing reference of a Florentine notary , in 1424 ( by the Florentine calendar ) part of the tomb was installed . Michelozzo 's Catasto from July 1427 indicates that Michelozzo had been Donatello 's partner for about two years ( " due anni o incircha " ) and that three @-@ fourths of the 800 florin budget had been spent . To harmonize these accounts , one must conclude either that Michelozzo 's chronology was imprecise , that Donatello received the commission before the partnership was formed , or that the 1424 date in the Florentine calendar falls in 1425 in the modern calendar .
On February 2 , 1425 , Bartolomeo Valori and Cosimo de ' Medici requested 400 of the 800 florins that had been deposited with the Calimala , likely for work already completed . This deposit was insurance in case the executors left the tomb unfinished and the Calimala was forced to pay for its completion , as it had been obliged to with the finger reliquary . This request is also the most direct piece of evidence for Cosimo 's involvement with the commissioning . Despite this document , Vasari 's claim in his Vite of 1550 that Cosimo was responsible for the handling of the commission has been questioned .
It is probable that the sarcophagus was installed on or shortly before May 2 , 1426 , when the Calimala contracted for two chaplains to say a daily mass for Cossa 's soul . The records of the Duomo workshop indicate that on January 28 , 1427 Valori bought four white marble blocks for the tomb .
The exact date of completion is unknown but an extreme terminus ante quem is given by the death in 1431 of Pope Martin V , who is known to have visited the completed tomb ; other factors may push the terminus ante quem back significantly into the 1420s . The most reliable such indication is that in September 1428 Jacopo della Quercia returned to Bologna and produced a wall tomb with Virtues reflecting in minute details the Cossa Virtues .
Vasari suggests that the tomb went over budget , costing 1 @,@ 000 florins , although it is unclear who covered the excess . Although the original source for this claim is unknown , it has gained credence with modern scholars as the effigy alone would have cost 500 florins , yet its exactness may be taken with a grain of salt .
= = Design = =
The Baptistry already contained three sarcophagi : those of Bishop Ranieri ( d . 1113 ) and two reused Roman sarcophagi . However , the tomb monument at 7 @.@ 32 metres ( 24 @.@ 02 ft ) in height was easily the tallest monument in the Baptistry , and — at the time — in Florence . The Duomo contains few tombs , with some notable exceptions , such as that of Aldobrandino Ottobuoni .
The tomb monument adapted to the conditions imposed by the Calimala and integrated with the interior of the Baptistry . The wall tomb was required to be placed between two pre @-@ existing Corinthian columns — the central pillars between Ghiberti 's North Doors and the eastern tribune — constituting one @-@ third of one of the octagonal walls , near the altar and facing Ghiberti 's East Doors . The setting starves the tomb monument of light , especially when the Baptistry 's doors are closed , which is normally the case . It would be even darker were it not for the " screen " back wall protruding 48 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 19 @.@ 1 in ) from the Baptistry wall . The white and brown ( and whitish @-@ brown ) marble further integrates the structure with the polychromatic white and green of the Baptistry interior . Some scholars accept the colored sketch of Buonaccorso Ghirberti as evidence that the " original effaced polychromy " of the tomb was more integrated , although others contend that the sketch is too inaccurate . The canopy 's interaction with the columns and conceit of being supported by the Baptistry cornice make the tomb monument further " wedded to the architecture " around it , even if the marriage is morganatic . Apart from the effigy on the sarcophagus , all the other sculpted figures are in high relief .
Although the style of the work is thoroughly classicising , the overall form reflects the grandest type of the medieval Italian wall tomb , in which the vertical piling @-@ up of a series of different elements is characteristic . Italian Gothic sculpture always retained considerable elements of classicism , and it was not necessary for Donatello and Michelozzo to adopt a radically original overall scheme from those of Tino di Camaino ( c . 1285 – 1337 ) , the Siennese sculptor whose wall @-@ tombs of a century before had been very influential throughout Italy . A life @-@ size marble effigy lying on top of an elevated protruding sarcophagus is highly typical . The motif of curtains at the top is often found in monuments using Gothic decorative details , and the shape recalls the triangular gable tops of monuments in a more thoroughly Gothic style ; other monuments have curtains , often held open by angels , around the effigy , and then sculptures above . The Cossa monument is often compared to the monument to Doge Tommaso Mocenigo of Venice , of 1423 , which has high relief saints in shell niches on and above the sarcophagus , above which a large pair of curtains sweep up to a single terminal ; however the architectural detailing here is Gothic . The design of the Cossa tomb itself was elaborated on , and adapted to local conventions , in the tomb by the same team for Cardinal Brancacci in Naples , and influenced the monument to Leonardo Bruni by Bernardo Rossellino , of about 20 years later , in the Basilica of Santa Croce , Florence .
= = = Base = = =
The base slab , or pylon , of the tomb monument rests on a 38 @-@ centimetre ( 15 in ) high plinth , separated by a cornice and concave mouldings . The pylon is 1 @.@ 39 metres ( 4 @.@ 56 ft ) high and 2 @.@ 02 metres ( 6 @.@ 63 ft ) wide , decorated with a frieze of winged angel heads ( perhaps seraphim ) and garlands and ribbons .
= = = Virtues = = =
Above the pylon , separated by the cornice , are the three Virtues — from left to right , Faith , Charity , and Hope — in shell niches , separated by four Corinthian fluted pilasters . Such a motif is unprecedented in Tuscan funerary sculpture but found at this date in Venice , Padua , and especially Cossa 's native Naples . As a result , excursions to Venice have been suggested for both Michelozzo and Donatello . However , Janson suggests that one " need not go all the way to Venice " to find such motifs . Outside Florence , Virtues were common on tombs , with the cardinal Virtues used for laymen , and the theological virtues reserved for ecclesiastics , including the Brancaccio tomb . However , the Cossa Virtues , from their hair to their sandals , are more thoroughly antique . Donatello also produced two similar bronze Virtues for the Siena Baptistry , whose chronological relationship to the Cossa Virtues is unclear .
The 1 @.@ 05 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 44 ft ) tall Faith , to the right of Charity , is holding a Eucharistic chalice ; the 1 @.@ 07 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 51 ft ) tall Charity is holding a cornucopia and a brazier ( or flaming vase ) ; and the 1 @.@ 06 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 48 ft ) tall Hope , to the left of Charity , has hands clasped in prayer . The central figure of Charity is the most antique , assimilating elements of Classical depictions of Abundantia , Ceres , and Juno , all of which were depicted with cornucopias in their left hands . Besides underscoring the antiquity of the tomb monument , the main purpose of the tall yet poorly finished Virtues is to put additional vertical distance between the viewer and the effigy , which has the cumulative effect of de @-@ emphasizing the peculiarities of Cossa , in favor of a generic pontiff ( i.e. a potential line of Florentine popes ) , by blunting the " immediacy " of the trope of lying in state , which was otherwise dominant on Quattrocento wall tombs .
= = = Sarcophagus and inscription = = =
Above the Virtues , four classical consoles decorated with acanthus leaves support the sarcophagus . In the tripartite space between the consoles — from left to right — are Cossa 's family arms with the papal tiara , the papal coat of arms , and Cossa 's family arms with the cardinal 's hat . The rilievo schiacciato ( a type of very shallow bas @-@ relief pioneered by Donatello ) on the architrave sarcophagus ( 2 @.@ 12 @-@ metre ( 6 @.@ 96 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 2 @.@ 30 ft ) high ) depicts two putti or spiratelli ( " little spirits " ) holding open a large inscribed parchment , perhaps in the style of a papal brief . The putti ( or spiratelli ) share many characteristics with their ancient counterparts , except for their crossed legs .
Pope Martin V objected to a portion of the inscription — " IOANnES QVOnDAM PAPA " — because he thought it implied Cossa had died as pope ( the Latin " quondam " could mean either " the former " or " the late " ) . The use of " olim Papa " , as was common in many contemporary documents , instead of " quondam Papa " would probably have removed Martin V 's objections . Martin himself suggested instead that Cossa be identified as a Neapolitan cardinal , thus emphasizing instead his submission . Contemporary sources report that the Signoria mimicked the reply of Pontius Pilate regarding the inscription on the cross of Christ : " What is written , is written . " Martin V himself was buried underneath an undecorated bronze floor slab , the only known example of a two @-@ dimensional papal monument , although also the first to be set in the central nave of a major basilica , the Basilica of St. John Lateran in Rome , and cast in bronze .
According to Avery , Donatello 's Ascension of Christ and the Giving of the Keys to St. Peter may have been intended to share the front of the sarcophagus , further strengthening the papal associations , which were created by dating Cossa 's death using the ancient Roman Calends of January , which was uncommon on Florentine tombs , but was used in papal ones .
= = = Effigy = = =
On top of the sarcophagus , the bier of the effigy is supported by lions whose shape mimics Trecento consoles . The lions may be based on the Florentine Marzocco , as if to mark John XXIII in the same manner as a conquered city @-@ state . As Donatello 's Marzocco for the papal apartment in Santa Maria Novella conveyed Florence 's ambivalence towards Martin V ( as both a source of prestige by visiting , and a potential adversary of the Republic ) , the lions supporting the bier contextualize the tomb monument 's support for John XXIII 's claim to the papacy by cementing it as a Florentine claim . Yet , any iconographical interpretation of the lions must be taken with a grain of salt as lions are symbolically promiscuous , and are also seen as supports on earlier tombs , such as that of Lapo de ' Bardi ( d . 1342 ) in the Bargello .
The bier and the pall spread over it are tilted towards the viewer with the lion supporting the head standing 2 @-@ centimetre ( 1 in ) shorter , increasing the visibility of the effigy , especially the head . The gilded @-@ bronze , life @-@ size effigy itself makes no attempt to argue for Cossa 's papal status , dressing Cossa clearly in the costume of a cardinal ; the bedding it rests on is of un @-@ gilt bronze . The opening in the 16th century of the sarcophagus confirmed that Cossa 's actual burial clothes matched the effigy . There was no precedent for a three @-@ dimensional gilded @-@ bronze effigy on an Italian tomb monument ; there was , however , a 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) gilt bronze statue on the balcony of the Palazzo della Briada in Bologna commissioned by Pope Boniface VIII .
Some scholars suggest that Donatello created the effigy with the aid of a death mask , but others disagree .
= = = Canopy = = =
Behind the effigy is a 1 @.@ 34 @-@ metre ( 4 @.@ 40 ft ) tripartite pylon with sunk molded borders supporting the cornice and framed by two additional Corinthian pilasters . Above it rests an entablature of the Madonna and Child on a half @-@ lunette , a typical — symbolizing intercession — motif for a tomb . Above the effigy and Madonna is a gilt @-@ edged architectonic canopy decorated with patterned stemmed flowers , giving the conceit of being supported by the ribbed brass ring , an impossibility given its weight . McHam suggests that the canopy is based on the " Dome of Heaven " , and thus the baldacchino of papal enthronement . However , Lightbown is emphatic that the double @-@ summited canopy looped against the pillars is not a baldacchino , but rather a secular bed @-@ canopy .
= = Attribution = =
The tomb monument was the first collaboration between Donatello and Michelozzo , who went on to collaborate on the tomb of Cardinal Rainaldo Brancacci in the Church of Sant 'Angelo a Nilo in Naples , the tomb of Papal Secretary Bartolomeo Aragazzi in what is now the Duomo of Montepulciano , and the external pulpit of the Duomo of Prato . At the time of their partnership , Donatello was already well known for his statues of prophets and saints for the Duomo and Orsanmichele , while Michelozzo was more obscure . Both had worked for a time for Ghiberti , whose workshop then led Florentine sculpture .
Nearly every element of the tomb monument has been attributed to both Donatello and Michelozzo by different art historians . These characterizations are mostly of historiographical interest : attribution to Donatello is more of an indication of what is valued by each commentator than any objective criteria ; often , aspects are attributed to Michelozzo explicitly because they are " less well executed " .
Descriptions from 1475 to 1568 attribute all of the tomb except for the figure of Faith to Donatello . Some modern sources reverse this dichotomy , attributing all of the tomb to Michelozzo with the exception of the gilded bronze effigy . Some sources credit Donatello only with the bronze effigy . According to Janson , of the marble work , only the putti can be attributed to " Donatello 's own hand " . Donatello 's alleged deficiencies in casting or in architecture have been proposed as the reason for his partnership with Michelozzo , in addition to his busy schedule .
= Tropical cyclone forecasting =
Tropical cyclone forecasting is the science of forecasting where a tropical cyclone 's center , and its effects , are expected to be at some point in the future . There are several elements to tropical cyclone forecasting : track forecasting , intensity forecasting , rainfall forecasting , storm surge , and tornado forecasting . While skill is increasing in regard to track forecasting , intensity forecasting skill remains nearly unchanged over the past several years .
= = History = =
The methods through which tropical cyclones are forecast have changed with the passage of time . The first known forecasts in the Western Hemisphere were made by Lt. Col. William Reed of the Corps of Royal Engineers at Barbados in 1847 . Reed mostly utilized barometric pressure measurements as the basis of his forecasts . Benito Vines introduced a forecast and warning system based on cloud cover changes in Havana during the 1870s . Before the early 1900s , though , most forecasts were done by direct observations at weather stations , which were then relayed to forecast centers via telegraph . It wasn ’ t until the advent of radio in the early twentieth century that observations from ships at sea were available to forecasters . The 1930s saw the usage of radiosondes in tropical cyclone forecasting . The next decade saw the advent of aircraft @-@ based reconnaissance by the military , starting with the first dedicated flight into a hurricane in 1943 , and the establishment of the Hurricane Hunters in 1944 . In the 1950s , coastal weather radars began to be used in the United States , and research reconnaissance flights by the precursor of the Hurricane Research Division began in 1954 .
The launch of the first weather satellite , TIROS @-@ I , in 1960 , introduced new forecasting techniques that remain important to tropical cyclone forecasting to the present . In the 1970s , buoys were introduced to improve the resolution of surface measurements , which until that point , were not available at all over sea surfaces .
= = Track = =
The large @-@ scale synoptic flow determines 70 to 90 percent of a tropical cyclone 's motion . The deep @-@ layer mean flow is considered to be the best tool in determining track direction and speed . If storms are significantly sheared , use of a lower @-@ level wind is a better predictor . Knowledge of the beta effect can be used to steer a tropical cyclone , since it leads to a more northwest heading for tropical cyclones in the Northern Hemisphere . It is also best to smooth out short term wobbles of the storm center in order to determine a more accurate trajectory .
Because of the forces that affect tropical cyclone
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trio 's flat to engage J. B. Jeyaretnam for her defence . Hoe had to accept the court 's offer of counsel , receiving Nathan Isaac as her defender . Since his arrest , Lim had refused legal representation . He defended himself at the Subordinate Court hearings , but could not continue to do so when the case was moved to the High Court ; Singapore law requires that for capital crimes the accused must be defended by a legal professional . Thus Howard Cashin was appointed as Lim 's lawyer , although his job was complicated by his client 's refusal to cooperate . The three lawyers decided not to dispute that their clients had killed the children . Acting on a defence of diminished responsibility , they attempted to show that their clients were not sound of mind and could not be held responsible for the killings . If this defence had been successful , the defendants would have escaped the death penalty to face either life imprisonment , or up to 10 years in jail .
= = = Proceedings = = =
After Knight had presented the prosecution evidence the court heard testimonies on the personalities and character flaws of the accused , from their relatives and acquaintances . Details of their lives were revealed by one of Lim 's " holy wives " . Private medical practitioners Dr. Yeo Peng Ngee and Dr. Ang Yiau Hua admitted that they were Lim 's sources for drugs , and had provided the trio sleeping pills and sedatives without question on each consultation . The police and forensics teams gave their accounts of their investigations ; Inspector Suppiah , the investigating officer @-@ in @-@ charge , read out the statements the defendants had made during their remand . In these statements Lim stated that he had killed for revenge , and that he had sodomised Ng . The accused had also confirmed in their statements that each was an active participant in the murders . There were many contradictions among these statements and the confessions made in court by the accused , but Judge Sinnathuray declared that despite the conflicting evidence , " the essential facts of this case are not in dispute " . Lim 's involvement in the crimes was further evidenced by a witness who vouched that just after midnight on 7 February 1981 , at the ground floor of Block 12 , he saw Lim and a woman walk past him carrying a dark @-@ skinned boy .
On 13 April , Lim took the stand . He maintained that he was the sole perpetrator of the crimes . He denied that he raped Lucy Lau or Ng , claiming that he made the earlier statements only to satisfy his interrogators . Lim was selective in answering the questions the court threw at him ; he verbosely answered those that agreed with his stance , and refused to comment on the others . When challenged on the veracity of his latest confession , he claimed that he was bound by religious and moral duty to tell the truth . Knight , however , countered that Lim was inherently a dishonest man who had no respect for oaths . Lim had lied to his wife , his clients , the police , and psychiatrists . Knight claimed Lim 's stance in court was an open admission that he willingly lied in his earlier statements . Tan and Hoe were more cooperative , answering the questions posed by the court . They denied Lim 's story , and vouched for the veracity of the statements they had given to the police . They told how they had lived in constant fear and awe of Lim ; believing he had supernatural powers , they followed his every order and had no free will of their own . Under Knight 's questioning , however , Tan admitted that Lim had been defrauding his customers , and that she had knowingly helped him to do so . Knight then got Hoe to agree that she was conscious of her actions at the time of the murders .
= = = Battle of the psychiatrists = = =
No one doubted that Lim , Tan , and Hoe had killed the children . Their defence was based on convincing the judges that medically , the accused were not in total control of themselves during the crimes . The bulk of the trial was therefore a battle between expert witnesses called by both sides . Dr Wong Yip Chong , a senior psychiatrist in private practice , believed that Lim was mentally ill at the time of the crimes . Claiming to be " judging by the big picture , and not fussing over contradictions " , he said that Lim 's voracious sexual appetite and deluded belief in Kali were characteristics of a mild manic depression . The doctor also said that only an unsound mind would dump the bodies close to his home when his plan was to distract the police . In rebuttal , the prosecution 's expert witness , Dr Chee Kuan Tsee , a psychiatrist at Woodbridge Hospital , said that Lim was " purposeful in his pursuits , patient in his planning and persuasive in his performance for personal power and pleasure " . In Dr Chee 's opinion , Lim had indulged in sex because through his role as a medium he obtained a supply of women who were willing to go to bed with him . Furthermore , his belief in Kali was religious in nature , not delusional . Lim 's use of religion for personal benefit indicated full self @-@ control . Lastly , Lim had consulted doctors and freely taken sedatives to alleviate his insomnia , a condition which , according to Dr Chee , sufferers from manic depression fail to recognise .
Dr R. Nagulendran , a consultant psychiatrist , testified that Tan was mentally impaired by reactive psychotic depression . According to him she was depressed before she met Lim , due to her family background . Physical abuse and threats from Lim deepened her depression ; drug abuse led her to hallucinate and believe the medium 's lies . Dr Chee disagreed ; he said that Tan had admitted to being quite happy with the material lifestyle Lim gave to her , enjoying fine clothes and beauty salon treatments . A sufferer from reactive psychotic depression would not have paid such attention to her appearance . Also , Tan had earlier confessed to knowing Lim was a fraud , but changed her stance in court to claim she was acting completely under his influence . Although Dr Chee had neglected Lim 's physical abuse of Tan in his judgment , he was firm in his opinion that Tan was mentally sound during the crimes . Both Dr Nagulendran and Dr Chee agreed that Hoe suffered from schizophrenia long before she met Lim , and that her stay in Woodbridge Hospital had helped her recovery . However , while Dr Nagulendran was convinced that Hoe suffered a relapse during the time of the child killings , Dr Chee pointed out that none of the Woodbridge doctors saw any signs of relapse during the six months of her follow @-@ up checks ( 16 July 1980 – 31 January 1981 ) . If Hoe had been as severely impaired by her condition as Dr Nagulendran described , she would have become an invalid . Instead , she methodically abducted and helped kill a child on two occasions . Ending his testimony , Dr Chee stated that it was incredible that three people with different mental illnesses should share a common delusion of receiving a request to kill from a god .
= = = Closing statements = = =
In their closing speeches , the defence tried to reinforce the portrayal of their clients as mentally disturbed individuals . Cashin said that Lim was a normal man until his initiation into the occult , and that he was clearly divorced from reality when he entered the " unreasonable world of atrociousness " , acting on his delusions to kill children in Kali 's name . Jeyaretnam said that due to her depression and Lim 's abuse , Tan was just " a robot " , carrying out orders without thought . Isaac simply concluded , " [ Hoe 's ] schizophrenic mind accepted that if the children were killed , they would go to heaven and not grow up evil like her mother and others . " The defence criticised Dr Chee for failing to recognise their clients ' symptoms .
The prosecution started its closing speech by drawing attention to the " cool and calculating " manner in which the children were killed . Knight also argued that the accused could not have shared the same delusion , and only brought it up during the trial . The " cunning and deliberation " displayed in the acts could not have been done by a deluded person . Tan helped Lim because " she loved [ him ] " , and Hoe was simply misled into helping the crimes . Urging the judges to consider the ramifications of their verdict , Knight said : " My Lords , to say that Lim was less than a coward who preyed on little children because they could not fight back ; killed them in the hope that he would gain power or wealth and therefore did not commit murder , is to make no sense of the law of murder . It would lend credence to the shroud of mystery and magic he has conjured up his practices and by which he managed to frighten , intimidate and persuade the superstitious , the weak and the gullible into participating in the most lewd and obscene acts . "
= = = Judgment = = =
On 25 May 1983 , crowds massed outside the building , waiting for the outcome of the trial . Due to limited seating , only a few were allowed inside to hear Justice Sinnathuray 's delivery of the verdict , which took 15 minutes . The two judges were not convinced that the accused were mentally unsound during the crimes . They found Lim to be " abominable and depraved " in carrying out his schemes . Viewing her interviews with the expert witnesses as admissions of guilt , Sinnathuray and Chua found Tan to be an " artful and wicked person " , and a " willing [ party ] to [ Lim 's ] loathsome and nefarious acts " . The judges found Hoe to be " simple " and " easily influenced " . Although she suffered from schizophrenia , they noted that she was in a state of remission during the murders ; hence she should bear full responsibility for her actions . All three defendants were found guilty of murder and sentenced to be hanged . The two women did not react to their sentences . On the other hand , Lim beamed and cried , " Thank you , my Lords ! " , as he was led out .
Lim accepted his fate ; the women did not , and appealed against their sentences . Tan hired Francis Seow to appeal for her , and the court again assigned Isaac to Hoe . The lawyers asked the appeal court to reconsider the mental states of their clients during the murders , charging that the trial judges in their deliberations had failed to consider this point . The Court of Criminal Appeal reached their decision in August 1986 . The appeal judges reaffirmed the decision of their trial counterparts , noting that as finders of facts , judges have the right to discount medical evidence in the light of evidence from other sources . Tan and Hoe 's further appeals to London 's Privy Council and Singapore President Wee Kim Wee met with similar failures .
Having exhausted all their avenues for pardon , Tan and Hoe calmly faced their fates . While waiting on death row the trio were counselled by Catholic priests and nuns . In spite of the reputation that surrounded Lim , Father Brian Doro recalled the murderer as a " rather friendly person " . When the day of execution loomed , Lim asked Father Doro for absolution and Holy Communion . Likewise , Tan and Hoe had Sister Gerard Fernandez as their spiritual counsellor . The nun converted the two female convicts to Catholicism , and they received forgiveness and Holy Communion during their final days . On 25 November 1988 the trio were given their last meal and led to the hangman 's noose . Lim smiled throughout his last walk . After the sentences were carried out , the three murderers were given a short Catholic funeral mass by Father Doro , and cremated on the same day .
= = Legacy = =
The trial on the Toa Payoh ritual murders was closely followed by the populace of Singapore . Throngs of people constantly packed the grounds of the courts , hoping to catch a glimpse of Adrian Lim and to hear the revelations first @-@ hand . Reported by regional newspapers in detail , the gory and sexually explicit recounting of Lim 's acts offended the sensibilities of some ; Canon Frank Lomax , Vicar of St. Andrew 's Anglican Church , complained to The Straits Times that the reports could have a corrupting effect on the young . His words received support from a few readers . Others , however , welcomed the open reporting , considering it helpful in raising public awareness of the need for vigilance even in a city with low crime rates . Books , which covered the murders and the trial , were quickly bought by the public on their release .
The revelations from the trial cast Lim as evil incarnate in the minds of Singaporeans . Some citizens could not believe that anyone would willingly defend such a man . They called Cashin to voice their anger ; a few even issued death threats against him . On the other hand , Knight 's name spread among Singaporeans as the man who brought Adrian Lim to justice , boosting his career . He handled more high @-@ profile cases , and became the director of the Commercial Affairs Department in 1984 . He would maintain his good reputation until his conviction for corruption seven years later .
Even in prison , Lim was hated ; his fellow prisoners abused and treated him as an outcast . In the years that followed the crime , memories remained fresh among those who followed the case . Journalists deemed it the most sensational trial of the 80s , being " the talk of a horrified city as gruesome accounts of sexual perversion , the drinking of human blood , spirit possession , exorcism and indiscriminate cruelty unfolded during the 41 @-@ day hearing " . Fifteen years from the trial 's conclusion , a poll conducted by The New Paper reported that 30 per cent of its respondents had picked the Toa Payoh ritual murders as the most horrible crime , despite the paper 's request to vote only for crimes committed in 1998 . Lim had become a benchmark for local criminals ; in 2002 Subhas Anandan described his client , wife @-@ killer Anthony Ler , as a " cooler , more handsome version of [ the ] notorious Toa Payoh medium @-@ murderer " .
During the 1990s , the local film industry made two movies based on the murder case , the first of which was Medium Rare . The 1991 production had substantial foreign involvement ; most of the cast and crew were American or British . The script was locally written and intended to explore the " psyche of the three main characters " . The director , however , focused on sex and violence , and the resulting film was jeered by the audience at its midnight screening . Its 16 @-@ day run brought in $ 130 @,@ 000 ( US $ 75 @,@ 145 ) , and a reporter called it " more bizarre than the tales of unnatural sex and occult practices associated with the Adrian Lim story " . The second film , 1997 's God or Dog , also had a dismal box @-@ office performance despite a more positive critical reception . Both shows had difficulty in finding local actors for the lead role ; Zhu Houren declined on the basis that Adrian Lim was too unique a personality for an actor to portray accurately , and Xie Shaoguang rejected the role for the lack of " redeeming factors " in the murderer . On the television , the murder case would have been the opening episode for True Files , a crime awareness programme in 2002 . The public , however , complained that the trailers were too gruesome with the re @-@ enactments of the rituals and murders , forcing the media company MediaCorp to reshuffle the schedule . The Toa Payoh ritual murders episode was replaced by a less sensational episode as the opener and pushed back into a later timeslot for more mature viewers , marking the horrific nature of the crimes committed by Lim , Tan , and Hoe .
= Norman E. Rosenthal =
Norman E. Rosenthal is a South African , author , psychiatrist and scientist who in the 1980s first described winter depression or seasonal affective disorder ( SAD ) , and pioneered the use of light therapy for its treatment .
Rosenthal was born and educated in South Africa and moved to the United States to complete his medical training . He established a private practice and conducted research at the National Institute of Mental Health ( NIMH ) as a researcher and senior researcher for more than twenty years where he studied the disorders of mood , sleep , and biological rhythms and was the first psychiatrist to describe and diagnose Seasonal Affective Disorder ( SAD )
Rosenthal ’ s research with SAD led him to write “ Winter Blues ” and two other books on the topic . More recently Rosenthal has written a book on the Transcendental Meditation technique and conducted research on its potential influence on posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) . In total , he has written nine books , including one on the topic of jet lag , and published 200 scholarly papers .
= = Early life and education = =
Rosenthal ( b . 1950 ) was born and raised in Johannesburg , South Africa . He received his M.B. B.Ch. ( equivalent of an M.D. ) from the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg and completed an internship in Internal Medicine and Surgery at Johannesburg General Hospital . He moved to the United States to further his education as a resident , and then became Chief Resident in psychiatry at the New York State Psychiatric Institute and Columbia Presbyterian Hospital .
= = Career = =
Rosenthal began a private practice in the suburbs of Washington , D.C. in 1979 . At the same time , he began a research fellowship with Frederick Goodwin at the National Institute of Mental Health in Bethesda , Maryland . This was the beginning of a 20 year career with the NIMH as a Researcher , Research Fellow , and Senior Researcher . Rosenthal became the director of seasonal studies at the institute and in 1985 , led research with 160 participants on the effects of seasonal affective disorder ( SAD ) and later studied the psycho @-@ physiological phenomena of " spring fever " .
Rosenthal co @-@ authored the book , How to Beat Jet Lag in 1993 and in 1998 , he was named clinical professor of psychiatry at Georgetown Medical School . He became the Medical Director of Capital Clinical Research Associates in Rockville , Maryland in 2001 and is currently its CEO . He received a special recognition award from the Society for Light Treatment & Biological Rhythms ( SLBTR ) in 1999 and published the book The Emotional Revolution : How the New Science of Feeling Can Transform Your Life in 2002 .
Early in his career , Rosenthal learned the Transcendental Meditation technique while in South Africa , but found that as a medical student and a medical resident he didn 't have time to practice . Then 35 years later , after one of his patients had a dramatic improvement as a result of TM , he began practicing again and then began recommending it to his patients . In 2011 , he published Transcendence : Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation , which debuted at number seven on the New York Times ' Best Sellers : Hardcover Advice , How @-@ To And Miscellaneous list . Earlier that year , Rosenthal published preliminary research on the potential influence of TM on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder .
Rosenthal has written more than 200 scholarly publications and his writings have been featured in the American Journal of Psychiatry , Psychiatry Research , Archives of General Psychiatry , Biological Psychiatry , Molecular Psychiatry , and Journal of Affective Disorders . He continues to conduct research on pediatric and adolescent SAD , pharmaceutical treatments for SAD and the effects of light therapy on seasonal bipolar disorder and circadian rhythms . He is often cited in mainstream media as an expert on the topic of SAD .
According to his web site , Rosenthal has received the A.P.A. New York District Branch prize for paper written by a resident , the Psychiatric Institute Alumni Prize for best research performed by Psychiatric Institute Resident , the Public Health Service Commendation Medal , the Anna Monika Foundation Award for Depression Research , the Public Health Service Outstanding Service Award .
= = = Seasonal affective disorder = = =
Rosenthal is referred to as the pioneer of research into seasonal affective disorder . In 1984 , he coined the term and began studying the use of light therapy as a treatment . Rosenthal ’ s interest in studying the effects of the seasons on mood changes emerged when he emigrated from the mild climate of Johannesburg , South Africa , to the northeastern USA . As a resident in the psychiatry program at the New York State Psychiatric Institute , he noticed that he was more energetic and productive during the long days of summer versus the shorter darker days of the winter .
In 1980 , his team at NIMH admitted a patient with depression who had observed seasonal changes within himself and thought previous research regarding melatonin release at night may be able to help him . Rosenthal and his colleagues treated the patient with bright lights , which helped to successfully manage the depression . They conducted a formal follow @-@ up study to confirm the success . The results were published in 1984 , officially describing SAD and pioneering light therapy as an effective treatment method . The research on SAD and light therapy is inconclusive and in someways controversial , as not all researchers agree with Rosenthal 's conclusions on the effect of light therapy and at what time of day the light should be administered .
Rosenthal has written three books on the topic of SAD ; Seasonal Affective Disorders and Phototherapy ( 1989 ) , Seasons of the Mind : Why You Get the Winter Blues and What You Can Do About It ( 1989 ) and Winter Blues ( 2005 ) . As a result of his research and publications , " it is now widely acknowledged that winter depression has a sound medical basis , involving changes in the body 's mood centers " associated with exposure to light . Rosenthal later identified a form of reverse SAD which some experience in the summer season .
= = Books = =
Rosenthal , Norman ( 1989 ) . Seasonal Affective Disorders and Phototherapy . New York : Guilford Press. p . 350 . ISBN 0898627419 .
Rosenthal , Norman ( 1993 ) . Seasons of the Mind : Why You Get the Winter Blues and What You Can Do About It . Bantam Books . ISBN 0553053957 .
Rosenthal , Norman ; co @-@ authored with D.A.Oren , W. Reich and T.A. Wehr ( 1993 ) . How to Beat Jet Lag . New York : Henry Holt & Company Inc. p . 141 . ISBN 0805026878 .
Rosenthal , Norman ( 1993 ) . Winter Blues . New York : Guilford Press. p . 372 . ISBN 1593851162 .
Rosenthal , Norman ( 1998 ) . St. John 's Wort : The Herbal Way to Feeling Good . New York : Harper Collins . ISBN 0060183829 .
Rosenthal , Norman ( 2002 ) . The Emotional Revolution : How the New Science of Feeling Can Transform Your Life . New York : Citadel . ISBN 080652295X .
Rosenthal , Norman ( 2011 ) . Transcendence : Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation . New York : Hay House UK Ltd. p . 320 . ISBN 1848507755 .
Rosenthal , Norman ( 2013 ) . The Gift of Adversity : The Unexpected Benefits of Life 's Difficulties , Setbacks , and Imperfections . New York : Tarcher . ISBN 0399168850 .
Rosenthal , Norman ( 2016 ) . Super Mind : How to Boost Performance and Live a Richer and Happier Life Through Transcendental Meditation . New York : Tarcher. p . 320 . ISBN 0399174745 .
= White Deer Hole Creek =
White Deer Hole Creek is a 20 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 33 @.@ 0 km ) tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River in Clinton , Lycoming and Union counties in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . A part of the Chesapeake Bay drainage basin , the White Deer Hole Creek watershed drains parts of ten townships . The creek flows east in a valley of the Ridge @-@ and @-@ valley Appalachians , through sandstone , limestone , and shale from the Ordovician , Silurian , and Devonian periods .
As of 2006 , the creek and its 67 @.@ 2 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 174 km2 ) watershed are relatively undeveloped , with 28 @.@ 4 percent of the watershed given to agriculture and 71 @.@ 6 percent covered by forest , including part of Tiadaghton State Forest . The western part of White Deer Hole Creek has very high water quality and is the only major creek section in Lycoming County classified as Class A Wild Trout Waters , defined by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission as " streams which support a population of naturally produced trout of sufficient size and abundance to support a long @-@ term and rewarding sport fishery . " The rest of the creek and its major tributary ( Spring Creek ) are kept stocked . There are opportunities in the watershed for canoeing , hunting , and camping , and trails for hiking and horseback riding .
Historically , two paths of the native indigenous peoples ran along parts of White Deer Hole Creek . Settlers arrived by 1770 , but fled in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War . They returned and the creek served as the southern boundary of Lycoming County when it was formed on April 13 , 1795 . A logging railroad ran along the creek from 1901 to 1904 for timber clearcutting , and small @-@ scale lumbering continues . During World War II a Trinitrotoluene ( TNT ) plant , which became a federal prison in 1952 , was built in the watershed . Most development is in the eastern end of the valley , with two unincorporated villages , a hamlet , and most of the farms ( many Amish ) .
= = Name = =
Two etymologies have been suggested for White Deer Hole Creek 's unusual name . According to Donehoo , it is a translation of the Lenape ( or Delaware ) Woap @-@ achtu @-@ woalhen ( literally " white @-@ deer digs a hole " ) , meaning " where the white deer digs " . It is Opauchtooalin on the earliest map showing the creek ( 1755 ) , while a 1759 map has both Opaghtanoten and its translation , " White Flint Creek " . These are seen as corruptions of Woap @-@ achtu @-@ woalhen , and by 1770 ( when the first settlers arrived ) a map has " White Deer hole " ( sic ) .
In 1870 , 88 @-@ year @-@ old John Farley gave a second explanation of the name . His family had settled on the banks of White Deer Hole Creek in 1787 , and John 's father John built a mill on the creek by 1789 . The creek was named because " a white deer is said to have been killed at an early day in a low hole or pond of water that once existed where my father built his mill " . The hole was " a large circular basin of low ground of some ten acres [ ( four ha ) ] in extent .... after my father 's mill and dam were built the water of the dam overflowed and covered the most of the hollow basin of ground . " The mill was just west of the mouth at the unincorporated village of Allenwood ( then called Uniontown ) , now in Gregg Township in Union County .
The name " White Deer Hole Creek " is unique in the USGS Geographic Names Information System and on its maps of the United States . Although the whole creek is now referred to by this name , in 1870 the name applied only to the section from the confluence with Spring Creek east to its mouth , while the main branch west of Spring Creek was called " South Creek " . Meginness used this name in 1892 and it appeared on a 1915 state map of Union County ( but not the 1916 Lycoming County map ) . In 2009 the name " South Creek " has disappeared , but there is still a " South Creek Road " on the right bank of the creek in Gregg Township from near the mouth of Spring Creek west to the county line .
According to Meginness , the 17 @-@ mile ( 27 km ) long and 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) wide White Deer Hole Creek valley was just called " White Deer valley " by many in 1892 , and this is still common . Confusion about the names arises since White Deer Creek is the next creek south of White Deer Hole Creek ( they are on opposite sides of South White Deer Ridge ) . The Lenape name for White Deer Creek was Woap ' -achtu @-@ hanne ( translated as " white @-@ deer stream " ) .
Spring Creek is the only named tributary of White Deer Hole Creek . Five unnamed tributaries flow through named features of South White Deer Ridge . Going upstream in order they are : Beartrap Hollow , First Gap , Second Gap , Third Gap , and Fourth Gap .
= = Course = =
Lycoming County is about 130 miles ( 210 km ) northwest of Philadelphia and 165 miles ( 266 km ) east @-@ northeast of Pittsburgh . The source of White Deer Hole Creek is in Crawford Township , just over the Clinton County line . Both it and the western half of the creek are within Tiadaghton State Forest . The creek flows east and soon crosses a natural gas pipeline and the Lycoming County line into Limestone Township .
It soon flows into Washington Township , which has more of White Deer Hole Creek than any other township . It receives unnamed tributaries in the Fourth , Third , Second , and First Gaps of South White Deer Ridge on the south or right bank . The creek leaves Tiadaghton State Forest after the Third Gap ( the forest itself continues along the ridge to the river ) , and stops being " Class A Wild Trout Waters " between the Second and First Gaps . It receives the unnamed tributary in Beartrap Hollow 10 @.@ 8 miles ( 17 @.@ 4 km ) upstream of its mouth , then passes south of the unincorporated village of Elimsport .
White Deer Hole Creek then flows east into Gregg Township in Union County , receiving its major tributary , Spring Creek , on the left bank 3 @.@ 6 miles ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) upstream of its mouth . Spring Creek rises north of Elimsport in Washington Township and flows east @-@ southeast , passing through Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 252 and just south of the Federal Correctional Institute , Allenwood .
The creek next flows just south of the hamlet of Spring Garden , then south of the village of Allenwood , where it has its confluence with the West Branch Susquehanna River . The direct distance between the source and mouth is only 16 miles ( 26 km ) . U.S. Route 15 and the Union County Industrial Railroad run north @-@ south here along the river and cross the creek just before its mouth ; however , this track is not in service as of 2009 . Pennsylvania Route 44 runs east @-@ west roughly parallel to the creek between Elimsport and Allenwood . Township roads run along the eastern two @-@ thirds of the creek , and smaller , more primitive roads follow it to its source .
From the mouth of White Deer Hole Creek it is 17 @.@ 7 miles ( 28 @.@ 5 km ) along the West Branch Susquehanna River to its confluence with the Susquehanna River at Northumberland . The elevation at the source is 2 @,@ 180 feet ( 660 m ) , while the mouth is at an elevation of 445 feet ( 136 m ) . The difference in elevation , 1 @,@ 735 feet ( 529 m ) , divided by the length of the creek of 20 @.@ 5 miles ( 33 @.@ 0 km ) gives the average drop in elevation per unit length of creek or relief ratio of 84 @.@ 6 feet / mile ( 16 @.@ 0 m / km ) . The meander ratio is 1 @.@ 14 , so the creek 's path is not entirely straight in its bed . The meandering increases near the mouth .
For its entire length , White Deer Hole Creek runs along the north side of South White Deer Ridge , an east @-@ west ridge of the Appalachian Mountains . North White Deer Ridge and Bald Eagle Mountain form the northern edge of the creek valley . There are 24 unnamed tributaries on the south side of the creek , all flowing down the side of South White Deer Ridge , while there are only 11 tributaries on the north side , including Spring Creek .
White Deer Creek , the next major creek to the south , flows along the other side of South White Deer Ridge in Union County and is just 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) away ( as measured along the West Branch Susquehanna River ) . The next major creek to the north is Muncy Creek , 10 @.@ 2 miles ( 16 @.@ 4 km ) away along the river , but on the opposite bank . The next creek to the north on the same bank ( except for the small Black Run ) is Black Hole Creek , on the south side of Bald Eagle Mountain . It has a watershed area of 21 @.@ 1 square miles ( 55 km2 ) and enters the river 4 @.@ 0 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away at the borough of Montgomery .
White Deer Hole Creek joins the West Branch Susquehanna River 17 @.@ 66 miles ( 28 @.@ 42 km ) upstream of its mouth .
= = Geology = =
White Deer Hole Creek is in a sandstone , limestone , and shale mountain region , entirely in the Ridge @-@ and @-@ valley Appalachians . South and North White Deer Ridge and Bald Eagle Mountain are composed of sedimentary Ordovician rock , while the valley rock is Silurian , with a small Devonian region closer to the river , in the north . The watershed has no deposits of coal , nor natural gas or oil fields . The creek is in a narrow mountain valley with steep slopes in its upper reaches . In its middle and lower reaches it has steep mountain slopes to the south , and a wide valley with rolling hills and gentle slopes to the north . The channel pattern is transitional , with a trellised drainage pattern .
From 1961 to 1995 , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) operated one stream gauge on White Deer Hole Creek at the Gap Road bridge ( upstream of Elimsport ) , for the uppermost 18 @.@ 2 square miles ( 47 km2 ) of the watershed . The highest yearly peak discharge measured at this site was 4 @,@ 200 cubic feet ( 120 m3 ) per second and the highest yearly peak gauge height was 11 @.@ 83 feet ( 3 @.@ 61 m ) , both on June 22 , 1972 , during Hurricane Agnes . The lowest yearly peak discharge in this time period was 135 cubic feet ( 3 @.@ 8 m3 ) per second and the lowest yearly peak gauge height was 4 @.@ 29 feet ( 1 @.@ 31 m ) , both on November 26 , 1986 . The USGS also measured discharge at Allenwood , very near the creek 's mouth , as part of water quality measurements on seven occasions between 1970 and 1975 . The average discharge was 70 @.@ 4 cubic feet ( 1 @.@ 99 m3 ) per second , and ranged from a high of 111 cubic feet ( 3 @.@ 1 m3 ) per second to a low of 33 cubic feet ( 0 @.@ 93 m3 ) per second . There are no other known stream gauges on the creek .
= = Watershed = =
The White Deer Hole Creek watershed consists of 0 @.@ 08 percent of the area of Clinton County , 4 @.@ 40 percent of the area of Lycoming County , and 3 @.@ 67 percent of the area of Union County . Neighboring watersheds are the West Branch Susquehanna River and its minor tributaries ( north and east ) , White Deer Creek ( south ) , and Fishing Creek ( west ) .
In 2000 , the White Deer Hole Creek watershed population was 2 @,@ 672 . In the 1970s , Amish began moving to the Elimsport area from Lancaster County . In 1995 there were over 200 Amish in more than twenty families . In comparison , Washington Township 's population was 1 @,@ 613 in 2000 . Elimsport has Amish harness , machine repair , and food shops , and a new one @-@ room school was built nearby in 1997 .
The watershed area is 67 square miles ( 170 km2 ) , with 48 square miles ( 120 km2 ) of forest and 19 square miles ( 49 km2 ) for agriculture . By area , 1 @.@ 1 percent of the watershed lies in Clinton County ( in Crawford and Greene Townships ) , 81 @.@ 6 percent lies in Lycoming County ( in Brady , Clinton , Limestone , and Washington Townships ) , and 17 @.@ 3 percent lies in Union County ( in Gregg , Lewis , West Buffalo , and White Deer Townships ) .
Spring Creek is the major tributary , draining an area of 21 @.@ 1 square miles ( 55 km2 ) or 31 percent of the total White Deer Hole Creek watershed . No other tributaries are named and only the area of the tributary in Beartrap Hollow is known , with 0 @.@ 42 square miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km2 ) or 0 @.@ 63 percent of the total .
= = = Water quality and pollution = = =
Clearcutting of forests in the early 20th century and the ordnance plant in the Second World War adversely affected the White Deer Hole Creek watershed 's ecology and water quality . Agricultural runoff was and is another potential source of pollution . Gregg Township had no wastewater treatment plant until an 800 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon / day ( 304 m3 / day ) plant was built along the river just north of the creek for the federal prison ( 90 percent ) and village of Allenwood ( 10 percent ) . The drainage basin has been designated by Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as " a high quality watershed " since 2001 .
The mean annual precipitation for White Deer Hole Creek is 40 to 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 016 to 1 @,@ 067 mm ) . Pennsylvania receives the most acid rain of any state in the United States . Because the creek is in a sandstone , limestone , and shale mountain region , it has a relatively low capacity to neutralize added acid . This makes it especially vulnerable to acid rain , which poses a threat to the long term health of the plants and animals in the creek . The total alkalinity of the " Class A Wild Trout Waters " is 2 for the 4 @.@ 7 miles ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) of White Deer Hole Creek so classified , and 13 for the 3 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) unnamed tributary in the Fourth Gap .
= = = Recreation = = =
Edward Gertler writes in Keystone Canoeing that White Deer Hole Creek " offers a good springtime beginner cruise through a pretty , agricultural valley " with " many satisfying views " and " good current and many easy riffles " . Canoeing and kayaking are possible in spring and after hard rain , with 10 @.@ 6 miles ( 17 @.@ 1 km ) of Class 1 whitewater on the International Scale of River Difficulty from Back Road bridge east to U.S. Route 15 ( the mouth ) . One can start further upstream at the Gap Road bridge , for 2 @.@ 0 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of Class 2 whitewater , but strainers are more of a problem here .
White Deer Hole Creek is designated by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission as a " Class A Wild Trout Waters " stream , from the source downstream to the Township Road 384 ( Gap Road ) bridge . The unnamed tributary in Fourth Gap is also " Class A Wild Trout Waters " . The creek downstream from the bridge , as well as Spring Creek , have been designated as approved trout waters by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission and are stocked with trout and may be fished during trout season . Other fish found in the creek and river include carp , catfish , pickerel , and pike .
Hunting , trapping , and fishing are possible with proper licenses in Tiadaghton State Forest and the 3 @,@ 018 acres ( 1 @,@ 221 ha ) in State Game Lands No. 252 . In 2002 , a Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources report on " State Forest Waters with Special Protection " rated White Deer Hole Creek from its source to Spring Creek as a " High Quality @-@ Cold Water Fishery " . In addition to these public lands , there are private hunting and fishing clubs and cabins along White Deer Hole Creek and its tributaries . Popular game species include American black bear , white @-@ tailed deer , ruffed grouse , and wild turkey .
Part of the 261 @-@ mile ( 420 km ) Pennsylvania Mid State Trail , marked with orange blazes to indicate it is solely for hiking , runs along a section of White Deer Hole Creek from west of the Fourth Gap to beyond the source . There are other hiking trails in the watershed , and the Third Gap , Metzger , Mud Hole , Pennsylvania Mid State , Sawalt , and Mountain Gap trails are part of the 120 @-@ mile ( 190 km ) Central Mountains Shared Use Trails System , marked with red blazes , in Tiadaghton and Bald Eagle State Forests in Union , Lycoming , and Clinton Counties .
Roads and trails in the state forest are also open for horseback riding and mountain biking . Some trails are dedicated to cross @-@ country skiing and snowmobiling in winter . The state forest is open for primitive camping , although certain areas require a permit . Small campfires are allowed , except from March to mid @-@ May and October through November , or by order of the district forester , when self @-@ contained stoves are allowed .
= = History = =
= = = Native American paths = = =
The first recorded inhabitants of the Susquehanna River valley were the Susquehannocks , an Iroquoian speaking people . Their name meant " people of the muddy river " in the Algonquian , but their name for themselves is unknown . Decimated by diseases and warfare , they had largely died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes by the early 18th century . The lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley were then chiefly occupied by the Munsee phratry of the Lenape ( or Delaware ) , and were under the nominal control of the Five ( later Six ) Nations of the Iroquois . Two important paths of these native indigenous peoples ran along parts of White Deer Hole Creek .
The Great Island Path was a major trail that ran north along the Susquehanna River from the Saponi village of Shamokin at modern Sunbury , fording the river there and following the west bank of the West Branch Susquehanna River north until White Deer Hole valley . The path turned west at Allenwood and followed White Deer Hole Creek until about the present location of Elimsport . There it headed northwest , crossed North White Deer Ridge and passed west through the Nippenose valley , then turned north and crossed Bald Eagle Mountain via McElhattan Creek and ran along the south bank of the river to the Great Island ( near the present day city of Lock Haven ) . The stretch from the mouth of the creek to the Nippenose valley is approximately followed by Route 44 . From the Great Island , the Great Shamokin Path continued further west to the modern boroughs of Clearfield and Kittanning , the last on the Allegheny River .
Culbertson 's Path followed White Deer Hole Creek west from Allenwood , then followed Spring Creek north , crossed Bald Eagle Mountain and followed Mosquito Run to the river at the current borough of Duboistown . Here it crossed the river to " French Margaret 's Town " ( western modern day Williamsport ) before joining the major Sheshequin Path , which led north up Lycoming Creek to the North Branch of the Susquehanna River , modern New York , and the Iroquois there . These trails were only wide enough for one person , but settlers in White Deer Hole valley broadened the path to DuBoistown to take grain to Culbertson 's mill on Mosquito Run , hence the name . Culbertson 's Path was used as a part of the Underground Railroad until the American Civil War began in 1861 . Escaped slaves would often wade in creeks to hide their scent from pursuing bloodhounds . In 2009 , there is still a " Culbertson 's Trail " , for hiking over Bald Eagle Mountain from Pennsylvania Route 554 to Duboistown .
= = = Lycoming County boundaries = = =
When Lycoming County was organized on April 13 , 1795 , the bill passed by the Pennsylvania legislature defined the new county 's boundaries thus :
That all that part of Northumberland County lying northwestward of a line drawn from the Mifflin county line on the summit of Nittany mountain ; thence running along the top or highest ridge of said mountain , to where White Deer Hole creek runs through the same ; and from thence by a direct line crossing the West Branch of Susquehanna , at the mouth of Black Hole creek to the end of Muncy Hills ; thence along the top of Muncy Hills and the Bald Mountain to the Luzerne county line , shall be , and the same is hereby erected into a separate county , to be henceforth called and known by the name of Lycoming County . [ emphasis added ]
The borders of the county have changed considerably since , but the White Deer Hole Creek watershed still approximates the county line in the south . Until 1861 , what is now Gregg Township in Union County was a part of Brady Township in Lycoming County . Thus , until the start of the American Civil War , almost all of White Deer Hole Creek and its watershed were part of Lycoming County .
= = = Early inhabitants = = =
Prior to construction , the site of the wastewater treatment plant yielded archeological evidence of habitation by indigenous peoples from the Paleo @-@ Indian , Archaic , and Woodland periods . The only Native American inhabitant of the valley whose name is known , " Cochnehaw " , lived near the mouth of White Deer Hole Creek . White Deer Hole Creek was acquired by the colonial government of Pennsylvania on November 5 , 1768 , as part of the " New Purchase " in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix . The first settlers came to the valley in 1769 or 1770 , and by 1778 there were 146 landowners on the township tax rolls ( though many likely resided elsewhere . )
In the American Revolutionary War , settlements throughout the Susquehanna valley were attacked by Loyalists and Native Americans allied with the British . After the Wyoming Valley battle and massacre in the summer of 1778 ( near what is now Wilkes @-@ Barre ) and smaller local attacks , the " Big Runaway " occurred throughout the West Branch Susquehanna valley . Settlers fled from feared and actual attacks by the British and their allies . Settlers abandoned their homes and fields , drove their livestock south , and towed their possessions on rafts on the river to Sunbury . Their abandoned property was burnt by the attackers . Some settlers soon returned , only to flee again in the summer of 1779 in the " Little Runaway " .
Sullivan 's Expedition helped stabilize the area and encouraged resettlement , which continued after the war . However , in 1787 there were only fourteen families in the valley : five on the river banks , five on White Deer Hole Creek between Spring Creek and the river , two on Spring Creek , and two on the creek west of Spring Creek . Six families left the area not long after 1787 . The first grist mill was built on the creek in 1789 , and four more were built in 1798 , 1815 , 1817 , and 1842 .
= = = Lumber and logging railroad = = =
Beginning with the first settlers , much of the land along White Deer Hole Creek was slowly cleared of timber . Small sawmills were constructed in the 19th century , and a much larger lumber operation was run by the Vincent Lumber Company from 1901 to 1904 . The company built a narrow gauge 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) railroad from Elimsport 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west into timber , and a line east to Allenwood and the Reading Railroad there . The lumber railroad , which ended near the Fourth Gap , ran parallel to the creek . It was incorporated on June 24 , 1901 , ( around the time of construction ) as the " Allenwood and Western Railroad " . The lumbering operation ceased in 1904 when the forests were gone . The railroad was torn up , and its one second @-@ hand Shay locomotive was moved to the Vincent Lumber Company operation at Denholm in Juniata County .
From 1900 to 1935 , much of what is now Tiadaghton State Forest was purchased by Pennsylvania from lumber companies that had no further use for the clear @-@ cut land . In the 1930s there were seven Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) camps to construct roads and trails in the forest . CCC Camp S @-@ 125 @-@ Pa ( Elimsport ) was located 15 miles ( 24 km ) west of Allenwood along the creek , between the Third and Fourth Gaps .
Small @-@ scale lumbering continues in the watershed , but the forest is certified as well @-@ managed " in an environmentally sensitive manner " and lumber from it qualifies for a " green label " . Gertler reports lumber operations along White Deer Hole Creek near Elimsport in the early 1980s . A sawmill owned and operated by Amish is on Route 44 in Elimsport . It burned down on May 10 , 2006 , causing $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages , but was expected to be back in operation in a month ; it has since reopened . Despite this small @-@ scale lumbering , as of 2009 the forests have grown back and are mixed oak , with blueberry and mountain laurel bushes . White Deer Hole Creek and its tributaries also have stands of hemlock and thickets of rhododendron along them .
= = = Ordnance plant to federal prison and game lands = = =
During the Second World War , the federal government built the $ 50 million Susquehanna Ordnance Depot to make TNT on 8 @,@ 500 acres ( 3 @,@ 400 ha ) , partially in the White Deer Hole Creek watershed . In the spring of 1942 , residents were evicted by eminent domain from 163 farms and 47 other properties in Gregg Township in Union County and Brady , Clinton , and Washington Townships in Lycoming County . The village of Alvira in Gregg Township disappeared . Alvira was founded in 1825 as " Wisetown " and had 100 inhabitants by 1900 . Although the inhabitants were told they could return after the war , almost all the buildings seized were razed . Only some cemeteries and the nearby " Stone Church " remain . Construction of the plant involved some 10 @,@ 000 people , and it took 3 @,@ 500 to 4 @,@ 500 employees to run the plant with its more than 200 buildings and 149 storage bunkers for TNT and high explosives , as well as storage racks of bombs . However , the need for TNT was lower than originally estimated and the project was nearly abandoned . By 1945 , the only workers left at the depot were guards .
The depot closed after the war and the land was used by the United States Army for testing . In 1950 , the Federal Bureau of Prisons was given 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) of the plant site , and began housing prisoners from the Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary there in 1952 . In 1957 the " Allenwood Prison Camp " was built , which became the " Federal Correctional Institute , Allenwood " . This was greatly expanded in the early 1990s to become " the largest federal prison facility " in the United States . North of the White Deer Hole Creek watershed , some of the land was sold to make the " White Deer Golf Course " in Clinton Township , and in 1973 , 125 acres ( 51 ha ) of prison land in Brady Township were leased to Lycoming County for its landfill ( which serves five counties ) .
The remaining 3 @,@ 018 acres ( 1 @,@ 221 ha ) were given to Pennsylvania and became State Game Lands 252 . Many of the 149 concrete bunkers remain , but it is " a diverse mix of mature forest , impoundments , and brushy thickets , as well as a local hotspot for a variety of birds during migration " . The watershed is a haven for wildlife . Common animals in the game lands include painted and common snapping turtles , muskrats , frogs , eastern cottontails , red foxes , and white @-@ tailed deer , while birds include golden @-@ winged , hooded , and blue @-@ winged warblers , red @-@ shouldered hawks , wood ducks , tundra swans , pied @-@ billed grebes , American bitterns , herons , and belted kingfishers . The first barn owls to be banded in Lycoming County were in a barn near Elimsport in 2006 . Gray squirrels , groundhogs , raccoons , crows , red @-@ tailed hawks , downy woodpeckers , cardinals , blue jays , American robins , nuthatches , titmice , and sparrows are also found in the White Deer Hole Creek watershed .
Some locals in the surrounding areas often report paranormal sightings and activities in the bunker areas . Many stories and experiences are recurring while others are different . There have been no formal investigations of the activity reported so far , however some people have performed personal investigations and reported their outcomes .
= Eliminative materialism =
Eliminative materialism ( also called eliminativism ) is a materialist position in the philosophy of mind . Its primary claim is that people 's common @-@ sense understanding of the mind ( or folk psychology ) is false and that certain classes of mental states that most people believe in do not exist . Some eliminativists argue that no coherent neural basis will be found for many everyday psychological concepts such as belief or desire , since they are poorly defined . Rather , they argue that psychological concepts of behaviour and experience should be judged by how well they reduce to the biological level . Other versions entail the non @-@ existence of conscious mental states such as pain and visual perceptions .
Eliminativism stands in opposition to reductive materialism , which argues that a mental state is well defined , and that further research will result in a more detailed , but not different understanding . An intermediate position is revisionary materialism , which will often argue that the mental state in question will prove to be somewhat reducible to physical phenomena - with some changes to the common sense concept .
Eliminativism about a class of entities is the view that that class of entities does not exist . For example , materialism tends to be eliminativist about the soul ; modern chemists are eliminativist about phlogiston ; and modern physicists are eliminativist about the existence of luminiferous aether . Eliminative materialism is the relatively new ( 1960s @-@ 1970s ) idea that certain classes of mental entities that common sense takes for granted , such as beliefs , desires , and the subjective sensation of pain , do not exist . The most common versions are eliminativism about propositional attitudes , as expressed by Paul and Patricia Churchland , and eliminativism about qualia ( subjective experience ) , as expressed by Daniel Dennett and Georges Rey . These philosophers often appeal to an introspection illusion .
Since eliminative materialism claims that future research will fail to find a neuronal basis for various mental phenomena , it must necessarily wait for science to progress further . One might question the position on these grounds , but other philosophers like Churchland argue that eliminativism is often necessary in order to open the minds of thinkers to new evidence and better explanations .
= = Overview = =
Various arguments have been put forth both for and against eliminative materialism over the last forty years . Most of the arguments in favor of the view are based on the assumption that people 's commonsense view of the mind is actually an implicit theory . It is to be compared and contrasted with other scientific theories in its explanatory success , accuracy , and ability to allow people to make correct predictions about the future . Eliminativists argue that , based on these and other criteria , commonsense " folk " psychology has failed and will eventually need to be replaced with explanations derived from the neurosciences . These philosophers therefore tend to emphasize the importance of neuroscientific research as well as developments in artificial intelligence to sustain their thesis .
Philosophers who argue against eliminativism may take several approaches . Simulation theorists , like Robert Gordon and Alvin Goldman argue that folk psychology is not a theory , but rather depends on internal simulation of others , and therefore is not subject to falsification in the same way that theories are . Jerry Fodor , among others , argues that folk psychology is , in fact , a successful ( even indispensable ) theory . Another view is that eliminativism assumes the existence of the beliefs and other entities it seeks to " eliminate " and is thus self @-@ refuting .
Eliminativism maintains that the common @-@ sense understanding of the mind is mistaken , and that the neurosciences will one day reveal that the mental states that are talked about in everyday discourse , using words such as " intend " , " believe " , " desire " , and " love " , do not refer to anything real . Because of the inadequacy of natural languages , people mistakenly think that they have such beliefs and desires . Some eliminativists , such as Frank Jackson , claim that consciousness does not exist except as an epiphenomenon of brain function ; others , such as Georges Rey , claim that the concept will eventually be eliminated as neuroscience progresses . Consciousness and folk psychology are separate issues and it is possible to take an eliminative stance on one but not the other . The roots of eliminativism go back to the writings of Wilfred Sellars , W.V. Quine , Paul Feyerabend , and Richard Rorty . The term " eliminative materialism " was first introduced by James Cornman in 1968 while describing a version of physicalism endorsed by Rorty . The later Ludwig Wittgenstein was also an important inspiration for eliminativism , particularly with his attack on " private objects " as " grammatical fictions " .
Early eliminativists such as Rorty and Feyerabend often confused two different notions of the sort of elimination that the term " eliminative materialism " entailed . On the one hand , they claimed , the cognitive sciences that will ultimately give people a correct account of the workings of the mind will not employ terms that refer to common @-@ sense mental states like beliefs and desires ; these states will not be part of the ontology of a mature cognitive science . But critics immediately countered that this view was indistinguishable from the identity theory of mind . Quine himself wondered what exactly was so eliminative about eliminative materialism after all :
On the other hand , the same philosophers also claimed that common @-@ sense mental states simply do not exist . But critics pointed out that eliminativists could not have it both ways : either mental states exist and will ultimately be explained in terms of lower @-@ level neurophysiological processes or they do not . Modern eliminativists have much more clearly expressed the view that mental phenomena simply do not exist and will eventually be eliminated from people 's thinking about the brain in the same way that demons have been eliminated from people 's thinking about mental illness and psychopathology .
While it was a minority view in the 1960s , eliminative materialism gained prominence and acceptance during the 1980s . Proponents of this view , such as B.F. Skinner , often made parallels to previous pseudoscientific theories ( such as that of the four humours , the phlogiston theory of combustion , and the vital force theory of life ) that have all been successfully eliminated in attempting to establish their thesis about the nature of the mental . In these cases , science has not produced more detailed versions or reductions of these theories , but rejected them altogether as obsolete . Radical behaviorists , such as Skinner , argued that folk psychology is already obsolete and should be replaced by descriptions of histories of reinforcement and punishment . Such views were eventually abandoned . Patricia and Paul Churchland argued that folk psychology will be gradually replaced as neuroscience matures .
Eliminativism is not only motivated by philosophical considerations , but is also a prediction about what form future scientific theories will take . Eliminativist philosophers therefore tend to be concerned with the data coming from the relevant brain and cognitive sciences . In addition , because eliminativism is essentially predictive in nature , different theorists can , and often do , make different predictions about which aspects of folk psychology will be eliminated from folk psychological vocabulary . None of these philosophers are eliminativists " tout court " .
Today , the eliminativist view is most closely associated with the philosophers Paul and Patricia Churchland , who deny the existence of propositional attitudes ( a subclass of intentional states ) , and with Daniel Dennett , who is generally considered to be an eliminativist about qualia and phenomenal aspects of consciousness . One way to summarize the difference between the Churchlands 's views and Dennett 's view is that the Churchlands are eliminativists when it comes to propositional attitudes , but reductionists concerning qualia , while Dennett is an anti @-@ reductionist with respect to propositional attitudes , and an eliminativist concerning qualia .
= = Arguments for eliminativism = =
= = = Problems with folk theories = = =
Eliminativists such as Paul and Patricia Churchland argue that folk psychology is a fully developed but non @-@ formalized theory of human behavior . It is used to explain and make predictions about human mental states and behavior . This view is often referred to as the theory of mind or just simply theory @-@ theory , for it is a theory which theorizes the existence of an unacknowledged theory . As a theory in the scientific sense , eliminativists maintain , folk psychology needs to be evaluated on the basis of its predictive power and explanatory success as a research program for the investigation of the mind / brain .
Such eliminativists have developed different arguments to show that folk psychology is a seriously mistaken theory and needs to be abolished . They argue that folk psychology excludes from its purview or has traditionally been mistaken about many important mental phenomena that can , and are , being examined and explained by modern neurosciences . Some examples are dreaming , consciousness , mental disorders , learning processes , and memory abilities . Furthermore , they argue , folk psychology 's development in the last 2 @,@ 500 years has not been significant and it is therefore a stagnating theory . The ancient Greeks already had a folk psychology comparable to modern views . But in contrast to this lack of development , the neurosciences are a rapidly progressing science complex that , in their view , can explain many cognitive processes that folk psychology cannot .
Folk psychology retains characteristics of now obsolete theories or legends from the past . Ancient societies tried to explain the physical mysteries of nature by ascribing mental conditions to them in such statements as " the sea is angry " . Gradually , these everyday folk psychological explanations were replaced by more efficient scientific descriptions . Today , eliminativists argue , there is no reason not to accept an effective scientific account of people 's cognitive abilities . If such an explanation existed , then there would be no need for folk @-@ psychological explanations of behavior , and the latter would be eliminated the same way as the mythological explanations the ancients used .
Another line of argument is the meta @-@ induction based on what eliminativists view as the disastrous historical record of folk theories in general . Ancient pre @-@ scientific " theories " of folk biology , folk physics , and folk cosmology have all proven to be radically wrong . Eliminativists argue the same in the case of folk psychology . There seems no logical basis , to the eliminativist , for making an exception just because folk psychology has lasted longer and is more intuitive or instinctively plausible than the other folk theories . Indeed , the eliminativists warn , considerations of intuitive plausibility may be precisely the result of the deeply entrenched nature in society of folk psychology itself . It may be that people 's beliefs and other such states are as theory @-@ laden as external perceptions and hence intuitions will tend to be biased in favor of them .
= = = Specific problems with folk psychology = = =
Much of folk psychology involves the attribution of intentional states ( or more specifically as a subclass , propositional attitudes ) . Eliminativists point out that these states are generally ascribed syntactic and semantic properties . An example of this is the language of thought hypothesis , which attributes a discrete , combinatorial syntax and other linguistic properties to these mental phenomena . Eliminativists argue that such discrete and combinatorial characteristics have no place in the neurosciences , which speak of action potentials , spiking frequencies , and other effects which are continuous and distributed in nature . Hence , the syntactic structures which are assumed by folk psychology can have no place in such a structure as the brain . Against this there have been two responses . On the one hand , there are philosophers who deny that mental states are linguistic in nature and see this as a straw man argument . The other view is represented by those who subscribe to " a language of thought " . They assert that the mental states can be multiply realized and that functional characterizations are just higher @-@ level characterizations of what 's happening at the physical level .
It has also been argued against folk psychology that the intentionality of mental states like belief imply that they have semantic qualities . Specifically , their meaning is determined by the things that they are about in the external world . This makes it difficult to explain how they can play the causal roles that they are supposed to in cognitive processes .
In recent years , this latter argument has been fortified by the theory of connectionism . Many connectionist models of the brain have been developed in which the processes of language learning and other forms of representation are highly distributed and parallel . This would tend to indicate that there is no need for such discrete and semantically endowed entities as beliefs and desires .
= = Arguments against eliminativism = =
= = = Intuitive reservations = = =
The thesis of eliminativism seems to be so obviously wrong to many critics , under the claim that people know immediately and indubitably that they have minds , that argumentation seems unnecessary . This sort of intuition pumping is illustrated by asking what happens when one asks oneself honestly if one has mental states . Eliminativists object to such a rebuttal of their position by claiming that intuitions often are mistaken . Analogies from the history of science are frequently invoked to buttress this observation : it may appear obvious that the sun travels around the earth , for example , but for all its apparent obviousness this conception was proved wrong nevertheless . Similarly , it may appear obvious that apart from neural events there are also mental conditions . Nevertheless , this could equally turn out to be false .
But even if one accepts the susceptibility to error of people 's intuitions , the objection can be reformulated : if the existence of mental conditions seems perfectly obvious and is central in people 's conception of the world , then enormously strong arguments are needed in order to successfully deny the existence of mental conditions . Furthermore , these arguments , to be consistent , need to be formulated in a way which does not pre @-@ suppose the existence of entities like " mental states " , " logical arguments " , and " ideas " , otherwise they are self @-@ contradictory . Those who accept this objection say that the arguments in favor of eliminativism are far too weak to establish such a radical claim ; therefore there is no reason to believe in eliminativism .
= = = Self @-@ refutation = = =
Some philosophers , such as Paul Boghossian , have attempted to show that eliminativism is in some sense self @-@ refuting , since the theory itself presupposes the existence of mental phenomena . If eliminativism is true , then the eliminativist must permit an intentional property like truth , supposing that in order to assert something one must believe it . Hence , for eliminativism to be asserted as a thesis , the eliminativist must believe that it is true ; if that is the case , then there are beliefs and the eliminativist claim is false .
Georges Rey and Michael Devitt reply to this objection by invoking deflationary semantic theories that avoid analysing predicates like " x is true " as expressing a real property . They are construed , instead , as logical devices so that asserting that a sentence is true is just a quoted way of asserting the sentence itself . To say , " ' God exists ' is true " is just to say , " God exists " . This way , Rey and Devitt argue , insofar as dispositional replacements of " claims " and deflationary accounts of " true " are coherent , eliminativism is not self @-@ refuting .
= = = Qualia = = =
Another problem for the eliminativist is the consideration that human beings undergo subjective experiences and , hence , their conscious mental states have qualia . Since qualia are generally regarded as characteristics of mental states , their existence does not seem to be compatible with eliminativism . Eliminativists , such as Daniel Dennett and Georges Rey , respond by rejecting qualia . This is seen to be problematic to opponents of eliminativists , since many claim that the existence of qualia seems perfectly obvious . Many philosophers consider the " elimination " of qualia implausible , if not incomprehensible . They assert that , for instance , the existence of pain is simply beyond denial .
Admitting that the existence of qualia seems obvious , Dennett nevertheless states that " qualia " is a theoretical term from an outdated metaphysics stemming from Cartesian intuitions . He argues that a precise analysis shows that the term is in the long run empty and full of contradictions . The eliminativist 's claim with respect to qualia is that there is no unbiased evidence for such experiences when regarded as something more than propositional attitudes . Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein 's Philosophical Investigations , Dennett and Rey have defended eliminativism about qualia , even when other portions of the mental are accepted .
= = = Efficacy of folk psychology = = =
Some philosophers simply argue that folk @-@ psychology is a quite successful theory . Simulation theorists doubt that people 's understanding of the mental can be explained in terms of a theory at all . Rather they argue that people 's understanding of others is based on internal simulations of how they would act and respond in similar situations . Jerry Fodor is one of the objectors that believes in folk psychology 's success as a theory , because it makes for an effective way of communication in everyday life that can be implemented with few words . Such an effectiveness could never be achieved with a complex neuroscientific terminology .
= The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants =
" The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants " is the seventh episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It first aired on Fox in the United States on November 27 , 2011 , and was seen by around 5 @.@ 6 million people during this broadcast . In the episode , Homer becomes an account manager for Mr. Burns after successfully hosting a viral marketing event for Krusty the Clown . Meanwhile , Lisa is teaching Bart how to read classic novels like Little Women . Homer 's new job affects his family as he becomes more distant and in the end he has to choose between his family or his new job . The episode 's title references The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit .
The episode was written by Jeff Westbrook and directed by Steven Dean Moore . It functions mainly as a parody of the television show Mad Men , and features the guest voices of Mad Men actor John Slattery and creator Matthew Weiner . Critics found the episode to be average in quality , receiving criticism for the wasted opportunities with the Mad Men parody .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family host a tastemaker party at their home to promote Absolut Krusty , Krusty the Clown 's own brand of vodka . Mr. Burns takes notice of the party 's success and decides to promote Homer to " Account Man " for the Springfield Nuclear Plant . Robert Marlowe , a seasoned account veteran , takes Homer under his wing and shows Homer what the high life is like in the corner office . The job changes Homer into a sad individual , who drinks in the dark and complains about the meaninglessness of his job . When Homer 's long hours at the office become the norm and Homer becomes distant from his family , a family vacation with Marge and the children help him realize that family always comes before work . Meanwhile , Lisa introduces Bart to a new literary world which sparks his interest in reading classic novels . In the beginning , Bart struggles with reading and suggests that he should just get a job where he does not have to read . Lisa insists and Bart eventually learns to read properly . When the bullies watches him reading a classic novel at school , they force him to read Little Women to them .
Meanwhile , both Marge and Mr. Burns want Homer to go on the same rafting trip . Homer starts with being on his family 's raft , and then swims back and forth between that and Mr. Burns 's raft . Marge discovers that he has double booked the weekend while both rafts float near a waterfall , and is upset that he chose to do work on a family outing . Homer can only save one raft , and he saves the one containing his family . As Mr. Burns and the executives are about to go over the waterfall , Marlowe rides up on a motorboat and carries Mr. Burns to safety , while the executives fall over the edge . Homer goes over the waterfall by himself , but is completely unharmed and finds gold . Later , at their house , Homer tells Marge that he is a safety inspector again . Fireworks go off outside , and it is revealed that they were caused by a fire at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , presumably because Homer failed at his job .
= = Production = =
" The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants " was written by Jeff Westbrook and directed by Steven Dean Moore . It featured John Slattery , Matthew Weiner , and Kevin Michael Richardson as guest voices . Weiner is the creator , writer , and showrunner of the television show Mad Men , in which Slattery portrays the character Roger Sterling . The entire A @-@ Plot of the episode was a parody of Mad Men . Homer transforms into the lead character from Mad Men , Don Draper , and Slattery 's character Robert Marlowe shares similarities with Roger Sterling . Weiner 's role in the episode was a brief cameo as one of the businessmen on the rafting trip with Mr. Burns . The lead actor of Mad Men , Jon Hamm , did not appear in the episode , but previously appeared in the season 22 episode " Donnie Fatso " as a different character . " The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants " even recreated a scene from Mad Men , in which a lawnmower runs loose in an office . In an interview with IGN in 2011 , the showrunner of the episode , Al Jean , named Mad Men as one of the two television shows he always makes time to watch .
The music in the episode was edited by Chris Ledesma . In his own blog , he explains that this episode required very little musical scoring . In some cases , the musical score is used to take away focus from the scenes that did not work as well as planned . If the episode on the other side is well @-@ scripted and features strong performances from the voice cast , then the music becomes a distraction . Ledesma thought that the " episode offers a nice balance of dialogue and music . " Of the music that was used , the theme from the 1965 film Moment to Moment , which was scored by Henry Mancini , was featured during the montage of Homer working at his new job . The episode ends with a piece of music , which is the music composer Alf Clausen 's version of the Mancini theme . In total five minutes of music was used for the episode .
The episode featured several references to the character Mr. Burns 's old age . When Burns is requesting a song from the discjockey , he asks for " anything by Prince ... Wilhelm , of Prussia ? " . Prince Wilhelm of Prussia was second in line to the German throne and lived from 1906 to 1940 . Instead , the discjockey plays " Come Josephine in My Flying Machine " from 1910 . Other Mr. Burns quotes include " How ironic . I survive the Titanic by making a raft out of steerage passengers ... and now this . " and the RMS Titanic sank in 1912 .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 27 , 2011 . It was watched by approximately 5 @.@ 61 million people during this broadcast . The show received a 2 @.@ 6 Nielsen rating in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , which was a 4 % drop from the previous episode " The Book Job " , and a six percent audience share . It was preceded by The Cleveland Show and became the highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of total viewers , finishing higher than Family Guy ( 5 @.@ 50 million ) , American Dad ! ( 4 @.@ 48 million ) , The Cleveland Show ( 3 @.@ 67 million ) , and Allan Gregory ( 3 @.@ 18 million ) . The episode did however not rate higher than Family Guy in the 18 – 49 demographic . Seven days after the initial airing , the episode had a 19 @.@ 2 % increase in the 18 – 49 demographics from DVR viewings , raising the overall ratings to 3 @.@ 1 . The overall viewership increased with 15 @.@ 7 % to 6 @.@ 49 million viewers . For the week of November 21 – 27 , 2011 , " The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants " finished in 21st place in the ratings among all network prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic .
Since airing , " The Man in the Blue Flannel Pants " has been generally received as being average in quality by television critics . The A.V. Club 's Hayden Childs gave the episode an overall rating of B- and found that the episode " wasn ’ t particularly funny but neither was it particularly bad . " She praised the episode for " a strong storyline " and " elements that often crop up in the better episodes , like a focus that does not stray too far from the Simpson family and a B @-@ plot that works " . Despite this , she felt that the " jokes are so low @-@ key and mild that the episode zooms by without raising a single chuckle or smirk . " Similarly , Jason Hughes of AOL TV commented that " [ w ] hile it was a charming enough episode , there were no stand @-@ out moments of clever satire or unexpected twists . " Ology 's Josh Harrison was slightly more negative and thought the episode was " charming but a bit of a comic flop " . He concluded that the episode was nothing special and gave the episode a rating of six out of ten .
On the Mad Men parody , Childs found comedic potential in Homer 's transformation into Don Draper , but concluded that this was " where the episode could have gotten very funny very fast , but it doesn ’ t bring any of these jokes home . " She further elaborated that " Don Draper is a sad character , true , but there is some real comic potential in his pretensions and vanity . The writers are tapping into this aspect of his characterization to a small degree , but they aren ’ t really satirizing it . " Hughes was not impressed with the Mad Men parody and sarcastically stated that the spoof was " so sharp , you 'll swear it 's 2008 " .
= WrestleMania XXIV =
WrestleMania XXIV was the twenty @-@ fourth annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . The event took place on March 30 , 2008 , at the Florida Citrus Bowl in Orlando , Florida and was the first WrestleMania to be held in the state of Florida . WrestleMania XXIV was the second WrestleMania to be held outdoors , with the first being WrestleMania IX , held in Caesars Palace in Las Vegas , Nevada .
Nine professional wrestling matches were scheduled for the event , which featured a supercard , a scheduling of more than one main bout . The first of these matches was a Singles match from the SmackDown brand that featured The Undertaker defeating World Heavyweight Champion Edge to win the title . The second was a Triple Threat match from the Raw brand , in which WWE Champion Randy Orton defeated challengers Triple H and John Cena to retain the championship . The other was a singles match from the ECW brand , in which Kane defeated ECW Champion Chavo Guerrero to win the ECW title . From the six scheduled bouts on the undercard , three received more promotion than the others . In a No Disqualification match , Floyd Mayweather Jr. defeated Big Show . The second match involved wrestlers from all three brands fighting in a Money in the Bank ladder match , which CM Punk won . The other match was a retirement match in which Shawn Michaels defeated Ric Flair , leading to Flair 's departure from the WWE and a period of retirement from active wrestling .
Tickets for the event commenced sale to the public on November 3 , 2007 . WWE and the City of Orlando hosted festivities that spanned a five @-@ day period within the central Florida region . For the second consecutive year , WrestleMania broke the record for the highest @-@ grossing pay @-@ per @-@ view in WWE history . It also set a gate record for the Citrus Bowl , grossing US $ 5 @.@ 85 million in ticket sales . According to a study by Enigma Research Corporation of Toronto , the Citrus Bowl 's record @-@ breaking attendance brought an estimated $ 51 @.@ 5 million – surpassing the projected $ 25 million – into the local economy and generated $ 1 @.@ 8 million in local tax revenue . The Central Florida Sports Commission reported that the event created jobs and brought approximately 60 @,@ 000 visitors to the city . Over one million people ordered the event on pay @-@ per @-@ view , grossing $ 23 @.@ 8 million in revenue .
= = Background = =
WrestleMania XXIV featured nine professional wrestling matches with wrestlers involved in pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots , and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension @-@ building events , which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers belonged to either the Raw , SmackDown , or ECW brand – storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs .
The predominant rivalry scripted into WrestleMania on the Raw brand was between Randy Orton , John Cena , and Triple H , over the WWE Championship . At the Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view event in January , Randy Orton successfully defended the WWE Championship against Jeff Hardy at the same event where John Cena returned from an injury and won the Royal Rumble match , where thirty wrestlers competed in a ring and were eliminated by being thrown over the top rope when he last eliminated Triple H. By winning the match , Cena became a top contender for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania XXIV . Instead of challenging Randy Orton for the title at WrestleMania , he decided to challenge him at No Way Out . In the match , Orton got himself intentionally disqualified by slapping the referee , thus retaining the WWE Championship due to WWE regulations . That same night , Triple H also became a top contender to the WWE Championship by defeating five other men in an Elimination Chamber match , which featured wrestlers fighting in a ring surrounded by chains and girders . The next night on Raw , Cena argued that he deserved another WWE Championship match . Raw General Manager William Regal , who was portrayed as a matchmaker and rules enforcer , then announced that Cena would face Orton later in the night . Regal added a stipulation to the match that if Cena won , he would be added to the WrestleMania match between Triple H and Orton , making it a Triple threat match , a standard match that involves three wrestlers . If Orton won , the main event would remain as Orton versus Triple H in a singles match . However , Cena won the match and was added to the bout at WrestleMania . After the match , Triple H , who was the Special Guest Referee , executed a Pedigree to both Cena and Orton . On the February 25 episode of Raw , the unlikely team of Cena and Triple H defeated WWE Champion , Randy Orton and Mr. Kennedy in a tag team brawl . Yet as Cena and Triple H stared each other down , Mr. Kennedy snuck up on Cena and took him down with the Mic Check , as Triple H did nothing to intervene . On the March 3 episode of Raw , Raw General Manager , William Regal allowed a triple threat take over , which would permit Randy Orton , Triple H , and John Cena to establish rules for their matches leading up to the March 30 extravaganza @-@ WrestleMania 24 . On that night , Cena was in charge and pitted Orton against Triple H. During the match , Cena charged into the ring and lifted Triple H overhead for an FU . Then Orton snuck up and dropped Cena with an RKO . On the March 10 episode of Raw ( WrestleMania re @-@ wind night ) , Randy Orton was next to be in charge . He arranged a match between Triple H and his WrestleMania XV opponent , Kane , which Triple H won after executing a Pedigree on Kane while Orton was watching at ringside . Orton also threw John Cena in a match against his WrestleMania 23 opponent , Shawn Michaels . In an attempt at throwing a victory at HBK , Orton attacked him and then went to RKO Cena . Cena countered the RKO and leveled Orton with an FU . On the following week 's episode of Raw , Triple H got his turn of being in charge by pitting Cena and Orton against the entire Raw roster . During the match , both men were forced to work together to eliminate Paul Burchill , Snitsky , and Trevor Murdoch before the rest of the roster charged over the ropes , disqualifying themselves and handing Cena and Orton the victory . Afterwards , Triple H had his say too , when he entered the ring and Pedigreed both Orton and Cena , standing over their spent bodies with a look of satisfaction . On the last episode of Raw , the Raw GM , William Regal ordered a No @-@ disqualification " WrestleMania Showcase " eight @-@ man tag team match pitting Triple H , John Cena , Ric Flair , and Shawn Michaels against Randy Orton , John " Bradshaw " Layfield , Umaga , and Big Show which Triple H and John Cena 's team won when Flair forced Orton to tap out to the modified figure four leglock for the victory .
The predominant rivalry on the SmackDown ! brand was between Edge and The Undertaker , over the World Heavyweight Championship . On the May 11 , 2007 , episode of SmackDown ! , the Undertaker was defending his first World Championship against Batista ( who he defeated for the World title at WrestleMania 23 ) in a Steel Cage match , which resulted in a draw when both men escaped the cage and both of their feet touched the floor at the same time . After the match , Mark Henry made his unexpected return from an injury and ambushed the Undertaker . As Henry left the ring , Edge , who defeated Mr. Kennedy a few days earlier on Raw to win the Money in the Bank contract , entered the SmackDown ! brand to cash it in and defeated the Undertaker to win his first World Championship . At Armageddon , Edge won his second World Championship when he pinned then @-@ champion , Batista in a Triple Threat match that also involved Undertaker due to interference by the Major Brothers ( rechristened as the " Edge @-@ heads " on the December 21 episode of SmackDown ! ) . Then at the Royal Rumble event , Edge successfully defended the World title against Rey Mysterio . On the February 1 episode of SmackDown , Assistant General Manager Theodore Long announced that at No Way Out , an Elimination Chamber match would be held to determine the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania . The Undertaker won the match by last eliminating Batista . On the following episode of SmackDown , Edge predicted that The Undertaker 's 15 – 0 undefeated streak at WrestleMania would come to an end once he defeated him . Two weeks later , on the March 7 episode of SmackDown , the team of Edge and Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder defeated The Undertaker in a Handicap match , in which one wrestler faces a team of two or more wrestlers , after Edge pinned The Undertaker following a takedown variation called the spear . The following week , Edge , Hawkins , Ryder , and Chavo Guerrero , a group of aligned wrestlers , defeated Ric Flair and Shawn Michaels in a Steel Cage match , where the ring was surrounded by walls of steel . During the match , Undertaker interfered and attacked Hawkins , Ryder , and Guerrero . The Undertaker used a Double chokeslam on Hawkins and Ryder and a Tombstone Piledriver on Guerrero . As Undertaker was attacking Guerrero , however , Edge escaped the cage and won the match for his team . The next week on SmackDown , Edge , along with Vickie Guerrero , Hawkins , and Ryder , held a mock burial , entitled " Burial of The Undertaker 's WrestleMania Undefeated Streak , " to celebrate Edge 's early victory over The Undertaker . During the " burial " , however , The Undertaker emerged from a casket , which was inside the ring , and attacked Edge , Hawkins , and Ryder , knocking Hawkins and Ryder outside the ring and chokeslamming Edge through the casket .
At No Way Out , Big Show made a return to the company after taking time off for injuries beginning in December 2006 . In his return promotional interview , Big Show threatened to give Rey Mysterio a chokeslam . Professional boxer and WBC Welterweight Champion Floyd Mayweather , Jr . , who was in attendance and a close friend of Mysterio 's , came to his aid and confronted Big Show . After Big Show dropped to his knees , Mayweather attacked him with a combination of punches , which caused Big Show to bleed from the nose and mouth . The following night on Raw , Big Show challenged Mayweather to a wrestling match , which Mayweather accepted . As part of the storyline , Big Show arranged an exhibition match with fighter Brandon Hill , who was similar in size and stature to Mayweather . Unimpressed with Show 's display of dominance over Hill , Mayweather told Show that " at WrestleMania , I 'm going to break your jaw " . At their weigh @-@ in for their WrestleMania match , Show threw Mayweather into a crowd of wrestlers to emphasise the disparity in size .
On the February 25 episode of Raw , 2008 WWE Hall of Fame Inductee Ric Flair challenged Shawn Michaels to a match at WrestleMania . Michaels accepted after some reluctance , knowing that due to a previous announcement from WWE chairman Mr. McMahon the next match Flair lost would result in his forced retirement . Flair said that " it would be an honor for [ him ] to retire at the hands of Shawn Michaels . "
On February 18 , WWE announced via its website that the fourth annual Money in the Bank ladder match would take place at WrestleMania XXIV , a match where the objective is to retrieve a briefcase suspended in the air using a ladder . The match involved wrestlers from all three WWE brands . The winner would earn a contract to challenge for any of the three WWE World Championships ( the WWE Championship of Raw , the World Heavyweight Championship of SmackDown , or the ECW Championship of ECW ) at any time and any place over a one @-@ year period . Qualifying matches occurred to determine the participants in the match at WrestleMania , starting on that night 's Raw with Jeff Hardy and Mr. Kennedy defeating Snitsky and Val Venis respectively to qualify . Shelton Benjamin became the third participant when he defeated Jimmy Wang Yang on the following episode of SmackDown . During the next two weeks on Raw , Chris Jericho defeated Jeff Hardy , and Carlito defeated Cody Rhodes to qualify . At a non @-@ televised SmackDown / ECW house show held on March 8 , Montel Vontavious Porter qualified when he defeated Jamie Noble . On the March 11 episode of ECW , CM Punk became the seventh entrant when he defeated Big Daddy V. John Morrison was the final person to qualify when he beat The Miz on the March 14 episode of SmackDown . Jeff Hardy was later removed from the match after a legitimate suspension by WWE for a drug violation of the company 's Wellness Policy . WWE decided not to add another superstar in his place , making that year 's Money in the Bank ladder match the first year to have seven participants .
= = Event = =
= = = Production = = =
On March 21 , 2007 , a press conference was held at City Hall in Orlando , Florida , formally announcing the event for Orlando at the Citrus Bowl . According to an interview with The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal at the press conference , WWE chairman Vince McMahon mentioned Orlando being one of three front @-@ runners to host the event , the other two being Las Vegas and Paris . McMahon explained that Orlando was chosen as geographically , a WrestleMania was never held in the southeast before .
As the second WrestleMania to be held entirely outdoors , Vince McMahon also announced that the show would have taken place regardless of the weather conditions . In the March 2008 issue of WWE Magazine , WWE set designer Jason Robinson revealed that a steel rig with a tarpaulin roof would be built above the ring itself to prevent rain from falling on the ring . In that same issue , an initial design of the ring setup was revealed showing a larger rig surrounding the tarpaulin rig , with lighting and two giant screens attached . The final design had the lighting and video screens on the tarpaulin rig , as well as the sound system . During an interview , WWE production manager Brian Petree mentioned that video reinforcement should prevent anyone 's view from being obstructed by the steel structure . Up to seven generators were used to power up the show .
The set design for the entrance stage was at the north end of the stadium and consisted of another steel structure with various video screens hanging from it . The steel beams for the structure were custom built in Belgium and shipped over to Orlando . According to WWE Magazine , the amount of pyrotechnics used would be ten times that of the amount used on Raw . Without the restriction of a roof , the pyrotechnics for the show shot as high as 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) as compared to WrestleMania 23 's height of 150 feet ( 46 m ) . The fireworks were set off from boats on one of the lakes nearby the stadium . WWE has been said to have spent an estimated $ 300 @,@ 000 on the fireworks alone .
With the Citrus Bowl 's locker rooms on the south side and the entrance set on the north side , a tented 40 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m2 ) mini @-@ city outside the north end served as the show 's backstage area and included air conditioning , trailers , VIP areas , showers and restrooms . As a consequence , the road next to the north end zone , W. Church Street , was closed down until a day after the event . Numerous other roads were also closed to allow trucks and fork lifts to move in mega equipment for the event . The ring itself was built on the 50 @-@ yard line of the Citrus Bowl to give the best view for fans . Heavy @-@ duty plastic flooring had been put over the field , to protect the turf , provide seating , and serve as the steel structures ' foundation .
Development on the set design began in the middle of 2007 . The building of the actual set began in the middle of March 2008 . 100 people worked 16 hours a day to construct the set for the event . The construction finished on March 29 . WrestleMania XXIV was the first WrestleMania event to be filmed in high @-@ definition . It was also the first WWE show and sports related title to be released on the Blu @-@ ray Disc format by WWE Home Video . WrestleMania also led to an increase in sales for musical artists related to the event , including the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' album Stadium Arcadium , John Legend 's album Live from Philadelphia , Rev Theory 's single " Light It Up " , and Fuel 's single " Leave the Memories Alone " , which was used as part of a tribute to Ric Flair .
= = = Pre @-@ show = = =
Before the show aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kane won a 24 @-@ man Interpromotional Battle Royal , an elimination style match where the last person remaining was the winner , to win an ECW Championship match against Chavo Guerrero later that night . During one point , Brian Kendrick , Kofi Kingston and Shannon Moore were eliminated . Chuck Palumbo then threw Jamie Noble over the ropes but Noble ran over top of them , and because his feet didn 't hit the floor he was not eliminated . Straight after that , Palumbo kicked him off the apron . The event officially began with John Legend singing a rendition of " America the Beautiful " .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view was a Belfast Brawl between Finlay and John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) , a match in which there were no disqualifications or countouts and the match outcomes could have occurred anywhere . Finlay was accompanied to the ring by his storyline son , Hornswoggle , who was returning from a scripted injury suffered at the hands of JBL . During the match , JBL hit Finlay with a trash can lid when the latter was about to perform a suicide dive on him through the ropes on the outside . Later on , Finlay tossed JBL through a table that he had set up earlier on the turnbuckle . Hornswoggle also got involved during the match by hitting JBL with a kendo stick , while later on JBL threw a trash can at him . Attacking Finlay 's knee with a kendo stick , JBL delivered a Clothesline from Hell to Finlay to score a successful pinfall . This was an interpromotional match .
The next match of the evening was the fourth @-@ annual Money in the Bank ladder match , in which there were no disqualifications or countouts , and the only way to win the match was to climb a ladder in the ring and retrieve a contract briefcase hanging above . The match featured Chris Jericho , Mr. Kennedy , and Carlito from the Raw brand ; CM Punk , Shelton Benjamin and John Morrison from the ECW brand ; and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) from the SmackDown brand . Jeff Hardy was supposed to be in the match , but he violated the wellness program and was taken out of the match . Early in the match , Morrison climbed a turnbuckle and performed a moonsault onto other competitors outside the ring while holding a ladder against his chest . Later , while Kennedy and Morrison were battling on top of a ladder , Benjamin climbed another ladder placed adjacent to the first one and performed a sunset flip powerbomb on Kennedy , who in turn superplexed Morrison from the top of the ladder . Later , Carlito and Kennedy flipped Benjamin off a ladder in the ring , sending him crashing through another ladder set @-@ up between the barricade and the ring apron . When MVP was close to retrieving the contract briefcase , Matt Hardy ( returning to action after suffering a legitimate injury ) , entered the ring from the crowd , climbed the ladder , and delivered a Twist of Fate to MVP off that ladder . As soon as Morrison started to climb a ladder , see @-@ sawing with another ladder , Jericho flipped the other one and Morrison landed on the ring @-@ ropes groin @-@ first . Jericho even performed a Codebreaker on Punk using a ladder . In the end , Jericho and Punk fought each other on a ladder , but Punk trapped Jericho 's one leg in the ladder 's steps and retrieved the briefcase to win the match . This was an interpromotional match .
The next match , which was billed as a " Battle for Brand Supremacy " , was between SmackDown 's Batista and Raw 's Umaga . Early in the match , both Batista and Umaga exchanged blows and Batista knocked Umaga outside with a shoulder block . Umaga later kicked Batista in the face , which caused him to fall back @-@ first outside the ring from the ring @-@ apron . As a result , Umaga started targeting Batista 's injured back . In the end , however , when Umaga tried to hit his Samoan Spike , Batista countered the attempt and gave him a spinebuster . Batista won the match by pinning Umaga after a Batista Bomb . This was an interpromotional match .
The fourth match for the event featured Chavo Guerrero defending his ECW Championship against Kane . Kane surprised Chavo by emerging from underneath the ring instead of from the entrance stage during his ring entrance . Kane instantly pinned Chavo after a chokeslam and won the ECW Championship in eleven seconds . This was the only ECW match on the show .
= = = Main event matches = = =
Ric Flair 's " Career Threatening " match against Shawn Michaels was next , which stipulated that Flair would have to retire from wrestling if he had lost . At the start of the match , both superstars engaged in a series of counters , and then Flair shoved Michaels in a corner , making " Old Yeller " comments to him . In retaliation , Michaels slapped Flair in the face , which caused him to start bleeding from the mouth . Later , Michaels tried to go for his Sweet Chin Music , but stopped in the process and Flair capitalized by trapping him in his figure four leglock . Afterward , Michaels finally delivered the Sweet Chin Music to Flair , but the latter kicked out to the pinfall attempt . Michaels then trapped Flair in his modified figure four leglock , but Flair delivered a thumb to the eye to Michaels to break the submission . As Flair was delivering chops to Michaels ' chest , Michaels hit a second Sweet Chin Music . After getting up on his feet with a worried face , Michaels said to Flair " I 'm sorry , I love you , " before nailing a final Sweet Chin Music and thus pinning Flair to end his 35 @-@ year @-@ long wrestling career . After the match , Michaels left quickly and Flair got a standing ovation from the crowd . An emotional Flair embraced his family at ringside and then , as he proceeded to go backstage , he thanked the crowd for their support .
The sixth match was the Playboy BunnyMania Lumberjack match , in which Maria and Ashley faced Beth Phoenix and Melina , who were accompanied to the ring by Santino Marella . Rapper Snoop Dogg served as the official " Master of Ceremonies " for the match . In the match , several WWE Divas surrounded the ring and were able to interfere in the match without disqualifications . Due to some technical difficulties , the lights at Citrus Bowl temporarily went out during the match . Near the end , a pin attempt by Maria was prevented when Marella pulled Maria 's leg . In response , Raw commentator Jerry Lawler approached and knocked Marella down with a punch . Phoenix hooked Maria 's leg and vertically lifted and slammed her to the mat and pinned Maria to win the match . After the match , Snoop Dogg hit Marella with his forearm in the ring and kissed Maria , before leaving with her and Ashley .
The first of the three main events was Randy Orton defending his WWE Championship against Triple H and John Cena in a triple threat match , which is a standard match involving three wrestlers with no disqualifications . For his entrance , Cena had the Jones High School Marching Tigers marching band perform an instrumental version of his theme song " The Time Is Now " live . During the match , when Triple H had held Orton in a sleeper hold , Cena picked up both Orton and Triple H for an FU , but Triple H dropped down and low blowed him . Orton then dominated the match for some time ; one highlight of the match featured Orton performing a crossbody from the top rope on Cena , while the latter was held on Triple H 's shoulders in a seating position . Orton also performed DDT from the second rope to both Cena and Triple H simultaneously . Orton then tried to perform an RKO on Cena , but he countered and threw Orton onto Triple H. Triple H then started targeting Orton 's legs and using some submissions on him . The match came to an end when Cena had Triple H on his shoulders for the FU , but was countered into a Pedigree . As Triple H was in the pin , Orton come across and punted Triple H in the head and pinned Cena to win the match and retain the WWE Championship .
The next match was the No Disqualification match between Big Show and Floyd Mayweather , Jr .. Early in the match , Mayweather repeatedly escaped Big Show 's grasp and delivered body shots to him . Mayweather and his accomplices tried to " walk out " of the match , but Big Show walked up the ramp and brought Mayweather back in the ring . As Big Show was about to chokeslam Mayweather , one of Mayweather 's accomplices struck a steel chair on Big Show 's back , and the latter chokeslammed him in retaliation . Capitalizing from this distraction , Mayweather grabbed that chair and hit Big Show multiple times on the head with it . Finally , Mayweather removed his right glove and put on a pair of brass knuckles to hit Big Show in the face . As a result , Big Show was knocked out as he could not answer the referee 's ten count , and Mayweather was declared the winner .
The main event of the night saw Edge putting his World Heavyweight Championship on the line against The Undertaker . The early going of the match was slow @-@ paced , in which both superstars countered each other 's maneuvers . During the match , Undertaker ran and leapt over the top rope from the ring onto Edge on the outside . Then throughout the match , Edge was able to counter Undertaker 's numerous signature moves , including the Chokeslam , Old School and the Last Ride , a variation of the powerbomb . Near the end , Edge hit Undertaker with a television camera while the referee was knocked down . When he proceeded to deliver a Tombstone Piledriver to Undertaker , the latter countered it into his own version and successfully delivered it to Edge for a two @-@ count . Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder came to the ring for Edge 's aid , but Undertaker took them out . Because of their distraction , Edge was able to hit a spear on Undertaker , but was unable to pin him . When Edge delivered another spear to Undertaker , the latter caught him in his Hell 's Gate submission hold and forced Edge to tap out to become the new World Heavyweight Champion and improve his WrestleMania record to 16 – 0 .
= = Aftermath = =
After the show , WWE was criticized for a malfunction in the pyrotechnics during The Undertaker 's victory celebration . During the celebration , a hot cable for pyrotechnics was sent flying into audience members in the upper seating bowl of the stadium , leaving 45 injured , with some hospitalized . The accident was apparently due to a cable which fireworks were traveling across snapping , thus resulting in the fireworks exploding into the top rows of the upper bowl of the stadium . WWE 's corporate website released a statement afterward stating that they would investigate the incident , but the results of the investigation were never released .
On the following episode of Raw , Ric Flair made his farewell speech , which led to Triple H introducing various people from Flair 's past , such as the Four Horsemen , Ricky Steamboat , and others , each coming out to give an emotional farewell . Afterward , the entire WWE roster came out to say thank you to Flair ( Including Undertaker , who came out after Raw went off the air and hugged Flair and did his kneeling stance ) . Shawn Michaels , who was clearly upset about retiring Flair , was forgiven by Flair . Despite Flair 's forgiveness , his former protégé Batista later started a feud with Michaels , citing Michaels ' " selfishness " at WrestleMania for not laying down for Flair . The two had a match booked at Backlash , WWE 's next scheduled pay @-@ per @-@ view event , and after a confrontation between Michaels and Chris Jericho , Jericho was later added into the match as a Special Guest Referee . Michaels won with a superkick .
The feud between Randy Orton , John Cena and Triple H continued after WrestleMania with the added involvement of John " Bradshaw " Layfield leading to a Fatal Four @-@ Way Elimination match between all four at Backlash , an elimination style match where the last person remaining is the winner . At the event , Triple H won his seventh WWE Championship by last pinning Orton . With Matt Hardy 's return at WrestleMania , his feud with Montel Vontavious Porter over the WWE United States Championship , that had started in July 2007 , was revived with a match booked at Backlash , which Hardy won . The rivalries between The Undertaker and Edge and the one between Kane and Chavo Guerrero both continued with successful title defenses at Backlash . On the May 2 episode of SmackDown , General Manager Vickie Guerrero stripped The Undertaker of the World Heavyweight Championship because of his continued use of his illegal chokehold , claiming she did it to protect the other wrestlers .
= = = Reception = = =
The event has received critical acclaim . Approximately 1 @,@ 058 @,@ 000 people ordered WrestleMania XXIV , grossing $ 23 @.@ 8 million in revenue . This number was fewer than the 1 @,@ 188 @,@ 000 buys that WrestleMania 23 achieved . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section gave the entire event 9 out of 10 stars . The rating was higher than WrestleMania 23 which received 8 out of 10 stars . The main event between The Undertaker and Edge for the World Heavyweight Championship was rated a 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 stars . The Career Threatening match between Ric Flair and Shawn Michaels was rated a perfect 10 out of 10 . Big Show vs. Floyd " Money " Mayweather Jr. was rated 7 out of 10 stars , and the Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between Randy Orton , Triple H and John Cena was rated 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 stars .
= = = DVD / Blu @-@ ray release = = =
The event was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc by WWE Home Video in the U.S. on May 20 , 2008 , after it had completed broadcast on pay @-@ per @-@ view . It was the first WWE event to be released via the Blu @-@ ray format . As well as the event , the DVD / BD release features bonus material in the form of the 2008 Hall of Fame ceremony in its entirety and the battle royal that took place before the event .
= = Results = =
= = = 24 @-@ Man Battle Royal = = =
= Something New ( Girls Aloud song ) =
" Something New " is a song recorded by British girl group Girls Aloud from their second compilation album , Ten ( 2012 ) . It was released by Polydor Records on 16 November 2012 , as the first single from the album and the official single for Children in Need 2012 and also serves as their final official single . In February 2009 , the group signed a new record deal with Fascination Records that would see the group release another three studio albums ; however , they announced that they were taking a hiatus to pursue solo projects . In April 2012 , bandmate Cheryl Cole revealed the girls had been in talks to regroup for the group 's tenth anniversary later that year . In October 2012 , a countdown was activated on Girls Aloud 's official website , which would last until 19 October 2012 , when " Something New " would be premiered on radio . However the date was brought forward to 16 October 2012 following an early online leak of the track .
" Something New " is a dance song produced by Girls Aloud 's long @-@ time collaborator Brian Higgins . Music critics were mostly positive towards the production , and compared it to songs by David Guetta , Nicki Minaj and Lady Gaga . They also noted that the track 's structure follow the group 's signature style . " Something New " debuted and peaked at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Girls Aloud 's 16th top five hit in the country . The song also peaked inside the top five in Ireland and Scotland . The accompanying music video was directed by Ray Kay , and features a mixture of black @-@ and @-@ white and coloured shots of the entire group , while also showcasing each member in a separate set @-@ up . Girls Aloud performed " Something New " in few programmes , such as Strictly Come Dancing and Top of the Pops , and in 2013 's Ten : The Hits Tour .
This is the second Children in Need song that the band have released , the first being " I 'll Stand by You " in 2004 .
= = Background = =
In February 2009 , Girls Aloud signed a new record deal with Fascination Records that would see the group release another three studio albums . However , in July 2009 , the group announced that they were taking a year @-@ long hiatus to pursue solo projects but would reunite for a new studio album in 2010 ; this did not happen , however . Two months later , the hiatus was briefly interrupted when they did two shows supporting Coldplay along with Jay @-@ Z at Wembley Stadium . In April 2012 , during an interview with Chris Moyles on Radio 1 , Cheryl Cole revealed the girls had been in talks to regroup for the group 's tenth anniversary later that year . In August 2012 , Nicola Roberts was also featured on the same radio show , and said , " It 's our tenth birthday in November so we will definitely celebrating . I wanna tell you everything but I really can 't ! "
The comeback was confirmed when Girls Aloud 's official website posted on 9 October a countdown that would last until 19 October , when the girls would make a special announcement . It was speculated that they would make an appearance on BBC 's Strictly Come Dancing , where bandmate Kimberley Walsh joined as a contestant . However , on 15 October , the surprise , a single titled " Something New " , leaked online in full . The official radio premiere of the song was then brought forward to the following day , with Girls Aloud posting on their website , " It 's here ! The finished version of Something New will be played on radio from midday and will also be on YouTube to listen in full . " " Something New " was released on 16 November 2012 by Polydor Records through digital download , serving as the official Children in Need 2012 single . When asked about how she felt with the group being back together and the reception from the public , Walsh said , " I 'm kind of flattered people actually care if we come back or not . I think we are all quite proud that we made enough of an impact to be able to a comeback . "
= = Composition = =
" Something New " was recorded in May 2012 and produced by Girls Aloud 's long @-@ time collaborator Brian Higgins . The uptempo dance song and was written in A major with a time signature in common time and a tempo of 115 beats per minute . " Something New " opens with Cole and Nadine Coyle singing " Go , girls , g @-@ g @-@ go , go , go / We girls gonna take control / You boys better know , know , know / We girls gonna run this show " over a piano melody . According to The Sun contributor Alison Maloney , " after a generic dance beat kicks in , the rest of the track is a mish @-@ mash of rap and mixed solos . " As the chorus begins , the five girls join together and sing , " All I want is something new / Something I can hold on to / I don ’ t wanna talk / I just wanna dance / Baby let it drop / Catch me if you can . " Maloney deemed that the moment where the track 's style returns " to the more recognisable Girls Aloud sound . " It ends with the group shouting , " Boy you better watch your back / Cause we 're the leaders of the pack . " A reviewer for Heat notice similarities to David Guetta productions and compared it to songs by Nicki Minaj and Lady Gaga . Michael Cragg of The Guardian compared the verse 's structure to the one of " Sexy ! No No No ... " ( 2007 ) , and thought that " Something New " echoed the group 's previous single , " Something Kinda Ooooh " ( 2006 ) , not only because of the title , " but it also has the same slightly demented feel to it , all distorted backing vocals , strange rap sections and a brilliantly effortless chorus that soars out of an amazing bridge bit . " Most critics also had a similar perception to Cragg regarding the song 's " odd " structure , which is noted as " typical " and the group 's " signature style " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
According to a Metro publication , " Something New " had a generally positive reaction from fans . Susana Novo Vásquez of The Huffington Post stated that " the indisputable team of Xenomania / Girls Aloud have been the ones to set the trends over the years for others to follow , " adding that the song " continues down that path . " Vásquez continued saying that the group returned into a moment where the " pop scene ... isn 't the same as when they left , " but thought that they were " doing it in a very intelligent way : by adopting some of the Calvin Harris electronic massive sound that is current right now , yet creating an intricate song structure . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy said that " like most Girls Aloud singles , a few listens are required to get our heads around it . " Copsey criticized the distorted vocals and the fact that " there probably won 't be a full album of new tracks to accompany it , " but admitted that " it sounds modern enough for today 's charts without compromising their signature sound " and praised its " massive chorus . " Douglas Wolk of Pitchfork Media thought that the track " is a game approximation of the Girls Aloud of seven years ago , " while BBC Music reviewer Ian Wade concluded that , " as its title suggests , Something New is just that , a fanfare @-@ like call to arms announcing the group ’ s return . "
Phill Udel of State said that , with the song , Girls Aloud " have managed to maintain the quality " they had prior to the release of Ten , and commented that " the other three new songs are nowhere near up to the same standard . " Idolator blogger Sam Lansky commented that , for the fans , " Something New " is " a welcome relief to have an injection of fresh energy into the stagnant girl group scene , " and concluded that , " given that this may be the group 's final single before disbanding for good , they 're certainly going out on a high note , with a track that feels quintessentially Aloud but retooled for 2012 . " Rebecca Twomey of Marie Claire said that the group is " on key with the current trend for dance music with their new song , " while noting that they have " clearly taken inspiration from Cheryl 's Call My Name . " Katy Brand of The Daily Telegraph was critical towards the song . Brand said that the lyrics " are the usual post @-@ Spice fare , " but commented that " the images weren 't quite matching the words . I was hearing the battle cry of enraged queens who will be oppressed no longer ; I was watching five young women wearing identical orange mini @-@ dresses , strutting up and down in perfect synchronicity , like catwalk models . "
In 2013 it was nominated for the Popjustice £ 20 Music Prize .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Something New " debuted and peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart with sales of 70 @,@ 000 units , becoming Girls Aloud 's 16th top five hit in the country , but being held off the top spot by Olly Murs 's " Troublemaker " ( 2012 ) , which sold a total of 121 @,@ 000 units . The following week , the song fell out of the top ten , reaching number 14 . It also debuted at number four in Ireland , falling to number 17 the following week .
= = Music video = =
Amidst rumors that Girls Aloud were preparing the release of a new single , Daily Mirror reported that the group reunited for the video shoot on 2 October 2012 . On 15 October 2012 , they uploaded a teaser video on YouTube , in which we see the five girls wearing matching bright orange tulip @-@ skirt dresses as they march away from the camera on a monochrome set . On 19 October 2012 , the video was officially released through VEVO . Directed by Ray Kay , the video features a mixture of black @-@ and @-@ white and colored shots , and also showcases each member in a separate set @-@ up – based around a triangle @-@ enthused backdrop , while being accentuated by a projection of light . These shots are primarily beauty shots , with the group singing , while dancing alone . The bridge features Harding sitting in front of a white background , wearing a nude bodysuit while abstract images are projected onto her . The video intercalates with stylized lyrics of the song , and builds throughout , until the last section , where the group abandon their various stages of walking and begin to dance together . Carl Williott of Idolator said the video " matches [ the song 's ] swagger with the UK quintet mugging for the camera , strutting around in those orange dresses and declaring ' We ’ re the leaders of the pack ' . " James Robertson of Daily Mirror deemed the video " perfect " , praising the " sexy faces and high @-@ tempo choreography . "
= = Live performances = =
Girls Aloud first performed " Something New " on 16 November 2012 at Children in Need 2012 . Emily Sheridan of Daily Mail summarized the performance saying , " wearing the same orange off @-@ the @-@ shoulder tulip dresses from the Something New video , the girl group strutted about on stage with a troupe of hunky male dancers in suits . " The group also performed the song at the Wembley special of Strictly Come Dancing , aired on 18 November 2012 . Girls Aloud also joined Capital FM 's 2012 Jingle Bell Ball , and they included " Something New " on the setlist . On 31 December 2012 , they also performed it at the New Year 's Eve special of Top of the Pops . In 2013 , " Something New " was the last song performed during the Ten : The Hits Tour before the encore .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Something New " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Mixed at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia .
Mastered at 360 Mastering , Fulham , London .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Ten .
= = Charts = =
= Edgar Quinet @-@ class cruiser =
The Edgar Quinet class was the last type of armored cruiser built for the French Navy . The two ships of this class — Edgar Quinet and Waldeck @-@ Rousseau — were built between 1905 and 1911 . They were based on the previous cruiser , Ernest Renan , the primary improvement being a more powerful uniform main battery of 194 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) guns . The Edgar Quinet class was the most powerful type of armored cruiser built in France , but they entered service more than two years after the British battlecruiser HMS Invincible , which , with its all @-@ big @-@ gun armament , had rendered armored cruisers obsolescent .
Both ships operated together in the Mediterranean Fleet after entering service , and they remained in the fleet throughout World War I. They participated in the blockade of the Adriatic to keep the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy contained early in the war . During this period , Edgar Quinet took part in the Battle of Antivari in August 1914 , and Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was unsuccessfully attacked twice by Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau participated in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea in 1919 – 22 , while Edgar Quinet remained in the Mediterranean during the contemporaneous Greco @-@ Turkish War .
Edgar Quinet was converted into a training ship in the mid @-@ 1920s before running aground off the Algerian coast in January 1930 . She could not be pulled free and sank five days later . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau served as the flagship of the Far East fleet from 1929 to 1932 and was decommissioned after returning to France . She was hulked in 1936 and scrapped in 1941 – 44 .
= = Development = =
In the 1890s , naval theorists of the Jeune École ( Young School ) in France , particularly Admiral Ernest François Fournier , advocated building a fleet of armored cruisers based on the first French ship of that type , Dupuy de Lôme . The ships were to be capable of long @-@ range commerce raiding , action in the line of battle against older battleships , and reconnaissance for the main fleet . The French Navy subsequently built a series of twenty @-@ four armored cruisers after Dupuy de Lôme , culminating in the two Edgar @-@ Quinet @-@ class ships . The design for these last two ships was based heavily on their predecessor , Ernest Renan . And like Ernest Renan , the design was repeatedly reworked during construction , which produced very lengthy construction times . The Edgar Quinets were the most powerful armored cruisers built by France , but they entered service two years after the British battlecruiser HMS Invincible — the British ship 's all @-@ big @-@ gun armament and turbine propulsion rendered all armored cruisers obsolescent .
= = Description = =
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Edgar Quinet class were 158 @.@ 9 meters ( 521 ft ) long overall , with a beam of 21 @.@ 51 m ( 70 @.@ 6 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 41 m ( 27 @.@ 6 ft ) . They displaced 13 @,@ 847 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 628 long tons ; 15 @,@ 264 short tons ) . The hulls were constructed with mild steel and were fitted with bilge keels to improve stability . The ships had a military foremast with a fighting top and a pole mainmast . The forecastle deck extended for most of the ship , as far back as the main mast . They had a crew of between 859 and 892 officers and enlisted men .
Their power plant consisted of three 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion engines powered by forty coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers in Edgar Quinet and forty @-@ two Niclausse boilers in Waldeck @-@ Rousseau . The boilers were trunked into six funnels in two groups of three . The engines were rated at 36 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and produced a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were divided into individual watertight compartments , while the boilers were grouped in pairs in watertight compartments . Maximum coal capacity amounted to 2 @,@ 300 t ( 2 @,@ 300 long tons ; 2 @,@ 500 short tons ) , which permitted a cruising range of 5 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 400 km ; 5 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Electrical power was supplied by six electric generators .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The Edgar Quinet @-@ class ships were armed with a main battery of fourteen 194 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) 50 @-@ caliber M1902 guns ; four were in twin gun turrets forward and aft , with three single gun turrets on either broadside . The turret mountings allowed for loading at any angle of elevation , and were electrically operated . The forward turrets had a range of train of about 280 degrees . The last four guns were mounted in casemates abreast the main and aft conning towers , on the upper and main decks , respectively . The 194 mm gun had a rate of fire of up to four rounds per minute . The ships ' ammunition magazines were equipped with refrigeration , which was standardized in French warships following the accidental destruction of the battleship Iéna by an overheated propellant magazine in 1907 . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twenty 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) 9 @-@ pounder guns in casemates in the ship 's hull . In 1918 , twelve of the ships ' 65 mm guns were removed and a pair of 65 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns ( AA ) and a pair of 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) AA guns were installed . Edgar Quinet and Waldeck @-@ Rousseau were also equipped with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull .
The ships were protected with an armored belt that was 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) forward and 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) aft . They had two armored decks ; the lower , main deck was 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the upper deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) . The gun turrets had 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick plating , with 200 mm thick barbettes , while the casemates had marginally thinner protection , at 194 mm . The two pairs of casemates were linked by transverse armored bulkheads ; the outer bulkhead was 194 mm thick while the inner bulkhead was 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The main conning tower had 200 mm thick sides . Underwater protection consisted of a cofferdam built into the lower hull with a longitudinal watertight bulkhead behind it .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
After entering service in early and mid @-@ 1911 , respectively , Edgar Quinet and Waldeck @-@ Rousseau were assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet . In 1913 , Edgar Quinet participated in an international naval demonstration that also included British , German , and Austro @-@ Hungarian vessels off Albania . The demonstration was a protest of the Siege of Scutari during the First Balkan War ; it succeeded in forcing the Serbian army to withdraw and allowing an international force to occupy the city .
Both Edgar Quinet and Waldeck @-@ Rousseau saw service in the Mediterranean during World War I. Edgar Quinet joined the hunt for the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben in August 1914 , and both ships participated in the blockade of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic . Later in August , Edgar Quinet was present at the Battle of Antivari , which saw the sinking of the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta . While on patrol at the mouth of the Adriatic , Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was attacked twice by Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats , though neither submarine was able to hit the cruiser . During the first action in October , several Austro @-@ Hungarian destroyers briefly skirmished with Waldeck @-@ Rousseau after the U @-@ boat attacked her . Both cruisers were involved in the seizure of Corfu in January 1916 .
After the end of the war , both ships continued service in the eastern Mediterranean and Black seas . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau joined the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War and operated in support of the White Russians against the Red Bolsheviks ; shortly after arriving , her crew mutinied over poor conditions but quickly resumed their duties . Edgar Quinet meanwhile remained in the Mediterranean during the Greco @-@ Turkish War , and during the Great Fire of Smyrna , at the climax of the conflict , she rescued 1 @,@ 200 people from the city .
Edgar Quinet was converted into a training ship in the mid @-@ 1920s , a role she filled for the remainder of the decade . On 4 January 1930 , she ran aground off the Algerian coast and could not be freed . She sank five days later . Waldeck @-@ Rousseau had meanwhile been assigned as the flagship of the Far East fleet in 1929 , where she remained until 1932 , when she returned to France . She was decommissioned upon arrival , hulked in 1936 , and broken up
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nuclear armed weapons in the same storage facility . The directive further instructs that all nonnuclear munitions and missiles must be labeled with placards clearly stating that they are not armed with nuclear warheads . Wing commanders are now charged with approving any movement of nuclear weapons from weapons storage areas and must appoint a single individual as a munitions accountability system officer and weapons custodian . All units that handle nuclear weapons must develop a coordinated visual inspection checklist . The policy further directs that airmen charged with handling or maintaining nuclear weapons cannot be on duty for longer than 12 hours , unless during an emergency , when their duty period can be extended to a maximum of 16 hours . The USAF has since instituted a program of surprise inspections at nuclear @-@ armed bases .
= = = Review reports = = =
Welch and Peyer briefed the results of their reviews before the United States Senate Committee on Armed Services on 12 February 2008 . In addition to Welch and Peyer , Lieutenant General Daniel Darnell , USAF Deputy Chief of Staff for Air , Space and Information Operations and Major General Raaberg testified and answered questions from the Senate committee 's members . During the hearing , Welch stated that , " the military units responsible for handling the bombs are not properly inspected and , as a result , may not be ready to perform their missions . " He added , " If you look at all the areas and all the ways that we have to store and handle these weapons in order to perform the mission , it just requires , we believe , more resources and more attention than they 're getting . " Welch 's report concluded that the combining of DoD nuclear forces with nonnuclear organizations has led to " markedly reduced levels of leadership whose daily focus is the nuclear enterprise and a general devaluation of the nuclear mission and those who perform the mission . " Nevertheless , neither Welch 's nor Peyer 's reports found any failures with the security of United States nuclear weapons .
Responding to Welch 's and Peyer 's reports , USAF officials stated that they were already implementing many of the recommendations contained in the reports but added that existing regulations governing nuclear procedures were satisfactory . During his testimony before the senate committee , Darnell stated that " the Air Force portion of the nuclear deterrent is sound , and we will take every measure necessary to provide safe , secure , reliable nuclear surety to the American public . "
= = = Inspections , resignations , and further discipline = = =
Minot 's full NSI took place beginning on 17 May 2008 , and was conducted by inspectors from the Defense Threat Reduction Agency ( DTRA ) and the USAF 's Air Combat Command ( ACC ) . On 25 May , the DTRA issued the 5th Bomb Wing an " unsatisfactory " rating , the lowest rating possible , from the inspection . The 5th passed the inspection in nine of ten areas , but failed in the area of nuclear security . Following the inspection , Westa stated that , " overall , their assessment painted a picture of some things we need to work on in the areas of training and discipline " . The 5th Bomb Wing Security Forces Squadron Commander , Lieutenant Colonel John Worley , was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Weaver on 16 June 2008 . In spite of failing the NSI , the wing kept its nuclear certification . Said Hans Kristensen , director of the Nuclear Information Project at the Federation of American Scientists about the 5th 's failure in the inspection , " It makes you wonder what 's going on elsewhere , like the nuclear weapons stationed at bases overseas , and at Barksdale Air Force Base and Whiteman Air Force Base . " Minot passed the follow @-@ up inspection on 15 August 2008 .
On 5 June 2008 , Robert Gates announced the results of an investigation into the misshipment of four MK @-@ 12 forward @-@ section reentry vehicle assemblies to Taiwan . The investigation , conducted by Admiral Kirkland H. Donald , director of U.S. Naval Propulsion , found that the Taiwan missile incident was , in Gates ' words , " a degradation of the authority , standards of excellence and technical competence within the nation 's ICBM force . Similar to the bomber @-@ specific August 2007 Minot @-@ Barksdale nuclear weapons transfer incident , this incident took place within the larger environment of declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance " and that " the investigation identified commonalities between the August 2007 Minot incident and this [ the Taiwan ] event . " In his investigation report , Donald stated that the issues identified by his investigation were , " indicative of an overall decline in Air Force nuclear weapons stewardship , a problem that has been identified but not effectively addressed for over a decade . Both the Minot @-@ Barksdale nuclear weapons transfer incident and the Taiwan misshipment , while different in specifics , have a common origin : the gradual erosion of nuclear standards and a lack of effective oversight by Air Force leadership . "
As a result of the investigation , Gates announced that , " a substantial number of Air Force general officers and colonels have been identified as potentially subject to disciplinary measures , ranging from removal from command to letters of reprimand , " and that he had accepted the resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and USAF Chief of Staff T. Michael Moseley . Gates added that he had asked James R. Schlesinger to lead a senior @-@ level task force to recommend improvements in the stewardship and operation of nuclear weapons , delivery vehicles and sensitive components by the Department of Defense . Members of the task force came from the Defense Policy Board and the Defense Science Board .
On 13 September 2008 , Gates announced Schlesinger 's task force 's recommendations by calling on the USAF to place all nuclear weapons under a single command . The task force suggested that the new command be called Air Force Strategic Command , which would replace the current Air Force Space Command , and make it accountable for the nuclear mission . It also called for all USAF bombers to be placed under a single command . In addition , the task force recommended that the USAF move an additional 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 airmen into nuclear @-@ related jobs . Gates announced that acting Air Force Secretary Michael B. Donley and Chief of Staff General Norton A. Schwartz were " reviewing the recommendations " for disciplinary action against USAF officers previously involved in the nuclear mission . The task force found an , " unambiguous , dramatic and unacceptable decline in the Air Force 's commitment to perform the nuclear mission and , until very recently , little has been done to reverse it . "
On 25 September 2008 , the United States Department of Defense announced that six Air Force generals , two Army generals , and nine colonels had received letters of reprimand , admonishment , or counseling . Two Air Force major generals were asked to stay in their current position and the others either retired , planned to retire , or were removed from their position . Air Force Chief of Staff Norton Schwartz met with each officer personally before issuing the letters . He noted they committed no offense under the UCMJ , but " did not do enough to carry out their leadership responsibilities for nuclear oversight " and that " for that they must be held accountable . " The Air Force stated that the discipline was in response to the mistaken shipment of nuclear fuzes to Taiwan , not for the Minot nuclear weapons incident .
One of those reprimanded was Lieutenant General Kevin Sullivan , Air Force Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics , Installations and Mission Support at the Pentagon . Sullivan was demoted and retired at the rank of Major General in November 2008 . Lieutenant General Michael Hamel , commander of the Space and Missile Systems Center , received a letter of admonishment and also retired in November 2008 . Major General Roger Burg , commander of the Twentieth Air Force , Major General Kathleen Close , commander of the Ogden Air Logistics Center , Brigadier General Francis Bruno , Director of Logistics , Air Force Material Command , and Brigadier General Arthur Cameron III , Air Force director of resource integration , also received letters of admonishment .
In November 2008 , the 341st Missile Wing at Malmstrom Air Force Base failed its nuclear surety inspection . The 90th Missile Wing at F. E. Warren Air Force Base , failed its nuclear surety inspection one month later . In November 2009 at Kirtland Air Force Base the 377th Air Base Wing , commanded by Colonel Michael S. Duvall , and 498th Nuclear Systems Wing , commanded by Colonel Richard M. Stuckey , failed their nuclear surety inspections .
On 30 October 2009 Westa was relieved as commander of the 5th Bomb Wing by Major General Floyd L. Carpenter , commander of 8th Air Force . Carpenter stated that Westa was relieved due to his " inability to foster a culture of excellence , a lack of focus on the strategic mission and substandard performance during several nuclear surety inspections , including the newly activated 69th Bomb Squadron . "
On 8 January 2009 Schlesinger 's task force released its report regarding the overall DoD 's management of the country 's nuclear weapons mission . The report criticized the DoD for a lack of focus and oversight on its nuclear weapons programs and recommended that the DoD create a new assistant secretary position to oversee its nuclear management . The task force found that within the DoD only the United States Navy was effectively managing its nuclear arsenal . The panel stated that it found , " a distressing degree of inattention to the role of nuclear weapons in deterrence among many senior DoD military and civilian leaders . "
= = = New command = = =
On 24 October 2008 new USAF Secretary Michael Donley announced the creation of Air Force Global Strike Command . The new command became operational on 7 August 2009 . The USAF 's intercontinental nuclear missile force was moved from Air Force Space Command to the new command . Barksdale Air Force Base was selected as the location of the new command 's headquarters . The new major command is led by a three @-@ star general and controls all USAF nuclear @-@ capable bombers , missiles and personnel .
= Battle of Hill 70 =
The Battle of Hill 70 was a battle of World War I between the Canadian Corps and five divisions of the German 6th Army . The battle took place along the Western Front on the outskirts of Lens in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region of France between 15 and 25 August 1917 .
The objectives of the assault were to inflict casualties and to draw German troops away from the 3rd Battle of Ypres , rather than to capture territory . The Canadian Corps executed an operation designed to first occupy the high ground at Hill 70 quickly and then establish defensive positions , from which combined small @-@ arms and artillery fire , some of which used the technique of predicted fire for the first time , could be used to repel German counter @-@ attacks and inflict as many casualties as possible . A later attempt by the Canadian Corps to extend its position into the city of Lens itself failed . Both sides suffered high casualties and Lens remained under German control . In both the German and the Canadian assessments of the battle it succeeded in its attrition objective .
The battle consisted of extensive use of poison gas by both sides , including the newly introduced German Yellow Cross shell containing the blistering agent sulfur mustard . Ultimately , the goals of the Canadian Corps were only partially accomplished . The Canadians were successful in preventing German formations from transferring local men and equipment to aid in defensive operations in the Ypres Salient but failed to draw in troops from other areas .
= = Background = =
The industrial coal city of Lens , France had fallen under German control in October 1914 during the Race to the Sea . Consequently , the Germans also controlled the heights at Hill 70 to the north of the city and Sallaumines Hill to the southeast , both of which had commanding views over the surrounding area as well as the city itself . Hill 70 was a treeless expanse at the end of one of the many spurs . In September 1915 , the British had overrun the hill during the Battle of Loos but had not managed to hold it .
British First Army commander General Henry Horne ordered the Canadian Corps to relieve I Corps from their position opposite the city of Lens on 10 July 1917 and directed Canadian Corps commander Arthur Currie to develop a plan for capturing the town by the end of July 1917 . The operation was intended to engage as many German formations as possible and to prevent them from reinforcing the Ypres sector during the Third Battle of Ypres .
Command of the Canadian Corps had only recently changed . A month earlier , Canadian Corps commander Julian Byng was promoted to the rank of General and replaced General Edmund Allenby as commander of the British Third Army . In turn , 1st Canadian Division commander Arthur Currie was promoted to Lieutenant @-@ General and assumed command of the Canadian Corps .
= = Tactical plan = =
Currie regarded control of either Hill 70 or Sallaumines Hill as tactically more important than control of the city of Lens . Merely to occupy the city while the Germans held the high ground , would place the attackers in an unfavourably lower and more exposed position than the ones they occupied . At a conference of corps commanders , Currie persuaded the First Army commander General Henry Horne to make Hill 70 , not Lens , the main objective of the limited offensive . Controlling Hill 70 would provide excellent observation over the German lines , in preparation for more offensives . Currie believed the Germans would attempt to counter @-@ attack if Hill 70 were captured , largely because of its observational importance . Nevertheless , Currie believed that the advantageous observational position of Hill 70 would permit well directed artillery to effectively deal with any counter @-@ attacks . The plan was therefore to occupy the high ground quickly , establish defensive positions and utilize combined small arms and artillery fire to repel expected counter @-@ attacks and inflict as many casualties as possible .
In an attempt to further deceive the Germans , minor operations were conducted in an effort to suggest a forthcoming attack by the British First Army south of La Bassée Canal . This included an attack by the 9th Canadian Brigade against units of the German 36th Reserve Division at Mericourt Trench and a British First Army poison gas attack north of Loos , both in late July 1917 .
Bad weather led to the postponement of the attack on Hill 70 from late July until mid @-@ August . In the interim , special companies of the Royal Engineers augmented the regular level of harassment by firing a total of 3 @,@ 500 gas drums and 900 gas shells into Lens by 15 August . The artillery neutralized 40 out of an estimated 102 German batteries in the area by zero hour , partly with the technique of predicted fire for the first time , using datum points and calibrated guns , which greatly improved the accuracy of the artillery . Troops were rotated through the reserve area to conduct training and rehearsals in preparation for the assault . These obvious preliminary actions to an attack did not go unnoticed by the Germans , which made it impossible to conceal the First Army 's general intentions or even , as it turned out , the date of the assault . The best that could be done was to attempt to mislead the Germans with respect to time and place . To this end I Corps staged exercises with dummy tanks on 14 August , directly west of Lens .
= = The battle = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
Canadian Corps commander Lieutenant @-@ General Arthur Currie had three attacking divisions , one division in reserve and numerous support units under his command .
German 6th Army commander General der Infanterie Otto von Below was responsible for the area between Lille and Cambrai . Hill 70 , and the area surrounding it was defended by the ad hoc Gruppe Loos . The defending elements of the German 6th Army consisted of the 7th Division , 4th Guards Division , 185th Division , 11th Reserve Division and 220th Division .
= = = Assault on Hill 70 = = =
The plan to capture Hill 70 called for the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions to attack on a front of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . Their objective was to capture the main enemy defensive positions on the eastern or reverse slope of Hill 70 . The objectives were marked off in depth by three stages . In the first stage , the assaulting troops would capture the German front @-@ line trenches . The German second position on the crest of the hill during the second stage and the final stage , marked by the German third line , on the reverse side of the slope , some 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) from the starting position . The 1st Canadian Division 's 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade would attack north of Hill 70 while the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade would attack the summit . The 2nd Canadian Division 's 4th and 5th Canadian Infantry Brigades would attack the rubble remains of the suburbs of Cité St. Édouard , St. Laurent and St. Émile directly south of Hill 70 .
The assault began at 4 : 25 a.m. on the morning of 15 August , just as dawn was breaking . Special companies of the Royal Engineers fired drums of burning oil into the suburb of Cité St. Élisabeth and at other selected targets to supplement the artillery creeping barrage and build up a smoke @-@ screen . Divisional field artillery positions executed a creeping barrage directly in advance of the assaulting troops while field howitzers shelled German positions 400 m ( 440 yd ) in advance of the creeping barrage and heavy howitzers shelled all other known German strong @-@ points . Artillery Forward Observation Officers moved forward with the infantry and artillery observation aircraft flew overhead and sent 240 calls for artillery fire by wireless . The Germans had moved up their reserve units on the previous night in anticipation of an attack and the main assembly of Canadian troops was detected by 3 : 00 a.m. and within three minutes of the attack commencing , the German artillery brought down defensive fire at widely scattered points . The affected forward positions of the German 7th Division and 11th Reserve Division were quickly overwhelmed . Within twenty minutes of the attack beginning , both Canadian divisions had reached their first objective . By 6 : 00 a.m. the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade had reached the second objective line , while units in the other three brigade had in some cases already reached their final objective . Only the flanking companies of the two battalions attacking Hill 70 managed to reach their objectives . The remainder of the both units were forced to retreat up the slope and consolidate their position at the intermediate objective line .
On the right flank of the 2nd Canadian Division , the 12th Canadian Infantry Brigade of the 4th Canadian Division executed a diversionary operation which proved successful in drawing German retaliatory fire away from the main operation . Four hours later , the 11th Canadian Infantry Brigade of the 4th Canadian Division attempted to exploit the weakened German force by pushing strong patrols towards the centre of Lens . This ultimately failed as the Germans used local counter @-@ attacks across the 4th Canadian Division 's front to drive the patrols back to the city 's outskirts .
= = = Initial counter @-@ attacks = = =
In preparation for German counter @-@ attacks , the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions began to reinforce and construct strong points immediately after capturing the first objective line . Within two hours of the start of the battle , the Germans began using their immediate reserves to mount local counter @-@ attacks . Between 7 : 00 a.m. and 9 : 00 a.m. on the morning of 15 August , the Germans executed four local attacks against Canadian positions . Each attack was repulsed due in large part to the work of forward artillery observers , who could now overlook some of the German positions . On one occasion , the counter @-@ attack was only repulsed after engaging in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . The Germans rapidly brought up seven additional battalions from the 4th Guards Division and 185th Division to reinforce the eight line battalions already in place . Over the following three days , the Germans executed no less than 21 counter @-@ attacks against Canadian positions . A frontal attack against the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade on the afternoon of 15 August ultimately failed . A German attack against the 4th Canadian Infantry Brigade was initially successful with the Germans re @-@ capturing Chicory Trench but were repulsed later the same afternoon .
= = = Capture of Hill 70 and additional counter @-@ attacks = = =
The morning of 16 August was relatively quiet , with only a few attempts made by small German parties to approach the Canadian lines . After having failed to capture all their objectives the previous day and having postponed additional attacks a number of times , the 2nd Canadian Brigade attacked and captured the remainder of its final objective line on the afternoon of 16 August . The assault lasted a little over an hour but the troops were then forced to defend against a dozen German counter @-@ attacks during the day .
Attempts by the 4th and 11th Canadian Infantry Brigades to eliminate an enemy salient between Cité St. Élisabeth and Lens on 17 August failed and as had been foreseen the Germans continued to mount determined counter @-@ attacks . The German command began to realize that the Canadian and British artillery would need to be neutralized before a counter @-@ attack could succeed . The Germans began a series of counter @-@ attacks against a chalk quarry under Canadian control outside of Cité St. Auguste but also sought to wear down the Canadian artillery resources by sending up false flare signals or provoking the infantry to call for unnecessary artillery fire . The Germans also began to use poison gas in earnest . From 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 of the new Yellow Cross shells containing the blistering agent sulfur mustard were fired in addition to an undetermined number of shells containing diphosgene . The Canadian 1st and 2nd Artillery Field Brigades and the Canadian front line were heavily gassed . Many artillery men became casualties after gas fogged the goggles of their respirators and they were forced to remove their masks to set the fuses , lay their sights and maintain accurate fire . The Germans used the cover of gas to make a number of attempts against the Canadian controlled chalk quarry and Chicory Trench on the night of 17 August and early morning of 18 August . All attempts against the chalk quarry failed and only one company of the 55th Reserve Infantry Regiment ( on loan to the 11th Reserve Division ) managed to breach the Canadian defences at Chicory Trench before being repulsed . German troops employing flamethrowers managed to penetrate the Canadian line north of the quarry on the morning of 18 August before being driven out .
= = = Attack on Lens = = =
The front quieted significantly after the final attack against the chalk quarry . For the Canadian Corps , the following two days consisted largely of consolidation activities . The front line was drawn back 300 yards ( 270 m ) , midway between the original intermediate and final objective lines . The 4th Division slightly advanced its forward posts on the outskirts of Lens and extended its front northward to include the Lens – Bethune road . Currie wished to further improve the position around Hill 70 and ordered an attack against enemy positions along a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) front , opposite the 2nd and 4th Canadian Divisions .
The operation was scheduled for the morning of 21 August , the tasks being divided between the 6th Canadian Infantry Brigade on the left and the 10th Canadian Infantry Brigade on the right . The attack was to begin at 4 : 35 a.m. but the Germans began shelling the Canadian positions at 4 : 00 a.m. and just before the Canadian attack , the 6th Canadian Infantry Brigade 's left flank was attacked by units of the German 4th Guards Division . Both forces met between their respective objectives , fought hand @-@ to @-@ hand and with the bayonet . In the melee the 6th Brigade advance was stopped ; communication between the forward units and brigade headquarters had broken down at the beginning of the attack and could not be restored due to heavy German shelling , making it all but impossible to co @-@ ordinate the infantry and artillery .
Counter @-@ attacks by the 4th Guards Division , reinforced by a battalion of the 220th Infantry Division , forced the 6th Canadian Infantry Brigade back to the start line . On the right flank , in the 10th Canadian Infantry Brigade , one unit suffered a large number of shellfire casualties while assembling for the attack and were met the massed artillery and machine @-@ gun fire , as they neared their objective . Only three small parties , the largest of not more than twenty men , reached their goal . The other two attacking units captured their objectives late in the evening and a salient was created in the 4th Canadian Division line . On the evening of 21 August , three parties went forward to bomb the German position from the flanks but were only moderately successful . An additional attack planned for 22 August failed to materialize , due to battalion @-@ level misunderstandings . A brigade reserve unit was ordered to remedy the situation , by attacking a slag heap called Green Crassier and the mine complex at Fosse St. Louis . The attack was repulsed , with the majority of the attackers being killed , wounded or taken prisoner . The Germans held on to the possession until the beginning of the final German retreat in 1918 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
The Germans refrained from attempts to recapture the lost ground at Lens , due to the demands of defensive operations of the Third Battle of Ypres and the need to avoid the diversion of forces from the main effort .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
The remainder of August , all of September and the beginning of October were relatively quiet , with Canadian efforts devoted mainly to preparations for another offensive , although none took place , largely because the British First Army lacked sufficient resources for the task . Instead , the Canadian Corps was transferred to the Ypres sector in early October in preparation for the Second Battle of Passchendaele . Soon after the battle , German 6thArmy commander General der Infanterie Otto von Below was transferred to the Italian front , where he took command of the newly formed Austro @-@ German 14th Army . In this capacity , he executed an extremely successful offensive at the Battle of Caporetto in October 1917 . General der Infanterie Ferdinand von Quast took over command of the German 6thArmy until the end of the war .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
Six Victoria Crosses , the highest military decoration for valour awarded to British and Commonwealth forces , were awarded to members of the Canadian Corps for their actions during the battle ;
Private Harry Brown of the 10th ( Canadian ) Battalion
Company Sergeant @-@ Major Robert Hill Hanna of the 29th ( Vancouver ) Battalion
Sergeant Frederick Hobson of the 20th ( Central Ontario ) Battalion
Corporal Filip Konowal of the 47th ( British Columbia ) Battalion ( the only Ukrainian to ever be awarded the Victoria Cross )
Acting Major Okill Massey Learmonth of the 2nd ( Eastern Ontario ) Battalion
Private Michael James O 'Rourke of the 7th ( British Columbia ) Battalion
= Liviu Librescu =
Liviu Librescu ( Romanian pronunciation : [ ˈlivju liˈbresku ] ; Hebrew : ליביו ליברסקו ; August 18 , 1930 – April 16 , 2007 ) was a Romanian @-@ born Israeli and American scientist and engineer . He was a professor whose major research fields were aeroelasticity and aerodynamics . A prominent academic in addition to being a survivor of the Holocaust , he is most widely known for his actions during the Virginia Tech shootings , in which he held off the gunman , giving all but one of his students enough time to escape through the windows . Shot and killed during the attack , Librescu was posthumously awarded the Order of the Star of Romania , Romania 's highest civilian honor . At the time of his death , he was Professor of Engineering Science and Mechanics at Virginia Tech .
= = Life and career = =
Liviu Librescu was born in 1930 to a Jewish family in the city of Ploiești , Romania . After Romania allied with Nazi Germany in World War II , his family was deported to a labor camp in Transnistria , and later , along with thousands of other Jews , was deported to a ghetto in the Romanian city of Focșani . His wife , Marlena , who is also a Holocaust survivor , told Israeli Channel 10 TV the day after his death , " We were in Romania during the Second World War , and we were Jews there among the Germans , and among the anti @-@ Semitic Romanians . " Dorothea Weisbuch , a cousin of Librescu living in Romania , said in an interview to Romanian newspaper Cotidianul : " He was an extraordinarily gifted person and very altruistic . When he was little , he was very curious and knew everything , so that I thought he would become very conceited , but it did not happen so ; he was of a rare modesty . "
After surviving the Holocaust , Librescu was repatriated to Communist Romania . He studied aerospace engineering at the Polytechnic University of Bucharest , graduating in 1952 and continuing with a Master 's degree at the same university . He was awarded a Ph.D. in fluid mechanics in 1969 at the Academia de Științe din România . From 1953 to 1975 , he worked as a researcher at the Bucharest Institute of Applied Mechanics , and later at the Institute of Fluid Mechanics and the Institute of Fluid Mechanics and Aerospace Constructions of the Academy of Science of Romania .
His career stalled in the 1970s because he refused to swear allegiance to the Romanian Communist Party and was forced out of academia for his sympathies towards Israel . When Librescu requested permission to emigrate to Israel , the Academy of Science of Romania fired him . In 1976 , a smuggled research manuscript that he had published in the Netherlands drew him international attention in the growing field of material dynamics .
After years of government refusal , Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin personally intervened to get the Librescu family an emigration permit by directly asking Romanian President Nicolae Ceaușescu to let them go . They moved to Israel in 1978 .
From 1979 to 1986 , Librescu was Professor of Aeronautical and Mechanical Engineering at Tel Aviv University and taught at the Technion in Haifa . In 1985 , he left on sabbatical for the United States , where he served as Professor at Virginia Tech in its Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics , where he remained until his death . He served as a member on the editorial board of seven scientific journals and was invited as a guest editor of special issues of five other journals . Most recently , he was co @-@ chair of the International Organizing Committee of the 7th International Congress on Thermal Stress , Taipei , Taiwan , June 4 – 7 , 2007 , for which he had been scheduled to give the keynote lecture . According to his wife , no Virginia Tech professor has ever published more articles than Librescu .
= = = Fields of research = = =
Librescu 's major fields of study included :
Foundation and applications of the modern theory of shells incorporating non @-@ classical effects and composed of advanced composite materials
Foundation of the theory and applications of sandwich type structures
Aeroelastic stability of flight vehicle structures
Nonlinear aeroelasticity of structures in supersonic and hypersonic flow fields
Aeroelastic and structural tailoring
Dynamic response and instability of elastic and viscoelastic laminated composite structures subjected to deterministic and random loading systems
Mechanical and thermal postbuckling of flat and curved shear @-@ deformable elastic panels
Static , dynamic and aeroelastic feedback control of adaptive structures
Unsteady aerodynamics and magnetoaerodynamics of supersonic flows with applications
Optimization problems of aeroelastic structural systems
Theory of composite thin @-@ walled beams and its application in aeronautical and mechanical constructions
Nonlinear structural deformation of compressible composite materials under shear stress
Response and behavior of structures to underwater and in @-@ air explosions
Multifunctional and functionally graded material structures .
= = Death and legacy = =
At age 76 , Librescu was among the 32 people who were murdered in the Virginia Tech shootings . On April 16 , 2007 , a student entered the Norris Hall Engineering Building and opened fire on classrooms . Librescu , who taught a solid mechanics class in Room 204 in the Norris Hall during April 2007 , held the door of his classroom shut while the gunman attempted to enter it . Although he was shot through the door , Librescu managed to prevent the gunman from entering the classroom until most of his students had escaped through the windows . He was struck by five bullets , with a shot to the head proving to be fatal . Of the 23 registered students in his class , one , Minal Panchal , died .
A number of Librescu 's students have called him a hero because of his actions . Caroline Merrey , a senior , said she and about 20 other students scrambled through the windows as Librescu shouted for them to hurry . Merrey said , " I don ’ t think I would be here if it wasn 't for [ Librescu ] . " Librescu 's son Joe said he had received e @-@ mails from several students who said he had saved their lives and regarded him as a hero .
Following the murder of Librescu , at the request of his family and with the assistance of Gov. Tim Kaine , his body was released on April 17 and he received a funeral service at an Orthodox Jewish funeral home in Borough Park , Brooklyn , New York City , New York . On April 20 , he was interred in Israel . In his native Romania , his picture was placed on a table at the Polytechnic University of Bucharest , and a candle was lit . People laid flowers nearby .
The massacre took place on Holocaust Remembrance Day ( Yom HaShoah ) . On April 18 , 2007 , President of the United States George W. Bush honored Librescu at a memorial service held at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , attended by a crowd that included many Holocaust survivors :
That day we saw horror , but we also saw quiet acts of courage . We saw this courage in a teacher named Liviu Librescu . With the gunman set to enter his class , this brave professor blocked the door with his body while his students fled to safety . On the Day of Remembrance , this Holocaust survivor gave his own life so that others may live . And this morning we honor his memory and we take strength from his example .
= = Honors and awards = =
Librescu received many academic honors during his work in the Engineering Science and Mechanics Department at Virginia Tech , serving as chair or invited as a keynote speaker of several International Congresses on Thermal Stresses and receiving several honorary degrees . He was elected member of the Academy of Sciences of the Shipbuilding of Ukraine ( 2000 ) and Foreign Fellow of the Academy of Engineering of Armenia ( 1999 ) . He was a recipient of Doctor Honoris Causa of the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest ( 2000 ) , of the 1999 Dean 's Award for Excellence in Research , College of Engineering at Virginia Tech , and a laureate of the Traian Vuia Prize of the Romanian Academy ( 1972 ) . He was a member of the Board of Experts of the Italian Ministry of Education , University and Scientific Research . He was awarded the Frank J. Maher Award for Excellence in Engineering Education ( 2005 ) and an ASME diploma ( 2005 ) expressing " deep appreciation for the valuable services in advancing the engineering profession " .
Posthumously , Professor Librescu was commended by Traian Băsescu , the President of Romania , with the Order of the Star of Romania with the rank of Grand Cross , " as a sign of high appreciation and gratitude for the entire scientific and academic activity , as well as for the heroism shown in the course of the tragic events which took place on April 16th , 2007 , [ ... ] through which he saved the lives of his students , sacrificing his own life . " The Chabad Hasidic Movement named its Jewish Student Center at Virginia Tech after him .
The street in front of the U.S. Embassy in Bucharest was named in his honor .
Professor Librescu was also awarded the 2007 Facilitator Award by Stetson University College of Law ’ s Center for Excellence in Higher Education Law and Policy .
A gift to Columbia Law School from alumnus Ira Greenstein ’ 85 honored Professor Librescu ’ s heroism during the Virginia Tech shooting and established a professorship in his name — the “ Liviu Librescu Professor of Law . ” This professorship is awarded at the discretion of the Dean , who seeks to appoint to the Librescu Professorship a member of the faculty with an expertise in national security or social justice . Matthew Waxman currently holds the Librescu Professorship . He is an expert in national security law and international law , including issues such as executive power , international human rights and constitutional rights , military force and armed conflict , terrorism , cybersecurity , and maritime disputes .
= = Publications = =
Books authored by Librescu include :
Librescu , Liviu ; Ohseop Song ( 2006 ) . Thin @-@ walled composite beams : Theory and Application . Dordrecht , The Netherlands : Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4020 @-@ 3457 @-@ 2 . OCLC 62363828 .
Cederbaum , G. ; Elishakoff , I ; Aboudi , J. ; Librescu , L. ( 1992 ) . Random Vibrations and Reliability of Composite Structures . Lancaster @-@ Basel : Technomic Publishing Co .
Librescu , Liviu ( 1976 ) . Elastostatics and Kinetics of Anisotropic and Heterogeneous Shell @-@ Type Structures . Leyden : Noordhoff International . ISBN 978 @-@ 90 @-@ 286 @-@ 0035 @-@ 5 . OCLC 2092328 .
Librescu , Liviu ( 1969 ) . Statica şi dinamica structurilor elastice anizotrope şi eterogene ( in Romanian ) . Bucharest : Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România . OCLC 17866878 .
= Bump Elliott =
Chalmers W. " Bump " Elliott ( born January 30 , 1925 ) is a former American football player , coach , and college athletics administrator . He played halfback at Purdue University ( 1943 – 1944 ) and the University of Michigan ( 1946 – 1947 ) . Elliott grew up in Bloomington , Illinois , enlisted in the United States Marine Corps as a senior in high school and was assigned to the V @-@ 12 Navy College Training Program at Purdue University . He received varsity letters in football , baseball , and basketball at Purdue , before being called into active duty in late 1944 , serving with the Marines in China .
After being discharged from the military , he enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1946 and joined the football team for whom his brother Pete Elliott played quarterback . In 1947 , he played for an undefeated and untied Michigan football team known as the " Mad Magicians " , led the Big Nine Conference in scoring , won the Chicago Tribune Silver Football trophy as the Most Valuable Player in the Conference , and was selected as an All @-@ American by the American Football Coaches Association .
After graduating from Michigan in 1948 , Elliott spent ten years as an assistant football coach at Oregon State , Iowa , and Michigan . He was appointed as Michigan 's head football coach in 1959 and held that position until 1968 , leading the team to a Big Ten Conference championship and Rose Bowl victory in the 1964 season . For a period of 21 years , from 1970 to 1991 , he was the athletic director at the University of Iowa . During his tenure as athletic director , he hired coaches Dan Gable , Hayden Fry , Lute Olson , C. Vivian Stringer , and Dr. Tom Davis , and the Iowa Hawkeyes won 41 Big Ten Conference championships and 11 NCAA titles . In 1989 , Elliott was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Elliott was born in Detroit , but grew up in Bloomington , Illinois . His father , Dr. J. Norman Elliott , was an ears , nose and throat doctor who also coached football at Illinois Wesleyan University from 1930 to 1934 . Elliott 's given name is Chalmers , but he has been known by the nickname " Bump " since he was six months old , though nobody remembers how he got the nickname , " not even his mother . "
Elliott and his younger brother , Pete Elliott , both played football together for Bloomington High School , where Bump was an All @-@ State halfback in 1942 , and Pete made it as a fullback in 1943 . Had it not been for World War II , Bump and Pete likely would have attended the University of Illinois , which was about 50 miles from their home in Bloomington . However , both brothers wanted to get into the V @-@ 12 Navy College Training Program , and Illinois did not have such a program . Bump enlisted in the United States Marine Corps while still a senior in high school and was called to active duty in 1943 . He was assigned to the V @-@ 12 officer training program at Purdue University . His brother , Pete , also enlisted and was assigned to officer training at Michigan .
= = Purdue University and military service = =
Elliott attended Purdue from 1943 – 1944 . In his freshman year , Elliott earned varsity letters in football , basketball and baseball . He played three games for the unbeaten and untied 1943 Purdue football team where he was described as " a capable triple @-@ threater and stellar defensive performer . " He scored a touchdown against Minnesota in his first game , and made a key interception at Purdue 's ten @-@ yard line in the season 's final game against Indiana . A May 1944 newspaper article reported that the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Elliott , who had been a " high school sensation last year , " had won three major athletic letters in his first year as a Naval V @-@ 12 student at Purdue . " A speedy 160 @-@ pound , five foot 10 @-@ inch performer , he lost little time making his mark in football last fall once he became eligible upon completion of his first V @-@ 12 term . " Elliott appeared in the final three games of the football season , and his performance in the season 's final game against Indiana " provided one of the highlights of the Boilermaker season . "
In basketball , he was " consistent as a guard on Purdue 's cage combination . " In baseball , Elliott played shortstop and center field , where he was " a steady fielder with a strong arm . " In a May 1944 game , Elliott led the Boilermakers to a 17 – 4 win over Wisconsin , with five hits , five stolen bases , four RBIs , three runs scored , and four putouts in center field . His performance against Wisconsin was " one of the biggest baseball days ever turned " by a Big Ten baseball player .
Elliott played in the first six games of the 1944 football season for Purdue before being transferred by the Marine Corps . In a game against Marquette in late September , he broke up a 7 – 7 tie with successive touchdown runs of 24 and 71 yards . He was also the only defensive player in 1944 to pull down Illinois ' Claude " Buddy " Young from behind . Elliott received orders to report for active duty in October 1944 , and he played his last game in a Purdue uniform against the Michigan Wolverines on October 28 , 1944 . In November 1944 , Elliott was sent to Parris Island . He was later sent to China and emerged from the war as a Marine lieutenant .
= = University of Michigan = =
Elliott and his younger brother , Pete Elliott , were teammates at Bloomington High School in 1943 and again at Michigan in 1946 and 1947 . After his discharge from the military , Bump joined Pete at Michigan , where Pete played quarterback and Bump was the right halfback for the undefeated 1947 team . Before the 1948 Rose Bowl , one article noted that the two brothers roomed together at Michigan and arranged their programs so that their classes were identical . The article observed : " They look alike , act alike and think alike and in Ann Arbor , Mich . , when they walk down the street any Michigan student can recognize Bump and Pete , the inseparable Elliott Brothers , Wolverines right half and quarterback respectively . " The brothers shared the same distinctive golden red hair , and the two were so close that they told a reporter in 1947 that a girl had to receive " the Bumper stamp of approval " before passing Pete 's test .
= = = 1946 season = = =
After being discharged from the Marine Corps , Elliott attended the University of Michigan , where he joined his brother , Pete , in Michigan 's backfield . Elliott " practically stepped off a World War II transport from Marine Corps duty in China to Michigan 's Ferry Field and stardom . " With less than a week of conditioning after his discharge from the Marines , he was reported to be giving Michigan 's coaching staff " something lovely to look at . "
In a 14 – 14 tie with Northwestern in mid @-@ October 1946 , Elliott scored all 14 of Michigan 's points . He scored the first touchdown late in the first quarter on a 37 @-@ yard pass from Bob Chappuis in the corner of the end zone . In the fourth quarter , Michigan fullback Bob Wiese intercepted a pass on Michigan 's 1 @-@ yard line , and lateralled to Elliott on the Michigan 40 @-@ yard line . From that point , Elliott ran it back 60 yards down the sideline for his second touchdown . He again scored two touchdowns in Michigan 's 21 @-@ 0 win over Minnesota on November 2 , 1946 . He also helped Michigan to a 28 – 6 win over Wisconsin with a bullet pass to end Bob Mann in the end zone .
= = = Big Nine MVP in 1947 = = =
In 1947 , Elliott played for the Wolverines team known as the " Mad Magicians " that went undefeated and untied , and defeated the Southern Cal Trojans , 49 – 0 in the 1948 Rose Bowl . The team is considered to be the greatest Michigan team of all time . Along with Bob Chappuis , Elliott was one of the key players in Michigan 's undefeated season . He led the Big Nine in scoring , made the All @-@ American team picked by the American Football Coaches Association , and was voted Most Valuable Player in the Big Nine Conference to win the Chicago Tribune Silver Football trophy . Elliott was one of two Michigan players in 1947 ( the other was fullback Jack Weisenburger ) who played both offense and defense . Indeed , Elliott was actually a four @-@ way threat as he contributed in rushing , receiving , punt returns , and defense . He scored a total of 12 touchdowns in 1947 — eight rushing , two receiving , one on a punt return , and another on an interception return . He contributed 911 all @-@ purpose yardage – 438 rushing , 318 receiving , and 155 on punt returns . He averaged 6 @.@ 4 yards per carry as a rusher , 19 @.@ 9 yards per reception , and 17 @.@ 2 yards per punt return . Michigan head coach Fritz Crisler called Elliott the greatest right halfback he had ever seen .
Elliott had a breakthrough season that began with the team 's " Blue " versus " White " exhibition game in mid @-@ September in which he scored four touchdowns , including 50- and 60 @-@ yard runs . He scored touchdowns in each of the team 's early season wins over Michigan State ( 55 – 0 ) , Stanford ( 49 @-@ 13 ) , and Pitt ( 69 @-@ 0 ) . His touchdown against Pitt came on defense , as he intercepted a pass and ran it back 37 yards . In the Big Nine opener against Northwestern , Elliott scored on a nine @-@ yard run less than two minutes after the game started , as the Wolverines won , 49 @-@ 21 . In Michigan 's closest contest of the 1947 season , a 13 @-@ 6 win over Minnesota , Elliott caught a 40 @-@ yard pass from Bob Chappuis on his fingertips at the Minnesota 15 @-@ yard line and went on to score with a minute and 15 seconds to go in the first half . Said one reporter : " It was the exceptional speed of Elliott on this play that turned the tide . He completely outmaneuvered the Minnesota secondary . "
The biggest challenge of the 1947 season came in a 14 – 7 win over Illinois . The Associated Press described Elliott as Michigan 's " Big Cog " in the Illinois game , and the United Press proclaimed : " Bump Elliott Steals Show in 14 to 7 Defeat of Illinois Saturday . " In the first quarter , he ran back a punt 75 yards for a touchdown , as Bob Mann " bulldozed the path with a vicious block " , and " the Bloomington blaster scampered down the sidelines . " Elliott also set up the Wolverines second score with a long reception to the Illinois four @-@ yard line . He also played a key role on defense , intercepting a pass at the Michigan nine @-@ yard line to halt an Illinois drive . Another article concluded : " The individual hero was Bump Elliott , a 168 @-@ pound halfback who loped 74 yards for one touchdown and caught a pass for a 52 yard gain to set up the second and winning marker . "
He finished the season scoring two touchdowns each in games against Indiana and Ohio State . At the end of the season , Elliott and Bob Chappuis both received 16 of 18 possible points in voting by the AP for the All @-@ Big Nine football team . Elliott weighed only 160 pounds ( 72 @.@ 6 kg ; 11 st 6 @.@ 0 lb ) during his All @-@ American season in 1947 . Asked later about how he managed to compete at his weight , Elliott noted , " I was awful lucky to get by at that weight . "
= = = 1948 Rose Bowl against Southern Cal = = =
As the Big Nine Conference champions , the 1947 Wolverines were invited to play in the 1948 Rose Bowl game against the Southern Cal Trojans . Michigan dominated the game , winning 49 – 0 , as " the shifty Chappuis and the speedy Elliott began to fake ( the Trojans ) out of their shoes . " Elliott scored on an 11 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Chappuis . In August 1948 , Elliott was chosen as the captain of the College All @-@ Stars in their game against the Chicago Cardinals at Soldier Field . Injured in practice , Elliott was unable to play as the Cardinals beat the All @-@ Stars , 28 – 0 .
= = = Application for 1948 eligibility denied = = =
Elliott applied for an extra year of eligibility in 1948 . Due to his military service , he played in only three games as a freshman and six games in his sophomore season . Under the Big Nine conference code , he was eligible for a fifth season due to a war @-@ caused stay at Purdue in 1943 – 1944 . However , his request was denied by the Big Nine Conference . The decision was criticized by Michigan 's representative on the Big Nine faculty committee as a " grave injustice . " Nonetheless , Elliott set the Michigan career interception return yards record that stood for five years until Don Oldham pushed the record from 174 yards to 181 yards . His 174 career yards still ranks fifth in school history .
= = Coaching career = =
The Elliott brothers served as assistant coaches together at Oregon State in 1949 and 1950 , before going their separate ways . The Elliotts ' coached against each other in the early 1960s while Bump was the head football coach at Michigan and Pete held the same position at the University of Illinois . In November 1963 , Pete Elliott 's Illinois team was ranked No. 2 in the country and the favorite for the Rose Bowl when it faced off against Bump Elliott 's Michigan team . Michigan had a record of 2 – 3 – 1 when the brothers met in 1963 , but Michigan came out on top , 14 – 8 , marking the fourth time in four games that Bump 's Wolverines came out on top of brother Pete 's Illini .
After graduating from Michigan , Bump turned down an offer to play professional football for the Detroit Lions , saying he said he had obtained a job in Chicago outside of football . Elliott also considered going into medicine as his father had done , but he chose instead to go into coaching . He started his coaching career at Michigan in the fall of 1948 as assistant backfield coach . In the spring of 1949 , he was hired as an assistant coach under Kip Taylor at Oregon State , where he remained for three seasons , from 1949 – 1951 . Elliott later recalled , " I was only 24 when Kip Taylor hired me as backfield coach at Oregon State , and it bothered me a little because there were two backs on the squad who were older than I was . " It was even worse for his brother Pete , who was 22 when he was hired to coach the ends . Bump recalled : " After practice one night some players noticed Pete light up a cigaret . One of his ends drew Pete aside and said in a fatherly voice , ' You shouldn 't smoke , coach ; I didn 't do it when I was your age . " Oregon State had an overall record of 14 – 15 in Elliott 's three years as an assistant coach .
In 1952 , Elliott was hired as an assistant at the University of Iowa under its head coach , Forest Evashevski , another former All @-@ American at the University of Michigan . On being hired at Iowa , Elliott said , " I should feel at home back in the Big Ten . I grew up in Bloomington – 40 miles from Illinois . I played at Purdue and Michigan and coached at Michigan . My father went to Iowa and Northwestern and now I ’ m coaching at Iowa . " He stayed at Iowa until 1957 . Elliott was with the Hawkeyes in 1956 when they went 9 – 1 , won the Big Ten championship , and defeated his former team , Oregon State , 35 – 19 , in the 1957 Rose Bowl game .
He returned to Michigan in 1957 as a backfield coach under Bennie Oosterbaan . In 1959 , Elliott was elevated to head football coach at Michigan . He was the head coach for ten years from 1959 to 1968 , posting a career record of 51 – 42 – 2 , for a .547 winning percentage . In Big Ten Conference play , his record was 32 – 34 – 2 ( .485 ) .
Although his tenure at Michigan was unsuccessful by the school 's historic standards , he did lead the 1964 Wolverines to a 9 – 1 record , a Big Ten title and a win in the Rose Bowl against Oregon State . His final team , in 1968 , won eight of its first nine games but then suffered a humiliating 50 – 14 loss against Ohio State . Despite having a 36 @-@ point lead , Ohio State Coach Woody Hayes passed for , and failed to get , a two @-@ point conversion after the final score and with 1 : 23 remaining in the game . When asked why he went for the two @-@ point conversion , Hayes reportedly said , " Because we couldn 't go for three ! " Shortly after the game , Elliott resigned , and athletic director Don Canham hired Bo Schembechler to replace him as head coach . Schembechler would use the memory of the 1968 Ohio State loss to motivate his team the following season .
There were reports during the 1968 season that Elliott had been given an ultimatum : " Either win or face the possibility of being kick upstairs . " There were also reports when Don Canham was hired that Elliott had expected to be named athletic director and that there was " bad blood " between Canham and Elliott .
However , Canham later denied that Elliott was " eased out " of his job . In an interview with Joe Falls , Canham said : " Bump and I are close personal friends . Bump is not naïve – he knows that when you work at a place for 10 years and you ’ re not winning consistently , it doesn ’ t become fun for anybody – the coach , the alumni , the players or anybody else . We talked about this and we talked about it openly . If Bump had said to me , ‘ Look , give me a couple of more years , ’ I would have given it to him . I mean that . I didn ’ t fire Bump Elliott . My first year as director Bump had an 8 and 2 record . Anyone could live with that . "
According to Canham , he met with Elliott in December 1968 and offered him the job of associate athletic director . Canham told Elliott he could stay on as coach if he wanted , but Canham could not promise him that the job of associate athletic director would still be open in another couple of years . Canham said : " Bump smiled at me and said , ‘ I don ’ t have to think about it . ’ He was ready to get out . I did not force him , and I mean that in all honesty . But the job had ceased to be fun for him . "
Schembechler later recalled that he remained loyal to Elliott when he took over as Michigan 's head coach in 1969 . When Schembechler won the Big Ten championship in 1969 , he said , " I made certain I let everyone know I won with Bump 's kids . Bump was a man of great class and he showed it to me again and again in that first year , never getting in the way , always trying to be helpful , always trying to encourage me . " After Michigan won the 1969 Ohio State game , the team presented the game ball to Elliott , and Schembechler noted that " I don ’ t remember when I felt happier about anything in my life . "
From 1969 to 1970 , Elliott was the associate director of athletics at Michigan .
= = Athletic director at Iowa = =
Elliott became the Men 's athletic director at the University of Iowa in 1970 , succeeding Forest Evashevski . He came to Iowa in the midst of a feud between athletic director Forest Evashevski and football coach Ray Nagel . Evashevski resigned in May 1970 , and Elliott was hired to replace him . On accepting the job , Elliott noted : " It 's difficult to leave a town where you ’ ve lived for 13 years ( Ann Arbor , Michigan ) , but the opportunity is so good at Iowa with the people and the school that no one could pass it up . "
During Elliott 's tenure , the school 's teams won 34 Big Ten championships and 11 NCAA titles , as well as making three Rose Bowl appearances and one trip to the Final Four in basketball . The university also built a basketball arena ( Carver @-@ Hawkeye Arena ) , erected an indoor workout center for football and added more than 10 @,@ 000 seats to its football stadium . His career at Iowa was marked by a general resurgence in the competitiveness of Iowa athletics . Elliott hired a number of notable coaches , including Lute Olson , Dan Gable , Hayden Fry , and Dr. Tom Davis . During Elliott 's 21 years as athletic director , the Iowa Hawkeyes won 41 Big Ten championships in football ( 1981 , 1985 , 1990 ) , wrestling ( 1974 – 1990 ) , men 's basketball ( 1970 , 1979 ) , baseball ( 1972 , 1974 , 1990 ) , men 's gymnastics ( 1972 , 1974 , 1986 ) , men 's swimming ( 1981 , 1982 ) . See Iowa Hawkeyes for complete list of championships .
Elliott was known as " a coach 's AD . " " He hired coaches he trusted , then gave them the resources , latitude and support they needed to operate as they saw fit – providing they played by the rules . " Iowa wrestling coach Dan Gable said his wife cried on learning that Elliott had retired . In 1999 , Gable wrote : " Right after I came to coach at the University of Iowa , I had a meeting with Bump Elliott , who was the Athletic Director . I ’ ll never forget what Bump said to me : ‘ Don ’ t ask for the moon . Strive to get there , sure , but do it wisely through continuing to build upon what you already have . As you build , come see me , and we ’ ll see how I can help you out . ’ I now call that bit of wisdom the Bump Elliott Rule , and it serves a good reminder to keep things in perspective . Gradual , solid growth is better than any quick fix . " " The one thing we emphasized from the start was that our staff had to make sure we were 100 percent loyal to each other and the university , " Elliott said at the time of his retirement . " There could be no jealousy between the coaches and various programs . I wanted no one talking behind anyone 's backs . I wanted absolute loyalty . If not , then that person could leave any time . "
Elliott was also the one who hired Hayden Fry as Iowa 's football coach in 1979 . Fry later said that Elliott was one of the principal reasons he chose to coach at Iowa . In his autobiography , Fry wrote : " Iowa had one thing in its favor as far as I was concerned : Bump Elliott was its athletic director . Bump had a reputation as being a fair , honest and well @-@ liked administrator . " Elliott told Fry that he would be the last football coach Bump ever hired . Fry was puzzled and asked Elliott what he meant . Elliott said , " Simple , I don ’ t think they ’ ll give me a chance to hire another coach , so if you don ’ t make it , neither will I. " He is the only person to have been with Rose Bowl teams in five capacities – player , assistant coach , head coach , assistant athletic director , and athletic director .
= = Family = =
Elliott and his wife Barbara met while he was with the Marine Corps at Purdue and she was studying pre @-@ school education there . They married in 1949 , and have three children , Bill ( born October 1951 ) , Bob ( born May 1953 ) , and Betsy ( born c . 1955 ) . Son Bob Elliott was Iowa 's defensive coordinator under Hayden Fry in the 1990s .
= = Honors and accolades = =
Elliott has received numerous honors and accolades , including the following :
Recipient of the Chicago Tribune Silver Football as the Most Valuable Player in the Big Nine Conference in 1947 ;
Selected as an All @-@ American by the American Football Coaches Association in 1947 ;
Inducted into the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in 1986 for his contributions in football , basketball , baseball , and as a football coach ;
Inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1989 ;
Inducted into the National Iowa Varsity Club Hall of Fame in 1997 ;
Inducted into the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame in 2002 ; and
Elliott Drive , the Iowa City street on which Carver @-@ Hawkeye Arena is located , is named in his honor . The sculpture of the 12 ' stainless steel hawk , Strike Force , is located in a small park just south of Carver @-@ Hawkeye arena . In addition to the street in his name and the sculpture , a scholarship in Elliott 's name were all spearheaded by his good friend Earle Murphy to honor Bump and future Iowa athletes .
= = Head coaching record = =
= Chris Bosh =
Christopher Wesson Bosh ( born March 24 , 1984 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . A high school " Mr. Basketball " in Texas , Bosh left college at Georgia Tech after one season with the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets men 's basketball team to enter the 2003 NBA draft . He was selected fourth overall by the Toronto Raptors in a very competitive draft class that included multiple future NBA superstars such as LeBron James , Dwyane Wade , and Carmelo Anthony . While at Toronto , Bosh emerged as one of the young stars in the league ; he became a five @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star , was named to the All @-@ NBA second team once , appeared for the US national team ( with whom he won a gold medal at the 2008 Olympics ) , and supplanted former fan @-@ favorite Vince Carter as the face and leader of the Raptors franchise .
In the 2006 – 07 season , Bosh led the Raptors to their first NBA Playoffs berth in five years , and their first ever division title . He left Toronto for the Miami Heat in 2010 as its all @-@ time leader in points , rebounds , blocks , double doubles , free throws made and attempted , and minutes played . Bosh won his first NBA title after Miami defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder 4 – 1 in the 2012 NBA Finals . He won his second title in 2013 as the Heat defeated the San Antonio Spurs in the 2013 NBA Finals .
Bosh was nicknamed CB4 by then @-@ Toronto Raptors play @-@ by @-@ play commentator Chuck Swirsky , a combination of Bosh 's initials and then jersey number . Seeking to promote sports and education amongst youths in Dallas and Toronto , Bosh set up the Chris Bosh Foundation and regularly speaks to youths about the benefits of reading .
= = Early life = =
Born in Dallas , Texas , to Noel and Freida Bosh , Chris Bosh grew up in Hutchins , Texas . A family @-@ oriented person , Bosh often played basketball in the house with his younger brother , Joel . By four years of age , he began learning how to dribble a basketball in the gym where his dad played pick @-@ up games . Although Bosh was always tall since youth and this allowed him to out @-@ rebound others in basketball games , he only started learning the game around fourth grade at a playground near his grandmother 's house . Apart from basketball , Bosh also played baseball up until high school , preferring to play as a first baseman . Growing up , Bosh names his parents as the biggest influences on his personality and considered NBA superstar Kevin Garnett as his favorite athlete , modeling his play after him . Academically , Bosh always did well in school but he began to garner significant attention from college recruiters when he led Lincoln High School in Dallas to the number one ranking in the country and the USA Today National Championship with a perfect 40 – 0 season .
The teenager went on to lead Lincoln High to win the Class 4A state title before 16 @,@ 990 fans as he racked up 23 points , 17 rebounds and nine blocks . Bosh was subsequently named High School Player of the Year by Basketball America , Powerade Player of the Year in Texas , a First @-@ team all @-@ American by Parade , McDonald 's and EA Sports , a Second @-@ team all @-@ American by USA Today and SLAM Magazine , a First @-@ team all @-@ state player , and " Mr. Basketball " in Texas by the Texas Association of Basketball Coaches . With his combination of grades and basketball skills , Bosh was on a number of college recruiting lists . The University of Florida and the University of Memphis made serious attempts , but it was Paul Hewitt , coach of Georgia Tech , who made the best impression . Bosh felt Hewitt would look out for his best interests and respect his aspirations to play professional basketball ; moreover , Georgia Tech 's transition offense impressed the teenager .
= = College career = =
Bosh eventually chose to follow the footsteps of his cousin and aunt and attended Georgia Tech to study graphic design and computer imaging , and subsequently , management . There , he led the Yellow Jackets in averaging 15 @.@ 6 points , 9 @.@ 0 rebounds and 2 @.@ 2 blocks in 31 games , and led the Atlantic Coast Conference in field goal percentage ( .560 ) , joining Antawn Jamison as the only freshmen ever to do so . Bosh originally intended to complete his degree , but by the end of the 2002 – 03 season , his strong performances convinced him that he was ready for the NBA . He left Georgia Tech after his freshman season and entered the 2003 NBA draft . Bosh said in future interviews that although he misses his college days , he believes he made the right decision to pursue a professional career . He said he intends to obtain a college degree in the future , to fulfill a promise made to his mother .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Toronto Raptors ( 2003 – 2010 ) = = =
= = = = Rookie year ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = = =
In a strong draft class including future All @-@ Stars LeBron James , Carmelo Anthony , and Dwyane Wade , Bosh was selected fourth overall by the Toronto Raptors in the 2003 NBA draft and was signed on July 8 , 2003 . Prior to his signing , however , other NBA teams made offers for Bosh as they knew Toronto needed a veteran scorer , and Raptors star Vince Carter himself pressed for a trade . General Manager Glen Grunwald turned everyone down .
In his rookie season Bosh was forced to play out of position as the Raptors ' starting center after Antonio Davis was traded to the Chicago Bulls . Night after night , the teenager with the " slim frame " battled against opponents who had a significant size and strength advantage over him . Bosh — who cited teammate Michael Curry as his mentor — was often praised by his coaches for his heart , and willingness to play through pain and injuries resulting from his lack of body strength compared to some of the league 's strong forwards and centers . Bosh 's contributions were not unnoticed by teammates either , as he averaged 11 @.@ 5 points , 7 @.@ 4 rebounds , 1 @.@ 4 blocks , and 33 @.@ 5 minutes in 75 games , leading all rookies in rebounding and blocks , and setting a franchise record for most rebounds in a rookie season with 557 . Bosh was rewarded by being selected to the All @-@ Rookie First Team for the 2003 – 04 season .
= = = = Heralded as the new hope ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = = =
With the departure of the disenchanted franchise face of the team , Vince Carter , in December 2004 , Bosh was simultaneously anointed as the new leader around whom Toronto would build . In the remaining games following Carter 's departure , the power forward averaged 18 @.@ 4 points , 9 @.@ 5 rebounds , 1 @.@ 6 blocks , and 38 @.@ 1 minutes per game , improving in every major statistical category . He was awarded his first ever NBA Eastern Conference Player of the Week for games played between 3 and 9 January 2005 . As the season drew to a close , analysts predicted that Bosh would become an All @-@ Star one day . Bosh ended the 2004 – 05 season as the leading scorer and leading rebounder for the team on 21 and 46 occasions respectively .
Prior to the 2005 – 06 season , Bosh was named as one of Toronto 's team captains . Bosh continued to work on his game as he consistently chalked up double doubles , leading the team in scoring , rebounding , and field goal percentage for the first half of the season . On February 9 , 2006 , for the first time in his career , Bosh was selected to play in the 2006 NBA All @-@ Star Game in Houston , Texas as a reserve forward for the Eastern Conference . He was only the third Raptor to make an All @-@ Star game , after Carter and Antonio Davis . Bosh 's selection was just three days after he was named NBA Eastern Conference Player of the Week for the second time in his career . In March 2006 , following a season @-@ ending injury to Bosh , the Raptors hit a 1 – 10 skid . This highlighted Bosh 's importance as the centerpiece of the offense , as well as the leader of the team . The Raptors finished the season 27 – 55 and Bosh averaged 22 @.@ 5 points , 9 @.@ 2 rebounds , and 2 @.@ 6 assists per game .
Despite a major off @-@ season revamp of the Raptors roster — including the departure of good friends Mike James and Charlie Villanueva — Bosh officially signed a three @-@ year contract extension with a player option for a fourth year on July 14 , 2006 . The deal was reportedly worth US $ 65 million over four years . Upon signing the contract , Bosh said " I think the future is very positive for the franchise ... change was needed ... we have a lot of guys who just want to win and are willing to work hard . " During the same press conference , Bosh also announced a donation of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to a Toronto charity , known as Community Legacy Programs .
= = = = Leader of the division champions ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
After a shaky start to the Raptors ' 2006 – 07 campaign , the Raptors managed to surpass the 0 @.@ 500 mark as the All @-@ Star break approached . Bosh 's play and leadership were pivotal to this run and as an increasing recognition of his abilities , on January 25 , 2007 , he was named an All @-@ Star starter for the East in the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game . Bosh received the second highest number of votes among all Eastern Conference forwards . This was his first All @-@ Star start and second overall All @-@ Star appearance , having averaged over 22 points and 11 rebounds in the first half of the season . On January 31 , 2007 , in a game against the Washington Wizards , Bosh scored a 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) buzzer @-@ beating shot to end the third quarter of the game . He shot 15 @-@ of @-@ 15 after missing his first four shots . Bosh 's in @-@ form streak enabled him to be selected Eastern Conference Player of the Month for January 2007 . He had averaged 25 @.@ 4 points and 9 @.@ 1 rebounds while leading the Raptors to a 10 – 5 record in that month . On February 7 , 2007 , Bosh 's career @-@ high 41 points prompted the home fans to chant " MVP " — an unprecedented event in the Air Canada Centre . Two days later , Bosh collected 29 points and 11 rebounds against the Los Angeles Lakers , shooting 10 @-@ of @-@ 10 in the second half .
On March 28 , 2007 , Bosh became the new franchise record holder for double doubles in a home win against the Miami Heat . He was named Eastern Conference Player of the Week for the third time in his career shortly after , having led Toronto to clinch their first NBA Playoffs berth in five years . Toronto went on to win its first ever division title , and concluded the regular season with a 47 – 35 record , including a 30 – 11 home record , both franchise records . As third seed , the Raptors played sixth seed New Jersey Nets in the first round of the 2007 NBA Playoffs . The series drew much media attention as Carter , who left had Toronto under acrimonious circumstances , was back at the ACC as a Net . In the opening game , while Carter was constantly booed by the home crowd and was not an offensive threat , Toronto 's inexperience was evident as they struggled offensively and were down 65 – 78 going into the fourth quarter . A late rally by Toronto in the fourth quarter was not enough as they eventually lost 91 – 96 . The Raptors won Game 2 at the ACC to tie the series 1 – 1 , as Bosh recorded 25 points and a game @-@ high 13 rebounds . The Nets won games 3 and 4 to lead 3 – 1 , but Toronto forced Game 6 when they narrowly won 98 – 96 in Game 5 . New Jersey won Game 6 , however , and sent Toronto out of the first round . Bosh averaged a double @-@ double with 22 @.@ 6 ppg and 10 @.@ 7 rpg for the regular season , both career @-@ highs , and posted 17 @.@ 5 ppg and 9 @.@ 0 rpg for the playoffs . He was named to the All @-@ NBA Second Team at the end of the 2006 – 07 campaign .
= = = = Struggles ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
Before the 2007 – 08 season began , Andrea Bargnani , the number one pick in the 2006 NBA draft , was slated to start at center and Bosh at power forward to form a strong Toronto frontcourt and Jason Kapono , a three @-@ point specialist , was acquired via free agency from the Miami Heat to add offensive firepower ; however , as the season unfolded , neither plans materialized as hoped . Bosh himself had a slow start to the season , but as mid @-@ season approached , his form picked up and he was named Player of the Week for the second week of January . On January 31 , 2008 , he was selected to be on the Eastern Conference team for the 2008 NBA All @-@ Star Game . In the meantime , Toronto continued to struggle and their problems were exacerbated when regular starting point guard T. J. Ford returned from injury and became frustrated playing backup to José Calderón . Nevertheless , even with injuries to Bosh ( 15 games ) , Jorge Garbajosa ( 75 games ) and Ford ( 31 games ) , the Raptors concluded the regular season with a 41 – 41 record , and clinched the sixth seed for the 2008 NBA Playoffs . However , they were defeated by the Orlando Magic in the first round , losing 4 – 1 .
The first @-@ round series against the Magic was touted as the matchup between two of the league 's best young big men in Dwight Howard and Bosh , but the Raptors were perceived to have an advantage because of their dual @-@ point guard play . But Orlando held home court advantage , and the Raptors were unable to win the first two games in Amway Arena . In Game 1 , Bargnani started at small forward . This did not matter , as Orlando took a huge lead in the first quarter . Howard dominated the game , finishing with 22 points , 25 rebounds and 5 blocks . The stifling defense held Toronto to 37 @.@ 6 % shooting . Bosh finished 4 for 11 from the field ( 13 of 13 in freethrows ) and the Raptors lost by 14 . Game 2 started similarly to Game 1 , with Howard 's dominance propelling the Magic to a sizeable lead , but solid plays from Bosh , Kapono and Calderón put the Raptors in front late in the fourth quarter . The Magic came back , and with 9 seconds left on the clock , Bosh missed 18 @-@ foot jumper as time expired , giving the Magic a one @-@ point win . In Game 3 , Ford and Calderón stepped up , and the Raptors preserved some hope with a 108 – 94 home win . In Game 4 , the teams were almost tied going into the fourth quarter . Despite Bosh recording 39 points and 15 rebounds , deadly shooting by the Magic in the final few minutes ensured victory for the visitors . Back on the road in Game 5 , Toronto was outplayed by the Magic in the second half , and the Raptors eliminated from the first round four games to one . General Manager Bryan Colangelo said at a press conference thereafter , " Whether it 's protecting [ Bosh ] inside the paint , getting a little bit more of a presence in there , to just getting him another scorer that 's going to shoulder some of that burden , it 's something that 's clear we have to get better " , hinting that the roster was in need of an overhaul . Bosh said after the loss , " They played a great series , they executed on offence and defense better than we did and when it came to the small things , they did a better job ... I can 't sit here and bark in protest that the better team didn 't win . That 's pretty obvious . They beat us pretty good . " Unlike the previous campaign , Bosh was not named to any of the All @-@ NBA teams .
To provide Bosh with an experienced frontcourt partner , the Raptors pulled blockbuster trade prior to the 2008 – 09 campaign : six @-@ time All @-@ Star Jermaine O 'Neal was acquired from the Indiana Pacers in exchange for Ford , Rasho Nesterovič , and Roy Hibbert , the 17th pick in the 2008 NBA draft . Bosh — who had won an Olympic gold medal with the national team at Beijing 2008 — started the season strong and playing better defense than ever . He averaged 26 points , 10 rebounds and 3 @.@ 7 assists in his first three games and was named Eastern Conference Player of the Week for the fifth time in his career . A week later , he became Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in offensive rebounds , surpassing Antonio Davis 's record . While Bosh and O 'Neal formed a formidable partnership in the frontcourt , the Raptors struggled to surpass the .500 mark . The principal deficiency of previous campaigns — wing players — continued to upend Toronto 's progress . With the Raptors at 8 – 9 , head coach Sam Mitchell was sacked and replaced by Jay Triano . Under the new regime , Bargnani finally blossomed as a player , but injuries and weaknesses in the roster meant that the Raptors entered the All @-@ Star break 13 games under .500 . On January 29 , 2009 , Bosh was named an All @-@ Star reserve , but an injury ruled him out of the game . Two weeks later , in a bid to bring in a wing player and create greater salary flexibility , O 'Neal and Jamario Moon were traded to Miami for Shawn Marion and Marcus Banks . The trade did not improve the team 's win – loss record , however , and the Raptors were eliminated from contention with seven games of the regular season remaining . The bright spark in Bosh 's campaign was his career @-@ high 22 @.@ 7 points per game , as well as his being one of two players in the league that season ( the other being Dwight Howard ) to average a 20 / 10 in points and rebounds . On April 20 , 2009 , Colangelo announced that he would offer Bosh a contract extension during the summer , which Bosh later refused to sign .
= = = = Overhauling the roster ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
To prepare for the 2009 – 10 season , Bosh worked out under Ken Roberson , looking to add 20 pounds and bring his weight up to 250 . Following the failure of the 2008 – 09 campaign , Colangelo knew that he had to shake up the roster to persuade Bosh to stay , and the Raptors were one of the busiest teams in the pre @-@ season market . Toronto 's lack of wing players was addressed by the drafting of DeMar DeRozan . They then managed to get Hedo Türkoğlu to renege on a verbal commitment to sign with the Portland Trail Blazers and obtained him in a sign @-@ and @-@ trade with the Orlando Magic . They also traded for Antoine Wright and Marco Belinelli , while Bosh 's former Georgia Tech teammate and then @-@ Indiana point guard Jarrett Jack was also signed as a free agent . Reggie Evans , Amir Johnson , Sonny Weems and former Raptors Rasho Nesterovič and Pops Mensah @-@ Bonsu were acquired in separate transactions to add front court depth . They opened their season with a win against the heavily favored Cleveland Cavaliers , in which Bosh scored 21 points and pulled down 16 rebounds . Bosh went on a tear , averaging 25 @.@ 4 points and 11 @.@ 9 rebounds in the first 16 games , but the Raptors were only able to win seven of those games . In that period , Bosh was also the league leader in rebounds , rebounds per game , free throws made and attempted , and double doubles .
The Raptors crossed into 2010 with a 16 – 17 record , and on January 3 , 2010 , Bosh overtook Vince Carter as Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in total points scored . After pulling together a string of wins , Toronto were .500 after 40 games , and Bosh remained the league leader in double doubles , being only one of two players in the league who averaged at least 20 points and 10 rebounds a game . On January 20 , 2010 , he scored a career @-@ high 44 points in a loss against the Milwaukee Bucks , while collecting his 220th career double double . That same month , Bosh was named a reserve for the Eastern Conference All @-@ Star team , and was Eastern Conference Player of the Week . After the All @-@ Star break , the Raptors went on several losing streaks and injuries to Bosh and Türkoğlu exacerbated the situation . As the regular season came to a close , the Raptors went from being the fifth seed before the All @-@ Star break to fighting for the eighth and final playoff spot with the Chicago Bulls . After recording his 44th double double on March 22 , 2010 , Bosh became the Raptors ' all @-@ time leader in number of double doubles in a season . On April 5 , 2010 , he was named the Eastern Conference Player of the Week , winning the honor for the seventh time in his career ( tying Carter for the most in franchise history ) . However , Bosh was unable to play in a pivotal match against the Bulls on April 11 , 2010 . The blowout loss cost Toronto their tie @-@ breaker and ultimately the eighth seed , as the Bulls finished with 41 wins to Toronto 's 40 .
= = = Miami Heat ( 2010 – present ) = = =
= = = = Joining the Heat = = = =
After the 2009 – 10 season was over , there was much speculation over whether coveted free agents such as LeBron James , Dwyane Wade , and Bosh would sign with new teams for the 2010 – 11 season . Bosh was active on the social media front , posting his thoughts on Twitter and having a documentary crew record his meetings with the teams interested in signing him . On July 10 , 2010 , Bosh officially completed a sign @-@ and @-@ trade deal with the Miami Heat , teaming up with Wade and James . The Raptors received two first @-@ round draft picks in the sign @-@ and @-@ trade , using one to draft Jonas Valančiūnas and trading another to the Chicago Bulls for James Johnson ; the Bulls used that pick to draft Norris Cole . Bosh 's parting message to the Raptors on his website said , " [ K ] now that this was my toughest decision , mostly because Toronto has been so great to me . I 've loved every minute here and I just wanted to thank you from the bottom of my heart ... " Not only did Bosh leave Toronto as its all @-@ time leader in virtually all major statistical categories , he was one of only three players in the league who accrued 10 @,@ 000 points , 4 @,@ 500 rebounds , and 600 blocks in his seven seasons with the Raptors .
= = = = Debut season ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
Despite being widely tipped as contenders , the Heat got off to a tentative 9 – 8 start , and Bosh was perceived to be under @-@ performing . The Heat managed to go on to compile a 21 – 1 record , however , and were jostling with the Boston Celtics and Chicago Bulls for pole position in the Eastern Conference as mid @-@ season approached . Miami finished the regular season with 58 wins and faced Philadelphia in the first round of the playoffs . Miami won the series in five games , and also prevailed in five games in the semi @-@ finals against Boston . In the Conference Finals against Chicago , Bosh was particularly instrumental , averaging 23 @.@ 2 points in the 4 – 1 series win . He was slow off the blocks in the Finals against Dallas , shooting below .300 in the first two games , but scored the winning shot in Game 3 to give Miami a 2 – 1 lead . That was the last game Miami won , as Dallas won the next three to win its first ever championship . Bosh was seen sobbing as he walked to the locker room following the loss .
= = = = Consecutive championships ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
On January 5 , 2012 , Bosh , who was playing and filling in for an injured James and Wade , led the Heat to a 116 – 109 triple overtime win against the Atlanta Hawks , highlighted by a three @-@ point shot he made to force the game into overtime with 0 @.@ 06 seconds left to play in the fourth quarter . Bosh finished the game with 33 points , 14 rebounds , 5 assists , 2 steals , and 2 blocked shots . By season 's end , the Heat had embraced a small ball strategy that featured Bosh at the center position . In the playoffs , Bosh started at center and averaged 14 @.@ 0 points and 7 @.@ 8 rebounds a game . In game 1 of the East Semifinal against the Indiana Pacers , he suffered a lower abdominal strain that forced him to miss the rest of the series and the first four games of the Eastern Conference Finals against Boston . Boston pushed Miami to 7 games , and in the final game Bosh scored 19 points , including 3 of 4 shooting from three point range , to help the Heat advance to their second straight NBA Finals , this time against the Oklahoma City Thunder . The Thunder won the first game of the series before Miami rolled to a 4 @-@ 1 victory , giving Bosh and James their first NBA title . Bosh scored 24 points in the deciding game 5 and averaged 14 @.@ 6 points and 9 @.@ 4 rebounds in the Finals .
Bosh remained the Heat 's starting center during the 2012 – 13 season . On February 15 , 2013 , Bosh was picked as an All @-@ Star starter over the injured Rajon Rondo by coach Erik Spoelstra . The Heat achieved the league 's best record and swept through the first round of the playoffs against the Milwaukee Bucks before defeating the Chicago Bulls in 5 games , with Bosh scoring 20 points to go with 19 rebounds in a crucial game 3 win in Chicago . Bosh averaged 12 @.@ 1 points per game throughout the playoffs as the Heat advanced to the NBA Finals to face the San Antonio Spurs following a grueling seven game series against Indiana .
The Heat and Spurs split the first two games before the Spurs blew out Miami in game 3 to take a 2 @-@ 1 series lead . In game 4 , Bosh scored 20 points and grabbed 13 rebounds to complement Wade 's 32 points and James ' 33 points to bolster the Heat 's win , tying the series . San Antonio would bounce back in game 5 to force the Heat to win the final two games at home . In the final seconds of game 6 , LeBron James missed a three pointer , and Bosh grabbed the offensive rebound and found a wide open Ray Allen in the corner . Allen hit the shot to tie the game , and in overtime the Heat had a three @-@ point lead with seconds left . San Antonio inbounded the ball to Danny Green , who attempted a corner three , but Green 's shot was blocked by Bosh to secure the Heat 's victory . Bosh was held scoreless in Game 7 by Tim Duncan but the Miami Heat still won game 7 and their 2nd consecutive , 3rd overall , NBA Championship .
= = = = Coming up short ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = =
In the 2013 – 14 season , Bosh played and started in 79 games , averaging 16 @.@ 2 points and 6 @.@ 6 rebounds per game . He also hit a career @-@ high 74 three point shots on 33 percent shooting from beyond the arc . In the playoffs Bosh scored 20 points in game 2 of Miami 's first round series against the Charlotte Bobcats and posted 15 points with 11 rebounds against the Brooklyn Nets in the second game of the semifinal series . In game 4 against Brooklyn , Bosh hit a late corner three @-@ pointer to help Miami take a 3 – 1 lead over the Nets , and hit four three @-@ pointers in game 5 as the Heat advanced to play the Pacers for the second year in a row in the Eastern Conference Finals . Against the Pacers , Bosh struggled offensively through the first three games , scoring 9 points in each contest before scoring 25 points on 3 @-@ for @-@ 5 shooting from beyond the three point arc in a game 4 victory . Bosh would follow that up with 20 points and 10 rebounds in game 5 as the Pacers won and forced a sixth game in Miami . In game 6 , Bosh scored 25 points as the Heat advanced to their fourth straight NBA Finals . The Heat would again face the San Antonio Spurs in the 2014 NBA Finals , but Miami lost the series in five games .
= = = = Post Big 3 era ( 2014 – present ) = = = =
On July 30 , 2014 , Bosh re @-@ signed with the Heat after LeBron James announced he was leaving Miami to sign with the Cleveland Cavaliers . After averaging 21 @.@ 6 points , 8 @.@ 2 rebounds , 2 @.@ 1 assists and 1 @.@ 1 steals over the first 23 games of the 2014 – 15 season , Bosh was ruled out indefinitely on December 15 with a strained calf . He went on to miss eight games before returning on December 29 against the Orlando Magic . In just under 33 minutes of action , he recorded 20 points and 8 rebounds in the 101 @-@ 102 loss .
After playing in the 2015 All @-@ Star Game , Bosh was admitted to a Miami hospital for lung tests during the All @-@ Star break . On February 21 , 2015 , he was ruled out for the remainder of the season due to a blood clot on one of his lungs .
On October 28 , 2015 , Bosh made his return to the court in the Heat 's season opener against the Charlotte Hornets , recording 21 points and 10 rebounds in a 104 – 94 win . On November 10 , he scored a then season @-@ high 30 points in a 101 – 88 win over the Los Angeles Lakers . On December 28 , he recorded 24 points and 12 rebounds against the Brooklyn Nets , and hit a career @-@ best 5 @-@ of @-@ 5 from three @-@ point range . On January 4 , he recorded a season @-@ high 31 points and 11 rebounds in a 103 – 100 overtime win over the Indiana Pacers . Though he was voted to play in the 2016 NBA All @-@ Star Game , and selected to compete in the Three @-@ Point Contest , due to a calf injury , Bosh was forced to withdraw from both . A blood clot in his leg again forced Bosh to miss time following the All @-@ Star break . He faced increasing pressure from physicians and the Heat organization to sit out the rest of the season because of the potential dangers of the recurring medical condition .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = National team career = =
Bosh 's national team career began in 2002 when he was selected as a member of the 2002 USA Basketball Junior World Championship Qualifying Team that finished with a 4 – 1 record and the bronze medal .
After his NBA career began , Bosh was named in March 2006 to the 2006 – 2008 United States men 's national basketball team program , and helped lead the team to a 5 – 0 record during its pre @-@ World Championship tour . In August 2006 , Bosh was named as a member of the 2006 USA World Championship Team . Together with fellow 2003 draftees Dwyane Wade , LeBron James , Carmelo Anthony , and Kirk Hinrich , this team competed in the 2006 FIBA World Championship . The team won the bronze medal , defeating former 2004 Olympic champion Argentina . Bosh was ranked sixth in field goal percentage .
Following the 2006 – 07 season , Bosh was named to the team that would compete in the 2007 FIBA Americas Championship . However , he sustained a foot injury and withdrew from the squad . On June 23 , 2008 , he was named to the team that would compete in the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing . During the tournament itself , Bosh operated as the main backup to center Dwight Howard as Team USA went unbeaten in all eight games en route to the gold medal , defeating Spain in the final . He averaged 9 @.@ 1 points per game , and led the team in rebounds with 6 @.@ 1 a game .
On June 29 , 2012 , Bosh called men 's national team coach Mike Krzyzewski and chairman Jerry Colangelo to tell them that he would not participate in the 2012 Olympics in London to recover from a lower abdominal strain that kept him out of some playoff games .
= = Player profile = =
Bosh has traditionally played the power forward position , including during his first season with the Miami Heat , however starting in the 2011 @-@ 2012 season he began to start at center and has played the position during the team 's consecutive championships and most recent run to the Finals in 2014 . Listed at 6 ft 11 in ( 2 @.@ 11 m ) and 235 pounds ( 107 kg ) , Bosh possesses excellent speed , athleticism , and ball handling for a player of his size . He is particularly noted for his ability to drive to the basket and finish strong or get to the free throw line — where he is also proficient — but he is also known for his well @-@ developed jump shot . Indiana Pacers coach Jim O 'Brien once commented on the match @-@ up problems Bosh posed for opposing defenders : " We 've tried over the years to put big guys on him . It doesn 't work . We 've tried to put small guys on him . It doesn 't seem to work either . I don 't know if we have somebody to play Bosh , to tell you the truth . " When he was the centerpiece of the Raptors ' offense , Bosh was often double teamed , and he was noted to unselfishly pass the ball to team mates who were in better shooting positions . He improved his shooting range when he worked on his three point shooting during the summer of 2006 and showed improvement in the 2006 – 07 season . On November 8 , 2006 , against the Philadelphia 76ers , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ point shot with 6 @.@ 1 seconds left . It was reminiscent of the shot that marked his " arrival " to the NBA in his first season , when he hit a game @-@ tying three @-@ pointer against Houston to send the game to overtime . When the 2006 – 07 season concluded , Bosh had shot .343 from the three point arc for the season ; he improved to .400 the following season . Despite his ability to hit three @-@ pointers , it was during his tenure with the Miami Heat that he began to be relied upon as one of the team 's outside shooters , taking multiple three pointers throughout the 2012 championship run , the 2012 @-@ 2013 season and the 2013 title run . During the 2013 @-@ 2014 Bosh shot and made more three pointers than at any point during his career , and continued to make crucial shots during the playoffs . Bosh has stepped up in games whenever Lebron James or Dwyane Wade are out with injury , even gaining a reputation for hitting clutch three pointers during the regular season . Such examples include the January 5th 2012 game tying three pointer against the Hawks in Atlanta with both James and Wade out , and a game winning three pointer on March 31 , 2013 against the Spurs , also without James and Wade . A similar scenario occurred on December 28 , 2013 , as Bosh scored 37 points including a game winning three pointer with 0 @.@ 5 seconds left against the Portland Trail Blazers with James sidelined .
In terms of leadership , Bosh has always led by example . When he was the leader of the Raptors , he was not known for being vocal on the court , preferring to maintain his quiet and humble demeanor but expecting his team mates to match his work ethic . However , Bosh was also known to deliver stern rebukes to team mates who make bad calls on the court . Throughout his career , comparisons have been made between him and Kevin Garnett due to their similar style of play and physique . Whereas the former does not possess the latter 's defensive abilities , Bosh was observed to have adopted a greater defensive dimension to his game after his stint with Team USA at the 2008 Olympics where they won the gold medal .
= = Honors and achievements = =
NBA Eastern Conference Player of the Month : January 2007
9 × NBA Eastern Conference Player of the Week : January 3 , 2005 ; January 30 , 2006 ; March 26 , 2007 ; January 7 , 2008 ; October 28 , 2008 ; February 1 , 2010 ; April 5 , 2010 ; December 23 , 2013 ; October 28 , 2014
NBA Atlantic Division Champion : 2007
4 × NBA Southeast Division Champion : 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014
2 × NBA Champion : 2012 , 2013
11 × NBA All @-@ Star : 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 , 2016
All @-@ NBA Second Team : 2007
NBA All @-@ Rookie Team : 2004
2 × NBA Rookie All @-@ Star Game : 2004 , 2005
Bronze medal winner with Team USA at the 2006 FIBA World Championship
Gold medal winner with Team USA at the 2008 Summer Olympics
= = = Other achievements = = =
Third @-@ youngest player in NBA history to record 1 @,@ 000 rebounds
Fourth @-@ youngest player in NBA history to record 20 points and 20 rebounds in a game
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in minutes played
Toronto 's first player to achieve 10 @,@ 000 points
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in points scored
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in rebounds
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in defensive rebounds
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in offensive rebounds
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in rebounds per game
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in rebounds per game in a season
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in blocks
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in free throws made
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in free throws made in a season
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in free throws attempted
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in free throws attempted in a season
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in double @-@ doubles
Toronto 's all @-@ time leader in double @-@ doubles in a season
NBA Sportsmanship Award ( divisional winner ) : 2007 – 08
= = Off the court = =
Besides his on @-@ the @-@ court exploits , Bosh was a National Honor Society member and graduated with honors from Lincoln . He is also a member of the National Society of Black Engineers and the Dallas Association of Minority Engineers . Following his success in the NBA , Bosh soon had his own YouTube channel , and has since made various TV appearances . In December 2009 , First Ink , a DVD featuring comedic digital shorts and a documentary about Bosh was released . The DVD was filmed during the summer of 2009 . A fan of the X @-@ Men cartoon as a child , Bosh voiced the Marvel character Heimdall in an episode of Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. in 2014 . He has also made appearances of episodes of Entourage and Parks and Recreation .
In the field of philanthropy , Bosh established the Chris Bosh Foundation in 2004 . Remembering the challenges he faced as a youth , Bosh founded the organization to help younger people in academics and athletics . The Foundation , with programs in Toronto and Dallas , has worked closely with organizations such as the Toronto Special Olympics to raise important funding for community projects . Bosh 's mother , Freida , has served as CEO of the Foundation . As an avid reader , Bosh also regularly speaks to groups of children about the benefits of reading , and has received the NBA Community Assist Award for his active contributions for the Raptors community development program in Toronto and Dallas during the course of the NBA campaign . In November 2008 , Bosh pledged to donate $ 75 @,@ 000 to the Boys and Girls Clubs of Canada . He is also an advocate for increased computer literacy in schools , supporting the non @-@ profit code.org.
In July 2011 , Bosh married Adrienne Williams . The couple have four children , three sons and one daughter .
= = = Paternity lawsuit = = =
On March 24 , 2009 , it was reported that Bosh 's former girlfriend , Allison Mathis , was seeking child support and sole custody of their daughter , Trinity ( born November 2 , 2008 ) . Mathis alleged that when she was seven months pregnant , Bosh stopped supporting her financially and tried to remove her from their home . Three days later , it was reported that the dispute was only over the amount Bosh paid . Mathis ' lawyer also told the press , " My client very much wanted this dispute to remain private . Certainly this thing did not get started by anything on our side ... She is very distressed that somehow this thing got into the newspapers . She wants Trinity to have a good relationship with her dad , Chris Bosh , and adverse publicity makes that more difficult . "
= Casting Crowns ( album ) =
Casting Crowns is the first studio album by the American Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman , the album was released on October 30 , 2003 , by Beach Street Records . It incorporates a pop rock and rock sound , with the main instruments used in the album being guitar , keyboard and violin . Casting Crowns received positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praised the album 's lyrics and production quality . It was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 35th GMA Dove Awards , while its singles were nominated for and received various awards .
Preceded by a lead single , " If We Are the Body " , which peaked at number one on the Radio & Records Christian AC and Christian CHR charts in the US , Casting Crowns debuted at number 198 on the Billboard 200 . The album eventually peaked at number 59 on that chart , also peaking at number 2 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and at number 1 on the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart . Two other singles , " Who Am I " and " Voice of Truth " , also went to number 1 . The album ranked as one of the best @-@ selling Christian albums of 2004 and 2005 in the United States and was the 11th best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s in the United States . Casting Crowns ' has sold more than 1 @.@ 9 million copies since its release and has been certified 2 × Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , one of 8 Christian albums to reach that milestone .
= = Background and recording = =
Casting Crowns was formed in 1999 by Mark Hall ( lead vocals ) , Hector Cervantes ( guitar , vocals ) , Juan DeVevo ( guitar , vocals ) , and Melodee DeVevo ( violin , vocals ) as a student worship band . The band is originally from Daytona Beach , Florida but relocated to Eagle 's Landing First Baptist Church in McDonough , Georgia in 2001 , where they recruited Megan Garrett ( piano / vocals ) , Andy Williams ( drums ) , and Chris Huffman ( bass guitar ) as members . One of their independent records was discovered by Mark A. Miller , the lead vocalist for country band Sawyer Brown . Although Casting Crowns had not released their independent records with intentions of receiving a record deal , Miller offered the band the opportunity to become the first artists signed to his record label . The band agreed to join and signed with the as @-@ yet @-@ unnamed record label , an imprint of Provident Label Group , and began work on their debut album . As a group , Casting Crowns was unusual in several ways , such as having seven members , never having toured before , and their producer ( Miller ) having no history in the Christian music industry . However , Christian singer and songwriter Steven Curtis Chapman was brought in to co @-@ produce the album with Miller , giving the project a greater amount of support in the Christian music industry . Terry Hemmings , Provident Label Group CEO / President and a personal friend of Miller , openly predicted success for Casting Crowns and made them one of his top priorities at the label . While most artists in a similar situation would have received nine months for artist development , Hemmings gave the band four months and sped up the album 's release . Casting Crowns was recorded at Glow in the Dark Studio in Decatur , Georgia and Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee . The album was engineered by Matt Goldman and Sam Hewitt .
= = Release and promotion = =
To promote the album prior to its release , lead single " If We Are the Body " was released to Christian AC and Christian CHR radio on July 26 , 2003 . The single was a significant hit at Christian radio stations , peaking at number 1 on the Radio & Records Christian AC and Christian CHR charts and at number 3 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts . Casting Crowns was released on October 7 , 2003 and debuted at number 198 on the Billboard 200 selling 6 @,@ 000 units ; it also debuted at number 11 on the Christian Albums chart and number 9 on the Heatseekers Albums chart . By March 2004 , the album had sold 168 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , in large part due to the success of " If We Are the Body " . For the chart week of March 6 , 2004 , Casting Crowns reached its peak position of number 2 on the Christian Albums chart . The following week , the album reached the number 1 position on the Heatseekers Albums chart . " Who Am I " , the album 's 2nd single , was released on February 22 , 2004 to Christian AC , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational radio . The song topped the Radio & Records Christian AC , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational charts as well as the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts . In May 2004 the album reached its peak position of number 59 on the Billboard 200 . " American Dream " was serviced to Christian Rock radio on June 24 , 2004 while " Voice of Truth " , the album 's 3rd single , was released to Christian AC , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational radio on September 18 , 2004 . " Voice of Truth " peaked atop the Radio & Records Christian AC and Soft AC / Inspirational charts as well as the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
By the end of 2004 , Casting Crowns had sold over 710 @,@ 000 copies . It ranked as the 2nd best @-@ selling Christian album and the 126th best @-@ selling album of 2004 in the United States . Casting Crowns ranked as the 5th best @-@ selling Christian album and the 179th best @-@ selling album of 2005 in
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004 – 08 before it was downgraded to an ATP 500 tournament .
a Of the seven they failed to win , they 've occupied the runner @-@ up spots on three occasions .
= = = = Combined Masters performance timeline ( best result ) = = = =
1Held as Hamburg Masters until 2008 , Madrid Masters ( clay ) 2009 – present.2Held as Stuttgart Masters until 2001 , Madrid Masters ( hardcourt ) from 2002 – 08 , and Shanghai Masters 2009 – present .
= = = = Big Four Masters 1000 finals : 43 = = = =
= = = Davis Cup = = =
= = = = Combined Davis Cup performance timeline ( best result ) = = = =
= = = Top @-@ Level tournament records = = =
The four Grand Slam tournaments , the ATP World Tour Finals , nine ATP Masters 1000s and the Summer Olympics , make up the 15 most coveted top @-@ level tournaments in men 's tennis . Although no player has won each of these 15 events in men 's singles , this feat has been achieved in men 's doubles by Canada 's Daniel Nestor and the United States ' Bryan Brothers , Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan . Djokovic matches the result in men 's singles of Andre Agassi , who ended his career having won 13 of these 15 events , achieving a Career Grand Slam ( winning all four Majors in a career ) , a Career Golden Slam ( winning all four Majors and the Olympic singles gold medal in a career ) , and what Sports Illustrated called a Career Super Slam ( winning all four Majors , the Olympic singles gold medal , and the ATP World Tour Finals ) .
Federer and Nadal are one behind Djokovic , and within three of matching this feat of winning all 15 . Nadal has also achieved a Career Grand Slam and a Career Golden Slam , but has thus far fallen short of winning the Tour Finals , and the Miami Open and Paris Masters . Federer has also achieved a Career Grand Slam , but is missing the Olympic Gold in singles , and the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters and Italian Open . Djokovic , as the only man to have won eight of the nine Masters events , is just a Cincinnati title away from achieving what has been labelled the Career Golden Masters , as well as needing the Olympic Gold to complete his overall tally . Murray , for his part , is still only about two @-@ thirds of the way to the goal having won 9 of the 15 events .
This table is current through the 2016 Wimbledon .
1Held as Hamburg Masters until 2008 , Madrid Masters ( clay ) 2009 – present.2Held as Stuttgart Masters until 2001 , Madrid Masters ( hardcourt ) from 2002 – 08 , and Shanghai Masters 2009 – present . * Denotes all @-@ time tournament record .
= = = Top Tier tournament standings since 1990 = = =
The biggest tournaments since the reformation of the ATP World Tour in 1990 are the Grand Slams , ATP Masters 1000 tournaments , WTF / YEC and the Olympics . Federer , Nadal and Djokovic are the only players to have won 40 + tier 1 tournaments . They are the only players to achieve this feat .
= = = Big Four vs the rest of the field = = =
To date the Big Four have collectively won 46 Major titles ( with Federer a record 17 , Nadal 14 , Djokovic 12 , and Murray 3 ) . The only other active players who have a Major title to their name are Juan Martin del Potro ( 2009 US Open ) , Stan Wawrinka ( 2014 Australian Open , 2015 French Open ) and Marin Čilić ( 2014 US Open ) . Starting with the 2005 Wimbledon Championships , their combined record at Grand Slam tournaments against everyone else is 707 @-@ 62 . Moreover , only six times has a player outside the group beaten two of them in the same tournament ( Safin at the 2005 Australian Open , Tsonga at the 2008 Australian Open , del Potro at the 2009 US Open , Berdych at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships and Wawrinka at the 2014 Australian Open and the 2015 French Open ) . Stan Wawrinka , Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga and Tomáš Berdych are the only players to have beaten each member of the Big Four at a Grand Slam event .
Wins over each member of the Big Four at a Grand Slam event
Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga ( def . Murray and Nadal at the 2008 Australian Open , Djokovic at the 2010 Australian Open , and Federer at the 2011 Wimbledon Championships and at the 2013 French Open )
Tomas Berdych ( def . Murray at the 2010 French Open , Federer at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships and at the 2012 US Open , Djokovic at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships , and Nadal at the 2015 Australian Open )
Stan Wawrinka ( def . Murray at the 2010 and 2013 US Open , Djokovic and Nadal at the 2014 Australian Open , and Federer and Djokovic at the 2015 French Open )
Wins over three members of the Big Four at a Grand Slam event
Andy Roddick ( def . Nadal at the 2004 US Open , Djokovic at the 2009 Australian Open , and Murray at the 2009 Wimbledon Championships )
Fernando Verdasco ( def . Djokovic at the 2005 US Open , Murray at the 2009 Australian Open and Nadal at the 2016 Australian Open )
Wins over two members of the Big Four at a Grand Slam event
Arnaud Clément ( def . Federer at the 2000 Australian Open and the 2001 Australian Open , and Murray at the 2005 US Open )
Tommy Haas ( def . Federer at the 2002 Australian Open and Djokovic at the 2009 Wimbledon Championships )
Mario Ančić ( def . Federer at the 2002 Wimbledon Championships and Djokovic at the 2006 Wimbledon Championships )
David Nalbandian ( def . Federer at the 2003 Australian Open and at the 2003 US Open and Murray at the 2005 Wimbledon Championships )
Lleyton Hewitt ( def . Nadal at the 2004 Australian Open and at the 2005 Australian Open , and Djokovic at the 2006 US Open )
Marat Safin ( def . Djokovic at the 2005 Australian Open and at the 2008 Wimbledon Championships , and Federer at the 2005 Australian Open )
David Ferrer ( def . Nadal at the 2007 US Open and the 2011 Australian Open , and Murray at the 2012 French Open )
Robin Söderling ( def . Nadal at the 2009 French Open , and Federer at the 2010 French Open )
Marin Čilić ( def . Murray at the 2009 US Open , and Federer at the 2014 US Open )
Juan Martín del Potro ( def . Nadal and Federer at the 2009 US Open )
Only four players have defeated 3 of the Big Four at the same tournament . Two of these players are members of the Big Four : Nadal who defeated Murray in the round of 16 , Djokovic in the semi @-@ finals , and Federer in the final to win the 2008 Hamburg Masters ; and Federer who defeated Murray in the round robin round , Djokovic in the semi @-@ finals , and Nadal in the finals to win the 2010 ATP World Tour Finals . The only two other players to have achieved this trifecta are :
David Nalbandian ( def . Nadal in the quarter @-@ finals , Djokovic in the semi @-@ finals , and Federer in the finals to win the 2007 Madrid Masters )
Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga ( def . Djokovic in the round of 16 , Murray in the quarterfinals , and Federer in the finals to win the 2014 Canada Masters )
The Big Four have played in 99 tournaments where all four have competed . Collectively they have won 87 of these 99 tournaments ( 88 % ) . Of the 12 tournaments they failed to win , they were runner @-@ up in 6 of them , and 5 of these 12 tournaments occurred prior to them first being seeded as the Top 4 players ( post @-@ US Open 2008 ) . Since this time in 2008 , the Big Four have won 58 of 65 tournaments ( 89 % ) . And starting with the 2010 Rome Masters , they had won 31 consecutive tournaments where all four were present , until the 2014 Australian Open .
Only seven players have managed to win a tournament where all four of the Big Four have competed :
Andy Roddick ( 2006 Cincinnati Masters , 2008 Dubai Tennis Championships , 2010 Miami Masters )
David Nalbandian ( 2007 Madrid Masters , 2007 Paris Masters )
Nikolay Davydenko ( 2008 Miami Masters , 2009 ATP World Tour Finals )
Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga ( 2008 Paris Masters )
Juan Martin del Potro ( 2009 US Open )
Ivan Ljubičić ( 2010 Indian Wells Masters )
Stan Wawrinka ( 2014 Australian Open , 2015 French Open )
The Big Four 's dominance ratio is also high when only three of the Big Four have competed in the same tournament . Of the 48 events where this has occurred , they have won 42 of them ( 88 % ) . Since 2008 , they have won 31 of 36 tournaments ( 86 % ) .
Only six players have managed to win a tournament where three of the Big Four have competed :
Marat Safin ( 2005 Australian Open )
Sam Querrey ( 2010 Queen 's Club Championships )
Robin Söderling ( 2010 Paris Masters )
Stan Wawrinka ( 2014 Monte @-@ Carlo Rolex Masters )
Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga ( 2014 Canada Masters )
Marin Čilić ( 2014 US Open )
The Big Four 's dominance record diminishes when only two of them have competed in an event , but overall they still have a 70 % success rate , winning 44 of the 63 tournaments in this category , and a success rate of 81 % , winning 26 of 32 tournaments , since 2008 .
As for tournaments where only one of the Big Four has competed , this is the only category where the rest of the field has a positive ratio , winning 186 of the 262 tournaments ( 71 % ) played overall . However , it must be noted that this includes many tournaments played early on in each of the Big Four 's careers when they were still unseeded or seeded in double digits . Since their debut as the Top 4 seeds in late 2008 , the Big Four have won 31 of the 60 tournaments ( 52 % ) where just one of them has competed .
Only 14 players have recorded at least one victory over each member of the Big Four . Of these players , eight have recorded ten or more victories in total , one has a positive record against two members ( both are 2 – 1 win @-@ loss records ) , and none have a positive record against all four combined .
Top @-@ Level tournament records 2005 – present
Big Four
Majors : 14 Nadal , 13 Federer , 12 Djokovic , 3 Murray
Masters 1000 : 29 Djokovic , 28 Nadal , 20 Federer , 12 Murray
Tour Finals : 5 Djokovic , 4 Federer
Olympic Games : 1 Nadal , 1 Murray
Overall : 47 Djokovic , 43 Nadal , 37 Federer , 16 Murray
Rest of the field
Majors : 2 Wawrinka , 1 Safin , 1 del Potro , 1 Čilić ,
Masters 1000 : 3 Davydenko , 2 Nalbandian , 2 Roddick , 2 Tsonga , 1 Berdych , 1 Robredo , 1 Ljubičić , 1 Söderling , 1 Ferrer , 1 Wawrinka
Tour Finals : 1 Nalbandian , 1 Davydenko
Overall : 4 Davydenko , 3 Nalbandian , 3 Wawrinka , 2 Roddick , 2 Tsonga , 1 Safin , 1 del Potro , 1 Čilić , 1 Berdych , 1 Robredo , 1 Ljubičić , 1 Söderling , 1 Ferrer
= = = Tournament titles 2009 – 2013 = = =
a del Potro won the 2009 US Open .
b Davydenko won the 2009 Shanghai Masters , Ljubičić won the 2010 Indian Wells , Roddick won the 2010 Miami Masters , Söderling won the 2010 Paris Masters , and Ferrer won the 2012 Paris Masters .
c Davydenko won the 2009 ATP World Tour Finals .
d Federer won silver at the 2012 Summer Olympics
e Söderling won the 2010 & 2011 Rotterdam Open , Ferrer won the 2010 Valencia Open , Nishikori won the 2012 Japan Open , Tokyo , del Potro won the 2012 Swiss Indoors , Basel , 2013 Rotterdam Open & 2013 Swiss Indoors , Basel , and Fognini won the 2013 German Open , Hamburg .
f Represents ATP 500 / 250 Series tournaments the Big Four have competed in only , as opposed to every ATP 500 / 250 on the ATP World Tour in general .
= = = Tournament titles overall = = =
This table is current through the 2016 Wimbledon Championships .
= = = Grand Slam tournament performance comparison = = =
Before 2005 , Murray and Djokovic had not competed in a Grand Slam tournament . Nadal had made four appearances during 2003 and 2004 , reaching the third round at 2003 Wimbledon and 2004 Australian Open . Federer had been competing in Grand Slam tournaments since 1999 , and had won Wimbledon in 2003 and 2004 , as well as the 2004 Australian Open and 2004 US Open .
= = = = 2005 – 2010 = = = =
= = = = 2011 – present = = = =
D indicates the player met Novak Djokovic at that tournament.F indicates the player met Roger Federer at that tournament.M indicates the player met Andy Murray at that tournament.N indicates the player met Rafael Nadal at that tournament .
During the era of ' Dominance ' , the four players all met in the semis just four times in six years : US2008 , RG2011 , US2011 and AO2012 ( out of a draw @-@ technically possible 16 ) .
= = = Rankings = = =
Between 8 September 2008 and 28 January 2013 , the top four positions in the ATP Rankings were occupied by all members of the Big Four for all but 16 weeks . Roger Federer , Rafael Nadal , and Novak Djokovic were consistently in the top four for this period of time , with Andy Murray dropping to # 5 during all 16 of those weeks . The only two other players who entered the top four in this period wereJuan Martin del Potro ( 3 weeks ) and Robin Söderling ( 13 weeks ) . This run was ended when David Ferrer replaced Nadal in the top 4 following a period of injury for Nadal , and retained his place in the top 4 for much of 2013 as Roger Federer dropped down the rankings .
In this same period , Roger Federer , Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic all occupied the number one spot , with Murray reaching a career high of world No. 2 between 17 – 31 August in 2009 . Federer first achieved the feat in 2004 after winning his first Australian Open , whereas Nadal did in 2008 following his Olympics victory after three straight years of ending the year ranked world No. 2 , behind Federer . Similarly , Djokovic achieved world No. 1 status following his Wimbledon victory in 2011 , after four consecutive years at No. 3 , in a season which is regarded as one of the greatest in the history of the sport . He held his spot at the top of the rankings for exactly a year before being surpassed by Roger Federer in June 2012 after he won his 7th Wimbledon title , and by doing so , equalled Pete Sampras 's record of 7 Wimbledon titles and also surpassed his record of total weeks at world No. 1 , extending his stay to a total of 302 weeks before Djokovic retained his ranking at the season 's end after winning the 2012 ATP World Tour Finals and then solidified his position by retaining his Australian Open title , winning it for a record @-@ tying fourth time .
As of 11 July 2016 , between them , they have held :
The first two places in the ATP Rankings continuously since 25 July 2005 ( exclusively by Federer and Nadal from July 2005 to August 2009 ) .
The first three places in the ATP Rankings continuously from 13 August 2007 – 7 July 2013 .
The top four places in the ATP Rankings for all but 16 weeks from 8 September 2008 – 28 January 2013 .
They currently hold the top four places in the ATP Rankings .
= = = = ATP Year @-@ end ranking timeline by year = = = =
= = = = ATP Year @-@ end ranking timeline by age at end of season = = = =
= = = = Current ATP rankings = = = =
As of 11 July 2016 .
= = = Career Grand Slam tournament 1st seedings = = =
Federer has been seeded 1st in 23 Grand Slam tournaments , has won 17 titles
Nadal has been seeded 1st in 10 Grand Slam tournaments , has won 14 titles
Djokovic has been seeded 1st in 17 Grand Slam tournaments , has won 12 titles
Murray has been seeded 1st in 0 Grand Slam tournaments , has won 3 titles
= = = Main international tennis and sports awards = = =
1Award shown in year that was honored , not year the award was presented .
= = Combined achievements = =
= = = All four = = =
Won 42 of 46 last Grand Slam events ( as of the 2016 Wimbledon Championships ) , this is 91 % of majors won since 2005 .
Represented in the final of 45 of 46 last Grand Slam events ( as of 2016 Wimbledon ) .
Won every Wimbledon since 2003 ( 14 titles ) , furthermore 8 out of the last 11 Wimbledon finals have been contested by 2 of the Big 4 . No other grand slam tournament has been dominated by four players for 14 straight years in pre open era and in the open era ( 2003 @-@ 2016 ) . During this period Federer has won an open era record 7 titles , Djokovic with 3 and Nadal and Murray with 2 apiece .
Won 9 out of the last 11 US Opens , ( Represented in 10 Finals of which 6 were contested by 2 of the big 4 )
7 of the last 8 Australian Open finals have been contested by the 2 of the big four .
29 Grand Slam tournament finals featured two from the Big Four , the most of any four players .
Occupied at least 7 out of 8 Grand Slam finalist slots in 6 seasons ( 2007 , 2008 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 and 2015 ) , including 20 out of 20 from the 2010 US Open until the 2013 French Open .
Each has reached the final of at least one Grand Slam at least 5 times .
Each has reached the final of every Grand Slam tournament .
Each has won Wimbledon at least twice .
Occupied all four semi @-@ final slots on 4 Grand Slam occasions ( 2008 US Open , 2011 French Open , 2011 US Open and 2012 Australian Open ) .
Occupied the world number 1 and 2 rankings since July 2005 .
Each won one Olympic medal in singles .
Won 42 of the last 45 Masters 1000 tournaments . ( Represented in 44 finals )
Won 70 of the last 81 Masters 1000 tournaments . ( Represented in 74 finals )
Won every Grand Slam tournament , Masters 1000 tournaments and the ATP World Tour Finals in 2011
Occupied top four places in the rankings for 5 years , all consecutive . ( 2008 – 2012 )
Won BBC Sports Personality ( or Overseas Personality ) of the year and ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year .
Reached 11 + consecutive Grand Slam tournament quarterfinals .
The only four players to have reached the semi @-@ finals or better at all nine Masters series events at least once .
Were ranked in the year @-@ end top 6 every year at age 21 and up ( as of year @-@ end ranking 2015 ) .
Each won the Davis Cup at least once .
= = = Three of the four = = =
= = = = Djokovic , Federer and Nadal = = = =
Won 39 of the last 45 Majors which is 87 % of majors won since 2005 .
Won 29 out of 30 Grand Slam events from the 2005 French Open up to and including Wimbledon 2012 which is 97 % of majors won .
Represented in 42 of the last 43 Major finals .
Won 9 of the last 10 Australian Open titles . ( Represented in all 10 finals ) .
Only three players in history to play 20 or more Major finals .
Each has reached the final of every Grand Slam tournament at least three times and consecutively at least once .
Consecutively held the world No. 1 ranking since February 2004 .
Occupied the top 3 places in the rankings for 6 years , 5 consecutively ( 2007 – 2011 , 2014 ) .
Each has won 3 of the 4 Grand Slam events in a season . Federer in 2004 , 2006 , and 2007 , Nadal in 2010 , and Djokovic in 2011 and 2015 .
Each has won at least one Major 3 or more times consecutively .
Each has won at least one Major 6 + times .
Each has won 11 + titles in a season .
Each has won at least 10 Grand Slam titles and are in the top five in the open era - Federer has won 17 ( the all @-@ time record ) , Nadal has won 14 ( tied second with Sampras ) and Djokovic has won 12 .
Set or tied the Open Era record for most titles won in all four four Grand Slam events - Djokovic with 6 Australian open titles , Federer with 7 Wimbledon titles ( tied ) and 5 US Open titles ( tied ) and Nadal with 9 French Open titles .
Each has won the Career Grand Slam ( Winning all four major tournaments at least once ) . From 2009 - 2016 , all three won all four major titles .
All won ATP Player of the Year , ITF Men 's Singles Champion , Laureus World Sports Award for Sportsman of the Year and ESPY Award for Best Male Tennis player .
Each has 80 % + win percentage at all 4 Grand Slam tournaments .
Each have won at least 200 Grand Slam matches each .
Each has the highest win percentage on clay ( Nadal ) , grass ( Federer ) and hard ( Djokovic ) courts in the Open Era .
Won 8 out of 9 Masters 1000 tournaments in 2012 .
Won 7 out of 9 Masters 1000 tournaments in 2007 and 2014 and were represented in every final both years .
Each is placed in the top three in terms of the number of titles won in Masters 1000 tournaments . Djokovic and Nadal are ranked first with 28 titles , Federer is ranked third with 24 titles in the open era .
Each has defeated the other two in at least one Grand Slam tournament final .
Each has reached the final of all 9 Masters 1000 tournaments .
Top three prize money leaders of all time .
Hold the top 10 spots for prize money earned in a season ( unadjusted for inflation ) .
Hold the top three winning top 10 ranked opponents , leaders of all time .
Hold the top 11 spots for winning top 10 ranked opponents wins in single season .
Top three earliest to clinch year @-@ end No. 1 leaders since the ATP Rankings started in 1973 .
Federer , Djokovic and Nadal have all held the Year End Number 1 ranking since 2004 until present , they have held the number 1 ranking for 12 straight years . No other three players have held the year end number 1 ranking for 10 straight years plus .
= = = = Djokovic , Murray and Nadal = = = =
Won every Grand Slam tournament , Masters 1000 tournament and the ATP World Tour Finals in 2013 .
Won a combined 12 consecutive Rome Masters titles since 2005 . During this period Nadal has won 7 , Djokovic 4 and Murray 1 .
= = = = Djokovic , Federer and Murray = = = =
Won every Masters 1000 tournament and ATP World Tour Finals in 2015 .
= = = Two of the four = = =
Federer and Nadal won 10 consecutive French Opens from 2005 to 2014 .
Federer and Nadal have won at least one Major 5 times consecutively .
Federer and Nadal also have the longest winning streaks on each of the surfaces . Nadal compiled an 81 @-@ match winning streak on clay , while Federer compiled a 65 @-@ match winning streak on grass and a 56 @-@ match winning streak on hard courts . Furthermore , Nadal ended Federer 's streaks on grass and hard courts and Federer ended Nadal 's streak on clay courts .
Djokovic and Federer have won 11 of the last 13 ATP World Tour Finals .
Djokovic and Nadal won all 9 Masters 1000 tournaments consecutively from the 2013 Monte @-@ Carlo Masters to the 2014 Miami Masters .
Murray and Nadal have won Gold in Singles at the last two Olympic Games .
Murray and Nadal were represented in 18 consecutive Major Finals from the 2010 Australian Open until the 2014 French Open , although they are yet to play each other in a Major final .
Djokovic and Federer have had streaks of 14 or more Major semi @-@ finals .
Djokovic and Federer have had streaks of 28 and 36 consecutive quarterfinals appearances in the majors .
The 2010 French Open is the only Grand Slam tournament since Wimbledon 2004 not to feature either Djokovic or Federer in the semi @-@ finals .
= = Legacy and recognition = =
= = = Current and former professionals = = =
Fellow top players , including David Ferrer , Tomas Berdych , Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga and Andy Roddick have all spoken about the dominance of the Big Four and the challenge they face in matching them . While the question of breaking through the dominance of the Big Four is a constant question the rest of the tour are constantly asked , many former top professionals have also spoken about the topic , including Björn Borg , Andre Agassi , Pete Sampras and Goran Ivanisevic . At the 2011 Wimbledon Championships , 11 @-@ time Major champion Björn Borg was quoted as saying :
= = = Media = = =
Since 2010 , when the Big Four increasingly began to dominate the tour as a group , most articles and reports concentrate solely on the members of the Big Four and their chances in upcoming tournaments or how the previous one has affected them , with smaller sections on the rest of the players .
= = = Wider impact on the sport = = =
For the most part , the presence of the Big Four is generally seen to have had a positive impact on tennis , making the sport more exciting and in turn attracting more attention . However , with all four members being from European countries , this may have had a potentially negative effect on interest in North America . It has also argued the dominance of the Big Four has made the game predictable or even boring .
= = = Murray 's position = = =
Some tennis commentators , including Murray himself , have spoken of a " Big Three " or " Trivalry " , with Murray behind the other three players . Between September 2008 and January 2013 , Murray was the only one of the Big Four to have dropped outside of the top four rankings on the ATP Tour and is the only one never to have been ranked world number one . Also , he has an overall record of 28 @-@ 54 versus the Big Three . However , Murray has a total of twelve Masters 1000 titles , eleven career Major finals , including victories at the 2012 US Open and 2013 Wimbledon ( defeating Djokovic in both finals ) and 2016 Wimbledon ( defeating Raonic in final ) , won the 2012 Olympic Games , made 27 Major quarter @-@ finals and 20 semi @-@ finals , and has been ranked world No. 2 a total of 45 weeks dating back to 17 August 2009 . This has led to him being reported as " definitely part of the Big Four " since 2010 .
However , after losing his Wimbledon title defence to Grigor Dimitrov in the 2014 quarter @-@ finals , Murray dropped to No. 10 in the world rankings , making this the first time in six years that he had been ranked this low . This was the culmination of a poor twelve months in which he failed to reach a final , or register a top ten victory , following his Wimbledon triumph in 2013 , after recovering from major back surgery at the end of 2013 . Following a strong end to the 2014 season , Murray finally ranked back in the top four in February 2015 along with the rest of the Big Four for the first time since the start of 2013 , slowing the idea of the regression of the quartet .
Meanwhile , Roger Federer , by reaching the final , which he lost to Novak Djokovic , returned to number three in the world rankings , marking this the first time in two years that the top three places on the ATP World Rankings were all occupied by Djokovic , Nadal and Federer simultaneously .
= = = " Big Five " proposals = = =
Popular propositions have claimed that tennis has a " Big Five " , with either Juan Martín del Potro , Marin Čilić or Stanislas Wawrinka expanding the Big Four . The most accepted theory centres around Wawrinka , since he has won two Grand Slam championships . As of July 11 , 2016 , he has won more Grand Slam singles titles than any active player outside the Big Four since September 3 , 2006 , when Andre Agassi retired ( and has won as many Grand Slams as Lleyton Hewitt , who retired on July 4 , 2016 ) . From Roland Garros 2015 until Wimbledon 2016 , Wawrinka also had as many Grand Slam titles to his name as Andy Murray .
A testament to Stan Wawrinka 's suggested Big Five status is the fact that he is one of only three players outside the Big Four to have won a Grand Slam event between the 2005 Australian Open and 2016 Wimbledon . He is also one of only three players to have beaten each of the Big Four at Grand Slam level . Furthermore he defeated the world # 1 and world # 2 at each of his two grand slam titles . At the 2014 Australian Open , he beat world # 2 Djokovic 9 @-@ 7 in the fifth set of the quarter @-@ finals and then triumphed over world # 1 Nadal in 4 sets in the final . Then at the 2015 French Open , he defeated world # 2 Federer in straight sets during the quarter @-@ finals before prevailing against world # 1 Djokovic in the final after losing the first set . By virtue of this win over Djokovic , Wawrinka handed him his only loss in a Grand Slam in 2015 and it also thwarted Djokovic 's chances to complete the career grand slam .
Although the Big Four is often compared to successful tennis quartets of the past , some proponents of the Big Five concept have suggested that the dominant quartets in question were really quintets . For example , when considering the era of Borg , Connors , McEnroe and Lendl , Guillermo Vilas also springs to mind . Similarly , Mats Wilander was an integral part of the era that comprised Sampras , Edberg , Becker and Agassi . In like manner , such pundits argue , Stanislas Wawrinka is a quintessential player of the Big Four 's generation .
At the 2016 Australian Open , during Stanislas Wawrinka 's fourth round matchup with Milos Raonic , local commentator Bruce McAvaney made the comment : " I suppose it 's a big five , with Stan having the two Slams . " Ahead of the semifinal encounter between Murray and Wawrinka at the 2016 French Open however , Wawrinka dismissed the idea of a Big Five , describing Murray as " well ahead " of him :
= = = Golden era = = =
Some , including Steffi Graf and John McEnroe , believe the presence of the Big Four has coincided with that of a new " Golden Era " in men 's tennis since 2010 , wherein depth , athleticism and quality have never been better . The era has been compared to that of Rod Laver , Ken Rosewall , Roy Emerson and John Newcombe throughout the 1960s and that of Björn Borg , Jimmy Connors , John McEnroe and Ivan Lendl during the late 1970s and early 1980s .
While Novak Djokovic himself recognises it as a golden era , Roger Federer remains skeptical :
A comparison of the total top @-@ level singles titles won by this current Big Four and other previous dominant quartets helps to put things in perspective . As the table below shows , the Big Four 's career tallies of Grand Slam tournament titles , Masters Series titles , and overall titles have already surpassed the other three quartets . They have also matched the top Year End Tour Finals tally .
Note 1
An observation to make is that both Laver and Rosewall were banned from competing in Grand Slam tournaments during most of the 1960s.To quote Malcolm Knox a sports columnist " If grand slams are taken as the benchmark , consider this . The pro tour put Laver out of 20 grand slams from age 23 to 28 in his prime " . and instead competed in Professional Slam tournaments . The draw of the Pro majors was significantly smaller than the traditional tournaments of Grand Slam events ; usually they only had 16 or even less professional players . Though they were usually the top 16 ranked players in the world at the time .
Note 2
The focus of the article is on singles achievements and excludes notable doubles and mixed doubles titles across all six selection criteria won by previous big four candidates . If you take all results into consideration , then the following grouping of Laver / Rosewall / Emerson / Newcombe would add another 57 combined titles making their figure 133 titles overall , if we take the Borg / Connors / Lendl / McEnroe group a further 40 combined titles would make their tally 168 titles overall , and the grouping of Edberg / Agassi / Sampras / Becker would include 12 additional doubles titles bringing their total to 105 titles overall . Roger Federer 's own comments above reflect these facts in defining a new Golden period of tennis , " But then again we don 't play doubles . We don 't play mixed " , " but we have somewhat of a golden era right now " , however Nadal has won 3 Masters 1000 doubles titles , and Federer has won 1 Masters 1000 doubles title and an Olympic gold medal in doubles , which would therefore add 5 more titles to the Big Four 's Top @-@ Level tournament tally , bringing it to 157 titles overall .
Note 3
Other notable big fours by previous decades achievements below ( excluding year end and Masters Series performances , as they did not exist ) .
1920s Henri Cochet , René Lacoste , Jean Borotra and Bill Tilden ( 62 Slams ) .
1930s Fred Perry , Jack Crawford , Don Budge and Ellsworth Vines ( 63 Slams ) .
1940s Bobby Riggs , Jack Kramer , Frank Parker and John Bromwich ( 47 Slams ) .
1950s Pancho Gonzales , Frank Sedgman , Tony Trabert and Lew Hoad ( 67 Slams ) .
Another way to view a comparison of current Big Four and other previous dominant quartets .
= = = Prize money = = =
Djokovic , Federer , Nadal , and Murray make up the top four prize money leaders of all time ( not adjusted for inflation ) .
= = Rivalries = =
The respective rivalries between the Big Four are considered to be some of the greatest of all time . Between the four of them they have played 190 matches against each other , 55 of which were at Grand Slam events . This includes 28 Grand Slam tournament finals , as well as 25 Grand Slam semifinal meetings , more than any other group of four players . Currently , Djokovic leads the head @-@ to @-@ head record against all members of the Big Four .
= = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records = = =
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records on hard = = = =
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records on clay = = = =
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records on grass = = = =
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records at Majors = = = =
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records at Masters 1000 = = = =
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records at ATP World Tour Finals = = = =
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records at finals = = = =
* Including walkover or abandoned match ( not counted in H2H , same as in the official ATP H2H )
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records at Majors finals = = = =
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records at Masters 1000 finals = = = =
= = = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records at ATP World Tour Finals finals = = = =
Of the 60 Grand Slam tournament matches that the Big Four have played thus far , 42 of them have been en route to winning the title for one of the Big Four .
Nadal has had to defeat one of the other three members 19 times in order to win his 14 titles . This includes 8 wins over Djokovic ( 4 finals , 3 semifinals , 1 quarterfinal ) , 7 wins over Federer ( 6 finals , 1 semifinal ) , and 4 wins over Murray ( 3 semifinals , 1 quarterfinal ) . Furthermore , in order to win 6 of his 14 titles , he has had to defeat two of the Big Four in the same tournament . On 3 occasions he has had to defeat Federer and Djokovic , on 2 occasions he has had to defeat Federer and Murray , and on 1 occasion he has had to defeat Djokovic and Murray .
Djokovic has had to defeat one of the other three members 15 times in order to win his 11 titles . This includes 7 wins over Federer ( 3 finals , 4 semifinals ) , 5 wins over Murray ( 4 finals , 1 semifinal ) , and 3 wins over Nadal ( 3 finals ) . Furthermore , in order to win 4 of his 11 titles , he has had to defeat two of the Big Four in the same tournament . On 2 occasions he has had to defeat Federer and Murray , on 1 occasion he has had to defeat Nadal and Federer , and on 1 occasion he has had to defeat Nadal and Murray .
Federer has had to defeat one of the other three members 9 times in order to win his 17 titles . This includes 4 wins over Djokovic ( 1 final , 2 semifinals , 1 round of 16 ) , 3 wins over Murray ( 3 finals ) , and 2 wins over Nadal ( 2 finals ) . Furthermore , in order to win 2 of his 17 titles , he has had to defeat two of the Big Four in the same tournament . On both of these occasions he had to defeat Djokovic and Murray .
Murray has had to defeat one of the other three members 2 times in order to win his 3 titles . On both of these occasions he defeated Djokovic in the final .
= = = Federer vs. Nadal = = =
Federer and Nadal have been playing each other since 2004 and their rivalry is a significant part of both men 's careers . It is also considered one of the greatest in history . They have played 34 times ( seventh @-@ highest in Open Era history ) , most recently in the 2015 Basel final , and Nadal leads their eleven @-@ year @-@ old rivalry 23 – 11 .
They held the top two rankings on the ATP Tour from July 2005 until 14 September 2009 , when Nadal fell to world No. 3 ( Andy Murray became the new No. 2 ) . They are the only pair of men to have ever finished four consecutive calendar years at the top , eventually with 6 years from 2005 to 2010 . Federer was ranked no . 1 for a record 237 consecutive weeks beginning in February 2004 . Nadal , who is five years younger , ascended to No. 2 in July 2005 and held this spot for a record 160 consecutive weeks before surpassing Federer in August 2008 .
Nadal leads their head @-@ to @-@ head 23 – 11 . Fifteen of their 34 matches have been on clay which is statistically Nadal 's best surface and Federer 's worst with 13 being in the final . Nadal has a winning record on outdoor hard courts ( 7 – 2 ) and clay ( 13 – 2 ) , while Federer leads on grass ( 2 – 1 ) and indoor hard courts ( 5 – 1 ) . Because tournament seedings are based on rankings , 21 of their matches have been in tournament finals which have included an all @-@ time record 8 Grand Slam tournament finals . From 2006 to 2008 they played in every French Open and Wimbledon final . Nadal won six of the eight , losing the first two Wimbledon finals . Three of these finals were five set @-@ matches ( 2007 and 2008 Wimbledon , 2009 Australian Open ) , with the 2008 Wimbledon final being lauded as the greatest match ever by many long @-@ time tennis analysts . 11 of their 32 meetings have reached a deciding set . They have also played in 10 Masters Series finals , including their lone five @-@ hour match at the 2006 Rome Masters which Nadal won in a fifth @-@ set tie @-@ break having saved two match points and at the 2005 Miami Masters where Federer came back from 2 sets down to win in nearly 4 hours . They also contested the final of the ATP World Tour Finals in 2010 with Federer winning in 3 sets .
= = = Djokovic vs. Nadal = = =
Djokovic and Nadal have the most head @-@ to @-@ head meetings in Open Era history with 49 meetings , which Djokovic leads 26 – 23 . Nadal leads on grass 2 – 1 and clay 14 – 7 , but Djokovic leads on hard courts 18 – 7 . They have met 13 times in Grand Slam tournaments with Nadal leading 9 – 4 , and 4 – 3 in finals . The rivalry is listed as the third greatest rivalry in the 2000s decade by ATPworldtour.com and is widely considered to be the greatest rivalry in the history of the sport . Djokovic is the first player to have at least ten match wins against Nadal and the only person to defeat Nadal seven times consecutively . He is also only the second player to have defeated Nadal in more than one Grand Slam tournament final ( the other being Federer ) and the first to beat Nadal in a final on a surface other than grass . Their 2012 Australian Open encounter is considered by many to be the greatest match ever played and their 2012 French Open semifinal is considered the best clay court match ever played .
Between 2011 – 12 , they met in four consecutive Grand Slam tournament finals , just the second time in tennis history this has happened . In doing so , they also became the only players in history , except for Venus and Serena Williams , to have faced the same opponent in the finals of each of the four different Grand Slam events . Djokovic defeated Nadal in the first three ( from Wimbledon to the Australian Open ) , making Nadal the first player in history to lose three consecutive Grand Slam event finals . However , Nadal defeated Djokovic in the French Open final , denying him a Career Grand Slam and the opportunity to become the first man since Rod Laver to hold all four Majors at once . The two also share the record for the longest Australian Open and Grand Slam tournament final match ever played ( 5 hours and 53 minutes ) , at the 2012 Australian Open final . This and the 2013 French Open semifinal they contested , are considered two of the greatest matches of all time . At ATP Masters 1000 level , they have met 25 times , 12 of which were in the final ( a record ) , including the 2013 Monte @-@ Carlo Rolex Masters , where Djokovic ended Nadal 's 47 @-@ match winning run and eight @-@ year winning streak at the event .
= = = Djokovic vs. Federer = = =
Djokovic and Federer have played each other 45 times with Djokovic leading 23 – 22 . Djokovic leads on grass 2 – 1 , while they are tied 17 – 17 on hard courts and 4 – 4 on clay . In terms of number of matches played , it ranks as the second largest rivalry in the Open Era . The rivalry is the largest in Grand Slam tournament history with 15 matches played , having won against each other matches at each of the four Grand Slams . Djokovic leads this category 9 – 6 ( they are tied 3 – 3 at the US Open , 1 – 1 at Roland Garros , and Djokovic leads 3 – 1 in Australia and 2 @-@ 1 in Wimbledon ) . They have played in four Grand Slam tournament finals , the 2007 US Open , which Federer won in straight sets and at Wimbledon in 2014 and 2015 and the 2015 US Open , won by Djokovic . They 've also met in a record ten semifinals . The rivalry between Federer and Djokovic is considered one of the best in the Open Era .
Djokovic is the only player besides Nadal to defeat Federer in consecutive Grand Slam tournaments ( 2010 US Open and 2011 Australian Open ) , and the only player besides Nadal and Murray who has double @-@ figure career wins over Federer . Djokovic is one of four players currently on tour to have defeated Federer in straight sets at a Major and the only player to do it three times . Between 2007 – 2011 they played a record five times at the US Open ( tied with Lendl – McEnroe and Connors – Lendl ) , with Federer winning the first three and Djokovic the last two . This includes the 2010 and 2011 semifinals they contested , both of which Djokovic saved two match points before going on to win the match . In contrast Federer is the only player beside Nadal to have achieved 20 career wins against Djokovic and ended Djokovic 's 43 @-@ match winning streak and 41 – 0 start to the 2011 season , by defeating him in the French Open semifinals . These three matches have been classified among the greatest matches in tennis history by the ATP .
At ATP Masters 1000 level , they have met 18 times , and they are both tied 9 – 9 , while Djokovic leads 4 – 3 in finals . The pair have also contested one final at the 2012 ATP World Tour Finals , which Djokovic won in straight sets . They were scheduled to meet again in the 2014 final but Federer withdrew . The pair met four times in 2014 , in the semifinal of the Dubai Tennis Championships , with Federer recording his first victory over Djokovic since 2012 and first deciding set victory over another member of the Big Four since 2010 , in the final of Indian Wells the following week , with this time Djokovic coming out on top , Monte @-@ Carlo semifinal with Federer winning in straight sets , and at Wimbledon , with Djokovic winning in five sets . They have met six times so far in 2015 , at the final of the Dubai Tennis Championships with Federer winning in straight sets , the final of the Indian Wells Masters with Djokovic winning in three sets , the final of the Rome Masters , which Djokovic won in straight sets , the final of Wimbledon , which Djokovic won in four sets , the final of the Cincinnati Masters , which Federer won in straight sets and 2015 US Open , which Djokovic won in four sets .
= = = Djokovic vs. Murray = = =
Djokovic and Murray have met 34 times with Djokovic leading 24 – 10 . Djokovic leads 5 – 1 on clay , 19 – 7 on hard courts , and Murray leads 2 – 0 on grass . The two are almost the same age , with Murray being a week older than Djokovic . The pair have met in six Grand Slam tournament finals : the 2011 Australian Open , 2012 US Open , 2013 Australian Open , 2013 Wimbledon Championships , 2015 Australian Open and 2016 Australian Open . Djokovic won in Australia four times , and Murray emerged as the victor at the US Open and Wimbledon . Between 2012 – 13 , the pair met nine times , including three Major finals , and were ranked as the two highest ranked players in the world between May and August 2013 . During this time , the rivalry rose in prominence as the emerging rivalry in tennis . Since then , Djokovic has dominated the rivalry , winning eight matches in a row , before Murray stopped his winning streak in the final of the 2015 Rogers Cup .
The US Open final they contested equalled the record as the longest US Open final in history , as well as the second longest major final in Open Era history , behind the 2012 Australian Open final . It also featured the longest ever tie @-@ break in a US Open final , with a 12 – 10 final score in the first set . Other notable matches include a nearly five @-@ hour @-@ long semifinal match in the 2012 Australian Open , which Djokovic won 7 – 5 in the fifth set , as well as a semifinal meeting at the 2012 Olympic Games , with Murray winning in straight sets . At ATP Masters 1000 level , they 've met thirteen times , with Djokovic leading 8 – 5 . Eight of these meetings came in finals , and they are tied at 4 – 4 . Their most notable match in this category was in the final of the 2012 Shanghai Masters , where Djokovic saved 5 championship points to win the title , ending Murray 's perfect 12 – 0 record at the event . This , and the three set match they played in Rome in 2011 , were voted the ATP World Tour Match of the Year , for each respective season .
= = = Federer vs. Murray = = =
Federer and Murray have met 25 times , with Federer leading 14 – 11 . Federer leads 12 – 10 on hard courts and 2 – 1 on grass , and they have never met on clay . Overall , Federer leads Murray 5 – 1 in Grand Slam events , three of which were finals , once each at the US Open , Australian Open and Wimbledon Championships , all of which Federer won . However , Murray leads their head @-@ to @-@ head 9 – 8 in three @-@ set tennis , leading 6 – 3 at ATP Masters 1000 level ( 2 – 0 in finals ) with Federer ahead 3 – 1 in the matches they 've contested at the ATP World Tour Finals , with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008 and Federer coming out victorious in London in 2009 , 2010 and in 2012 . In 2012 , exactly four weeks after the two met in the Wimbledon final , they met again on Centre Court for the final of the Olympic Games . Murray exacted revenge on Federer by winning in straight sets for the loss of just 7 games , claiming the gold medal and at the same time denying Federer a Career Golden Slam .
Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories against Federer , the other two being Nadal and Djokovic . The pair have only met three times since 2012 , with Murray recording his first victory over Federer at Grand Slam event level with a five set victory in the semifinals of the 2013 Australian Open , and Federer reversing the result in the quarterfinal the following year . Federer won their meeting at the 2014 Cincinnati Masters quarter @-@ final in straight sets .
= = = Murray vs. Nadal = = =
Murray and Nadal have met on 24 occasions , on all surfaces and at every Grand Slam tournament , with Nadal leading 17 – 7 . Nadal leads 7 – 2 on clay , 3 – 0 on grass and 7 – 5 on hard courts . The pair regularly meet at Grand Slam tournaments , with nine of their meetings coming at this level , with Nadal leading 7 – 2 ( 3 – 0 at Wimbledon , 2 – 0 at the French Open and 1 – 1 at both the Australian & US Open ) . The pair are the only match @-@ up within that of the Big Four that have not contested a Grand Slam tournament final , despite one of them occupying a finalist spot in every final between the 2009 US Open and 2014 Wimbledon Championships . However , they 've met in 6 semi @-@ finals and 2 quarter @-@ finals , making the rivalry an important part of both men 's careers . In 2011 the pair met in three consecutive Grand Slam tournament semi @-@ finals from the French Open to the US Open , with Nadal defeating Murray every time . Murray leads 3 – 1 in ATP finals , with Nadal winning Indian Wells in 2009 and Murray winning the two ATP 500 finals they 've contested in Rotterdam the same year and Tokyo in 2011 , as well as Madrid in 2015 .
The pair did not meet in 2012 or 2013 , partly because both Murray and Nadal suffered from injury . However , they renewed their rivalry in 2014 with a quarter @-@ final meeting at the Rome Masters , with Nadal winning in three tight sets . The pair met again in the semi @-@ finals of French Open two weeks later , with Nadal winning comfortably in straight sets on his way to winning his ninth French Open title .
= = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records vs other players = = =
As of June 2 , 2016 , a total of 101 different players have played against each member of the Big Four at least once . The following table presents the Big Four 's Head @-@ to @-@ head records against the only 14 players that have posted at least 1 victory against each of them , hth as well as their records against the only 2 players who have posted at least 1 victory over 3 of them and have also won at least 10 matches overall .
Active players are in boldface .
= = = Grand Slam head @-@ to @-@ head records vs active players = = =
At least 8 meetings .
= = = Head @-@ to @-@ head records overall = = =
= = Career evolution = =
( ) = active record ( updated Monday 25 July 2016 ) .
= = = Titles by tournaments played comparison = = =
( ) = active record ( updated 10 July 2016 ) .
Another way to view their respective careers and evolution is to look at the progression of titles won by the number of tournaments played to win each of their titles at each level of competition including Grand Slams , Olympic Games , ATP World Tour Finals ( formerly Tennis Masters Cup ) , ATP World Tour Masters 1000 ( formerly ATP Masters Series ) .
= = Notable matches = =
With a combined total of 210 matches played , the Big Four have played many notable matches . The 2008 Wimbledon final and the 2012 Australian Open finals are considered the greatest matches of all time , . Novak Djokovic saved match points against Roger Federer at the 2010 and 2011 US Open semifinals , whereas Federer ended Djokovic 's 43 @-@ match winning streak in the 2011 French Open semifinals . The 4 hour 50 minute 2012 Australian Open semifinal between Murray and Djokovic is said to have given Murray the belief he needed to match the other members of the Big Four . Moreover , every Grand Slam tournament final of 2012 , all played between the Big Four , holds some historical significance . The 2012 Australian Open final was the longest Grand Slam tournament final in terms of time played , the 2012 French Open saw Rafael Nadal break the record for the most number of titles at the French Open , whereas Djokovic was attempting to become the first man to hold all four Majors since Rod Laver in 1969 . The 2012 Wimbledon final saw Federer equal the record for most Wimbledon titles when he came out victorious against Murray , who become the first British man since 1938 to appear in the final . The 2012 US Open final was the equal longest final in US Open history , and Murray became the first British man since 1938 to win a Major title , and the only British man to do so in the Open Era . He also became the only man to win Olympic Singles Gold and the US Open back @-@ to @-@ back .
= = = 2007 Wimbledon Championships final = = =
The 2007 Wimbledon Gentlemen 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2007 Wimbledon Championships . It pitted world No. 1 Roger Federer against world No. 2 Rafael Nadal in a Major final for the fourth time . This was a rematch of the Wimbledon final from the year before and would become the defining match of the Federer – Nadal rivalry up to that point . This was a historic match as Federer was trying to equal Björn Borg 's record of five consecutive Wimbledon titles , while Nadal was attempting to be the first man since Borg in 1980 to win the French Open and Wimbledon back @-@ to @-@ back ( this achievement is colloquially known as the " Channel Slam " ) .
Federer defeated Nadal in five compelling sets in three hours and forty @-@ five minutes , for a fifth consecutive Wimbledon championship ( equalling the feat achieved by Björn Borg ) . Borg himself returned to Wimbledon for the first time since losing the final in 1981 , saying " I just feel that this is the right time for me to come back , to hopefully watch Roger winning his fifth title in a row to match my record . " This match marked only the third time in the new century that a Major final had gone to five sets , and was the first time the technology Hawk @-@ Eye was ever used in a Wimbledon final .
= = = 2008 Wimbledon Championships final = = =
The 2008 Wimbledon Gentlemen 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2008 Wimbledon Championships . A part of the storied rivalry between Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal , it pitted the two players , then ranked world No. 1 and No. 2 respectively , against each other in a Major final for the sixth time ( out of eight ) . After 4 hours and 48 minutes , Nadal defeated Federer in five sets in failing light . A number of tennis critics promptly lauded it as the greatest match in tennis history .
This was the longest Wimbledon men 's singles final in history , clocking in at four hours and forty @-@ eight minutes . The match also featured numerous rain delays which meant the match finished in near darkness , at 21 : 15 BST , almost seven hours since the match started at 14 : 35 BST . It was to be the last Wimbledon final to be significantly affected by rain , as a retractable roof was being installed at Centre Court and would be in place by the 2009 Wimbledon Championships .
= = = 2009 Australian Open final = = =
The 2009 Australian Open Men 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2009 Australian Open . It was contested between the world 's top two players for much of the previous four years , Rafael Nadal and Roger Federer then world number 's 1 and 2 respectively . It was their seventh ( out of eight ) Grand Slam tournament final meeting and it was the same final match up as had been previously at both the 2008 Wimbledon Men 's Singles final and 2008 French Men 's Singles final , both of which Nadal won . However this was Rafael Nadal 's first Major hardcourt final while it was Roger Federer 's ninth and was yet to lose in a Major hardcourt final .
Nadal defeated Federer in 5 sets in 4 hours and 19 minutes , with the match finishing after midnight , to become the first Spaniard to win the Australian Open . The match was lauded as one of the greatest ever at the Australian Open and it was yet another high quality match between two of the greatest players of all time , only 6 months since their epic 2008 Wimbledon final . It was a match of huge significance as had Federer won the match he would have equalled the all @-@ time Grand Slam tournament record of 14 by Pete Sampras and the open @-@ era record for most Australian Open titles of 4 with Andre Agassi ( he would go on to achieve these in the near future ) . However , as a result of Nadal winning he set his own records , holding 3 of the 4 slams at the same time for the first time in his career . Not only that but he became the first man in the open @-@ era to hold 3 Grand Slam tournament titles on 3 different surfaces at the same time . This victory over Federer many believed brought about a change in the tennis standings as Nadal was now clearly the number 1 player after Federer had that title for over 4 and a half years consecutively with Nadal deemed the second best for nearly 3 years of that . The defeat brought Federer to tears as he came to terms with his loss .
The match statistics followed a similar pattern to those at the 2008 Wimbledon Final , with Federer having a lower first serve percentage against Nadal ( 51 % vs 64 % ) and he again couldn 't be as clincical on break point opportunities with only 31 % break points converted for Federer whereas Nadal converted 43 % of his break points . However the total points by each player proved even closer that that at that Wimbledon final , as Federer won 1 more point than Nadal ( 174 vs 173 ) yet still lost this final .
= = = 2010 US Open final = = =
The 2010 US Open Men 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2010 US Open . It pitted then @-@ world No. 1 Rafael Nadal against then @-@ world No. 3 Novak Djokovic in a Major final for the first time , having previously met four times at this level ( one quarter @-@ final and three semi @-@ finals , all won by Nadal ) . This was the first US Open final reached by Nadal , having previously fallen in the semi @-@ finals in the previous two years , while for Djokovic , this was the first Major final he reached since winning his then @-@ only Major title at the 2008 Australian Open . To reach the final , both players had to beat their semi @-@ final opponents in contrasting circumstances : Nadal easily defeated Mikhail Youzhny in straight sets , while Djokovic saved several match points in the fifth set to overcome Roger Federer in five sets , thus denying what would have been the first ever Federer @-@ Nadal final at Flushing Meadows .
Nadal defeated Djokovic in four sets in three hours and forty @-@ three minutes , to win his first US Open title , and thus complete the Career Golden Slam ( equalling the feat achieved by Andre Agassi ) . He also became the first Spaniard since Manuel Orantes in 1975 to win at Flushing Meadows , became the first man since Rod Laver in 1969 to win Major titles at the French Open , Wimbledon and US Open simultaneously and became only the second man after Laver to hold two Major titles on each surface ( hard , clay and grass ) . The second set which Djokovic won was the only set Nadal lost in the entire championships . This would prove to become the main rivalry in tennis over the next 18 months .
= = = 2011 French Open semifinal = = =
The 2011 French Open Men 's Singles semifinal between world No. 2 Novak Djokovic and world No. 3 Roger Federer was a historic encounter that brought about the end of the longest winning streak in almost 30 years . Djokovic entered the match undefeated for the first five months of the year having gone 41 – 0 with a total winning streak of 43 matches ( his last loss had come against Federer at the World Tour Finals ) . It was the first Grand Slam tournament in which Djokovic had ever been seeded higher than Federer . Djokovic had defeated Federer in their three previous meetings in 2011 , however , Federer shocked many by taking the first two sets . Djokovic won the third set and as the fourth set went on the light began to fade and it was clear that if the match went to a fifth set it would have to be continued the next day . Djokovic served for the fourth set at 5 – 4 but was broken and Federer closed out the match in a tiebreaker .
Federer then played Nadal in the final , which was their record eighth encounter in a Grand Slam tournament final . Nadal defeated Federer for the fifth time at Roland Garros and tied Björn Borg 's record of six French Open titles .
= = = 2012 Australian Open final = = =
The 2012 Australian Open Men 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2012 Australian Open . It pitted the world 's top two players , Novak Djokovic and Rafael Nadal , against each other in a Grand Slam tournament final for the fourth time ( out of seven ) and third consecutive time . Djokovic defeated Nadal in five sets to win the match . At five hours and fifty @-@ three minutes , it was the Major final match with the longest duration in history . During the trophy ceremony , both Nadal and Djokovic required chairs , as they were both so tired that they couldn 't stand .
It was lauded as one of the greatest matches ever by former players , legends , and analysts of the sport . John McEnroe claimed it surpassed the 2008 Wimbledon final as the best tennis match of all time , while legends Pete Sampras , Mats Wilander , and Björn Borg said it was the best match they saw in their lifetime . After the 2012 Australian Open , Rod Laver came out with his greatest in the amateur and Open Era lists , Djokovic was ranked 6th and Nadal 5th on the Open Era list . Laver said the 2012 Australian Open final was a main reason for including both players . Nadal called it the toughest loss of his career but the best match he ever played . Djokovic said it was the finest win in his career and also commented on the high level of tennis played . Not only was this the longest Grand Slam tournament final , but according to Tennis Channel and the Australian Open TV networks , this was one of the most @-@ watched finals , despite ending late into the night locally . Soon after the conclusion of the 2012 Australian Open , there were sources claiming that Djokovic sealed his spot as a tennis great and in the Tennis Hall of Fame .
= = = 2012 French Open final = = =
The 2012 French Open Men 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2012 French Open . It pitted the world 's top two players , Novak Djokovic and Rafael Nadal , against each other in a Grand Slam tournament final for the fifth time overall and fourth consecutive time . This match had historical proportions as Djokovic would have become the first man since Rod Laver in 1969 to win all four Majors simultaneously , whereas Nadal was looking to break Björn Borg 's record of six French Open titles and equal Chris Evert 's record of seven French Open titles held by a man or woman .
Nadal defeated Djokovic in a two @-@ day final in four sets , to ultimately achieve his seventh French Open title and deny Djokovic a Career Grand Slam . With Nadal leading by two sets to one , and Djokovic leading 2 – 1 on serve in the fourth set , the match was suspended due to rain ; it was initially thought that Djokovic had gained the momentum , having won eight consecutive games prior to the suspension of the match , however , Nadal was able to regroup and take the fourth set , and ultimately the match , after Djokovic double @-@ faulted on championship point down .
= = = 2012 Wimbledon Championships final = = =
The 2012 Wimbledon Gentlemen 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Gentlemen 's Singles tournament at the 2012 Wimbledon Championships . It pitted world No. 3 Roger Federer against world No. 4 Andy Murray in a Major final for a third time . This final snapped a streak of four consecutive Major finals reached by Djokovic and Nadal . Nadal was ousted in the second round while Federer defeated Djokovic in the semi @-@ finals . In what was the most historic Major final of the year , Federer sought to win a record shattering seventeenth Major title and a record @-@ tying seventh Wimbledon to match his idol Pete Sampras . Both of these records are amongst the most prestigious in all of tennis . Murray on the other hand had become the first British man since Bunny Austin in 1938 to reach the Wimbledon final , and was attempting to become the first Briton to win any Major title since Fred Perry in 1936 .
Federer defeated Murray in four riveting sets in three hours and forty @-@ four minutes , to capture a record equalling seventh Wimbledon championship , and a record breaking seventeenth Major title . The victory was also historic as it caused Federer to depose Djokovic as world No. 1 and break Sampras ' record of 286 weeks at the summit of men 's tennis ( Federer had been just one week short when he lost the number one ranking in June 2010 ) . At the beginning of the third set play was halted by rain and the roof which had been installed in 2009 was closed for the first time during the Wimbledon final .
= = = 2012 US Open final = = =
The 2012 US Open Men 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2012 US Open . It pitted then @-@ world No. 3 Andy Murray against world No. 2 and defending champion Novak Djokovic in a Grand Slam tournament final for the second time . Murray defeated Djokovic in five sets to win the match . It was the equal @-@ longest US Open men 's final in history , lasting four hours and fifty @-@ four minutes ( equalling the 1988 US Open final played by Ivan Lendl and Mats Wilander ) , and the equal second @-@ longest men 's final in the Open era , only behind the aforementioned 2012 Australian Open final . By winning the 2012 US Open , Murray became the first British man since Fred Perry in 1936 to win a Grand Slam singles title , and the first British man in the Open Era to do so . This was the most famous match in the rivalry between the two players . It also marked a milestone for Murray , as it was his 100th match win at a Major .
This match featured the longest ever first set ( and the longest ever tiebreak ) in a men 's championship match ; the 87 @-@ minute first set , won by Murray , included four breaks of serve in the first four games of the match , a 54 @-@ shot rally in the sixth game , and the 24 @-@ minute tiebreak which lasted up until 12 – 10 ; additionally , the tiebreak included two 30 @-@ shot rallies . Murray required six set points to win the first set , and required five sets to win the match . Murray said that a toilet break at the end of the fourth set helped him to restore his concentration after Djokovic took the third and fourth sets .
= = = 2013 Australian Open final = = =
The 2013 Australian Open Men 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2013 Australian Open . It pitted world No. 1 Novak Djokovic against world No. 3 Andy Murray in a Major final for the second time in as many Grand Slam tournaments and third time overall . Djokovic was looking to become just the third man in the Open Era to win the Australian Open four times and the first to win it three consecutive times . Murray , by reaching the final , had become the first man to reach the final of the next consecutive Grand Slam tournament after winning their first title .
Murray took the first set on a tie @-@ break just as he had done in the US Open final the previous year , and while the second set followed a similar pattern with no breaks of serve , this time Djokovic took the tie @-@ break . One break of serve in the eighth game ( two hours and 52 minutes into the contest ) was enough for Djokovic to take the third set before taking the fourth 6 – 2 comfortably against a tired @-@ looking Murray , who needed four hours to defeat Federer in the semifinal just two days before . The match lasted three hours and 40 minutes and four sets . By winning Djokovic won his sixth Grand Slam tournament title to tie him with greats such as Boris Becker and Stefan Edberg , whereas Murray equalled Edberg 's feat of three runner @-@ up finishes at the Australian Open .
= = = 2013 French Open semifinal = = =
The 2013 French Open Men 's Singles semifinal was a rematch of the prior year 's final between Nadal and Djokovic . Just weeks after that victory , Nadal went on a lengthy injury hiatus of over 7 months before his highly successful return , reaching the final of all 8 tournaments he entered and winning 6 titles . But one of those losses was to Djokovic in Monte Carlo , ending Nadal 's record streak of 8 consecutive titles there . Djokovic was very motivated to win this match , having said winning his first French Open title was his highest priority of 2013 , plus his desire to dedicate the title in honor of his recently deceased childhood tennis coach .
The match was a see @-@ saw five setter with Nadal prevailing 9 – 7 in the fifth after 4 hours and 37 minutes . Analyst Steve Tignor summed it up : " This epic was a mirror image of their last one , in the 2012 Australian Open final . That day it had been Nadal who had survived a near @-@ death experience in the fourth set , won it in a tiebreaker , and taken a 4 – 2 lead in the fifth before watching Djokovic storm back for the title . Today it was Nole who broke Rafa at 3 – 4 in the fourth and again at 5 – 6 , grabbed that set in a tiebreaker , and led 4 – 2 in the fifth before watching Nadal take it all away . In each of those matches , the loser was haunted by a stunning , crucial lapse . In Australia , with a chance to go up 5 – 2 in the fifth , Nadal had missed the easiest of backhand passing shots . In Paris , serving at 4 – 3 in the final set , Djokovic gave away a point when he ran into the net after hitting what would have been a winning overhead . "
Numerous tennis pundits and legends including Ivan Lendl , Andre Agassi , Bjorn Borg , Boris Becker , and John McEnroe claimed this was the greatest clay court match to ever take place in tennis history . ESPN commentator Chris Fowler and Patrick McEnroe even echoed this very remark during the broadcast of this match .
Nadal then won the title for the fourth consecutive year . This was his 8th overall French title , making him the first man to win 8 titles at any Grand Slam tournament . His opponent was David Ferrer , who was the first Slam finalist outside the Big Four since Tomáš Berdych three years prior at Wimbledon .
= = = 2013 Wimbledon Championships final = = =
The 2013 Wimbledon Men 's Singles final was the championship tennis match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2013 Wimbledon Championships . It pitted the top two players in the world , Novak Djokovic and Andy Murray against each other for the fourth time in a Grand Slam tournament final . After three hours and nine minutes , second seeded Murray defeated world No. 1 Djokovic in three sets to win the match . By winning the 2013 Wimbledon Championships , Murray became the first British man since Fred Perry in 1936 to win the Wimbledon title , the first Scottish man since Harold Mahony in 1896 to win the title , and the first British man in the Open Era to do so .
= = = 2014 Wimbledon Championships final = = =
The 2014 Wimbledon Men 's Singles final was the championship match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2014 Wimbledon Championships . A significant part of the Djokovic – Federer rivalry , it pitted Novak Djokovic and Roger Federer against each other in a Grand Slam tournament final for the second time . After three hours and 56 minutes , top @-@ seeded Djokovic defeated fourth @-@ seeded Federer in five sets to win the match .
By winning the 2014 Wimbledon Championships , Djokovic not only won for the second time , but also reclaimed the world number one ranking from Rafael Nadal at the conclusion of the tournament . He also stopped a losing run in Grand Slam tournament finals having lost his last 3 and 5 of his last 6 , Meanwhile , with his run to the final and showing in the final that he is still a major contender even at the age of 32 , Federer returned to the top 3 ranking positions after a lengthy period in the ranks 5 – 8 range . Federer had been going for his 80th career tour title , 18th Major victory and his 8th Wimbledon title .
= = = 2015 Wimbledon Championships final = = =
The 2015 Wimbledon Men 's Singles final was the championship match of the Men 's Singles tournament at the 2015 Wimbledon Championships , featuring a rematch of last year 's final between Djokovic and Federer . Djokovic , the top seed , defeated Federer , the second seed , again , this time in four sets .
= = = 2016 French Open final = = =
It was the first time in nearly two decades that number 1 played number 2 and neither had won the French Open previously . Andy Murray had a career resurgence on clay , making deep runs in the Masters tournaments prior to the French Open , finishing runner up to Djokovic in Madrid before besting him in Rome . Rain had affected the tournament schedule and in Djokovic 's case , he had to play 4 matches in 5 days . Murray was playing to become the first Brit since 1937 to win , while Djokovic had multiple historical records on the line , most notably joining the elite group of men who won a career grand slam and joining Rod Laver and Don Budge as the only men in the Open Era to hold all 4 Grand Slam titles at the same time . After Murray took the first set , Djokovic rallied to win the match prevailing 3 @-@ 6 6 @-@ 1 6 @-@ 2 6 @-@ 4 .
= U2 =
U2 are an Irish rock band from Dublin . Formed in 1976 , the group consists of Bono ( lead vocals and rhythm guitar ) , the Edge ( lead guitar , keyboards , and backing vocals ) , Adam Clayton ( bass guitar ) , and Larry Mullen Jr . ( drums and percussion ) . U2 's early sound was rooted in post @-@ punk but eventually grew to incorporate influences from many genres of popular music . Throughout the group 's musical pursuits , they have maintained a sound built on melodic instrumentals . Their lyrics , often embellished with spiritual imagery , focus on personal themes and sociopolitical concerns .
The band formed at Mount Temple Comprehensive School in 1976 when the members were teenagers with limited musical proficiency . Within four years , they signed with Island Records and released their debut album Boy . By the mid @-@ 1980s , U2 had become a top international act . They were more successful as a touring act than they were at selling records until their 1987 album The Joshua Tree which , according to Rolling Stone Magazine , elevated the band 's stature " from heroes to superstars " . Reacting to musical stagnation and criticism of their earnest image and musical direction in the late 1980s , U2 reinvented themselves with their 1991 album , Achtung Baby , and the accompanying Zoo TV Tour ; they integrated dance , industrial , and alternative rock influences into their sound , and embraced a more ironic and self @-@ deprecating image . They embraced similar experimentation for the remainder of the 1990s with varying levels of success . U2 regained critical and commercial favour in the 2000s with the records All That You Can 't Leave Behind ( 2000 ) and How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb ( 2004 ) , which established a more conventional , mainstream sound for the group . Their U2 360 ° Tour of 2009 – 2011 is the highest @-@ attended and highest @-@ grossing concert tour in history .
U2 have released 13 studio albums and are one of the world 's best @-@ selling music artists of all time , having sold more than 170 million records worldwide . They have won 22 Grammy Awards , more than any other band , and , in 2005 , were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in their first year of eligibility . Rolling Stone ranked U2 at number 22 in its list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . Throughout their career , as a band and as individuals , they have campaigned for human rights and philanthropic causes , including Amnesty International , the ONE / DATA campaigns , Product Red , War Child and the Edge 's Music Rising .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years ( 1976 – 80 ) = = =
The band formed in Dublin on 25 September 1976 . Larry Mullen , Jr . , then a 14 @-@ year @-@ old student at Mount Temple Comprehensive School , posted a note on the school 's notice board in search of musicians for a new band — six people responded . Setting up in his kitchen , Mullen was on drums , with Paul Hewson ( Bono ) on lead vocals ; David Evans ( The Edge ) and his older brother Dik Evans on guitar ; Adam Clayton , a friend of the Evans brothers on bass guitar ; and initially Ivan McCormick and Peter Martin , two other friends of Mullen . Mullen later described it as " ' The Larry Mullen Band ' for about ten minutes , then Bono walked in and blew any chance I had of being in charge . " Soon after , the group settled on the name " Feedback " because it was one of the few technical terms they knew . Martin was the first to drop out of the group , and McCormick left within a few weeks of the first practice . Most of the group 's initial material consisted of cover songs , which the band admitted was not their forte . Some of the earliest influences on the band were emerging punk rock acts , such as the Jam , the Clash , Buzzcocks , and Sex Pistols . The popularity of punk rock convinced the group that musical proficiency was not a prerequisite to being successful .
In March 1977 , the band changed their name to " the Hype " . Dik Evans , who was older and by this time at college , was becoming the odd man out . The rest of the band was leaning towards the idea of a four @-@ piece ensemble and he was " phased out " in March 1978 . During a farewell concert in the Presbyterian Church Hall in Howth , which featured the Hype playing covers , Dik ceremonially walked offstage . The remaining four band members completed the concert playing original material as " U2 " . Steve Averill , a punk rock musician ( with the Radiators ) and family friend of Clayton 's , had suggested six potential names from which the band chose " U2 " for its ambiguity and open @-@ ended interpretations , and because it was the name that they disliked the least .
On Saint Patrick 's Day in 1978 , U2 won a talent show in Limerick . The prize consisted of £ 500 and studio time to record a demo which would be heard by CBS Ireland , a record label . This win was an important milestone and affirmation for the fledgling band . U2 recorded their first demo tape at Keystone Studios in Dublin in May 1978 . Hot Press magazine was influential in shaping the band 's future ; in May , Paul McGuinness , who had earlier been introduced to the band by the publication 's journalist Bill Graham , agreed to be U2 's manager . The group 's first release , an Ireland @-@ only EP entitled Three , was released in September 1979 and was their first Irish chart success . In December 1979 , U2 performed in London for their first shows outside Ireland , although they were unable to gain much attention from audiences or critics . In February 1980 , their second single " Another Day " was released on the CBS label , but again only for the Irish market .
= = = Boy , October , and War ( 1980 – 84 ) = = =
Island Records signed U2 in March 1980 , and in May the band released " 11 O 'Clock Tick Tock " as their first international single . The band 's debut album , Boy , followed in October . Produced by Steve Lillywhite , it received generally positive reviews . Although Bono 's unfocused lyrics seemed improvised , they expressed a common theme : the dreams and frustrations of adolescence . The album included the band 's first United States hit single , " I Will Follow " . Boy 's release was followed by the Boy Tour , U2 's first tour of continental Europe and the United States . Despite being unpolished , these early live performances demonstrated U2 's potential , as critics noted that Bono was a " charismatic " and " passionate " showman .
The band 's second album , October , was released in 1981 and contained overtly spiritual themes . During the album 's recording sessions , Bono and the Edge considered quitting the band due to perceived spiritual conflicts . Bono , the Edge , and Mullen had joined a Christian group in Dublin called the " Shalom Fellowship " , which led them to question the relationship between the Christian faith and the rock and roll lifestyle . Bono and the Edge took time off between tours and decided to leave Shalom in favour of continuing with the band . Recording was further complicated when a briefcase containing working lyrics and musical ideas was lost during a performance at a nightclub in Portland , Oregon . The album received mixed reviews and limited radio play . Low sales outside the UK put pressure on their contract with Island and focused the band on improvement .
Resolving their doubts of the October period , U2 released War in February 1983 . A record on which the band " turned pacifism itself into a crusade " , War 's sincerity and " rugged " guitar was intentionally at odds with the trendier synthpop of the time . The album included the politically charged " Sunday Bloody Sunday " , in which Bono lyrically tried to contrast the events of Bloody Sunday with Easter Sunday . Rolling Stone magazine wrote that the song showed the band was capable of deep and meaningful songwriting . War was U2 's first album to feature the photography of Anton Corbijn , who remains U2 's principal photographer and has had a major influence on their vision and public image . U2 's first commercial success , War debuted at number one in the UK , and its first single , " New Year 's Day " , was the band 's first hit outside Ireland or the UK .
On the subsequent War Tour , the band performed sold @-@ out concerts in mainland Europe and the US . The sight of Bono waving a white flag during performances of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " became the tour 's iconic image . U2 recorded the Under a Blood Red Sky live album and the Live at Red Rocks concert film on tour , both of which received extensive play on the radio and MTV , expanding the band 's audience and showcasing their prowess as a live act . With their record deal with Island Records coming to an end , the band signed a more lucrative extension in 1984 . They negotiated the return of their copyrights ( so that they owned the rights to their own songs ) , an increase in their royalty rate , and a general improvement in terms , at the expense of a larger initial payment .
= = = The Unforgettable Fire and Live Aid ( 1984 – 85 ) = = =
The band feared that following the overt rock of the War album and tour , they were in danger of becoming another " shrill " , " sloganeering arena @-@ rock band " . Bono said the group was confident that fans were ready to embrace them as successors to the Who and Led Zeppelin , but according to him , " something just didn 't feel right . We felt we had more dimension than just the next big anything , we had something unique to offer . " Thus , they sought experimentation for their fourth studio album , The Unforgettable Fire ; as Adam Clayton recalls , " We were looking for something that was a bit more serious , more arty . " The Edge admired the ambient and " weird works " of Brian Eno , who , along with his engineer Daniel Lanois , eventually agreed to produce the record . Island Records boss Chris Blackwell initially tried to discourage them from their choice of producers , believing that just when the band were about to achieve the highest levels of success , Eno would " bury them under a layer of avant @-@ garde nonsense " .
Partly recorded in Slane Castle , The Unforgettable Fire was released in 1984 and was at the time the band 's most marked change in direction . It was ambient and abstract , and featured a rich , orchestrated sound . Under Lanois ' direction , Mullen 's drumming became looser , funkier , and more subtle , and Clayton 's bass became more subliminal . Complementing the album 's atmospheric sound , the lyrics are open to interpretation , providing what the band called a " very visual feel " . Due to a tight recording schedule , however , Bono felt songs like " Bad " and " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " were incomplete " sketches " . The album reached number one in Britain , and was successful in the US . The lead single " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " , written about Martin Luther King , Jr . , was the band 's biggest hit to that point and was their first song to chart in the US top 40 .
Much of the Unforgettable Fire Tour moved into indoor arenas as U2 began to win their long battle to build their audience . The complex textures of the new studio @-@ recorded tracks , such as " The Unforgettable Fire " and " Bad " , posed a challenge in translating to live performances . One solution was programmed sequencers , which the band had previously been reluctant to use , but are now used in the majority of the band 's performances . Songs on the album had been criticised as being " unfinished " , " fuzzy " , and " unfocused " , but were better received by critics when played on stage . Rolling Stone , which was critical of the album version of " Bad " , described its live performance as a " show stopper " .
U2 participated in the Live Aid concert for Ethiopian famine relief at Wembley Stadium in July 1985 . U2 's performance in front of 72 @,@ 000 fans in the stadium in an event that had a worldwide television audience of two billion people was a pivotal point in the band 's career . During a 12 @-@ minute performance of the song " Bad " , Bono leapt down off the stage to embrace and dance with a fan , showing a television audience the personal connection that Bono could make with audiences . In 1985 , Rolling Stone magazine called U2 the " Band of the ' 80s " , saying that " for a growing number of rock @-@ and @-@ roll fans , U2 have become the band that matters most , maybe even the only band that matters " .
= = = The Joshua Tree and Rattle and Hum ( 1986 – 90 ) = = =
For their fifth album , The Joshua Tree , the band wanted to build on The Unforgettable Fire 's textures , but instead of out @-@ of @-@ focus experimentation , they sought a harder @-@ hitting sound within the limitation of conventional song structures . Realising that " U2 had no tradition " and that their knowledge of music from before their childhood was limited , the group delved into American and Irish roots music . Friendships with Bob Dylan , Van Morrison , and Keith Richards motivated the band to explore blues , folk , and gospel music and focused Bono on his skills as a songwriter and lyricist . U2 interrupted the album sessions in mid @-@ 1986 to serve as a headline act on Amnesty International 's A Conspiracy of Hope tour . Rather than being a distraction , the tour added extra intensity and focus to their new material . Later that year , Bono travelled to San Salvador and Nicaragua and saw first @-@ hand the distress of peasants bullied in internal conflicts that were subject to US political intervention . The experience became a central influence on the new music .
The Joshua Tree was released in March 1987 . The album juxtaposes antipathy towards US foreign policy against the group 's deep fascination with the country , its open spaces , freedom , and ideals . The band wanted music with a sense of location and a " cinematic " quality , and the record 's music and lyrics draw on imagery created by American writers whose works the band had been reading . The Joshua Tree became the fastest @-@ selling album in British chart history , and topped the Billboard 200 in the United States for nine consecutive weeks . The first two singles , " With or Without You " and " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " , quickly became the group 's first number @-@ one hits in the US . They became the fourth rock band to be featured on the cover of Time magazine , which called them " Rock 's Hottest Ticket " . The album won U2 their first two Grammy Awards , and it brought them a new level of success . Many publications , including Rolling Stone , have cited it as one of rock 's greatest . The Joshua Tree Tour was the first tour on which the band played shows in stadiums alongside smaller arena shows , and it grossed US $ 40 million .
In October 1988 , the group released Rattle and Hum , a double album and theatrically released documentary film that captured the band 's experiences with American roots music on the Joshua Tree Tour . The record featured nine studio tracks and six live U2 performances , including recordings at Sun Studios in Memphis and performances with Bob Dylan and B. B. King . Intended as a tribute to American music , the project received mixed reviews from both film and music critics ; one Rolling Stone editor spoke of the album 's " excitement " , another described it as " bombastic and misguided " . The film 's director , Phil Joanou , described it as " an overly pretentious look at U2 " . Despite the criticism , the album sold 14 million copies and reached number one worldwide . Lead single " Desire " became the band 's first UK number @-@ one song while reaching number three in the US . Most of the album 's new material was played on 1989 's Lovetown Tour , which only visited Australasia , Japan and Europe , so as to avoid the critical backlash the group faced in the US . In addition , they had grown dissatisfied with their live performances ; Mullen recalled that " We were the biggest , but we weren 't the best " . With a sense of musical stagnation , Bono said to fans on one of the last dates of the tour that it was " the end of something for U2 " and that they had to " go away and ... just dream it all up again " .
= = = Achtung Baby , Zoo TV , and Zooropa ( 1990 – 93 ) = = =
Stung by the criticism of Rattle and Hum , the band sought to transform themselves musically . Seeking inspiration on the eve of German reunification , they began work on their seventh studio album , Achtung Baby , at Hansa Studios in Berlin in October 1990 with producers Daniel Lanois and Brian Eno . The sessions were fraught with conflict , as the band argued over their musical direction and the quality of their material . While Clayton and Mullen preferred a sound similar to U2 's previous work , Bono and the Edge were inspired by European industrial music and electronic dance music and advocated a change . Weeks of tension and slow progress nearly prompted the group to break up until they made a breakthrough with the improvised writing of the song " One " . They returned to Dublin in 1991 , where morale improved and the majority of the album was completed .
Achtung Baby was released in November 1991 . The album represented a calculated change in musical and thematic direction for the group ; the shift was one of their most dramatic since The Unforgettable Fire . Sonically , the record incorporated influences from alternative rock , dance , and industrial music of the time , and the band referred to its musical departure as " four men chopping down the Joshua Tree " . Thematically , it was a more introspective and personal record ; it was darker , yet at times more flippant than the band 's previous work . Commercially and critically , it has been one of the band 's most successful albums . It produced five hit singles , including " The Fly " , " Mysterious Ways " , and " One " , and it was a crucial part of the band 's early 1990s reinvention . Like The Joshua Tree , many publications have cited the record as one of rock 's greatest .
Like Achtung Baby , the 1992 – 1993 Zoo TV Tour was an unequivocal break with the band 's past . In contrast to the austere stage setups of previous U2 tours , Zoo TV was an elaborate multimedia event . It satirised the pervasive nature of television and its blurring of news , entertainment , and home shopping by attempting to instill " sensory overload " in its audience . The stage featured large video screens that showed visual effects , random video clips from pop culture , and flashing text phrases . Whereas U2 were known for their earnest performances in the 1980s , the group 's Zoo TV performances were intentionally ironic and self @-@ deprecating ; on stage , Bono performed as several over @-@ the @-@ top characters , including " The Fly " , " Mirror Ball Man " , and " MacPhisto " . Prank phone calls were made to President Bush , the United Nations , and others . Live satellite link @-@ ups to war @-@ torn Sarajevo caused controversy .
In June 1993 , U2 signed a long @-@ term , six @-@ album deal to remain with Island Records / PolyGram . The Los Angeles Times estimated that the deal was worth US $ 60 million to the band , making them the highest @-@ paid rock group ever .
Quickly recorded during a break in the Zoo TV Tour in early 1993 , the Zooropa album expanded on many of the themes from Achtung Baby and the Zoo TV Tour . Initially intended as an EP , Zooropa ultimately evolved into a full @-@ length LP album . It was an even greater departure from the style of their earlier recordings , incorporating further dance influences and other electronic effects . Johnny Cash sang the lead vocals on " The Wanderer " . Most of the songs were played at least once during the 1993 legs of the tour , which visited Europe , Australia , New Zealand and Japan ; half the album 's tracks became permanent fixtures in the setlist . Although the commercially successful Zooropa won the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album in 1994 , the band regard it with mixed feelings , as they felt it was more of " an interlude " .
On the final leg of the tour , Clayton was unable to perform for the group 's 26 November 1993 show in Sydney , the dress @-@ rehearsal for filming Zoo TV : Live from Sydney , due to a hangover . Bass guitar technician Stuart Morgan filled in for him , marking the first time any member of U2 had missed a show . After the incident , Clayton gave up drinking alcohol .
= = = Passengers , Pop , and PopMart ( 1994 – 99 ) = = =
In 1995 , following a long break , U2 contributed " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " to the soundtrack album of the film Batman Forever . Later that year , the band released an experimental album called Original Soundtracks 1 . Brian Eno , producer of four previous U2 albums , contributed as a full partner , including writing and performing . For this reason and due to the record 's highly experimental nature , the band chose to release it under the moniker " Passengers " to distinguish it from U2 's conventional albums . Mullen said of the album , " There 's a thin line between interesting music and self @-@ indulgence . We crossed it on the Passengers record . " It was commercially unnoticed by U2 standards and it received generally mixed reviews . However , the single " Miss Sarajevo " featuring Luciano Pavarotti , was among Bono 's favourite U2 songs .
On 1997 's Pop , U2 continued experimenting with dance club culture ; tape loops , programming , rhythm sequencing , and sampling provided much of the album with heavy , funky dance rhythms . Released in March , the album debuted at number one in 35 countries and drew mainly positive reviews . Rolling Stone , for example , stated that U2 had " defied the odds and made some of the greatest music of their lives " ; others felt that the album was a major disappointment . Sales were poor compared to previous U2 releases . The band was hurried into completing the album in time for the impending pre @-@ booked tour , and Bono admitted that the album " didn 't communicate the way it was intended to " .
The subsequent tour , PopMart , commenced in April 1997 . Like Zoo TV , it poked fun at pop culture and was intended as a send @-@ up of commercialism . The stage included a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) tall golden yellow arch ( reminiscent of the McDonald 's logo ) , a 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) long video screen , and a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) tall mirrorball lemon . U2 's " big shtick " failed , however , to satisfy many who were seemingly confused by the band 's new kitsch image and elaborate sets . The postponement of Pop 's release date to complete the album meant rehearsal time for the tour was severely reduced , and performances in early shows suffered . Despite the mixed reviews and difficulties of the tour , Bono considered PopMart to be " better than Zoo TV aesthetically , and as an art project it is a clearer thought . " He later explained , " When that show worked , it was mindblowing . " A highlight of the tour was the concert in Sarajevo where U2 were the first major group to perform there following the Bosnian War . Mullen described the concert as " an experience I will never forget for the rest of my life , and if I had to spend 20 years in the band just to play that show , and have done that , I think it would have been worthwhile . " Bono called the show " one of the toughest and one of the sweetest nights of my life " . One month after the conclusion of the PopMart Tour , U2 appeared on the 200th episode of the animated sitcom The Simpsons , " Trash of the Titans " , in which Homer Simpson disrupted the band on stage during a PopMart concert .
= = = " Reapplying for the job of the best band in the world " ( 2000 – 06 ) = = =
Following the relatively disappointing reception of Pop , U2 declared they were " reapplying for the job ... [ of ] the best band in the world " . The group 's tenth album , All That You Can 't Leave Behind , was released in October 2000 and was produced by Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois . The record signaled a return to a more mainstream , conventional rock sound for the group mixed with the influences of their 1990s musical explorations . For many of those not won over by the band 's 1990s music , it was considered a return to grace ; Rolling Stone called it U2 's " third masterpiece " alongside The Joshua Tree and Achtung Baby . The album debuted at number one in 32 countries , and its worldwide hit single , " Beautiful Day " , earned three Grammy Awards . The album 's other three singles , " Stuck in a Moment You Can 't Get Out Of " , " Elevation " and " Walk On " , also won Grammy Awards .
For the Elevation Tour of 2001 , U2 performed in a scaled @-@ down setting , returning to arenas after nearly a decade of stadium productions . A heart @-@ shaped ramp around the stage permitted greater proximity to the audience . During the tour , the group headlined a pair of Slane Concerts in Ireland , playing to crowds of 80 @,@ 000 . Following the September 11 attacks , All That You Can 't Leave Behind found added resonance with audiences , and in October , U2 performed at Madison Square Garden in New York City for the first time since the attacks . Bono and the Edge later said these shows were among their most memorable and emotional performances . In February 2002 , U2 performed during the halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVI and paid tribute to the victims of September 11 . SI.com and Rolling Stone ranked their performance as the best halftime show in Super Bowl history .
U2 's eleventh studio album , How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb , was released in November 2004 . The band were looking for a harder @-@ hitting rock sound than All That You Can 't Leave Behind . Thematically , Bono stated that " a lot of the songs are paeans to naiveté , a rejection of knowingness . " The first single , " Vertigo " , was featured in an internationally aired television commercial for the Apple iPod ; a U2 iPod and an iTunes @-@ exclusive U2 box set were released as part of a promotion with Apple . The album debuted at number one in the US , where first @-@ week sales of 840 @,@ 000 nearly doubled those of All That You Can 't Leave Behind , setting a personal best for the band . Claiming it as a contender as one of U2 's three best albums , Bono said , " There are no weak songs . But as an album , the whole isn 't greater than the sum of its parts , and it fucking annoys me . " The Vertigo Tour featured a setlist that varied more across dates than any U2 tour since the Lovetown Tour , and it included songs not played since the early 1980s . Like the Elevation Tour , the Vertigo Tour was a commercial success . The album and its singles won Grammy Awards in all eight categories in which U2 were nominated . In 2005 , Bruce Springsteen inducted U2 into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . A 3 @-@ D concert film , U2 3D , filmed at nine concerts during the Latin American and Australian legs of the Vertigo Tour was released in theatres on 23 January 2008 .
In August 2006 , the band incorporated its publishing business in the Netherlands following the capping of Irish artists ' tax exemption at € 250 @,@ 000 . The Edge stated that businesses often seek to minimise their tax burdens . The move was criticised in the Irish parliament . The band defended themselves , saying approximately 95 % of their business took place outside Ireland , that they were taxed globally because of this , and that they were all " personal investors and employers in the country " . Bono would later say , " I think U2 's tax business is our own business and I think it is not just to the letter of the law but to the spirit of the law . "
= = = No Line on the Horizon and U2 360 ° Tour ( 2006 – 2013 ) = = =
Recording for U2 's twelfth album , No Line on the Horizon , began with producer Rick Rubin in 2006 , but the sessions were short @-@ lived and the material was shelved . In May 2007 , the group began new sessions with Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois in Fez , Morocco , involving the producers in the songwriting process . Intending to write " future hymns " — songs that would be played forever — the group spent two weeks recording in a riad and exploring North African music . In March 2008 , the band signed a 12 @-@ year deal with Live Nation worth an estimated $ 100 million ( £ 50 million ) , which includes Live Nation controlling the band 's merchandise , sponsoring , and their official website . Recording on the album lasted through December 2008 in the US , the UK , and Ireland . Intended as a more experimental work than their previous two albums , No Line on the Horizon was released in February 2009 and received generally positive reviews , including their first five @-@ star Rolling Stone review . Critics , however , did not find it to be as experimental as originally billed . The album debuted at number one in over 30 countries , but its sales of 5 million were seen as a disappointment by U2 standards and it did not contain a hit single .
The group embarked on the U2 360 ° Tour in June 2009 . The concerts featured the band playing stadiums " in the round " on a circular stage , allowing the audience to surround them on all sides . To accommodate the stage configuration , a large four @-@ legged structure nicknamed " The Claw " was built above the stage , with the sound system and a cylindrical , expanding video screen on top of it . At 50 meters ( 165 feet ) tall , it was the largest stage ever constructed . The tour visited Europe and North America in 2009 . At year 's end , Rolling Stone named U2 one of eight " Artists of the Decade " . The group 's tours ranked them second in total concert grosses for the decade behind only the Rolling Stones , although U2 had a significantly higher attendance figure . They were the only band in the top 25 touring acts of the 2000s to sell out every show they played . U2 resumed the 360 ° Tour in 2010 with legs in Europe , Australia , and New Zealand . However , their scheduled headline appearance at the Glastonbury Festival 2010 and their North American leg that year were postponed following a serious injury to Bono 's back . These appearances were rescheduled for 2011 after the South African and South American legs of the tour . By its conclusion in July 2011 , U2 360 ° had set records for the highest @-@ grossing concert tour with $ 736 million in ticket sales , and for the highest @-@ attended tour with over 7 @.@ 2 million tickets sold .
Following the release of No Line on the Horizon , U2 announced tentative plans for a follow @-@ up record of songs from the album 's sessions entitled Songs of Ascent . Bono described the project as " a meditative , reflective piece of work " with the theme of pilgrimage . However , the group could not complete it to their satisfaction , and ultimately it did not come to fruition . The band continued to work on other album projects , including a traditional rock album produced by Danger Mouse and a dance @-@ centric album produced by RedOne and will.i.am.
= = = Songs of Innocence and Innocence + Experience Tour ( 2013 – present ) = = =
U2 suspended work on their next album late in 2013 to contribute a new song , " Ordinary Love " , to the film Mandela : Long Walk to Freedom . The track , written in honour of Nelson Mandela , won the 2014 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song . In November 2013 , U2 's long @-@ time manager Paul McGuinness stepped down from his post as part of a deal with Live Nation to acquire his management firm , Principle Management . McGuinness , who had managed U2 for over 30 years , was succeeded by Guy Oseary . In February 2014 , another new song , the single " Invisible " , was debuted in a Super Bowl television advertisement and was made available in the iTunes Store at no cost to launch a partnership with Product Red and Bank of America to fight AIDS . Bono called the track a " sneak preview " of its pending record .
On 9 September 2014 , U2 announced their thirteenth studio album , Songs of Innocence , at an Apple product launch event , and released it digitally the same day to all iTunes Store customers at no cost . The release made the album available to over 500 million iTunes customers in what Apple CEO Tim Cook called " the largest album release of all time . " Apple reportedly paid Universal Music Group and U2 a lump sum for a five @-@ week exclusivity period in which to distribute the album and spent $ 100 million on a promotional campaign . Produced by Danger Mouse with Paul Epworth , Ryan Tedder , Declan Gaffney and long @-@ time collaborator Flood , Songs of Innocence recalls the group members ' youth in Ireland , touching on childhood experiences , loves and losses , while paying tribute to musical inspirations . Bono described it as " the most personal album we 've written . " The record received mixed reviews and drew criticism for its digital release strategy ; it was automatically added to users ' iTunes accounts , which for many , triggered an unprompted download to their devices . Chris Richards of The Washington Post called the release " rock @-@ and @-@ roll as dystopian junk mail " . The group 's press tour for the album was interrupted after Bono was seriously injured in a bicycle accident in Central Park on 16 November 2014 . He suffered fractures of his shoulder blade , humerus , orbit , and pinky finger , leading to uncertainty that he would ever be able to play guitar again .
Following Bono 's recuperation , U2 embarked on the Innocence + Experience Tour in May 2015 . Comprising 76 shows , the tour visited arenas in North America and Europe from May through December . The group structured their concerts around a loose autobiographical narrative of " innocence " passing into " experience " , with a fixed set of songs for the first half of each show and a varying second half , separated by an intermission — a first for U2 concerts . The stage spanned the length of the venue floor and was divided into three sections : a rectangular main stage , a smaller circular B @-@ stage , and a walkway between them . A 96 @-@ foot @-@ long double @-@ sided video screen was suspended above and parallel to the walkway ; the structure featured an interior catwalk between the screens , allowing the band members to perform amidst the video projections . U2 's sound system was moved to the venue ceilings and arranged in an oval array , in hopes of improving acoustics by evenly distributing sound throughout the arena . In total , the tour grossed $ 152 @.@ 2 million from 1 @.@ 29 million tickets sold . The final date of the tour , one of two Paris shows rescheduled due to the 13 November 2015 attacks in the city , was filmed for the video Innocence + Experience : Live in Paris and broadcast on the American television network HBO .
= = Musical style = =
= = = Instrumentation = = =
Since their inception , U2 have developed and maintained a distinctly recognisable sound , with emphasis on melodic instrumentals and expressive , larger @-@ than @-@ life vocals . This approach is rooted partly in the early influence of record producer Steve Lillywhite at a time when the band was not known for musical proficiency . The Edge has consistently used a rhythmic echo and a signature delay to craft his distinctive guitar work , coupled with an Irish @-@ influenced drone played against his syncopated melodies that ultimately yields a well @-@ defined ambient , chiming sound . Bono has nurtured his falsetto operatic voice and has exhibited a notable lyrical bent towards social , political , and personal subject matter while maintaining a grandiose scale in his songwriting . In addition , the Edge has described U2 as a fundamentally live band .
Despite these broad consistencies , U2 have introduced brand new elements into their musical repertoire with each new album . U2 's early sound was influenced by bands such as Television and Joy Division , and has been described as containing a " sense of exhilaration " that resulted from the Edge 's " radiant chords " and Bono 's " ardent vocals " . U2 's sound began with post @-@ punk roots and minimalistic and uncomplicated instrumentals heard on Boy and October , but evolved through War to include aspects of rock anthem , funk , and dance rhythms to become more versatile and aggressive . Boy and War were labelled " muscular and assertive " by Rolling Stone , influenced in large part by Lillywhite 's producing . The Unforgettable Fire , which began with the Edge playing more keyboards than guitars , as well as follow @-@ up The Joshua Tree , had Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois at the production helm . With their influence , both albums achieved a " diverse texture " . The songs from The Joshua Tree and Rattle and Hum placed more emphasis on Lanois @-@ inspired rhythm as they mixed distinct and varied styles of gospel and blues music , which stemmed from the band 's burgeoning fascination with America 's culture , people and places . In the 1990s , U2 reinvented themselves as they began using synthesisers , distortion , and electronic beats derived from alternative rock , industrial music , dance , and hip @-@ hop on Achtung Baby , Zooropa , and Pop . In the 2000s , U2 returned to a more stripped @-@ down sound , with more conventional rhythms and reduced usage of synthesisers and effects .
= = = Lyrics and themes = = =
U2 's lyrics are known for their social and political commentary , and are often embellished with Christian and spiritual imagery . Songs such as " Sunday Bloody Sunday " , " Silver and Gold " , and " Mothers of the Disappeared " were motivated by current events of the time . The first was written about the Troubles in Northern Ireland , while the last concerns the struggle of a group of women whose children were killed or forcibly disappeared at the hands of the El Salvadoran government during the country 's civil war . The song " Running to Stand Still " from The Joshua Tree was inspired by the heroin addiction that was sweeping through Dublin — the lyric " I see seven towers , but I only see one way out " references the Ballymun Towers of Northern Dublin and the imagery throughout the song personifies the struggles of addiction .
Bono 's personal conflicts and turmoil inspired songs like " Mofo " , " Tomorrow " and " Kite " . An emotional yearning or pleading frequently appears as a lyrical theme , in tracks such as " Yahweh " , " Peace on Earth " , and " Please " . Much of U2 's songwriting and music is also motivated by contemplations of loss and anguish , coupled with hopefulness and resiliency , themes that are central to The Joshua Tree . Some of these lyrical ideas have been amplified by Bono and the band 's personal experiences during their youth in Ireland , as well as Bono 's campaigning and activism later in his life . U2 have used tours such as Zoo TV and PopMart to caricature social trends , such as media overload and consumerism , respectively .
While the band and its fans often affirm the political nature of their music , U2 's lyrics and music have been criticised as apolitical because of their vagueness and " fuzzy imagery " , and a lack of any specific references to actual people or characters .
= = = Influences = = =
The band cites the Who , the Clash , Television , Ramones , the Beatles , Joy Division , Siouxsie and the Banshees , Elvis Presley , Patti Smith , and Kraftwerk as influences . In addition , Van Morrison has been cited by Bono as an influence and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame points out his influence on U2 . U2 have also worked with and / or had influential relationships with artists including Johnny Cash , Green Day , Leonard Cohen , Bruce Springsteen , B.B. King , Lou Reed and Luciano Pavarotti .
= = Campaigning and activism = =
Since the early 1980s , the members of U2 — as a band and individually — have collaborated with other musicians , artists , celebrities , and politicians to address issues concerning poverty , disease , and social injustice .
In 1984 , Bono and Adam Clayton participated in Band Aid to raise money for the 1983 – 85 famine in Ethiopia . This initiative produced the hit charity single " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " , which would be the first among several collaborations between U2 and Bob Geldof . In July 1985 , U2 played Live Aid , a follow @-@ up to Band Aid 's efforts . Bono and his wife Ali , invited by World Vision , later visited Ethiopia where they witnessed the famine first hand . Bono would later say this laid the groundwork for his Africa campaigning and some of his songwriting .
In 1986 , U2 participated in the A Conspiracy of Hope tour in support of Amnesty International and in Self Aid for unemployment in Ireland . The same year , Bono and Ali Hewson also visited Nicaragua and El Salvador at the invitation of the Sanctuary movement , and saw the effects of the El Salvador Civil War . These 1986 events greatly influenced The Joshua Tree album , which was being recorded at the time .
In 1992 , the band participated in the " Stop Sellafield " concert with Greenpeace during their Zoo TV tour . Events in Sarajevo during the Bosnian War inspired the song " Miss Sarajevo " , which premiered at a September 1995 Pavarotti and Friends show , and which Bono and the Edge performed at War Child . A promise made in 1993 was kept when the band played in Sarajevo as part of 1997 's PopMart Tour . In 1998 , they performed in Belfast days prior to the vote on the Good Friday Agreement , bringing Northern Irish political leaders David Trimble and John Hume on stage to promote the agreement . Later that year , all proceeds from the release of the " Sweetest Thing " single went towards supporting the Chernobyl Children 's Project .
In 2001 , the band dedicated " Walk On " to Burma 's pro @-@ democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi . In late 2003 , Bono and the Edge participated in the South Africa HIV / AIDS awareness 46664 series of concerts hosted by Nelson Mandela . The band played 2005 's Live 8 concert in London . The band and manager Paul McGuinness were awarded Amnesty International 's Ambassador of Conscience Award for their work in promoting human rights .
Since 2000 , Bono 's campaigning has included Jubilee 2000 with Bob Geldof , Muhammad Ali , and others to promote the cancellation of third @-@ world debt during the Great Jubilee . In January 2002 , Bono co @-@ founded the multinational NGO DATA , with the aim of improving the social , political , and financial state of Africa . He continued his campaigns for debt and HIV / AIDS relief into June 2002 by making high @-@ profile visits to Africa .
Product Red , a 2006 for @-@ profit brand seeking to raise money for the Global Fund , was founded , in part , by Bono . The ONE Campaign , originally the US counterpart of Make Poverty History , was shaped by his efforts and vision .
In late 2005 , following Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita , the Edge helped introduce Music Rising , an initiative to raise funds for musicians who lost their instruments in the storm @-@ ravaged Gulf Coast . In 2006 , U2 collaborated with pop punk band Green Day to record a remake of the song " The Saints Are Coming " by The Skids to benefit Music Rising . A live version of the song recorded at the Louisiana Superdome was released on the single .
At the 3rd iHeartRadio Music Awards in April 2016 , U2 were honored with the Innovator Award for " their impact on popular culture and commitment to social causes . "
U2 's and Bono 's social activism have not been without its critics , however . Several authors and activists who publish in politically left journals such as CounterPunch have decried Bono for allowing his celebrity to be co @-@ opted by an association with political figures such as Paul Wolfowitz , as well as his " essential paternalism " . Other news sources have more generally questioned the efficacy of Bono 's campaign to relieve debt and provide assistance to Africa . Tax and development campaigners have also criticised the band 's move from Ireland to the Netherlands to reduce its tax bill .
= = Other projects = =
The members of U2 have undertaken a number of side projects , sometimes in collaboration with some of their bandmates . In 1985 , Bono recorded the song " In a Lifetime " with the Irish band Clannad . The Edge recorded a solo soundtrack album for the film Captive in 1986 , which included a vocal performance by Sinéad O 'Connor that predates her own debut album by a year . Bono and the Edge wrote the song " She 's a Mystery to Me " for Roy Orbison , which was featured on his 1989 album Mystery Girl . In 1990 , Bono and the Edge provided the soundtrack to the Royal Shakespeare Company London stage version of A Clockwork Orange ( one track , " Alex Descends into Hell for a Bottle of Milk / Korova 1 " , was on the b @-@ side to " The Fly " single ) . That same year , Mullen co @-@ wrote and produced a song for the Republic of Ireland national football team in time for the 1990 FIFA World Cup , called " Put ' Em Under Pressure " , which topped the Irish charts for 13 weeks .
Together with the Edge , Bono wrote the song " GoldenEye " for the 1995 James Bond film GoldenEye , which was performed by Tina Turner . Clayton and Mullen reworked the " Theme from Mission : Impossible " for the franchise 's 1996 film . Bono loaned his voice to " Joy " on Mick Jagger 's 2001 album Goddess in the Doorway . Bono also recorded a spare , nearly spoken @-@ word version of Leonard Cohen 's " Hallelujah " for the Tower of Song compilation in 1995 . Additionally , in 1998 , Bono collaborated with Kirk Franklin and Crystal Lewis along with R. Kelly and Mary J. Blige for a successful gospel song called " Lean on Me " .
Aside from musical collaborations , U2 have worked with several authors . American author William S. Burroughs had a guest appearance in U2 's video for " Last Night on Earth " shortly before he died . His poem " A Thanksgiving Prayer " was used as video footage during the band 's Zoo TV Tour . Other collaborators include William Gibson and Allen Ginsberg . In early 2000 , the band recorded three songs for The Million Dollar Hotel movie soundtrack , including " The Ground Beneath Her Feet " , which was co @-@ written by Salman Rushdie and motivated by his book of the same name .
In 2007 , Bono appeared in the movie Across the Universe and performed Beatles songs . Bono and the Edge also wrote the music and lyrics for the Broadway musical Spider @-@ Man : Turn Off the Dark . Additionally , the Edge created the theme song for Season 1 and 2 of the animated television series The Batman .
= = Legacy = =
U2 have sold more than 170 million records , placing them among the best @-@ selling music artists in history . With 52 million certified units by the RIAA , U2 rank as the 21st @-@ highest @-@ selling music artist in the US . The group 's fifth studio album The Joshua Tree is one of the best @-@ selling albums in the US ( 10 million copies shipped ) and worldwide ( 25 million copies sold ) . Forbes estimates that U2 earned US $ 78 million between May 2011 and May 2012 , making them the fourth @-@ highest @-@ paid musical artist . According to Billboard Boxscore , the band grossed $ 1 @.@ 67 billion in ticket sales from 1990 to 2016 , second only to the Rolling Stones . The Sunday Times Rich List 2013 estimated the group 's collective wealth at € 632 @,@ 535 @,@ 925 .
Rolling Stone placed U2 at number 22 on its list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " , while ranking Bono the 32nd @-@ greatest singer and the Edge the 38th @-@ greatest guitarist . In 2004 , Q ranked U2 as the fourth @-@ biggest band in a list compiled based on album sales , time spent on the UK charts , and largest audience for a headlining show . A 2011 readers ' poll in Q named U2 the Greatest Act of the Last 25 Years . VH1 placed U2 at number 19 on its 2010 list of " The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . In 2010 , eight of U2 's songs appeared on Rolling Stone 's updated list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , with " One " ranking the highest at number 36 . Five of the group 's twelve studio albums were ranked on the magazine 's 2012 list of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " — The Joshua Tree placed the highest at number 26 . Reflecting on the band 's popularity and worldwide impact , Jeff Pollack for The Huffington Post said , " like The Who before them , U2 wrote songs about things that were important and resonated with their audience " .
U2 received their first Grammy Award in 1988 for The Joshua Tree , and they have won 22 in total out of 34 nominations , more than any other group . These include Best Rock Duo or Group , Album of the Year , Record of the Year , Song of the Year and Best Rock Album . The British Phonographic Industry has awarded U2 seven BRIT Awards , five of these being for Best International Group . In Ireland , U2 have won 14 Meteor Awards since the awards began in 2001 . Other awards include one AMA , four VMAs , eleven Q Awards , two Juno Awards , three NME Awards , and two Golden Globe Awards . The band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in early 2005 . In 2006 , all four members of the band received ASCAP awards for writing the songs , " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " and " Vertigo " .
= = Members = =
Principal members
Bono – lead vocals , rhythm guitar , harmonica ( 1976 – present )
The Edge – lead guitar , keyboards , backing vocals ( 1976 – present )
Adam Clayton – bass guitar ( 1976 – present )
Larry Mullen Jr . – drums , percussion ( 1976 – present )
Early members ( pre @-@ U2 )
Dik Evans – guitar ( 1976 – 1978 )
Ivan McCormick – guitar ( 1976 )
Peter Martin – guitar ( 1976 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Boy ( 1980 )
October ( 1981 )
War ( 1983 )
The Unforgettable Fire ( 1984 )
The Joshua Tree ( 1987 )
Rattle and Hum ( 1988 )
Achtung Baby ( 1991 )
Zooropa ( 1993 )
Pop ( 1997 )
All That You Can 't Leave Behind ( 2000 )
How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb ( 2004 )
No Line on the Horizon ( 2009 )
Songs of Innocence ( 2014 )
= = Tours = =
Dennis Sheehan was U2 's tour manager for over 30 years until his death in May 2015 .
U2 @-@ 3 Tour ( 1979 – 1980 )
11 O 'Clock Tick Tock Tour ( 1980 )
Boy Tour ( 1980 – 1981 )
October Tour ( 1981 – 1982 )
War Tour ( 1982 – 1983 )
The Unforgettable Fire Tour ( 1984 – 1985 )
The Joshua Tree Tour ( 1987 )
Lovetown Tour ( 1989 – 1990 )
Zoo TV Tour ( 1992 – 1993 )
PopMart Tour ( 1997 – 1998 )
Elevation Tour ( 2001 )
Vertigo Tour ( 2005 – 2006 )
U2 360 ° Tour ( 2009 – 2011 )
Innocence +
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section of the crowd . A new clubhouse , also containing a grassroots football and education centre , was completed in 2010 . The ground is fully enclosed by fencing and there are turnstiles at the main entrance .
A.F.C. Sudbury sold Sudbury Town 's former ground , the Priory Stadium , to a housing developer in June 2007 . The money from this sale was earmarked for paying off loans , and capital gains tax , as well as a new clubhouse and changing rooms . Planning permission for the construction of the new facilities was granted by Babergh District Council in August 2008 , though various conditions regarding issues such as possible land contamination , the site 's archaeological value , risk of flooding and drainage are required to be addressed before work may commence .
A 3G artificial turf pitch was installed prior to the 2015 – 16 season .
= = Honours = =
Isthmian League
Division One North champions : 2015 – 16
Eastern Counties League
Premier Division Champions : 2000 – 01 , 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03 , 2003 – 04 , 2004 – 05
League Cup winners : 2006
Suffolk Premier Cup
Winners : 2002 , 2003 , 2004
= = Records = =
Best FA Cup performance : First round proper , 2000 – 01
Best FA Trophy performance : First round , 2006 – 07 , 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11 , 2014 – 15
Goalscorer : Gary Bennett , 172
Appearances : Paul Betson , 376
= Cyclura nubila =
The Cuban rock iguana ( Cyclura nubila ) , also known as the Cuban ground iguana or Cuban iguana , is a species of lizard of the iguana family . It is the largest of the West Indian rock iguanas ( genus Cyclura ) , one of the most endangered groups of lizards . This herbivorous species with red eyes , a thick tail , and spiked jowls is one of the largest lizards in the Caribbean .
The Cuban iguana is distributed throughout the rocky southern coastal areas of mainland Cuba and its surrounding islets with a feral population thriving on Isla Magueyes , Puerto Rico . A subspecies is found on the Cayman Islands of Little Cayman and Cayman Brac . Females guard their nest sites and often nest in sites excavated by Cuban crocodiles . As a defense measure , the Cuban iguana often makes its home within or near prickly @-@ pear cacti .
Although the wild population is in decline because of predation by feral animals and habitat loss caused by human agricultural development , the numbers of iguanas have been bolstered as a result of captive @-@ breeding and other conservation programs . Cyclura nubila has been used to study evolution and animal communication , and its captive @-@ breeding program has been a model for other endangered lizards in the Caribbean .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Cuban rock iguana 's generic name Cyclura is derived from the Ancient Greek cyclos ( κύκλος ) meaning " circular " and ourá ( οὐρά ) meaning " tail " , after the thick @-@ ringed tail characteristic of all Cyclura . John Edward Gray , the British zoologist who first described the species in 1831 as Iguana ( Cyclura ) nubila or " Clouded Guana " , gave it the specific name nubila , Latin for " cloudy " .
The closest relatives of Cyclura nubila are the Grand Cayman blue iguana ( Cyclura lewisi ) and the Northern Bahamian rock iguana ( Cyclura cychlura ) ; phylogenetic analysis indicates that these three species diverged from a common ancestor three million years ago .
Cyclura nubila was previously considered to have three subspecies , the Grand Cayman blue iguana ( termed Cyclura nubila lewisi ) , the Lesser Caymans iguana ( Cyclura nubila caymanensis ) , and the nominate Cuban subspecies ( Cyclura nubila nubila ) . This classification was revised after later mitochondrial DNA analysis and research into the scalation patterns on the heads of Caribbean iguanid lizards ( these patterns are unique by species and act as a " fingerprint " of sorts ) . The Grand Cayman blue iguana is now recognized as a separate species .
= = Anatomy and morphology = =
The Cuban iguana is a large lizard , with an average body length of 40 centimeters ( 16 in ) from snout to vent ( the base of the tail ) . On rare occasions , individual males with lengths of 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) when measured from the snout to the tip of the tail have been recorded at the wildlife sanctuary within the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base ( GTMO ) , Cuba with females being two thirds that size . The species is sexually dimorphic : males are much larger than females , and males have enlarged femoral pores on their thighs , which are used to release pheromones to attract mates and mark territory . The skin of male Cuban iguanas ranges in color from dark gray to brick red , whereas that of females is olive green with dark stripes or bands . In both sexes , limbs are black with pale brown oval spots and solid black feet . Young animals tend to be dark brown or green with faint darker striping or mottling in five to ten diagonal transverse bands on the body . These bands blend in with the body color as the iguana ages . Both sexes possess a dewlap ( skin hanging below the neck ) and a row of spines running down their back to their thick tail . Their heads and necks are short and stout , their teeth are solid and broad , and they have powerful jaw muscles . Their jowls , which grow larger as the animal ages , are covered in spiky protuberances called tubercles .
The Cuban iguana 's eyes have a golden iris and red sclera . Cuban iguanas have excellent vision and the ability to detect shapes and movement at long distances . Sensory cells called " double cones " give them sharp color vision and enable them to see ultraviolet wavelengths . By seeking out locations with more ultraviolet sunlight to bask in , the Cuban iguana optimizes vitamin D production . Cuban iguanas have poor low @-@ light vision , because they have few rods or photoreceptor cells . Like other iguanids , Cuban iguanas have a white photosensory organ on the top of their heads , called the parietal eye . This " eye " has only a rudimentary retina and lens and cannot form images , but it is sensitive to changes in light and can detect movement .
= = Diet = =
Like all Cyclura species , the Cuban iguana is primarily herbivorous ; 95 % of its diet consists of the leaves , flowers and fruits from as many as 30 plant species , including the seaside rock shrub ( Rachicallis americana ) , thistle , prickly pear ( Opuntia stricta ) , black mangrove ( Avicennia germinans ) , red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle ) , olives , and various grasses . Aiding in the digestion of this high @-@ cellulose diet , colonies of nematodes occupy 50 % of the contents of Cuban iguanas ' large intestines . Cuban iguanas occasionally consume animal matter , and individuals have been observed scavenging the corpses of birds , fish and crabs . Researchers on Isla Magueyes observed a single episode of cannibalism in 2006 when an adult female iguana chased , caught , and ate a hatchling . The researchers wrote that the dense population on Isla Magueyes could have caused this incident .
Like other herbivorous lizards , the Cuban iguana is presented with a problem for osmoregulation : plant matter contains more potassium and has less nutritional content per gram than meat so more must be eaten to meet the lizard 's metabolic needs . Unlike those of mammals , reptile kidneys cannot concentrate urine to save on water intake . Instead , reptiles excrete toxic nitrogenous wastes as solid uric acid through their cloaca . In the case of the Cuban iguana , which consumes large amounts of vegetation , these excess salt ions are excreted through the salt gland in the same manner as in birds .
= = Mating and behavior = =
Cuban iguanas reach sexual maturity at an age of two to three years . Males are gregarious when immature , but become more aggressive as they age , vigorously defending territories in competition for females . Females are more tolerant of each other , except after laying their eggs .
Mating occurs in May and June , and females lay single clutches of three to 30 eggs in June or July . According to field research , females deposit their eggs at the same nesting sites each year . The nests are built near each other as suitable nesting sites are becoming rare . On Cuba 's Isla de la Juventud , Cuban iguanas nest in pockets of earth exposed to the sun by Cuban crocodiles , after the crocodiles ' eggs have hatched . These nests are separate from where adult iguanas live . In areas without crocodiles , the iguanas excavate nests in sandy beaches . At the San Diego Zoo , a female built a nest at the end of a long chamber she excavated in the sand . She stood near it for weeks , defending it by shaking her head and hissing at anyone who approached ; this behavior demonstrated that Cuban iguanas guard their nest sites . The hatchlings spend several days to two weeks in the nest chamber from the time they hatch to the time they emerge from the nests ; dispersing individually after emergence .
Although Cuban iguanas typically remain still for long periods of time and have a slow lumbering gait due to their body mass , they are capable of quick bursts of speed for short distances . Younger animals are more arboreal and will seek refuge in trees , which they can climb with great agility . The animal is a capable swimmer and will take to nearby water if threatened . When cornered they can bite and lash their tails in defense .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Cuban iguana is naturally distributed in rocky coastal areas on Cuba and throughout as many as 4 @,@ 000 islets surrounding the Cuban mainland , including Isla de la Juventud off the southern coast , which has one of the most robust populations . Relatively safe populations are found on some islets along the north and south coasts and in isolated protected areas on the mainland . These include Guanahacabibes Biosphere Reserve in the west , Desembarco del Granma National Park , Hatibonico Wildlife Refuge , Punta Negra @-@ Quemados Ecological Reserve , and Delta del Cauto Wildlife Refuge , all in eastern Cuba . Because of this wide distribution , accurate information about the number of distinct subpopulations of Cuban iguanas cannot be determined . The population on the US Naval Base at Guantánamo Bay has been estimated at 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 individuals , and the animals are treated well and protected by US forces stationed at the base . An unusual incident occurred when a detainee in the prison assaulted a guard with a bloody tail torn from a Cuban iguana in May 2005 .
The subspecies , Cyclura nubila caymanensis , is endemic to the " Sister Islands " of Little Cayman and Cayman Brac . The population on Cayman Brac is less than 50 of these animals and Little Cayman supports 1 @,@ 500 . A feral population of C. n. caymanensis has been established on Grand Cayman .
The Cuban iguana makes its burrow near cacti or thistles , sometimes even within the cactus itself . These thorny plants offer protection and their fruit and flowers offer the iguanas food . In areas without cacti , the lizards make their burrows in dead trees , hollow logs , and limestone crevices .
In the mid @-@ 1960s a small group of Cuban iguanas was released from a zoo on Isla Magueyes , southwest of Puerto Rico , forming an independent free @-@ ranging feral population . As of 2000 , there has been talk of removing or relocating this population of iguanas by the US Department of Interior . This feral population is the source for 90 % of the captive Cuban iguanas held in private collections and was the source for part of a study on animal communication and evolution conducted by Emilia Martins , a biologist at Indiana University .
Emilia Martins ' 1998 study compared the head @-@ bob displays from the source population on Cuba with these animals on Isla Magueyes . The durations and pauses were longer by as much as 350 % in the feral population . In comparison , the blue iguana of Grand Cayman 's head @-@ bob displays differed from those of the animals on Cuba by only about 20 % . The rapid change in display structure between the colony of animals on Isla Magueyes and those on Cuba illustrated the potential of small founding population size as a catalyst to evolution with regard to communication or display . In this case the difference was by only six generations at most .
= = Conservation = =
The Cuban iguana is well @-@ established in public and private collections . Many zoological parks and private individuals keep them in captive breeding programs , minimizing the demand for wild @-@ caught specimens for the pet trade . Cuban iguanas are listed as " vulnerable " on the IUCN Red List , as is the predominant Cuban subspecies , while the Cayman Island subspecies is " critically endangered " . The total population in Cuba is estimated at between 40 @,@ 000 and 60 @,@ 000 individuals , and the feral population on Isla Magueyes is estimated at over 1 @,@ 000 . According to Allison Alberts , Chief Conservation Officer of the San Diego Zoo and lead researcher in Cuba , among the many wildlife species at GTMO , " The Cuban Iguana is one of the largest , undoubtedly the most visible , and certainly the most charismatic . It seems that no one completes a tour of duty at GTMO without getting to know these prehistoric @-@ looking giants . "
In a round @-@ about way , the Cuban iguana 's status under the US Endangered Species Act made its way into US jurisprudence . In the fall of 2003 , attorney Tom Wilner needed to persuade the justices of the US Supreme Court to take the case of a dozen Kuwaiti detainees being held in isolation in Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , without charges , without a hearing and without access to a lawyer . According to Peter Honigsberg , a professor of law at the University of San Francisco , Wilner unsuccessfully made two arguments before the Court to hear his case ; in his third argument he changed tactics by mentioning US law and the Cuban iguana . Wilner argued , " Anyone , including a federal official , who violates the Endangered Species Act by harming an iguana at Guantanamo , can be fined and prosecuted . Yet the government argues that US law does not apply to protect the human prisoners there " . According to Honigsberg , the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case because of this argument .
= = = Decline = = =
In general the species is in decline , more quickly on the mainland than on the outlying islets . The Cuban mainland populations have been declining at a rate of over 1 % per year for the last 10 years . The Cuban iguana is no longer found on the northeastern coast of Havana , the Hicacos Peninsula , or Cayo Largo , areas where it was found in great numbers some 30 to 40 years ago .
As opposed to other West Indian islands where iguanids are found , consumption of iguana meat is not widespread in Cuba . Certain fishing communities do practice it for subsistence , but for the most part the animal is not eaten by Cubans . According to naturalist Thomas Barbour , this is based on unfounded superstitious beliefs which suggest that the iguanas emit a dark fluid reminiscent of the black vomit of yellow fever victims when they are killed . One of the reasons for their decline is habitat destruction caused by the overgrazing of farm animals , housing development , and the building of tourist resorts on the beaches where the animals prefer to build their nests . Populations of iguanas suffer by the direct predation of introduced animals such as rats , cats , and dogs . Feral hogs are responsible for destroying many iguana nest sites which they dig up for eggs . Ant predation of iguana eggs is another threat to the species .
= = = Recovery = = =
All but one of the major iguana concentrations are either partially or fully protected by the Cuban government . Although no captive @-@ breeding program exists within Cuba , the Centro Nacional de Areas Protegidas ( the National Center for Protected Areas ) has suggested it will explore this route in the future . In 1985 the Cuban government issued a commemorative peso depicting a Cuban iguana on the head side of the coin in an attempt to raise awareness for this animal .
In 1993 the San Diego Zoo experimentally tested the utility of a " head @-@ starting " program for newly hatched Cuban iguanas with funding from the National Science Foundation 's Conservation and Restoration Biology Program . " Head @-@ starting " is a process by which the Cuban iguana 's eggs are hatched in an incubator and the animals are protected and fed for the first 20 months of their lives . The purpose is to get the animals to a size where they are more capable of fleeing from or fighting off predators . This technique was originally used to protect hatchling sea turtles , Galapagos land iguanas , and Ctenosaura bakeri on the island of Útila , but Alberts used it for the first time on a Cyclura species with the Cuban iguana . The purpose was not only to help the Cuban iguana population , but to test the overall effectiveness of headstarting as a conservation strategy for more critically endangered species of Cyclura .
The strategy proved successful , according to Alberts , when the released head @-@ started iguanas reacted to predators , foraged for food , and behaved like their wild @-@ born counterparts . This strategy has been implemented with great success with other critically endangered species of Cyclura and Ctenosaura throughout the West Indies and Central America , notably the Jamaican iguana , Grand Cayman blue iguana , Ricord 's iguana , Allen Cays iguana , Acklins ground iguana , and Anegada iguana .
= Thetford Castle =
Thetford Castle is a medieval motte and bailey castle in the market town of Thetford in the Breckland area of Norfolk , England . The first castle in Thetford , a probable 11th century Norman ringwork called Red Castle , was replaced in the 12th century by a much larger motte and bailey castle on the other side of the town . This new castle was largely destroyed in 1173 by Henry II , although the huge motte , the second largest man @-@ made mound in England , remained intact . The motte , recognised as a scheduled monument , now forms part of a local park , and the remains are known variously as Castle Hill , Castle Mound and Military Parade .
= = History = =
= = = 11th century = = =
In the 11th century the largest towns in England were concentrated in the east and south @-@ east of the country , especially in East Anglia . Thetford was an important settlement during the period and the second largest town in East Anglia . Thetford comes from " Thaetford " , or " the ford " , and was a key point on the ancient Icknield Way . Thetford was also an important international trading hub and a centre of pottery production . An earth and timber fort had been built on this site during the Iron Age period but had been left to decay and by the late Saxon era the town had been protected by a burgh , or ditched enclosure , that surrounded the town .
The first castle on the Thetford site was Red Castle and was probably built shortly after the Norman conquest of England by William de Warenne , the Earl of Surrey . The castle was a ringwork design and was positioned across the line of the defensive Saxon ditch , in the process enclosing and cutting off the local church from the inside of the town , and building over part of the local cemetery .
= = = 12th century = = =
By 1100 , the town of Thetford was controlled by Roger Bigod , the Earl of Norfolk . Roger Bigod decided to build a new motte and bailey castle , positioning it so as to guard both the town and the local crossing of the Icknield Way over the River Thet and the Little Ouse .
At the heart of the castle was a huge motte , or artificial mound , sunk into a deep surrounding ditch , and protected on the north site by two sets of complex ramparts , which were probably part of the original Iron Age fortifications of the site . At 19 @.@ 6 m ( 64 ft ) high - 22 m ( 72 ft ) from the base of the ditch - and 100 m ( 330 ft ) wide across the base , this is the second largest man @-@ made mound in England . The castle would have probably included a large timber keep on top of the motte , and a rectangular bailey fortification , approximately 105 by 95 m ( 344 by 312 ft ) , stretched away from the motte , exploiting the former Iron Age fortifications on one side . The new castle would have loomed over , and dominated , the former Saxon town .
The castle earthworks were built up from local chalk ; the ditches dug around the fortification would not have provided enough for the mound itself , and local tradition suggests that much of the earth was quarried instead from the nearby Gallows Pits in the town . The castle was constructed by hand , using workers digging with wooden shovels , and probably without pickaxes . It is estimated that the motte would have taken around 24 @,@ 000 man days of effort to build .
The Bigod family continued to build their grip on the region , taking advantage of their powerful castles at Thetford , Framlingham , Bungay , and Walton . Roger 's son , Hugh Bigod , played a prominent role during the civil war years of the Anarchy , rebelling against King Stephen from his strongholds in East Anglia . It appears likely that a stone wall had been built around the bailey around this time , and recent work has speculated that a stone keep was also erected on the site . At the end of the war , however , Henry II took the throne and attempted to restore royal power across the region . In 1157 , Henry seized Bigod 's castles ; he ultimately returned Framlingham and Bungay , but retained Thetford Castle for his own use . Hugh Bigod then joined the revolt by Henry 's sons , seizing the castle , but in 1173 Henry 's forces captured the castle and destroyed the fortifications . The mound , however , proved effectively indestructable .
= = = 13th – 20th centuries = = =
Thetford declined after the 12th century , and the castle rapidly became disused , although as late as 1558 , the Castle Yard was in use and still said to have been surrounded with a stone wall . In 1772 the east bank of the outer bailey was destroyed . In 1823 a group of elm trees were planted near the top of the mound .
Interest continued in the origins of the castle , which for a period were forgotten . Local medieval tradition suggested that the mound had been made by the devil , after he completed the dykes at Narborough and Newmarket , but by the Victorian period academics had concluded that the mound was either of Celtic or Norman origin , with late Victorian scholars correctly concluding that the Norman period was the most likely . Other traditions claimed that the mound covered a palace filled with treasure , or six silver bells from Thetford Priory . Archaeological investigations into Red Castle by G. Knocker between 1957 – 58 , and during the early 1960s by R. R. Clarke and Barbara Green revealed the design and date of this castle site .
= = = 21st century = = =
Today the motte is owned by the local authority and forms part of the Castle Park ; the castle bailey is now known as Military Parade . The site is a scheduled monument .
= Hip @-@ hop dance =
Hip @-@ hop dance refers to street dance styles primarily performed to hip @-@ hop music or that have evolved as part of hip @-@ hop culture . It includes a wide range of styles primarily breaking , locking , and popping which were created in the 1970s and made popular by dance crews in the United States . The television show Soul Train and the 1980s films Breakin ' , Beat Street , and Wild Style showcased these crews and dance styles in their early stages ; therefore , giving hip @-@ hop mainstream exposure . The dance industry responded with a commercial , studio @-@ based version of hip @-@ hop — sometimes called " new style " — and a hip @-@ hop influenced style of jazz dance called " jazz @-@ funk " . Classically trained dancers developed these studio styles in order to choreograph from the hip @-@ hop dances that were performed on the street . Because of this development , hip @-@ hop dance is practiced in both dance studios and outdoor spaces .
The commercialization of hip @-@ hop dance continued into the 1990s and 2000s with the production of several television shows and movies such as The Grind , Planet B @-@ Boy , Rize , StreetDance 3D , America 's Best Dance Crew , Saigon Electric , the Step Up film series , and The LXD , a web series . Though the dance is established in entertainment , including mild representation in theater , it maintains a strong presence in urban neighborhoods which has led to the creation of street dance derivatives Memphis jookin , turfing , jerkin ' , and krumping .
1980s films , television shows , and the Internet have contributed to introducing hip @-@ hop dance outside of the United States . Since being exposed , educational opportunities and dance competitions have helped maintain its presence worldwide . Europe hosts several international hip @-@ hop competitions such as the UK B @-@ Boy Championships , Juste Debout , and EuroBattle . Australia hosts a team @-@ based competition called World Supremacy Battlegrounds and Japan hosts a two @-@ on @-@ two competition called World Dance Colosseum .
What distinguishes hip @-@ hop from other forms of dance is that it is often " freestyle " ( improvisational ) in nature and hip @-@ hop dance crews often engage in freestyle dance competitions — colloquially referred to as " battles " . Crews , freestyling , and battles are identifiers of this style . Hip @-@ hop dance can be a form of entertainment or a hobby . It can also be a way to stay active in competitive dance and a way to make a living by dancing professionally .
= = History = =
Hip @-@ hop dance is a broad category that includes a variety of styles . The older dance styles that were created in the 1970s include uprock , breaking , and the funk styles . Breaking was created in The Bronx , New York , incorporating dances that were popular in the 1960s and early 1970s in African @-@ American and Latino communities . In its earliest form , it began as elaborations on James Brown 's " Good Foot " dance which came out in 1972 . Breaking at this period was not primarily floor @-@ oriented as seen today ; it started out as toprock which dancers perform while standing up . An influence on toprock was uprock which was created in Brooklyn , New York . Uprock looks similar to toprock , but it is more aggressive and looks like a fight . Uprock is also performed with partners , but in toprock — and in breaking in general — each person takes turns dancing . In 1973 , DJ Kool Herc invented the break beat . A break beat is a rhythmic , musical interlude of a song that has been looped over and over again to extend that instrumental solo . Kool Herc did this to provide a means for dancers who attended his parties to demonstrate their skills . B @-@ boy and b @-@ girl stands for " break @-@ boy " and " break @-@ girl " ; b @-@ boys and b @-@ girls dance to the break of a record . Further influenced by martial arts and gymnastics , breaking went from being a purely upright dance style — toprock only — to becoming more floor @-@ oriented .
At the same time breaking was developing in New York , other styles were being created in California . The funk styles refers to several street dance styles created in California in the 1970s such as roboting , bopping , hitting , locking , bustin ' , popping , electric boogaloo , strutting , sac @-@ ing , and dime @-@ stopping . Out of all of these dances , boogaloo is one of the oldest . It started out as a 1960s fad dance and was the subject of several songs released during that time such as " Do the Boogaloo " and " My Baby Likes to Boogaloo " . From being a fad , it developed into a dance style called electric boogaloo and a music genre called Latin boogaloo . The most popular and widely practiced of the funk styles are locking and popping . The television show Soul Train played a large role in giving these styles commercial exposure . Both The Lockers and The Electric Boogaloos — dance crews responsible for the spread of locking and popping — performed on this show .
It is historically inaccurate to say that the funk styles were always considered hip @-@ hop . The funk styles were adopted into hip @-@ hop in large part due to the media . Once hip @-@ hop activist and DJ , Afrika Bambaataa , used the word " hip @-@ hop " in a magazine interview in 1982 , " hip @-@ hop dance " became an umbrella term encompassing all of these styles . Due to the amount of attention locking and popping were receiving , the media brought these styles under the " breakdance " label causing confusion about their origin . They were created on the west coast independent from breaking and were originally danced to funk music rather than hip @-@ hop music .
As breaking , locking , and popping gained popularity in the 1980s , hip @-@ hop social dancing ( party dancing ) started to develop . Novelty and fad dances such as the Roger Rabbit , the Cabbage Patch , and the Worm appeared in the 1980s followed by the Humpty dance and the Running Man in the 1990s . The music of the day was the driving force in the development of these dances . For example , the 1980s rap group Gucci Crew II had a song called " The Cabbage Patch " that the dance of the same name was based on . 2000s era social dances include the Cha Cha Slide , the Cat Daddy , and the Dougie . The previously mentioned dances are a sample of the many that have appeared since hip @-@ hop developed into a distinct dance style . Like hip @-@ hop music , hip @-@ hop social dancing continues to change as new songs are released and new dances are created to accompany them .
= = Main styles = =
= = = Breaking = = =
Breaking was created in the South Bronx , New York City during the early 1970s . It is the first hip @-@ hop dance style . At the time of its creation , it was the only hip @-@ hop dance style because Afrika Bambaataa classified it as one of the five pillars of hip @-@ hop culture along with MCing ( rapping ) , DJing ( turntablism ) , graffiti writing , and knowledge . Though African Americans created breaking , Puerto Ricans maintained its growth and development when it was considered a fad in the late 1970s . In a 2001 interview Richard " Crazy Legs " Colón , the president of Rock Steady Crew , commented on how Puerto Ricans contributed to breaking : " I think the difference is when the brothas first started doing [ it ] and it was at its infancy they weren 't doing acrobatic moves . That didn 't come into play until more Puerto Ricans got involved in the mid 70s . We then took the dance , evolved it and kept it alive . In ' 79 I was getting dissed . I would go into a dance and I would get dissed by a lot of brothas who would ask ' Why y 'all still doing that dance ? That 's played out ' . By 79 , there were very few African American brothas that was doing this ... We always maintained the flava . It was like a changing of the guard and all we did was add more flava to something that already existed . " Breaking includes four foundational dances : toprock , footwork @-@ oriented steps performed while standing up ; downrock , footwork performed with both hands and feet on the floor ; freezes , stylish poses done on your hands ; and power moves , complex and impressive acrobatic moves . Transitions from toprock to downrock are called " drops . "
Traditionally , breakers dance within a cypher or an Apache Line . A cypher is a circular shaped dance space formed by spectators that breakers use to perform or battle in . Cyphers work well for one @-@ on @-@ one b @-@ boy ( break @-@ boy ) battles ; however , Apache Lines are more appropriate when the battle is between two crews — teams of street dancers . In contrast to the circular shape of a cypher , competing crews can face each other in this line formation , challenge each other , and execute their burns ( a move intended to humiliate the opponent , i.e. crotch grabbing ) .
= = = Locking = = =
Locking , originally called Campbellocking , was created in 1969 in Los Angeles , California by Don " Campbellock " Campbell and popularized by his crew The Lockers . In addition to Campbell , the original members of The Lockers were Fred " Mr. Penguin " Berry , Leo " Fluky Luke " Williamson , Adolfo " Shabba @-@ Doo " Quiñones , Bill " Slim the Robot " Williams , Greg " Campbellock Jr " Pope , and Toni Basil , who also served as the group 's manager . At the 2009 World Hip Hop Dance Championships , Basil became the first female recipient of the Living Legend Award in honor of her role in giving locking commercial exposure .
Locking looks similar to popping , and the two are frequently confused by the casual observer . In locking , dancers hold their positions longer . The lock is the primary move used in locking . It is " similar to a freeze or a sudden pause . " A locker 's dancing is characterized by frequently locking in place and after a brief freeze moving again . According to Dance Spirit magazine , a dancer cannot perform both locking and popping simultaneously ; thus , it is incorrect to call locking " pop @-@ locking " . While both styles originate in Los Angeles , locking and popping are two distinct funk styles with their own histories , their own set of dance moves , their own pioneers , and their own competition categories . Locking is more playful and character @-@ driven , whereas popping is more illusory . In popping , dancers push the boundaries of what they can do with their bodies . Locking has specific dance moves that distinguish it from popping and other funk styles . In the 2006 book Total Chaos , hip @-@ hop historian Jorge " Popmaster Fabel " Pabon lists some of these moves which include " the lock , points , skeeter [ rabbits ] , scooby doos , stop ' n go , which @-@ away , and the fancies . " In addition , Lockers commonly use a distinctive dress style , such as colorful clothing with stripes and suspenders .
= = = Popping = = =
Popping was created in Fresno , California in the 1970s and popularized by Samuel " Boogaloo Sam " Solomon and his crew the Electric Boogaloos . It is based on the technique of quickly contracting and relaxing muscles to cause a jerk in a dancer 's body , referred to as a pop or a hit . When performed correctly , each hit is synchronized to the rhythm and beats of the music . Popping is also used as an umbrella term to refer to a wide range of closely related illusionary dance styles such as strobing , liquid , animation , twisto @-@ flex , and waving . Dancers often integrate these styles with standard popping to create a more varied performance . In all of these subgenres it appears to the spectator that the body is popping . The difference between each subgenre is how exaggerated the popping is . In liquid , the body movements look like water . The popping is so smooth that the movements do not look like popping at all ; they look fluid . The opposite of this is strobing ( also called ticking ) in which the movements are staccato and jerky .
Popping as an umbrella term also includes gliding . Gliding is a lower body dance performed with little to no movements in the chest or arms . In gliding a dancer appears as if they are drifting across the floor on ice . Opposite from gliding is tutting , an upper body dance that uses the arms , hands , and wrists to form right angles and create geometric box @-@ like shapes . Tutting can be done primarily with the fingers rather than the arms . This method is called finger tutting . In both variations the movements are intricate , linear , and form 90 ° or 45 ° angles . In practice , tutting looks like the characters on the art of ancient Egypt , hence the name — a reference to King Tut .
While popping as an umbrella term is widely used by hip @-@ hop dancers and in competitive hip @-@ hop dancing , Timothy " Popin ' Pete " Solomon of the Electric Boogaloos disagrees with the use of the word " popping " in this way . Many of these related styles ( animation , liquid , tutting , etc . ) can not be traced to one person or group . Solomon states " There are people who wave and there are people who tut . They ’ re not popping . I say this to give the people who created other styles their just dues and their props . "
= = Derivative street styles = =
Decades after breaking , locking , and popping became established , four new dance styles appeared . Three of them come from California and one comes from Tennessee . Memphis Jookin ' was created in the 1980s in Memphis , Tennessee . It is an evolution of an older Memphis line dance called The Gangsta ' Walk . According to Dance magazine , jookin is characterized by dancers " gliding footwork ... popping and waving ... [ and ] using the tips of their sneakers to balance on pointe . " Gliding on tiptoes is fundamental to this dance . While watching a jookin ' battle in Jackson , Tennessee , dance critic Alastair Macaulay observed that " the most evidently sensational feature of jookin is the extensive use of what a ballet observer is bound to call pointwork : the men , in sneakers , go onto tiptoe ... many of the men not only rose onto point but also hopped , turned , ran and balanced on point . " Jookers have traditionally practiced their moves at the Crystal Palace skating rink in Memphis , which is akin to how milongueros practice their moves in public spaces in Buenos Aires .
Turfing , an acronym for Taking Up Room on the Floor , was created in 2002 by Jeriel Bey in Oakland , California . Turfing is a fusion of miming and gliding that places heavy emphasis on storytelling ( through movement ) and illusion . Other than San Francisco Bay Area pride , turfing avoided becoming a fad due to local turf dance competitions and local youth programs that promote turfing as a form of physical activity .
The dance style Jerkin ' was popularized in 2009 by the New Boyz 's rap song " You 're a Jerk " . This song went viral via their MySpace page before they had a manager or were signed to a record label . After hearing about the song , Los Angeles radio station Power 106 hired the New Boyz to perform at local high schools . These shows led to " You ’ re a Jerk " entering the radio 's playlist . Later the same year , rap duo Audio Push released the song and video " Teach Me How to Jerk " which showcased the different dance moves within jerkin ' including the Reject — the Running Man done in reverse . Dancers who perform jerkin ' typically wear bright colors , skinny jeans , Mohawks , and Vans sneakers . This trend echos locking dancers in the 1970s who traditionally wore suspenders and black and white striped socks . Of the dance , journalist Jeff Weiss from LA Weekly stated " For a youth culture weaned on the cult of individualism , jerkin ’ is its apotheosis . " Similar to breaking , locking , and popping , jerkin 's popularity spread through dance crews . For example , The Rej3ctz ( crew ) created both the Cat Daddy and the Reject dance moves .
Although jookin ' , turfing , and jerkin ' generated regional support and media attention , none have reached the same zenith as krumping . Ceasare " Tight Eyez " Willis and Jo 'Artis " Big Mijo " Ratti created krumping in the early 2000s in South Central , Los Angeles . It was only practiced in Los Angeles until it gained mainstream exposure after being featured in several music videos and showcased in the krumping documentary Rize . Rize was screened at several film festivals before it was commercially released in the summer of 2005 . Clowning , the less aggressive predecessor to krumping , was created in 1992 by Thomas " Tommy the Clown " Johnson . Johnson and his dancers would paint their faces and perform clowning for children at birthday parties or for the general public at other functions as a form of entertainment . In contrast , krumping focuses on highly energetic battles and movements which Johnson describes as intense , fast @-@ paced , and sharp . Of the dance , journalist taisha paggett from Dance magazine stated " If movement were words , [ krumping ] would be a poetry slam . " Compared to breaking and the funk styles , jookin ' , turfing , jerkin ' , and krumping are relatively new . The music driving the dances and the cultural similarities between these street dance styles , the funk styles , and breaking have brought them together under the same subculture of hip @-@ hop .
= = Dance industry = =
= = = Commercial / New Style = = =
The dance industry responded to hip @-@ hop dance by creating a commercial version of it . This studio hip @-@ hop , sometimes called " new style " , is the kind of hip @-@ hop dance seen in rap , R & B , and pop music videos and concerts . From the point of view of someone deeply immersed in hip @-@ hop culture , anything that looks like hip @-@ hop dance that did not come from the streets is not a true hip @-@ hop dance form . In an interview with Dance magazine , choreographer and hip @-@ hop dance teacher Emilio " Buddha Stretch " Austin , Jr. described his point @-@ of @-@ view :
Stage performance can suppress improvisation which defined hip @-@ hop dance early in its development . Furthermore , meshing different dance styles together dissolves their structures and identities . In an interview with The Bronx Journal , choreographer and artistic director Safi Thomas expressed a similar qualm as Austin concerning hip @-@ hop instruction within the studio :
The term " new style " was created by dancers outside of the United States . According to Moncell Durden , adjunct professor at Drexel University and director of the film History and Concept of Hip @-@ Hop Dance , the 1992 dance documentary Wreckin ' Shop From Brooklyn was very influential to hip @-@ hop dancers in France and Japan . These dancers wanted to move like the New York hip @-@ hop dancers who were profiled in the documentary . They called the social dancing ( party dancing ) they saw " new style " which was short for " New York Style " .
In the context of the commercial dance industry , hip @-@ hop ( or new style hip @-@ hop for dancers in France and Japan ) is choreographed urban party dancing with studio technique added to it . From a technical aspect , it is characterized as hard @-@ hitting involving flexibility and isolations — moving a specific body part independently from others . The feet are grounded , the chest is down , the posture is hunched , and the body is kept loose so that dancers can easily alternate between hitting the beat or moving through the beat . Like African dance , new style hip @-@ hop is very rhythmic and involves a lot of footwork and radial movement of the hips . In addition , emphasis is placed on musicality — how sensitive your movements are to the music — and being able to freestyle ( improvise ) . As long as dancers keep the foundational movements , they can add their own ( free ) style and have a performance that is still hip @-@ hop .
A significant juncture in the development of hip @-@ hop was the addition of eight @-@ counts , a method of counting dance steps to stay in sync with the music . Toni Basil introduced this studio technique into locking in the 1970s . Basil was trained in ballet before being introduced to street dance by Don Campbell , the creator of locking and founding member of The Lockers dance crew . She is responsible for teaching the rest of The Lockers how to dance to counts . In an interview with NPR , Lockers member Adolfo " Shabba @-@ Doo " Quiñones stated " I would say that Toni Basil was sort of our Abe Saperstein in terms of how she was able to organize us into a professional dance troupe . I remember her teaching us how to count music . She was like , okay , we were like , count music ? How do you count soul ? It was crazy , you know ? ... all of our cues kind of went something like this , boom , pop , do boom , pada da boom , pada like that . And she was like , how do you guys get in sync like that ? I said it 's a feeling , you know ? " Traditionally hip @-@ hop dance , or any form of street dance , is not performed to counts as these styles were created on the street rather than in a studio setting . So the introduction of counts was a pivotal move into bringing hip @-@ hop dance from the street into the studio . Even with this addition , it would be years before commercial hip @-@ hop developed into its current form .
A second important event in the development of hip @-@ hop was the start of hip @-@ hop dance instruction . Buddha Stretch was a pioneer in this field . He started teaching formal hip @-@ hop dance classes in 1989 at Broadway Dance Center in New York City . Around the same time , hip @-@ hop party dancing started to appear in music videos and on television — this was another important point in the development and commercialization of hip @-@ hop . An early example of this is when Janet Jackson performed the Running Man in her 1989 music video for the song " Rhythm Nation " which was choreographed by street dancer Anthony Thomas . The dance was so popular during this time it was also performed by 1990s rappers MC Hammer and Vanilla Ice in their choreographed routines . Michael Jackson also used hip @-@ hop in his 1992 music video " Remember The Time " which was choreographed by a then 21 @-@ year @-@ old Fatima Robinson . At the time , Robinson was a street dancer with no formal training and " Remember the Time " was her first music video job . According to MTV.com , " Dances have always been a part of hip @-@ hop culture — from the running man to the Soulja Boy dance ... " and this era was the start of commercial hip @-@ hop choreography as it looks today : dance routines are not specific to one genre ( strictly popping , strictly locking , or strictly breaking ) but rather an amalgamation of urban party dancing with studio technique added to it .
= = = Jazz @-@ funk = = =
Another style the dance industry created in response to hip @-@ hop was jazz @-@ funk . This style was shown in its early form on a sketch comedy series called In Living Color . The resident dance troupe , The Fly Girls , opened and closed every show with a hip @-@ hop and jazz performance choreographed by Rosie Perez . Jazz @-@ funk ( also called street @-@ jazz ) is a hybrid of hip @-@ hop and jazz dance . R & B singer Beyoncé uses this style . Korean dance crew Prepix also uses this style . They have choreographed for K @-@ pop singers Jay Park and G.NA as well as for K @-@ pop boy bands 2PM and B2ST . Although jazz @-@ funk borrows from hip @-@ hop dance , it is not considered a style of hip @-@ hop because the foundational movements are jazz . In hip @-@ hop — even in lyrical hip @-@ hop — there are no pirouettes or arabesques and dancers do not perform on relevé ( on the balls of the feet ) . However , these methods are used in jazz @-@ funk and in jazz dance in general .
= = = Business developments = = =
Other developments in the dance industry occurred in response to the growing popularity of hip @-@ hop . On the traveling convention circuit there were tap , ballet , and jazz dance conventions , but there were none specifically for hip @-@ hop . The same void existed in dancewear . There was dancewear for tap , ballet , and jazz dancers but none for hip @-@ hop dancers . Monsters of Hip Hop and Nappytabs dancewear were formed to answer to both needs . Nappytabs is the first line of hip @-@ hop dancewear . Because their clothing is made for hip @-@ hop dancers , they do not sell leotards , unitards , tights , or leg warmers . Their line consists of tank tops , shorts , t @-@ shirts , sweat pants , harem pants , and hoodies . Monsters of Hip Hop ( MOHH ) was founded in 2003 in Baltimore , Maryland by Andy Funk , Becky Funk , and Angie Servant . The convention is dedicated exclusively to hip @-@ hop instruction . Fatima Robinson , Stefan " Mr. Wiggles " Clemente , and Timothy " Popin ' Pete " Solomon have taught classes at MOHH in the past . Every year , the convention brings together its top student dancers for a professionally choreographed showcase in Los Angeles called Monsters of Hip Hop : The Show .
MOHH may have been the first hip @-@ hop dance convention , but it is not the only one that exists . Urban Dance Camp ( UDC ) is a six @-@ week @-@ long German @-@ based dance convention held every year in Lörrach , a small town on the border of France and Switzerland . In a report on the event by a local paper , Bettina Kraft , the manager of UDC , estimated that 85 % of the participants were from outside of Germany . In 2009 Kraft created Urban Dance Showcase , a parallel event to UDC reserved only for performances by professional choreographers , dance crews , and UDC teachers . Dancers such as Shaun Evaristo , Les Twins , I.aM.mE , b @-@ boy Lilou , and b @-@ boy Hong 10 have performed at the showcase in the past .
Aside from dancewear and conventions , developments in agency representation occurred as well . Although limited , representation for individual dancers had existed since the 1980s at the beginning of the music video era due to the pioneering work of talent agent Julie McDonald . However , the UK @-@ based dance agencies ProDance and Superbad Talent were created to exclusively represent street dancers .
= = Entertainment = =
= = = Movies = = =
The entertainment industry has been largely responsible for introducing hip @-@ hop dance to mainstream audiences around the world . The first hip @-@ hop films Wild Style , Beat Street , and Breakin ' were made in the 1980s . When Wild Style opened in Japan , Rock Steady Crew performed breaking in Tokyo 's Harajuku shopping district to promote the film . Wild Style was the first movie centered around hip @-@ hop culture ; however , Flashdance was the first commercially released film to feature breaking . In 1984 , Beat Street was released in West Germany and screened at the Cannes Film Festival which helped to introduce breaking , graffiti writing , and turntablism to this part of Europe . Breakin ' and Breakin ' 2 : Electric Boogaloo brought the funk styles to the cinema . Breaking , locking , popping , and waacking — a style of house dance — were performed in these films . At this time in the 1980s , the United States was not the only country producing hip @-@ hop films . In 1985 , Yuen Woo @-@ ping directed a hip @-@ hop themed romantic comedy in Hong Kong called Mismatched Couples starring Donnie Yen . Another hip @-@ hop film , Electro Rock , was released the same year in the United Kingdom . This film featured a then 14 @-@ year @-@ old Hanifa " Bubbles " McQueen Hudson , the UK 's first b @-@ girl .
Several hip @-@ hop dance films were produced after the millennium . The Freshest Kids : A History of the B @-@ Boy , Neukölln Unlimited , B @-@ Girl , Bouncing Cats , Planet B @-@ Boy , and Battle of the Year : The Dream Team all showcase breaking . Films such as Honey , Save the Last Dance , You Got Served , the Step Up film series , StreetDance 3D , Hype Nation , Saigon Electric , Berlin Dance Battle 3D , and ABCD : Any Body Can Dance showcase all forms of hip @-@ hop dance , especially new style hip @-@ hop . Rize , The Heart of Krump , and Shake City 101 are documentaries about krumping . All of these movies and documentaries are examples of films where the plot and theme surround hip @-@ hop dance and how it affects the characters ' lives . Bouncing Cats is the story of b @-@ boy Abraham " Abramz " Tekya who uses b @-@ boying to empower youth in Uganda . In 2010 , the film won " Outstanding Achievement in Documentary Filmmaking " at Newport Beach Film Festival and " Best Documentary Feature " at Urbanworld Film Festival . Saigon Electric was Vietnam 's first hip @-@ hop film . It was written , produced , and directed by Vietnamese @-@ American filmmaker Stephane Gauger . The film is about two female dancers ( a ribbon dancer and a hip @-@ hop dancer ) and how their respective romances , the threat of their community center being torn down , and the stress of an upcoming dance battle affects their friendship . The film was choreographed by Viet Max and Ricky Cole . In 2012 , it won a Golden Kite Prize ( the Vietnamese equivalent of The Oscars / BAFTAs ) for " Best Film " and " Best Actress " .
= = = Television = = =
Before reaching movie audiences , hip @-@ hop dance was already being broadcast on television . Soul Train was a syndicated , music variety show that featured social dancing and performances by African @-@ American soul , funk , and R & B singers . The show was broadcast in South Korea via the US Armed Forces Korea Network . Before officially becoming a crew , The Lockers made several appearances on this show . After becoming a crew , The Electric Boogaloos also appeared on the show . Soul Train premiered in 1970 . During its 36 year run , the resident freestyle dancers were referred to as the Soul Train Gang . Auditions were held in 1971 when the show moved from Chicago , Illinois to Los Angeles , California . Dancers who wanted to get on Soul Train after this time had to rely on word @-@ of @-@ mouth recommendations from dancers who were already employed by the show . A regular feature during the broadcast was the Soul Train Line . To participate in the Soul Train Line , the dancers formed two lines of equal length facing each other with a large space in between them . Each dancer in line would take their turn dancing down the middle .
Other music variety shows on television at this time were American Bandstand , Solid Gold , and Top of the Pops . Unlike Soul Train which focused on soul and funk , these shows promoted Top 40 music and pop acts . Solid Gold employed a permanent dance troupe called the Solid Gold Dancers who performed choreographed routines to musical performances . Lucinda Dickey , an actress and dancer who played the lead role in the Breakin ' films , appeared on the show during the 1982 – 1983 season as a Solid Gold dancer . In 1983 , street dancers Marc " Mr. Freeze " Lemberger from Rock Steady Crew , Timothy " Popin ' Pete " Solomon and Dane " Robot Dane " Parker from the Electric Boogaloos , and locking dancers Alpha " Omega " Anderson and Lewis " Deputy " Green also appeared on Solid Gold during a performance to the song " What a Feeling " from the movie Flashdance . In 1982 during a performance in London on Top of the Pops , street dancer Jeffrey Daniel performed popping and the backslide during the song " A Night to Remember " . This was the first time popping was shown on British television thus spreading its popularity in the United Kingdom . A year later , Michael Jackson also performed the backslide during a performance of " Billie Jean " on the Motown 25 TV special . He called it the moonwalk and his performance spread its popularity all over the world to much larger extent than Daniel 's performance did . It was Jeffrey Daniel who taught Michael Jackson how to do the backslide / moonwalk .
A few hip @-@ hop dance shows appeared on television in the 1990s such as 1991 's The Party Machine with Nia Peeples and 1992 's The Grind . Several hip @-@ hop dance shows premiered in the 2000s including ( but not limited to ) Dance Fever , Dance 360 , The Wade Robson Project , MTV Dance Crew , America 's Best Dance Crew , Dance on Sunset , and Shake It Up . In 2006 , MTV France documented the creation of a dance crew for an original series called MTV Dance Crew . Viewers were able to see the crew from auditions to the selection of the final eight who were subsequently named Original Soul . Original Soul was coached by three professional choreographers who mentored them and helped refine their dancing . Over the course of 32 episodes they routinely participated in professional dance battles including the popping battle at Juste Debout , the Seven 2 Smoke battle at The Notorious IBE , and b @-@ boy battles at Chelles Battle Pro . B @-@ boy Lilou , b @-@ boy crew Phase T , and promoter Bruce Ykanji ( the founder of Juste Debout ) all made appearances during the show .
The founders of Hip Hop International , Howard and Karen Schwartz , created the reality hip @-@ hop dance competition America 's Best Dance Crew ( ABDC ) in 2008 . On the show , different crews competed in dance challenges against each other every week . ABDC contributed to the exposure of several crews such as Jabbawockeez , Quest , Beat Freaks , and Poreotics . These crews now have official websites , work with musical artists , and perform at live events . The JabbaWockeeZ had a show in Las Vegas , Nevada called MÜS.I.C. at the Monte Carlo Resort and Casino . MÜS.I.C. was the first hip @-@ hop dance stage show on the Las Vegas Strip . In 2012 , the Jabbawockeez performed the show during a five @-@ month residency at the Jupiters Hotel and Casino in Gold Coast , Queensland , Australia . Both Poreotics and Hokuto " Hok " Konishi from Quest were nominated for a 2011 MTV Video Music Award for Best Choreography . Poreotics was nominated with singer Bruno Mars for his video " The Lazy Song " . Hok was nominated for LMFAO 's video " Party Rock Anthem " ; the rest of Quest crew appeared in the video as featured dancers .
In contrast to ABDC , individual dancers from all backgrounds compete on the reality dance competition So You Think You Can Dance ( SYTYCD ) . It has a similar premise to the Idol series of singing competitions with initial auditions leading to the selection of a winner over the course of several episodes . In 2008 , poppers Robert " Mr. Fantastic " Muraine and Phillip " Pacman " Chbeeb auditioned during season four of the US series . Neither made it to the final " Top 20 " , but the judges were so impressed with their dancing that both were invited back to participate in a popping battle against each other on the show 's live finale . According to Muraine , this was the first popping battle that was nationally televised . After the battle , hip @-@ hop dancer Joshua Allen was declared the winner of season four of the competition . The same year Mona @-@ Jeanette Berntsen , a hip @-@ hop dancer from Norway , won the first season of So You Think You Can Dance Scandinavia .
Hip @-@ hop dance has also been popular among viewers of the Got Talent series . French hip @-@ hop dancer Salah won the first season of Incroyable Talent in 2006 . French b @-@ boy Junior won the second season in 2007 . In 2008 , hip @-@ hop dancer George Sampson won Britain 's Got Talent , Danish popping and roboting duo Robot Boys won Talent 2008 ( da ) , and hip @-@ hop dance crew Quick won the Norwegian version of the show . After George Sampson , dance crew Diversity won the next season of Britain 's Got Talent in 2009 . The same year , Brazilian crew D @-@ Efeitos won Qual é o Seu Talento ? ( What 's Your Talent ? ) . In 2010 , Justice Crew won Australia 's Got Talent . After signing a recording contract with Sony Music Australia , Justice Crew shot a video for their single " Dance with Me " featuring rapper Flo Rida and America 's Best Dance Crew alumni Beat Freaks . In 2015 , nine years after he won Incroyable Talent , hip @-@ hop dancer Salah won the fourth season of Arabs Got Talent .
= = = Theater = = =
Though hip @-@ hop dancing is established on film and on television , it has not gained the same level of exposure in theater . This may be due to the fact that the dance is performed more in film and in television than it is in a theatrical setting . B @-@ boy and popper Stefan " Mr. Wiggles " Clemente and hip @-@ hop historian Jorge " Popmaster Fabel " Pabon were involved in hip @-@ hop theater at its inception . Their dance company , GhettOriginal , produced the first hip @-@ hop stage shows : 1991 's off Broadway musical So ! What Happens Now ? and 1995 's Jam on the Groove . Both shows were performed by the Rock Steady Crew , Magnificent Force , and the Rhythm Technicians . Aside from the pioneers in New York City was Rennie Harris ' Puremovement hip @-@ hop theater company . Harris founded Puremovement in 1992 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . One of Puremovement 's theater shows Rome & Jewels won two Black Theater Alliance Awards and three Bessie Awards . In 2012 , Harris and his company toured Egypt , Israel , and the Palestinian territories as part of Dance Motion USA , a program sponsored by the US State Department to showcase American dance to other countries and promote cultural exchange .
German b @-@ boy pioneer Niels " Storm " Robitzky has his performance roots in hip @-@ hop theater . In 1991 , Robitzky — who went by the name " Swipe " — left Germany with his crew Battle Squad for New York City to look for b @-@ boy legends they could study under . When he got to New York , he met b @-@ boy Gabriel " Kwikstep " Dionisio who personally mentored him and introduced him to New York techniques . While in New York , he also learned about the funk styles from Clemente . Clemente and Dionisio knew each other since Dionisio was an original member of both GhettOriginal and the Rhythm Technicians . A year later in 1992 , Robitzky performed with GhettOriginal at the Kennedy Center in Washington D.C. and at the Lincoln Center in New York City . It was Dionisio who gave Robitzky a new name , " Storm " . In 2000 , he wrote a book called Von Swipe zu Storm : Breakdance in Deutschland ( From Swipe to Storm : Breakdance in Germany ) .
Dancers in the United Kingdom have had success in hip @-@ hop theater . In 2006 , hip @-@ hop dance company Boy Blue Entertainment won a Laurence Olivier Award for their show Pied Piper . In 2008 , Into the Hoods became the first hip @-@ hop theater show to perform in London 's West End . It eventually went on to become the West End 's longest running dance show ever . According to Clemente , the future of hip @-@ hop dance is in theater ; he believes it is necessary for the dance to make this transition in order for it to be legitimized as an art form .
= = = Online content = = =
YAK Films is a three @-@ man team that films urban dance around the world . It was founded in Oakland , California by Yoram Savion and Kash Grimes . Their first videos were of the Turf Feinz dance crew performing turfing — a regional hip @-@ hop dance style from Oakland . After generating significant views on YouTube , they started YAK ( Yoram And Kash ) Films and added music producer Ben " B 'zwax " Tarquin to the team . From shooting videos only in the United States , they were able to easily transition to covering dance events in Europe due to Savion 's dual French citizenship . In 2009 , they filmed Battle of the Year 's first one @-@ on @-@ one b @-@ boy competition , and in 2010 they filmed dance battles at Juste Debout , a French street dance competition . In addition to filming dance events and original freestyle performances , they post tutorials and upload a weekly web series called " YAK Like You Know " . Some of their more popular videos have been featured in Oakland Local and the Huffington Post .
Juba Films was founded in Germany by Julien Bam and Gong Bao . Rather than film freestyle content , Juba ( " Ju " lien and " Ba " o ) produces short films with a storyline . For their short b @-@ boy film " More Than Bread " , they won first place at the 7th International Online Dance Festival in 2011 . In 2012 , the Daily Mail wrote an article about Juba 's short film " With a Piece of Chalk " after the video went viral and started trending on Mashable . Both Juba Films and YAK Films appeared at The Notorious IBE 's New Dance Media Conference discussing the relationship between street dance and visual arts . Although Juba Films has won an award and YAK Films has booked high @-@ profile events , they are not the only film production teams distributing hip @-@ hop dance videos on the Internet . House of Crews , Strife TV , Pacific Rim Video Press , ProDance TV , Battle Fest Extreme , Urban Dance Show , Ocke Films , World of Dance Network , and Canal Street TV also produce hundreds of high @-@ quality hip @-@ hop dance content .
The Legion of Extraordinary Dancers ( The LXD ) was a good @-@ versus @-@ evil themed web series about a group of dancers who discover they have super powers through their dance moves . Each character specializes in one dance style . Consequently , a wide range of styles are displayed including krumping , tutting , breaking , locking , boogaloo , and popping . The majority of the dancing shown in the series is hip @-@ hop ; however , other styles have also been performed including jazz , tap , and ballet . AdvertisingAge.com gave the series a favorable review stating " ... each episode of ' LXD ' packs a wealth of narrative sophistication into its eight or nine minutes . Combine this with the theater @-@ worthy production values and a cast that exerts itself to an ungodly extent , and the end result is – pun time ! – extraordinary . " The LXD premiered July 7 , 2010 on Hulu . In 2012 , Jon Chu , the writer , director , and producer of The LXD launched a dance channel on YouTube called DS2DIO ( pronounced D @-@ Studio ) . DS2DIO has videos of master classes , freestyle dance , and original choreographed performances . Through this channel , Chu also made The LXD available on YouTube . Before then , it could only be viewed on Hulu .
= = International competitions = =
UK B @-@ Boy Championships was founded by DJ Hooch in 1996 in London . There are four world championship titles : breaking crew champions , solo b @-@ boy champion , solo popping champion , and solo hip @-@ hop champion . The world finals also include the " Fresh Awards " ( best dressed ) which are hosted and judged every year by Richard " Crazy Legs " Colón — the president of Rock Steady Crew . In 2011 , DJ Hooch wrote a book about the competition called B @-@ Boy Championships : From Bronx to Brixton .
Freestyle Session was founded in 1997 in California by graffiti writer and DJ Chris " Cros1 " Wright . It is the largest breaking competition in the United States . The main competitive event is for b @-@ boy crews , but there are also popping and locking competitions for solo competitors . Although the US is the flagship location for Freestyle Session , it is not the only country where it is held . Promoters outside the US pay Cros1 to use Freestyle Session 's name and fly him to their location to judge the competition . Using this method , Freestyle Session has been held in 18 other countries including Poland , Russia , Switzerland , and Venezuela .
Hip Hop International ( HHI ) was founded in 2002 in the United States by Howard and Karen Schwartz . There are two categories of competitions : World Battles and World Hip Hop Dance Championship . Within the World Battles category , there are four titles including three @-@ on @-@ three breaking champions , one @-@ on @-@ one popping champion , one @-@ on @-@ one locking champion , and one @-@ on @-@ one all styles ( freestyle ) champion . The World Hip Hop Dance Championship is for hip @-@ hop crews . There are four divisions : junior ( ages 7 – 12 ) , varsity ( 12 – 18 ) , adult ( 18 + ) , and mega crew ( all ages ) . Each crew must have at least five but not more than eight people ( mega crew must have 15 – 40 ) and must perform a routine that showcases three styles of hip @-@ hop dance . For the 2009 competition , there were 120 crews representing 30 countries . HHI also created the USA Hip Hop Dance Championship and the television show America 's Best Dance Crew .
Juste Debout was founded in 2002 by Bruce Ykanji in Paris . Competition categories include popping , hip @-@ hop , locking , house , toprock , and experimental . Breaking is not included to put more focus on dance styles performed while standing up , hence the name ( French for Just Standing ) . There are not any team trophies at Juste Debout . The experimental and toprock categories are only for solo dancers ; popping , new style , locking , and house are for duos . In 2008 , Ingrid " Shéyen " Gamboa , the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Juste Debout magazine , wrote a book called Hip @-@ hop : L 'histoire de la danse ( Hip Hop : A history of the dance ) .
United Dance Organisation ( UDO ) was founded in 2002 in the United Kingdom . It is endorsed by choreographers Ashley Banjo and Sisco Gomez and dancers Twist and Pulse and George Sampson . UDO operates the British Street Dance Championships , the European Street Dance Championships , and the World Street Dance Championships . The European championships are held in Germany rather than in the UK .
Street Dance Kemp Europe ( SDK Europe ) is a competition and dance convention founded in 2004 in Jedovnice , Czech Republic . There is a hip @-@ hop crew battle and solo battles for house , krumping , locking , hip @-@ hop male , and hip @-@ hop female dancers . SDK Europe begins every year in the summer and lasts seven days . Daytime hours are reserved primarily for dance workshops and classes taught by an international pool of instructors ; competitive events are held at night . All of the classes , workshops , and competitive events are held outside and — although hotels or cottages are an option — many participants stay in tents and camp outside on the SDK event grounds .
EuroBattle was founded in 2005 in Portugal by Max from Momentum crew . There are five competitive events for solo dancers including b @-@ boying , b @-@ girling , hip @-@ hop , locking , and popping . The international final is held in Porto but the winner of the Spanish qualifying tournament also gets to compete at the UK B @-@ Boy Championships in London .
World Supremacy Battlegrounds is a hip @-@ hop dance competition based in Australia . The heritage of World Supremacy Battlegrounds goes back to 2002 when it began as GROOVE , a local hip @-@ hop competition held in Sydney . Over the three years that followed , the competition was renamed Battlegrounds and went national to include dance crews from all over Australia . It became international in 2006 when crews from the Philippines , Japan , and New Zealand entered the competition . There are four dance crew categories : open ( all ages ) , junior ( 12 and under ) , varsity ( 12 – 18 ) , and monster ( all ages , 20 – 40 members ) . For the 2011 competition , teams from Indonesia , Thailand , Singapore , Malaysia , Vietnam , the Philippines , Japan , Guam , New Zealand , Samoa , and South Africa came to compete .
World of Dance Tour ( WOD ) was founded in 2008 by Myron Marten and David Gonzales in Pomona , California . It differs from other competitions because there is no final championship . WOD travels to different cities in the United States , Canada , and Europe and holds a competition in each location ; therefore , WOD distinguishes itself as a tour . Each tour stop is a stand @-@ alone competition ; they are all related to each other in name only . In 2013 , WOD will travel to New York City , Vallejo , Seattle , Vancouver , Berlin , Dallas , Toronto , San Diego , Montreal , Eindhoven , Boston , Orlando , Houston , Chicago , Seattle , Honolulu , Los Angeles , Union City , and Antwerp .
World Dance Colosseum is a two @-@ on @-@ two dance competition founded in Japan . There are five two @-@ on @-@ two world championship titles : b @-@ boying , locking , popping , hip @-@ hop , and house . Japanese dancers qualify for the international final through preliminary tournaments held in the country but foreign dancers do not qualify through tournaments because 30 of the top @-@ ranked foreign dancers are automatically invited to participate in the final . At the final , the winning duos from the Japanese tournaments compete against the top @-@ ranked foreign duos to determine who is the best . There is also a " kids " title ( hip @-@ hop ) at the world finals but this event is only for Japanese children .
= = Education = =
In 2004 , Safi Thomas founded the Hip @-@ Hop Dance Conservatory ( HHDC ) in New York City . Thomas ' goal was to provide a comprehensive education to hip @-@ hop dancers that was comparable to what ballet , modern , and jazz dancers experience at their respective institutions . HHDC provides a formal curriculum with dance classes ( breaking , freestyle , locking , etc . ) and academic classes ( dance theory , physiology , kinesiology , etc . ) to people who want to pursue hip @-@ hop dance as a career . It is the only educational institution in the United States that is exclusively dedicated to hip @-@ hop dance instruction . HHDC does not grant degrees . It is a non @-@ profit organization and repertory company that grants certifications to dancers that complete the three @-@ year program .
Three years later in 2007 , the University of East London 's Institute for Performing Arts Development ( IPAD ) started intake for the only bachelor 's degree program in the world specializing in hip @-@ hop , urban , and global dance forms . The IPAD 's program also lasts three years , but it is not exclusive to hip @-@ hop . Students also study African dance , kathak , Bollywood , and capoeira .
= Wasteland Angel =
Wasteland Angel is a vehicular combat shoot ' em up video game created by the Finnish independent developer team Octane Games . Released on September 1 , 2011 , the game is published by Meridian4 for Windows and is distributed online through Steam , Impulse , GamersGate , Direct2Drive , and Amazon Download .
The game is set after a fictional World War III in a post @-@ apocalyptic United States where various gangs prey on towns in which survivors from the war have gathered . The player assumes the role the eponymous female protagonist , Angel , as she defends the towns and searches for her lost friend . The game is played from a bird 's eye view as the player controls a car and its mounted machine guns in order to destroy enemies and vehicles . Players can find more powerful guns to attach to the car and can also use special weapons such as napalm or spike strips which are picked up after killing certain enemies .
The game was the first to be released under the Octane Games brand . It received average reviews from critics upon release , with IGN 's Gord Goble writing that his main issue with the game was that it was very short and lacked any lasting appeal . Shortly after the game 's release , an update was made available that added support for dual @-@ monitors , support for editable key configurations , and more destructible objects to the game .
= = Gameplay = =
The story , told through the use of voiced and animated comic panels , centers on Angel , a heroine in a post @-@ apocalyptic United States that travels from town to town protecting helpless survivors of the war from attacking gangs . Angel defends the towns using Gypsy , the name given to her armored car equipped with mounted machine guns . The game uses an overhead view as the player speeds around a small town using Gypsy 's machine guns to repel enemy gangs known as Wastelanders . There are three types of Wastelanders and each one unleashes attacks in a different manner : The Slavers class will attempt to capture the townspeople , Killers will only attack the player , and Duals can take on either the role of attacking or capturing during a raid . When enemies are killed , they leave behind weapons for the player such as napalm , land mines , or Electromagnetic pulse bombs ( EMPs ) ; or they drop upgrades which improve the car 's weapons or armor . The EMPs are used to temporarily disable all the enemies on the screen while the napalm and land mines can be set between waves as traps for unsuspecting Wastelanders . One weapon upgrade offers players incendiary ammunition for the car 's machine guns which makes it easier to destroy enemies by lighting them on fire .
The game offers four different difficulty settings and includes online leaderboards which enumerate high scores that different players have achieved for the game . The game is segmented into protecting six different villages , and each village is broken up into four levels : a Day level , a Boss level , a Night level , and a bonus level . Levels are further broken into waves as increasingly difficult enemies attack the village . The bonus level drops the top @-@ down camera view and is played from the perspective of the driver seat of the car . Boss levels confront the player with a boss enemy that is much stronger than the other enemies encountered in the game . Each boss requires the player to discover and employ a predefined strategy in order to defeat them . For example , the first boss is a giant steamroller with an attached flamethrower that can not be damaged by the car 's regular guns and instead requires the use of napalm to destroy it .
= = Plot = =
The game is set after a fictional World War III , the events of which have killed off much of the population ; those left alive are forced to fight for survival . Some of the survivors have formed gangs , some turned into mutants from the war 's radiation , and some joined an evil militia ; collectively , these groups are known as Wastelanders . Raiding different towns and villages , the Wastelanders sought to prey on the townspeople by stealing supplies , forcing some into slavery , and killing others . The heroine of the story , Angel , travels from town to town in search of her lost friend , Ekx , while helping the town 's survivors fend off attacks from Wastelanders . Cruising in her armored car , Gypsy , she makes use of the car 's mounted machine guns to defend the towns from thieves and slavers . The first lead Angel finds on her lost friend is from the city of Core , where Ekx was seen traveling through the city on his way to Coalhaven . Angel reaches Coalhaven and uses her armored car to defend the city from members of the renegade militia . After repelling the enemy , the townspeople re @-@ establish their wireless communications and contact the nearby city of New Dallas . Recognizing the voice on the other end , the receiving operator in New Dallas turns out to be Angel 's lost friend , Ekx . Ekx confides in Angel that he needs her for something urgent and that she must join him in New Dallas .
Shortly after arriving , the city is forced to rally all of its survivors , including Angel and Ekx , in order to fend off an incoming attack from the Renegades . The two friends become separated during the fighting , but not before Ekx gives a mysterious book to Angel . After making her way to the city of Highwall , Angel encounters Wastelanders worshiping a mystic that claims the earth was not destroyed by nuclear war , but by a " crack in the universe . " Angel is skeptical of these claims , although Ekx believes her to be the deliverer . After receiving a mission from Ekx , Angel heads through the badlands , north , to a survivor camp . Despite rumors that the place may be flooded , the game ends as Angel heads to New York to find out why Ekx has entrusted her with the mysterious book .
= = Development = =
Wasteland Angel was first announced on May 17 , 2011 , with a prospective release date for summer of the same year . The game was developed by Octane Games , an independent development team in Kotka , Finland that is owned by Nitro Games . The company was founded in Spring 2011 , shortly after Nitro Games completed the arcade shooter Woody Two @-@ Legs . Wasteland Angel would be their first release under the Octane Games brand . Before the release , the group had already announced the second game they were working on : a pirate role @-@ playing game titled Raven 's Cry . Although Wasteland Angel is published by Meridian4 , Raven 's Cry was signed to be published by TopWare Interactive . In the announcement for Wasteland Angel , the publisher noted plans to make additional downloadable content available for the game after it was launched . In an August 2011 interview , Octane Games CEO Jussi Tähtinen stated that the company was focusing on multiplatform development and that Wasteland Angel seemed in ideal fit to be marketed for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , but he declined to share any specific plans to bring the game to either platform . When asked about the possibility of a multiplayer mode , Tähtinen again declined to make any announcement .
= = Release = =
Wasteland Angel was released on September 1 , 2011 , through online distribution networks : Steam , Impulse , GamersGate , Direct2Drive , and Amazon Download . In a press release for the game , Meridian4 's Marketing Director Steve Milburn stated , " Much like the Honey Badger , Wasteland Angel is also ' pretty badass ' " and provided a hyperlink to a satirical YouTube video about the honey badger . The developers released a demo for the game on September 12 which included four stages with a boss fight . A September 2011 update for the game was also released which included support for dual @-@ monitors , editable key configurations , and more destroyable objects available in the game .
= = Reception = =
Wasteland Angel received average reviews upon release , garnering a rating of 55 % on the review aggregation website GameRankings . Gamers Daily News ' Jeff Lindsey appreciated the perspective change accompanying the bonus level , stating , " To be perfectly honest , I squealed with delight when I got to see the carnage first hand and create mayhem before your eyes . " Strategy Informer was not as appreciative of the jump in perspective , noting that the game 's maps and engine did not appear to be designed for the first @-@ person perspective and the mode instead presented itself as " more than a little jarring . " While Travis Huinker of Gaming Nexus criticized the game for having poor driving physics , Shack News 's Jeff Mattas enjoyed the controls , stating , " Though there are certain liberties taken with the driving physics , they feel right at home with the frantic , arcade @-@ style action . " Ultimately , Huinker did not recommend the game , but Lindsey called it " the most fun game that I have played this year " .
= Skinner 's Room =
Skinner 's Room is a short story by William Gibson originally composed for Visionary San Francisco , a 1990 museum exhibition exploring the future of San Francisco . It features the first appearance in Gibson 's fiction of " the Bridge " , which Gibson revisited as the setting of his acclaimed Bridge trilogy of novels . In the story , the Bridge is overrun by squatters , among them Skinner , who occupies a shack atop a bridgetower . An altered version of the story was published in Omni magazine and subsequently anthologized . " Skinner 's Room " was nominated for the 1992 Locus Award for Best Short Story .
= = Synopsis = =
The story takes place in a near @-@ future where the United States is in decline , having been negatively affected by some event referred to as the " devaluations . " It is set in a decaying San Francisco in which the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge is closed and taken over by the homeless . The wealthy denizens of the city have retreated to gated @-@ access enclaves . The room mentioned in the title is a shack built on top one of the bridge 's towers . Skinner has lived on the bridge , and in his room , for a long time , and is accompanied by a girl with an interest in the history of the bridge town and who arrived only three months before .
The story reveals that , long ago , the Bridge had been closed to vehicle traffic ( for three years ) and that the pressure to find somewhere to live had forced homeless people to seize the bridge and set up a squatters ' town there . The community that arose was vibrant and was watched by the world 's media . The town grew in a piecemeal fashion , built from salvaged parts as well as from material apparently donated by more wealthy nations . At the end of the story Skinner has a dream in which he remembers being at the front of the crowd who seized the bridge ( Skinner is the first onto the bridge ) and scaled the towers .
= = Publication history = =
" Skinner 's Room " was commissioned by the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art for its exhibition " Visionary San Francisco " , shown from June 14 to August 26 , 1990 . Gibson 's story inspired a contribution to the exhibition by architects Ming Fung and Craig Hodgetts . Ming and Hodgetts designed the urban environment which would have catalysed the transformation of the Bridge . They envisioned a San Francisco in which the rich live in high @-@ tech , self @-@ sufficient , self @-@ contained towers , above the decrepit city and its crumbling bridge , isolated from the amorphous city . The crate @-@ packaged installation , which was surrounded by scrap metal , computer chips , and pages from manga comic strips , featured a model of the towers , along with Gibson on a monitor discussing the future and reading from " Skinner 's Room " .
A slightly different version of the short story was featured in the November 1991 issue of Omni . The OMNI version concerns an unnamed girl and an old man named Skinner who live in the one @-@ room shack built on top of the first cable tower of the Bridge . This version was collected in Gardner Dozois ' 1992 anthology The Year 's Best Science Fiction : Ninth Annual Collection , and in Larry McCaffery 's After Yesterday 's Crash ( 1995 ) .
= = Significance = =
" Skinner 's Room " is the first appearance of the Bridge in Gibson 's fiction . In the acknowledgments at the end of his 1994 novel Virtual Light , Gibson writes that the short story later developed into the novel ; the character of Skinner is one of the main characters in Virtual Light and the setting and characters of " Skinner 's Room " are revisited in the sequels to the novel , Idoru and All Tomorrow 's Parties ( collectively known as the Bridge trilogy ) .
The New York Times hailed the " Visionary San Francisco " exhibition as " one of the most ambitious , and admirable , efforts to address the realm of architecture and cities that any museum in the country has mounted in the last decade " . Despite organiser Paulo Polledri 's claim that the collaboration was an " appeal to civic responsibility by showing the effects of its absence " , The New York Times judged Ming and Hodgetts 's reaction to " Skinner 's Room " a " powerful , but sad and not a little cynical , work " . After its 1991 republication in OMNI , " Skinner 's Room " was nominated for the Locus Award for Best Short Story in 1992 .
= Operation Biting =
Operation Biting , also known as the Bruneval Raid , was the code name given to a British Combined Operations raid on a German radar installation at Bruneval in northern France , which took place on the night of 27 – 28 February 1942 during World War II .
A number of these installations were identified from Royal Air Force ( RAF ) aerial reconnaissance photographs during 1941 , but their exact purpose and the nature of the equipment that they possessed was not known . A number of British scientists believed that these stations were connected with the heavy losses being experienced by RAF bombers conducting bombing raids against targets in Occupied Europe . The scientists requested that one of these installations be raided and the technology it possessed be studied and , if possible , extracted and brought back to Britain for further examination . Due to the extensive coastal defences erected by the Germans to protect the installation from a seaborne raid , it was believed that a Commando raid from the sea would suffer heavy losses and give sufficient time for the garrison at the installation to destroy the Würzburg radar set . It was therefore decided that an airborne assault followed by seaborne evacuation would be the most practicable way to surprise the garrison of the installation , seize the technology intact , and minimise casualties to the raiding force .
On the night of 27 February , after a period of intense training and several delays due to poor weather , a company of airborne troops under the command of Major John Frost parachuted into France a few miles from the installation . The main force then assaulted the villa in which the radar equipment was kept , killing several members of the German garrison and capturing the installation after a brief firefight . An RAF technician with the force dismantled the Würzburg radar array and removed several key pieces , after which the force withdrew to the evacuation beach . The detachment assigned to clear the beach had initially failed to do so , but the German force guarding it was soon eliminated with the help of the main force . The raiding troops were picked up by landing craft , then transferred to several Motor Gun Boats which returned them to Britain .
The raid was entirely successful . The airborne troops suffered relatively few casualties , and the pieces of the radar they brought back , along with a captured German radar technician , allowed British scientists to understand enemy advances in radar and to create countermeasures to neutralise them .
= = Background = =
After the end of the Battle of France and the evacuation of British troops from Dunkirk during Operation Dynamo , much of Britain 's war production and effort was channeled into RAF Bomber Command and the strategic bombing offensive against Germany . However , bomber losses on each raid began to increase during 1941 , which British intelligence concluded was due to German use of advanced radar equipment . The British and Germans had been competing in radar technology for nearly a decade at this point , with the Germans often either at the same level as the British or surpassing them due to heavy investment in the fledgling technology . By the beginning of World War II , British scientific advances in radar had reached effective levels , primarily due to the work of Robert Watson @-@ Watt , although much of the technology was still rudimentary in nature and mistakes were made , such as the inability of Watson @-@ Watt and other scientists to devise an effective night @-@ defence system in time for the German nighttime bombing of Britain during 1940 . Another British scientist working on radar systems and techniques was R. V. Jones , who had been appointed in 1939 as Britain 's first Scientific Intelligence Officer and had spent the first years of the conflict researching how advanced German radar was in comparison to Britain , and convincing doubters that the Germans actually had radar .
By examining leaked German documents , crashed Luftwaffe bombers , Enigma decryptions , and through German prisoner of war interrogations , Jones discovered that high @-@ frequency radio signals were being transmitted across Britain from somewhere on the Continent , and he believed they came from a directional radar system . Within a few months of this discovery , Jones had identified several such radar systems , one of which was being used to detect British bombers ; this was known as the " Freya @-@ Meldung @-@ Freya " array , named after the ancient Norse goddess . Jones was finally able to see concrete proof of the presence of the Freya system after being shown several mysterious objects visible in reconnaissance pictures taken by the RAF near Cap d 'Antifer - two circular emplacements in each of which was a rotating " mattress " antenna approximately 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide . Having found proof of these Freya installations , Jones and the other scientists under his command could begin devising countermeasures against the system , and the RAF could begin to locate and destroy the installations themselves . Jones had also found evidence of a second part of the Freya set @-@ up , referred to in Enigma decrypts as " Würzburg " , but it was not until he was shown another set of RAF reconnaissance photographs in November 1941 that he learned what Würzburg was . It consisted of a parabolic antenna about 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter , which worked in conjunction with Freya to locate British bombers and then direct Luftwaffe night fighters to attack them . The two systems complemented each other : Freya was a long @-@ range early @-@ warning radar system , but lacked precision , whereas Würzburg had a much shorter range but was far more precise . Würzburg also had the advantage of being much smaller than the Freya system and easier to manufacture in the quantities needed by the Luftwaffe to defend German territory .
= = Prelude = =
In order to effectively neutralise the Würzburg system by developing counter @-@ measures against it , Jones and his team needed to study one of the systems , or at least the more vital pieces of technology of which the system was composed . Fortunately for them , one such site had recently been located by an RAF reconnaissance Spitfire from the Photographic Reconnaissance Unit during a flight over part of the French English Channel coast near Le Havre . The site was located on a clifftop immediately north of the village of Bruneval , which was itself twelve miles north of Le Havre , and was the most accessible German radar site that had been located so far by the British ; several other installations were located further inland in France , and others were as far away as Romania and Bulgaria . A request for a raid on the Bruneval site to capture a Würzburg system was passed on to Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten , the commander of Combined Operations . Mountbatten in turn took the proposal to the Chiefs of Staff Committee , who approved the raid after a brief debate . Having received permission to conduct the raid , Mountbatten and his staff studied the Bruneval installation and its defences , rapidly coming to the conclusion that due to the extensive coastal defences in the area around the installation it was too well @-@ guarded to permit a seaborne Commando raid . They considered that such a raid would result in high casualties among the attacking troops and would not be fast enough to capture the Würzburg radar before it was destroyed by the Germans . Believing that surprise and speed were to be the essential requirements of any raid against the installation to ensure the radar was captured , Mountbatten saw an airborne assault as the only viable method . On 8 January 1942 , he therefore contacted the headquarters of 1st Airborne Division and 38 Wing RAF , asking if they were able to conduct the raid . The division 's commander , Major @-@ General Frederick Browning , was particularly enthusiastic , as a successful operation would be an excellent morale boost to the airborne troops under his command , as well as a good demonstration of their value .
The two commanders believed that training by both airborne troops and aircrews could be completed by the end of February , when there would be suitable meteorological conditions for such an operation to take place . Training for the raid was begun immediately , but encountered several problems . 38 Wing was a new unit still in the process of formation , so No. 51 Squadron RAF under Wing Commander Percy Charles Pickard was selected to provide the aircraft and aircrew needed for the operation , although Group Captain Nigel Norman of 38 Wing would remain in overall command . Another problem encountered was the state of training of the unit of airborne troops chosen to raid the installation . During this period , 1st Airborne Division was composed of only two parachute battalions , of which only one ( 1st Parachute Battalion ) , was fully trained . Browning , wishing to keep 1st Parachute Battalion intact for any larger operation the division might be selected for , ordered 2nd Parachute Battalion to provide a company for the operation . ' C ' Company commanded by Major John Frost was selected , but the company had been so recently formed that Frost and many of his men had not yet completed their parachute jumping course . The level of security imposed on the planning for the raid was so high that when Major Frost was first briefed by a liaison officer from the headquarters of 1st Airborne Division , he was informed that his company was to take part in an airborne warfare demonstration for the War Cabinet . He was also informed that C Company would be divided into four sections for the exercise , which was contrary to a plan Frost had devised for the exercise and confused him . It was only after Frost raised several objections with a more senior officer at headquarters that he was informed of the intended raid , after which the Major dropped his objections and turned his attention to training the company .
= = = Training = = =
The company spent time on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire , and then travelled to Inveraray in Scotland where they underwent specialised training on Loch Fyne , practising night embarkations on landing craft to prepare the company for evacuation by sea after raiding the radar installation . After this , the unit returned to Wiltshire and began carrying out practice parachute drops with the aircraft and aircrews of 51 Squadron . Despite the aircrews having no previous experience in dropping parachutists , these exercises proved to be successful . The company 's working @-@ up was aided by the creation of a scale @-@ model of the radar installation and the surrounding buildings being built by the Photographic Interpretation Unit . During this period , Major Frost was introduced to Commander F. N. Cook of the Royal Australian Navy who would be commanding the naval force intended to evacuate the company at the completion of the raid , as well as to the detachment of thirty @-@ two officers and men from No. 12 Commando who would arrive in the landing craft and cover the company as it withdrew from the beach . Frost also met RAF Flight Sergeant C.W.H. Cox , who had volunteered to accompany C Company for the operation ; as an expert radio mechanic , it would be his job to locate the Würzburg radar set , photograph it , and to dismantle part of it for transportation back to Britain . Derek Garrard of Jones ' team asked Jones to obtain an Army uniform and identification number for Cox , as he would be the object of special attention from the Germans if he was captured in Air Force uniform , but the War Office were obdurate .
Information about the Bruneval radar installation was also gathered during this period , often with the help of the French Resistance , without whom detailed knowledge of the disposition of the German forces guarding the installation would have been impossible . This information was gathered by Gilbert Renault , known to the British by the code @-@ name ' Remy ' and several members of his resistance cell . The installation was composed of two distinct areas ; a villa approximately 100 yards ( 91 m ) from the edge of a cliff which contained the radar station itself , and an enclosure containing a number of smaller buildings which contained a small garrison . The Würzburg antenna was erected between the villa and the cliff . The radar station was permanently manned by Luftwaffe radar technicians and was surrounded by a number of guard posts and approximately thirty guards ; the buildings in the small enclosure housed approximately 100 German troops , including another detachment of technicians . A platoon of German infantry was stationed to the south in Bruneval itself , and was responsible for manning the defences guarding the evacuation beach ; these included a strongpoint near the beach as well as pillboxes and machine gun nests on the top of the cliff overlooking the beach . The beach was not mined and had only sporadic barbed @-@ wire defences , but it was patrolled regularly ; a mobile reserve of infantry was believed to be available at one hour 's notice and stationed some distance inland .
On the basis of this information , Frost decided to divide the company into five groups of forty men for the raid , each named after a famous Royal Navy admiral : ' Nelson ' , ' Jellicoe ' , ' Hardy ' , ' Drake ' and ' Rodney ' . ' Nelson ' would clear and secure German positions defending the evacuation beach , whilst ' Jellicoe ' , ' Hardy ' and ' Drake ' would capture the radar site , villa and the enclosure . ' Rodney ' was the reserve formation , placed between the radar site and the main likely enemy approach to block any counterattack . It was considered that the combination of a full moon for visibility , and a rising tide to allow the landing craft to manoeuvre in shallow water , was vital for the success of the raid , which narrowed the possible dates to a four @-@ day period between 24 – 27 February . On 23 February , a final rehearsal exercise took place , which proved to be a failure ; despite ideal weather conditions , the evacuation landing craft grounded 60 yards ( 180 ft ) offshore and could not be shifted despite the efforts of the crews and troops .
= = The raid = =
The raid was postponed for several days after the 23 February rehearsal due to weather conditions , but on 27 February the weather proved to be ideal , with clear skies and good visibility for the aircraft of 51 Squadron , and a full moon which would provide illumination for the evacuation of the raiding force . The naval force under Commander Cook departed from Britain during the afternoon , and the Whitley transport aircraft carrying C Company took off from RAF Thruxton in the evening . The aircraft crossed the English Channel without incident , but as they reached the French coast they came under heavy antiaircraft fire ; however , none of them was hit , and they successfully delivered C Company to the designated drop zone near the installation . The drop was almost a total success , with the majority of the raiding force landing on the edge of the drop zone ; however , half of the ' Nelson ' detachment landed two miles short of the DZ . Once the other detachments had gathered their equipment and orientated themselves , they moved off to undertake their arranged tasks . ' Jellicoe ' , ' Hardy and ' Drake ' encountered no enemy opposition as they moved towards the villa housing the radar installation , and after surrounding the villa Frost gave the order to open fire with grenades and automatic fire . One German guard was killed as he returned fire from an upstairs window , and two more were taken prisoner by the airborne troops ; upon interrogation , the prisoners revealed that the majority of the garrison were stationed further inland . There still remained a substantial enemy force in the buildings in the small enclosure near the villa , and this now opened fire on the raiding force after being alerted by the initial firefight , killing one of the airborne troops . The volume of fire rapidly increased , when enemy vehicles could be seen moving towards the villa from the nearby woods ; this in particular worried Frost , as the radio sets the force had been issued failed to work , giving him no means of communication with his other detachments , including ' Nelson ' who were tasked with clearing the evacuation beach . Fortunately for the British , Flight Sergeant Cox and several sappers arrived at this time and proceeded to dismantle the radar equipment , placing the pieces on specially designed trolleys .
Having secured the radar equipment and under heavy enemy fire , Major Frost gave the order for the three detachments to withdraw to the evacuation beach ; it became apparent , however , that the beach had not been secured by the under @-@ strength ' Nelson ' detachment when a German machine gun opened fire on the airborne troops , severely wounding the company sergeant major . Frost ordered ' Rodney ' and the available men of ' Nelson ' to clear the defenses , whilst he led the other three detachments back to the villa , which had been reoccupied by enemy troops . The villa was soon cleared of enemy troops once more , and when Frost returned to the beach , he found that the machine @-@ gun nest had been destroyed by the mis @-@ dropped troops of ' Nelson ' ; avoiding a number of enemy positions , they had reached the beach and attacked the machine @-@ gun post from the flank . By this time it was 02 : 15 but there was no sign of the naval force that was to evacuate the airborne troops . Frost ordered ' Nelson ' to guard the inland approaches to the beach and then fired off an emergency signal flare ; soon after that the naval force was seen approaching . The original plan for the operation had called for two landing craft at a time to land on the beach , but this had never been satisfactorily achieved during training ; instead , all six landing craft landed at the same time , with the covering troops in the landing craft opening fire on German soldiers gathering at the top of the cliff . This deviation from the original evacuation plan and the enemy fire caused considerable confusion on the beach ; some of the landing craft left the beach over @-@ crowded , whilst others left half @-@ empty . However , the radar equipment , German prisoners and the entire raiding force were embarked and transferred to motor gun boats for transport back to Britain . On the return journey , Frost learned that the naval force had received no signals apart from the signal flare , and had spent much of the time hiding from a German naval patrol that had nearly discovered them . The journey back to Britain was uneventful , with the force being escorted by four destroyers and a flight of Spitfires .
= = Aftermath = =
The success of the raid against the Bruneval installation had two important effects . First , a successful raid against German @-@ occupied territory was a welcome morale boost for the British public , and featured prominently in the British media for several weeks afterwards . The British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill took a personal interest in the operation , and on 3 March assembled the War Cabinet to hear from Major Frost and several other officers who had participated in it . Several medals were awarded as a result . On 15 May 1942 a special supplement to the London Gazette carried the announcement of 19 decorations ; Frost was awarded the Military Cross ( MC ) , Cook the Distinguished Service Cross ( DSC ) and Cox the Military Medal ( MM ) ; there were two other DSCs , two Distinguished Service Medals ( DSM ) , one other MC , two further MMs and nine Mentions in Despatches ( MiD ) . Wing Commander Pickard was also subsequently awarded a bar to his Distinguished Service Order , on 26 May . The success of the raid also prompted the War Office to expand the existing British airborne forces , setting up the Airborne Forces Depot and Battle School in Derbyshire in April 1942 , and creating the Parachute Regiment as well as converting a number of infantry battalions to airborne battalions in August 1942 .
The second and most important result of the raid was the technical knowledge that British scientists gained . Examination of the components of the radar array showed that it was of a modular design that aided maintenance and made fixing faults far simpler than on similar British radar models . This was confirmed during the interrogation of the captured German technician , who proved to be less well trained than his British counterparts . Examination of the radar array also allowed British scientists to conclude that they would have to deploy a countermeasure that had recently been developed , code @-@ named Window . Examination of the Würzburg array showed that it was impervious to being jammed by conventional means used by the British during the early years of the conflict ; thus Window would have to be deployed against German radars . The effectiveness of Window against Würzburg radar arrays was confirmed by a raid conducted by RAF Bomber Command on 24 July 1943 against Hamburg ( Operation Gomorrah ) ; when the bombers utilised Window , all of the radar arrays in Hamburg were blinded and their operators confused , unable to distinguish between the radar signature of a real bomber and several pieces of Window giving off a similar signature . An unexpected bonus of the Bruneval raid was the Germans ' efforts to improve defences at Würzburg stations and prevent similar attacks . The radars were surrounded by rings of barbed wire which increased their visibility from the air , making them easier to target prior to Operation Overlord .
One final consequence of the raid was that the Telecommunications Research Establishment , where much of the Bruneval equipment was analysed , and British radar systems were designed and tested , was moved further inland from Swanage on the southern coast of England to Malvern to ensure that it was not the target of a reprisal raid by German airborne forces .
The original model of the area around the radar station , used to brief troops taking part in the assault , is preserved in the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum , located at the Imperial War Museum Duxford .
= River dolphin =
River dolphins are a widely distributed group of fully aquatic mammals that reside exclusively in freshwater or brackish water . They are an informal grouping of dolphins , which is a paraphyletic group within the infraorder Cetacea . The river dolphins comprise the extant families Platanistidae ( the Indian dolphins ) , Iniidae ( the Amazonian dolphins ) , and Pontoporiidae ( the brackish dolphins ) . There are five extant species of river dolphins , and two subspecies . River dolphins , alongside other cetaceans , belong to the clade Cetartiodactyla , with even @-@ toed ungulates , and their closest living relatives the hippopotamuses , having diverged about 40 million years ago .
River dolphins are relatively small compared to other dolphins , having evolved to survive in the warm and strong river currents . They range in size from the 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) long South Asian river dolphin to the 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) and 220 @-@ pound ( 100 kg ) Amazon river dolphin . Several species exhibit sexual dimorphism , in that the males are larger than the females . They have streamlined bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers . River dolphins use their conical @-@ shaped teeth and long beaks to capture fast @-@ moving prey in murky water . They have well @-@ developed hearing that is adapted for both air and water ; they do not really rely on vision since the water they swim in is usually very muddy . These species are well @-@ adapted to living in warm , shallow waters , and , unlike other cetaceans , have little to no blubber .
River dolphins are not very widespread ; they are all restricted to certain rivers or deltas . This makes them extremely vulnerable to habitat destruction . River dolphins feed primarily on fish . Male river dolphins typically mate with multiple females every year , but females only mate every two to three years . Calves
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Mega Mix Version ( 2001 ) and Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 4 + Selection Non @-@ Stop Mega Mix Version ( 2002 ) , the Ayu @-@ Ro remix on Super Eurobeat Presents Ayu @-@ ro Mix 2 ( 2001 ) , and the Alex Morph remix on Ayu @-@ mi @-@ x 7 Presents Ayu Trance 4 ( 2011 ) . The orchestral acoustic remix and its instrumental version , were included on her third orchestral remix album , ayu @-@ mi @-@ x III Acoustic Orchestra Version ( 2001 ) .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the singles liner notes :
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Cyclone Wasa – Arthur =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Wasa – Arthur was the first major tropical cyclone to affect French Polynesia and Tahiti since the 1982 @-@ 83 season . The system was first noted on December 3 , 1991 as a shallow tropical depression that was embedded within the monsoon trough , to the north of the Cook Island : Rarotonga . Over the next couple of days the system gradually developed further , before it was classified as a tropical cyclone and named Wasa during December 5 . The system gradually strengthened further and acquired hurricane @-@ force winds on December 6 , as it performed a small clockwise loop . After completing the loop , Wasa moved southwards before it peaked in intensity during December 8 , with sustained wind speeds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Over the next few days the system started to weaken as it passed through the French Polynesian Society Islands , and became the first major tropical cyclone to affect French Polynesia since 1983 .
During December 12 , Wasa passed through the French Polynesian Austral Islands and passed directly over Tubuai , before it degenerated into a tropical depression later that day . However , gale force winds remained associated with the depression , before the system turned towards the east @-@ northeast and entered into warmer waters near the Tuamotu Islands . During December 14 , Wasa regenerated into a tropical depression and was renamed Arthur for various reasons . During that day the system gradually intensified before it reached its secondary peak intensity with sustained wind speeds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . During December 15 , the system maintained its peak intensity , as it moved through the uninhabited Acteon Group of islands , before during the next day it started to gradually weaken . Arthur degenerated into a shallow depression during December 17 , before it was last noted during the next day as it dissipated to the north of the Pitcairn islands .
Tourists on the island of Bora Bora were evacuated to a local church , after Wasa – Arthur had swept high seas into tourist bungalows . Overall the system caused an estimated US $ 60 million in damage within French Polynesia , with the majority of the damage done between December 9 – 12 . The system destroyed or damaged several homes , a variety of crops and damaged several public buildings , hotels , roads and power installations , with the worst affected islands being Bora Bora and Tubuai . On Rurutu island , Moerai harbour was destroyed by a cyclonic swell generated by the system , while the local school and police station were destroyed by high waves . Two people were killed after torrential rainfall from the system caused a mudslide on the island of Moorea , during a night of torrential rain the day after Wasa had made its closest approach to the island . The French Government incurred costs of about FF68 million including FF53 million for the efforts of the French Military . The French Polynesian Government subsequently borrowed FF55 million and built up a fund from local banks of about FF1.5 billion , to help with the reconstruction . The name Wasa was later retired , from the list of tropical cyclone names by the World Meteorological Organization .
= = Meteorological history = =
On December 3 , the Fiji Meteorological Service started to monitor a shallow tropical depression , that had developed within a monsoon trough about 1 @,@ 250 km ( 775 mi ) to the north of Rarotonga , in the Southern Cook Islands . Over the next two days , the system gradually developed further as it moved towards the southwest , before during December 5 , the Naval Western Oceanography Center ( NWOC ) started to monitor the depression and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 07P after it had become equivalent to a tropical storm . Later that day , TCWC Nadi reported that the system had developed into a category one tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale and named it Wasa , while it was located about 250 km ( 160 mi ) to the south @-@ west of the Cook Islands Penhryn . During December 6 , Wasa developed hurricane force winds in an area of low vertical wind shear as it performed a small clockwise loop before it started to move towards the southeast during December 8 , as an equatorial westerly wind burst affected the system . Early on December 8 , the NWOC reported that Wasa had peaked in intensity with 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) , which made it equivalent to a category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . TCWC Nadi subsequently reported during the next day , that Wasa had become a Category 4 Severe tropical cyclone , as it reached its peak intensity with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) .
Over the next few days the system started to weaken as it passed through the French Polynesian Society Islands , and became the first major tropical cyclone to affect French Polynesia since 1983 . During December 12 , Wasa passed through the French Polynesian Austral Islands and passed directly over Tubuai . Later that day , TCWC Nadi reported that the system had weakened into a tropical depression , before the NWOC issued their final advisory on Wasa during December 13 . However , gale force winds remained associated with the depression , in particular within the systems southeastern quadrant , the system subsequently turned and started to move towards the east @-@ northeast and entered into warmer waters near the Tuamotus . TCWC Nadi subsequently reported during December 14 , that the system had regenerated into a category one tropical cyclone and renamed it : Arthur , for various reasons including operational purposes and to avoid confusion among recipients of their warnings . During that day the system gradually intensified further , as it passed about 130 km ( 80 mi ) to the north @-@ northwest of the atoll : Mururoa , with the automatic weather station there reporting sustained wind speeds of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) . At 12 : 00 UTC TCWC Nadi reported that Wasa – Arthur had re @-@ peaked with 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , which made it a category 2 tropical cyclone on the Australian scale . During the next day the system maintained its peak intensity and moved through the uninhabited Acteon Group of islands and several other atolls , before as Wasa @-@ Arthur turned eastwards , the NWOC decided to classify the storm as Tropical Cyclone 08P , with peak 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 85 km / h ( 55 mph ) . During December 16 , the system started to gradually weaken as it turned more towards the east , before it degenerated into a shallow depression late the next day . The remnant depression was last noted dissipating during December 18 , to the north of the Pitcairn islands .
= = Preparations and impact = =
During December 9 , ahead of Cyclone Wasa affecting French Polynesia , the High Commissioner Jean Montpezat , declared a state of maximum alert which closed schools and banned navigation . On December 12 , tourists on the island of Bora Bora were evacuated to a local church , after the system had swept high seas into tourist bungalows . Overall Cyclone Wasa – Arthur caused an estimated US $ 60 million in damage within the six Leeward Islands , the two Windward Islands of Tahiti and Moorea and several of the Austral Islands with the majority of the damage done between December 9 – 12 . The system destroyed 367 homes , damaged 855 other homes , destroyed or damaged a variety of crops and damaged several public buildings , hotels , roads and power installations , with the worst affected islands were Bora Bora and Tubuai . On Rurutu island , Moerai harbour was destroyed by a cyclonic swell generated by the system , while the local school and police station were destroyed by high waves . A women and her child were killed while asleep , after torrential rainfall from Wasa caused a mudslide on the island of Moorea the day after the system had made its closest approach to the island .
During the aftermath of the cyclone , a French Military cargo plane and several helicopters carried out initial relief efforts to several of the islands affected by Wasa , before the French Polynesian Government and private cargo ships continued the effort , by carrying emergency relief supplies and reconstruction materials . The French Government 's Minister for Overseas France : Louis Le Pensec arrived in Tahiti on December 15 , to inspect the damage and explore ways of rebuilding the island nation , after similar tours were conducted by the President of French Polynesia , Gaston Flosse and several of his cabinet ministers . During the emergency period , the French Government incurred costs of about FF68 million including FF53 million for the efforts of the French Military . The French Polynesian Government subsequently borrowed FF55 million from the Central Fund for Economic Cooperation and built up a fund from local banks of about FF1.5 billion , to help with the reconstruction of infrastructure and territorial buildings . The name Wasa was later retired , from the list of tropical cyclone names by the World Meteorological Organization .
= Wilton St Hill =
Wilton H. St Hill was a West Indian cricketer who played in West Indies ' first Test match during their inaugural Test tour of England . A right @-@ handed batman who played in a variety of batting positions , he represented Trinidad in first @-@ class cricket between 1912 and 1930 and played in three Test matches in total . Although his Test record was poor , he was highly regarded in Trinidad . In particular , writer C. L. R. James considered St Hill to be among the top batsmen in the world and dedicated a chapter of Beyond a Boundary to him . At the peak of his career , Lord Harris described him as the best batsman in the West Indies .
Establishing an early reputation playing for the Shannon Club in Trinidad , St Hill was selected for Trinidad in 1912 and played in every Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament until 1930 . Although he missed selection for the 1923 tour of England , he played for representative West Indian sides in 1926 against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) and scored a century against the tourists for Trinidad . Success in trial matches led to his selection for the 1928 tour of England where he failed badly . In 1930 , he hit another century for Trinidad against MCC and was chosen for one final Test , after which he did not play any further first @-@ class cricket .
One of the first successful black batsmen in the West Indies , St Hill was an enigmatic character who refused to compromise his playing style . Towards the end of his career , his aggression while batting , even when out of form , resulted in his dismissal without scoring many runs .
= = Early life and career = =
St Hill was born on 6 July 1893 in Port of Spain , Trinidad , and according to C. L. R. James , his family were lower middle @-@ class . He had two brothers who played first @-@ class cricket for Trinidad , Cyl and Edwin ; the latter also played Test matches for West Indies . Cricket in Trinidad at the time was divided along racial lines . For cricket clubs on the island , the colour of a player 's skin was crucial . St Hill played for Shannon , a club associated with black lower middle @-@ class players such as teachers or clerks . Another club , Maple , was associated with middle @-@ class people but would only accept men with a lighter skin tone . When someone said to St Hill that Maple would welcome a player as good as him , he replied , " Yes , but they wouldn 't want my brothers " , both of whom were darker skinned . By 1912 , St Hill found a job in a department store and remained in this position all his life . By this stage , he had established a good reputation as a batsman and was popular with players and spectators .
= = First @-@ class cricketer = =
= = = Playing for Trinidad = = =
St Hill was chosen to play for Trinidad in 1912 and made his first @-@ class debut against British Guiana in the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament . Batting at number nine in the batting order , he scored four runs in his only innings and did not bowl in an innings victory by Trindad . He retained his place in the tournament final against Barbados and after another failure batting at number eight , he was more successful , scoring 59 not out in the second innings from number nine , sharing a last wicket partnership of 67 . However , Barbados won the match easily . St Hill 's only other matches before the First World War were both against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) in 1913 . Now batting at number three , St Hill scored 76 runs in three innings with a top score of 33 . There were no inter @-@ colonial matches that season and the First World War suspended first @-@ class competition .
When cricket resumed in February 1920 , St Hill was selected in two matches against Barbados as Trinidad travelled to Barbados . Trinidad were heavily defeated in both games . St Hill scored 18 and 41 in the first game opening the batting , and after scoring two runs at number four in the second game , reverted to opening and scored 96 , sharing an opening partnership of 140 with C. P. Cumberbatch . The next tournament took place in Trinidad during September 1921 , and St Hill scored 104 runs from number three — his maiden first @-@ class century — as Trinidad defeated British Guiana . The final against Barbados was affected by rain and left drawn when Barbados had to catch the boat home ; St Hill scored six runs , batting at number three , and 48 batting at number six . In the inter @-@ colonial matches of September 1922 , St Hill continued to bat in a variety of positions , batting at numbers three , five and six , as well as opening the batting . However , he scored just 49 runs in four innings . Although Trinidad reached the final , they were once more heavily defeated by Bardados .
C. L. R. James believes that St Hill planned to play professional cricket in England around this point , but his failure in the trial matches meant that he was not selected to tour England with the West Indies team in 1923 . James records how upset St Hill 's supporters were by his omission and they believed the West Indian selectors feared a black batsman being successful in England . He also describes St Hill became more single @-@ minded and less willing to moderate his approach after this decision .
When St Hill played in Trinidad 's next match in February 1924 , he was joined in the team by his brother Edwin , who took six wickets on his first @-@ class debut . St Hill was less successful , batting at number five and scoring 6 and 23 , but Trinidad once again defeated British Guiana to reach the final against Barbados . In the final , he was promoted to open the batting but did not reach double figures in either innings and a century from George Challenor helped Barbados to win the tournament once again ; by this point , they had won all but one of the matches played against Trinidad in the years St Hill was in the team . St Hill played in a non @-@ first @-@ class match against the Windward Islands later that year , scoring a fifty in the second innings .
= = = Best batsman in the West Indies = = =
Playing at home in the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , Trinidad once again defeated British Guiana in February 1925 and St Hill opened the batting to score 13 and 29 . Playing Barbados in the final , Trinidad won a very close match by 13 runs . St Hill , batting at number three , scored 66 and 64 , having not scored a first @-@ class fifty since 1921 . As winners of the competition , Trinidad qualified for the final without playing another team in October 1925 ; British Guiana defeated Barbados but lost in the final . St Hill , remaining at number three , scored 100 in the first innings , but was dismissed for a duck in the second as Trinidad gained a narrow victory by two wickets .
The following January , the MCC toured West Indies . The tourists played matches against a representative West Indian side for which St Hill was selected . In the first match in Barbados , he scored just one run in his only innings batting at number four and the home side just managed to secure a draw . The MCC then played two games against Trinidad both of which were drawn . St Hill batted at number three in both matches . In the first , St Hill scored 45 but in the second he scored 20 and a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hour 105 . Lord Harris , having seen this innings , described St Hill as the best batsman in the West Indies . In the remaining two representative matches , St Hill scored 32 , 36 and 72 batting at three or five . In the three representative games , St Hill scored 141 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 25 , but the MCC won the series 1 – 0 .
As defending champions , Trinidad again qualified for the final of the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament in January 1927 and faced Barbados , the home team on this occasion . In a high @-@ scoring match which lasted for eight days , Barbados recovered from being 384 runs behind after the first innings . St Hill contributed a first innings duck and a score of 18 in the second innings , batting down the order . Later in the year , St Hill took part in the trial matches for the 1928 tour of England . Playing for British Guiana and Trinidad against Barbados and Jamaica , he scored 144 , the highest innings of his career . St Hill was particularly severe on the bowling of George Francis , a bowler who had represented West Indies . In the other matches , scores of 45 , 44 and 71 , secured his place in the touring team .
= = = Failure in England = = =
Expectations for St Hill were high before the tour and Lord Harris predicted St Hill would be a success in England . In a preview of the 1928 English cricket season , The Times commented that the West Indies team was an unknown quantity but singled out St Hill as one of two promising batsmen on the team . The same newspaper later noted his exciting batting style , and described him as " one of the best batsmen on the side , from whom much is expected later on " . However , all the touring batsmen were hampered by a cold , wet summer and humid conditions which helped the ball to move through the air . Furthermore , they had to deal with pitches on which the ball spun further and travelled slower after bouncing than they were accustomed to in the Caribbean . St Hill would not or could not adapt his usual attacking style to the unfamiliar conditions . According to James , he was " a horrible , a disastrous , an incredible failure " . Making a succession of low scores , he passed fifty only once in first @-@ class games , against Oxford University and scored one century in a minor match against Durham . He played 35 innings in total and reached double figures only 15 times , while in first @-@ class matches he reached double figures just eight times in 25 innings . Despite his poor form , St Hill played in the first two Test matches , making 4 and 9 during West Indies inaugural Test , batting at number five and scoring 3 and 38 in the second Test , batting at number four . West Indies lost both games and lost their first Test series 3 – 0 . After the end of July , St Hill only played once more on the tour . In total , he scored 262 first @-@ class runs at an average of 10 @.@ 91 . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack described St Hill as the " big disappointment " of the tour , noting that he tried to attack the bowling too early in his innings and therefore rarely succeeded . Nevertheless , the correspondent commented on his range of shots on the off side .
= = = End of career = = =
Following St Hill 's return to the West Indies , the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament took place in Trinidad during January and February 1929 . The home team defeated British Guiana before beating Barbados by an innings in the final . St Hill batted at number three throughout but managed scores of just 4 , 23 and 5 . However , Trinidad could not defend their title in October as British Guiana defeated the team by four wickets . St Hill batted at number seven in the first innings and three in the second innings but made just 11 runs in the match .
The MCC toured once again in early 1930 , where the team played two games against Trinidad , although St Hill only appeared in the first . Again batting at number three , he scored 16 in the first innings but accumulated 102 in the second — his final first @-@ class century . Concentrating on defence , St Hill batted for four hours showing more patience than he had done before . James wrote that " the eagle had clipped his own wings at last " . St Hill was selected for the Test on his home ground in Trinidad and had his best match statistically . Batting at number three in the first innings , he scored 30 and opened the batting to score 33 in the second innings . Wisden described him as batting steadily , but West Indies lost the match and St Hill did not play any further Test or first @-@ class cricket . In three Tests , he scored 117 runs at an average of 19 @.@ 50 and in 43 first @-@ class games , he hit 1928 runs at 27 @.@ 15 with five centuries . He also took five wickets .
By 1931 , St Hill remained successful in local Trinidad cricket , but one newspaper report suggested that he had " fallen off considerably " in terms of form , and was unlikely to play for West Indies again . Very little is known about the remainder of his life . There are no details about his death , although he is believed to have died around 1957 . When former West Indian cricker Learie Constantine wrote about him in 1957 , he noted that St Hill was dead . In 1984 , he was entered into the Trinidad and Tobago Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Personality , style and technique = =
C. L. R. James described St Hill as " about six feet or a little under , slim , wiry , with forearms like whipcord . His face was bony , with small sharp eyes and a thin , tight mouth . " A reserved man , Hill kept his opinions to himself . Off the cricket field , James described him as partial to the " good things of life " .
St Hill was one of the first successful black batsmen in West Indies . As a batsmen , St Hill 's performances reached their highest standards on the biggest occasions and against the best bowlers . Although not possessing quick footwork , he was capable of quickly judging where the ball would land . This enabled him to get into position quickly gave him extra time to play shots , which he often delayed until the ball was very close to him . Many of his runs were hit behind point and square leg . St Hill 's favourite stroke was the leg glance ; the shot carried the risk of falling leg before wicket ( lbw ) if he missed but his placement was very precise . He also played a range of cut shots . If a bowler restricted his scoring , St Hill improvised attacking shots to break free . Learie Constantine wrote a description of an innings he saw St Hill play as a young man . Facing the fast bowling of George John , St Hill " flicked his wrists and the ball flew to the boundary faster than sound . The next went the same way . The boy batted from his wrists ; he never seemed to use any force . I don 't believe he had the strength even if he so desired . His was just perfect timing . " However , he always insisted on playing his own style of game , whether he was in form or not . The result was often his dismissal without scoring many runs . This was the case in England in 1928 . After 1926 , St Hill was never the same batsman and according to James was as likely to get out cheaply as he was to make a big score .
St Hill possessed a presence which compelled attention when he was batting . James wrote : " Fires burned in St Hill and you could always see them glow . " When playing for Shannon , he insisted on the highest standards , and even though he was not captain , he would take over if the game was going against his team . James also wrote that he never understood St Hill as he did others : " His eyes used to blaze when he was discussing a point with you ; but even within his clipped sentences there were intervals when he seemed to be thinking of other things , far removed . "
St Hill 's batting success was significant for many in cricket . Writer Grant Farred observed : " In St Hill the masses that watched the game ... saw a vision created in which anger and resentment at the ' pervading humiliation ' they suffered was distilled into a finely tuned batsman . " At the time , black Trinidadians had no democratic outlet for their feelings and opinions . Fared writes that St Hill 's batting " represented a victory over the forces that held sway over this community 's life in all other walks of life " . St Hill 's many followers in Trinidad identified with his successes and his ability to compete with equality on the cricket field as a sign that they successfully take part in other aspects of life which had been closed to them .
= = Beyond a Boundary = =
St. Hill is the subject of a chapter in Beyond a Boundary by C. L. R. James , published in 1963 . The book is regarded by many critics as the greatest book on cricket and one of the best books on sport . James wrote : " In my gallery , [ St Hill ] is present with Bradman , Sobers , George Headley and the three Ws , Hutton and Compton , Peter May and a few others . " He describes his character and play , and writes about how much St Hill 's success meant to black Trinidadians as he was " one of us , performing in excelsis in a sphere where competition was open ... Wilton St Hill was our boy . " Reviewing the book in Wisden in 1964 , John Arlott wrote : " The essay on Wilton St Hill must be the finest portrait of a cricketer ever created in prose — or , for that matter in verse or paint either " .
James concluded the chapter : " He saw the ball as early as anyone . He played it as late as anyone . His spirit was untameable , perhaps too much so . There we must leave it . "
= Winton Train =
The Winton Train was a private passenger train that travelled from the Czech Republic to Great Britain in September 2009 in tribute to the wartime efforts of Sir Nicholas Winton , described as the ' British Schindler ' for his part in saving refugee children from Czechoslovakia .
As a result of Sir Nicholas ' efforts in the months leading up to the outbreak of World War II in 1939 , a total of seven locomotives transported 669 Czechoslovak children of mainly Jewish heritage from Prague to safety in Great Britain .
Sir Nicholas ' kindertransport efforts remained largely unrecognised until 1988 , when they came to public attention after his wife found a scrapbook in their attic documenting the details . Only then did the individuals whom Winton arranged to have transported to safety as children learn the story of how they survived the Holocaust . As the majority of ' Winton 's Children ' ( as they came to be known ) were Jewish , it is believed this saved them from certain death had they stayed in Czechoslovakia . As of 2009 , the direct descendants of Winton 's Children numbered over 5000 people .
The 2009 tribute Winston Train carried some of the individuals Sir Nicholas arranged to have transported to safety in 1939 , along with their families , as it retraced the original kindertransport route taken by the trains on which they rode as children to safety in Great Britain 70 years earlier . The Winston Train departed on 1 September 2009 , the 70th anniversary of the eighth , and intended last , train arranged by Winston to carry children to safety but was prevented from doing so due to the outbreak of World War II on that very day . It departed from Prague Main railway station , travelled through Germany and the Netherlands . After a transfer by ferry to Harwich , the journey resumed by train again to arrive in London 's Liverpool Street station on 4 September , where it was met by the 100 @-@ year @-@ old Sir Nicholas himself . For the journey across mainland Europe , the train was formed of period carriages and was hauled by historically authentic steam locomotives , while the British leg was hauled by 60163 Tornado , a brand @-@ new , main @-@ line British steam locomotive completed in 2008 , along with carriages that were constructed in the 1950s .
The tribute train was the centrepiece of a wider cultural awareness project known as ' Inspiration by Goodness ' , organised by the Czech government .
= = Background = =
= = = Original Winton trains = = =
Between March and September 1939 , the months leading up to the outbreak of World War II , Nicholas Winton , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old Christian British stockbroker whose parents were of German Jewish descent , organised eight trains to transport mainly Jewish Czech and Slovak refugee children from Czechoslovakia to homes in Britain . The Winton trains were part of a wider British rescue effort from various other countries across Europe , known as the Kindertransports .
In 1939 , Winton cancelled a trip to a Swiss holiday resort to go to Prague , having heard of a growing refugee crisis resulting from the German occupation of Czechoslovakia from a friend . His friend was working in the British embassy for the British Committee for Refugees from Czechoslovakia , which was already working to help adults escape from Czechoslovakia . When Winton learned that refugee children could not leave unless accompanied , he decided to arrange their evacuation to Britain . While the Winton evacuations later became known by the collective label of the children 's Kindertransports , which were officially being organised elsewhere in other countries , no official Kindertransports had been arranged in Prague at that time .
Winton organised the transfer of the children from the Nazi @-@ appointed Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia to homes in Britain , in the process arranging the necessary bonds and permits for their departure , and finding the families in Britain who would receive the children . Winton and a team identified those children most at risk from the thousands of refugees driven south following the Nazi invasion of the Sudetenland . For each child to be accepted , British officials required a confirmed foster home and a £ 50 guarantee . Winton returned to Great Britain in March to arrange the reception of the children , but his task was hampered by the fact that the domestic evacuation of children was already occurring , and places were hard to find .
Beginning in March , Winton organised eight trains , which in total transported 669 mainly Jewish children from Nazi occupied Czechoslovakia to Great Britain . The eighth and final train with 250 children on board was stopped at the last minute , due to the outbreak of the war . Only two children on this ninth aborted train survived the war . According to Channel 4 News reporting on the 2009 Winton Train , " Sir Nicholas has said many times that the vision that haunts him most is the families waiting at Liverpool Street for the train that never arrived " .
The original trains left from Prague Wilson railway station ( now Prague Main station ) . While most of the children were met by their new families at London 's Liverpool Street station , some of the children got off the trains at Harwich , where they were placed with local families . Few if any of the Winton children saw their parents again .
Winton 's efforts did not come to public light until 1988 , when his wife discovered papers in their loft , whereupon Winton began to publicly talk about his work , and he came to be known as the ' British Schindler ' , in comparison to Oskar Schindler . Sir Nicholas himself believed this was undeserved , because unlike Schindler , his life had never been in danger .
= = = Inspiration by Goodness project = = =
A project to run a train in tribute to the original Winton trains was announced on 21 January 2008 as the Train Prague – London project , and the organisers were negotiating to have the train named after Sir Nicholas . The train was run by Czech Railways and sponsored by the Czech government , with the project being dedicated to their holding of the Presidency of the Council of the European Union from January to June 2009 . The train was part of a wider project encompassing social and cultural events along the route to " inspire young people through the deeds of Nicholas Winton " , and with the theme of " Inspiration by Goodness " , it incorporated art , film , photographic and literary contests by university students and school children .
The project was to follow on from the work of documentary film maker Matej Mináč about Sir Nicholas , including his new film project Nicky 's Family . While travelling on the train , Mináč filmed scenes for a new version of the Winton story . The Czech Senate President Přemysl Sobotka said of the project that it " should warn against rising extremism and anti @-@ Semitism in Europe and in the world " .
= = 2009 Winton Train = =
= = = Journey = = =
The motive power for the train journey was provided by six different steam locomotives in total , two as a double @-@ headed train in the Czech Republic due to the terrain , two in Germany , one in the Netherlands and one in Great Britain . The entire journey was scheduled to take four days , involving a European train leg , a crossing by the passengers on a ferry and an British train leg . It covered a distance of 1 @,@ 296 kilometres ( 805 mi ) , of which 1 @,@ 139 kilometres ( 708 mi ) was the train journey across mainland Europe .
On 1 September the train departed Prague Main railway station . On this first day it travelled to the German city of Nuremberg , crossing the Czech - German border at Furth im Wald in the Bavarian Forest . The following day , the train was to travel across Germany to Cologne , via Frankfurt am Main . Instead of Frankfurt however , it travelled via Wiesbaden and the right bank of the River Rhine . On the third day , the train arrived on the North Sea coast at the Dutch ferry port , Hook of Holland , crossing the Dutch - German border at Emmerich am Rhein and passing through the Netherlands via Rotterdam . The passengers disembarked the train to cross the North Sea to Great Britain overnight on the Stena Line ferry Stena Britannica to Harwich , a port in the East of England on the country boundary between Essex and Suffolk . The Bitish train journey formed the fourth day of the journey , travelling from Harwich to the London terminus of Liverpool Street station .
On this final day the train departed Harwich International railway station at 09 : 12am . It travelled via Colchester and Chelmsford , arriving at Liverpool Street station at 10 : 37 on Platform 10 . Platform 10 was the platform number that the original Winton trains had used , although the platform numbers were reconfigured in the 1980s as part of the station 's redevelopment .
Sir Nicholas , now 103 years old , met the train at Liverpool Street as guest of honour . On greeting the passengers , Winton said " It 's wonderful to see you all after 70 years ; don 't leave it quite so long until we meet here again .
At Liverpool Station all guests and train passengers were conveyed by a fleet of 70 @-@ year @-@ old London buses to the Czech Embassy for the Official Reception . The special transport was organised by the Autofest Organisation on behalf of the Bohemia Transport Muzeum with special help from the London Bus Preservation Trust and the Newman family of Ensign Buses .
" Also at Liverpool Street to meet the train was Štefan Füle , the Czech Minister for European Affairs , and a former Czech ambassador to Britain .
= = = Motive power and rolling stock = = =
Travelling through the Czech Republic from Prague to Furth im Wald , the train was double @-@ headed by locomotives No. 486 @.@ 007 and 498 @.@ 022 . , with 486 @.@ 007 leading as the train left Prague . No. 486 @.@ 007 , known as the Green Anton is a preserved steam locomotive built in 1936 and based in Vrútky , Slovakia , owned by Slovak Republic Railways ( ŽSR ) . It is one of the de : ČSD @-@ Baureihe 486 @.@ 0 class , and has a green livery . No. 498 @.@ 022 , which is one of the de : ČSD @-@ Baureihe 498 @.@ 0 class , has a blue livery and is owned by Czech Railways , who store it at Libeň in Prague , Czech Republic .
Travelling through Germany from Furth im Wald to Emmerich am Rhein , the train was hauled by locomotive No. 41 018 . No. 41 018 is a preserved steam locomotive built in 1939 and based at the Augsburg Railway Park railway museum in Augsburg , Bavaria . It is one of the locomotive class DRG Class 41 , and it is owned by DG München . From Linz am Rhein to Cologne , a second locomotive , No. 41 360 was attached .
As the train travelled through the Netherlands from Emmerich am Rhein to Hook of Holland , it was hauled by Locomotive No. 01 1075 . No. 01 1075 is a preserved steam locomotive built in 1940 and based at the Stoom Stichting Nederland ( SSN ) railway museum in Rotterdam . It is one of the locomotive class DRG Class 01 @.@ 10 .
Travelling through England ( from Harwich to London ) , the train was hauled by No. 60163 Tornado , a British mainline steam locomotive built in 2008 by the A1 Steam Locomotive Trust , the construction of which began in 1994 and was completed in 2008 .
The passenger rolling stock for the European leg from Prague to Hook of Holland comprised nine historic railway carriages of Hungarian and German origin , with a capacity for 240 passengers . The train included the blue liveried state luxury saloon carriage of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk , the first president of Czechoslovakia , which entered service on 7 March 1930 , Masaryk 's 80th birthday .
For the British leg , behind Tornado and her maroon support coach , the train was headed by Pegasus , a cream and brown Pullman Bar Car incorporating the Trianon Bar , followed by the historic 1950s built red and cream The Royal Scot rake of British Railways Mark 1 passenger coaches of Riviera Trains . Pegasus was built in 1951 for the famous Golden Arrow boat train , and later rebuilt for heritage mainline use .
= = = Passengers = = =
The 2009 Winton train carried 170 passengers , including 22 of those originally rescued , who came to be known as ' Winton 's Children ' . Passengers included the first , second , or even third generation of desecendants of the original children rescued by Sir Nicholas . The descendants of the children Sir Nicholas rescued had by 2009 grown to number 5 @,@ 000 people . Passengers on the 2009 train also included Sir Nicholas 's daughter Barbara . Other survivors who did not travel on the reunion train instead met it at Liverpool Street .
= = Subsequent projects = =
It was the hope of the project to follow up the 2009 Winton Train to London with other Winton Trains to other European cities , and for it to become a tradition . In May 2011 , an exhibition entitled Winton 's Trains opened in London at Liverpool Street station .
= Robert Latham Owen =
Robert Latham Owen Jr . ( February 2 , 1856 – July 19 , 1947 ) was one of the first two U.S. senators from Oklahoma . He served in the Senate between 1907 and 1925 .
Born into affluent circumstances in antebellum Lynchburg , Virginia , the son of a railroad company president , Owen suffered an almost Dickensian reversal of fortune when his family was ruined financially while he was still in his teens . Owen , who was part @-@ Cherokee on his mother 's side , responded by heading west to Indian Territory , where he built a new life as , in turn , a schoolteacher working with Cherokee orphans ; a lawyer , administrator and journalist ; a federal Indian agent ; and the founder and first president of a community bank . Among the achievements that brought him to wider public notice , and helped pave the way for his election to the U.S. Senate in 1907 when Oklahoma ( incorporating the former Indian Territory ) achieved statehood , was his success as a lawyer in 1906 in winning a major court case on behalf of the Eastern Cherokees seeking compensation from the U.S. Government for eastern lands the Cherokees had lost at the time of the Indian removals .
A Democrat active in many progressive causes , including efforts to strengthen public control of government , and the fight against child labor , Owen is especially remembered as the Senate sponsor of the Glass @-@ Owen Federal Reserve Act of 1913 , which created the Federal Reserve System . In discussions at the time , he resisted a campaign to put the Federal Reserve formally under the control of the banking industry , and the 1913 Act emerged broadly in line with Owen 's compromise proposal , creating a central Federal Reserve Board nominated by the Government alongside twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks dominated by the larger banks . Owen subsequently became highly critical of what he saw as the Federal Reserve 's bias towards deflationary policies during the early 1920s and again in the early 1930s , which he attributed to excessive influence by the largest banks upon the Fed , and which he identified as largely responsible for causing the Great Depression : a minority view at the time , but one that has , in recent decades , gained wide acceptance among Conservative economists ( having been popularized by Milton Friedman in the 1960s ) . In 1920 Owen unsuccessfully sought the Democratic Party 's nomination for the presidency .
Owen 's mother , Narcissa Chisholm Owen ( 1831 – 1911 ) , who did much to foster her son 's career , published a set of memoirs in 1907 about her life lived between Cherokee and mainstream U.S. societies , which have more recently attracted scholarly attention and which were republished in a critical edition in 2005 .
= = Early life and career = =
Owen was born in Lynchburg , Virginia on February 2 , 1856 , the younger of two sons of Col. Robert Latham Owen Sr. ( 1825 – 1873 ) , a civil engineer and former surveyor who had become President of the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad , and Narcissa Chisholm Owen . The Owens were a family of Welsh origin , with a record of public service as doctors and teachers : Owen 's grandfather , Dr. William Owen , and Owen 's uncle , Dr. William Otway Owen Sr. ( 1820 – 92 ) , both practised medicine in Lynchburg , and W.O. Owen Sr. served as Surgeon @-@ in @-@ Chief in charge of thirty hospitals in Lynchburg ( which became a major wartime hospital center ) throughout the Civil War .
During Owen 's boyhood the family lived in Lynchburg 's best @-@ known mansion , Point of Honor . Owen attended private schools in Lynchburg and in Baltimore , Maryland . Narcissa relates that , not long after the Civil War , her husband resigned his position as President of the Virginia and Tennessee Railway due to his opposition to a proposed railway consolidation , and ran — evidently successfully — for election as a Virginia State Senator . In June 1873 , however , when Owen was 16 , his father died a financially ruined man , and the family fell on hard times . Owen , writing in 1934 , connected their misfortune to the Panic of 1873 , which struck the nation 's railroads especially hard : " the value of my father 's property was completely destroyed , and my mother , from a life of abundance , was suddenly compelled to earn her living by teaching music . " With support from scholarships , initially obtained via his mother 's contacts , but subsequently including the 1876 President 's scholarship , awarded on merit , Owen was able to graduate in 1877 as valedictorian from Washington and Lee University . He also received the University 's gold medal for debating prowess . His older brother , William Otway Owen Jr . ( 1854 – 1924 ) , meanwhile , attended the Virginia Military Institute and the University of Virginia , and went on to a medical career with the US Army , eventually retiring with the rank of Colonel .
Owen was Cherokee through his mother , though there are conflicting indications of the extent of his Cherokee ancestry . Owen 's listing on the Dawes Rolls , dating from around 1900 , records him as 1 / 16th Cherokee by blood . Yet his mother , Narcissa Owen , according to her own account in her memoirs ( 1907 ) , would herself appear to have been only 1 / 16th Cherokee , which if correct would imply that her son was 1 / 32nd Cherokee . Beyond this , the editor of Narcissa 's memoirs has raised the possibility that Narcissa might unwittingly have missed out " one generation or possibly two " in her account of her family tree ; adjusting for this possibility might further dilute her Cherokee blood . However this may be , Narcissa had grown up largely among the Cherokees , and she was capable of making skillful use of her Cherokee heritage , colorfully describing her father , Thomas Chisholm ( a leader of the " Old Settlers " who moved west before the Trail of Tears ) , as " the last hereditary war chief of the Western Cherokees . " She also gave both her sons parallel Indian names derived from famous Cherokee chiefs : she named Robert Oconostota after a noted Cherokee chief of the late eighteenth century who was also , according to Narcissa 's Memoirs , her own great great uncle . On the advice of Col. William Penn Adair , a family friend , former Confederate Colonel and a leader among the Cherokees , Owen moved in 1879 to Salina in Indian Territory ( now Salina , Oklahoma ) , where he was accepted as a member of the Cherokee Nation . He served during 1879 @-@ 80 as the principal teacher of the Cherokee Orphan Asylum . His mother joined him in 1880 and taught music for several years at the Cherokee Female Seminary .
Owen studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1880 . During 1881 @-@ 84 he served as Secretary of the Board of Education of the Cherokee Nation , and worked on reorganizing the Cherokee school system . In parallel , he served in 1882 , 1883 and 1884 as the President of the International Fair at Muscogee , IT , now Muscogee , Oklahoma ( sometimes billed at the time as " the Indian Capital of the World " ) , the only fair held in Indian Territory at the time . He was owner and editor of the " Indian Chieftain " newspaper , based in present @-@ day Vinita , Oklahoma , in 1884 . In 1885 , with a Democrat in the White House , Owen launched a successful lobbying campaign that saw him appointed as the federal Indian agent for the so @-@ called Five Civilized Tribes , described by one student of his career as " the most important position to be held in Indian Territory " . In the absence of a court system , he promoted the use of compulsory arbitration to settle thousands of civil cases between 1885 and 1889 , when he assisted in the establishment of the first United States Court in Indian Territory . His mother served as his hostess until his marriage on New Year 's Eve , 1889 , to Daisy Deane Hester , with whom he had one daughter , Dorothea , born in 1894 .
After the White House again changed hands in 1889 , Owen left government service and organized the First National Bank of Muskogee in 1890 , serving as its president for ten years . He later wrote that the bank 's narrow survival of the Panic of 1893 was to influence his thinking about the need for fundamental reform in the US banking system :
This bank , like many other banks , lost fifty percent of its deposits within as many days because of the panic , which frightened people and caused them to withdraw their funds for hoarding throughout the United States and led creditors to strenuously press their debtors for settlement ... This panic demonstrated the complete instability of the financial system of America and the hazards which businessmen had to meet under a grossly defective banking system .
As a lawyer and lobbyist , Owen handled a number of significant cases dealing with Indian land issues . Most notably , in 1900 he took on a celebrated case on behalf of the Eastern Cherokees against the US Government , seeking compensation which the Cherokees claimed was due to them under a treaty of 1835 for eastern lands lost at the time of the Indian removals . In 1906 , after six years , Owen won the case and obtained compensation of close to $ 5 million for the Eastern Cherokees . He was also successful in his handling of important cases for the Western Cherokees , Choctaws and Chickasaws .
Beyond his obvious drive and ambition , neither his legal nor his political career was to be hampered by Owen 's physical presence . He was a tall man of erect bearing , who kept a full head of hair to the end of his life . One contemporary newspaper profile described him as looking " like a leading man in a society drama . " The New York Times spoke of him on his arrival in the Senate as " the square @-@ jawed , black eyed , lithe young man from the West " and continued that " The Senator 's voice is his most impressive asset . Liquid and soft in quality when he is talking dispassionately , it is as harsh and rasping as a file when he is aroused . "
By the time he launched his political career , the combination of Owen 's lucrative legal and lobbying practice , sometimes controversial land deals , and business activities including investments in ranching , mining and oil , had made him a wealthy man .
= = Political career = =
Owen served as a member of the Democratic National Committee during 1892 @-@ 1896 . He helped promote passage of an act in 1901 to give citizenship to residents of Indian Territory . He subsequently played a leading role in the group that in 1905 organized the Sequoyah Constitutional Convention in pursuit of the admission of Indian Territory to the Union as the State of Sequoyah . Despite receiving overwhelming support in a referendum , the Sequoyah campaign ran — entirely predictably — into the opposition of President Theodore Roosevelt and many in Congress , and Indian Territory was combined with Oklahoma Territory to be admitted into the Union in 1907 as the state of Oklahoma .
Owen was active in a number of efforts to increase popular control of government . He was also a consistent supporter of Prohibition ( it was common in late 19th and early 20th century America for supporters of Prohibition also to be supporters of popular control of government , and vice versa ) . He campaigned for women 's suffrage ( though it did not make it into Oklahoma 's original statehood constitution ) . He also worked successfully to place the direct primary , the initiative and referendum , and the recall ( a combination of measures sometimes described as the Oregon System ) in Oklahoma 's state constitution . He was a sometimes outspoken critic of corruption in politics . He was among the organizers of the National Popular Government League , and served as its president from 1913 until 1928 .
By the time of statehood and the 1907 elections that accompanied it , local Democrats had managed to harness popular resentment of large corporate trusts to overturn the earlier Republican political dominance of Oklahoma Territory . In the words of a history of Oklahoma politics , " The November elections of 1907 made Oklahoma a Democratic state for half a century to come . "
Owen himself first ran in a non @-@ binding primary for US Senator . The Democrats of Indian Territory recommended him to the voters as a " statesman , lawyer , businessman , " and , significantly , " as an Indian . " Owen took first place in the primary and was subsequently officially elected by the legislature as a Democrat to the United States Senate . As two senators were being elected simultaneously , Owen and Thomas Gore , the two men entered a lottery to determine which of them should serve the longer and which the shorter term before needing to run for re @-@ election . Owen won the draw , and hence went on , as a member of the Senate 's Class 2 , to serve a first term of over five years , ending on March 4 , 1913 .
Owen was to be re @-@ elected in 1912 , after defeating a serious primary challenge from former Governor Charles Haskell , and again ( without serious challenge ) in 1918 . He served all told from December 11 , 1907 to March 4 , 1925 . Owen reportedly maintained a mailing list of 300 @,@ 000 names .
As a newly elected Senator , Owen campaigned actively on behalf of William Jennings Bryan in the presidential election of 1908 ; the two men were to remain political allies for many years .
On his arrival in the Senate , Owen became the second Senator at the time with acknowledged Native American ancestry , alongside Republican Senator ( and future Vice @-@ President of the United States ) Charles Curtis of Kansas , whose maternal side was three @-@ quarters ' Native American , of ethnic Kaw , Osage and Pottawatomie ancestry . Curtis was the original author of the 1898 Curtis Act , which dissolved the tribal governments of the five civilized tribes , including the Cherokee , and promoted the allotment of formerly communal tribal lands to individuals , with a view to encouraging the assimilation of Indians into mainstream US society and the market economy ( though the bill was heavily amended in committee , to the point where Curtis himself had reservations about the legislation in its final form ) . ( See also Other issues below ) .
Very shortly after Owen was elected to the Senate , his mother published her memoirs ( replete with references to " my son , the United States Senator " ) . Narcissa 's exploration of her own cultural identity as a part @-@ Cherokee woman navigating mainstream US society has recently attracted scholarly attention , and the memoirs were re @-@ published by the University Press of Florida in a critical edition in 2005 . In the words of the editor of the new edition :
[ Narcissa ] Owen 's identity becomes fluid in the process of self @-@ representation : both less noble and less savage than the dominant culture has constantly demanded , she is a Cherokee , southerner , Confederate , Christian , friend , family member , teacher , community organizer , tribal translator , socialite , trickster , mother , Indian queen , wife , social activist , healer , painter , storyteller , widow and gardener , to name just a few .
= = = Banking issues and formation of the Federal Reserve = = =
See also Federal Reserve System , Federal Reserve Act and History of the Federal Reserve System
Owen entered the Senate at a time of heightened concern over the volatility of the US financial system , as exemplified by the Panic of 1907 , during which , in the absence of a central bank , J. Pierpont Morgan had felt obliged to intervene personally to lead a rescue of the U.S. financial and banking system . Owen had taken a close personal interest in financial sector issues since his days at the First National Bank of Muscogee . Inter alia , he had traveled to Europe in the summer of 1898 to study the operation of major European central banks , including meeting senior officials at the Bank of England and Germany 's Reichsbank . He made banking issues the subject of a pugnacious maiden speech in the Senate , which — unusually — was interrupted extensively by Senators such as Reed Smoot , Nelson Aldrich and Charles Curtis , who did not appreciate his attack on the power of the larger banks . During his early years in the Senate , Owen proposed a range of financial reforms , including several unsuccessful efforts to institute at the national level a system of insurance for bank deposits parallel to those operated in several states , including — from 1908 onward — Oklahoma ( in the event , federal deposit insurance was not adopted until 1933 ) .
The 1912 elections saw the Democrats take control of the White House and the Senate ( they already held the House ) . Owen lobbied successfully for the creation of a new Senate Committee on Banking and Currency , and then became its first Chairman ( a position he was to retain throughout 1913 @-@ 1919 ) . In this capacity , and working with the administration of President Woodrow Wilson , Owen was to be the Senate sponsor of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 , also known as the Glass @-@ Owen Act , which created the Federal Reserve System . A series of financial panics had convinced many that the United States needed an effective lender of last resort comparable to the central banks found in European countries and other advanced economies . Many , too , saw a need for what was then described as a more " elastic " currency . This concept had multiple dimensions , including : ( i ) a money supply that could respond over time to the development of the real economy , and ( ii ) given that the US economy was still heavily dependent on agricultural production , monetary arrangements able to handle the seasonal bulge in demand for credit as the yearly harvest worked its way through the distribution system , without draining money from the industrial and commercial sectors of the economy . This said , many Americans retained an almost visceral fear of the concept of a central bank as such .
Informed debate at the time focused to a significant degree on issues of governance and control . In common with other congressional Progressives , Owen opposed a proposal from Senator Aldrich for a system explicitly controlled by the large banks . Owen countered , in the words of an early biographer , that " the remedy presented in the form of the ' Aldrich Plan of 1912 ' was not satisfactory because it provided for private control of what should be a great public utility banking system . "
In the months following his election and subsequent assumption of office , President Wilson held meetings with the authors of three competing proposals for the Federal Reserve :
Rep. Carter Glass proposed a decentralized and private sector @-@ dominated system , with a board made up primarily of private bankers , 20 or more regional reserve banks , and with currency a private bank liability . Glass , a southern Democrat with a marked antipathy to centralized power , intended his proposal to be differentiated from the ( similarly private sector @-@ dominated ) Aldrich Plan largely by the absence of a central institution , but to Glass 's horror , Wilson told him to add a central agency ( in Wilson 's own word , a " capstone " ) to his model .
U.S. Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo ( soon to become Wilson 's son @-@ in @-@ law ) proposed the most centralized model , featuring a Government central bank within the Treasury Department , no regional reserve system , and currency a government liability .
Owen 's own proposal , drafted with the assistance of the Republican economist ( and former Assistant Secretary of the Treasury ) A. Piatt Andrew , represented something of a middle way between the other two proposals . It included a national currency board appointed by the Government , eight regional reserve banks , and currency as a government liability . Owen 's proposal received support from his Progressive ally , Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan , and the bill that Wilson sent to the Congress was closest to Owen 's model .
During the ensuing months of tortuous debate , Owen failed to maintain effective control over his committee , whose deliberations tended to lag behind those of Glass 's committee in the House . At one stage in August 1913 , Owen even wavered publicly in his own support for a regional structure , before being brought back into line by Wilson personally . Owen 's committee eventually split down the middle between Owen 's own version of the bill and a more centralized alternative promoted by Senator Gilbert Hitchcock , a Nebraska Democrat who had become something of a political rival at state level of Owen 's ally Bryan . To break the deadlock , the committee agreed to report out both bills to the full Senate , without a recommendation . Wilson , who had been maintaining a close watch over the legislation 's progress , intervening when he considered it necessary , then ordered the Senate Democrats to meet in caucus to line the party up behind Owen 's bill , making the vote a matter of party loyalty . On December 19 , 1913 , the Senate first defeated Hitchcock 's bill by the narrow margin of 43 @-@ 41 , after which six Republicans joined all the Democrats to endorse Owen 's bill by a more comfortable vote of 54 @-@ 34 .
The Federal Reserve Act was signed into law on December 23 , 1913 . As signed , the Act remained closer to Owen 's plan than to any of the alternatives that had been discussed publicly . It provided for greater government involvement than the proposals of Aldrich and Glass , in particular in the appointment of the members of the central Federal Reserve Board , while putting bankers in each region in charge of the twelve ( regional ) Federal Reserve Banks .
The 1913 compromise left important issues to be settled after the Federal Reserve System actually began operations , including the exact nature of the relationship between the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Reserve Banks , and how coordination was to be achieved between the different Federal Reserve Banks . A leading student of the history of the Federal Reserve has described the 1913 compromise as follows :
The Federal Reserve began operations ... as a peculiar hybrid , a partly public , partly private institution , intended to be independent of political influence with principal officers of the government on its supervisory board , endowed with central banking functions , but not a central bank . Each of the twelve semiautonomous reserve banks set its own discount rates , subject to the approval of the Federal Reserve Board in Washington , made its own policy decisions , and set its own standards for what was eligible for discounting .
Differences of view over the Federal Reserve 's mandate began to become increasingly open in the aftermath of the First World War . In the words of a detailed study of Owen 's role in shaping the Fed :
Owen and others viewed price stability and moderate interest rates as key objectives while most other early Fed leaders preferred to focus on maintaining the international gold standard and the strength of the banking system .
Owen became critical of what he viewed as the Federal Reserve 's propensity during the early 1920s and again in the early 1930s to follow deflationary monetary policies . Writing in 1934 , he stated that he had attempted in the Senate version of the Federal Reserve Bill to mandate the Federal Reserve to pursue a stable price level ( i.e. , avoiding both significant inflation and deflation ) , but that this provision had been struck out of the House version of the Bill ( managed by Glass ) due to what he described as " secret hostilities " — which he implied originated with the largest banks . He further recalled his opposition at the time to the deflationary policies pursued during 1920 @-@ 21 .
Referring to the period from 1929 to 1933 he continued :
Again , under President Hoover , the contraction of credit took place on such a colossal scale as to force the dollar index ( purchasing power ) to 166 . The consequence was universal bankruptcy , every bank in the United States being forced to suspend operations at the close of Hoover 's services .
Owen 's argument that the Federal Reserve 's deflationary stance was largely responsible for causing the Great Depression would have been considered unorthodox at the time he made it . In more recent decades , however , such a view has come to be widely accepted , due in large part to the influence of the 1963 study A Monetary History of the United States by Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz .
Beyond his work on the Federal Reserve Act , Owen helped to pass the Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 , which provided credit to small farmers through co @-@ operatives .
Owen 's role in the creation of the Federal Reserve is commemorated by Robert Latham Owen Park on the grounds of the Federal Reserve in Washington , D.C. ( see photograph ) .
= = = Committee chairmanships = = =
Owen 's chairmanship of the Committee on Banking and Currency through three Congresses , discussed in the section above , was his most prominent chairmanship by far . His other chairmanships were , by comparison , relatively mundane ( if not obscure ) in nature .
Committee on Indian Depredations , Sixty @-@ second Congress ( 1911 – 1913 ) . This committee had the narrow focus of overseeing claims under the Indian Depredation Act , which allowed for citizen claims against the federal government for crimes committed by Native Americans . Together with many other committees by then considered obsolete , the committee was to be wound up in 1921 under a major rationalization . The evidence suggests that Owen assumed the leadership of the committee briefly following the death of the original chairman in November 1912 .
Committee on Pacific Railroads , Sixty @-@ second Congress ( 1911 – 1913 ) . This committee was appointed following an investigation into the finances of the Union Pacific Railroad , which was heavily indebted to the United States Government ( it was first established as a select committee in 1889 and became a standing committee in 1893 ) . This committee , too , was to be terminated in 1921 .
Committee on Banking and Currency , Sixty @-@ third through Sixty @-@ fifth Congresses ( 1913 – 1919 ) . See Banking issues and formation of the Federal Reserve above .
Committee on the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians , Sixty @-@ sixth Congress ( 1919 – 1921 ) . The Five Civilized Tribes is a term that historically was applied to the Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek , and Seminole . All had a significant presence in Oklahoma . Owen was the last chairman of the committee , which was another of those wound up in 1921 . Owen paid consistent attention throughout his time in the Senate to issues that affected Indian groups ( both these five tribes and others ) , and was actively involved in debates over Indian land rights ( see Other issues below ) and Indian mineral rights cases , as well as disputes over membership in different Indian nations . It is not , however , clear that he made any special use of his chairmanship to promote significant new initiatives .
Beyond his chairmanships , Owen 's committee assignments included service inter alia on : ( i ) Banking and Currency after the end of his chairmanship ; ( ii ) Indian Affairs in all but the 64th Congress ; and ( iii ) Appropriations from the 62nd through the 67th Congress .
= = = Other issues = = =
Although remembered primarily for his role in the establishment of the Federal Reserve , Owen worked on a wide range of other issues during his time in the Senate , many of which either reflected the policy agenda of the Progressive Movement or had a direct bearing on the interests of his constituents .
In 1908 , he helped to pass the Removal of Restrictions Act , which lifted then @-@ prevailing restrictions on the sale of many of the individual allotments of Indian land in Oklahoma , an issue on which he had run in 1907 . This extended an earlier process of converting Indian lands from communal to individual ownership . These policies have long been controversial . Critics of converting Indian land from collective to individual tenure ( and removing restrictions on its alienation ) have argued that : ( i ) traditional tribal structures were thereby undermined , and ( ii ) many Indians were induced to part with their land rights on unfavorable terms . Owen countered that the restrictions were paternalistic in spirit , bureaucratically applied , ineffective in their stated goal of protecting Indians from exploitation , and an obstacle to economic development .
In common with Woodrow Wilson , Owen was a supporter of lowering tariffs . He made an exception for the oil industry , where he argued that protection was needed for small independent producers , such as those in his state , against the ability of Standard Oil to import large volumes of cheap Mexican oil . Standard Oil was one of several trusts that Owen opposed during the course of his public career . He sought unsuccessfully to strengthen the Sherman Anti @-@ Trust Act . In 1916 , he attacked what he described as the " Lumber Trust , " which he said had bribed members of the Illinois legislature to elect William Lorimer to the Senate in 1909 ( Lorimer 's election had been overturned in 1912 due to evidence of " corrupt methods " including vote @-@ buying ) , and had , Owen said , subsequently retaliated against Owen himself for his role in exposing the Lorimer scandal by funding efforts to defeat his own re @-@ election . Owen made several unsuccessful efforts to mandate effective disclosure of corporate campaign contributions in the interests of open government . He was a supporter of the Sixteenth Amendment , passed by the Congress in 1909 , which allowed the Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on census results ; a federal income tax was required inter alia to make up for the revenues lost to the federal government by reductions in tariff rates .
In the Senate , Owen continued his work in support of greater popular control of government . He made repeated attempts , starting in 1907 , to propose a constitutional amendment providing for the direct public election of US Senators , in place of election by state legislatures , until the Senate passed the Seventeenth Amendment to this effect in 1911 . He also continued his strong support for extending the franchise to women ( while opposing an amendment that would have restricted the franchise to whites only ) , until the successful passage in 1919 of the Nineteenth Amendment . He made several unsuccessful attempts to have the initiative and referendum adopted at federal level . He also campaigned unsuccessfully for the election and recall of federal judges , and to prevent federal courts from declaring acts of Congress unconstitutional , a power which , he argued , they had assumed illegally . He was likewise unsuccessful in his efforts to make it easier to amend the Constitution
In 1911 , Republicans were blocking the admission of Arizona to statehood , while planning to admit New Mexico . Their declared grounds for opposing statehood for Arizona were that Arizona 's constitution included the initiative , the referendum and the right of recall — the " Oregon System " of enhanced public sovereignty that Owen had long supported . It was , however , also generally expected that Arizona would return two Democrats to the Senate , while New Mexico was expected to favor Republicans . Owen filibustered the Senate for twelve hours until he had forced a Senate vote on the joint admission of both states . During the course of his filibuster , a message was brought to him that , if he would come to the President ( Taft ) , a sincere effort would be made to reach an accommodation over Arizona . Owen responded " Present my compliments to the President , and advise him that at present I am engaged in addressing the Presidents of the United States . "
From 1910 onwards , with the encouragement of his brother William , a medical doctor who served for many years with the US Army , Owen campaigned unsuccessfully for the establishment of a cabinet @-@ level Department of Health within the Federal Government . He promoted information on the achievements of Dr. Walter Reed and the Yellow Fever Commission , in part to demonstrate the potential of systematically @-@ organized programs in the field of public health . His efforts to create a cabinet @-@ level Department of Education , initiated in 1917 , similarly failed to achieve success during his own lifetime . A combined Department of Health , Education and Welfare was eventually added to the cabinet under President Eisenhower in April 1953 .
Owen was actively involved in efforts to outlaw child labor . He served as co @-@ sponsor of the Keating @-@ Owen Act of 1916 , aimed at prohibiting the sale in interstate commerce of goods manufactured with child labor in the United States . In 1918 , the Act was struck down as unconstitutional by a five @-@ to @-@ four decision of the Supreme Court in Hammer v. Dagenhart , evincing a noted dissent by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes . Following the Court 's decision , Owen initially made an unsuccessful attempt to pass the legislation again with limited modification . In the event , the Congress responded to the Court 's decision with the Child Labor Tax Law of 1919 , which would have taxed products from child labor ( and which in turn was declared unconstitutional in 1922 by an 8 to 1 vote in Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co . ) . In 1924 , the Congress sought to amend the Constitution to give itself the power to regulate child labor . Finally , in 1941 , after Owen 's retirement from active political life , a unanimous Supreme Court in United States v. Darby Lumber Co. overruled the 1918 decision ( in the process endorsing and going beyond the principles set forth in Holmes 's dissent ) and ruled that the Commerce Clause gave Congress the right to regulate conditions of employment .
Owen was a close ally of President Wilson over American involvement in World War I. In 1920 he withheld his support from the campaign for renomination of his fellow @-@ Democratic Senator from Oklahoma , Thomas Gore , over Gore 's repeated criticisms of Wilson 's positions on the war and the peace . Gore was then defeated in the Democratic primary by Rep. Scott Ferris , who , however , went on to lose in the general election to Republican John W. Harreld ( Gore eventually returned to the Senate following re @-@ election in 1930 ) .
Owen worked unsuccessfully after the war to salvage Wilson 's hopes for US participation in the League of Nations . In January 1920 , at a time when the ailing Wilson himself refused to countenance any US reservations to the League 's Covenant , and the influential Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge refused to accept membership without reservations , Owen issued a call for bipartisan compromise . A small group from both parties ( including Lodge ) then made substantial progress towards agreement , against Wilson 's intense opposition . However , when the " irreconcilable " anti @-@ League Senator William Borah learnt of the bipartisan discussions , he pressured Lodge into pulling out .
Owen was concerned about the prospects for international economic recovery after the war . In November 1919 , he wrote to Wilson warning that the gold standard had temporarily broken down , and urging the President to convene an International Exchange Conference to address the problem ; he also emphasized the importance , in the post @-@ war period , of the United States helping the European countries to obtain credit via the marketing of their securities . Owen made unsuccessful attempts in the early post @-@ war years to promote the establishment of a Foreign Finance Corporation ( and / or a Federal Reserve Foreign Bank ) to help expand credit for international trade .
= = = Campaign for Presidency and final years in politics = = =
Owen launched a run for the Presidency in Oklahoma on May 19 , 1919 , and undertook a tour of several states , seeking support , in the spring of 1920 . He published a number of books during this period , publicizing his involvement in the passage of the Federal Reserve Act and his views on a variety of economic and foreign policy issues ( see Works by Robert Latham Owen below ) . Owen received some indications of support from his fellow @-@ Progressive and long @-@ time ally , the party 's three @-@ time standard @-@ bearer William Jennings Bryan , who joined him on his campaign visits to some of the Western states , but Bryan 's support for Owen was lukewarm , his influence in the party was past his peak , and he placed much of his focus in 1920 on promoting the cause of prohibition , the main theme of his eventual speech at the convention . Bryan declined to run for the nomination himself for multiple reasons — his health was problematic ( he described himself to one journalist as " at the end of life " ) and he expected the Democrats to go down to defeat — though he privately left open the possibility of accepting the nomination in exceptional circumstances . Owen , for his part , gained few significant endorsements .
By the time of the 1920 Democratic National Convention in San Francisco , whatever Owen 's own ambitions , his candidacy had a " favorite son " appearance to it . He received 33 votes on the first ballot , which increased to 41 on the twentieth ballot . His support came primarily from his own state , together with some votes from Nebraska ( Bryan 's adopted state ) . On the fortieth ballot he again received 33 votes , putting him in fourth place . The Oklahoma delegates remained loyal until on the forty @-@ fourth ballot Owen released them so as to ensure a unanimous vote for the Party 's nominee Governor of Ohio James M. Cox . The chronicler of Owen 's senatorial career relates that " efforts to secure Owen 's consent to accept the nomination for vice @-@ president failed , " but any such efforts do not appear to have originated with the Party 's nominee , who was decisive in his preference for Franklin Delano Roosevelt as his running mate . The Cox @-@ Roosevelt slate went down to defeat by a landslide .
Owen 's later views on international affairs did not escape controversy . Though initially a firm supporter of the Treaty of Versailles , including its assertion of German responsibility for the outbreak of World War I , during 1923 his views changed radically under the influence of " revisionist " studies , including the publication of extensive ( though incomplete ) materials from the diplomatic archives of the pre @-@ War Tsarist Russian Foreign Office . He made a major speech in the Senate on 18 December 1923 attributing primary responsibility for the war to France and ( especially ) Russia rather than Germany . Owen hoped that a public revisiting of the issue of war guilt might encourage reversal of some of the penal clauses imposed on Germany under the Versailles settlement , and pave the way to reconciliation between Germany and France , but his attempts to promote a Senate investigation of the war guilt question were narrowly defeated , largely along party lines — with many of his fellow Democrats concerned not to undermine the reputation of Woodrow Wilson — while an expert report prepared by the Legislative Research Service of the Library of Congress , though broadly supportive of Owen 's arguments , was in the event never published as it was considered unlikely to obtain the support of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee . In 1926 , following his retirement from the Senate , Owen was to publish a book advancing his revisionist thesis , under the title : The Russian Imperial Conspiracy , 1892 @-@ 1914 : The Most Gigantic Intrigue of all Time .
Owen wrote of the convictions underlying his efforts on the war guilt issue :
The Germans did not will the war . It was forced on them by the Russian Imperialists ... The German , Russian , French , Belgian and allied peoples became alike the sorrowful victims ... The happiness and future peace of the world require the reconciliation of the German and French people .
This said , some have seen Owen 's preoccupation with the war guilt question as , at least to some degree , symptomatic of a growing detachment on his part from current U.S. political issues following the Democrats ' loss of the 1920 elections . On the domestic front , the Harding administration 's " return to normalcy " offered little scope for further advances on Owen 's Progressive agenda ; in international affairs , the post @-@ 1920 turn of US policy towards isolationism and protectionism also ran counter to his long @-@ held principles .
In February 1924 , Owen announced that he would not run for re @-@ election , and on March 4 , 1925 , at the age of 69 , he retired from the Senate . Owen did not campaign for the presidency in 1924 , though when the Democratic Convention of that year reached its hundredth indecisive ballot , some 20 delegates cast their votes for him .
A leading student of Owen 's political career sums up his overall assessment as follows :
If Owen failed to live up to the expectations of his own ambition , he was in any case an industrious and productive United States senator of the first order .
= = Later life and death = =
On Owen 's retirement , the Democratic Party failed to retain his seat in the Senate . This reflected a split in the party over the candidacy of former Oklahoma Governor Jack C. Walton , who had been impeached and removed from office as Governor in November 1923 , over accusations ( inter alia ) that he had acted unconstitutionally in suspending habeas corpus in the face of race riots fanned by the Ku Klux Klan . Although Walton won the nomination , largely on an anti @-@ Klan platform , many local Democratic leaders , including Owen , declined to support his candidacy , and the seat was won in a landslide by the Republican candidate , William B. Pine . The seat reverted to Democratic control in 1930 when Thomas Gore was re @-@ elected to the Senate .
After his retirement from the Senate , Owen initially practiced law and undertook lobbying in Washington , D.C .. In 1923 , he formally adopted his only grandchild , who took the name Robert Latham Owen III . In the 1928 Presidential election , Owen felt unable to support his party 's nominee Al Smith , due to Smith 's strong anti @-@ prohibition position and his connections to Tammany Hall ; to his subsequent deep regret , he became the first prominent Democrat to endorse the candidacy of Republican Herbert Hoover . He returned to the Democratic fold in 1932 to give a strong endorsement to Franklin Delano Roosevelt .
In retirement , Owen worked on a personal proposal to develop and promote a universal alphabet based on phonetic principles . He was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1941 . In his later years Owen was functionally blind . His wife predeceased him in 1946 , and he died in Washington of complications from prostate surgery on July 19 , 1947 . He was buried in Spring Hill Cemetery , Lynchburg , Virginia , near his beloved mother and other family members . Carter Glass , his fellow sponsor of the Glass @-@ Owen Federal Reserve Act , with whom Owen had experienced a frequently strained relationship , lies nearby .
= = Works by Robert Latham Owen = =
This list focuses on Owen 's book @-@ length works , and excludes shorter pieces such as his prolific journalism or reprints of individual speeches :
The Code of the Peoples ' Rule : Compilation of Various Statutes , Etc . Relating to the People 's Rule System of Government . Washington DC , Government Printing Office , 1910 .
The Covenant of the League of Nations : What It Proposes and What It Does Not Propose . Washington DC , Government Printing Office , 1919 .
The Federal Reserve Act . New York , The Century Co . , 1919 .
Foreign Exchange . New York , The Century Co . , 1919 .
" Foreword " ( dated October 29 , 1934 ) to Money Creators by Gertrude M. Coogan , Chicago , Sound Money Press , 1935 .
The Russian Imperial Conspiracy , 1892 @-@ 1914 : The Most Gigantic Intrigue of all Time . First edition , 1926 , privately printed . Second edition , 1927 , published by Albert and Charles Boni , New York .
Where Is God in the European War ? New York , The Century Co . , 1919 .
Yellow Fever ; a Compilation of Various Publications : Results of the Work of Maj. Walter Reed , Medical Corps , United States Army , and the Yellow Fever Commission . Washington DC , Government Printing Office , 1911 .
A recording of Owen delivering a speech , dating from 1920 , may be heard on the Library of Congress website at : http : / / frontiers.loc.gov / cgi @-@ bin / query / r ? ammem / nfor : @ field ( DOCID + @ range ( 90000067 + 90000068 ) ) .
There is an archive of Owen 's papers at the Library of Congress . There are smaller collections , largely covering the period after his retirement from the Senate , at the University of Oklahoma 's Carl Albert Center ( see link below ) and at the Federal Reserve .
Robert L. Owen Collection at the Carl Albert Center
= Suit Warehouse =
" Suit Warehouse " is the eleventh episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 187th episode overall . The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Matt Sohn . It originally aired on NBC on January 17 , 2013 .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Clark returns from his stint as Jan 's sexual assistant and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) enlists his help ; the two pose as a father and son so that they can successfully sell to the owner of a suit warehouse . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) travels to Philadelphia with Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) to interview at Jim 's new company . Meanwhile , Pam starts to realize that her family may have to leave Scranton .
" Suit Warehouse " received mainly positive reviews from critics . The episode was also viewed by 4 @.@ 15 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 5 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking second in its timeslot . The episode ultimately ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) is off to Philadelphia to interview at Jim Halpert 's ( John Krasinski ) new company , Athlead , and Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) decides to come along , since office manager Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) is still not back from his sailboat excursion . She asks Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) to take care of a shipment of pens while she 's gone . Pam 's lack of specific instructions leaves Erin in a state of indecision over whether she should put the pens away once they arrive . She eventually decides to put them away for fear of being called lazy , but as she does so the other office workers teasingly accuse her of trying to take over Pam 's job of office administrator in her absence . Mortified , Erin puts the pens back in the shipping box .
On the drive , Darryl opens to Pam that he is worried about the interview . At Jim 's new company , Pam gives Darryl a thumbs up as he heads into the interview room , and then is chatted up by an employee who says " Jim speaks about you all the time " and we " can 't wait for you to move here . " The thought of moving to Philadelphia disturbs her . Meanwhile , Darryl initially fumbles his interview due to nerves and feelings of inadequacy , but everyone else helps calm him down , and he makes a strong reversal . Darryl concludes the interview by attempting to shoot a basket with the room 's sports decorations , but instead knocks a light fixture into the fish tank , electrocuting all the fish . Pam commiserates with Darryl over this embarrassing misstep . Jim returns to inform Darryl that although he will have to pay for the fish , he has the job . During the drive home , Darryl gushes over his new job and the chance to live in Philadelphia while Pam worries about where she and her family will be in the future .
At Dunder @-@ Mifflin , Clark ( Clark Duke ) returns from his stint as Jan Levenson 's ( Melora Hardin ) sexual assistant . Despite the awkward past couple of weeks , Jan has gifted them an espresso machine , and the rest of the office jumps on the opportunity to ' test ' out several espresso flavors . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) enlists Clark 's help to snag a newly freed account at a suit warehouse ; the two will pose as a father and son so that they can successfully sell to the Stones , father and son owners of the warehouse . Dwight leads off on how proud he is of Clark to elder Stone ( Ed Lauter ) , but when Stone admits that he and his son are not on good terms , Dwight and Clark awkwardly shift gears and begin a show of childishly sniping at each other . Clark tries to move on to business , but Dwight continues to interrupt him with insults , and even makes a dig at the younger Stone ( Will Greenberg ) when he arrives . When the elder Stone reveals that his son has forced him out of the company and that he is now there strictly for his own social benefit , Clark takes the lead and makes the sale to the younger Stone . Both Dwight and Clark also buy a suit from the company to celebrate their team sale .
Back at the office , the staff have drunk multiple cups of espresso and experience a caffeine rush along with a powerful surge in office productivity . As the rush dies down , they all begin to sweat profusely , become highly irritable and argumentative , frantically tear up the office carpet to reveal the hardwood underneath , and try to relocate the copy machine . At five o 'clock everybody leaves the office in total disarray . When Pam and Darryl arrive back from Philadelphia , they are bewildered by the sight they encounter .
= = Production = =
" Suit Warehouse " was written by consulting producer Dan Greaney , his second writing credit for the series , after " Mrs. California " . The episode was also directed by Matt Sohn , his seventh directorial effort for the series , following the ninth season entry , " Roy 's Wedding " . The episode features the return of series regular Clark Duke , having previously left for several episodes in order to film Kick @-@ Ass 2 . The episode is the fourth not to feature Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) . Helms left the series temporarily , in the season 's sixth episode , " The Boat " , in order to film The Hangover Part III .
The official website of The Office included several cut scenes from " Suit Warehouse " within a week of the episode 's release . In the first 64 @-@ second clip , more scenes of the effect of the espresso machine are seen and the increased productivity from the Scranton branch . In the second 47 @-@ second clip , Erin grows ecstatic when the pens are finally delivered . In the third 80 @-@ second clip , the Scranton branch gets distracted on their smartphones .
= = Cultural references = =
When Oscar gets excited about drinking all the types of espresso , he shouts " YOLO " , a carpe diem @-@ esque phrase popularized by the song " The Motto " by Canadian rapper Drake . Pam calls Jim " Gumby with hair " to calm down a nervous Darryl ; this is a reference to the green clay humanoid character created and modeled by Art Clokey , who also created Davey and Goliath . Both Pam and Darryl marvel at how Jim has managed to " Zuckerberg " his new office , a reference to Mark Zuckerberg , the American programmer and internet entrepreneur , who founded Facebook .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Suit Warehouse " originally aired on NBC on January 17 , 2013 . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed 4 @.@ 15 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 5 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The Office ranked second in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 8 % share . In addition , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program on the night it aired .
= = = Reviews = = =
IGN writer Cindy White criticized the espresso subplot and the episode in general , for the lack of authority in the office , due to Jim , Andy and Pam leaving the office . She also called the plot too similar to the season five episode , " Cafe Disco " . She complimented the use of the ensemble players throughout the plot and praised the Dwight @-@ Clark storyline , comparing it positively to the season three episode , " Traveling Salesmen " . She also compared the Jim @-@ Darryl @-@ Pam storyline to the style of the early seasons , writing that it " was the stuff of classic office , making you cringe as you are forced watch someone digging a hole deeper and deeper for himself " . She gave the episode a 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , calling it " Good " . Damon Houx of Screen Crush called the episode " solid " and praised the use of the whole ensemble cast . He also complimented the build @-@ up towards a future conflict between Jim and Pam , and said that while he is " still waiting for the show to hit the gravitational pull of wrapping up " and that the show " probably should have ended three years ago " , the episode was still good . New York writer Michael Tedder wrote that the episode had a nice balance of cringe humor , particularly in Darryl 's job interview for Athlead . He also praised the set @-@ up for the Dwight @-@ Clark subplot , saying that the plotline was perfect for their dynamic and couldn 't work with previous seasons . He was also complimentary towards the espresso subplot and gave the episode four out of five stars .
= Typhoon Gordon ( 1989 ) =
Typhoon Gordon , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Goring , was a powerful tropical cyclone that caused widespread damage and loss of life in the Philippines and Southern China in July 1989 . Originating from a single cumulonimbus cloud on July 9 , Gordon developed into a tropical depression near the Northern Mariana Islands and quickly intensified as it tracked west @-@ southwestward . On July 13 , the storm attained typhoon status and subsequently underwent a period of rapid intensification . By July 15 , the storm attained its peak strength as a Category 5 equivalent super typhoon with winds estimated at 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . After striking the northern Philippines , Gordon moved through the South China Sea and slowly weakened . On July 18 , the storm made landfall in southern China and was last noted the following day as it dissipated over land .
Throughout Gordon 's path from the Philippines to China , the storm caused widespread damage and loss of life . Across the Philippines , 90 people were killed by the typhoon and an estimated 120 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Though a weaker storm when it struck China , damage was more severe due to extensive flooding . Several coastal cities were completely inundated . Throughout the country , at least 200 people died and losses reached 1 @.@ 2 billion yuan ( $ 319 million USD ) . Additionally , 14 people drowned offshore and 2 others died in Hong Kong .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early July , widespread showers and thunderstorms developed across the Western Pacific underneath a tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) . On July 9 , a single cumulonimbus cloud west of Wake Island became associated with the TUTT and quickly organized . By July 11 , the system featured a small central dense overcast and soon became sufficiently organized for the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to declare it as Tropical Depression 11W . Upon classification , the system was located roughly 320 km ( 200 mi ) east of the Northern Mariana Islands . The development of the depression was unprecedented in two ways : first , a single cloud developed into a tropical cyclone ; and second , it became tropical while situated underneath a cold @-@ core low .
Following the system 's classification as a tropical cyclone , the depression maintained a west @-@ southwesterly track in response to a subtropical ridge to the north . On July 12 , it is estimated that the depression intensified into a tropical storm , at which time it was given the name Gordon by the JTWC . Due to the cyclone 's proximity to the Philippines , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Goring . During the afternoon of July 13 , Gordon briefly turned southwestward as it attained typhoon status before returning to a more westerly track later that day .
As the TUTT gradually warmed , Gordon was able to undergo a prolonged period of rapid intensification , despite having restricted outflow . Over a 30 hour period from July 14 to 15 , the storm 's central pressure decreased by 70 mbar ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 07 inHg ) , just below the threshold for explosive intensification . At the end of this phase , Gordon attained its peak strength as a Category 5 equivalent super typhoon with winds estimated at 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . Around the same time , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) assessed the storm to have attained 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) along with a minimum pressure of 915 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 02 inHg ) .
Once classified a super typhoon , Gordon acquired a slight northerly component to its track and maintained a general west @-@ northwestward trajectory for the remainder of its existence . Late on July 15 , Gordon made landfall in northern Luzon , Philippines , at peak intensity . Remaining over land for several hours , the storm quickly weakened before entering the South China Sea . The system maintained minimal typhoon status as it developed a large , ragged eye by July 17 . Slight weakening took place hours before Gordon made landfall as a strong tropical storm near Zhanjiang in Southern China on July 18 . Briefly moving over the warm , shallow waters of the Gulf of Tonkin , Gordon 's convective structure tripled in size ; however , the system continued to weaken . Later that day , the storm made its final landfall in southern Guangxi Province . Once onshore , Gordon quickly weakened and was last noted on July 19 by the JMA over southern Guangxi .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Across Luzon , air traffic was temporarily suspended on July 16 until the typhoon 's passage . Storm signal three , the highest level of warning , was issued for five provinces while lesser warnings were in place for most of the northern Philippines . The Philippine Coast Guard ordered all vessels in Luzon to remain at port until the storm 's passage . Residents along the coast were urged to take " extreme precaution . " All activities at the United State 's Clark Air Base were canceled on July 16 while emergency rescue and cleanup teams were placed on standby . All non @-@ essential personnel were ordered to remain home .
Striking northern Luzon on July 16 , Typhoon Gordon packed sustained winds estimated at 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , though the strongest reported winds reached 186 km / h ( 116 mph ) . At Wallace Air Station , wind gusts reached 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) . Torrential rains accompanying the storm , measured up to 747 mm ( 29 @.@ 8 in ) at Clark Air Base , caused widespread flooding and landslides . Across Cagayan Valley , flash flooding prompted thousands of residents to evacuate to higher ground . Travel in much of the region was severely impaired as landslides blocked off roads . Baguio was mostly isolated from surrounding areas as the main roads leading in and out of the city were blocked off . In Paoay , a bridge was washed out and high winds from the typhoon tore the roof off a public market . According to the Philippine Red Cross , nearly 11 @,@ 000 people were in evacuation shelters by the evening of July 16 in Ilocos Norte . In La Union , three towns were submerged in flood waters up to rooftops of homes after a river burst its banks .
Throughout the country , 90 fatalities resulted from the typhoon . Additionally , 386 people were injured while another 3 were listed as missing . A total of 8 @,@ 845 homes were destroyed and another 46 @,@ 269 sustained damage . An estimated 120 @,@ 000 people were left homeless due to Gordon . Losses from the typhoon amounted to 1 @.@ 36 billion pesos ( $ 62 million USD ) . By July 18 , relief operations began across northern Luzon . Philippine President Corazon Aquino declared a state of calamity for five provinces and three towns by this time .
= = = Hong Kong , Taiwan , and Macao = = =
On July 15 , the Central Weather Bureau issued a sea warning for the Bashi Channel and waters off the southeast coast of Taiwan . Residents were also warned of possible heavy , flooding rains and were urged to take precautions to minimize loss of life .
Regarded as the " fiercest typhoon to threaten Hong Kong in five years , " the Hong Kong Observatory began issuing storm signals by July 16 to warn residents of the approaching storm . Early the next day , the signal was raised to three ( strong wind signal ) before being further increased to signal eight ( gale warning ) that afternoon . All ferries to and from Macao were halted and all schools were closed . Warnings urging residents to take steps to avoid unnecessary losses were continuously broadcast over radio stations . The normally busy Hong Kong was brought to a standstill as businesses , banks and courts closed for the storm . This included the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the Chinese Gold and Silver Exchange . Public transport was mostly shut down and the government opened 78 shelters . Thousands of people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas along the coast . Approximately 11 @,@ 000 Vietnamese " boat people " were also moved to emergency shelters .
Winds up to 192 km / h ( 119 mph ) battered parts of Hong Kong , downing numerous trees , snapping power poles and blowing out windows . Driven by the intense winds , airborne debris injured 31 , 6 of whom required hospitalization . Two fatalities took place in the territory : one on Lantau Island and another in Tai O. Some flooding took place as a result of Gordon , especially along coastal areas where the typhoon brought a storm surge of 1 @.@ 36 m ( 4 @.@ 5 ft ) .
In Macao , high winds from the typhoon uprooted trees and broke windows . Flooding triggered by Gordon 's heavy rains stranded cars and inundated stores . Five of the colony 's six casinoes were temporarily closed . Flooding also caused the Macau @-@ Taipa bridge to collapse .
= = = China = = =
Striking Guangdong Province as a strong tropical storm , Gordon caused extensive damage in the region . Along the coast , approximately 155 km ( 96 mi ) of dykes were destroyed by storm surge . Already suffering from extensive floods , heavy rains and record tides from Typhoon Gordon caused " massive " flooding in Zhuhai , Guangdong . Flood waters over @-@ topped dams and sea walls and inundated the city . Approximately 11 @,@ 000 people were forced to seek refuge on the roof of their homes . One of the hardest hit cities was Yangjiang where flood waters caused widespread damage . Roughly 46 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed in the city while 252 km ( 157 mi ) of highway and 26 bridges were washed away . Telecommunications in Guangzhou , the capital of Guangdong , was completely lost due to the storm and parts of the city were isolated due to flooding . Across the province , an estimated 140 @,@ 000 hectares ( 350 @,@ 000 acres ) of farmland was flooded . High winds in Yangchun caused several structures to collapse . Flooding also caused extensive damage to infrastructure with 22 bridges destroyed and 225 km ( 140 mi ) of roads under water . Offshore in the South China Sea , 24 fishermen were caught in the storm and became stranded . The crew drifted in the sea for 24 days , during which time 14 perished , before the survivors were rescued . Heavy rains also fell in parts of Guangxi Province ; however , the rains were mostly beneficial to farmers . Throughout southern China , at least 200 people were killed by the typhoon and damage amounted to 1 @.@ 2 billion yuan ( $ 319 million USD ) .
= Keith Elias =
Keith Hector Elias ( born February 3 , 1972 ) is a former American football running back in the National Football League ( NFL ) and XFL . He was an All @-@ American in high school and college where he established school , conference and national records while playing for the Princeton Tigers football team .
In high school , he earned All @-@ American honors at Lacey Township High School . In college , he did so again for Princeton University , where he established 21 school records in football from 1991 through 1993 . His college career coincided in the Ivy League with Jay Fiedler who led Dartmouth to three championships in that era , but Elias was able to lead Princeton to one co @-@ championship . Elias and Fiedler split the League Player of the Year Awards during that era . He is the former National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS , called I @-@ AA at the time ) record holder for career rushing yards per game and points per game . He also established the FCS record for back @-@ to @-@ back games total rushing yards . He continues to hold numerous Ivy League and Princeton Tigers rushing and scoring records .
Elias was signed as a free agent out of college by the New York Giants where he played from 1994 through 1996 . He served mostly on special teams . He last played in the NFL two seasons with the Indianapolis Colts in 1998 and 1999 . Elias also played for the New York / New Jersey Hitmen of the now defunct XFL .
= = Early life and high school = =
Although NFL records state that Elias was born in Lacey Township , Elias claims that he was born in Virginia Beach , Virginia . Then he says his family moved to Brooklyn before settling in New Jersey . Elias considers himself from Lacey Township , New Jersey , which is a Jersey Shore area community . Elias is the son of Nancy , a teacher and Pop Warner football coach , and Hector , a transportation consultant , and has three younger brothers .
Elias played Pop Warner football for the Lacey team , who retired his number 20 . Elias rushed for 4 @,@ 014 yards and scored 363 points for Lacey Township High School . As a student , he finished fifth in his graduating class of 278 . As a football player , he was named an All @-@ American by the Downtown Athletic Club . In addition to football , Elias earned two varsity letters in wrestling .
= = College career = =
Sophomore season ( 1991 )
Elias debuted for the Princeton on the opening day of the 1991 season , which was September 21 for Princeton , with 110 yards on 18 carries . His performance was part of a shutout of the heavily favored Cornell Big Red 18 – 0 . He earned Ivy League Rookie of the Week honors on September 23 . Two weeks later on October 5 , he recorded his first 200 @-@ yard game and his first three @-@ touchdown effort in a 30 – 21 victory over the Colgate Red Raiders . This earned him his first Ivy League Offensive Player of the Week award . On October 19 , he helped Princeton reach a 5 – 0 record with well over 100 yards from scrimmage and two touchdowns . He had just 67 yards rushing but had three receptions for 62 yards on one 76 @-@ yard scoring drive alone . On November 16 , he had 142 yards rushing and two touchdowns in spite of two fumbles and a wrist injury against Yale to help Princeton reach a 5 – 1 Ivy League record as it headed towards a season @-@ ending showdown with 5 – 0 – 1 Dartmouth . This earned him his second Ivy League Rookie of the Week award . The Tigers were defeated by a Jay Fiedler @-@ led Dartmouth team for the Ivy League Championship the following week however . He earned second team All @-@ Ivy League recognition .
Junior season ( 1992 )
Following their 1991 performance , the 1992 Tigers were Ivy League favorites . In a game that was believed to be a deciding factor in the conference championship outcome , Elias had 114 yards on opening day against Cornell in a 22 – 20 victory on September 19 . The following week on September 26 , Elias established the Princeton single @-@ game rushing record with a 299 @-@ yard four @-@ touchdown effort in a 38 – 35 victory against the Lehigh , surpassing Homer Smith 's 40 @-@ year @-@ old 273 @-@ yard record . Elias received his second Ivy League Offensive Player of the Week award after the match . Then on October 3 , he rushed for 273 yards in a 44 – 33 victory over Lafayette . In the game , he became the first Princeton runner to post back @-@ to @-@ back 200 @-@ yard games and the first Princeton runner to post three career 200 @-@ yard games . He repeated as Ivy League Offensive Player of the week . After three games he led all NCAA divisions in rushing with a 228 @.@ 7 yards per game average , while Marshall Faulk led Division I @-@ A , now known as Football Bowl Subdivision , with a 209 @.@ 3 average . The total of 572 yards in back @-@ to @-@ back games established an NCAA Division I @-@ AA record . By rushing for 139 in the subsequent game against Brown on October 10 , he tied the I @-@ AA three @-@ game rushing yard record of 711 yards . However , he injured his ankle and the subsequent week , he only rushed three times for two yards as Princeton fell to 4 – 1 by losing to Holy Cross on October 17 . He was expected to be sidelined due to the injury when Princeton faced Harvard on October 24 , but he rushed for 155 yards and two touchdowns , leading Princeton to a 21 – 6 victory and a 3 – 0 conference record . On October 31 , he rushed for 115 yards and three touchdowns on 21 carries against Columbia . That week he surpassed Heisman Trophy @-@ winner Dick Kazmaier for fourth place on the all @-@ time Princeton career rushing yards list . On November 7 , he rushed for 131 yards against Penn as Princeton eliminated one of its one @-@ loss conference foes from contention . He tallied 140 yards on 20 carries as Princeton clinched a share of the Ivy League title by moving to 6 – 0 with a victory over Yale . In the game , he moved inherited the school single @-@ season rushing yards record by moving his total to 1368 , ahead of Judd Garrett 's 1347 . Despite a 207 @-@ yard two @-@ touchdown rushing effort by Elias , Fiedler once again led Dartmouth to a season @-@ ending victory over Princeton , this time for a share of the Ivy League championship .
Although Fiedler was named Ivy League Player of the Year , Elias was one of six other unanimous 1992 first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy League selections . Elias , however , was a I @-@ AA All @-@ American selection by organizations such as Kodak ( selected by the American Football Coaches Association ) and the Associated Press . His 157 @.@ 5 yards per game earned him the 1992 NCAA I @-@ AA statistical championship . Elias nicknamed his offensive line " The Beast " and called fullback Peter Bailey and tight end Chris Beiswenger , " the Killer B 's " . In the offense , he usually was the tailback in the I formation .
Senior season ( 1993 )
As a senior , Elias was elected co @-@ captain and was considered the biggest media sensation on the campus in the past several years . Princeton enjoyed a third straight season @-@ opening victory over Cornell Big Red on September 18 . After falling behind 12 – 0 Elias contributed a 72 @-@ yard rushing touchdown and a 67 @-@ yard receiving touchdown as part of a 188 @-@ yard rushing day ( 259 all purpose yards ) . Elias earned Ivy League Offensive Player of the Week . The following week Elias added 132 rushing yards and three touchdowns as Princeton defeated Lafayette 21 – 7 . On October 2 , Elias scored touchdowns on Princeton 's first four possessions , which helped Princeton build a 31 – 0 lead over Holy Cross . The final score was 38 – 0 as Elias tallied 185 yards on 29 carries . Elias again earned Ivy League Offensive Player of the Week . On October 9 , Elias broke Garrett 's Princeton career rushing yard record of 3109 and his career touchdown record of 40 on a day when he rushed for 206 yards and scored two touchdowns in a 34 – 16 victory over Brown . On October 16 , despite missing the first two offensive series due to a hip pointer injury , Elias posted his tenth consecutive 100 @-@ yard game with a 160 @-@ yard one @-@ touchdown effort in a 31 – 23 victory over Lehigh , who established a Princeton opponent record by passing for 403 yards . At the midpoint of Princeton 's 10 @-@ game schedule , Elias led the I @-@ AA in rushing with a 172 yards per game average . On October 23 against Harvard , Elias rushed for 201 yards on 33 carries and ran for two touchdowns in a 21 – 110 victory for the undefeated Tigers . Despite his efforts he lost the I @-@ AA rushing lead to Tony Vinson by a 177 – 176 @.@ 7 margin . Elias responded with a 226 @-@ yard effort on October 30 against Columbia as Princeton moved to 7 – 0 and 4 – 0 in conference . The effort earned Elias his sixth and final career Ivy League Offensive Player of the Week award . The game set up a November battle of unbeatens against Penn on November 6 . In the contest , Penn held Elias to just 59 yards on 15 carries , as Penn took over the Ivy League lead with a 30 – 14 victory . On November 13 , as Princeton clung to hopes of at least a share of the Ivy League title , Elias rushed for 198 yards and three touchdowns on 39 carries in a 28 – 7 victory over Yale . Elias broke Garrett 's 4 @,@ 510 @-@ yard school career all @-@ purpose yards record with a 4 @,@ 529 total and extended his own single @-@ season touchdowns ( 19 ) and points ( 116 ) records . On November 20 , Elias rushed for 188 yards to help Princeton build a 22 – 8 fourth quarter lead that did not stand up to Fiedler who led Dartmouth to its third consecutive season @-@ ending victory over Princeton . That November , Vinson set the current I @-@ AA record for yards gained in two consecutive games ( 691 ) , a record Elias had set the prior season . Vinson set the single @-@ game and single @-@ season rushing yards record and won the season statistical championship over Elias . Elias finished second in single @-@ season yards per game to Vinson .
Elias beat out Fiedler and Jim McGeehan ( quarterback of the undefeated Penn team ) for the Asa S. Bushnell Cup as the Ivy League Player of the Year . He also repeated as an All @-@ American selection . He was recognized as one of fifteen scholar athletes by the National Football Foundation , earning an $ 18 @,@ 000 ( $ 29 @,@ 486 today ) postgraduate scholarship . Elias retired as the NCAA FCS career recordholder in rushing yards per game ( 140 @.@ 3 ) and points per game ( 10 @.@ 7 ) , having surpassed Mike Clark of Akron ( 133 , 1984 – 86 ) and Joel Sigel of Portland State ( 9 @.@ 3 , 1978 – 80 ) . His yardage record was surpassed in 1995 by Arnold Mickens of Butler who is the current recordholder with 190 @.@ 7 yards per game . His points record was eclipsed in 1998 by Aaron Stecker , Western Illinois with an 11 @.@ 7 average .
Upon the completion of his career , his name was listed atop many All @-@ time lists in the Ivy League record book . He also retired second to Ed Marinaro in numerous categories ( Career rushing yards , Ivy career rushing yards , single @-@ season rushing yards , Single @-@ Ivy season rushing yards , career 200 @-@ yard games , single @-@ season 200 @-@ yard games , career rushing touchdowns , Ivy career rushing touchdowns , single @-@ season rushing touchdowns , Ivy career points , single @-@ season points , single Ivy season points , Ivy career touchdowns , single @-@ season touchdowns , single @-@ Ivy season touchdowns , career all @-@ purpose yards ) . However , many of his and Marinaro 's records have been surpassed . Elias surpassed Marinaro for career points and tied with him for touchdowns , but both records were bettered by Nick Hartigan . He also passed Marinaro in single @-@ season all @-@ purpose yards in 1993 by a 1939 – 1932 margin but was surpassed by Johnathan Reese in 2000 . He continues to be the only Ivy Leaguer to have two 1500 @-@ yard seasons . He retired with 4 I @-@ AA records and 21 school records including rushing ( 4 @,@ 208 yards ) , rushing touchdowns ( 49 ) , yards rushing per game ( 140 @.@ 3 ) , carries ( 736 ) , carries per game ( 24 @.@ 5 ) , yards per carry ( 5 @.@ 72 ) , all @-@ purpose yards ( 4 @,@ 739 ) , overall touchdowns ( 52 ) and points ( 320 ) . He also retired with 21 100 @-@ yard rushing games and seven 200 @-@ yards games .
= = Professional career = =
After going undrafted in the 1994 NFL Draft , Elias signed with the Giants . The 1994 NFL season was the first year that rosters expanded to 53 , and Elias made the roster out of training camp . He made the roster ahead of 1994 third round draft choice running back Gary Downs . That season he was originally assigned the number 25 , but he eventually took the number 20 . On September 11 , 1994 against the Arizona Cardinals , Elias sprained his ankle . The injury hampered him for several weeks . After two games of special team duties , he spent the remainder of the season on the inactive list . Following the season , he was left unprotected in the 1995 NFL Expansion Draft to stock the Carolina Panthers and Jacksonville Jaguars . When the Giants lost the second of their unprotected players in the draft they made Elias unavailable .
Entering the 1995 NFL season , Elias was not expected to make the 1995 team . However , in the first preseason game , he scored the Giants ' only touchdown , and the next week he ran for 77 yards on just 12 carries ; After two preseason games , he led the Giants roster of running backs that included Rodney Hampton , Herschel Walker , Kenyon Rasheed , Downs , Charles Way , and Tyrone Wheatley in rushing with 123 yards . The following week he blocked a punt that the Giants recovered for a touchdown and scored the winning two @-@ point conversion . After three preseason games , Elias had moved from likely to be released to almost a lock to make the team . Elias finished the preseason as the team 's leading rusher with 214 yards on 37 carries and made the team . Elias again contributed on special teams , but in the first ten games , he only had ten yards on four carries . Late in the season , Elias moved into the role of the first man off the bench to spell Hampton who was the starter in place of Wheatley who had held the role early in the season . He finished the season with 10 rushes for 44 yards and 9 receptions for 69 yards . Following the season , the Giants opted to release Walker and expected to be unable to resign Hampton . That season , Elias ' popularity made him one of the most sought after public speakers on the team and earned him nearly $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 77 @,@ 648 ) .
Elias entered the 1996 NFL season as the likely third down back for the 1996 team . In 1995 no one had emerged to replace Dave Meggett in that role . Elias again had strong preseason performances . In one early August exhibition game he scored two touchdowns . By August 22 , he led the Giants in preseason carries . He entered the season as the first option third down back , ahead of Wheatley . In the September 30 contest against the Minnesota Vikings , John Randle picked fights with some of the Giants , including Elias . Elias suffered turf toe in that game and it affected him in the next as well . He also had an October ankle injury , which consisted of both a sprain and a bone chip . That injury kept him out of the lineup , making Wheatley the third down back by default . Elias did not get his third down role back until mid @-@ November . When he finally returned to this role , he was able to perform as needed . However , he was soon suffering from a torn posterior cruciate ligament and a damaged meniscus in need of surgery and was lost for the season . He had immediate November surgery , which revealed that the ligament was 90 % torn , but would heal on its own . It kept him out of the lineup for the rest of the season , however . He finished the season on injured reserve . During the offseason , he got involved as a narrator for the Westchester Philharmonic . As the Giants prepared for the 1997 NFL Draft they attempted to resign Elias .
In 1997 , he earned the Unsung hero award from the New York Giants . Elias did not play for the Giants during the 1997 NFL season , and he did not sign with the Indianapolis Colts until the 1998 NFL season . He had an offer from the 1997 Carolina Panthers , but he tested the market too long and lost it . He spent 1997 coaching his high school alma mater 's football team where his brother , Greg , was playing . He was the running backs and special teams coach . After three seasons with the Giants he served as special teams captain with the Indianapolis Colts . He also served as the backup to Marshall Faulk and Edgerrin James . The Colts resigned him to a second one @-@ year contract for the 1999 NFL season . He scored the game @-@ winning touchdown in the final preseason game on September 2 . Following the season he was arrested on charges of
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the first club rooms were secured . In September 1906 , after a few seasons in operation , Rovers withdrew from the First Division of the Leinster Senior League . In 1914 , they were resurrected and started playing their matches at Ringsend Park . However , the park became unavailable within two years . The club disbanded and played only exhibition games for the next five years . In 1921 , Shamrock Rovers were resurrected once more , as a Leinster Senior League outfit , and reached the final of the inaugural FAI Cup , where they lost to St James 's Gate in a fixture marred by crowd violence . The following season , the club won the League of Ireland title at the first attempt , going 21 games unbeaten and scoring 77 goals . In 1924 , an influential member of the League winning side of two years previous , Bob Fullam , returned to Rovers from Leeds United and combined with John Flood , John Fagan and Billy Farrell to complete the forward line known as The Four Fs . By the conclusion of their fifth season in the League of Ireland , the club had won three League titles and one FAI Cup . During the 1930s , the club won a further three League titles and five FAI Cups with Irish internationals , Paddy Moore and Jimmy Dunne playing key roles in their success , supported by crowds of up to 30 @,@ 000 people at Glenmalure Park . By 1949 , Shamrock Rovers had established themselves as Ireland 's most successful football club . Their 44 major trophies included six League of Ireland titles , 11 FAI Cups , seven League of Ireland Shields , six Leinster Senior Cups , two Dublin City Cups , four Intercity Cups and eight President 's Cups .
= = = Coad 's Colts = = =
In November 1949 , following the death of Jimmy Dunne , Paddy Coad reluctantly accepted the position of player @-@ manager having played with the club for almost eight years , in which time he had established himself as one of the best players in the League of Ireland . Coad opted for a radical youth policy and over the course of his first three years in charge , signed virtually the entire schoolboy international side to Rovers . He employed revolutionary training methods with extra emphasis on technical skill and possession which resulted in a fast , passing style of football that contributed significantly to the development of the game in Ireland . In 1954 , the club won the League of Ireland for the first time in fifteen years , while Paddy Ambrose finished the season as the team 's leading scorer . Led by players like Liam Tuohy and Coad himself , the team known as Coad 's Colts proceeded to win two more League titles and two FAI Cups , concluding the golden era of Irish football as one of its most successful teams .
= = = Six in a row = = =
After the departure of Coad in 1960 and an unsuccessful season under Albie Murphy , Seán Thomas took on the role of rebuilding the Rovers team which had suffered from the break @-@ up of Coad 's Colts . Paddy Ambrose and Ronnie Nolan had remained with the club and were joined by a large selection of signings including Irish internationals , Frank O ’ Neill and Johnny Fullam . The decision by Liam Tuohy to return to the club as captain , after four successful years at Newcastle United , effectively saw the completion of Thomas ' side . The club won every domestic honour except the Top Four Competition in the 1963 – 64 season and were narrowly defeated by holders and eventual finalists , Valencia , in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup . Thomas , however , quit the Hoops at the end of the season following a dispute with the Cunninghams ( Owners ) over team selection . Liam Tuohy took over as player @-@ manager and led the club to a further five FAI Cups in succession , completing a series of six , including a 3 – 0 defeat of League of Ireland champions , Waterford in 1968 , in front of 40 @,@ 000 people at Dalymount Park . The summer of 1967 had been spent in the United States , participating in the foundation of the United Soccer Association , where Rovers represented Boston as Boston Rovers . The 1968 – 69 season saw Mick Leech score a total of 56 goals for the club , including two in the last FAI Cup final of the Six in a Row period , against Cork Celtic .
= = = Decline = = =
The Hoops ' defeat to Shelbourne in the first round of the FAI Cup in 1970 , their first defeat in 32 Cup games over seven years , marked the start of the decline in the fortunes of the club . Despite only narrowly missing out on the League title in the 1970 – 71 season in controversial circumstances , the next twelve years proved to be a disaster for the club both on and off the field . On 25 April 1971 , Rovers met Cork Hibs in Dalymount in a League play @-@ off watched by 28 @,@ 000 people . Their pre @-@ match buildup was thrown into disarray when players and directors clashed over win bonuses . Hibs won the play @-@ off 3 – 1 . The next season , the Cunninghams , now under the control of sons Arthur and Des , sold the club to three brothers from Dublin ; Paddy , Barton and Louis Kilcoyne . The Kilcoynes had witnessed decades of huge attendances at Irish football games and sought to take over the club primarily for business reasons . However , within the space of five years , the large crowds disappeared from Irish football stadia and combined with the demise of Drumcondra and Cork Hibs , the decline in fortunes of a number of top clubs and the lack of action by the FAI , the League of Ireland was plunged into a drastic decline . Faced with dwindling attendances , the Kilcoynes decided to starve the club and sold off senior players who were replaced by junior footballers . On a tour of Japan in 1975 , Mick Meagan and Theo Dunne ’ s young side defeated the Japanese national team 3 – 2 in front of 60 @,@ 000 spectators at the Olympic Stadium , but that victory was the highlight of a season that saw the team finish bottom of the table and re @-@ apply for admission into the League of Ireland .
In 1976 , Meagan and Dunne resigned from the club and were replaced by Seán Thomas , the architect of the Six in a Row side , who with limited resources , re @-@ signed Johnny Fullam and Mick Leech , as well as John Conway from Bohemians . Rovers finished the 1976 – 77 season in eleventh but won the club ’ s only League of Ireland Cup , with Leech ’ s 250th career goal proving the difference against Sligo . In July 1977 , Irish international player @-@ manager John Giles returned to Dublin to take up the same role at Rovers . The Kilcoynes implemented a full @-@ time policy and unveiled plans to rebuild Glenmalure Park as a 50 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater stadium as well as turning the club into a school of excellence for Irish football , capable of challenging for European honours . Giles signed Irish internationals , Ray Treacy , Eamon Dunphy and Paddy Mulligan to complement the youth setup . In his first season in charge , the club won their 21st FAI Cup , defeating Sligo in a controversial final , but despite that success and emphatic victories in European competition against Apoel Nicosia and Fram Reykjavík , Giles ' conservative approach based on possession football proved unsuccessful and on 3 February 1983 , he resigned .
= = = Four in a row = = =
In the summer of 1983 , Jim McLaughlin replaced Noel Campbell as Rovers ' manager , after a successful period at Dundalk . Louis Kilcoyne made money available to McLaughlin who responded by selling and releasing almost the entire squad he had inherited from the Giles era , including fans ' favourite , Alan O 'Neill , while retaining the services of Liam Buckley , Harry Kenny , Alan Campbell and Peter Eccles . He brought in what was effectively a League of Ireland XI which included Jody Byrne and Noel King from Dundalk , Mick Neville from Drogheda , the trio of Eviston , Brady and O 'Brien from Bohemians , and Anto Whelan and Neville Steedman from Manchester United and Thurles Town . On 1 April 1984 , the club clinched their first League of Ireland title in 20 years with a 3 – 1 defeat of Shelbourne and 14 days later against Limerick at Glenmalure Park , midfielder and captain , Pat Byrne was presented with the trophy . Following that success , the club 's two star strikers , Campbell and Buckley , were transferred to Racing de Santander and K.S.V. Waregem . McLaughlin replaced them with Mick Byrne and Noel Larkin and the pairing proved successful as the club proceeded to win a further three League titles and three FAI Cups , with Byrne finishing the final season of the Four in a Row period as the League 's top goalscorer . Dermot Keely managed and played for the club that year after McLaughlin 's decision to transfer to Derry City [ 1 ] The Hoops won 74 League games out of 100 from August 1983 to April 1987 , losing only 11 .
= = = The homeless years ( 1987 – 2009 ) = = =
Shortly after winning their 14th League title , Louis Kilcoyne announced that the Kilcoynes were selling Glenmalure Park , which they had recently purchased from the Jesuits . The team played the entire 1987 – 88 season in an almost empty Tolka Park as a result of a boycott called for by the Shamrock Rovers Supporters Club and KRAM ( Keep Rovers At Milltown ) , which was observed by the vast majority of Hoops fans . Following the completion of the boycott season in Tolka , the Kilcoynes sold the football club to Dublin businessman John McNamara , who put forward a controversial proposal to move in with Bohemians at Dalymount Park . KRAM congregated to vote on whether to lift the boycott and on the proposal to move to Dalymount . Both motions were passed and the club spent the next two seasons at the Phibsboro venue , with an unrecognisable side playing in front of small attendances .
As the 1989 – 90 season concluded , the club announced that they were moving to the RDS in Ballsbridge , located halfway between Ringsend and Milltown on the Southside of Dublin . On 30 September 1990 , the RDS played host to Shamrock Rovers against St. Patrick 's Athletic , in front of 22 @,@ 000 people [ 2 ] . The fixture started a six @-@ year period at the venue that included a League title winning season in 1993 – 94 . Ray Treacy managed the League winning side which included Paul Osam , Gino Brazil , John Toal , Alan Byrne and Stephen Geoghegan , who ended the season as top goalscorer . The next season , a number of key players were released as Treacy and McNamara enforced a tight budget and opted to rebuild the side with young players . The team began the season with a heavy defeat to Górnik Zabrze in the UEFA Cup and struggled their way to a midtable standing . They started the 1995 – 96 season badly and by late that season , after almost two years of growing supporter discontent at the running of the club , Treacy resigned , with McNamara following him shortly afterward . One of McNamara 's final acts was to appoint Alan O 'Neill and Terry Eviston , who had both returned to the club in 1993 , as joint managers of the side . They succeeded in removing the threat of relegation and almost guided the team to European qualification .
= = = = Long road to Tallaght = = = =
As the 1995 – 96 season concluded , John McNamara sold the club to Premier Computers , headed by Alan McGrath . McGrath unveiled a plan to build a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art stadium in the Dublin southwest suburb of Tallaght , and employed Pat Byrne as commercial manager . However , after a couple of weeks and a loss in the first game of the season , O ’ Neill was dismissed , while Eviston resigned in solidarity . Byrne was appointed manager of the side playing in Tolka Park once again , and they struggled through the season with the League 's joint top scorer , Tony Cousins playing a leading role in avoiding relegation . In May 1997 , Alan McGrath resigned as club chairman and was replaced by Brian Kearney , also of Premier Computers , who succeeded in acquiring planning permission for the new stadium in January 1998 . However , the permission was delayed by objections until November 1998 , by which time Joe Colwell had replaced Kearney as chairman and ended Premier Computers ' involvement with the club . On the pitch , Mick Byrne guided Rovers to an Intertoto Cup spot in 1997 – 98 and an eighth @-@ place finish , the next season . He was replaced by Damien Richardson , who managed the club during their stay at Morton Stadium before his dismissal in April 2002 , after a disagreement with Colwell . By that time , a half @-@ built shell of a stadium stood at the Tallaght site ; Mulden International Ltd , recruited by Colwell to complete the project , had pulled out of building the stadium . They leased it to a separate company , transferring the responsibility , and focused on four acres that they had retained for themselves .
= = = = Examinership and survival = = = =
Tony Maguire replaced Colwell as chairman and began the search for potential investors . In his first season as manager , Liam Buckley guided the club to the FAI Cup final and European qualification , as the team played at Richmond Park . The 2003 season was marked by the club 's worsening finances as a deal with potential investor , Conor Clarkson was held up by Mulden 's reluctance to sell their land . Having successfully applied for a one @-@ year planning extension in October 2003 , the club applied for a further extension a few months after Buckley 's departure in September 2004 . SDCC refused the application , but clarified their position by confirming their intention to build the stadium in partnership with the club , once the issue of ownership had been resolved . The trustees of the 400 Club ( supporters group ) informed the board of directors that they were no longer willing to bankroll their ownership of Shamrock Rovers .
Faced with the choice of remaining with Clarkson , whose plans were nullified by SDCC 's decision , or cooperating with the council , Maguire chose the former and with Mulden 's financing , initiated a High Court judicial review of the decision . The review failed and on 11 April 2005 , facing debts of over two million Euro , the club entered into examinership . The 400 Club agreed to completely bankroll the club during the process . On 5 May 2005 , Tony Maguire resigned on request by the FAI , who had discovered that the club had submitted their 2003 accounts in their application for a licence for the 2005 season . This resulted in a points deduction and subsequent relegation under Roddy Collins . The examinership concluded in July 2005 with the examiner accepting the 400 Club 's bid for Shamrock Rovers , saving the club from extinction , and the supporters @-@ owned club won promotion at the first attempt in 2006 under Pat Scully . The 2007 and 2008 seasons at Tolka Park were ones of overachievement and stability , but the major event of the period was the recommencement of building on the stadium after more than two years of legal disputes between the council and Thomas Davis CLG .
= = = Tallaght = = =
The 2009 season proved to be a progressive one for the club , starting with the completion of the stadium and ending with a second @-@ place finish and qualification to the Europa League under the management of Michael O 'Neill . Tallaght Stadium hosted the highest attendances in the League of Ireland , regularly selling out its capacity . The season was also marked by the visit of Real Madrid to Tallaght Stadium , where they defeated The Hoops 1 – 0 in front of a record attendance of 10 @,@ 900 people . The team entered the 2010 – 11 Europa League in the second qualifying round and defeated Bnei Yehuda of Israel to progress to a third qualifying round tie against Juventus . The Italian side won the tie 3 – 0 on aggregate . Shamrock Rovers finished the 2010 season as champions , ending a 16 @-@ year drought by narrowly beating Bohemians to the title on goal difference . Rovers also got to the FAI Cup final , the first in the Aviva Stadium , where , in front of a crowd of over 30 @,@ 000 , they were defeated on penalties by Sligo Rovers .
= = = = 2011 season = = = =
In 2011 the club played its first ever Champions League game and its first game in the highest level of European Cup Competition 's since the 1987 – 88 European Cup , beating Estonian Champions Flora Tallinn in the 2011 – 12 Champions League Second qualifying round . They accomplished this feat by triumphing 1 – 0 in the first leg at Tallaght Stadium and drawing 0 – 0 in the second leg in Estonia to advance 1 – 0 on aggregate . Rovers were then beaten 3 – 0 on aggregate in the next round by Danish Champions Copenhagen but advanced to the 2011 – 12 Europa League Play @-@ off round . There they were drawn against Serbian Champions FK Partizan , whom they defeated 3 – 2 on aggregate ( 2 – 1 on the night after extra time ) to reach the group stages of the Europa League . This marked a famous victory for Irish football , as it is the first time an Irish club has reached the group stages of a major European competition . Rovers also won the All Ireland Setanta Sports Cup in 2011 by defeating Dundalk in the final at Tallaght Stadium.Rovers wrapped up a second league title in a row with a last @-@ minute victory over UCD at Belfield on 25 October 2011 .
= = Colours and badge = =
Until 1926 , Shamrock Rovers wore green and white striped jerseys but following a suggestion by a committee member , John Sheridan , the club chose to adopt the green and white hooped strip . A close relationship existed between the club and Belfast Celtic and it was on account of this that the idea was formed . The first game featuring the new jerseys was against Bray Unknowns in a FAI Cup match on 9 January 1927 at Shelbourne Park . The Hoops lost the game 3 – 0 and senior members of the club considered abandoning the new strip . Despite this loss , the team continued to wear green and white hoops and have done ever since . The 2007 season was the first season since the hoops were introduced that they were not continuous around the main body of the jersey . The style of the shirt sleeves has been changed on numerous occasions . The away colours of the club have varied over time . In the early 1980s , the club had a yellow away jersey . In the mid @-@ 1990s , a hooped purple jersey was adopted . In 2011 , the team wore an all black away strip .
The club emblem features a football and a shamrock , and has done so throughout the history of the club . Minor alterations to the club badge have included changing the style of the shamrock and the width of the diagonal lines . In 2005 , a star was added above the badge to signify the first 10 League of Ireland titles won by the club . After the takeover of the club by the supporters , black became the club 's third official colour in recognition of the loss of Glenmalure Park . It was also decided that the number 12 would no longer be worn by any Shamrock Rovers player and instead would represent the club 's supporters .
= = Stadiums = =
= = = Glenmalure Park = = =
On 11 September 1926 , Shamrock Rovers played their first game at Glenmalure Park , Milltown against Dundalk , having previously played at Ringsend Park , Shelbourne Park , Windy Arbour and a different pitch behind the famous Milltown one . The official opening took place on Sunday , 19 September 1926 as Belfast Celtic provided the opposition in an exhibition game . When the Cunninghams acquired the club in the 1930s , the stadium was named Glenmalure Park in honour of their ancestral home in Glenmalure . They completed the stadium with the addition of terraces , one of which was covered . The stadium remained essentially unaltered from then until its demolition in 1990 , excluding the destruction of a small terrace and the erection of floodlights in the 1980s . Its capacity was approximately 20 @,@ 000 for most of its existence , its largest recorded attendance being 28 @,@ 000 , set against Waterford in 1968 . Larger , unreported , attendances were present at the venue before then .
In 1987 , the Kilcoynes decided to sell the stadium to property developers , having recently purchased it from the Jesuits . The last game at Glenmalure Park was an FAI Cup semi @-@ final between Shamrock Rovers and Sligo Rovers on 12 April 1987 . The game saw a pitch invasion by supporters protesting against the sale of the stadium . The next season , the supporters formed an association called Keep Rovers at Milltown and placed a picket on home games at Tolka Park , effectively bankrupting the club 's owners . They accumulated funds , through supporter contributions , in an effort to purchase the stadium but failed to match the offer of a property developer to whom the Kilcoynes eventually sold the site . After a lengthy appeals process , Glenmalure Park was demolished in 1990 to be replaced by an apartment complex .
= = = Tallaght Stadium = = =
In the 1990s , Shamrock Rovers were granted land in the Dublin suburb of Tallaght to build a new stadium . On 30 March 2000 , Taoiseach Bertie Ahern turned the sod at the site . However , work on the stadium ceased in 2001 and in March 2005 , South Dublin County Council announced that they were taking back the land that they had granted to the club , as the conditions of the planning permission had not been met . A public consultation process was initiated in July 2005 and a resolution was passed in December 2005 to alter the stadium to accommodate senior GAA games while still having Shamrock Rovers as the preferred tenants . This decision was subject to additional government funding . This funding was not made available and on 13 January 2006 the council voted to proceed with the original plan .
This second vote was challenged by a local Gaelic Athletic Association club , Thomas Davis who wanted the vote on 13 January 2006 declared illegal thus forcing the county council to build the GAA stadium . Thomas Davis claimed that the capacity of the stadium ( initially 6 @,@ 000 , ultimately 10 @,@ 000 ) would not be affected by the change , the other parties involved disputed this and argued that the capacity would be reduced . Requests under the freedom of information act to both South Dublin County Council and the Department of Sport showed that Thomas Davis had not submitted any plans showing that capacity would not be affected .
Thomas Davis GAA club instituted judicial review proceedings in the High Court in May 2006 . Their main argument was that the decision of the council on 13 February 2006 to revert to the original plans for the stadium , which did not include a senior GAA pitch , was unlawful . Their submission on the technical point was accompanied by cultural arguments that ' the youth of Tallaght will be restricted to a diet of Association football ' and that a soccer @-@ only ground would place the ' applicant at a severe disadvantage in attracting the youth of Tallaght to the club , the sport and the GAA culture . The stadium , however , with the original design , could accommodate junior GAA games as the pitch used at this level fits within the stadium 's dimensions . It was only senior GAA games that would not have been facilitated .
The then Minister for Arts , Sport and Tourism , John O 'Donoghue , consistently supported the government decision to support the stadium with soccer pitch dimensions , and claimed that the GAA were stalling the project which he believed they had no need for on top of their own site in Rathcoole . On 14 December 2006 the Football Association of Ireland pledged financial assistance for the Hoops ’ High Court battle involving Thomas Davis .
The judicial review began on 20 April 2007 and concluded on 14 December 2007 . In the High Court decision Mr. Justice Roderick Murphy found in favour of South Dublin Co . Council and Shamrock Rovers . South Dublin County Council were correct in their 13 February 2006 vote to proceed with the stadium as originally planned . An application by Thomas Davis for leave to appeal this decision to the Supreme court was refused by Judge Murphy on 25 January 2008 . Building commenced on the stadium on 6 May 2008 . Shamrock Rovers played their first ' home ' game in over 20 years in the stadium in March 2009 .
= = Ownership = =
Shamrock Rovers F.C. is a members ' club owned by the Shamrock Rovers Members Club . The Shamrock Rovers Members Club was originally formed as the 400 Club in November 2002 , by the then privately owned football club 's board of directors , to raise funds through the fan base , with the sole purpose of facilitating a mortgage for the development of the stalled stadium project in Tallaght . The monthly membership fee was set at € 40 . However , it became apparent to the members that the funds raised were being used for purposes outside of the stated objective . As a result , the membership took control of the 400 Club , adopted a transparent structure and constitution , and declared itself totally independent of the then board of Shamrock Rovers . The 400 Club consortium played a crucial role in the survival of Shamrock Rovers when the club entered examinership in April 2005 . They paid off a portion of the club 's debts and assumed responsibility for running it . After the successful acquisition of the club through the examinership process , the 400 Club Trustees became the Board of Directors of Shamrock Rovers Football Club and began the process of building a sustainable club through sensible business practices . Numerous clubs and supporters groups subsequently sought their advice with regard to using the model of the 400 club elsewhere . At the annual meeting of the 400 Club in 2006 , the members voted to rename it as the SRFC Members Club , reflecting the reality of their ownership of the football club . At the 2008 meeting , the monthly membership fee was increased to € 50 . In January 2012 , there were more than 400 members of the club . Membership is open to all .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
The majority of Shamrock Rovers supporters originate from the Southside of Dublin , but the club attracts fans from across the city and country . Since its foundation , the club has maintained a proud Irish identity , and their supporters reflect this in the flags and banners they display . Their support base contains a number of clubs dedicated to supporting the team at away games . It also contains an ultras group , which was the first formed in Ireland , the SRFC Ultras , who produce choreographed displays of support at games . They have connections with other European groups including supporters of Roma , Hammarby and Panathinaikos .
Until the 1970s , Glenmalure Park regularly hosted attendances in the region of 20 @,@ 000 people , but as the majority of the Irish public turned its back on Irish football , those numbers declined and despite winning the League of Ireland four times in succession in the 1980s , the attendances for the period averaged approximately a quarter of that figure . The sale of the stadium contributed to a further decline in support . During the homeless years , particularly those spent on the Northside , attendances continued to fall with the exception of those recorded during the club 's residence at the RDS , which included an opening attendance of 22 @,@ 000 . Prior to the relocation to Tallaght , the club 's support base had been reduced to a hardcore group of over a thousand people . It currently includes approximately 2 @,@ 700 season ticket holders .
Throughout their history , Shamrock Rovers have shared many rivalries of differing importance and intensity . The oldest such rivalry is that shared with Shelbourne , formed on the basis of the clubs ' foundations in Ringsend . It remains as a secondary rivalry of similar importance to the local derby contested with St. Patrick 's Athletic . During the 1950s and 1960s , the club 's principal rival was , the now defunct , Drumcondra . In the 1970s , they were replaced as the major club on the Northside by Bohemians . Since then , the relatively minor rivalry that existed between Shamrock Rovers and Bohemians has developed into a classic rivalry , producing intense games and large attendances .
= = Other teams = =
= = = Women = = =
= = = Shamrock Rovers B = = =
Throughout its history Rovers have entered reserve teams in various leagues including the Leinster Senior League Senior Division , the League of Ireland B Division , the A Championship and the League of Ireland Under @-@ 20 . In 2014 they played in the League of Ireland First Division .
= = = Youth setup = = =
The schoolboys sections of Shamrock Rovers and Tallaght Town merged in 1997 to form a new section to serve the Tallaght area of South West Dublin . Tallaght Town initially remained in operation with three intermediate teams participating in the Leinster Senior League . Two of these teams continue to compete , but under the name of Shamrock Rovers . Tallaght Town exists as a limited company and as trustee of a training facility used by the youth teams at Shamrock Rovers . There are sixteen of these teams , composed of over 200 players and 35 managers and coaches . They cater for players in the six to nineteen years of age group . The club 's youth teams have participated in the Milk Cup and Dallas Cup . The club operates scholarships covering all levels of education . In conjunction with IT Tallaght , they offer third level education to players and have introduced a scholarship scheme that facilitates primary school students through the Junior Certificate cycle .
= = Honours = =
= = = Senior = = =
League of Ireland / League of Ireland Premier Division / : 17 ( record )
1922 – 23 , 1924 – 25 , 1926 – 27 , 1931 – 32 , 1937 – 38 , 1938 – 39 , 1953 – 54 , 1956 – 57 , 1958 – 59 , 1963 – 64 1983 – 84 , 1984 – 85 , 1985 – 86 , 1986 – 87 , 1993 – 94 , 2010 , 2011
FAI Cup : 24 ( record )
1924 @-@ 25 , 1928 @-@ 29 , 1929 @-@ 30 , 1930 @-@ 31 , 1931 @-@ 32 , 1932 @-@ 33 , 1935 @-@ 36 , 1939 – 40 , 1943 – 44 , 1944 – 45 , 1947 – 48 , 1954 – 55 , 1955 – 56 , 1961 @-@ 62 , 1963 – 64 , 1964 – 65 , 1965 – 66 , 1966 – 67 , 1967 – 68 , 1968 – 69 , 1977 – 78 , 1984 – 85 , 1985 – 86 , 1986 – 87
League of Ireland Shield : 18 ( record )
1924 – 25 , 1926 – 27 , 1931 – 32 , 1932 – 33 , 1934 – 35 , 1937 – 38 , 1941 – 42 , 1949 – 50 , 1951 – 52 , 1954 – 55 , 1955 – 56 @,@
1956 – 57 , 1957 – 58 , 1962 – 63 , 1963 – 64 , 1964 – 65 , 1965 – 66 , 1967 – 68 .
League of Ireland Cup : 2
1976 – 77 , 2013
Dublin City Cup : 10
1944 @-@ 45 , 1947 – 48 , 1952 – 53 , 1954 – 55 , 1956 – 57 , 1957 – 58 , 1959 – 60 , 1963 – 64 , 1966 – 67 , 1983 – 84
Top Four Cup : 3
1955 @-@ 56 , 1957 – 58 , 1965 – 66
FAI Super Cup : 1
1998 @-@ 99
Setanta Sports Cup : 2
2011 , 2013
Leinster Senior League : 1
1921 @-@ 22 See Note 1
Leinster Senior Cup : 18
1922 @-@ 23 , 1926 – 27 , 1928 – 29 , 1929 – 30 , 1932 – 33 , 1937 – 38 , 1952 – 53 , 1954 – 55 , 1955 – 56 , 1956 – 57 , 1957 – 58 , 1963 – 64 , 1968 – 69 , 1981 – 82 , 1984 – 85 , 1996 – 97 , 2011 – 12 , 2012 – 13
= = = Reserves = = =
= = Managers = =
= = Player of the Year = =
= = Players = =
Correct as of 20 January 2016 .
= = = First @-@ team squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
12 – Club Supporters ( the 12th Man )
= = Technical staff = =
= = Records and statistics = =
= = = European record = = =
Shamrock Rovers have a long history in European competition . They were the first Irish side to enter European competition , and featured regularly in the 1960s and 1980s . The club has had some relative success with victories in the Intertoto @-@ Cup and the Europa League . Throughout their participation Rovers have beaten teams from Luxembourg , Cyprus , Iceland and Germany , and were the first Irish club to beat teams from Turkey , Poland , Israel and Serbia . Their first victory in the UEFA Champions League came in a 1 – 0 victory in the 2011 – 12 qualifying phase against FC Flora Tallinn at Tallaght Stadium [ 3 ] .
Their biggest win was a 7 – 0 aggregate victory ( 3 – 0 away , 4 – 0 home ) over Fram Reykjavik in the UEFA Cup first round in September 1982 , which remains a record for League of Ireland clubs in European competition .
On 25 August 2011 , they became the first Irish team to qualify for the UEFA Europa League group stage when they defeated Partizan Belgrade 2 – 1 after extra @-@ time in Serbia , for a 3 – 2 aggregate victory .
= = = = Overview = = = =
Correct as of December 2012
= = = = Past opponents = = = =
Notes
PR : Preliminary round
QR : Qualifying round
1R : First round
2R : Second round
1Q : First qualifying round
2Q : Second qualifying round
3Q : Third qualifying round
PO : Play @-@ off round
= The Elder Scrolls IV : Shivering Isles =
The Elder Scrolls IV : Shivering Isles is the second expansion pack for the role @-@ playing video game The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion . Announced on January 18 , 2007 , the expansion was developed , published , and released over the Xbox Live Marketplace by Bethesda Softworks ; its retail release was co @-@ published with 2K Games . It was released for Microsoft Windows in a boxed retail edition on March 26 , 2007 , while the Xbox 360 version was released digitally on the Xbox Live Marketplace . Shivering Isles takes place on the eponymous isles ruled by the Daedric Prince of Madness , Sheogorath . The player becomes Sheogorath 's protégé , and together they try to defeat the Daedric Lord of Order , Jyggalag , thus preventing the isles from being destroyed ; this main quest can be ignored for as long as the player wishes to interact with the new world .
= = Gameplay = =
Shivering Isles is identical to the basic gameplay of The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion ; the basic design , maneuvers , and interfaces remain unchanged . As such , it is a fantasy @-@ based role @-@ playing adventure game . Players begin Oblivion by defining their character , deciding on its skill set , specialization , physical features , and race . The player gains experience points through the practice of specific skills , such as gaining archery experience by practicing archery . This goes against standard role @-@ playing game form , where any skill use garners generic experience points that may be put towards any type of specialization . Enemies increase in difficulty as players strengthen their skills , scaling the game 's challenge to the players ' strength .
As with the original game , The Shivering Isles is an open @-@ ended expansion . The main quest may be delayed or completely ignored as the player explores the game world , follows side quests , interacts with non @-@ player characters , and develops a character according to their taste . Once the game is updated the player can access the extra content at any time with any character .
= = Plot = =
The expansion pack takes place on the Shivering Isles , ruled by the Daedric Prince of Madness , Sheogorath . The realm is divided into two sections , Mania and Dementia , both of which have different characteristics in the art and design . The player enters the realm as an event called the Greymarch is about to occur - in which the Daedric Prince of Order , Jyggalag , completely destroys the Shivering Isles . Upon entering the realm , the player has access to only one area of the Shivering Isles , called the Fringe . To gain access to the other areas , the player must defeat a creature called the Gatekeeper . Before entering the other areas , the player is summoned for an audience with the mad god Sheogorath . Sheogorath explains to the player that the Greymarch will destroy the realm , and Sheogorath needs a " champion " to stop the event from occurring . Sheogorath decides to choose the player as his protégé , whom he sends off on various quests in an attempt to stop the Greymarch .
Sheogorath 's and the player 's attempts to stop the Greymarch ultimately fail . Sheogorath then transforms into Jyggalag , by then revealed to be his alter @-@ ego , and disappears . As the player defends the Court of Madness from the ensuing invasion of the forces of Order , Jyggalag himself appears and attacks the player . The player defeats Jyggalag , and the Greymarch stops . Jyggalag then explains to the player that , when the Daedric Princes were creating their own lands , his power and the rapid expansion of his realm caused the other princes to become fearful and jealous , prompting them to curse him with madness , changing him into Sheogorath , the Prince of Madness . Since Daedra are subject to a reincarnation cycle , Jyggalag / Sheogorath was doomed to relive the Greymarch at the end of each era , after which Jyggalag would once again be transformed into Sheogorath . After explaining this history , Jyggalag thanks the player for breaking the cycle and dubs him / her the " new " Sheogorath , Prince of Madness and ruler of the Shivering Isles .
= = Development = =
The earliest news about Shivering Isles surfaced on January 4 , 2007 when an issue of PC Zone revealed the expansion . The issue revealed details about the plot and setting of the expansion , published its first screenshots and announced its expected arrival in the second quarter of 2007 . Bethesda did not announce the expansion until January 18 , 2007 . The announcement came after the expansion had already been featured in both PC Zone and PC Gamer , after it had been scheduled for a February 6 , 2007 appearance in Games for Windows , and after it had been reported in several online publications . The official announcement also confirmed an eventual release for the Xbox 360 , something the magazines , being PC publications , had not previously mentioned .
Further clarification came in early March when Executive Producer Todd Howard revealed the specific release date of March 27 , 2007 , but due to unscheduled maintenance , it was released on Xbox Live a day early . A disc version of Shivering Isles was announced on September 6 , 2007 with a previously disallowed hard drive requirement . The expansion was released as a standalone for the PlayStation 3 version of the game on November 20 , 2007 and as a download from the PlayStation Network on November 29 , 2007 . The expansion was made available for download to Australian customers only on November 23 , 2007 . Shivering Isles and Knights of the Nine expansions shipped together in the packaged release of Oblivion 's Game of the Year edition .
= = = Concept art = = =
Much of the distinctive look of Shivering Isles is credited to concept artist Adam Adamowicz ( 1968 @-@ 2012 ) . The landscape of the Isles is divided into two main areas : Mania and Dementia . The land of Mania is characterized by vivid colour and fantastical flora , while Dementia is filled with bogs and agonistically twisted trees and roots . Adamowicz had a major influence on the style of other Bethesda Softworks game titles such as Fallout 3 and The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim . The portal to the Shivering Isles was also designed by Adamowicz , and bears his signature style .
= = Reception = =
The Shivering Isles was generally well received in the gaming press . Aggregate sites Metacritic and Game Rankings scored both the PC version and the Xbox 360 version of the game at 86 out of 100 .
Greg Mueller from GameSpot recommends the game for its value but sees it as " not an absolutely essential expansion " and rates some of the later quests as repetitive and uninspired . Similar comments followed from GamePro reviewer Newton , who found that it is " an impressive expansion " which " delivers more of what made Oblivion great : creative quests , a huge land to explore , and tons of things to do there , [ therefore ] making this expansion is a solid purchase for anyone who was a fan of the core game " . Jim Rossignol from Eurogamer initially rated the game as equally memorable to Oblivion but later saying that it is " the same game as it ever was , only this time with a slightly weirder backdrop , and less interesting questing " . Charles Onyett from IGN rates it as " an entirely worthy addition to Bethesda 's stellar fourth entry in The Elder Scrolls series " and as " a great excuse to jump back in [ the series ] " .
The expansion received accolades from several media publishers , including " Best RPG " at the 2008 Game of the Year Awards offered by Game Industry News , the " Best Expansion " at the 2007 Game of the Year Awards offered by Vodoo Extreme , as well as those offered by Primotech , and " Best Downloadable Content " at the G @-@ Phoria 2007 Awards . It also received the " Editor 's Choice Award " from Team Xbox , Game Pro , and IGN , as well as the " Top Pick Award " by Game Vortex , and the " Silver Award " from Advanced Media Network .
= T. C. Russell =
T. C. Russell is a fictional character on the American soap opera Passions , which aired on NBC from 1999 to 2007 and on DirecTV in 2007 – 08 . Created by the soap 's founder and head writer James E. Reilly , the role was portrayed by Rodney Van Johnson from July 5 , 1999 to June 19 , 2007 . Passions followed the romantic and supernatural adventures in the fictional New England coastal town of Harmony . Johnson was dropped to recurring status in December 2006 before his last appearance in June 2007 . On March 19 , 2001 , Jenny Gaona played the character in flashbacks .
T. C. is the patriarch of the Russell family ; he is the ex @-@ husband of Eve Russell and father of Whitney Russell and Simone Russell . Introduced as the perfect husband and father , he eventually becomes characterized by his violent temper and hatred for the Crane family , particularly Julian Crane , before suffering from a stroke and departing to help his daughters settle in New Orleans , Louisiana . He is originally portrayed as a close friend to Sam Bennett before his storyline focused more on the disintegration of his marriage and family .
Johnson and Ross made cameo appearances as T. C. and Eve in the series finale of the NBC primetime drama Providence . Internationally , Johnson . At the end of the show , several props and costumes related to T. C. were sold in an auction , along with other items from the show .
Johnson described T. C. ' s later character development as " disappointing " by limiting him to " the angry black man " stereotype . He initially praised the show for its racially diverse cast and representation of African @-@ American characters , but later felt his character and the other African @-@ American roles were not used to their full potential . T. C. ' s relationship with Eve and Johnson 's chemistry with Ross received negative feedback , with a majority of the show 's promotional images advertising Eve and Julian as a supercouple instead . Internationally , Johnson was praised for his performance of T. C. as a character " that warms the hearts of many in different countries " .
= = Development = =
T. C. Russell is one of the original 25 contract cast members invented by the show 's co @-@ creator , James E. Reilly . Sheraton Kalouria , senior vice president of NBC 's daytime programming , described the creation of T. C. and the Russell family as the result of an effort to build characters " as diverse as the U.S. " and set the show apart from other soap operas . An article in Jet later commented that each member of the Russell family was designed to be " an integral part of the show " in attempt to avoid token characters . Johnson frequently praised the show 's representation of African @-@ American characters in interviews and identified it as one of the primary reasons behind his attraction to the role :
We are the only daytime drama with a full African @-@ American family . The Russells have a key role in the community . There aren 't just a flash in the pan . The storylines are heavy . The show has received a huge response from the African @-@ American community for that reason .
Johnson said the chance to act with Tracey Ross also influenced his acceptance of the role . He called Ross the it girl for the African @-@ American community following her appearance on Star Search .
= = Storylines = =
T. C. Russell is the only son of Reggie Russell . T. C. ' s family has lived in Harmony for several generations ; his many @-@ times removed grandfather once owned a farm that was taken over the Cranes and demolished for the construction of the Crane Mansion . As a young adult , T. C. intensively trained to be a professional tennis player . In the 2001 novel Hidden Passions , he is described looking Arthur Ashe as the role model for his career and training to one day compete in The Championships , Wimbledon . Despite the book 's billing as canonical when it was published , the show contradicts much of its information .
T. C. was injured in a hit and run accident preventing him from competing further in tennis tournaments . For several decades , he incorrectly believes Julian was responsible for the accident and he harbors a desire for revenge against the Crane family for destroying his future plans ; he later discovers Eve was the one to hit him while she was driving under the influence . Sometime in the 1970s , T. C. married doctor Eve Johnson and had two children with her . He pushed his oldest daughter Whitney to start training to be a professional tennis champion from an early age so he could live vicariously through her life ; he is not shown to pay too much attention to his youngest daughter Simone . T. C. is unaware of Eve 's past drug and alcohol abuse and her past relationship and child with Julian .
T. C. ' s early appearances concentrate on the mysterious contents of his secret shed , but it is later retconned that " there was nothing in the shed that was substantial . " From 2002 to 2004 , Eve 's adoptive sister attempts to expose Eve 's past to T. C. and coerce him into having sex with her . Her actions escalate to the point where she slips T. C. a mickey for Eve to catch him in the act of adultery . The storyline culminates in July 2004 when Liz brings Eve 's aunt Irma Johnson to tell T. C. the truth about Eve 's past relationship with Julian and their child and her involvement in the car accident ending T. C. ' s tennis career . T. C. responds to the new by almost killing Julian in a violent rage and later divorcing Eve ; he briefly has a romantic relationship and engagement with Liz . Everyone in Harmony incorrectly assumes that Eve 's child with Julian is Chad ; Whitney 's relationship with Chad is believed to be incestuous as they would be half @-@ siblings . The possibility of incest further fractures the family . T. C. grows increasingly jealous and angry when Eve renews her relationship with Julian . T. C. falls into a deep depression coupled with alcoholism and physically assaults Simone after she comes out as a lesbian .
Rodney Van Johnson points to the earthquake and tsunami in the show 's 2005 summertime extravaganza as " the turning point " in which " T. C. realizes that he wants to be back with his wife . " Following the natural disasters , T. C. breaks off his engagement with Liz after reconciling with his ex @-@ wife 's past and rebukes all of her efforts to seduce her way back into his life . Before he can fully make amends with his ex @-@ wife and family , he gets injured in an automobile accident while driving under the influence and suffers from a stroke . During his recovery , T. C. grows closer to his ex @-@ wife and apologizes to Simone for his homophobic and abusive behavior . He was last shown babysitting Whitney and Chad 's son and his grandson Miles Davis Crane @-@ Harris ; following the show 's transition from NBC to DirecTV , he is said to have moved to New Orleans to help and reconnect with his daughters . He does not physically appear during the show 's run on DirecTV or the series finale .
= = Other appearances = =
Tracey Ross and Rodney Van Johnson made cameo appearances as Eve Russell and T. C. Russell in the series finale of the NBC primetime drama Providence , marking one of the first daytime / primetime crossovers .
Following DirecTV 's decision to not renew the show , Passions partnered with Premiere Props to hold a public two @-@ day estate sale of props and costumes from the show . Stacey Ward , a director of NBCUniversal , pitched the auction as " an opportunity to own a piece of their favorite show . " Several items related to T. C. , including his award as Harmony Open men 's singles champion and his framed letter to Eve , were put up for sale .
= = Reception = =
Despite his original positive response to the show , Johnson later expressed disappointment at his role shortly before his exit . He identified the decision to start " taking out the people of color " , like Amelia Marshall , Brook Kerr , and himself , as an obvious sign that " this thing is going down " . He said his character was not properly used and that he was frequently defaulted to " the angry black man . " He negatively compared T. C. to his previous role as Trey Stark on The Young and the Restless , saying that " I was used well " as Trey . Johnson also said the character gave him a negative stigma that limited his future opportunities for auditions .
In comparison to fan 's positive reception of Eve and Julian 's relationship ( dubbed " Evian " ) , T. C. ' s relationship with Eve and Johnson 's chemistry with Ross did not receive much attention from the fans and media . Other Passions cast members and representatives commented on the preference for Julian over T. C. ; Masters said his character Julian should " just kick T. C. out of his house " and beat him with a 4x4 and a spokesperson from the show pushed Julian and Eve 's romance to the forefront as " a new supercouple in Harmony " without any mention of T. C.
Internationally , T. C. received a more positive response . African newspaper Mmegi said Johnson was invited to the 2005 Miss Culture and Heritage contest in Botswana due to his performance of T. C. as a " husband and father in the soap that warms the hearts of many in different countries " .
= Hungarian occupation of Yugoslav territories =
The Hungarian occupation of Yugoslav territories consisted of the military occupation , then annexation , of the Bačka , Baranja , Međimurje and Prekmurje regions of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia by the Kingdom of Hungary during World War II . These territories had all been under Hungarian rule prior to 1920 , and had been transferred to Yugoslavia as part of the post @-@ World War I Treaty of Trianon . They now form part of several states : Yugoslav Bačka is now part of Vojvodina , an autonomous province of Serbia , Yugoslav Baranja and Međimurje are part of modern @-@ day Croatia , and Yugoslav Prekmurje is part of modern @-@ day Slovenia . The occupation began on 11 April 1941 when 80 @,@ 000 Hungarian troops crossed the Yugoslav border in support of the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia that had commenced five days earlier . There was some resistance to the Hungarian forces from Serb Chetnik irregulars , but the defences of the Royal Yugoslav Army had collapsed by this time . The Hungarian forces were indirectly aided by the local Volksdeutsche , the German minority , which had formed a militia and disarmed around 90 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops . Despite only sporadic resistance , Hungarian troops killed many civilians during these initial operations , including some Volksdeutsche . The government of the newly formed Axis puppet state , the Independent State of Croatia , subsequently consented to the Hungarian annexation of the Međimurje area , which dismayed the Croat population of the region .
The occupation authorities immediately classified the population of Bačka and Baranja into those that had lived in those regions when they had last been under Hungarian rule in 1920 and the mostly Serb settlers who had arrived since the areas had been part of Yugoslavia . They then began herding thousands of local Serbs into concentration camps and expelled them to the Independent State of Croatia , Italian @-@ occupied Montenegro , and the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia . Ultimately , tens of thousands of Serbs were deported from the occupied territories . This was followed by the implementation of a policy of " magyarisation " of the political , social and economic life of the occupied territories , which included the re @-@ settlement of Hungarians and Székelys from other parts of Hungary . " Magyarisation " did not impact the Volksdeutsche , who received special status under Hungarian rule , and in Prekmurje the Hungarian authorities were more permissive towards ethnic Slovenes .
Small @-@ scale armed resistance to the Hungarian occupation commenced in the latter half of 1941 and was answered with harsh measures , including summary executions , expulsions and internment . The insurgency was mainly concentrated in the ethnic @-@ Serb area of southern Bačka in the Šajkaška region , where Hungarian forces avenged their losses . In August 1941 a civilian administration took over the government of the " Recovered Southern Territories " ( Hungarian : Délvidék ) , and they were formally annexed to Hungary in December . In January 1942 the Hungarian military conducted raids during which they killed over 3 @,@ 300 people , mostly Serbs and Jews .
In March 1944 , when Hungary realised that it was on the losing side in the war and began to negotiate with the Allies , Germany took control of the country , including the annexed territories , during Operation Margarethe I. This was followed by the collection and transport of the remaining Jews in the occupied territories to extermination camps , resulting in the deaths of 85 per cent of the Jews in the occupied territories . Prior to their withdrawal from the Balkans in the face of the advance of the Soviet Red Army , the Germans evacuated 60 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 Volksdeutsche from Bačka and Baranja to Austria . Bačka and Baranja were restored to Yugoslav control when the Germans were pushed out of the region by the Red Army in late 1944 . Međimurje and Prekmurje remained occupied until the last weeks of the war .
= = Background = =
At the Paris Peace Conference following the conclusion of World War I , the Entente Powers signed the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary after the breakup of Austria @-@ Hungary . Among other things , the treaty defined the border between Hungary and the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( KSCS , renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929 ) . It divided the previously Hungarian @-@ ruled regions of Banat , Bačka and Baranja between Hungary , the KSCS , and Romania , and transferred the Međimurje region and about two thirds of the Prekmurje region from Hungary to the KSCS . Sizable numbers of Hungarians and Volksdeutsche remained in the areas incorporated into the KSCS . Between 1918 and 1924 , 44 @,@ 903 Hungarians ( including 8 @,@ 511 government employees ) were deported to Hungary from the territories transferred to Yugoslavia , and approximately 10 @,@ 000 Yugoslav military settlers ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Solunski dobrovoljci , lit . Salonika volunteers ) , mainly Serbs , were settled in Bačka and Baranja by the Yugoslav government . During the interwar period Hungary agitated for a revision of the borders agreed in the Treaty of Trianon , and relations between the two countries were difficult . On 22 August 1938 , Czechoslovakia , Romania and Yugoslavia agreed to a revision of Trianon that allowed Hungary to re @-@ arm itself .
= = = Demographics = = =
Prior to the occupation , the most recent Yugoslav census had been taken in 1931 . This census used language as the primary criterion , and counted all speakers of Serbo @-@ Croatian as one group , rather than recognising distinct Serb , Croat , Bosnian Muslim , Macedonian and Montenegrin nationalities . Aligning data on religious affiliation with the linguistic data has been used by scholars to determine approximate numbers of Serbs and Croats in the 1931 census , by counting those of the Roman Catholic denomination as Croats .
According to the 1931 census , the territories of Bačka and Baranja had a combined population of 837 @,@ 742 . This included between 275 @,@ 014 and 283 @,@ 114 Hungarians , and between 185 @,@ 458 and 194 @,@ 908 Volksdeutsche . Hungarians therefore made up around one @-@ third of the population of these territories , with the Volksdeutsche comprising slightly less than one @-@ quarter . According to the historian Dr. Krisztián Ungváry , the 1931 census showed that the population of Bačka and Baranja included 150 @,@ 301 Serbs and 3 @,@ 099 Croats . This corresponds to a Serb population of about 18 per cent . These figures vary considerably from the combined Serb and Croat population of 305 @,@ 917 provided by Professor Jozo Tomasevich , corresponding to 36 @.@ 5 per cent of the population . The 1931 census figures for Međimurje and Prekmurje show a total population of 193 @,@ 640 , of which 101 @,@ 467 ( 52 @.@ 2 per cent ) were Croats , 75 @,@ 064 ( 38 @.@ 7 per cent ) were Slovenes , and 15 @,@ 308 ( 8 per cent ) were Hungarians .
= = = Developments 1938 – 1941 = = =
Between 1938 and 1940 , following German – Italian mediation in the First and Second Vienna Awards , and the Hungarian invasion of Carpatho @-@ Ukraine , Hungary enlarged its territory . It absorbed parts of southern Czechoslovakia , Carpathian Ruthenia and the northern part of Transylvania , which the Kingdom of Romania ceded . One of the ethno @-@ cultural areas that changed hands between Romania and Hungary at this time was the Székely Land . The support that Hungary received from Germany for these border revisions meant that the relationship between the two countries became even closer . On 20 November 1940 , Hungary formally joined the Axis Tripartite Pact . On 12 December 1940 , at the initiative of the Prime Minister , Count Pál Teleki , Hungary concluded a friendship and non @-@ aggression treaty with Yugoslavia . Although the concept had received support from both Germany and Italy , the actual signing of the treaty did not , as Germany 's planned invasion of Greece would be simplified if Yugoslavia could be neutralised . After the Yugoslav military coup of 27 March 1941 , when the Germans asked the Hungarian Regent , Admiral Miklós Horthy , for clearance to launch one of their armoured thrusts using Hungarian territory , Teleki was unable to dissuade the Regent . Concluding that Hungary had disgraced itself irrevocably by siding with the Germans against the Yugoslavs , Teleki shot himself . Horthy informed Hitler that evening that Hungary would abide by the friendship treaty with Yugoslavia , though it would likely cease to apply should Croatia secede and Yugoslavia cease to exist .
= = Invasion = =
On 10 April 1941 , the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) was established in Zagreb by the Ustaše . That day Horthy and the new Prime Minister of Hungary László Bárdossy issued a joint declaration that Yugoslavia had ceased to exist , releasing Hungary from its obligations under the non @-@ aggression pact and the Treaty of Trianon . According to the declaration Hungarian troops would act to " protect the Hungarians who live in the south parts from the anarchy " of the April War which had begun there several days earlier when Italian and German troops invaded . The following day the Hungarian 3rd Army began occupying those regions of Yugoslavia using the Mobile , IV and V Corps , with I and VII Corps in reserve . That day ( 11 April ) , the headquarters of the 3rd Army informed that of the German 2nd Army that Hungarian forces had crossed the frontier north of Osijek and near Subotica .
The German army 's rapid manoeuvres during the invasion had forced the tactical withdrawal of Yugoslav forces facing Hungarian army units and there was no significant fighting between the two armies . The Hungarian forces advanced south to the Danube between Vukovar and the confluence with the Tisza without any real military resistance . Serb Chetnik irregulars fought isolated engagements , and the Hungarian General Staff considered irregular resistance forces to be their only significant opposition .
On 12 April , the Hungarian 1st Parachute Battalion captured canal bridges at Vrbas and Srbobran . Meanwhile , Sombor was captured against determined Chetnik resistance , and Subotica was also captured . This , the first airborne operation in Hungarian history , was not without incident . The battalion 's aircraft consisted of five Italian @-@ made Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.75 transport aircraft formerly with the civilian airline MALERT , but pressed into service with the Royal Hungarian Air Force ( Hungarian : Magyar Királyi Honvéd Légierő , MKHL ) at the start of the European war . Shortly after takeoff from the airport at Veszprém @-@ Jutas on the afternoon of 12 April , the command plane , code E @-@ 101 , crashed with the loss of 20 or 23 lives , including 19 paratroopers . This was the heaviest single loss suffered by the Hungarians during the Yugoslav campaign .
On 13 April , the 1st and 2nd Motorized Brigades occupied Novi Sad , then pushed south across the Danube into the northern part of Croatian Syrmia capturing Vinkovci and Vukovar on 18 April . These brigades then drove southeast to capture the western Serbian town of Valjevo a day later . Other Hungarian forces occupied the Yugoslavian regions of Prekmurje and Međimurje . A later American assessment concluded that German forces had to take the brunt of the fighting , observing that Hungarian forces had " displayed great reluctance to attack until the enemy had been soundly beaten and thoroughly disorganized by the Germans . " When a Yugoslav delegation signed an armistice with German and Italian representatives at Belgrade on 17 April , the Hungarians were represented by a liaison officer , but he did not sign the document because Hungary was " not at war with Yugoslavia . " The armistice came into effect at noon the next day . News of the success of the Hungarian armed forces in Yugoslavia was welcomed in the Hungarian Parliament . German forces occupied a narrow slice of northeastern Prekmurje along the German – Yugoslav border , which included four Volksdeutsche villages . In mid @-@ June 1941 , this area was absorbed into Reichsgau Steiermark .
Hungarian troops suffered 126 dead and 241 wounded during the sporadic fighting , and killed between 1 @,@ 122 and 3 @,@ 500 civilians , including some Volksdeutsche . Many civilians were arrested and tortured . On 14 April 1941 , around 500 Jews and Serbs were bayoneted to death , probably as a warning to others not to resist . During post @-@ war questioning , Horthy insisted that he had not wished to invade Yugoslavia , but that he had been compelled to act by disorder and the massacre of Hungarians in Bačka , but these claims have been dismissed by Tomasevich .
= = Geography = =
The Hungarian @-@ occupied territory of Bačka consisted of that part of the Danube Banovina bounded by the former Hungarian – Yugoslav border to the north , the Danube to the south and west , and the Tisza to the west . The occupied territory of Baranja had also been part of the Danube Banovina , but was that area bounded by the former Hungarian @-@ Yugoslav border to the north and west , the Drava to the west and south , and the Danube to the west . The territory of Međimurje was part of the Banovina of Croatia prior to the invasion , and was bounded by the Mura river to the north and the Drava river to the south . Prekmurje consisted of that part of the pre @-@ war Drava Banovina that lay north of the Mura . Most of the Hungarian @-@ occupied territories consisted of flat , largely agricultural land of the Pannonian Plain , except for some hilly country in the northwest of the Međimurje region and in the north of the Prekmurje region . The total area of the Yugoslav territories occupied by Hungary was 11 @,@ 475 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 431 sq mi ) , consisting of 8 @,@ 558 km2 ( 3 @,@ 304 sq mi ) in Bačka , 1 @,@ 213 km2 ( 468 sq mi ) in Baranja , and 1 @,@ 704 km2 ( 658 sq mi ) in the Međimurje and Prekmurje regions .
= = Administration = =
At first , the occupied territories were placed under military administration . The international legal scholar , Professor Raphael Lemkin , who coined the word " genocide " as meaning the " destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group " , described the policies implemented by the Hungarian authorities in the occupied territories as " genocidal " . Lemkin asserted that " genocidal " policies were those that were aimed at destroying the political , social , cultural , religious , and economic existence and language of those living in occupied territories . In the first two weeks of Hungarian rule , 10 @,@ 000 Serbs were expelled to the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia , the NDH , or Italian @-@ ruled Montenegro . On 1 May 1941 , the Germans estimated that the population of the territories occupied by Hungary was 1 @,@ 145 @,@ 000 . On 9 July 1941 , the military governor of the town of Čakovec in Međimurje , Colonel Zsigmond Timàr , issued a declaration that the following day Međimurje was to be placed permanently under military administration and Hungarian rule . According to Professor Sabrina Ramet , the government of the NDH consented to Hungarian annexation of the Međimurje area on 10 July , but according to Davor Kovačić and Marica Karakaš Obradov of the Croatian Institute of History , the Hungarian declaration was made without consulting with the NDH government , and was never recognised by it . The Croat population of the region were unhappy with the decision , and military rule remained in place until 16 August 1941 , after which civil administration was introduced . On 12 July , the Yugoslav dinar ceased to be legal tender in the occupied territories , and was replaced by the Hungarian pengő . A census of the occupied Yugoslav territories was conducted by the Hungarian authorities in 1941 , which counted a total population of 1 @,@ 030 @,@ 027 . In this census , the ethnic proportions in these territories combined were 37 per cent Hungarian , 19 per cent Volksdeutsche , 18 per cent Croats and 16 per cent Serbs , and the population of Prekmurje was 102 @,@ 867 .
On 14 December , these regions , referred to by Hungary as the " Recovered Southern Territories " ( Hungarian : Délvidék ) , were formally incorporated into Hungary and were given full representation in the Hungarian Parliament , although representatives were to be nominated by the Parliament rather than elected . Although plans to deport 150 @,@ 000 Serbs ( including colonists from the interwar period , but also native inhabitants ) to the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia were opposed by the German command in Belgrade , the Hungarian occupational regime managed to expel between 25 @,@ 000 and 60 @,@ 000 of them , mostly to Serbia . During the war , the Hungarian government resettled some of its pre @-@ war population in Bačka and Baranja , primarily Székelys from areas of Transylvania ceded to Hungary by Romania in 1940 . Between 15 @,@ 000 and 18 @,@ 000 were reportedly resettled in Bačka and Baranja .
The Hungarian authorities established concentration camps for Serbs from which they were eventually expelled to the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia . As part of the " systematic magyarisation " of these territories , Hungarian political parties and patriotic organisations were encouraged to be active in Bačka and Baranja , which resulted in discrimination against " less @-@ desirable elements " of the population such as Serbs , Croats and Jews . Discrimination extended to education and communication , where Hungarian and German were the only languages permitted in almost all secondary schools , and books , newspapers and periodicals in the Serbo @-@ Croat language were virtually banned . Well @-@ educated Serbs and Croats were precluded from undertaking work commensurate with their education . Despite this , Serbs and Croats that had lived in the territories prior to 1918 retained their citizenship rights as Hungarians , and some lower @-@ level non @-@ Hungarian public employees were retained in their jobs . One former Serb senator and one former Croat parliamentary deputy sat in the Hungarian Parliament . In Prekmurje , the Hungarian authorities were more permissive , making no attempt to deport Slovenes in large numbers , and allowing the Slovene language to be used in public . Likewise , the Hungarians curried favour with the Bunjevci minority in order to persuade them that they were neither Serbs nor Croats , nor even Slavs at all : they were " Hungarians of Bunyevac mother @-@ tongue " .
The Volksdeutsche of the occupied territories were an important part of the economies of the occupied territories , and by 1941 , they were entirely in the thrall of the Nazi Party . Relations between the occupation authorities and the Volksdeutsche were strained by the killing of ethnic Germans during the invasion , to the extent that Adolf Hitler became aware of the issue . The Volksdeutsche were not active in the Hungarian military or civil administration , but were represented in the Hungarian Parliament , and from 1942 were permitted to conscript their members into the Wehrmacht . The official organisation of the Volksdeutsche in Hungary , the Volksbund der Deutschen in Ungarn ( National League of Germans in Hungary ) , was essentially autonomous during the war , including within the occupied territories .
= = Districts = =
Bačka and Baranja had both been part of the Danube Banovina of Yugoslavia before the war . Međimurje had been part of the Banovina of Croatia , and Prekmurje had been part of the Drava Banovina . The Hungarian authorities referred to the occupied territories by the following names : Bácska for Bačka , Baranya for Baranja , Muraköz for Međimurje , and Muravidék for Prekmurje . Following the occupation , the Hungarian authorities divided the occupied territories between the counties that corresponded with the administrative divisions that had existed when the area had formed part of the Kingdom of Hungary prior to 1920 . These were the Bács @-@ Bodrog , Baranya , Vas and Zala Counties . The officials in these territories were appointed rather than elected . The counties were further divided into districts , and the authorities reverted many districts , cities and towns to the names used prior to 1920 , and in some cases to names which had no historical precedent . Some examples of the name changes in each county are shown below :
= = The Holocaust = =
In April 1941 , about 23 per cent of Yugoslav Jews ( about 16 @,@ 680 people ) lived in the territories occupied by Hungary . These included around 15 @,@ 405 in Bačka and Baranja , about 425 in Međimurje , and approximately 850 in Prekmurje .
The Hungarian government had passed anti @-@ Semitic laws in 1939 , and these were applied to the occupied and annexed territories . Initially the laws were applied selectively due to the transfer of the territories from military to civilian administration . Some Jews that had settled in the occupied territories were sent to the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia where they were placed in the Banjica concentration camp in Belgrade and subsequently killed . Others were expelled to the NDH where they met the same fate , but it is unknown how many deported Jews died in this way . After the violence of the initial occupation , no further massacres of Jews occurred during the remainder of 1941 .
The Jews of the occupied territories were subjected to forced labour by the Hungarian authorities , with about 4 @,@ 000 Bačka and Baranja Jews being sent to hard labour camps within Hungary , 1 @,@ 500 Bačka Jews being among the 10 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews sent to perform labour tasks for the Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front in September 1942 , and about 600 Bačka Jews sent to work in the Bor copper mine in the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia in July 1943 . Only 2 per cent of those sent to the Eastern Front survived the war .
= = Resistance and repression = =
In Bačka and Baranja , the Volksdeutsche and Hungarian authorities killed significant numbers of Serbs . After small @-@ scale armed resistance broke out in Hungarian @-@ occupied Bačka and Baranja in the second half of 1941 , the Hungarian military reacted with heavy repressive measures . In September 1941 alone the Hungarian occupation forces summarily executed 313 people . Measures included the establishment of temporary concentration camps at Ada , Bačka Topola , Begeč , Odžaci , Bečej and Subotica , as well as at Novi Sad , Pechuj and Baja . According to Professor Paul Mojzes , some 2 @,@ 000 Jews and a large number of Serbs were detained in these camps for periods from two weeks to two months , with Jews that had not been interned being employed as forced labourers . Several thousand people remained in camps until the end of the war . Some of the Jews that had migrated to Bačka and Baranja during the inter @-@ war period were expelled to the NDH or the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia where they were killed . The communist @-@ led Partisan resistance movement of Josip Broz Tito was never strong in Bačka and Baranja because the flat terrain of the region did not lend itself to guerilla warfare , and because South Slavs , from which the Partisans drew their recruits , only made up one @-@ third of the regional population . Some Partisan units raised in the occupied territories were sent to the NDH to reinforce Partisan formations operating there . Despite their initial resistance , the Chetnik movement was largely inactive during the occupation , maintaining some covert activity only . The Partisans and their regional committee had largely been destroyed by the end of 1941 .
In January 1942 , the Hungarian army and gendarmerie undertook a major raid in southern Bačka , during which they massacred 2 @,@ 550 Serbs , 743 Jews and 47 other people in places such as Bečej , Srbobran and Novi Sad , under the pretext that they were searching for Partisans . Other sources place the number of Serbs and Jews massacred in Novi Sad as being much lower , at around 879 . Raids were carried out in Šajkaš ( Sajkásvidék ) over 4 – 19 January ; in Novi Sad ( Újvidék ) over 21 – 23 January ; and in Bečej ( Óbecse ) over 25 – 29 January . Over the period 4 – 24 January , massacres were carried out by the Hungarian 15th Light Division commanded by Major General József Grassy and units of the Royal Gendarmerie . The operations were ordered by Grassy , Lieutenant General Ferenc Feketehalmy @-@ Czeydner , Colonel László Deák , and Royal Gendarmerie Captain Dr. Márton Zöldi . In addition to Serbs and Jews , members of other ethnicities were also victims : Roma people , a small number of Russian refugees who had fled Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution , and some local Hungarians . In mid @-@ 1942 , the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile reported that churches had been looted and destroyed , and that Serbian Orthodox holy days had been prohibited by the Hungarian administration . These reports stated that the a camp in Novi Sad held 13 @,@ 000 Serb and Jewish men , women and children .
Under pressure from the Hungarian political opposition , the Hungarian government charged 14 Hungarian officers with high treason in relation to the massacres , including Feketehalmy @-@ Czeydner , Grassy , Deák and Zö
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of this movie . " But he also extolled the car chase as " classic " . According to Danny Peary , Diamonds are Forever is " one of the most forgettable movies of the entire Bond series " and that " until Blofeld 's reappearance we must watch what is no better than a mundane diamond @-@ smuggling melodrama , without the spectacle we associate with James Bond : the Las Vegas setting isn 't exotic enough , there 's little humour , assassins Mr. Kidd and Mr. Wint are similar to characters you 'd find on The Avengers , but not nearly as amusing – and the trouble Bond gets into , even Maxwell Smart could escape . " IGN chose it as the third worst James Bond film , behind only The Man with the Golden Gun and Die Another Day . Total Film listed Mr. Wint and Mr. Kidd , and Bambi and Thumper , as the first and second worst villains in the Bond series ( respectively ) . The film was more positively received by Xan Brooks of the Guardian who said it was " oddly brilliant , the best of the bunch : the perfect bleary Bond film for an imperfect bleary western world . "
The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Sound for Gordon McCallum , John W. Mitchell and Al Overton . It lost to Fiddler on the Roof .
= Joe Daniels ( horse ) =
Joe Daniels ( 1869 – 1896 ) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse and stallion who won the sixth Belmont Stakes in 1872 . Bred in Kentucky , Joe Daniels won two stakes races as a two @-@ year @-@ old and then the Belmont as a three @-@ year @-@ old when he also won a number of other stakes races , and some match races in California . As a four @-@ year @-@ old , he won one further stakes race before retiring with a record of 29 starts for 16 wins . He sired two stakes winning horses during his breeding career .
= = Early life = =
Joe Daniels was sired by the imported stallion Australian and out of the mare Dolly Carter . She was by the imported stallion Glencoe out of the mare Mavis who was sired by Wagner . Joe Daniels was foaled in 1869 and was a chestnut stallion , bred by A. J. Alexander of Woodburn Stud in Kentucky . He was the second of three of Dolly Carter 's stakes winning horses . Sanford , an 1865 stallion , won the 1869 Fordham Handicap and her 1875 filly won the 1877 Kentucky Stakes . Joe Daniels was one of 26 stakes winning foals sired by Australian .
= = Racing career = =
As a two @-@ year @-@ old , Joe Daniels won the 1871 Nursery Handicap at Morris Park in New York , and the Central Stakes . His time for the 1 mile ( 1 @,@ 600 meters ) Nursery while carrying 100 pounds ( 45 kilograms ) was 1 minute 53 seconds . He defeated Alarm ( second ) and Woodbine ( third ) to win $ 2 @,@ 750 ( about $ 54 @,@ 000 today ) .
Joe Daniels won the sixth running of the Belmont Stakes in 1872 at Jerome Park Racetrack , carrying 110 pounds ( 50 kilograms ) , in 2 minutes 56 @.@ 24 seconds , to win $ 4 @,@ 500 ( about $ 89 @,@ 000 today ) . The race was run on June 1 over a distance of 1 5 ⁄ 8 miles ( i.e. 13 furlongs ( 2 @,@ 600 meters ) ) on a fast track . He finished 1 3 ⁄ 4 lengths in front of Meteor , with Shylock third . His jockey , James Rowe , Sr. , later became a noted trainer . This was the second of three consecutive wins of the Belmont Stakes by David McDaniel as owner / trainer . He was successful in the 1871 event with Harry Bassett and later in 1873 with Springbok .
Also in 1872 , Joe Daniels won the Jerome Handicap , Travers Stakes , Kenner Stakes and Annual Stakes . He carried 110 pounds ( 50 kg ) in the 2 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) Jerome which was for three @-@ year @-@ olds at Jerome Park . He defeated Mate ( second ) and Meteor ( third ) in a time of 3 minutes and 491 ⁄ 4 seconds for a prize of $ 4450 ( about $ 88 @,@ 000 ) . In the Kenner Stakes that year at Saratoga , New York , also over two miles for three @-@ year @-@ olds , Joe Daniels again carried 110 pounds ( 50 kg ) to victory , in 3 minutes and 49 seconds . Second place went to Meteor and third to London . The race was worth $ 4 @,@ 400 ( approximately $ 87 @,@ 000 today ) to the winner He won the 1872 Travers from Silent Friend ( second ) and Wade Hampton ( third ) , carrying 110 pounds ( 50 kg ) again over 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) in 3 minutes 81 ⁄ 4 seconds for a purse of $ 5 @,@ 500 ( about $ 109 @,@ 000 today ) .
During the later part of Joe Daniels ' three @-@ year @-@ old year , he was sold to G. A. Johnson , who sent him west to California to race against Thad Stevens . On October 18 , 1872 , the two horses raced in a three heat race , each heat run at the distance of 4 miles ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) . Joe Daniels captured the first heat , but Thad Stevens triumphed in the second and third heats to win the race . The two horses met again on November 15 , where there were four heats of 4 miles ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) each . Two other horses raced with Thad Stevens and Joe Daniels : True Blue and Mamie Hall . Joe Daniels won the first heat , came in second to True Blue in the second heat , second in the third heat to Thad Stevens , and again was second in the last heat to Thad Stevens . On Christmas Day , 1873 , Joe Daniels beat Nell Flaherty in a match race held in San Francisco at a distance of 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) , winning in a time of 2 minutes , 46 seconds .
At four years of age , Joe Daniels won the 1873 Saratoga Cup . This was a race restricted to three @-@ year @-@ olds and older and run at Saratoga , New York . The distance was 2 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) and he carried 108 pounds ( 49 kg ) in his win . Coming in second was Harry Bassett and third place went to True Blue . The winning time was 4 minutes 103 ⁄ 4 seconds . The victory netted Joe Daniel 's owner $ 1 @,@ 700 ( approximately $ 34 @,@ 000 today ) . Over his racing career , he started a total of 29 races and won 16 of them , with total earnings of $ 45 @,@ 870 ( approximately $ 959 @,@ 000 today ) .
= = Breeding career = =
During his breeding career , Joe Daniels sired two stakes winning horses : Hidalgo and Hoodlum . Hidalgo was out of Electra , a daughter of American Eclipse . He was an 1882 colt and won the 1885 September Stakes , the 1886 Monmouth Handicap , and the 1887 Long Beach Handicap . Hoodlum was out of Miss Clay , a daughter of Hindoo . He was an 1888 colt and won the 1890 Champagne Stakes .
Joe Daniels died in November 1896 at Rancho del Paso in California .
= Tommy Thompson presidential campaign , 2008 =
The Tommy Thompson presidential campaign of 2008 began when the former Wisconsin Governor and Secretary of Health and Human Services Tommy Thompson announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination for president of the United States on April 1 , 2007 . Thompson centered his campaign in Iowa , focusing primarily on the issues of health care reform and the War in Iraq . He dropped out of the race on August 12 , 2007 following a sixth @-@ place finish in the Ames straw poll and went on to endorse Rudy Giuliani for president and then John McCain following Giuliani 's withdrawal .
Had he been elected , Thompson would have become the second Roman Catholic president ( after John F. Kennedy ) and the first Wisconsin @-@ born president . He was the first former Secretary of Health and Human Services to seek the presidency .
= = Background = =
Tommy Thompson 's political career began in 1966 upon his election to the Wisconsin State Assembly after graduating from law school at University of Wisconsin – Madison . While in the assembly , he received the nickname of " Dr. No " for blocking legislation through parliamentary procedure . He was named assistant minority leader of the body in 1973 and became minority leader in 1981 . He unsuccessfully ran for United States Congress in 1979 , losing in the Republican primary to Tom Petri .
Thompson was elected Governor of Wisconsin in 1986 . He was re @-@ elected three times . During his tenure , he successfully pushed for welfare reform through Wisconsin Works , a workfare program . Welfare participation decreased by 90 % under the program . Thompson also successfully backed a school voucher program . Near the end of his governorship , Thompson implemented BadgerCare , which provided health coverage for children ineligible for Medicaid . As governor , Thompson vetoed bills frequently and often exercised the line @-@ item veto . None of his vetoes were overturned . Thompson served as chairman of the National Governors Association from 1995 to 1996 . He was considered as a potential running mate for Republican presidential nominee Bob Dole in 1996 , but was passed over for Jack Kemp . Thompson left as governor during his fourth term in 2001 to serve as Secretary of Health and Human Services in the George W. Bush administration .
As Secretary of Health and Human Services , Thompson introduced measures to increase funding for the National Institutes of Health and reorganized the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services . His position attained a unique significance following the attacks of 9 / 11 and the subsequent anthrax attacks . He was responsible for national preparedness in the event of bioterrorism . Though he wished to resign from the position in 2003 , Bush asked that he stay on for the rest of Bush 's first term . Thompson announced his resignation at a press conference in December 2004 in which he surprisingly admitted , " I , for the life of me , cannot understand why the terrorists have not attacked our food supply . " He officially left the position in January 2005 and began work in the private sector .
= = Exploration = =
Beginning in 2006 , Thompson spent every weekend in Iowa to build an organization for his potential presidential run . He opened an exploratory committee on November 16 , 2006 to test the waters , stating that " The times are right for my ideas . " He hired Rodman P. Hise as the treasurer of the committee , and gained the assistance of former advisers from his previous campaigns , including fundraiser Phil Prange , and former press secretary Darrin Schmitz , who was eventually hired as political director . A Washington Post @-@ ABC News poll placed Thompson at 2 % in December 2006 . He fell to 1 % in January 2007 , but climbed back to 2 % the following month .
As his eventual entrance neared , Thompson spent additional time in Iowa and announced that his campaign strategy would focus on the state and its nonbinding straw poll held in August . Former Iowa State Representative Steve Grubbs was added as the campaign 's consultant for the state . Grubbs had planned to work on the presidential campaign of Senator George Allen , but his usage of an offensive term prevented him from entering the race . Though Thompson was not yet considered a " viable candidate " , Grubbs felt that the frontrunners John McCain , Rudy Giuliani and Mitt Romney were unacceptable to the Republican base . He believed that Thompson " had more experience " than any other candidate , and could unify the party .
In order to be a " viable candidate " , Cook Political Report editor Jennifer Duffy commented that Thompson would have to raise at least $ 35 to $ 50 million by June . He raised $ 314 @,@ 000 in the first quarter of 2007 .
= = On the campaign trail = =
= = = Announcement = = =
Thompson officially entered the race on April 1 , 2007 following the announcement that he would seek the Republican Party 's nomination for president during an interview on This Week with George Stephanopoulos . He branded himself as a reliant conservative whose campaign was " looking good " due to the base he was attempting to establish in Iowa . The state would hold the nation 's first presidential caucus in January 2008 . His entrance into the race slightly increased voter 's recognition of " Thompson " in polls but pollsters stated that this increase was most likely attributed to the exposure of potential candidate Fred Thompson . He remained at 2 % in presidential polls , in sixth place overall behind potential candidates Newt Gingrich and Fred Thompson , but ahead of declared candidates Ron Paul , Jim Gilmore , Tom Tancredo , Sam Brownback , Duncan Hunter and Mike Huckabee . Statewide polls placed Thompson at 24 % in his home state of Wisconsin , which was considerably higher than the marks achieved by other lower tiered candidates in their home states . Upon his entrance , the candidate set forth his position on the War in Iraq , holding that as president , he would allow Iraqis to vote on whether or not the United States military should remain in the nation . He stated that if the Iraqis " don 't want us there ... we should get out . "
= = = April 2007 = = =
Thompson first hit the trails in Iowa . His strategy in the state was to spend more time there than any other candidate , emphasizing that he " intend [ ed ] to win Iowa " because of his midwest roots . He commented on fiscal responsibility at an event in a Des Moines suburb stating that " Republicans went to Washington and we lost our way " because " we tried to spend [ money ] like Democrats . " He introduced a health care platform that emphasized prevention and called for reforms in the current system to ensure that all Americans be covered in the future . In the financial sphere of the campaign , Thompson acknowledged that he could not compete with funds being raised by the upper @-@ tiered candidates , but he stated that he did not intend to do so because his campaign was " different " than the others ; according to Thompson , his was more centered around a strong ground organization in Iowa .
Thompson was criticized when he stated at a Jewish event that he believed earning money is " part of the Jewish tradition . " Later at the event he stated that he was not trying to " imply anything about Jews and finances " but that he was " compliment [ ing ] " Jews for being " outstanding business people . " His spokesman later said that he had " misspoke . " Despite this setback , the campaign was given a boost later in the month when columnist George Will wrote in an editorial that Thompson was the " Republican presidential candidate with perhaps the most impressive résumé . " He finished April campaigning in Iowa continuing with the strategy he planned .
= = = May 2007 = = =
Thompson began May at the first Republican debate at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California sponsored by MSNBC on May 3 . During the debate , he again voiced his support for an Iraqi vote , and included the plan 's second phase if the Iraqis chose for American forces to remain in the nation . He stated that the oil revenues could have been split and a system of federalism could have been established . When asked about abortion , Thompson stated that he believed its legalization should be left up to the individual states , disagreeing with the precedent set in Roe v. Wade . He was also given the opportunity to discuss his governorship of Wisconsin , highlighting his record of 1 @,@ 900 vetoes and the overall cutting of taxes by $ 16 @.@ 4 billion . On the subject of taxes , he articulated his support for the option of a flat tax for the taxpayer , if it was to their benefit . At the end of the debate , Thompson differentiated himself from President George W. Bush stating that as president he would " transform the health care system " and settle the situation in Iraq .
A comment he made during the debate became another campaign issue for Thompson . He again apologized for remarks , this time over an answer to a question in which he stated that he believed the decision to fire a gay worker based on the morals of the employer is something that should be " left up to the individual business . " A few days following the debate , the candidate rescinded the comments , and blamed the gaffe on a malfunctioning hearing aid , stating that he " didn 't hear the question . " Thompson also said that he was sick during the debate , having been hospitalized three days earlier with the flu and bronchitis , and that all he could think about " was getting off the stage . " Campaign adviser Steve Grubbs would later point to this episode as the moment Thompson 's campaign became " unrecoverable . " Thompson was harshly criticized for the remarks . Jason Stephany , the political director of the Democratic Party of Wisconsin , rhetorically asked " How many times is he going to say something that 's completely offensive to the majority of Americans before people start to say , ' What 's going on here ? ' " Thompson tried to reassure the public that there was " nothing discriminatory about [ himself ] at all . " Afterwards , he finished second in a poll of state convention members from Wisconsin , with 84 of the 306 members polled , trailing Fred Thompson who received 95 votes . He stood at 16 % in an average of statewide polls for the state in May , and stood at 4 @.@ 3 % in Iowa , where he based his campaign .
Thompson participated in the May 15 GOP debate , where he discussed his insistence to trim bureaucracy in the federal government , and his support for the advancements made in stem cell research , lauding the achievements of the his alma mater University of Wisconsin – Madison in the field . He was asked what he would do in the event of a looming preemptive attack against a hypothetical anti @-@ American nation promoting terrorism . The candidate quoted former Secretary of State Colin Powell reflecting the need to be sure the intelligence was correct , to deploy the right amount of troops and to make sure that an exit strategy was planned . Following the debate , Thompson campaigned in New Hampshire before taking a break for the rest of the month .
= = = June 2007 = = =
After a day of campaigning in Iowa , Thompson returned to New Hampshire to participate in the June 5 GOP Debate . He discussed the issue of illegal immigration , arguing that the border should be secured before passing Comprehensive Immigration Reform . He later commented that once the border was secured , " there should be no amnesty " for illegal immigrants and that the proposed Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 was " an amnesty bill " , which he opposed . When asked about the potential candidate of his namesake , Thompson responded by saying " if you ’ re talking about a reliable conservative , it is THIS Thompson — Tommy Thompson , not the actor ( Fred Thompson ) . " After being questioned about the biggest mistake of the George W. Bush presidency , as a former member of the cabinet Thompson responded :
We went to Washington to change Washington and Washington changed us . We didn ’ t come up with new ideas . We got to transform health care . We got to wind — we got to wind down the war in Iraq . We got to make sure that we really are conservatives . If we ’ re going to spend money like — as foolishly and as stupidly as the Democrats , the voters are going to vote for the professional spending , the Democrat not the amateur spender , the Republican .
He later joked that " I would certainly not send him to the United Nations . " Following the debate , Thompson continued his criticism of the Bush administration . While campaigning in New Hampshire , he stated that he " would be a much more open president " than Bush . He criticized the handling of the Iraq War as " a terrible mistake " and assessed the president as " very cloistered ... [ with ] very few inner @-@ circle people . "
A few days later , Thompson sent out an e @-@ mail alerting the press about a conference call where he would make major announcement about the campaign . Though some speculated that Thompson would drop out of the race during the call , he instead announced his intentions to participate in the Ames Straw Poll . The move reaffirmed his strategy of relying on the straw poll to propel him from the lower tier , despite moves by the campaigns of Rudy Giuliani and John McCain to withdraw from the event . Drake University political science professor Dennis Goldford analyzed the straw poll strategy and commented that if Thompson " didn 't make some sort of substantive showing " it would be hard for his money flow to continue .
In late June , the three Republican Representatives from Wisconsin commented on Thompson 's campaign . Though Representative Tom Petri identified himself as a supporter and hailed Thompson for doing " a lot for the country and the state and the Republican Party of Wisconsin " he called Thompson " a long shot " and stopped short of endorsing him . Representative Jim Sensenbrenner described Thompson 's campaign as " anemic " and Representative Paul Ryan commented that " I think a lot of us are hoping the best for Tommy and are wishing him well but are just sort of watching the field to see how it materializes . " Other Republicans wondered if Thompson was running just to " get it out of his system . " Strategist Mark Graul argued that the former governor " had a profound impact " on party members in Wisconsin , which had created a familiarity complex that caused people to say " ' Oh , come on ' " after hearing of his run . Despite the qualms , spokesman Steve Grubbs remarked that Thompson wants " for people to give him a chance ... [ because ] he knows he has a lot to prove , and he is working 90 hours a week to prove it . " A Strategic vision poll of Iowa voters placed Thompson in fifth place among the candidates , with only 6 percent support . To improve his standing ahead of the Ames Straw Poll , Thompson planned to escalate his Iowa campaign after July 4 in a swing labeled the " Common Sense Solutions Tour " . Communications director Rennick Remley remarked that despite low amounts of capital , Thompson would spend " scads of time in Iowa in July . " He compared Thompson 's strategy to Jimmy Carter 's 1976 " retail politics " strategy that led to victory in the Iowa caucuses .
To close the month , Thompson campaigned in Iowa , and made a brief stop in New Hampshire on June 25 . On June 26 , he won the Linn County straw poll at Kirkwood Community College in Cedar Rapids .
= = = July 2007 = = =
In July , Thompson campaigned extensively in Iowa , hoping to gain traction before the Ames Straw poll . As planned , he began his " Common Sense Solutions Tour " after the July 4 holiday , and traveled throughout Iowa in an ethanol @-@ fueled Winnebago . After Mitt Romney embarked on a similar campaign bus tour , Thompson accused Romney of " copying " his idea . Thompson 's first stop of the month was scheduled in Ames on the evening of July 6 , but he was unable to make the event due to plane malfunction . He instead opened his tour in Webster City on July 7 .
During one stop on the first leg of his " Common Sense Solutions Tour " , Thompson made a bold promise . He proclaimed that if elected president , his administration would eliminate breast cancer by 2015 . Once accomplished , he planned to " then attack every major cancer one after the other . " Thompson explained that the disease had afflicted his family as well as millions of others and stated that " there 's no candidate in either party more prepared and more motivated to lead this effort than me . " He compared the announcement to President Kennedy 's pledge to put a man on the moon before the end of the 1960s . The plan consisted of increases in funding for cancer research , including a doubling of the National Institute of Health 's budget and additional incentives for private medical professionals to find a cure . Furthermore , Thompson remarked that as part of the plan , he would travel the world to promote cures , improving the United States ' international standing . David Miller of CBS News questioned whether the announcement was " a desperate measure by a desperate candidate , or a well @-@ thought out policy by a former Health and Human Services secretary . " He added , " we can 't say for sure , but this item is proof that it did succeed in drawing attention to the other Thompson in the race . "
After eight straight days of campaigning , Thompson concluded the first leg of his tour on July 14 . Like all other Republican presidential candidates except Congressman Tom Tancredo , Thompson chose to skip the July 12 presidential debate sponsored by the NAACP .
On July 15 , new financial reports were released that revealed that Thompson had raised $ 445 @,@ 000 during the second quarter of 2007 and had $ 115 @,@ 000 cash on hand . This showed a slight increase from his first quarter figures , but was still far below his fellow Republican candidates . Among the candidates , he ranked second to last in fundraising , just ahead of Jim Gilmore , who dropped out of the race a day before the financial disclosure . Thompson stated earlier in the month that he was " pleased at the strong growth " in fundraising , and that he was still " able to run a campaign equal to that of the better @-@ funded candidates despite the differences in funding . " Additionally , Thompson remained low in nationwide polls , standing at three percent in a July 21 Washington Post @-@ ABC News survey , which actually reflected a two @-@ point increase in support from June .
Thompson addressed the monthly meeting of the San Diego Republican Party on July 16 , before returning to Iowa on July 19 for the second leg of the " Common Sense Solutions Tour " . He campaigned in the state for the next four days before taking a few days off . He returned to Iowa for the third and final leg of the tour on July 28 and remained there until the end of the month . David Wise of Wispolitics.com following Thompson during part of the final leg of the tour . He maintained a blog that described every event attended by Thompson and his interaction with voters . Wise also witnessed a spat between Thompson and fellow presidential candidate Tom Tancredo . Thompson criticized Tancredo for negative campaigning after discovering that he had sent out a mailer that referred to Thompson as a " moderate governor " that supported amnesty for illegal immigrants . He labelled the mailer a " hate piece " put out by " somebody who 's way behind and is trying to attack me " . At one event , as he countered Tancredo 's claims , Tancredo himself entered the building , leading Thompson to point him out . He proceeded to list his accomplishments as governor and remarked " I have been against amnesty my whole career , contrary to what one of my opponents has said . "
Around this time , Thompson accepted an invitation to CNN 's YouTube debate despite assurances from Rudy Giuliani and Mitt Romney that they would not appear . Romney referenced the Democratic Party 's YouTube debate , and commented that " the presidency ought to be held at a higher level than having to answer questions from a snowman . " In response , Thompson 's spokesman Steve Grubbs remarked : " We 'll answer questions from any American who wants to ask one and that includes one dressed up like a snowman ... Tommy Thompson is ready to take on all questions " .
After spending nearly all of the month campaigning in Iowa , Thompson said at the end of July that if he failed to win or come in second at the state 's straw poll , he would drop out of the race . He admitted that the campaign significantly lacked funding and that he was spending large amounts of his own money to stay afloat . He believed that a strong showing could improve his ability to raise funds , and planned to bus supporters to the straw poll and pay the $ 35 entrance fee for each .
In an interview with WisPolitics.com , Thompson commented that he had more experience than any other candidate in the race , and that only Democrat Bill Richardson came close . He believed that his experience , combined with his efforts in Iowa would make up for his lack of funds . Thompson proclaimed to Pajamas Media that he would be " shocked " if he did not win the straw poll , and in his own personal analysis of the race , commented : " I wouldn 't say Romney 's in trouble , but I 'd say I think it 's going to be between Romney and myself . " In late July 2007 , at a Des Moines coffee shop , with an audience of 40 , Thompson said : " I wouldn 't be doing this if I didn 't think I could win . "
= = = August 2007 = = =
Thompson continued his strategy in Iowa heading into August , speaking on the trail about how " remarkably well " his campaign had been going . It was revealed that the campaign was running on an $ 890 @,@ 000 budget and that no speechwriters or pollsters had been hired . In August , Thompson achieved his goal of having campaigned in all 99 Iowa counties .
He competed in his final debate on August 5 in Des Moines . During the discourse , the candidate made the same points he had in previous debates , emphasizing health care , federalism , and popular sovereignty in Iraq . He described the war on terrorism as a " holy war " the United States was losing because of a lack of unity . At the end of the debate , Thompson made his last plea before the upcoming Ames straw poll , addressing his wish for Republicans , Democrats and Independents to unite to " start building America a stronger and healthier and better tomorrow than ever before . "
= = = Withdrawal = = =
On August 11 , 2007 , Thompson finished in sixth place at the Ames straw poll with 1 @,@ 039 votes or about seven percent of the total . Romney won the most votes , but his victory was overshadowed by the surprisingly strong showing of the second place Mike Huckabee . Huckabee considered skipping the straw poll , but decided to participate after a conversation with Thompson earlier in the summer . After the event , Thompson dropped out of the race . Campaign spokesman Brian Dumas commented that he had " worked very hard ... [ and ] did everything we asked of him and more . " The next day , Thompson released a statement on his withdrawal :
I felt my record as Governor of Wisconsin and Secretary of Health and Human Services gave me the experience I needed to serve as president , but I respect the decision of the voters . I am leaving the campaign trail today , but I will not leave the challenges of improving health care and welfare in America .
= = Endorsements = =
= = List of campaign events = =
= = Aftermath = =
Two months after his withdrawal , Thompson endorsed Rudy Giuliani for president . He praised the former New York City mayor as someone who " can and will win the nomination and the presidency " and argued that " during a period of time of great stress for this country he showed tremendous leadership " as " America 's mayor " . After Giuliani 's withdrawal in 2008 , Thompson backed John McCain , who ultimately won the Republican Party 's nomination . During the general election , Thompson told The New York Times that he was not satisfied with McCain 's campaign and that " I don ’ t know who is . " McCain lost the election to Democratic Senator Barack Obama .
In 2011 , Thompson entered the 2012 race for the Senate seat vacated by retiring Democratic Senator Herb Kohl of Wisconsin . Thompson won the GOP nomination but lost to Representative Tammy Baldwin .
= The Boxmasters =
The Boxmasters is an American country rock / rockabilly band founded in Bellflower , California in 2007 . It features Academy Award @-@ winning actor Billy Bob Thornton playing the drummer and vocalist , with J.D. Andrew on rhythm guitar , Danny Baker ( aka Unknown Hinson ) on bass guitar , Brad Davis doing vocals and playing lead guitar , and Micheal Wayne Butler on guitars and lap steel . The group has released three albums on Vanguard Records , the first being the eponymous The Boxmasters and the second being the holiday album Christmas Cheer , in 2008 .
Before he started The Boxmasters , frontman Thornton had played in two cover bands , worked as a roadie , and released four solo albums . After listening to " Yesterday 's Gone " by Chad & Jeremy and thinking about covering it in a hillbilly music style , he had the idea of making Americanized version of British Invasion pop songs . During its early days , the band played several live shows in the California area , as well as in Tecate , Mexico . From mid @-@ 2008 to late @-@ 2008 , the group embarked on a tour across the United States , ending in Los Angeles . It also played for the March 2009 South by Southwest conference . The group went on to play in Canada in early @-@ 2009 . In the aftermath of a controversial interview on the CBC Radio One program Q in early @-@ April 2009 , in which Thornton labeled his Canadian audience ' mashed potatoes with no gravy ' , the band stopped its Canadian tour early . It resumed touring in mid @-@ April 2009 in the United States .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Billy Bob Thornton — credited on the band 's material as W. R. Thornton — has said that " [ he ] never intended to become a movie star , it happened accidentally . [ ... ] Music is what I love . " Before his acting career started , he played in cover bands for Creedence Clearwater Revival , ZZ Top , and also worked as a roadie with Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , Johnny Paycheck , Blood , Sweat & Tears , the Statler Brothers , and other bands during high school . He also released a record with a band called ' Hot Lanta ' in 1974 . Over his acting career , Thornton released four solo albums from 2001 to 2007 .
Thornton brought in sound engineer J. D. Andrew to help with his 2007 album Beautiful Door . After jamming together and finding a common sound , they started to record some of their material . Andrew had known Mike Butler " for six or seven years " and called him up to play guitar for them . According to Andrew , after the trio played together , they said " Shoot , this sounds like a band . " The three came up with the name " Boxmasters " after a piece of Southern slang , which they later described by saying " remember the bad boy in high school who got all the girls and left a trail of broken hearts ... and more ? " Thornton had also briefly played in country star Porter Wagoner 's similarly titled band ' The Wagonmasters ' , which he later said had brought chills down his spine .
= = = Early career = = =
The band started in Bellflower , California in 2007 . During its early days , the band played several live shows in the California area , as well as in Tecate , Mexico . Their eponymous first album The Boxmasters was released on June 10 , 2008 with Vanguard Records . It received a mostly poor review from Allmusic , which stated that " The Boxmasters might work live because there will be visuals ; but merely as a listening exercise , it 's best taken in small doses so the novelty doesn 't wear off . " The review also alleged that " Thornton can 't drum to save his life , and he can 't sing " . The Washington Post praised the album , and the paper remarked that listeners will get their money 's worth if they enjoy the music even half as much as the band did during the recordings .
The group resumed touring in July 2008 . It incorporated alongside musicians Bradley Davis on mandolin , guitar , and vocals , Teddy Andreadis on harmonica and organ , and Mike Bruce on drums . Their tour across the United States ended on September 7 , 2008 when they played at the House of Blues in Los Angeles . The band released their second album , Christmas Cheer , on November 11 , 2008 , also through Vanguard Records . Allmusic gave another critical review , calling the music " an acquired taste " . USA Today music critic Brian Mansfield named it one of his favorite holiday albums . The Boxmasters went on a post @-@ album 12 @-@ city tour with Willie Nelson , playing from November 22 in Enid , Oklahoma to December 6 in Champaign , Illinois . They then embarked on a six @-@ city tour of Texas in March 2009 , which included a March 18 appearance at the South by Southwest music conference .
The band released , through Vanguard as well , Modbilly on April 21 , 2009 . Houston Press praised the album , saying that it " confirms that Billy Bob Thornton 's writing talents aren 't confined to his Oscar @-@ winning screenplays . " Allmusic stated that it " goes on far too long , never changing , never peaking " . Prefix gave a mostly positive review , calling it " for real " and stating that " Thornton ’ s distinct voice continues to be a nice fit with the material " . Entertainment Weekly criticized it as " unmemorable " .
The group has covered The Beatles , The Who , The Rolling Stones , The Turtles , and Mott the Hoople in its unique style . It also plays original songs , mostly written or co @-@ written by Thornton based on the " white trash " figures he had seen in his Arkansas childhood . The Montreal Gazette has called his original material " at turns dark and funny , with world @-@ class hooks " . The members play while wearing well @-@ dressed ' Mod ' outfits such as tailored black suits , white shirts , and narrow black neckties .
Aside from playing , Thornton has said that he plans on creating comic books based on him and other band members . Plots would involve the band coming to the aid of townspeople as they tour . He said , " We 're not sure what our superpowers are going to be yet " .
= = = Canadian touring and controversy = = =
In April 2009 , the band was scheduled to tour across Canada , opening for country music veterans Willie Nelson and Ray Price . On April 8 , the band appeared on the national CBC Radio One program Q , hosted by Jian Ghomeshi . During the first half of the interview , Thornton was reportedly " surly and uncooperative " , and responded with " I don 't know " when asked how long the band had been together . When asked about his musical tastes and influences as a child , he gave his longest answer , but it was about his favorite magazine Famous Monsters of Filmland . He also stated that he had " instructed " the show 's producers to not ask any questions about his career as a screenwriter and actor .
Ghomeshi , in introducing the band , mentioned the acting credentials of Thornton , but never based his questions to Thornton about his show business career . Thornton went on to say that Canadian audiences were generally reserved and that the band was used to playing in places where people move around and throw things at each other . He then added , ' it 's like mashed potatoes with no gravy . ' This caused an outpouring of criticism from across Canada and around the world for the star 's behavior .
The following night , the band opened for Willie Nelson at Toronto 's prestigious Massey Hall . A series of boos and catcalls erupted mid @-@ set , with people in the audience yelling " here comes the gravy ! " when Thornton tried to explain he liked Canadians but not the CBC radio host . Before the show , when asked about his " gravy " comment , Thornton claimed he was talking about the radio host . Local reviews of Thornton 's Toronto performance were not positive . Toronto Star called Thornton 's voice a " high , tinny whine " and The Globe and Mail commented that " Nelson could teach Billy Bob Thornton more than a few things " . On April 10 , The Boxmasters dropped out of the tour early , announcing that they would not be playing with Nelson during subsequent concerts scheduled in London , Ontario and Montreal . Thornton said that band members had come down with the flu . Willie Nelson 's publicist had no comment .
The band resumed touring in Stamford , Connecticut on April 14 . In the aftermath of the controversy , Thornton appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and he said , " The fact that was news was astounding to me ... But it gave humpbacked geeks all over the world something to do for a couple of days . " He added that he only wants to be perceived as a musician in the context of the band , remarking that " I 'm just in their band , I 'm just one of those guys " .
= = Members = =
= A Book of Mediterranean Food =
A Book of Mediterranean Food was an influential cookery book written by Elizabeth David in 1950 , and published by John Lehmann . After years of rationing and wartime austerity , the book brought light and colour back to English cooking , with simple fresh ingredients , from David 's experience of Mediterranean cooking while living in France , Italy and Greece . The book was illustrated with quotations from famous writers .
At the time , many ingredients were scarcely obtainable , but the book was quickly recognised as serious , and within a few years it profoundly changed English cooking and eating habits .
= = Context = =
Returning to postwar England , still with food rationing , after years living in the Mediterranean with its wealth of fresh ingredients , Elizabeth David found life grey and daunting . The food was terrible : " There was flour and water soup seasoned solely with pepper ; bread and gristle rissoles ; dehydrated onions and carrots ; corned beef toad in the hole . I need not go on . "
= = Book = =
Partly to earn some money , and partly from an " agonized craving for the sun " , David began writing articles on Mediterranean cookery . Her first efforts were published in 1949 in the British magazine Harper 's Bazaar . From the outset , David refused to sell the copyright of her articles , and so she was able to collect and edit them for publication in book form . Even before all the articles had been published , she had assembled them into a typescript volume and submitted it to a series of publishers , all of whom turned it down . One of them explained that a collection of unconnected recipes needed linking text .
David took this advice , but , conscious of her inexperience as a writer , she kept her own prose short and quoted extensively from established authors whose views on the Mediterranean might carry more weight . In the published volume , the sections are linked by substantial extracts from works by writers including Norman Douglas , Lawrence Durrell , Gertrude Stein , D. H. Lawrence , Osbert Sitwell , Compton Mackenzie , Arnold Bennett , Henry James and Théophile Gautier . She submitted the revised typescript to John Lehmann , a publisher more associated with poetry than cookery , but he accepted it , agreeing to an advance payment of £ 100 . A Book of Mediterranean Food was published in 1950 . Lehmann had suggested it be named " The Blue Train Cookery Book " , since he supposed that the romance of Mediterranean countries was to be found in the exciting train journeys to reach them .
The book appeared when food rationing imposed during the Second World War remained fully in force in Britain . As David later put it , " almost every essential ingredient of good cooking was either rationed or unobtainable . " She therefore adapted some of the recipes she had learned during in the years when she lived in Mediterranean countries , " to make up for lack of flavour which should have been supplied by meat or stock or butter . "
= = = Lyricism = = =
The historian of food Panikos Panayi argues that with A Book of Mediterranean Food , David profoundly changed English cooking . He considers the opening section to contain " perhaps the most evocative and inspirational passage in the history of British cookery writing " :
The cooking of the Mediterranean shores , endowed with all the natural resources , the colour and flavour of the South , is a blend of tradition and brilliant improvisation . The Latin genius flashes from the kitchen pans . It is honest cooking too ; none of the sham Grand Cuisine of the International Palace Hotel
David then describes the region and its perfumes :
From Gibraltar to the Bosphorous , down the Rhone Valley , through the great seaports of Marseilles , Barcelona , and Genoa ... stretches the influence of Mediterranean cooking , conditioned naturally by variations in climate and soil and the relative industry or indolence of the inhabitants . The ever recurring themes in the food throughout these countries are the oil , the saffron , the garlic , the pungent local wines ...
= = = Illustrations = = =
Lehmann commissioned a coloured dust @-@ jacket painting and black and white internal illustrations from his friend the artist John Minton . Writers including Cyril Ray and John Arlott commented that Minton 's drawings added to the attractions of the book . David , a woman of strong opinions , thought good illustration important . Minton provided 15 decorations to give a feeling of the Mediterranean , rather than simple illustrations of dishes from David 's recipes . For example , his port scene shows a sailor drinking and conversing with a young woman beside a table laden with food ; in the background is a street restaurant and boats in a harbour . Although David did not like Minton 's black and white drawings , she described his jacket design as " stunning " . She was especially taken with " his beautiful Mediterranean bay , his tables spread with white cloths and bright fruit " and the way that " pitchers and jugs and bottles of wine could be seen far down the street . "
= = = Contents = = =
The chapters cover in turn : soups ; eggs and luncheon dishes ; fish ; meat ; substantial dishes ; poultry and game ; vegetables ; cold food and salads ; sweets ; jams , chutneys and preserves ; and sauces .
The soup chapter sets the pattern for the book , with short , simple recipes , such as soup of haricot beans – two brief paragraphs – interspersed with long , complex ones like that for Mediterranean fish soup , which covers three pages . The eggs and luncheon dish section likewise balances the concise and simple such as ratatouille aux oeufs against the detailed and discursive three @-@ page consideration of omelettes . Unlike many writers of cookery books , David rarely gives precise quantities or timings : in the fish chapter her suggestion for fresh tuna is :
cut it into thick slices like a salmon steak , and sauté it in oil or butter , adding , half @-@ way through the cooking 2 or 3 tomatoes , chopped , a handful of cut parsley , and a small glass of wine , either red or white . Serve plainly cooked potatoes with it .
The meat section begins with recipes for veal , generally unfamiliar at English tables in 1950 . David also gives recipes for kid and boar . Mutton , by contrast , was more often served then than in more recent decades , and David gives four recipes for it , one of them disguising the flavour to taste like venison by long marinating and highly seasoned saucing ,
The " substantial dishes " chapter discusses and illustrates the merits of risotto and paella , and deals with polenta and spaghetti – both less familiar in Britain then than now – and goes on to describe cassoulet . The next chapter , on poultry and game , begins with recipes for cooking chicken and duck , and goes on to partridge – both à la provençale and in Greek style – quail and pigeons , concluding with snipe cooked en papillote with mushrooms .
The Mediterranean theme of the book is emphasised in the section on vegetables , in which there are five aubergine recipes and only one potato dish ( pommes Anna ) . Dishes from Greece and North Africa are included along with typical southern French standards such as tomates provençales . The occasional non @-@ Mediterranean dish is included , including cèpes à la bordelaise ( fried in olive oil with parsley and garlic ) .
The cold food and salads chapter gives instructions for three dishes of cold chicken , several traditional pâtés and terrines , and another non @-@ Mediterranean recipe , the traditional Easter dish from Burgundy , jambon persillé de Bourgogne . David adds to this section suggestions for hors d 'oeuvres , including Greek dishes then unfamiliar in Britain including dolmádés and taramá , as well as traditional French recipes such as sardines marinées à la niçoise .
In the section on sweets , David comments that throughout the Mediterranean countries , the more complicated sweets are very often bought from pâtisseries ; the few recipes she gives are for simple , traditional sweets made at home , such as torrijas ( also called pain perdu ) and cold orange soufflé . The jams , chutneys and preserves section includes preserved melon alongside more familiar fruits such as pears and plums .
In the final chapter , on sauces , David includes classics like béchamel , béarnaise , hollandaise and mayonnaise ( which , she advises , " stir steadily but not like a maniac " ) . To these she adds Turkish , Greek , Italian and Egyptian sauces , the majority of them intended to go with Mediterranean fish dishes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
The Times Literary Supplement observed in 1950 that " while one might hesitate to attempt ' Lobster à la Enfant Prodigue ' ( with champagne , garlic , basil , lemon , chervil , mushrooms and truffles ) , the resourceful cook with time to explore London 's more individual shops , and money , should not often be nonplussed . " The Observer commented , also in 1950 , that the book deserved " to become the familiar companion of all who seek uninhibited excitement in the kitchen . "
= = = Modern = = =
The celebrity cook Clarissa Dickson Wright comments that the book was " a breath of fresh air in the years of austerity that followed the Second World War , and [ David 's ] espousal of excellent , well @-@ prepared ingredients has become the hallmark of English food at its best . " At that time " food was dull , vegetables were [ thoroughly ] stewed and olive oil was something you bought at the chemist and was marked ' for external use only ' . " David , on the other hand , " evoked a world of sunshine and lavender , of bougainvillea and cannas , and of fresh and simple food beautifully prepared . "
John Koski , writing in the Daily Mail , notes that most of the publishers at the time thought a cookery book " at best absurd " when there was so little food to cook , and " the ingredients of the Mediterranean lands – olive oil , saffron , garlic , basil , aubergines , figs , pistachio nuts – were hardly to be found in Central London , and readers had to rely on memory or imagination " to enjoy David 's recipes . All the same , the recipes were " honest " , " collected in Provence , Italy , Corsica , Malta and Greece " , and the book was " acclaimed as a serious work " . Within a few years , Koski observes , " paella , moussaka , ratatouille , hummus and gazpacho had become familiar in home kitchens , restaurants and supermarkets throughout the country . "
Rachel Cooke , writing in The Guardian , quotes the chef Simon Hopkinson , who knew David in the 1980s , as believing that David 's " powerful effect .. on British palates .. was as much a question of timing as anything else " . She " arrived on the scene at just the right moment : the British middle classes , exhausted by austerity , were longing , even if they did not precisely know it , for the taste of sunshine . "
Caroline Stacey , writing in The Independent , calls the book " her hymn of longing to the cooking around the southern shores " , noting that it " changed what the British middle classes ate " , and that she " ushered not only olive oil and garlic , but also aubergines , courgettes and basil on to the stripped @-@ pine tables of 1960s kitchens . "
Melanie McDonagh , writing in The Telegraph , states that with A Book of Mediterranean Food , David " introduced the Brits to the cooking of Greece , Italy and Provence in 1950 after her return from Greece , via Egypt and India " . She comments that the cookery writer Jane Grigson , a " devotee " , said " Basil was no more than the name of bachelor uncles , courgette was printed in italics as an alien word , and few of us knew how to eat spaghetti ... Then came Elizabeth David , like sunshine . " McDonagh adds that David " was one of the first and much the classiest of the personality food writers , even though she was never a telly chef : paving the way for Jamie , Nigella , Nigel and Hugh F @-@ W. "
Dissenting from the general acclaim , Tom Norrington @-@ Davies , also writing in The Telegraph , argues that the book " reached only a very small section of the population " , but at once qualifies this , stating that these readers were " undergoing a dramatic upheaval . Educated , moderately wealthy women suddenly found themselves in their kitchens without servants " . He cites Jane Grigson 's observation , introducing a collection of David 's writing , that " Elizabeth didn 't so much restore [ middle @-@ class women 's ] confidence in cooking as invent it " .
Joe Moran , writing in the Financial Times , describes the genesis of the book as a " defining moment " . It was when , " stranded by a blizzard " in a hotel in Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye whose restaurant served meals so dismal that they seemed to her to be " produced with a kind of bleak triumph which amounted almost to a hatred of humanity and humanity ’ s needs " , David felt her famous " agonised craving for the sun " . Furious at the joyless food , she started to draft the " sensuous descriptions " of Mediterranean food that led to A Book of Mediterranean Food .
Marian Burros , writing in the New York Times , comments that David first showed " her importance " with the book . " The ration @-@ weary English could barely buy enough to eat but they were enchanted by her descriptions of meals that included eggs , butter , seafood , tomatoes , olives , apricots , ingredients that were difficult , or impossible , to obtain . Foods that are taken for granted today in England – garlic , olive oil , Parmigiano Reggiano – were unknown and generally viewed with suspicion before Mrs. David . "
= = Editions = =
The book has appeared in the following editions since 1950 , including translations into Danish and Chinese .
= IPad =
iPad ( / ˈaɪpæd / EYE @-@ pad ) is an iOS @-@ based line of tablet computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc . The first iPad was released on April 3 , 2010 ; the most recent iPad models are the 9 @.@ 7 @-@ inch iPad Pro released on March 31 , 2016 and the iPad Mini 4 , released on September 9 , 2015 . The user interface is built around the device 's multi @-@ touch screen , including a virtual keyboard . The iPad includes built @-@ in Wi @-@ Fi and cellular connectivity on select models . As of January 2015 , there have been over 250 million iPads sold. iPad tablets are second most popular , by sales , against Android @-@ based ones , since 2013 , when Android tablet sales increased by 127 % .
An iPad can shoot video , take photos , play music , and perform Internet functions such as web @-@ browsing and emailing . Other functions – games , reference , GPS navigation , social networking , etc . – can be enabled by downloading and installing apps . As of October 2013 , the App Store has more than 475 @,@ 000 native apps by Apple and third parties .
There have been six versions of the iPad . The first generation established design precedents , such as the 9 @.@ 7 @-@ inch screen size and button placement , that have persisted through all models . The 2nd generation iPad ( iPad 2 ) introduced a whole new design which also added a dual @-@ core Apple A5 processor and VGA front @-@ facing and 720p rear @-@ facing cameras designed for FaceTime video calling , and dramatically reduced the thickness of the device . The third generation added a Retina Display , the new Apple A5X processor with a quad @-@ core graphics processor , a 5 @-@ megapixel camera , HD 1080p video recording , voice dictation , and 4G ( LTE ) . The fourth generation added the Apple A6X processor and replaces the 30 @-@ pin connector with an all @-@ digital Lightning connector . The iPad Air added the Apple A7 processor and the Apple M7 motion coprocessor , and reduced the thickness for the first time since the iPad 2 . The iPad Air 2 added the Apple A8X processor , the Apple M8 motion coprocessor , an 8 @-@ megapixel camera , and the Touch ID fingerprint sensor , and further reduced the thickness .
There have been four versions of the iPad Mini . The first generation features a reduced screen size of 7 @.@ 9 inches and features similar internal specifications as the iPad 2 except it uses the Lightning connector . The iPad Mini 2 features the Retina Display , the Apple A7 processor and the Apple M7 motion coprocessor , closely matching the internals specifications of the iPad Air . The iPad Mini 3 features the Touch ID fingerprint sensor . The iPad Mini 4 features the Apple A8 and the Apple M8 motion coprocessor .
= = History = =
Apple co @-@ founder Steve Jobs said in a 1983 speech that the company 's
strategy is really simple . What we want to do is we want to put an incredibly great computer in a book that you can carry around with you and learn how to use in 20 minutes ... and we really want to do it with a radio link in it so you don ’ t have to hook up to anything and you ’ re in communication with all of these larger databases and other computers .
Apple 's first tablet computer was the Newton MessagePad 100 , introduced in 1993 , powered by an ARM6 processor core developed by ARM , a 1990 spinout of Acorn Computers in which Apple invested . Apple also developed a prototype PowerBook Duo based tablet , the PenLite , but decided not to sell it in order to avoid hurting MessagePad sales . Apple released several more Newton @-@ based PDAs ; the final one , the MessagePad 2100 , was discontinued in 1998 .
Apple re @-@ entered the mobile @-@ computing markets in 2007 with the iPhone . Smaller than the iPad , but featuring a camera and mobile phone , it pioneered the multi @-@ touch finger @-@ sensitive touchscreen interface of Apple 's iOS mobile operating system . By late 2009 , the iPad 's release had been rumored for several years . Such speculation mostly talked about " Apple 's tablet " ; specific names included iTablet and iSlate . The iPad was announced on January 27 , 2010 , by Steve Jobs at an Apple press conference at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco .
Jobs later said that Apple had begun developing the iPad before the iPhone . Jonathan Ive in 1991 had created an industrial design for a stylus @-@ based tablet , the Macintosh Folio , as his first project for Apple ; by 2004 his studio at the company was participating in the development of a large tablet prototype , which he later described as " very crude , involving projectors " . Ive stated that after seeking to produce the tablet first , he came to agree with Jobs that the phone was more important , as the tablet 's innovations would work as well in it . The iPad 's internal codename was K48 , which was revealed in the court case surrounding leaking of iPad information before launch .
Apple began taking pre @-@ orders for the first @-@ generation iPad on March 12 , 2010 . The only major change to the device between its announcement and being available to pre @-@ order was the change of the behavior of the side switch to perform either sound muting or screen rotation locking ( user selectable ) . The Wi @-@ Fi version of the iPad went on sale in the United States on April 3 , 2010 . The Wi @-@ Fi + 3G version was released on April 30 . 3G service in the United States is provided by AT & T and was initially sold with two prepaid contract @-@ free data plan options : one for unlimited data and the other for 250 MB per month at half the price . On June 2 , 2010 , AT & T announced that effective June 7 the unlimited plan would be replaced for new customers with a 2 GB plan at slightly lower cost ; existing customers would have the option to keep the unlimited plan . The plans are activated on the iPad itself and can be cancelled at any time .
Initially , the iPad was only available to order at the Apple Store , but has since become available for purchase through retailers including Amazon , Walmart , and network operators . The iPad was launched in countries including Australia , Canada , France , Germany , Japan and the United Kingdom on May 28 . Online pre @-@ orders in those countries began on May 10 . Apple released the iPad in Hong Kong , Ireland , Mexico , New Zealand and Singapore on July 23 , 2010 . Israel briefly prohibited importation of the iPad because of concerns that its Wi @-@ Fi might interfere with other devices . On September 17 , 2010 , the iPad was officially launched in China .
300 @,@ 000 iPads were sold on their first day of availability . By May 3 , 2010 , Apple had sold a million iPads ; this was in half the time it took Apple to sell the same number of first @-@ generation iPhones . After passing the one million mark they continued selling rapidly reaching 3 million sales after 80 days . During the October 18 , 2010 , financial conference call , Steve Jobs announced that Apple had sold more iPads than Macs for the fiscal quarter . In total , Apple sold more than 15 million first @-@ generation iPads prior to the launch of the iPad 2 – selling more than all other tablet PCs combined since the iPad 's release. and reaching 75 % of tablet PC sales at the end of 2010 .
Jobs unveiled the iPad 2 at a March 2 , 2011 , press conference . About 33 % thinner than its predecessor and 15 % lighter , the iPad 2 has a better processor , a dual core Apple A5 that Apple says is twice as fast as its predecessor for CPU operations and up to nine times as fast for GPU operations . The iPad 2 includes front and back cameras that support the FaceTime videophone application , as well as a three @-@ axis gyroscope . It retained the original 's 10 ‑ hour battery life and had a similar pricing scheme .
The successor to the iPad 2 was unveiled on March 7 , 2012 , by Apple CEO Tim Cook at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts . The new iPad contained a new dual core A5X processor with quad @-@ core graphics , and a Retina Display with a resolution of 2048 by 1536 pixels , more than 50 percent more pixels than a standard 1 @,@ 920 by 1 @,@ 080 high definition TV screen . A brief controversy erupted when it was revealed that the LTE advertised did not work in some countries .
On October 23 , 2012 , Apple announced the fourth generation iPad , which began shipping on November 2 , 2012 . The new hardware includes an A6X processor , HD FaceTime camera , improved LTE compatibility , and the all @-@ digital Lightning connector . It is available in the same storage increments and pricing structure as the third generation . Following the announcement of the fourth @-@ generation iPad , the previous generation was discontinued .
Alongside the launch of the 4th generation hardware , Apple announced the iPad Mini . With a screen measuring 7 @.@ 9 inches , it is aimed at the emerging sector of smaller tablets such as the Kindle Fire and Nexus 7 . The hardware of the new iPad Mini is similar to the iPad 2 , with a 1024 by 768 pixel resolution screen and a dual core A5 processor , but is 53 % lighter and 7 @.@ 2 mm thick . It was released on November 2 , 2012 , in 16 GB , 32 GB , and 64 GB capacities and WiFi or Wi ‑ Fi + Cellular versions .
On October 22 , 2013 , Apple introduced the fifth generation of iPad , called the iPad Air , and the second generation of iPad Mini , called iPad Mini 2 that comes with a Retina Display . The iPad Air went on sale on November 1 , 2013 , starting at $ 499 , while the iPad Mini 2 was released on November 12 , 2013 , starting at $ 399 .
In October 2014 , Apple released the iPad Air 2 and the iPad Mini 3 . The iPad Air 2 is the first iOS device to feature a triple core CPU and 2GB of RAM . As well as being thinner and faster than its predecessor , the iPad Air , it features Touch ID and is available with a gold color option . The iPad Mini 3 is similar than the iPad Mini 2 in design and hardware , but also includes Touch ID and available in gold color .
In September 2015 , the iPad Pro was announced , which included a 12 @.@ 9 @-@ inch screen .
In March 2016 , the 9 @.@ 7 @-@ inch iPad Pro was announced . And Apple added a new 256 GB of storage for both the iPad Pro 9.7- & 12 @.@ 9 @-@ inch .
= = Hardware = =
= = = Screen and input = = =
The iPad 's ( first two generations ) touchscreen display is a 1024 by 768 pixel , 7 @.@ 75 × 5 @.@ 82 in ( 197 × 148 mm ) liquid @-@ crystal display ( diagonal 9 @.@ 7 in ( 246 @.@ 4 mm ) ) , with fingerprint- and scratch @-@ resistant glass . Steve Jobs said a 7 @-@ inch screen would be " too small to express the software " and that 10 inches was the minimum for a tablet screen . Like the iPhone , the iPad is designed to be controlled by bare fingers ; normal , non @-@ conductive gloves and styli do not work , although there are special gloves and capacitive styli designed for this use .
The display responds to other sensors : an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3 @-@ axis accelerometer to sense iPad orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes . Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch 's built @-@ in applications , which work in three orientations ( portrait , landscape @-@ left and landscape @-@ right ) , the iPad 's built @-@ in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations , including upside @-@ down . Consequently , the device has no intrinsic " native " orientation ; only the relative position of the home button changes .
There are four physical switches on the iPad , including a home button near the display that returns the user to the main menu , and three plastic physical switches on the sides : wake / sleep and volume up / down , plus a software @-@ controlled switch whose function has changed with software updates . Originally the switch locked the screen to its current orientation , but the iOS 4 @.@ 2 changed it to a mute switch , with rotation lock now available in an onscreen menu . In the iOS 4 @.@ 3 update , released with the iPad 2 , a setting was added to allow the user to specify whether the side switch was used for rotation lock or mute .
The first generation iPad had no camera ; the iPad 2 has a front VGA camera and a rear @-@ facing 720p camera , both capable of still images ( but these are only taken at a low quality 0 @.@ 3 megapixels ) and 30fps video . The rear @-@ facing camera has a 5 × digital zoom for still images only . Both shoot photo and video in a 4 : 3 fullscreen aspect ratio , unlike the iPhone 4 , which shoots in a 16 : 9 widescreen aspect ratio . Unlike the iPhone , the iPad does not support tap to focus , but does allow a tap to set auto exposure . The cameras allow FaceTime video messaging with iPhone 4 , fourth generation iPod Touch , and Snow Leopard , Lion , and Mountain Lion Macs .
= = = Audio and output = = =
The iPad has two internal speakers reproducing left and right channel audio located on the bottom @-@ right of the unit . In the original iPad , the speakers push sound through two small sealed channels leading to the three audio ports carved into the device , while the iPad 2 has its speakers behind a single grill . A volume switch is on the right side of the unit . A 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mm TRRS connector audio @-@ out jack on the top @-@ left corner of the device provides stereo sound for headphones with or without microphones and / or volume controls . The iPad also contains a microphone that can be used for voice recording .
The built @-@ in Bluetooth 2 @.@ 1 + EDR interface allows wireless headphones and keyboards to be used with the iPad . However iOS does not currently support file transfer via Bluetooth. iPad also features 1024 × 768 VGA video output for limited applications , screen capture , connecting an external display or television through an accessory adapter .
= = = Battery = = =
The iPad uses an internal rechargeable lithium @-@ ion polymer ( LiPo ) battery . The batteries are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology ( 60 % ) and Dynapack International Technology . The iPad is designed to be charged with a high current of 2 amperes using the included 10 W USB power adapter and USB cord with a USB connector at one end and a 30 @-@ pin dock connector at the other end . While it can be charged by a standard USB port from a computer , these are limited to 500 milliamperes ( 0 @.@ 5 amps ) . As a result , if the iPad is running while powered by a normal USB computer port , it may charge very slowly , or not at all . High @-@ power USB ports found in newer Apple computers and accessories provide full charging capabilities .
Apple claims that the battery for both generations of iPad can provide up to 10 hours of video , 140 hours of audio playback , or one month on standby . Like any rechargeable battery technology , the iPad 's battery loses capacity over time , but is not designed to be user @-@ replaceable . In a program similar to the battery @-@ replacement program for the iPod and the original iPhone , Apple will replace an iPad that does not hold an electrical charge with a refurbished iPad for a fee of US $ 99 plus $ 6 @.@ 95 shipping . As a different unit is supplied , user data is not preserved . The refurbished unit will have a new case . The warranty on the refurbished unit may vary between jurisdictions .
Independent companies also provide a battery replacement service , returning the original unit with new battery but original case . Alternatively it is possible for a technically competent user to buy and install a new battery . The task does not require soldering , but is technically challenging .
= = = Storage = = =
The iPad was released with three capacity options for storage : 16 , 32 , or 64 GB of internal flash memory . On January 29 , 2013 , Apple announced a 128 GB model of the fourth generation iPad , which was released on February 5 . All data is stored on the internal flash memory , with no option to expand storage . Apple sells a " camera connection kit " with an SD card reader , but it can only be used to transfer photos and videos . On March 21 , Apple announced a 256 GB model of the iPad Pro , which was released on March 31 .
= = = Cellular connectivity = = =
iPad models come in two basic variants : Wi @-@ Fi only and Wi @-@ Fi with cellular support . The cellular variants however do not support circuit @-@ switched voice calls and texts , only data connectivity . The side of the Wi @-@ Fi + 3G iPad had a micro @-@ SIM slot ( not mini @-@ SIM ) . The 3G iPad can be used with any compatible GSM carrier , unlike the iPhone , which is usually sold ' locked ' to specific carriers . On the first generations of the iPad in the U.S. , data network access via T @-@ Mobile 's network was limited to slower EDGE cellular speeds because T @-@ Mobile 's 3G Network at the time used different frequencies .
The second generation iPad introduced a third tier of models with CDMA support for Verizon Wireless in the United States , available separately from the AT & T capable version .
The iPad up to the 4th generation uses a Micro @-@ SIM , while the first generation iPad Mini uses a nano @-@ SIM as introduced with the iPhone 5 . The iPad mini is available with two different frequency bands worldwide . Both devices support the same quad @-@ band GSM and quad @-@ band UMTS frequencies , but one variant also supports LTE bands 4 and 17 ( principally intended for use on the U.S. AT & T network ) , while the other adds support for LTE bands 1 , 3 , 5 , 13 , 25 and CDMA EV @-@ DO Rev. A and Rev. B.
The 5th generation iPad and 2nd generation iPad mini introduced support for many additional LTE bands worldwide . The iPad Air and Mini with Retina display cellular models come in two variants each , all of which support nano @-@ SIMs , quad @-@ band GSM , penta @-@ band UMTS , and dual @-@ band CDMA EV @-@ DO Rev. A and B. Additionally , one variant of each iPad also supports LTE bands 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 13 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 25 and 26 while the other variant supports LTE bands 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 18 , 19 , 20 and TD @-@ LTE bands 38 , 39 and 40 . Apple 's ability to handle many different bands in one device allowed it to offer , for the first time , a single iPad variant which supports all the cellular bands and technologies deployed by all the major North American wireless providers at the time of the device 's introduction . Moreover , with T @-@ Mobile USA selling the iPad Air and Mini with Retina display , these models became the first iPads that were made available for purchase directly from all four nationwide U.S. wireless carriers ( and , as previously indicated , with all U.S. carriers now selling the same hardware variant of the device ) .
= = = Accessories = = =
Apple offers several iPad accessories , most of which are adapters for the proprietary 30 @-@ pin dock connector , the iPad 's only port besides the headphone jack . A dock holds the iPad upright at an angle , and has a dock connector and audio line out port . Each generation of iPad requires a corresponding dock . A dock that included a physical keyboard was only supported for the original iPad , but all generations are compatible with Bluetooth keyboards that also work with Macs and PCs . The iPad can be charged by a standalone power adapter ( " wall charger " ) also used for iPods and iPhones , and a 10 W charger is included with the iPad .
Apple sells a camera connection kit that consists of two separate adapters for the dock connector , one to USB Type A , the other an SD card reader . Adapter can be used to transfer photos and videos and to plug USB audio card or MIDI keyboard . A third party sells an adapter that includes USB , SD , and microSD on a single unit . An adapter to VGA connectors allows the iPad to work with external monitors and projectors . Another adapter mirrors the screen onto HDMI compatible devices in 1080p and works with all apps and rotations . Unlike other adapters , it allows the iPad to charge through another dock connector . While the HDMI adapter was released with and advertised for the second generation iPad , it also works with the first @-@ generation iPad , the iPhone 4 , and the fourth generation iPod Touch .
Smart Covers are screen protectors that magnetically attach and align to the face of the iPad 2 , 3 , or 4 . The cover has three folds which allow it to convert into a stand , which is also held together by magnets . While original iPad owners could purchase a black case that included a similarly folding cover , the Smart Cover is meant to be more minimal , easily detachable , and protects only the screen . Smart Covers have a microfiber bottom that cleans the front of the iPad , which wakes up when the cover is removed . There are five different colors of both polyurethane and leather , with leather being more expensive . Smart Covers are not compatible with the original iPad . In June 2012 , Apple started selling the Smart Case - a case with the combined function of a smart cover and a back protection case which is compatible with the iPad 2 , and iPad 3rd & 4th generation devices .
= = Software = =
Like the iPhone , with which it shares a development environment the iPad only runs its own software , software downloaded from Apple 's App Store , and software written by developers who have paid for a developer 's license on registered devices . The iPad runs almost all third @-@ party iPhone applications , displaying them at iPhone size or enlarging them to fill the iPad 's screen . Developers may also create or modify apps to take advantage of the iPad 's features . Application developers use iOS SDK for developing applications for iPad . The iPad originally shipped with a customized iPad @-@ only version of iPhone OS , dubbed v3.2. On September 1 , it was announced the iPad would get iOS 4 @.@ 2 by November 2010 ; to fulfill this Apple released iOS 4 @.@ 2 @.@ 1 to the public on November 22 .
= = = Interface = = =
The interface is centred around the home screen , a graphical list of available applications . The home screen can be accessed at any time by a hardware button below the screen , closing an open application in the process .
Users can also add and delete icons from the dock , which is the same on every home screen . Each home screen holds up to twenty icons , and the dock holds up to six icons . Users can delete Web Clips and third @-@ party applications at any time , and may select only certain applications for transfer from iTunes . Apple 's default programs , however , may not be removed .
Almost all input is given through the touch screen , which understands complex gestures using multi @-@ touch . The iPad 's interaction techniques enable the user to move the content up or down by a touch @-@ drag motion of the finger . For example , zooming in and out of web pages and photos is done by placing two fingers on the screen and spreading them farther apart or bringing them closer together , a gesture known as " pinching " .
Scrolling through a long list or menu is achieved by sliding a finger over the display from bottom to top , or vice versa to go back . In either case , the list moves as if it is pasted on the outer surface of a wheel , slowly decelerating as if affected by friction . In this way , the interface simulates the physics of a real object .
Other user @-@ centered interactive effects include horizontally sliding sub @-@ selection , the vertically sliding keyboard and bookmarks menu , and widgets that turn around to allow settings to be configured on the other side . Menu bars are found at the top and bottom of the screen when necessary . Their options vary by program , but always follow a consistent style motif . In menu hierarchies , a " back " button in the top @-@ left corner of the screen displays the name of the parent folder .
= = = Multimedia = = =
The layout of the music library is similar to that of an iPod or current Symbian S60 phones . The iPad can sort its media library by songs , artists , albums , videos , playlists , genres , composers , podcasts , audiobooks , and compilations . Options are always presented alphabetically , except in playlists , which retain their order from iTunes . The iPhone uses a large font that allows users plenty of room to touch their selection .
Users can rotate their device horizontally to landscape mode to access Cover Flow . Like on iTunes , this feature shows the different album covers in a scroll @-@ through photo library . Scrolling is achieved by swiping a finger across the screen . Alternatively , headset controls can be used to pause , play , skip , and repeat tracks .
The iPad supports gapless playback . Like the fifth @-@ generation iPods introduced in 2005 , the iPad can play digital video , allowing users to watch TV shows and movies in widescreen . Double @-@ tapping switches between widescreen and fullscreen video playback .
The iPad allows users to purchase and download songs from the iTunes Store directly to their iPad . It includes software that allows the user to upload , view , and email photos taken with the camera . The user zooms in and out of photos by sliding two fingers further apart or closer together , much like Safari . The Camera application also lets users view the camera roll , the pictures that have been taken with the iPad 's camera . Those pictures are also available in the Photos application , along with any transferred from iPhoto or Aperture on a Mac , or Photoshop on a Windows PC .
= = = Internet connectivity = = =
The iPad can use Wi @-@ Fi network trilateration from Skyhook Wireless to provide location information to applications such as Google Maps . The 3G model supports A @-@ GPS to allow its position to be calculated with GPS or relative to nearby cellphone towers ; it also has a black strip on the back to aid 3G reception . The iPad has a headphone jack and a proprietary Apple dock connector , but no Ethernet or USB port . However , the Apple Camera Connection Kit accessory provides two dock connector adapters for importing photos and videos via USB and SD memory cards .
= = = Applications = = =
The iPad comes with several applications , including Safari , Mail , Photos , Video , iPod , iTunes , App Store , iBooks , Maps , Notes , Calendar , and Contacts . Several are improved versions of applications developed for the iPhone or Mac .
The iPad syncs with iTunes on a Mac or Windows PC . Apple ported its iWork suite from the Mac to the iPad , and sells pared down versions of Pages , Numbers , and Keynote apps in the App Store . Although the iPad is not designed to replace a mobile phone , a user can use a wired headset or the built @-@ in speaker and microphone and place telephone calls over Wi @-@ Fi or 3G using a VoIP application . As of June 2012 , there were about 225 @,@ 000 iPad specific apps on the App Store .
In December 2010 , Reuters reported that iPhone and iPad users have lodged a lawsuit against Apple alleging that some applications were passing their information to third party advertisers without consent .
= = = iBooks = = =
The iPad has an optional iBooks application that can be downloaded from the App Store , which displays books and other ePub @-@ format content downloaded from the iBookstore . For the iPad launch on April 3 , 2010 , the iBookstore is available only in the United States . Several major book publishers including Penguin Books , HarperCollins , Simon & Schuster and Macmillan have committed to publishing books for the iPad . Despite its being a direct competitor to both the Amazon Kindle and Barnes & Noble Nook , both Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble have made Kindle and Nook apps available for the iPad .
In February 2010 , Condé Nast said it would sell iPad subscriptions for several of its magazines by June .
In April 2010 , the New York Times announced that it would begin publishing daily on the iPad . The " Top News " section is available free of charge , and the remainder on payment of a subscription . Major news organizations , including The Wall Street Journal , the BBC , and Reuters have released iPad applications . NewsCorp created an iPad @-@ only publication , The Daily , in February 2011 . It ceased operations in December 2012 .
= = Model comparison = =
= = = iPad series = = =
= = = iPad mini series = = =
The iPad is assembled by Foxconn , which also manufactures Apple 's iPod , iPhone and Mac Mini , in its largest plant in Shenzhen , China . In April 2011 , Foxconn announced that it would be moving production of the iPad and other Apple products to Brazil where it could begin production before the end of 2011 .
iSuppli estimated that each first @-@ generation iPad 16 GB Wi @-@ Fi version costs US $ 259 @.@ 60 to manufacture , a total that excludes research , development , licensing , royalty and patent costs . Apple does not disclose the makers of iPad components , but teardown reports and analysis from industry insiders indicate that various parts and their suppliers include :
Apple A4 , A5 and A5X SoC : Samsung .
NAND flash RAM chips : Toshiba and Samsung ( 64 GB model ) .
Touch @-@ screen chips : Broadcom .
IPS Display ( 1st & 2nd generation ) : LG Display .
IPS Display ( 3rd generation ) : Samsung .
Touch panels : Wintek ( after TPK Touch Solutions was unable to fulfill its orders , delaying the iPad 's release from late March to early April ) .
Case : Catcher Technologies .
Batteries : 60 % are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology , 40 % by Dynapack International .
Accelerometer : STMicroelectronics .
= = = iPad Pro series = = =
= = Restrictions = =
= = = Digital rights management = = =
The iPad does not employ digital rights management ( DRM ) , but the OS prevents users from copying or transferring certain content outside of Apple 's platform without authorization , such as TV shows , movies , and apps . Also , the iPad 's development model requires anyone creating an app for the iPad to sign a non @-@ disclosure agreement and pay for a developer subscription . Critics argue Apple 's centralized app approval process and control of the platform itself could stifle software innovation . Of particular concern to digital rights advocates is Apple 's ability to remotely disable or delete apps on any iPad at any time .
Digital rights advocates , including the Free Software Foundation , Electronic Frontier Foundation , and computer engineer and activist Brewster Kahle , have criticized the iPad for its digital rights restrictions . In April 2010 , Paul Sweeting , an analyst with GigaOM , was quoted by National Public Radio as saying , " With the iPad , you have the anti @-@ Internet in your hands . ... It offers [ the major media companies ] the opportunity to essentially re @-@ create the old business model , wherein they are pushing content to you on their terms rather than you going out and finding content , or a search engine discovering content for you . " But Sweeting also thought that the limitations imposed by Apple impart the feeling of a safe neighborhood , saying , " Apple is offering you a gated community where there 's a guard at the gate , and there 's probably maid service , too . " Laura Sydell , the article 's author , concludes , " As more consumers have fears about security on the Internet , viruses and malware , they may be happy to opt for Apple 's gated community . " The Russian government has switched from iPads to Android devices over security concerns .
= = = Jailbreaking = = =
Like certain iOS devices , the iPad can be " jailbroken " , depending on which version of iOS it is running , thus allowing applications and programs that are not authorized by Apple to run on the device . Once it is jailbroken , users are able to download many applications previously unavailable through the App Store via unofficial installers such as Cydia , as well as illegally pirated applications . Apple claims jailbreaking " can " void the factory warranty on the device in the United States even though jailbreaking is legal . The iPad , released in April
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the fall of the Serbian Empire after Dušan 's death . Dejan is the progenitor of the Dejanović noble family , with his two sons , despot Jovan and gospodin Konstantin , also becoming powerful during the fall of the Serbian Empire and the ensuing Ottoman period .
= = Life = =
= = = Origin = = =
Dejan had married Teodora , the sister of King Stefan Dušan , and received the title of sevastokrator in 1346 , upon Stefan Dušan 's crowning as Emperor . Dejan 's origin is deemed unknown . Earlier scholars believed that Dejan was a relative of Jovan Oliver , another magnate in Macedonia , but this is no longer accepted . K. J. Jireček suggested that he was vojvoda Dejan Manjak ( Дејан Мањак ) , only found mentioned in a 1333 charter , in which Stefan Dušan officially sold Ston and Prevlaka to the Republic of Venice .
= = = Stefan Dušan 's reign = = =
On Easter , 16 April 1346 , Stefan Dušan convoked a massive assembly at Skopje , attended by the Serbian Archbishop Joanikije II , the Archbishop of Ochrid Nikolaj I , the Bulgarian Patriarch Simeon and various religious leaders of Mount Athos . The autocephalous Serbian Archbishopric was raised to the status of a Patriarchate . The new Patriarch , Joanikije II , now solemnly crowned Dušan as " Emperor and autocrat of Serbs and Romans ( Greeks ) " . Dušan had his son Uroš V crowned King , giving him nominal rule over the Serbian lands , and although Dušan ruled the whole state , he had special responsibility for the " Roman " , i.e. Greek lands , in the south . There was a further increase in the Byzantinization of the Serbian court , especially in court ceremonies and titles . From his new position , Dušan could grant titles only possible for an emperor to grant , such as despot , sevastokrator , and ćesar . Among the Serbian magnates were :
despot Simeon Uroš , Dušan 's half @-@ brother , governor of Epirus and Acarnania
despot Jovan Asen , Dušan 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , governor in southern Albania
despot Jovan Oliver , Dušan 's close associate , vojvoda and governor in Ovče Pole and left Vardar
sevastokrator Dejan , Dušan 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , governor of Pčinja
sevastokrator Branko , Dušan 's relative , governor of Ohrid
ćesar Preljub , Dušan 's son @-@ in @-@ law , vojvoda and governor of Thessaly
ćesar Vojihna , Dušan 's relative , vojvoda and governor of Drama
ćesar Grgur , Dušan 's relative ( son of Branko ) , vojvoda and governor of Polog
The raising of the Serbian Patriarchate resulted in bishops becoming metropolitans . The Serbian ruler had wide autocratic powers , but was surrounded and advised by a permanent council of magnates ( velikaši or velmože ) and prelates . The court , chancellery and administration were rough copies of those of Constantinople .
In 1354 , when Dejan had finished building the Arhiljevica Church of the Holy Mother of God , his endowment , he asked that some of the villages under his administration be granted to the church ( as metochion ) . According to Stefan Dušan 's charter to Arhiljevica dated 10 August 1354 , sevastokrator Dejan , whom he called his brother ( " брат царства ми севастократор Дејан " ) , possessed a large province east of Skopska Crna Gora . It included the old župe ( counties ) of Žegligovo and Preševo ( modern Kumanovo region with Sredorek , Kozjačija and the larger part of Pčinja ) . The granted villages included : village Podlešane with hamlets , village Arhiljevica at the church with hamlets , village Izvor , village Ruginci ( Ruǵince ) , selište ( arable land ) Mokra Poljana ( Mokro Polje ) , village Maistorije , selište Maistorije Krupnici , selište Prusci ( Rusce ) , selište Vrdun , selište Prvevo , selište Deikovo ( Dejlovce ) , selište Vrače ( Vračevce ) , selište Sedlar , selište Mekša and village Glaže ( Glažnja ) . A total of 9 villages , 9 selište and a few hamlets . Based on the charter , Arhiljevica was situated where the granted villages of Podlešane , Izvor and Rućinci lay , on the slopes of Jezer ( Kumanovska Crna Gora ) . The fact that Dejan built Arhiljevica rather than renovated it is evidence of his economic strength . Apart from Dejan 's granted villages , Dušan also granted , on his behalf as a gift , the church and village of Gospoždino Polje ( lost ) , village Koznica Kričanovska ( Gorna- and Dolna Koznitsa ) and village Strojkovo ( lost ) , situated in the Velbužd region .
Dejan was one of the prominent figures of Dušan 's reign and during the subsequent fall of the Serbian Empire , after Dušan 's death . Under Emperor Dušan , despot Jovan Oliver , with his brother Bogdan and sevastokrator Dejan , ruled over all of eastern Macedonia . Dejan is not mentioned much in Dušan 's military endeavors , although his reputation and that of his successors suggest that he was involved in most of Dušan 's successes . His prominence beyond Serbia is also evident from the fact that Pope Innocent VI addressed Dejan in 1355 , asking him to support the creation of the union between the Catholic Church and the Serbian Orthodox Church ( such letters were sent to the highest nobility and the church ) .
= = = Uroš V 's reign = = =
Dejan received the title of despot sometime after August 1355 , either from Emperor Dušan , who died on 20 December 1355 , or from his heir Uroš V , most likely the latter . During the rule of Uroš V , Dejan was entrusted with the administration of the territory between South Morava , Pčinja , Skopska Crna Gora ( his hereditary lands ) and in the east , Upper Struma river with Velbužd ( Kyustendil ) , a province notably larger than he had possessed during Dušan 's life . This province was located in the very heart of the Balkans , and the important Via de Zenta , a trade route connecting the Adriatic with the interior of the Balkans , crossed it . As the only despot , Dejan held the highest title in the Empire ( this had earlier been the veliki vojvoda , Jovan Oliver ) . Dejan 's daughter Teodora married Žarko , the lord of Lower Zeta , in 1356 .
Serbian historian M. Blagojević supported the view in historiography that Dejan also served as logotet ( fl . 1362 – 1365 ) , mentioned as the envoy of Emperor Uroš alongside ćesar Grgur in the peace talks with the Republic of Ragusa , which had been at war with Vojislav Vojinović in southern Dalmatia . The peace was concluded on 22 August 1362 , in Onogošt ( Nikšić ) , and the Emperor 's charter confirmed the " old laws " and other laws regarding the Ragusans . Dejan and Grgur each received 100 ducats .
Until Vojislav 's death in December 1363 , the Serbian nobles in the Greek lands showed themselves more ambitious , as they held more titles and greater independence ( deriving from their more extensive possessions , and therefore , wealth ) in relation to the nobility of the old Serbian lands . While Vojislav lived , his influence secured the preeminence of the old Serbian nobility . After Vojislav 's death , Vukašin Mrnjavčević , who had previously served Emperor Dušan as a župan ( count , holder of a župa , a " county " or " district " ) of Prilep , quickly gained a decisive influence on Emperor Uroš V. The nobility in the old Serbian lands was not at first alarmed at this , but Vukašin 's ambition and his subsequent power moves woke up the simmering antagonism between the two groups . It was not only Vukašin 's endless ambition that led to his success , as he had plenty of support from other nobles who benefited from him .
It is not known for certain when Dejan died , as no Serbian or foreign sources have been found with information that could give historians clues to which year he died . S. Mandić said it may have been as early as 1358 , and that Vukašin , who until then was veliki vojvoda , took Dejan 's place as despot , and in turn Jovan Uglješa became veliki vojvoda . V. Ćorović believed it to have been sometime after the death of Vojislav ( 1363 ) . M. Rajičić concluded that it was between 1366 and 1371 , as he believed Jovan Oliver to have held his lands at least to 1366 , and based on that the Pčinja pomenik ( memorial book ) said that Dejan had died after Jovan Oliver ( this is refuted by S. Mandić ) . S. Mandić also believed that it was unlikely that Dejan took monastic vows before his death , as his children were still young . His wife Teodora took monastic vows as Evdokija and lived in Strumica and Velbužd , and she would until her death sign as basilissa ( Empress ) , as did : Ana @-@ Marija , the wife of Jovan Oliver ; Marija , wife of despot Toma Preljubović ; and Jefimija , the wife of Uglješa .
Dejan built and reconstructed several churches and monasteries throughout his province , including the Zemen Monastery and the lost Arhiljevica Church . His two sons Jovan and Konstantin later became rulers of his domain .
= = Aftermath = =
After the death of Dejan , his province , except for the župe of Žegligovo and Upper Struma , was appropriated to nobleman Vlatko Paskačić , whose hereditary land was Slavište directly to the south . Vukašin Mrnjavčević , of whom there are no notable mentions until 1365 , became more powerful ( ultimately the most powerful nobleman in Macedonia ) after the deaths of Vojislav Vojinović , Dejan and despot Jovan Oliver ( whose status in Macedonia was very high ) , as Vukašin 's rise would have been unlikely during the lifetime of these men . Vukašin 's younger brother Jovan Uglješa is also thought to have participated in the dismemberment of Dejan 's province , as he used this chance to take the provinces which bordered on the oblast ( province ) of Ser ( Serres ) . No one looked to the young sons of Dejan who would later become very important . Dejan 's death benefited Vukašin and Jovan Uglješa , not so much in territorial expansion ( which is not so sure ) , but because Dejan 's disappearance ended any stronger candidate to counter the Mrnjavčević family .
Like his father before , Dejan 's eldest son Jovan received the title of despot from Emperor Uroš . He and his brother later received most of Jovan Oliver 's lands . It is not known why Jovan Oliver 's sons did not inherit his lands . Serbian historian V. Ćorović attributed this to turmoil and disorder , though it is not known what extent it developed to and what the consequences were . Earlier scholars believed that the Dejanović were relatives of Jovan Oliver , although this is no longer accepted . The Dejanović brothers ruled a spacious province in eastern Macedonia , in the southern lands of the Empire , and remained loyal to Uroš V until his death . Emperor Uroš V died childless on December 2 / 4 , 1371 , after many of the Serbian nobility had been killed in the Battle of Maritsa against the Ottomans earlier that year . This marked an end to the once powerful Serbian Empire . Vukašin 's son Marko , who had earlier been crowned Young King , was to inherit his father 's royal title , and thus became one in the line of successors to the Serbian throne . Meanwhile , the nobles pursued their own interests , sometimes quarreling with each other . Serbia , without an Emperor , became " a conglomerate of aristocratic territories " , and the Empire was thus divided between the provincial lords : Marko Mrnjavčević , the Dejanović brothers , Đurađ I Balšić , Vuk Branković , Nikola Altomanović , and Lazar Hrebeljanović . In the new redistribution of feudal power , after 1371 , the brothers despot Jovan and gospodin ( lord ) Konstantin greatly expanded their province , not only recreating their father 's province , but also at least doubling the territory , on all sides , but chiefly to the south . The brothers ruled on the left riverside of the Vardar , from Kumanovo to Strumica . In 1373 , two years after Maritsa , the first mentions are made on the events in the province of the Dejanović brothers , as well as their mutual relation . As Marko had done , also the Dejanović brothers recognized Ottoman sovereignty . Although vassals , they had their own government . Their state symbol was the white double @-@ headed eagle and they minted coins according to the Nemanjić style .
= = Family = =
Dejan and Teodora had three children :
Jovan ( ca . 1343 – ca . 1378 ) , despot under Emperor Uroš ; vassal of the Ottoman Empire since 1373 until his death in 1378 .
Konstantin ( fl . 1365 – 95 ) , gospodin under Emperor Uroš ; succeeded his brother as vassal of the Ottoman Empire from 1378 until his death in 1395 .
Teodora ( fl . 1356 – 71 ) , married firstly gospodin Žarko ( in 1356 ) , then Đurađ I Balšić ( after 1371 ) . She had a son with Žarko , Mrkša ( born 1363 ) .
= = Annotations = =
= Seax of Beagnoth =
The Seax of Beagnoth ( also known as the Thames scramasax ) is a 10th @-@ century Anglo @-@ Saxon seax ( single @-@ edged knife ) . It was found in the River Thames in 1857 , and is now at the British Museum in London . It is a prestige weapon , decorated with elaborate patterns of inlaid copper , bronze and silver wire . On one side of the blade is the only known complete inscription of the twenty @-@ eight letter Anglo @-@ Saxon runic alphabet , as well as the name " Beagnoth " in runic letters . It is thought that the runic alphabet had a magical function , and that the name Beagnoth is that of either the owner of the weapon or the smith who forged it . Although many Anglo @-@ Saxon and Viking swords and knives have inscriptions in the Latin alphabet on their blades , or have runic inscriptions on the hilt or scabbard , the Seax of Beagnoth is one of only a handful of finds with a runic inscription on its blade .
= = Discovery = =
Henry J. Briggs , a labourer , found the seax in the River Thames near Battersea in early 1857 . Briggs sold it to the British Museum , and on 21 May 1857 it was exhibited at the Society of Antiquaries of London by Augustus Wollaston Franks ( an antiquary who worked at the Antiquities Department of the British Museum ) , when it was described as " resembling the Scramasax of the Franks , of which examples are very rare in England ; and bears a row of runic characters inlaid in gold " . Since then the weapon has usually been called the Thames scramasax ; but the term scramasax ( from Old Frankish * scrâmasahs ) is only attested once , in the History of the Franks by Gregory of Tours , and the meaning of the scrama- element is uncertain , so recent scholarship prefers the term long seax or long sax for this type of weapon .
= = Description = =
The seax is an iron knife with a single cutting edge and a long tapering point . It is 72 @.@ 1 cm in length , of which the tang is 17 @.@ 0 cm and the blade is 55 @.@ 1 cm . The tang would have been attached to a handle , which has not survived .
The blade is a prestige weapon , decorated on both faces with geometric patterns created by hammering strips of twisted copper , brass and silver wire into grooves cut into the blade , as well as with inlaid triangles and lozenges of copper , brass and silver . The technique of inlaying wire to create decorative patterns and inscriptions was widely used on Germanic and Anglo @-@ Saxon seaxes and spear heads from the 9th and 10th centuries , and is also found on Viking swords from about the same period .
On both sides of the seax is a deep median groove running the length of the blade , above which is a long rectangular panel bordered at the top and bottom with inlaid copper strips . The panel on one side of the seax is filled with a lozenge pattern in silver and copper , which may have been meant to simulate pattern welding . The panel on the other side bears two runic inscriptions inlaid with brass and silver wire . The inscription on the left comprises the twenty @-@ eight letters of the Anglo @-@ Saxon runic alphabet or futhorc . The inscription on the right , separated from the other by a herringbone design in silver and brass , is the male personal name Beagnoþ or Beagnoth ᛒᛠᚷᚾᚩᚦ , which is assumed to be that of the maker or original owner of the blade .
= = Epigraphy = =
The inscription of the futhorc is as follows :
There are a number of interesting features about this inscription . Firstly , the order of the runes does not exactly match the traditional sequence of the earlier twenty @-@ four letter runic alphabet or that of the twenty @-@ eight letter Anglo @-@ Saxon futhorc preserved in the Vienna Codex . The first nineteen runes are in the correct order , but the next four ( 20 – 23 : ᛝᛞᛚᛗ ) are in a confused sequence which does not match that found in any other source . The last two runes ( 27 – 28 : ᚣᛠ ) are swapped with regard to their order in the Vienna Codex , but as these are later additions to the original twenty @-@ four letter runic alphabet their order may have been less stable , especially as the last letter ᛠ is very rare in Anglo @-@ Saxon inscriptions ( elsewhere it occurs in the name Jɨslheard ᛄᛇᛋᛚᚻᛠᚱᛞ on a stone found in Dover ) .
Secondly , the 16th rune ( ᛋ ) is very small , and appears to have been squeezed in as an afterthought .
Thirdly , the letterforms of a number of the runes are unusual :
No.12 ᛄ ger is written in an unusual form , with a single horizontal bar instead of the circle , lozenge or cross most commonly found in other epigraphic and manuscript examples .
No.16 ᛋ is written in an unusual form , but one that is attested in a few other inscriptions ( for example on the shrine of Saint Cuthbert ) . Some scholars believe this runic letterform is borrowed from the insular letter s ꞅ used in Anglo @-@ Saxon bookhand as it has a very similar shape ( both have a vertical stem with a horizontal or diagonal branch to the right ) . On the other hand , Elliot sees it as an evolution of the normal runic letter by straightening the left branching stroke and mirroring the letter .
No.21 ᛞ is written in a unique form with the two diagonal crossbars forming a triangle rather than crossing in the middle . This is probably an aberrant form .
No.24 ᛟ is written in an unusual form with a single vertical stem instead of two diagonal legs as is normally the case . This form occurs occasionally in runic inscriptions , and more often in manuscript texts . Ralph Elliott , former professor of English at the University of Adelaide , suggests that it represents a simplified form of the standard rune .
No.27 ᚣ is written in an unusual form with a cross in the centre rather than a vertical stroke .
These peculiarities may indicate that the artisan who designed the inscription was unfamiliar with runic writing , although perhaps some of the unusual letterforms may have been errors occasioned by the difficulty of inlaying wire to form runes .
The inscription of the name Beagnoth is as follows :
There are no unusual features in the inscription of the name , but at the top right of the name are two strange designs that almost look like letters , which no @-@ one has been able to explain .
= = Date and provenance = =
Finds of seaxes in Europe range from the 7th to the 11th century , and the earliest examples in England are from 7th @-@ century graves . Isolated finds of seaxes in England are believed to date from the 9th and 10th centuries . The Seax of Beagnoth has been dated to the 10th century .
Several seaxes of a similar kind are known from southern England ( three from London , one from Suffolk , one from the River Thames at Keen Edge Ferry in Berkshire ) , and one from Hurbuck in County Durham in the north of England . The Berkshire seax is so similar in construction and design to the Seax of Beagnoth that both may have come from the same workshop .
Elliott suggests a southern , presumably Kentish , origin for the seax because its inscription only comprises the original twenty @-@ eight letters of the Anglo @-@ Saxon futhorc , and does not include any of the additional letters in use in Northumbrian runic inscriptions at that time .
The name Beagnoth inscribed on the seax also supports a Kentish provenance , as the only two examples of this name in manuscript sources are Kentish . One Beagnoth was a witness to a charter ( S30 ) by King Eardwulf of Kent , granting pasture rights to the church of St Andrew at Rochester , Kent , which is dated to 748 – 760 , and another Beagnoth ( also spelled Beahnoþ ) was a monk from Kent who was present at the Synod of Clovesho in 803 and witnessed a charter by King Æthelwulf of Wessex dated to 844 . The name " Beagnoth " derives from the Old English words bēag or bēah meaning " ring , bracelet , torque or crown " and nōþ meaning " boldness " , and can be translated as " Ringbold " .
= = Significance = =
The Seax of Beagnoth is significant both as a rare example of a runic @-@ inscribed Anglo @-@ Saxon weapon , and specifically for its runic inscription , which is a unique epigraphical example of the complete twenty @-@ eight letter Anglo @-@ Saxon futhorc .
= = = Runic inscribed blades = = =
There was a widespread tradition throughout Northern Europe of inscribing runes on weapons , particularly swords . Thus , in Stanza 6 of the eddaic poem Sigrdrífumál the valkyrie Sigrdrífa teaches the hero Sigurd how to engrave runes on his sword to provide magical protection :
This poem was not committed to writing until the late 13th century ( in the Codex Regius ) , although it may preserve elements from a much earlier date . However , a similar admonishment to carve runes on swords is found in lines 1694 – 1698 of the Old English poem Beowulf , which is roughly contemporary with the Seax of Beagnoth :
This poem mentions the practice of carving the sword @-@ owner 's name in runes on the hilt . This practice is confirmed by a 6th @-@ century sword pommel from Kent , as well as a 6th @-@ century silver scabbard mouth @-@ piece from Chessell Down , Isle of Wight , which both preserve fragmentary runic inscriptions . The latter is the only known example of an Anglo @-@ Saxon runic inscription on a weapon from outside Kent . Several other Anglo @-@ Saxon weapons have isolated runic letters on them . For example , a tiw rune ᛏ , symbolizing the Anglo @-@ Saxon war god Tiw ( Tyr in the earlier quotation from the Sigrdrífumál ) , is found on two sword @-@ pommels and a spear blade , all from Kent . Thus , although some Anglo @-@ Saxon runic inscriptions on weapons are known , none are as extensive or as prominent as the runic inscription on the Seax of Beagnoth . Furthermore , the Seax of Beagnoth is the only known Anglo @-@ Saxon weapon with a runic inscription on its blade , and indeed , other than the Schretzheim sword , which has a cryptic runic inscription on its blade comprising four runes in a cross formation , there are no other certain examples from anywhere in Europe of a sword or knife blade with a runic inscription . In contrast , inscriptions in the Latin alphabet occur frequently on Viking swords . For example , some one hundred swords with the maker 's name " Ulfberht " inlaid into the blade are known from a period of about 300 years .
On the basis of the Beowulf quotation it may be that " Beagnoth " was the Seax 's original owner 's name . However , that is not certain , as Viking and Anglo @-@ Saxon weapons often have the name of the weapon 's maker engraved on them instead of , or as well as , the owner 's ( as on the Sittingbourne seax shown below ) . Raymond Page , former Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo @-@ Saxon at the University of Cambridge , considers four possibilities :
1 . That the name is that of the smith who forged the seax , as swords from the Dark Ages often had their maker 's name engraved on them .
2 . That the name is that of the rune @-@ master who wrote the futhorc . Page supposes that adding the rune @-@ master 's name would have added extra magical power to the weapon .
3 . That the name is that of the original owner of the seax , for as he notes , " [ t ] he scramasax is an impressive piece of equipment , one that an owner would be proud to see his name on " .
4 . That the name is that of someone who gave the seax as a present to someone else , for it is " distinguished enough to make a fine gift bearing the giver 's name " .
Page concludes that we cannot know which possibility is correct .
= = = The inscribed futhorc = = =
The runic inscription on the seax not only identifies the maker or owner of the seax , but also provides a rare example of the twenty @-@ eight letter Anglo @-@ Saxon runic alphabet . Examples of the earlier , twenty @-@ four letter Elder Futhark and sixteen letter Younger Futhark alphabets are relatively common in continental and Scandinavian runic inscriptions , but inscriptions of the historically later Anglo @-@ Saxon futhorc are rare in England , with most examples of the Anglo @-@ Saxon futhorc being known from manuscript sources . This seax represents the only surviving epigraphic inscription of the basic twenty @-@ eight letter Anglo @-@ Saxon runic alphabet , although an incomplete inscription of the first sixteen letters of the futhorc occurs on the disc @-@ shaped head of a Middle Saxon pin from Brandon , Suffolk , and the first seven or eight letters of the futhorc are inscribed on the head of a pin from Malton , North Yorkshire .
It is unclear what purpose the inscription of the futhorc served , but Page suggests it cannot be simply decorative , but must have had a magical significance . He notes that the carving of runic letters on swords as a form of magical protection was an ancient practice , but by the 9th century rune lore was probably on the decline in the Kingdom of Kent , and the owner of the seax may have commissioned an archaic runic inscription for prestige purposes . The fact that there are errors in the order and design of the runic letters suggests that the smith who made the seax was not used to adding such runic inscriptions to the weapons he made , and they may have been copied inaccurately from a manuscript text .
= 1990 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1990 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active Atlantic hurricane season since 1969 . It officially began on June 1 , 1990 , and lasted until November 30 , 1990 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . One tropical depression did form before the season officially started , however .
Though very active , the season featured relatively weak systems , most of which stayed at sea . The 1990 season was unusual in that no tropical cyclone of at least tropical storm strength made landfall in the United States , although Tropical Storm Marco weakened to a depression just before landfall . 1962 was the last season prior to this one when no storm of at least tropical storm strength made landfall in the US . There have been a total of 6 such seasons in which no storms have made landfall in the United States at at least tropical storm strength ; these were the 1853 , 1862 , 1864 , 1922 , 1962 , and 1990 seasons .
Two of the season 's hurricanes were notable . Hurricane Diana killed an estimated 139 in the Mexican states of Veracruz and Hidalgo ; property damage estimates are unavailable , but damage was widespread . Hurricane Klaus brought flooding to Martinique , and caused torrential rainfall across the southeastern United States after combining with Tropical Storm Marco and a frontal boundary . As a result of effects from Diana and Klaus , both names were retired following the season .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) . A normal season as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , has eleven named storms , of which six reach hurricane strength , and two major hurricanes . In April 1990 , it was forecast that six storms would reach hurricane status , and there would be " three additional storms " from the previous year , which would indicate 14 named storms . The forecast did not specify how many hurricanes would reach major hurricane status . In early June 1990 , CSU released their predictions of tropical cyclonic activity within the Atlantic basin during the 1990 season . The forecast from CSU called for 11 named storms , seven of which to intensify into a hurricane , and three would strengthen further into a major hurricane .
= = = Season activity = = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , but activity in 1990 began five days earlier with the formation of Tropical Depression One on May 25 . It was an above average season in which 16 tropical depressions formed . Fourteen depressions attained tropical storm status , and eight of these attained hurricane status . There was only one tropical cyclone to reach major hurricane status ( Category 3 + on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale ) , which was slightly below the 1950 – 2005 average of two per season . One hurricane and five tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 168 deaths and $ 152 million ( 1990 US $ ; $ 275 million 2016 USD ) in damage . The last storm of the season , Hurricane Nana , dissipated on October 21 , over a month before the official end of the season on November 30 .
The activity in the first two months of the season were limited in tropical cyclogenesis , with the second tropical depression of the season not developing until July 22 . Following that , the season was very active , and there was a quick succession of tropical cyclone development from late @-@ July to mid @-@ August . The Atlantic briefly remained dormant , and activity resumed on August 24 with the development of Tropical Depression Eight ( Hurricane Gustav ) . Although August was a very active month , there were only two named storms in September , both of which became hurricanes . Activity in October was high then average , with five tropical cyclones to either form or exist in the month . Following an active October , no tropical cyclogenesis occurred in the final month of the season , which is November .
The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 97 , which is categorized as being " near normal " since it is slightly below the mean value of 103 x 104kt2 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = Storms = =
Timeline of tropical activity in the 1990 Atlantic hurricane season
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
Tropical Depression One formed on May 25 from a weak low pressure area to the west of Jamaica , which had been producing scattered showers over the island during the preceding days . The depression moved across Cuba shortly after forming , although the convection was located to the east of its poorly defined center . As it headed toward Florida , it was absorbed by an approaching cold front .
The depression did not cause significant damage . In Florida , the depression was forecast to ease drought conditions that persisted for about two years . While crossing Cuba , the depression dropped heavy rainfall , and predictions stated that precipitation amounts could reach as high as 10 in ( 254 mm ) , but the greatest amount measured was at 6 in ( 152 @.@ 4 mm ) east of Havana . Heavy rainfall also occurred across much of south Florida , peaking at 6 @.@ 20 in ( 157 @.@ 5 mm ) at the Royal Palm Ranger Station in Everglades National Park . While the depression was affecting south Florida , the National Weather Service issued " urban flood statements " warning of flooded streets in mainly low @-@ lying areas , especially in Dade and Broward counties . Standing water on many Florida expressways caused automobile accidents , especially in Dade County , where 28 accidents were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Arthur = = =
The second tropical depression of the season developed on July 22 from a tropical wave nearly midway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . The depression slowly intensified , and was eventually upgraded to Tropical Storm Arthur , two days later . On July 25 , Tropical Storm Arthur crossed the Windward Islands chain , and it was noted that the storm made landfall on Tobago . Emerging into the Caribbean Sea , Arthur reached nearly attained hurricane status on July 25 . Thereafter , wind shear began increasing over Arthur , and a weakening trend began after peak intensity . As Arthur headed further into the Caribbean Sea , it significantly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical depression on July 27 . Later that day , Air Force reconnaissance and satellite imagery did not show a low @-@ level circulation , indicating that Arthur had degenerated into open tropical wave 130 mi ( 209 @.@ 2 km ) southeast of Kingston , Jamaica .
Shortly after Arthur became a tropical storm on July 24 , a tropical storm warning was issued for Trinidad , Tobago , and Grenada ; six hours later , it was extended to the Grenadines . About 24 hours later , all of the tropical storm warnings were discontinued . As Arthur headed further into the Caribbean Sea , a tropical storm watches and warnings were issued for Hispaniola and Puerto Rico on July 26 . All of the tropical storm watches and warnings were discontinued after Arthur weakened to a tropical depression . After Arthur made landfall on Tobago , several landslides occurred , and a major bridge had collapsed ; electrical and water services were significantly disrupted . Damage was also reported on Grenada , where two bridges were damaged , electricity and telephone service was disrupted , and crops were affected as well . In addition , Arthur caused damage to four hotels and hundreds of houses . Wind gusts on the island of Grenada reportedly reached 55 mph ( 85 km / h ) . As Arthur passed south of Puerto Rico , there were reports of strong winds and heavy rainfall . Heavy rainfall was also reported on the south coast of Haiti as Arthur approached the country .
= = = Hurricane Bertha = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa , and after interacting with a cold front and an area of low pressure , developed into a subtropical depression on July 24 , offshore of North Carolina near Cape Hatteras . The subtropical depression slowly acquired tropical characteristics , and was reclassified as Tropical Depression Three on July 27 . On the following day , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Bertha . It drifted northeast and became a hurricane 500 mi ( 804 @.@ 7 km ) west @-@ southwest of Bermuda on July 29 . As Bertha continued parallel to the East Coast of the United States , it had experienced strong wind shear and was downgraded back to a tropical storm later on July 29 . However , by July 30 , Air Force reconnaissance flights reported at hurricane @-@ force winds , and Bertha had re @-@ intensified into a hurricane at that time . After becoming a hurricane again , Bertha continued northeastward , but transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Nova Scotia on August 2 .
Nine deaths were attributed to Bertha , including six crew members of the Greek freighter Corazon who perished off the Canadian coast after their ship broke up . Another fatality was caused when one person fell off the ship Patricia Star and into the Atlantic ; the other two deaths were from two people drowning in north Florida . Damage to crops and a suspension bridge were reported from Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island ; this damage totaled to $ 4 @.@ 427 million ( 1990 CAD ; $ 3 @.@ 912 million 1990 USD , $ 7 @.@ 09 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Cesar = = =
While Bertha was approaching Atlantic Canada , a tropical wave emerged into an Atlantic from the west coast of Africa , and quickly developed into Tropical Depression Four 336 mi ( 540 @.@ 7 km ) south of Cape Verde . The depression headed northwestward due to the weakness of a subtropical ridge and slowly intensified . While the depression was well west of Cape Verde , it intensified into Tropical Storm Cesar on August 2 . Cesar continued on the generally northwestward path and no significant change in intensity occurred , as it peaked at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) shortly after becoming a tropical storm . Later in its duration , wind shear significantly increased , causing the low @-@ level circulation to be removed from the deep convection on August 6 , and Cesar weakened back to a tropical depression as a result . As it was weakening to a tropical depression , Cesar became nearly stationary , and turned abruptly eastward . On the following day , Cesar dissipated almost 1 @,@ 151 mi ( 1 @,@ 852 @.@ 3 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Diana = = =
A tropical wave uneventfully crossed the Atlantic Ocean and entered the Caribbean Sea either late July or early August 1990 . As the system entered the southwest Caribbean , it began to further develop , and became Tropical Depression Five on August 4 . The depression headed northwestward , and intensified enough to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Diana on August 5 . After becoming a tropical storm , Diana continued to quickly intensify , and maximum sustained winds were 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) before landfall occurred in Felipe Carrillo Puerto , Quintana Roo , on the Yucatán Peninsula . Diana weakened somewhat over the Yucatán Peninsula , but was still a tropical storm when it entered the Gulf of Mexico . While over the Gulf of Mexico , Diana again rapidly intensified , and became a hurricane on August 7 . Later that day , Diana further strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane , and peaked with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Only two hours , Diana made landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas , Mexico at the same intensity . After moving ashore , Diana rapidly weakened , and had deteriorated to a tropical storm only four hours after landfall . By August 8 , Diana weakened back to a tropical depression near Mexico City . Diana briefly entered the Eastern Pacific Basin on August , but was not re @-@ classified , and it rapidly dissipated at the south end of the Gulf of California .
In preparations for Diana , there were several tropical storm watches and warning issued along the Yucatán Peninsula and several areas along the Gulf Coast of Mexico ; hurricane watches and warnings were also put into effect . While crossing the Yucatán Peninsula , Diana produced near @-@ tropical storm force winds , and heavy rainfall , but not damage or fatalities . However , the mainland of Mexico fared much worse , where torrential rainfall caused mudslides in the states of Hidalgo and Veracruz . As a result of heavy rainfall , many houses were destroyed , and approximately 3 @,@ 500 became homeless . Diana also produced high winds across Mexico , which toppled tree and fell electricity poles , leaving many without telephone service and block several roads . In addition , the remnants of Diana brought rainfall to the southwestern United States . Contemporary reports indicated that 139 people had been killed , with an additional 25 @,@ 000 people being injured . Damage as a result of Diana was estimated at $ 90 @.@ 7 million ( 1990 USD , $ 164 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Edouard = = =
A frontal wave formed near the Azores in early August . When thunderstorm activity grew near its center , it was deemed a subtropical depression on August 2 just east of the Azores . Associated with an upper @-@ level cold low , it intensified into a subtropical storm on August 3 , although water temperatures were cooler than what is usually required for tropical cyclogenesis . It tracking westward and passed near Graciosa before weakening back to a depression on August 4 . The depression executed a small cyclonic loop , developing deep and organized convection near the circulation . Late on August 6 , it transitioned into Tropical Depression Six . The depression moved northeastward toward the Azores , intensifying into Tropical Storm Edouard on August 8 . Shortly thereafter it reached peak winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , and subsequently it moved past the northern Azores . On August 10 , Edouard weakened again to depression status , and became extratropical on the following day . The remnants of Edouard dissipated on August 13 , a few hundred miles west of Portugal .
Much of the western Azores reported winds of at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The island of Horta reported winds gusts from 35 to 65 mph ( 55 to 100 km / h ) . Lajes Air Force Base on Terceira Island reported a maximum wind gust of 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) . Also a tower on the island of Terceira reported sustained winds at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , while a gusts as high as 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) were recorded .
= = = Tropical Storm Fran = = =
On August 11 , a tropical wave developed into the seventh tropical depression of the season , while situated several hundred miles southwest of Cape Verde . The depression moved rapidly westwards , and intensified to just under tropical storm status on August 12 . However , later that day , the depression began to lose its low @-@ level circulation , while deep convection was diminishing . As a result , the depression became " too weak to classify " for Dvorak technique , and the system had degenerated back into a tropical wave early on August 13 . After weakening back to a tropical wave , the system quickly re @-@ organized , and re @-@ developed into a tropical depression twelve hours later . Later that day , the depression further intensified , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fran . No significant change in intensity occurred after Fran became a tropical storm and maximum sustained winds never exceeded 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . By the next day , Fran made landfall on Trinidad at the same intensity . While on Trinidad , Fran significantly interacted with the South American mainland , and quickly dissipated on August 15 .
After Fran became a tropical storm on August 13 , a tropical storm warning was issued for Trinidad , Tobago , and Grenada . Simultaneously , a tropical storm watch came into effect for Barbados and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . As Fran was passing through the Windward Islands , the tropical storm watch was discontinued . Only two hours before Fran dissipated , the tropical storm warning was discontinued for Trinidad , Tobago , and Grenada . As a result of Fran , only heavy rains were reported on the Windward Islands . Light rainfall was reported on Trinidad , peaking at 2 @.@ 6 in ( 66 mm ) . In addition , wind gusts were reported up to 29 mph ( 46 km / h ) .
= = = Hurricane Gustav = = =
A tropical depression developed from a tropical wave approximately 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 609 @.@ 3 km ) east of Barbados on August 24 . After forming , the depression moved westward and on the next day intensified into a tropical storm on the following day . After becoming a tropical storm , Gustav continued to intensify as it headed west @-@ northwestward . Intensification into a hurricane occurred on August 26 , as the storm began slowly curving northward under the influence of a trough . After reaching Category 2 intensity , Gustav was affected by wind shear , and weakened , but eventually re @-@ intensified . The hurricane ultimately peaked as a Category 3 hurricane on August 31 , and was also the most intense tropical cyclone of the season , in addition to being the only major hurricane in the Atlantic that year . Around the time of attaining peak intensity , Gustav began a fujiwhara interaction with nearby Tropical Storm Hortense . After attaining peak intensity on August 31 , Gustav weakened back , at nearly the same rate as it had intensified , and deteriorated to a tropical storm on September 2 . By September 3 , Gustav transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , 230 mi ( 370 km ) south of Iceland .
Gustav initially appeared as a significant threat to the Lesser Antilles , which was devastated by Hurricane Hugo about a year prior . As a result , several hurricane watches and warnings were issued on August 27 , but all were discontinued later that day as Gustav turned northward . The only effects reported on the Lesser Antilles were large swells , light winds , and light rains . Following the passage of Gustav , no damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Hortense = = =
The ninth tropical depression of the season developed from a tropical wave 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 126 @.@ 5 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde on August 25 . The depression headed west @-@ northwestward , while slowly intensifying and establishing better @-@ defined upper @-@ level outflow . By August 26 , the depression intensified enough to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Hortense . After becoming a tropical storm , Hortense was steered nearly due north , under the influence on an upper @-@ level low . Hortense later headed generally northwestward , after the upper @-@ level low degenerated into a trough and moved eastward . Although intensification was somewhat slow , Hortense managed to peak as a 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) tropical storm on August 28 . On August 29 , nearby Hurricane Gustav was rapidly intensifying , and began to significantly affect Hortense with increasing vertical wind shear . Hortense weakened , with the storm degenerating into a tropical depression on August 30 . Further weakening occurred , and Hortense dissipated on August 31 circa 805 mi ( 1 @,@ 296 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Isidore = = =
A vigorous tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September 3 . It quickly developed an area of deep convection with a well @-@ defined circulation , which prompted it being classified a tropical depression on September 4 . At the time it was situated hundreds of miles south of Cape Verde at a very low latitude of 7 @.@ 2 ° N. Initial intensification was slow as the system moved northwestward , a movement caused by a large mid @-@ level trough over the central Atlantic . On September 5 the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Isidore . Subsequently it intensified at a faster rate , becoming a hurricane on September 6 . The following day , satellite estimates from the Dvorak technique suggested a peak intensity of 100 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 978 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 88 inHg ) .
After peaking , Isidore entered a region of stronger upper @-@ level winds and quickly weakened . By September 8 it had deteriorated into a tropical storm , although re @-@ intensification occurred after the shear decreased . An eye feature redeveloped in the center of the convection , and Isidore re @-@ intensified into a hurricane on September 9 . It ultimately reached a secondary peak intensity of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Isidore 's motion slowed , briefly becoming stationary , although it remained a hurricane for several days . Cooler waters imparted weakening to a tropical storm on September 16 , and the next day it became extratropical to the east of Newfoundland . There were a few ships that came in contact with Hurricane Isidore , one of which reported hurricane @-@ force wind gusts . The storm never approached land during its duration , and no damage or casualties were reported .
= = = Tropical Depression Eleven = = =
On September 18 , Tropical Depression Eleven formed midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles from a tropical wave . Ship and reconnaissance aircraft observations reported that the depression almost reached tropical storm strength . It was sheared by strong upper @-@ level winds until it dissipated on September 27 . The system never affected land .
= = = Hurricane Josephine = = =
A tropical wave exited the coast of Africa on September 16 with copious convection . It tracked westward , developing into Tropical Depression Twelve on September 21 while located a few hundred miles west of Cape Verde . Without intensifying further , the depression turned northward , due to a weakness caused by the deepening of a 200 mbar cut @-@ off low near the Iberian Peninsula . Under the influence of a building high pressure area , the depression turned to a northwest and later westward drift . It into Tropical Storm Josephine on September 24 , although increased wind shear from a trough weakened the storm back to a tropical depression on September 26 . It remained weak for several days , gradually turning to the north due to a weak trough over the northwestern Atlantic . On October 1 , another high pressure area halted its northward movement , causing Josephine to turn to the east . That day , it re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm as it began to execute a small cyclonic loop . An approaching trough caused Josephine to accelerate north @-@ northeastward , and with favorable conditions it intensified into a hurricane on October 5 , after existing nearly two weeks .
Hurricane Josephine intensified slightly more on October 5 , attained its peak intensity later that day , with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 980 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 94 inHg ) . A large mid @-@ latitude storm began developing on October 5 , and Hurricane Josephine accelerated around the east periphery on the system . Josephine weakened back to a tropical storm early on October 6 , while moving to the north of the mid @-@ latitude system . After tracking near the mid @-@ latitude cyclone , Tropical Storm Josephine transitioned into an extratropical storm on October 6 before being absorbed by it . The mid @-@ latitude cyclone later developed into Hurricane Lili .
= = = Hurricane Klaus = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen on October 3 , 115 mi ( 185 km / h ) east of Dominica . The depression rapidly intensified into a tropical storm , and was classified as Tropical Storm Klaus only six hours later . Because Klaus was in an area of weak steering current , it was drifting west @-@ northwestward . On October 5 , Klaus briefly intensified into a hurricane , and passed only 12 mi ( 19 km ) east of Barbuda later that day . By the following day , Klaus had weakened back into a tropical storm . After weakening to a tropical storm , Klaus began to accelerate , while turning westward . Klaus became significantly affected by wind shear , as it weakened to a tropical depression to the north of Puerto Rico on October 8 . Later that day , deep convection began to re @-@ developed near the low @-@ level circulation of Klaus , and it had re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm . As Klaus tracked northwestward near the Bahamas on October 9 , it was absorbed by an area of low pressure , which would eventually develop into Tropical Storm Marco .
Since Klaus passed very close to the Leeward Islands , tropical storm watches and warnings were issued , as well as hurricane watches and warning , starting on October 4 . In addition , tropical storm watches and warnings were also issued for the British and United States Virgin Islands , and the Bahamas . After several watches and warnings were issued , all were discontinued by October 9 , around the time when Klaus was absorbed by the area of low pressure . In Martinique , flooding caused seven fatalities , and displaced 1 @,@ 500 other people . Heavy rainfall also occurred on other Leeward Islands , with estimates as high as 15 in ( 381 mm ) of precipitation . However , no effects were reported in the Bahamas . The remnants brought large waves and heavy rainfall to southeastern United States , which caused four deaths when a dam burst in South Carolina . In total , Klaus caused 11 fatalities , but only $ 1 million ( 1990 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 81 million 2016 USD ) in damage .
= = = Hurricane Lili = = =
A cold @-@ core low which affected the latter stages of Josephine developed at the surface and became a subtropical storm on October 6 , about 875 mi ( 1 @,@ 408 @.@ 1 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The subtropical storm moved southwest and slowly curved westward , nearly intensifying into a hurricane . On October 11 , the subtropical storm finally acquired tropical characteristics . Simultaneously , the now @-@ tropical cyclone intensified into a hurricane , and was re @-@ classified as Hurricane Lili . After becoming a hurricane , Lili headed rapidly west @-@ southwestward , and did not intensify past maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . After passing 140 mi ( 230 km ) south of Bermuda later that day , Lili began to curve slowly northward , thereby avoiding landfall in the United States . While about 200 mi ( 321 @.@ 9 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cape Hatteras , Lili weakened back to tropical storm intensity . Weakening to a tropical storm , Lili curved northeastward and accelerated toward Atlantic Canada . However , Lili transitioned into an extratropical storm on October 14 , just offshore of Nova Scotia . The post @-@ tropical cyclone made landfall on Newfoundland soon afterwards .
Lili posed a threat to Bermuda , and a hurricane warning as the storm approached , but only gusty winds and light rainfall was reported . As Lili continued westward , it had also posed a significant threat to the East Coast of the United States , since some of the computer models did not predict a northward curve . As a result , several hurricane watches and warnings were issued from Little River Inlet , South Carolina , to Cape Henlopen , Delaware . However , Lili later curved northward , and only caused minor coastal erosion in North Carolina and rainfall in Pennsylvania . Lili began impacting Atlantic Canada as it was transitioning an extratropical cyclone , and the storm reportedly caused strong winds in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland . No damage total or fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Marco = = =
As Klaus was dissipating , a new cold low developed over Cuba and developed down to the surface as a tropical depression on October 9 . The depression emerged the Straits of Florida , and quickly intensified into a tropical storm on October 10 . After becoming a tropical storm , Marco steadily intensified and eventually peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Marco headed towards Florida , and remained just offshore of the western coast and nearly made landfall near St. Petersburg , Florida on October 12 . However , Marco continued to interact with land , and weakened to a tropical depression before actually making landfall near Cedar Key , Florida with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . It rapidly weakened over land , and dissipated in Georgia later that day . Although it had dissipated , Marco added to the heavy rainfall already brought to the southeastern states by the remnants Hurricane Klaus .
Although only a depression at final landfall , this was officially counted as a tropical storm hit on the United States as much of the circulation was on land before landfall in the area of St. Petersburg , Florida . In preparations for Marco , a tropical storm warning was issued for nearly the entire Gulf and Atlantic coast of Florida . In Florida , Marco caused flooding damage to houses and roads , in addition to producing tropical storm force winds across the state . However , Marco is more notable for the impact from the remnants , especially in Georgia and South Carolina , where rainfall from the storm peaked at 19 @.@ 89 in ( 505 mm ) near Louisville , Georgia . In combination with the remnants of Hurricane Klaus , Marco caused heavy rainfall in South Carolina , causing a dam to burst , leading to three fatalities . Several more fatalities were caused by the remnants of Marco and Klaus , and the system caused 12 deaths . It also caused $ 57 million ( 1990 USD , $ 109 million 2016 USD ) in damage , most of it from damage or destruction of residences in Georgia .
= = = Hurricane Nana = = =
On October 7 , a vigorous tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa near Cape Verde , and despite semi @-@ favorable conditions , the wave did not develop initially , due to embedded westerlies , which caused the wave to remain disorganized , despite having deep convection . Six days later , the wave had reached the Lesser Antilles , and split , the northern portion of the wave then developed into Tropical Depression Sixteen on October 16 . The depression rapidly intensified to a tropical storm , and then a hurricane the next day , receiving the name Nana . Development increased slightly and the system reached its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) that same day . Nana dissipated while heading southward on October 21 .
Nana initially posed a threat to Bermuda , and as a result , a hurricane watch was issued late on October 18 . However , after Nana weakened to a tropical storm on October 20 , the hurricane watch was downgraded to a tropical storm watch . Furthermore , Nana began to curve southeastward away from Bermuda , and later on October 20 , the tropical storm watch was discontinued . The only known effect from Nana on Bermuda was 0 @.@ 33 in ( 8 @.@ 4 mm ) of rain . Nana was a very small hurricane , the circulation probably being only 30 – 40 mi ( 50 – 60 km ) wide . Nana was the first storm to receive the ' N ' name since naming began in the Atlantic basin in 1950 , and the first of thirteen storms to do so .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1990 . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 1996 season . This is the same list used for the 1984 season . Storms were named Marco and Nana for the first time in 1990 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
The World Meteorological Organization retired two names in the spring of 1991 : Diana and Klaus . They were replaced in the 1996 season by Dolly and Kyle .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in 1990 and the affected regions , if any . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still storm @-@ related . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low .
= Charles Fryatt =
Charles Algernon Fryatt ( 2 December 1872 – 27 July 1916 ) was a British mariner who was executed by the Germans for attempting to ram a U @-@ boat in 1915 . When his ship , the SS Brussels , was captured off the Netherlands in 1916 , he was court @-@ martialled and sentenced to death although he was a civilian non @-@ combatant . International outrage followed his execution near Bruges , Belgium . In 1919 , his body was reburied with full honours in the United Kingdom .
= = Early life = =
Fryatt was born on 2 December 1872 in Southampton , the son of Charles and Mary Fryatt . He attended Freemantle School in the late 1870s . In 1881 , Fryatt 's family lived at 22 Trinity Terrace , in St Mary 's , Southampton , but later moved to Harwich , Essex where he attended the Corporation School . He and his wife , Ethel , had seven children ; six girls and one boy . The children were Olive , Victoria , Doris , Vera , Mabel , Charles and Dorothy . The younger Charles later followed his father into the merchant navy , training at HMS Worcester .
On leaving school , Fryatt entered the Mercantile Marine , serving on SS County Antrim , SS Ellenbank , SS Marmion and SS Harrogate . In 1892 , Fryatt joined the Great Eastern Railway as a seaman on SS Ipswich . Fryatt 's father had been the First Officer on SS Cambridge . Fryatt rose through the ranks , serving on various ships . His first command was SS Colchester . In 1913 , he was appointed master of SS Newmarket .
= = U @-@ boat attack = =
On 3 March 1915 , Fryatt 's command , SS Wrexham , a Great Central Railway ship , was attacked by a German U @-@ Boat . The ship was chased for 40 nautical miles ( 74 km ) . With deckhands assisting the stokers , the vessel made 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) when it would normally have been pushed to make 14 knots ( 26 km / h ) . Wrexham arrived at Rotterdam with burnt funnels . The Great Eastern Railway presented Fryatt with a gold watch for this feat . The watch was inscribed Presented to Captain C. A. Fryatt by the chairman and Directors of the G.E Railway Company as a mark of their appreciation of his courage and skilful seamanship on March 2nd , 1915 . Later that month he was in charge of Colchester when it was unsuccessfully attacked by a U @-@ boat .
On 28 March 1915 , as captain of the SS Brussels , he was ordered to stop by U @-@ 33 when his ship was near the Maas lightvessel . Seeing the U @-@ boat had surfaced to torpedo his ship , Fryatt ordered full steam ahead and proceeded to try to ram U @-@ 33 , which was forced to crash dive . This action was in compliance with orders issued by Winston Churchill to captains of merchant ships . These orders included treating the crews of U @-@ boats as felons and not as prisoners of war , in consideration of the German Empire 's policy of unrestricted submarine warfare . White flags were to be ignored . Churchill 's order also stated that survivors from U @-@ boats might be shot if this was more convenient than taking them prisoner . If a captain were to surrender his ship he would be prosecuted by the British . The Germans became aware of these orders when they found a copy of them upon capturing the SS Ben Cruachan in October 1915 . For this second action , Fryatt was awarded a gold watch by the Admiralty . The watch was inscribed Presented by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to Chas . Algernon Fryatt Master of the S.S. ' Brussels ' in recognition of the example set by that vessel when attacked by a German submarine on March 28th , 1915 . Fryatt was presented with a certificate on vellum by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty . He was also praised in the House of Commons .
= = Capture = =
On 25 June 1916 , Brussels left Hoek van Holland bound for Harwich . Lights were shown from the beach and a flare was fired . A passenger is reported to have remained on deck and signalled to shore . Five German destroyers surrounded Brussels . The passengers were told to prepare to take to the lifeboats and orders were given for official papers to be destroyed , which was done successfully . Brussels was taken by the Germans , and the radio was destroyed . She was escorted into Zeebrugge and then to Bruges .
= = Court Martial = =
Fryatt and his crew were sent to the civilian internment camp at Ruhleben , near Berlin . On 16 July 1916 , it was reported in the Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf that Fryatt had been charged with sinking a German submarine . The Germans knew that U @-@ 33 had not been sunk . At the time of the trial she was on active service as part of the Constantinople Flotilla . The basis for the charge was the inscriptions on his watches . Fryatt was tried at a Court Martial on 27 July 1916 . The Court Martial was held at Bruges Town Hall . He was found guilty of being a franc @-@ tireur and sentenced to death . The sentence was confirmed by the Kaiser . At 19 : 00 , Fryatt was executed by firing squad and was buried in a small cemetery just outside Bruges that the Germans used for burying Belgian " traitors " . The grave was later visited by diplomat Sir Walter Townley ( British Ambassador to the Netherlands from 1917 to 1919 . ) and his wife .
An execution notice was published in Dutch , French and German announcing the death of Fryatt . It was signed by Admiral Ludwig von Schröder . A translation of the execution notice reads as follows :
NOTICE . The English captain of a merchant ship , Charles Fryatt , of Southampton , though he did not belong to the armed forces of the enemy , attempted on March 28th , 1915 , to destroy a German submarine by running it down . For this he has been condemned to death by judgment this day of the Field Court Martial of the Naval Corps , and has been executed . A ruthless deed has thus been avenged , belatedly but just . Signed VON SCHRÖDER , Admiral Commandant of the Naval Corps , Bruges , July 27th , 1916 .
= = = German post @-@ war confirmation of Court Martial = = =
On 2 April 1919 , a German International Law Commission named the " Schücking Commission " , after its chairman Walther Schücking , reconfirmed Fryatt 's sentence :
" The execution by shooting of Captain Charles Fryatt , which was given by the Court Martial Bruges , due to the sentence of the court martial proceedings on 27 July 1916 , contains no violation of international law , The Commission apologizes most vividly for the hurry in which the judgement was enforced . "
The Commission 's ruling was not unanimous . Two members of the legal review panel , Eduard Bernstein and Oskar Cohn , dissented because in their opinion Fryatt 's sentence had been a severe infringement of international law .
= = Reaction = =
On 31 July 1916 , British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith issued a statement in the House of Commons .
I deeply regret to say that it appears to be true that Captain Fryatt has been murdered by the Germans . His Majesty 's Government have heard with the utmost indignation of this atrocious crime against the laws of nations and the usages of war . Coming as it does contemporaneously with the lawless cruelty towards the population of Lille and other occupied districts of France , it shews that the German High Command , under the stress of military defeat , have renewed their policy of terrorism . It is impossible of course to conjecture to what atrocities they may proceed .
His Majesty 's Government desire to repeat emphatically their resolve that such crimes shall not , if they can help it , go unpunished . When the time arrives they are determined to bring to justice the criminals whoever they maybe and whatever position they may occupy . In such cases as these the authors of the system under which such crimes are committed may well be the most guilty of all . The question of what immediate action can be taken is engaging the earnest attention of the Government and I hope very soon to announce to the House of Commons what we can do .
Lord Claud Hamilton , MP , Chairman of the Great Eastern Railway , denounced the execution as " sheer , brutal murder " . The Mayor of Harwich opened a fund to erect a permanent memorial to Fryatt . A similar fund was opened in the Netherlands .
In the United States , The New York Times denounced the execution as " a deliberate murder " . The New York Herald called it " The crowning German atrocity " . In the Netherlands , the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant described the execution as " arbitrary and unjust " , while the Handelsblad Holland called it " A cowardly murder inspired by hatred and revenge " . In Switzerland , the Journal de Genève said " It is monstrous to maintain that armed forces have a right to murder civilians but that civilians are guilty of a crime in defending themselves " . The Dutch branch of the League of Neutral States presented the Great Eastern Railway a memorial tablet which was erected at Liverpool Street station . The memorial was unveiled on 27 July 1917 , exactly a year after Fryatt 's execution . The scrap value of Brussels was donated towards the cost .
The Great Eastern Railway awarded Fryatt 's widow a pension of £ 250 per annum . The Government granted her an extra £ 100 per annum pension on top of her entitlement . Fryatt 's insurers , the Provident Clerk 's Association , paid the £ 300 that Mrs Fryatt was entitled to immediately , dispensing with the usual formalities . The Royal Merchant Seaman 's Orphanage offered to educate two of Fryatt 's seven children . The King expressed his indignation and abhorrence at the execution of Fryatt in a letter to Mrs Fryatt . In the letter , he also wrote " The action of Captain Fryatt in defending his ship against the attack of an enemy submarine was a noble instance of the resource and self @-@ reliance so characteristic of his profession . "
The incident inspired an Australian film , The Murder of Captain Fryatt ( 1917 ) .
= = Funeral and reburial = =
In 1919 , Fryatt 's body was exhumed and returned to the United Kingdom for burial . His coffin was landed at Dover , and transported in South Eastern and Chatham Railway PMV No.132 to London . On 8 July 1919 , his funeral was held at St Paul 's Cathedral . Hundreds of merchant seamen and widows of merchant seamen and fishermen attended . Representing the Government were many members of the Admiralty , the Board of Trade , the Cabinet and the War Office .
The band of the Great Eastern Railway , augmented by drummers from the Royal Marines , played the Dead March . Eternal Father , Strong to Save and Abide with Me were sung , and a blessing given by the Bishop of London . The route of the coffin to Liverpool Street station was lined with people . Fryatt was buried at All Saints ' Church , Upper Dovercourt . His coffin was carried from the station to the church on a gun carriage . His widow was presented with the insignia of the Belgian Order of Leopold that had been posthumously awarded to Fryatt . Fryatt was also posthumously awarded the Belgian Maritime War Cross .
= = Namesakes = =
In Zeebrugge there 's a street named after Captain Fryatt , It 's the place where he was forced to border by the Germans
A wing at Dovercourt Cottage Hospital – which is now known as the Captain Fryatt Memorial Hospital . – was named in Fryatt 's honour . A public house in nearby Parkeston is also named in Captain Fryatt 's honour .
In Canada , the 11 @,@ 027 feet ( 3 @,@ 361 m ) high Mount Fryatt ( 52 ° 33 ′ 00 ″ N 117 ° 54 ′ 35 ″ W ) was named in 1921 in honour of Captain Fryatt . The 10 @,@ 317 feet ( 3 @,@ 145 m ) high Brussels Peak ( 51 ° 31 ′ 00 ″ N 117 ° 49 ′ 20 ″ W ) was named in honour of his ship .
= = Commemoration = =
In 2016 , an exhibition was held at the Masonic Hall , Harwich to commemmorate the 100th anniversary of his execution . The exhibition runs from 23 to 31 July .
= SS Merion =
SS Merion was an ocean liner built in 1902 for the American Line , a subsidiary line of the International Mercantile Marine ( IMM ) . She also sailed for the Red Star Line and the Dominion Line — both subsidiary lines of IMM — during her passenger career . After the outbreak of World War I she was bought by the British Admiralty and converted to serve as a decoy resembling the Royal Navy battlecruiser HMS Tiger . In May 1915 , while posing as Tiger in the Aegean Sea , Merion was sunk by the German submarine SM UB @-@ 8 .
= = Career = =
Merion was built by John Brown & Company of Clydebank , Scotland for the American Line , a subsidiary of the International Navigation Company , and launched on 26 November 1901 . The ship was 161 @.@ 7 metres ( 530 ft 6 in ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 18 @.@ 0 metres ( 59 ft 1 in ) abeam . She had a gross register tonnage ( GRT ) of 11 @,@ 621 . The ship had twin screw propellers powered by twin triple @-@ expansion steam engines , and , at top speed , could move 14 knots ( 26 km / h ) . As built , Merion had accommodations for 150 second- and 1 @,@ 700 third @-@ class passengers . She was a sister ship to Haverford .
Upon completion , the ship was chartered to the Dominion Line , a subsidiary line of International Mercantile Marine ( IMM ) with which International Navigation had merged in 1902 . The liner sailed for Dominion on her maiden voyage on 8 March 1902 from Liverpool to Boston . After completing eleven voyages on that route , Merion was returned to the American Line in March 1903 . The following month she began sailing on the Liverpool – Philadelphia route on which she sailed most of the rest of her passenger career . She was briefly chartered to the Red Star Line in 1907 for one Antwerp – New York voyage .
The liner had several mishaps during her passenger career . On 2 March 1903 , an article in The Washington Post reported that Merion had run aground shortly after leaving Queenstown while en route to Liverpool from Boston . The ship was freed from her perch near Chicago Knoll by the rising tide , but when she got underway again became stuck fast in almost the same spot . At press time , two British Admiralty tugs had been dispatched to free the ship . Almost exactly a year later , Merion collided with the steamer Clan Grant off Tuskar Rock on 30 March 1904 and was damaged . On 24 December 1912 , Merion collided with a tanker off the Delaware coast and sustained damage which included two flooded compartments . The ship was beached below Cross Ledge , but was refloated and made way under her own power back to Philadelphia , after discharging her cargo and passengers .
After the outbreak of World War I in Europe , Merion was equipped with four 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) guns for defensive purposes . Merion was the subject of a protest by the German Consul at Philadelphia , when she docked at that port equipped with those guns , counter to rules regarding armed ships in neutral ports . The still @-@ neutral United States required that the guns be removed before they would allow Merion to sail ; her guns were stowed belowdecks when she departed Philadelphia on 5 September 1914 . Merion 's final voyage on the Liverpool – Philadelphia route began on 31 October , after which she was sold to the British Admiralty .
Merion was employed as part of a program that disguised ocean liners to resemble Royal Navy capital ships . Merion was patterned after the British battlecruiser HMS Tiger and deployed in the Mediterranean . For this duty , the liner was equipped with canvas @-@ and @-@ wood replicas of Tiger 's guns , and her crew had to stow them whenever approached by neutral ships . The ship was also overloaded with ballast to make the ship ride lower in the water to match the profile of the real Tiger .
On 29 May 1915 , the German submarine UB @-@ 8 , apparently tempted by the prospect of sinking a British battlecruiser , allowed five loaded transports to sail past before launching a torpedo attack on Merion . One torpedo from UB @-@ 8 struck the liner and exploded , sending some of the " cement and stones " used as ballast into the air . Some of Merion 's crew that were knocked overboard by the explosion were able to float ashore on nearby Strati Island on remnants of the liner 's false guns . Despite being severely overloaded , Merion did not immediately sink , remaining afloat more than 24 hours before finally succumbing to the attack on 31 May . Four crew were killed during the . Merion 's sinking .
= Paul Kruger =
Stephanus Johannes Paulus " Paul " Kruger ( / ˈkruːɡər / ; Dutch : [ ˈkryɣər ] ; 10 October 1825 – 14 July 1904 ) was one of the dominant political and military figures in 19th @-@ century South Africa , and President of the South African Republic ( or Transvaal ) from 1883 to 1900 . Nicknamed Oom Paul ( " Uncle Paul " ) , he came to international prominence as the face of the Boer cause — that of the Transvaal and its neighbour the Orange Free State — against Britain during the Second Boer War of 1899 – 1902 . He has been called a personification of Afrikanerdom , and remains a controversial and divisive figure ; admirers venerate him as a tragic folk hero , while critics view him as the obstinate guardian of an unjust cause .
Born in the eastern Cape Colony , Kruger took part in the Great Trek as a child during the late 1830s . He had almost no education apart from the Bible and , through his interpretations of scripture , believed the Earth was flat . A protégé of the Voortrekker leader Andries Pretorius , he witnessed the signing of the Sand River Convention with Britain in 1852 and over the next decade played a prominent role in the forging of the South African Republic , leading its commandos and resolving disputes between the rival Boer leaders and factions . In 1863 he was elected Commandant @-@ General , a post he held for a decade before he resigned soon after the election of President Thomas François Burgers .
Kruger was appointed Vice @-@ President in 1877 , shortly before the South African Republic was annexed by Britain as the Transvaal . Over the next three years he headed two deputations to London to try to have this overturned and became the leading figure in the movement to restore the South African Republic 's independence , culminating in the Boers ' victory in the First Boer War of 1880 – 81 . Kruger served until 1883 as a member of an executive triumvirate , then was elected President . In 1884 he headed a third deputation that brokered the London Convention , under which Britain recognised the South African Republic as a fully independent state .
Following the influx of thousands of predominantly British settlers with the Witwatersrand Gold Rush of 1886 , " uitlanders " ( out @-@ landers ) provided almost all of the South African Republic 's tax revenues but lacked civic representation ; Boer burghers retained control of the government . The uitlander problem and the associated tensions with Britain dominated Kruger 's attention for the rest of his presidency , to which he was re @-@ elected in 1888 , 1893 and 1898 , and led to the Jameson Raid of 1895 – 96 and ultimately the Second Boer War . Kruger left for Europe as the war turned against the Boers in 1900 and spent the rest of his life in exile , refusing to return home following the British victory . After he died in Switzerland at the age of 78 in 1904 , his body was returned to South Africa for a state funeral , and buried in the Heroes ' Acre in Pretoria .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and childhood = = =
Stephanus Johannes Paulus Kruger was born on 10 October 1825 at Bulhoek , Cape Colony , the third child and second son of Casper Jan Hendrik Kruger , a farmer , and his wife Elsie ( Elisa ; née Steyn ) . The family was of Dutch @-@ speaking Afrikaner or Boer background , of German , French Huguenot and Dutch stock . His paternal ancestors had been in South Africa since 1713 , when Jacob Krüger , from Berlin , arrived in Cape Town as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old soldier in the Dutch East India Company 's service . Jacob 's children dropped the umlaut from the family name , a common practice among South Africans of German origin , and over the following generations Kruger 's paternal forebears moved into the interior . His mother 's family , the Steyns , had lived in South Africa since 1668 and were relatively affluent and cultured by Cape standards . Kruger 's great @-@ great @-@ uncle Hermanus Steyn had been President of the self @-@ declared Republic of Swellendam that revolted against Company rule in 1795 .
Bulhoek , Kruger 's birthplace , was the Steyn family farm and had been Elsie 's home since early childhood ; her father Douw Gerbrand Steyn had settled there in 1809 . The Krugers and Steyns were acquainted and Casper occasionally visited Bulhoek as a young man . He and Elsie married in Cradock in 1820 , when he was 18 and she was 14 . A girl , Sophia , and a boy , Douw Gerbrand , were born before Paul 's arrival in 1825 . The child 's first two names , Stephanus Johannes , were chosen after his paternal grandfather , but rarely used — the provenance of the third name Paulus " was to remain rather a mystery " , Johannes Meintjes wrote in his 1974 biography of Kruger , " and yet the boy was always called Paul . "
Paul Kruger was baptised at Cradock on 19 March 1826 , and soon thereafter his parents acquired a farm of their own to the north @-@ west at Vaalbank , near Colesberg , in the remote north @-@ east of the Cape Colony . His mother died when he was eight ; Casper soon remarried and had more children with his second wife , Heiletje ( née du Plessis ) . Beyond reading and writing , which he learned from relatives , Kruger 's only education was three months under a travelling tutor , Tielman Roos , and Calvinist religious instruction from his father . In adulthood Kruger would claim to have never read any book apart from the Bible .
= = = Great Trek = = =
In 1835 Casper Kruger , his father and his brothers Gert and Theuns moved their families east and set up farms near the Caledon River , on the Cape Colony 's far north @-@ eastern frontier . The Cape had been under British sovereignty since 1814 , when the Netherlands ceded it to Britain with the Convention of London . Boer discontent with aspects of British rule , such as the institution of English as the sole official language and the abolition of slavery in 1834 , led to the Great Trek — a mass migration by Dutch @-@ speaking " Voortrekkers " north @-@ east from the Cape to the land over the Orange and Vaal Rivers . While many Boers had been voicing displeasure with the British Cape administration for some time , the Krugers were comparatively content — they had always co @-@ operated with the British and the abolition of slavery was irrelevant to them as they did not own slaves . They had given little thought to the idea of leaving the Cape .
A group of emigrants under Hendrik Potgieter passed through the Krugers ' Caledon encampments in early 1836 . Potgieter envisioned a Boer republic with himself in a prominent role ; he sufficiently impressed the Krugers that they joined his party of Voortrekkers . Kruger 's father continued to give the children religious education in the Boer fashion during the trek , having them recite or write down biblical passages from memory each day after lunch and dinner . At stops along the journey classrooms were improvised from reeds and grass and the more educated emigrants took turns in teaching .
The Voortrekkers faced competition for the area they were entering from Mzilikazi and his Ndebele ( or Matabele ) people , a recent offshoot from the Zulu Kingdom to the south @-@ east . On 16 October 1836 the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Kruger took part in the Battle of Vegkop , where Potgieter 's laager , a circle of wagons chained together , was unsuccessfully attacked by Mzilikazi and around 4 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 Matabele warriors . Kruger and the other small children assisted in tasks such as bullet @-@ casting while the women and larger boys helped the fighting men , of whom there were about 40 . Kruger could recall the battle in great detail and give a vivid account well into old age .
During 1837 and 1838 Kruger 's family was part of the Voortrekker group under Potgieter that trekked further east into Natal . Here they met the American missionary Daniel Lindley , who gave young Paul much spiritual invigoration . The Zulu King Dingane concluded a land treaty with Potgieter , but then promptly reconsidered and massacred first Piet Retief 's party of settlers , then others at Weenen . Kruger would recount his family 's group coming under attack from Zulus soon after the Retief massacre , describing " children pinioned to their mothers ' breasts by spears , or with their brains dashed out on waggon wheels " — but " God heard our prayer " , he recalled , and " we followed them and shot them down as they fled , until more of them were dead than those of us they had killed in their attack ... I could shoot moderately well for we lived , so to speak , among the game . "
These developments impelled the Krugers ' return to the highveld , where they took part in Potgieter 's campaign that compelled Mzilikazi to move his people north , across the Limpopo River , to what became Matabeleland . Kruger and his father thereupon
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The ToeJam & Earl spinoff game was held in the highest regard , and reviewers recommended the Menacer @-@ compatible Terminator 2 game . A direct @-@ to @-@ TV light gun that includes the six @-@ game Menacer pack was released in 2005 .
= = Description = =
The gray , white , and red Menacer is a light gun peripheral for the Sega Genesis . The Menacer is built of three separable parts : a pistol , twin sights , and shoulder stock . ( In the peripheral 's branding , these parts were called the Master Module , Binocular Module , and Stabilizer Module , respectively . ) The pistol has a double grip and fires the infrared beam with a trigger on the back grip . There are three buttons on the pistol 's front grip : one pauses the game and the other two provide game @-@ specific functions . Unlike the Super Scope , the Menacer has two infrared transmitters . The optional skeletal shoulder stock and binocular twin sights were designed to improve the aim . Digital Spy reported that the twin sights never worked as intended , and Sega Force wrote that the gun must be recalibrated when adding or removing the sights . Calibration is performed by aiming at a bullseye target to adjust the gun 's sensitivity . The gun was designed to be reassembled to suit the player .
The light gun 's shots are controlled by its aim towards the television . It operates on batteries and works in conjunction with a sensor plugged into the second controller port and placed atop the television display . The sensor counts CRT television scan lines to detect the player 's shots . Sega Force noticed that the controller acts erratically when used under fluorescent lighting . Sega recommended eight feet of distance from the receiver , though the peripheral works between four and 12 feet from the television . Sega Force reported that the controller lasts about 18 hours on new batteries , though Will Smith of The Hawk Eye estimated fewer ( " a matter of hours " ) . The Toronto Star wrote that the Menacer lasts 20 hours as opposed to the Super Scope 's 50 to 140 hours . The Menacer has no power switch : it automatically activates when aimed at the television and turns off after 30 seconds without input . The Super Scope fully drains its batteries when left on . Menacer 's Accu @-@ Sight option puts crosshairs on the screen to eliminate the need to aim manually through the sights . The gun does not have a " turbo " mode for continuous fire , unlike the Super Scope .
= = History = =
The Menacer was produced in response to the Nintendo Super Scope released several months earlier , though Sega intended to support the peripheral as more than a clone . These two peripherals brought arcade light gun game ports to home consoles . The Menacer is the successor to the Master System 's Light Phaser .
Mac Senour , a producer at Sega , was responsible for the peripheral and its six @-@ game cartridge as the company 's " hardware boy " . He designed the six minigames based on Sega 's previous intellectual property and licenses — such as ToeJam & Earl — under the instruction to avoid shooting games . His prototypes included games based on Joe Montana ( Joe Montana Wide Receiver Training Camp ) and David Robinson , but when presented , the company asked for more shooting games and scrapped all license @-@ based games ( besides ToeJam & Earl , whose license was free ) due to their added cost . His " reverse Blockout game " prototype was the only other title carried to the final cartridge . Senour recalled that upon his cubicle presentation to Sega Japan 's president , the executive did not say anything besides " very good " before leaving . Sega did not plan any other first @-@ party releases for the Menacer — Senour recollected that " they laughed when I proposed more . "
Sega announced the Menacer alongside the Sega CD at the May 1992 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago and the peripheral was released towards the end of that year . By December 1992 , the Menacer began shipping with Terminator 2 : The Arcade Game as a bundle . Goodby , Silverstein & Partners produced Menacer television advertisements directed by Danny Boyle . Playthings reported that Chicago toy retailers promoted Sega electronics including the Menacer over Nintendo 's during their 1992 Thanksgiving promotions . Sega 's sales exceeded Nintendo 's during the 1992 Christmas season , and gained cultural cachet for the Menacer among other peripherals . Electronic Gaming Monthly reported in March 1993 that the Menacer would not have a new game for six months . Compatible games were published through 1995 .
Mac Senour left Sega in 1993 for Atari , where he received an increase in pay and status . He later worked at Konami and Electronic Arts . In his first days at Atari , Senour was sent to Paris , where he remembered an excess of unsold Menacers in a Virgin Megastore display . His translators told the clerk that Senour was responsible for the Menacer , and when Senour offered to autograph their stock , the clerk replied in slow English that Senour could autograph the items he purchased .
In 2005 , Radica created a Menacer @-@ based direct @-@ to @-@ TV dedicated console with the original six @-@ game cartridge built into a light gun controller as part of their Play TV Legends line of Sega Genesis dedicated consoles . Retro Gamer wrote that Radica 's gun is based on the Sega Saturn light gun 's design and not the Menacer 's .
= = Games = =
Games include the pack @-@ in single @-@ player Menacer 6 @-@ game cartridge , which consists of mostly shooting gallery games :
Ready , Aim , Tomatoes ! is a spin @-@ off of the original ToeJam & Earl where the player ( as ToeJam ) fires tomatoes at ToeJam & Earl series enemies for points as the screen scrolls . The scroll speed increases with game duration . The enemies — dentists , devils , and cupids — return fire throughout the ten levels . The game also features power @-@ ups and lock @-@ on targeting , to aide in player accuracy .
In Rockman 's Zone , the screen scrolls through streets of houses as the player shoots criminals and refrains from shooting innocent bystanders , for which the player loses a life . In later levels , the criminals return fire faster .
Space Station Defender is similar to Tomatoes ! with added memory aspects . In each level , players shoot enemy @-@ filled pods as up to eight drop in a memorizable sequence . There are 999 levels , a Power Zone to charge shots , and power @-@ ups including extra shields .
Whack Ball is comparable to Breakout : the player controls a large ball with the Menacer to push a smaller on @-@ screen ball into color @-@ changing bricks that line the wall . One all of the bricks change color , the player moves to the next level . Some bricks are power @-@ ups that change the larger ball 's size or add extra small balls into play . Players who hit flashing bricks are punished . Inadvertently guiding the ball through a hole in the wall ends the game .
In Front Line , the player defends against tanks and airplanes with a machine gun and missiles with unlimited ammo .
In Pest Control , the player 's vision is limited to a small area of the screen around the Accu @-@ Sight crosshairs while looking for cockroaches that attempt to eat an on @-@ screen pizza . Two different power @-@ ups briefly illuminate the screen and clear all bugs onscreen . Later levels feature larger insects that contain bombs and small , fast bugs .
Digital Spy mentioned Body Count , Terminator 2 : The Arcade Game , and Mad Dog McCree as Menacer 's other notable games . Terminator 2 was the first external game to work with the Menacer , the only one confirmed as of December 1992 . Terminator 's programmers , Probe Software , later began work on another Menacer @-@ compatible game . Terminator 2 has a two @-@ player mode that uses one Menacer light gun and one controller . Sega Force reported that Menacer gameplay registered faster than the Genesis controller . Mad Dog McCree , a live action Wild West shoot ' em up for the Sega CD , used either a controller or a choice of several light guns : the Menacer , the Konami Justifier , or the game developer 's own compatible light gun . In the 1994 Body Count , the player defends Earth from an alien invasion . The Irish Times wrote that the game is " ideally suited for the ... Menacer " and is " to be avoided " otherwise . The Menacer is also compatible with Corpse Killer and American Laser Games ' other titles , such as Who Shot Johnny Rock ? The light gun does not work with Konami 's Lethal Enforcers games or Snatcher , which use the Konami Justifier .
= = Reception = =
Matthew Reynolds of Digital Spy wrote that the Menacer was a poorly executed " flop " that is much less likely to be remembered than its Super Scope competitor , even though the latter did not fare much better . Reynolds added that the Menacer was hurt by the poor quality of the pack @-@ in six @-@ game cartridge and a lack of titles in support of the peripheral . Will Smith of The Hawk Eye concurred , calling the peripheral " a commercial and critical flop " . The Menacer 's original reviewers pinned the device 's success on the strength of its developer support , and multiple reviewers cited the Menacer 's lack of good games as the cause for its decline .
Writing for the Chicago Tribune on the 1992 Consumer Electronics Show , Dennis Lynch saw the Super Scope and Menacer as a continuation of a Nintendo – Sega arms race and wrote that the peripheral 's " Uzi attachment " was " just what every kid needs " . The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution 's Andy Pargh said the Menacer was " definitely a winner " in comparison to the Super Scope . Toronto Star 's William Burrill wrote that the " Great Zapper War " would be decided by the strength of the light guns ' supporting games . Multiple reviewers ultimately recommended that players wait for more games to be released before purchasing the Menacer . William Burrill of the Toronto Star said not to bother unless the player " absolutely love [ s ] target shooter games " . Mean Machines called the Menacer " an expensive novelty " until it had more games . The Herald Sun wrote in August 1993 that the Menacer looked to be " an expensive , limited @-@ use fad " .
GamePro considered the gun " well @-@ designed " and " fairly good @-@ looking " , though they wrote that the gun 's options buttons were inconvenient and that the Menacer 's lengthy recalibrations before play sessions without Accu @-@ Sight were tedious . Mean Machines wrote that the gun 's shades of gray clashed with the glossy black console . Several reviewers called the binocular scope addition unhelpful . Paul Mellerick of Mega found the manual sights an eyestrain and the gun " deadly accurate " as long as players used the Accu @-@ Sight mode . Still , as of January 1993 , Mega felt that the Menacer 's future success was doubtless . Jaz of Mean Machines had low expectations for the Menacer , which he compared to the shortcomings of previous light guns : high price , short @-@ lived novelty , and dearth of games . Gus of Mean Machines wrote that " Sega hasn 't learned the lessons " from the Super Scope 's " fairly naff " release in the magazine 's January 1993 Menacer review , calling the light gun a " samey @-@ looking , samey @-@ playing piece of hardware , with some redundant add @-@ ons " with mediocre launch titles . He added that the Menacer was less tiring to use than the Super Scope , praised the Menacer 's infrared , and criticized the gun 's lack of available software .
Multiple reviewers found the pack @-@ in six @-@ game cartridge games subpar and repetitive . Mean Machines 's Gus wrote that the games were all too simple and easy . Of the pack , reviewers held Ready , Aim , Tomatoes ! in the highest regard . Ray Barnholt of 1UP.com wrote that the Menacer 's games were " duller " than its competitor Super Scope 's already dull games , but Tomatoes ! gave Sega 's cartridge " some pittance of value " . Mega rated the ToeJam & Earl spin @-@ off at 62 % , calling it " fun and strange " though " rather repetitive " . Sega Force thought the game 's graphics were the pack 's best , and its audio to be of high quality , though the magazine also considered the game repetitive . GamePro thought the game 's colors were oversaturated .
As for the other six @-@ pack titles , Mega called Rockman 's Zone " not a very inspiring game " for its slow pacing and " bland " graphics . Reviewers compared the game to Hogan 's Alley and Empire City : 1931 . Mega called Space Station Defender 's concept " incredibly daft " . GamePro criticized Space Station Defender 's " washed @-@ out and ugly " graphics and " obnoxious " audio . The magazine thought poorly of most of the cartridge 's audio . Mega found Whack Ball easy and did not expect players to maintain interest in it for longer than an hour . Sega Visions compared Whack Ball to Arkanoid . Mega wrote that Front Line was programmed poorly with " the appearance of having never met up with a gamestester " , calling it " truly awful " . Electronic Gaming Monthly and GamePro compared the game to Operation Wolf . Sega Force rated Front Line lowest within the six @-@ pack , with a score of 22 % . The magazine wrote that the bug game , Pest Control , would make players bored after ten minutes , and Mega said the game was not worth loading even once , giving it their lowest rating of the bunch : 12 % . Sega Force wrote in February that the games were only fun for an hour and that the peripheral 's success would depend on its future games , adding , " Without that [ developer ] support , it will die as surely as all other attempts at light guns have done . " The magazine ultimately recommended against purchase until more games were released .
Sega Force 's Paul Wooding considered Terminator 2 a " must " for Menacer owners , adding that it far surpassed the quality of the six @-@ pack games . The magazine added that the gun registered shots faster than the controller , was more accurate , and worked well from a distance . Neil West of Mega wrote the Menacer works well with Terminator 2 in his review of the game . The Hawk Eye 's Will Smith wrote in 2010 that the six @-@ game pack and Terminator 2 were the only Menacer games readily accessible . Ken Horowitz of Sega @-@ 16 wrote that none of the Menacer @-@ compatible titles were exceptional , though Terminator and Body Count were standouts . He added that the Menacer 's small library made collecting easier . Edward Fox of The Centre for Computing History has said that the museum 's Menacer is his favorite piece in the collection when used with the Aura Interactor haptic suit .
= Medieval : Total War =
Medieval : Total War is a turn @-@ based strategy and real @-@ time tactics computer game developed by The Creative Assembly and published by Activision . Set in the Middle Ages , it is the second game in the Total War series , following on from the 2000 title Shogun : Total War . Originally announced in August 2001 , the game was released in North America on 19 August 2002 and in Europe on 30 August for Microsoft Windows .
Following a similar form of play to Shogun : Total War , the player builds a dynastic empire in Europe , North Africa and the Middle East , spanning the period of 1087 to 1453 . Gameplay is both strategic and tactical , with strategy played out in turn @-@ based fashion on a province @-@ by @-@ province level , while military units of varying types and capabilities fight against each other in real time on a 3D battlefield .
Medieval : Total War received acclaim from reviewers ; several critics commending it as a milestone in gaming . The real @-@ time battles were praised for their realism and the new feature of siege battles but also received some criticism for unit management . The depth and complexity of the strategy portion was also received well by reviewers , together with well integrated historical accuracy . The game was a commercial success , topping the British video game chart upon release .
= = Gameplay = =
Medieval : Total War is based upon the building of an empire across medieval Europe , North Africa and the Middle East . It focuses on the warfare , religion and politics of the time to ultimately lead the player in conquest of the known world . As with the preceding Total War game , Shogun : Total War , the game consists of two broad areas of gameplay : a turn @-@ based campaign map that allows the user to move armies across provinces , control agents , diplomacy , religion , and other tasks needed to run their faction , and a real @-@ time battlefield , where the player directs the land battles and sieges that occur .
The strategic portion of the game divides the campaign map among twenty factions from the period , with a total of twelve being playable . The initial extent of each major faction 's territory , and the factions available , depends on the starting period of the game , Early ( 1087 ) , High ( 1205 ) or Late ( 1321 ) , reflecting the historical state of these factions over time . The factions themselves represent many of the major nations at the time , including the Byzantine Empire , France , England , the Holy Roman Empire and the Turks . Several factions , such as the Golden Horde , emerge during the course of play at their historical time . These factions , together with several other factions appearing at the start of the campaign , are unavailable to the player in the main campaign . Each faction varies in territory , religion and units ; however , factions of the same culture share many of their core units .
In addition to the main campaign , Medieval : Total War also features a game mode where the player can undertake various historical campaigns and battles . Historical campaigns allow the player to control a series of famous battles from a war of the medieval period , such as the Hundred Years War and the Crusades , playing as historic commanders like Richard the Lionheart . Individual historic battles have the player controlling a historical figure in an isolated battle that occurred in the era , such as controlling William Wallace through the Battle of Stirling Bridge .
= = = Campaign = = =
The main campaign of Medieval : Total War involves the player choosing one of the fourteen playable factions and eventually leading them in conquest on the strategy map . Each of the factions controls a number of historical provinces , which on the map contain a castle and , if located by the sea , a port as well . In the campaign , the player controls construction , unit recruitment and the movement of armies , fleets and agents in each of these provinces , using these means to acquire and defend the provinces . Diplomacy and economics are two other aspects the player can use to advance their aims , as well as having access to more clandestine means such as espionage and assassination . Religion is very important in the game , with the player able to convert provinces to their own religions to cement the people 's loyalty . Another campaign mode is available , called " Glorious Achievements " , in which each faction has several historically @-@ based goals to achieve , which score points ; the faction with the most achievement points wins the game . The campaign mode is turn @-@ based , with each turn representing one year , allowing the player to attend to all needs of the faction before allowing the artificial intelligence to carry out the other factions ' moves and decisions .
The campaign is carried out in a similar fashion to Shogun : Total War , but features many enhancements . The game is set mainly in Europe , but also features the Middle East and North Africa . Production can occur in every province , with the player building from one of the hundreds of connected buildings and units in the game 's technology tree . Income to develop provinces and armies comes from taxation of the provinces and trade with neighbouring provinces . There is no specific technology research , but several advances , such as gunpowder , do become available over time . Castles provide the basis for more developed construction in the game , with players having to upgrade to the next castle level to be able to build more advanced buildings ; upgrades such as a curtain wall and guard towers can be added to individual castles . Many buildings have economic functions , such as trading posts that generate money , while others are military buildings and allow the training of more advanced unit types . Whilst there are many common unit types , several unique units are available . These units are either restricted to a single faction or are dependent on the control of a particular province . Each unit possesses different strengths and weaknesses .
Each faction has a variety of different generals , some related to the royal family and in line to the throne , and the rest members of the nobility , who command units in the field and can assume offices of the state . Each of these characters has a base ranking for several attributes , such as command ability and piety , which affects how they carry out duties on the battlefield and governing the provinces . These attributes , and other factors such as health , are influenced by “ Vices and Virtues ” , defining the character 's personality and actions . These traits can be acquired seemingly randomly , or may be given to the character through actions in the game . Non @-@ military units , collectively referred to as " agents " , may be trained . The types of agent a faction is able to produce depends on its religion , but all factions have emissaries , spies and assassins available to them . Emissaries conduct diplomatic tasks such as start alliances between two factions , or bribe foreign armies ; spies allow detailed information to be collected from foreign provinces or characters , while assassins can attempt to kill both foreign and domestic units . Factions also have access to various religious agents to spread their religion , and Christian factions can marry their princesses to domestic generals or other factions for political reasons . Occasionally in the game , a character will be trained bearing the name of a famous historical figure , with better than normal starting abilities . A general such as Richard the Lionheart , El Cid or Saladin will be a capable military commander , while a bishop such as Thomas Becket will have higher piety than normal .
Rebellions can occur if the loyalty of a particular province falls too low , with a rebel army appearing in the province to attempt to assume control from the owners . Civil wars may also take place if several generals commanding large armies have sufficiently low loyalty . In the event of a civil war , the player is given the choice to back either the current rulers or the rebels . It had been planned to allow other factions who had established a prior claim to the throne by marriage to princesses to join in a civil war to claim the throne for themselves ; however , this was never implemented . Naval warfare is carried out upon the campaign map , where ships can be built and organised into fleets . These fleets can be used to control the game 's sea regions and form sea lanes , allowing trade and troop movement between provinces that have constructed a port . Fleets can engage in sea battles with foreign fleets , although unlike land battles these are resolved by the computer . Religion plays an important aspect in Medieval : Total War , with religious differences between the Catholic , Orthodox and Muslim factions affecting diplomacy and population loyalty . Catholic factions must also respond to the wishes of the Papal States ; factions gain favour by refraining from hostilities with other Catholic nations and responding to Crusades , else they run the risk of excommunication . The option to launch a holy war in the form of a Crusade or Jihad is open to both Catholic and Muslim factions .
= = = Warfare = = =
The battle system takes place on a 3D battlefield in real @-@ time , instead of the turn @-@ based system of the campaign . Battles are similar to those in Shogun : Total War , where two armies from opposing factions engage in combat until one side is defeated or withdraws . Warfare in Medieval : Total War occurs when the player or the artificial intelligence moves their armies into a province held by a hostile faction . The player is then presented with the option of fighting the battle on the battle map , or allowing the computer to automatically resolve it . Alongside the campaign battles , players have the option of both historical and custom battles , where the player controls what climate , units and terrain will be present on the battlefield .
During battles , players take control of a medieval army containing various units , such as knights and longbowmen , each of which has various advantages , disadvantages and overall effectiveness . Players must use medieval tactics in order to defeat their enemy , using historical formations to give units advantages in different situations . All units in the game gain experience points , known as " valour " , which improves unit effectiveness in combat as it increases . Every battle map contains various terrain based upon that of the province on the campaign map , with separate maps for each of the borders between provinces – four hundred unique maps are available for the game . The climate , surroundings and building style for every map varies depending on the part of the world it is located in ; for example , a map based in the Middle East will have a hot , sunny climate , sandy terrain and Islamic architecture . Sieges are an important aspect of the game introduced to the Total War series , occurring when the invading army elects to attack the defending army which has retreated inside the province 's castle . Upon starting the engagement , the attacker has to fight their way through the castle 's defences , winning the battle once the enemy units have been defeated . Each unit in the game has morale , which can increase if a battle is going well for their faction , or decrease in situations such as sustained heavy casualties . Morale can drop low enough to eventually force a unit to rout off the battlefield , with the player having the option to attempt to rally the men back into the battle through their general . Each side 's army can capture routing enemy units and ransom them back to the owning faction , with important generals having greater ransom values .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Medieval : Total War features a multiplayer game mode similar to that in Shogun : Total War , where players can engage in real @-@ time battles with up to seven other players . Players create and control armies from the factions available in the game , where players can use them to compete in online tournaments or casual battles . The campaign mode cannot be played multiplayer ; this feature was later added to the Total War series in Empire : Total War – but only at the beta stage , before being later removed .
= = Development = =
Medieval : Total War was originally announced by The Creative Assembly on 3 August 2001 , with the working title of Crusader : Total War . Development of the game started shortly after the release of Shogun : Total War . Early in development it was decided to change the name to Medieval : Total War ; this was to have a name that better reflected the scope of the game . In a press release , The Creative Assembly announced that the game would be published by Activision instead of Electronic Arts , the publisher of the previous games . The Creative Assembly also outlined the features of the game , including the game covering the medieval era from the 11th to 15th century , with players being able to participate in various historical scenarios of the time , such as the Hundred Years ' War . Media releases over the subsequent months gave screenshots of the game , with more information on Medieval : Total War 's features . The game uses an updated version of the game engine used in Shogun : Total War , allowing larger battles than previously possible with an increased troop limit of ten thousand . The improved game engine also allowed more battle maps than previously possible , now based upon where the conflicting armies are located on the strategy map . Other new battlefield enhancements included terrain detailed with villages and vegetation and improved castle siege mechanics , with players now having to focus on destroying the walls before assaulting and capturing the castle . The game features improved artificial intelligence from Shogun : Total War , with the individual unit AI and the tactical AI — which controls the overall army tactics — separated to more effectively control the opposing forces .
The Creative Assembly 's creative director , Michael de Plater , stated in an interview that " We were never 100 percent satisfied with the name ' Crusader ' ... it didn 't cover the full scope or the rich diversity of the game " . The focus on the medieval period was chosen because " it was perfectly suited to the direction in which we wanted to take the gameplay .... we wanted to have great castles and spectacular sieges . " Designer Mike Brunton wrote before the game 's release that sieges were one of the most important features to be added to the Total War series , explaining how it led to increasing the troop limit from twenty in Shogun : Total War to over a hundred in Medieval : Total War . For increased authenticity , research was carried out into the medieval period aspects such as assassinations and historical figures . Leaders from the period were included in the game ; to represent their personalities and actions the " vices and virtues " system was incorporated into the game , designed to make characters more realistic in their actions .
A demonstration of the game was released on 26 June 2002 , featuring tutorial missions and a full single @-@ player mission . The game was released on 19 August in North America and on 30 August in Europe . The Creative Assembly released a patch on 5 November 2002 , which was targeted to fix the several bugs that were still present in the game . A new historical battle based on the Battle of Stamford Bridge was later released by The Creative Assembly , made available through Wargamer .
= = Reception = =
Medieval : Total War received " favorable " reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic . In the United Kingdom , the game went straight to the top of the video game chart after its release , staying at the top for two weeks . The United States charts saw Medieval : Total War reach fourth in its second week after release , behind Warcraft III , The Sims and its expansion The Sims : Vacation .
Reviewers praised the many different factors adding to complexity of the campaign , ActionTrip noting that " Medieval adds a new strategic balance to the game , which teaches that great empires come with an even greater responsibility " . Eurogamer praised the way the player had to manage production queues , guard the loyalty of important generals and make use of spies and assassins , calling the level of control " far ahead of anything seen in the previous game " ; many other reviews shared a similar view . The number of factions in the game , each with their own historically accurate units and territories , was commended , with IGN and Game Informer stating it " gives the game huge replay value " , with GameSpot adding " the strategic portion now has a lot more options " . Many reviewers gave praise to the fact the historical setting of the Middle Ages was said to be well integrated into the game ; PC Zone acknowledging the " brutality and instability " of the era is well included in the game , with GameSpot praising the religion in the game , " religion played an enormous role in shaping history , and so it is in the game " . GameSpy stated that the different historical starting positions made the games attention to detail " impressive and noteworthy " ; the historical battle system was also highly received from Computer Gaming World , stating that they successfully " provide an authentic glimpse of the past " . However , GameSpot commented on a problem with a lack of information , " you 'll have a tough time keeping track of all the goings @-@ on in your provinces " , suggesting this could be solved through a more informative interface . Overall , reviewers highly complimented the strategic gameplay , many saying it was similar to a Civilization @-@ style game .
The battle system in Medieval : Total War was considered by many reviewers to be the highlight of the game . In their review , Eurogamer felt " The sensation of scale and drama in these conflicts is incredible " , praising the visual effects and combat . The different battlefields and their environments were praised by IGN , with ActionTrip agreeing that " Medieval : Total War looks better than Shogun " , adding that the terrain and units are more detailed than those in Shogun : Total War . GameSpot praised the realistic battles , mentioning that the real @-@ world battlefield considerations like fatigue , ammunition , facing , and morale included in the game was a " welcome change " . GameSpy also stated the " chaotic " battles were appropriate to the era , but criticised the siege aspect , claiming it to be " too plain and underwhelming " , with a lack of detail compared to the other 3D elements . The soundtrack to the game was well received by IGN , " The soundtrack is full of rousing context @-@ sensitive orchestra moments which get you in the mood for bloody slaughter " commenting it is fitting for a game that " delivers body counts like no other " ActionTrip also admired how the game 's music changed pace as the battle commenced , praising The Creative Assembly for its " masterfully placed audio and visual effects " . The artificial intelligence for Medieval : Total War was thought to be much improved over its predecessor , CGW mentioning the AI was intelligent enough to prevent brute force alone from winning fights . Criticism was received on the larger battles giving low frame rates and performance , while ActionTrip also noted several unit management issues with path @-@ finding and unit facing , stating " it 's demoralising to see archers facing the wrong way " .
Medieval : Total War received very favourable reviews , despite a few criticisms , gaining high distinction from the industry . GameSpot summarised by saying that while the game " isn 't well suited for the casual gamer " , most strategy gamers will " find a lot to like in it , for a very long time . " Although GameSpy described Medieval : Total War as " hit [ ting ] a few bumps in the road " , they mentioned the game has enough to keep players interested for many months . Eurogamer was enthusiastic in pronouncing Medieval : Total War " a milestone in gaming " . IGN closed by stating that the game " delivers an encompassing experience " , while CGW finished by proclaiming " there simply isn 't enough room in this magazine to extol its virtues . "
Medieval : Total War was the recipient of a number of industry awards . PC Gamer UK named it the top game of 2002 , replacing the previous entry , Valve Software 's Half @-@ Life . In awarding the distinction , PC Gamer stated : " It was the only contender . " The game received an EMMA award in Technical Excellence for its audio by Jeff van Dyck , commended for having a " game soundtrack and score that is lush , well @-@ mixed , and adds dynamically to the gameplay . The extensive diverse musical tracks sound authentic and fully engage the user . " The game received a number of distinctions from game publications , such as the " Best Strategy Game of 2002 " award from GameSpy , mentioning " It 's not that Medieval is just two great games in one . It 's two games that feed off of one another for the ultimate rush . " The Creative Assembly itself was also awarded the European Computer Trade Show PC Game Developer of the Year award , for the production of Medieval : Total War .
= = Expansions and versions = =
The Creative Assembly announced the development of an expansion pack , Medieval : Total War – Viking Invasion , on 7 January 2003 . The Viking Invasion expansion pack adds a Viking campaign taking place from 793 to 1066 , set upon an expanded map of the British Isles and western Scandinavia . The campaign replaces the original factions with earlier Anglo @-@ Saxon and Celtic kingdoms such as Wessex , Mercia , Wales and Scotland , as well as the Vikings . The Viking faction is designed to raid the British Isles ; to achieve this the faction has access to faster ships and gains money for every building destroyed upon the battle map . The Anglo @-@ Saxon and Celtic factions have the goal of repelling the Vikings and ultimately controlling the British Isles . New historical units were included with the expansion pack , such as the huskarls . Medieval : Total War : Viking Invasion brought several enhancements that were also added to the original campaign : flaming ammunition giving the player an option to set alight enemy castles , and a pre @-@ battle deployment screen , allowing the player to organise their forces and view the terrain and opposing forces before the battle begins . In addition , three new factions were added to the main Medieval : Total War campaign , along with ribauldequin artillery and the game 's patch . The expansion pack was released on 7 May 2003 in the United States and on 9 May in the United Kingdom .
Activision , the game 's publisher , produced a combination of Medieval : Total War and Medieval : Total War : Viking Invasion , called the Medieval : Total War Battle Collection , released on 7 January 2004 . Medieval : Total War Battle Collection contained both games , patched to the latest version , and their manuals . On 30 June 2006 , Sega , the company that took over the publishing of the series , released a collector 's edition version of the Total War series , called Total War : Eras . The edition included patched versions of Shogun : Total War , Medieval : Total War and Rome : Total War , together with their expansion packs , a documentary detailing the creation of the game series , and Total War memorabilia .
= = = Reception = = =
Viking Invasion received " favorable " reviews , albeit slightly less than the original Medieval : Total War , according to Metacritic . Reviewers felt the new gameplay features for the Vikings were the most important enhancement of the expansion pack , with Eurogamer commending the Vikings ' raiding system as something that fixes what " the original Medieval lacked " . ActionTrip praised the new campaign as being a challenge for players : " even on the normal difficulty setting , Viking Invasion is a very challenging game " , a view shared by other critics . The pre @-@ battle screen was commended by GameSpot , calling it a " handy new feature . " GameSpot also praised the new additions to the original campaign , mentioning they have " made castle sieges more interesting " . The main criticism for Medieval : Total War – Viking Invasion was the graphics , with both ActionTrip and Eurogamer stating that they were " starting to feel a little bit creaky " . A lack of new multiplayer options was considered by GameSpot to be " unfortunate " , mentioning that " a multiplayer campaign option would have been a great new feature " . Overall , the expansion was received well by critics in the industry . IGN concluded by saying fans " won 't be disappointed with the Viking Invasion " , while Actiontrip finished stating ; " the graphics are beginning to look old " but the challenge made the expansion " worth it " . The review by GameSpot finished by saying " overall , the expansion is a great addition to Medieval " , and Eurogamer concluded with praising the addition it made to Medieval : Total War : " It 's a worthy expansion pack to a truly excellent game " .
= Leo Ornstein =
Leo Ornstein ( born Lev Ornshteyn ; Russian : Лев Орнштейн ; c . December 11 , 1895 – February 24 , 2002 ) was an American composer and pianist of the early twentieth century . His performances of works by avant @-@ garde composers and his own innovative and even shocking pieces made him a cause célèbre on both sides of the Atlantic .
Ornstein was the first important composer to make extensive use of the tone cluster . As a pianist , he was considered a world @-@ class talent . By the mid @-@ 1920s , he had walked away from his fame and soon disappeared from popular memory . Though he gave his last public concert before the age of forty , he continued writing music for another half @-@ century and beyond . Largely forgotten for decades , he was rediscovered in the mid @-@ 1970s . Ornstein completed his eighth and final piano sonata in September 1990 at the age of ninety @-@ four , making him the oldest published composer in history ( a mark since passed by Elliott Carter ) .
= = Early life = =
Ornstein was born in Kremenchuk , a large town in the Ukrainian province of Poltava , then under Imperial Russian rule . He grew up in a musical environment — his father was a Jewish cantor , while a violinist uncle encouraged the young boy 's studies . Ornstein was recognized early on as a prodigy on the piano ; in 1902 , when the celebrated Polish pianist Josef Hofmann visited Kremenchug , he heard the six @-@ year @-@ old Ornstein perform . Hofmann gave him a letter of recommendation to the highly regarded St. Petersburg Conservatory . Soon after , Ornstein was accepted as a pupil at the Imperial School of Music in Kiev , then headed by Vladimir Puchalsky . A death in the family forced Ornstein 's return home . In 1903 , Osip Gabrilovich heard him play and recommended him to the Moscow Conservatory . In 1904 , the eight @-@ year @-@ old Ornstein auditioned for and was accepted by the St. Petersburg school . There he studied composition with Alexander Glazunov and piano with Anna Yesipova . By the age of eleven , Ornstein was earning his way by coaching opera singers . To escape the pogroms incited by the nationalist and antisemitic organisation Union of the Russian People , the family emigrated to the United States in February 1906 . They settled in New York 's Lower East Side , and Ornstein enrolled in the Institute of Musical Art — predecessor to the Juilliard School — where he studied piano with Bertha Feiring Tapper . In 1911 , he made a well @-@ received New York debut with pieces by Bach , Beethoven , Chopin , and Schumann . Recordings two years later of works by Chopin , Grieg , and Poldini demonstrate , according to music historian Michael Broyles , " a pianist of sensitivity , prodigious technical ability , and artistic maturity . "
= = Fame and " futurism " = =
Ornstein soon moved in a very different direction . He began imagining and then writing works with new sounds , dissonant and startling . Ornstein himself was unsettled by the earliest of these compositions : " I really doubted my sanity at first . I simply said , what is that ? It was so completely removed from any experience I ever had . " On March 27 , 1914 , in London , he gave his first public performance of works then called " futurist " , now known as modernist . In addition to a Busoni arrangement of three Bach choral preludes and several pieces by Schoenberg , Ornstein played a number of his own compositions . The concert caused a major stir . One newspaper described Ornstein 's work as " the sum of Schoenberg and Scriabine [ sic ] squared . " Others were less analytical : " We have never suffered from such insufferable hideousness , expressed in terms of so @-@ called music . "
Ornstein 's follow @-@ up performance provoked a near @-@ riot : " At my second concert , devoted to my own compositions , I might have played anything . I couldn 't hear the piano myself . The crowd whistled and howled and even threw handy missiles on the stage . " The reaction , however , was by no means universally negative — the Musical Standard called him " one of the most remarkable composers of the day ... [ with ] that germ of realism and humanity which is indicative of genius . " By the next year , he was the talk of the American music scene for his performances of cutting @-@ edge works by Schoenberg , Scriabin , Bartók , Debussy , Kodály , Ravel , and Stravinsky ( many of them U.S. premieres ) , as well as his own , even more radical compositions .
Between 1915 and the early 1920s , when he virtually ceased performing in public , Ornstein was one of the best known ( by some lights , notorious ) figures in American classical music . In the description of Broyles and Denise Von Glahn , his " draw was immense . He constantly performed before packed halls , often more than two thousand , in many places the ' largest audience of the season . ' " His solo piano pieces such as Wild Men 's Dance ( aka Danse Sauvage ; c . 1913 – 14 ) and Impressions of the Thames ( c . 1913 – 14 ) pioneered the integrated use of the tone cluster in classical music composition , which Henry Cowell , three years Ornstein 's junior , would do even more to popularize . In the description of scholar Gordon Rumson , Wild Men 's Dance is a " work of vehement , unruly rhythm , compounded of dense chord clusters ... and brutal accents . Complex rhythms and gigantic crashing chords traverse the whole range of the piano . This remains a work for a great virtuoso able to imbue it with a burning , ferocious energy . " Aaron Copland recalled a performance of it as the most controversial moment of his later teen years . In 2002 , a New York Times reviewer declared that it " remains a shocker . " According to critic Kyle Gann , Impressions of the Thames , " if Debussyan in its textures , used more prickly chords than Debussy ever dared , and also clusters in the treble range and a low pounding that foreshadowed Charlemagne Palestine , yet modulated ... with a compelling sense of unity . "
As an example of what Ornstein described as " abstract music " , his Sonata for Violin and Piano ( 1915 ; not 1913 as is often erroneously given ) went even further ; " to the brink " , as he put it : " I would say that [ the sonata ] had brought music just to the very edge .... I just simply drew back and said , ' beyond that lies complete chaos . ' " In 1916 , critic Herbert F. Peyser declared that " the world has indeed moved between the epoch of Beethoven and of Leo Ornstein . " That spring , Ornstein gave a series of recitals in the New York home of one of his advocates ; these concerts were crucial precedents for the composer societies around which the modern music scene would thrive in the 1920s . Ornstein also traveled to New Orleans in 1916 , where he discovered jazz . The following year , critic James Huneker wrote ,
I never thought I should live to hear Arnold Schoenberg sound tame , yet tame he sounds — almost timid and halting — after Ornstein who is , most emphatically , the only true @-@ blue , genuine , Futurist composer alive . "
In addition to " futurist " , Ornstein was also sometimes labeled — along with Cowell and others in their circle — an " ultra @-@ modernist . " An article in the Baltimore Evening Sun referred to him as " the intransigent pianist , who has set the entire musical world by the ears and who is probably the most discussed figure on the concert stage . " In The Musical Quarterly he was described as " the most salient musical phenomenon of our time . " Swiss @-@ born composer Ernest Bloch declared him " the single composer in America who displays positive signs of genius . "
By 1918 , Ornstein was sufficiently renowned that a full @-@ length biography of him was published . The book , by Frederick H. Martens , suggests not only the level of Ornstein 's fame at age twenty @-@ four , but also his divisive effect on the cultural scene :
Leo Ornstein to many represents an evil musical genius wandering without the utmost pale of tonal orthodoxy , in a weird No @-@ Man 's Land haunted with tortuous sound , with wails of futuristic despair , with cubist shrieks and post @-@ impressionist cries and crashes . He is the great anarch , the iconoclast .
Cowell , who had encountered Ornstein while studying in New York , would pursue a similarly radical style as part of a grand intellectual and cultural mission , which also involved ambitious writings on music theory and publishing and promotional efforts in support of the avant @-@ garde . Ornstein , the vanguard iconoclast of American classical music , followed a much more idiosyncratic muse : " I 'm guided entirely by just my musical instinct as to what I feel is consequential or inconsequential . " Evidence of that is the fact that , even at the height of his ultra @-@ modernist notoriety , he also wrote several lyrical , tonal works , such as the First Sonata for Cello and Piano : " [ It ] was written in less than a week under a compulsion that was not to be resisted " , Ornstein later said . " Why I should have heard this romantic piece at the same period that I was tumultuously involved in the primitivism of [ other works ] is beyond my understanding . " Commenting on the piece after Ornstein 's death approximately three @-@ quarters of a century later , critic Martin Anderson wrote that it " rivals Rachmaninov 's [ cello sonata ] in gorgeous tunes . "
Before the turn of the decade — probably in 1918 or 1919 — Ornstein produced one of his most distinctive works involving tone clusters , Suicide in an Airplane . Its score calls for a high @-@ speed bass ostinato pattern meant to simulate the sound of engines and capture the sensation of flight . The piece would serve as an inspiration for the Airplane Sonata ( 1923 ) of George Antheil , who reflected Ornstein 's influence in other works such as Sonata Sauvage ( 1923 ) . Writing in 2000 , pianist and historian Joseph Smith cited Suicide in an Airplane among those pieces of Ornstein 's that " represented ( and may still represent ) the ne plus ultra of pianistic violence . "
= = Transition in the 1920s = =
Ornstein , burned out , effectively gave up his celebrated performance career in the early 1920s . His " music was soon forgotten " , writes scholar Erik Levi , leaving him " an essentially peripheral figure in American musical life . " As described by Broyles , " Ornstein had mostly retired by the time the new music organizations of the 1920s appeared . Too early and too independent , Ornstein had little desire to participate in the modernist movement by the time it caught hold in the United States .... [ He ] seemed little bothered by the publicity or the lack of it . He listened only to his own voice . "
Ornstein 's primary compositional style was changing as well . As described by latter @-@ day critic Gordon Rumson , his
musical language organised itself into a shimmering , luminous gradation between simplicity and harshness . The melodies have a Hebraic tint , and Ornstein does not shy from placing dissonant and tonal music side by side . This shifting of style is just one of Ornstein 's creative tools . More importantly , there is a directness of emotion that makes the music genuinely appealing . It should also be noted that his music is ideally written for the piano and is clearly the work of a master pianist .
This transformation contributed to Ornstein 's fade into obscurity . Those whom he had inspired now rejected him , almost as vehemently as the critics he had shocked a decade earlier . " [ H ] e had been radical modernism 's poster boy throughout the 1910s , and when he abandoned that style for one more expressive the ultramoderns reacted as a lover scorned " , according to Broyles . " Not even Cowell , known for his accepting temperament , could forgive Ornstein . "
Having abandoned not only the concert stage , but also the income that went with it , Ornstein signed an exclusive contract with the Ampico label to make piano rolls . He made over two dozen rolls for Ampico , mostly of a nonmodernist repertoire ; the composers he performed most often were Chopin , Schumann , and Liszt . Two rolls contained his own compositions : Berceuse ( Cradle Song ) ( c . 1920 – 21 ) and Prélude tragique ( 1924 ) . Ornstein never recorded , in any format , even a single example of his futurist pieces which had brought him fame .
In the mid @-@ 1920s , Ornstein left New York to accept a teaching post at the Philadelphia Musical Academy , later part of the University of the Arts . During this period , he wrote some of his most important work , including the Piano Concerto , commissioned by the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1925 . Two years later , he produced his Piano Quintet . An epic tonal work marked by an adventurous use of dissonance and complex rhythmic arrangements , it is recognized as a masterpiece of the genre .
= = Later life = =
In the early 1930s , Ornstein gave his last public performance . A few years later , he and his wife — the former Pauline Cosio Mallet @-@ Prèvost ( 1892 — 1985 ) , also a pianist — founded the Ornstein School of Music in Philadelphia . Among the students there , John Coltrane and Jimmy Smith would go on to major careers in jazz . The Ornsteins directed and taught at the school until it closed with their retirement in 1953 . They essentially disappeared from public view until the mid @-@ 1970s , when they were tracked down by music historian Vivian Perlis : the couple was spending the winter in a Texas trailer park ( they also had a home in New Hampshire ) . Ornstein had continued to compose music ; equipped with a powerful memory , he was not diligent about writing it all down and had not sought to publicize it for decades . Though his style had tempered greatly since the 1910s , it retained its unique character , and with his rediscovery came a new burst of productivity . In Gann 's description , piano works composed by Ornstein in his eighties , such as Solitude and Rendezvous at the Lake , featured melodies that " sprang through endless ornate curlicues that brought no other composer to mind . "
In 1988 , the ninety @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Ornstein wrote his Seventh Piano Sonata . With this composition Ornstein became , by a couple of years , the oldest published composer ever to produce a substantial new work . In September 1990 , at the age of ninety @-@ four , Ornstein 's final work , the Eighth Piano Sonata , was completed and given its world premiere . The names of the sonata 's movements reflect not only the passage of a remarkable span of time , but an undimmed sense of humor and exploratory spirit : I. " Life 's Turmoil and a Few Bits of Satire " / II . " A Trip to the Attic — A Tear or Two for a Childhood Forever Gone " ( a . " The Bugler " / b . " A Lament for a Lost Toy " / c . " A Half @-@ Mutilated Cradle — Berceuse " / d . " First Carousel Ride and Sounds of a Hurdy @-@ Gurdy " ) / III . " Disciplines and Improvisations " . Reviewing the work 's New York debut , critic Anthony Tommasini wrote , " Between the roaring craziness of the first and third movements , the middle movement is a suite of four short musical musings on childhood mementos discovered in an attic . Though completely incongruous , the shift in tone is audacious and the music disarming . The audience listened raptly , then erupted in applause . "
In February 2002 , Ornstein died peacefully in his home in Green Bay , Wisconsin . He is survived by his daughter Edith Valentine of De Pere , Wisconsin , his son , Severo Ornstein of Woodside , California , five grandchildren , and four great @-@ grandchildren . At the age of 108 , he was among the longest @-@ lived of composers .
= = Popular Culture = =
Leo Ornstein is referenced in the 2012 dark @-@ fantasy hit game Dark Souls . One of the most challenging fights in the game is Dragonslayer Ornstein , whose armor and crest bear a lion motif , and drops the Leo ring upon defeat .
= = = Listening = = =
Leo Ornstein Centenary Program , December 1 , 1992 the composer , on the occasion of his 100th birthday , visits with Charles Amirkhanian
Leo Ornstein : The Last of the Original 20th Century Mavericks Ornstein and his wife interviewed by Vivian Perlis
Ornstein Piano Music Marc @-@ André Hamelin 's performance of Suicide in an Airplane from the Hyperion Leo Ornstein : Piano Music
Sarah Cahill Plays Ornstein video of 2002 performance of A Morning in the Woods ( Sep 28 , 1971 ) for solo piano
= Battle of the Tenaru =
The Battle of the Tenaru , sometimes called the Battle of the Ilu River or the Battle of Alligator Creek , was a land battle between the Imperial Japanese Army and Allied ground forces that took place on August 21 , 1942 on the island of Guadalcanal during the Pacific campaign of World War II . The battle was the first major Japanese land offensive during the Guadalcanal campaign .
In the battle , U.S. Marines , under the overall command of U.S. Major General Alexander Vandegrift , repulsed an assault by the " First Element " of the " Ichiki " Regiment , under the command of Japanese Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki . The Marines were defending the Lunga perimeter , which guarded Henderson Field , which was captured by the Allies in landings on Guadalcanal on August 7 . Ichiki 's unit was sent to Guadalcanal in response to the Allied landings with the mission of recapturing the airfield and driving the Allied forces off the island .
Underestimating the strength of Allied forces on Guadalcanal , which at that time numbered about 11 @,@ 000 personnel , Ichiki 's unit conducted a nighttime frontal assault on Marine positions at Alligator Creek on the east side of the Lunga perimeter . Ichiki 's assault was defeated with heavy losses for the Imperial attackers . The Marine units counterattacked Ichiki 's surviving troops after daybreak , killing many more of them . All but 128 of the original 917 of the Ichiki Regiment 's First Element were killed in the battle .
The battle was the first of three separate major land offensives by the Japanese in the Guadalcanal campaign . The Japanese realized after Tenaru that Allied forces on Guadalcanal were much greater in number than originally estimated and sent larger forces to the island for their subsequent attempts to retake Henderson Field .
= = Background = =
On August 7 , 1942 , U.S. forces landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
Taking the Japanese by surprise , the Allied landing forces accomplished their initial objectives of securing Tulagi and nearby small islands , as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal , by nightfall on August 8 . That night , as the transports unloaded , the Allied warships screening the transports were surprised and defeated by an Imperial fleet of seven cruisers and one destroyer , commanded by Japanese Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa . Three U.S. and one Australian cruisers were sunk and one other U.S. cruiser and two destroyers were damaged in the Battle of Savo Island . Turner withdrew all remaining Allied naval forces by the evening of August 9 without unloading all of the heavy equipment , provisions , and troops from the transports , although most of the divisional artillery was landed , consisting of 32 75 mm and 105 mm howitzers . Only five days worth of rations were landed .
The Marines ashore on Guadalcanal initially concentrated on forming a defense perimeter around the airfield , moving the landed supplies within the perimeter , and finishing the airfield . Vandegrift placed his 11 @,@ 000 troops on Guadalcanal in a loose perimeter around the Lunga Point area . In four days of intense effort , the supplies were moved from the landing beach into dispersed dumps within the perimeter . Work began on the airfield immediately , mainly using captured Japanese equipment . On August 12 , the airfield was named Henderson Field after Major Lofton Henderson , a Marine aviator who had been killed at the Battle of Midway . Captured Japanese stock increased the total supply of food to 14 days worth . To conserve the limited food supplies , the Allied troops were limited to two meals per day .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army , a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Harukichi Hyakutake , with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces . The 17th Army , currently heavily involved with the Japanese campaign in New Guinea , had only a few units available to send to the southern Solomons area . Of these units , the 35th Infantry Brigade under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi was at Palau , the 4th ( Aoba ) Infantry Regiment was in the Philippines , and the 28th ( Ichiki ) Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki , was at sea en route to Japan from Guam . The different units began to move towards Guadalcanal immediately , but Ichiki 's regiment , being the closest , arrived first .
An aerial reconnaissance of the U.S. Marine positions on Guadalcanal on August 12 by one of the senior Japanese staff officers from Rabaul sighted few U.S. troops in the open and no large ships in the waters nearby , convincing Imperial Headquarters that the Allies had withdrawn the majority of their troops . In fact , none of the Allied troops had been withdrawn . Hyakutake issued orders for an advance unit of 900 troops from Ichiki 's regiment to be landed on Guadalcanal by fast warship to immediately attack the Allied position and reoccupy the airfield area at Lunga Point . The remaining personnel in Ichiki 's regiment would be delivered to Guadalcanal by slower transport later . At the major Japanese naval base at Truk , which was the staging point for delivery of Ichiki 's regiment to Guadalcanal , Colonel Ichiki was briefed that 2 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 U.S. troops were holding the Guadalcanal beachhead and that he should , " avoid frontal attacks . "
Ichiki and 916 of his regiment 's 2 @,@ 300 troops , designated the " First Element " and carrying seven days ' supply of food , were delivered to Taivu Point , about 35 kilometers ( 22 miles ) east of Lunga Point , by six destroyers at 01 : 00 on August 19 . Ichiki was ordered to scout the American positions and wait for the remainder of his force to arrive . Known as the Ichiki Butai ( Ichiki Detachment ) , they were an elite and battle @-@ seasoned force but as was about to be discovered , they were heavily stricken with " victory disease " - overconfidence due to previous success . Ichiki was so confident in the superiority of his men that he decided to destroy the American defenders before the remaining majority of his force arrived , even writing in his journal " 18 August , landing ; 20 August , march by night and battle ; 21 August , enjoyment of the fruit of victory " . He concocted a brazenly simple plan : march straight down the beach and through the American defenses . Leaving about 100 personnel behind as a rear guard , Ichiki marched west with the remaining 800 men of his unit and made camp before dawn about 14 kilometers ( 8 @.@ 7 miles ) east of the Lunga perimeter . The U.S. Marines at Lunga Point received intelligence that a Japanese landing had occurred and took steps to find out exactly what was happening .
= = Prelude = =
Reports to Allied forces from patrols of Solomon Islanders , including retired Sergeant Major Jacob C. Vouza of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate Constabulary , under the direction of Martin Clemens , a coastwatcher and officer in the British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force ( BSIPDF ) , along with Allied intelligence from other sources , indicated that Japanese troops were present east of Lunga Point . To investigate further , on August 19 , a Marine patrol of 60 men and four native scouts , commanded by U.S. Marine Captain Charles H. Brush , marched east from the Lunga Perimeter .
At the same time , Ichiki sent forward his own patrol of 38 men , led by his communications officer , to reconnoiter Allied troop dispositions and establish a forward communications base . Around 12 : 00 on August 19 at Koli Point , Brush 's patrol sighted and ambushed the Japanese patrol , killing all but five of its members , who escaped back to Taivu . The Marines suffered three dead and three wounded .
Papers discovered on the bodies of some of the Japanese officers in the patrol revealed that they belonged to a much larger unit and showed detailed intelligence of U.S. Marine positions around Lunga Point . The papers did not , however , detail exactly how large the Japanese force was or whether an attack was imminent .
Now anticipating an attack from the east , the U.S. Marine forces , under the direction of General Vandegrift , prepared their defenses on the east side of the Lunga perimeter . Several official U.S. military histories identify the location of the eastern defenses of the Lunga perimeter as emplaced on the Tenaru River . The Tenaru River , however , was actually located further to the east . The river forming the eastern boundary of the Lunga perimeter was actually the Ilu River , nicknamed Alligator Creek by the Marines , a double misnomer : there are no alligators in the Solomons , only crocodiles , and Alligator " Creek " was a tidal lagoon separated from the ocean by a sandbar about 7 to 15 meters ( 23 to 49 ft ) in width and about 30 meters ( 98 feet ) long .
Along the west side of Alligator Creek , Colonel Clifton B. Cates , commander of the 1st Marine Regiment , deployed his 1st and 2nd battalions . To help further defend the Alligator Creek sandbar , Cates deployed 100 men from the 1st Special Weapons Battalion with two 37mm anti @-@ tank guns equipped with canister shot . Marine divisional artillery , consisting of both 75mm and 105mm guns , pre @-@ targeted locations on the east side and sandbar areas of Alligator Creek , and forward artillery observers emplaced themselves in the forward Marine positions . The Marines worked all day on August 20 to prepare their defenses as much as possible before nightfall .
Learning of the annihilation of his patrol , Ichiki quickly sent forward a company to bury the bodies and followed with the rest of his troops , marching throughout the night of August 19 and finally halting at 04 : 30 on August 20 within a few miles of the U.S. Marine positions on the east side of Lunga Point . At this location , he prepared his troops to attack the Allied positions that night .
= = Battle = =
Just after midnight on August 21 , Ichiki 's main body of troops arrived at the east bank of Alligator Creek and were surprised to encounter the Marine positions , not having expected to find U.S. forces located that distance from the airfield . Nearby U.S. Marine listening posts heard " clanking " sounds , human voices , and other noises before withdrawing to the west bank of the creek . At 01 : 30 Ichiki 's force opened fire with machine guns and mortars on the Marine positions on the west bank of the creek , and a first wave of about 100 Imperial soldiers charged across the sandbar towards the Marines .
Marine machine gun fire and canister rounds from the 37 mm cannons killed most of the Japanese soldiers as they crossed the sandbar . A few of the Japanese soldiers reached the Marine positions , engaged in hand to hand combat with the defenders , and captured a few of the Marine front @-@ line emplacements . Also , Japanese machine gun and rifle fire from the east side of the creek killed several of the Marine machine @-@ gunners . A company of Marines , held in reserve just behind the front line , attacked and killed most , if not all , of the remaining Japanese soldiers that had breached the front line defenses , ending Ichiki 's first assault about an hour after it had begun .
At 02 : 30 a second wave of about 150 to 200 Japanese troops again attacked across the sandbar and was again almost completely wiped out . At least one of the surviving Imperial officers from this attack advised Ichiki to withdraw his remaining forces , but Ichiki declined to do so .
As Ichiki 's troops regrouped east of the creek , Japanese mortars bombarded the Marine lines . The Marines answered with 75 mm artillery barrages and mortar fire into the areas east of the creek . At about 05 : 00 , another wave of Japanese troops attacked , this time attempting to flank the Marine positions by wading through the ocean surf and attacking up the beach into the west bank area of the creek bed . The Marines responded with heavy machine gun and artillery fire along the beachfront area , again causing heavy casualties among Ichiki 's attacking troops and causing them to abandon their attack and withdraw back to the east bank of the creek . For the next couple of hours , the two sides exchanged rifle , machine gun , and artillery fire at close range across the sandbar and creek .
In spite of the heavy losses his force had suffered , Ichiki 's troops remained in place on the east bank of the creek , either unable or unwilling to withdraw . At daybreak on August 21 , the commanders of the U.S. Marine units facing Ichiki 's troops conferred on how best to proceed , and they decided to counterattack . The 1st Battalion , 1st Marine Regiment , under Lieutenant Colonel Lenard B. Cresswell , crossed Alligator Creek upstream from the battle area , enveloped Ichiki 's troops from the south and east , cutting off any avenue for retreat , and began to " compress " Ichiki 's troops into a small area in a coconut grove on the east bank of the creek .
Aircraft from Henderson Field strafed Japanese soldiers that attempted to escape down the beach and , later in the afternoon , five Marine M3 Stuart tanks attacked across the sandbar into the coconut grove . The tanks swept the coconut grove with machine gun and canister cannon fire , as well as rolling over the bodies , both alive and dead , of any Japanese soldiers unable or unwilling to get out of the way . When the tank attack was over , Vandegrift wrote that , " the rear of the tanks looked like meat grinders . "
By 17 : 00 on August 21 , Japanese resistance had ended . Colonel Ichiki was either killed during the final stages of the battle , or committed ritual suicide ( seppuku ) shortly thereafter , depending on the account . As curious Marines began to walk around looking at the battlefield , some wounded Japanese troops shot at them , killing or wounding several Marines . Thereafter , Marines shot and / or bayonetted any Japanese soldier laying on the ground that moved , although about 15 injured and unconscious Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner . About 30 of the Japanese troops escaped to rejoin their regiment 's rear echelon at Taivu Point .
= = Aftermath = =
For the U.S. and its allies , the victory in the Tenaru battle was psychologically significant in that Allied soldiers , after a series of defeats to Japanese Army units throughout the Pacific and east Asia , now knew that they could defeat the Imperial Armies in a land battle . The battle also set another precedent that would continue throughout the war in the Pacific , which was the reluctance of defeated Japanese soldiers to surrender and their efforts to continue killing Allied soldiers , even as the Japanese soldiers lay dying on the battlefield . On this subject Vandegrift remarked , " I have never heard or read of this kind of fighting . These people refuse to surrender . The wounded wait until men come up to examine them ... and blow themselves and the other fellow to pieces with a hand grenade . " Robert Leckie , a Guadalcanal veteran , recalls the aftermath of the battle in his book Helmet For My Pillow , " Our regiment had killed something like nine hundred of them . Most lay in clusters or heaps before the gun pits commanding sandspit , as though they had not died singly but in groups . Moving among them were the souvenir hunters , picking their way delicately as though fearful of booby traps , while stripping the bodies of their possessions . "
The battle was also psychologically significant in that Imperial soldiers believed in their own invincibility and superior spirit . By August 25 , most of Ichiki 's survivors reached Taivu Point and radioed Rabaul to tell 17th Army headquarters that Ichiki 's detachment had been " almost annihilated at a point short of the airfield . " Reacting with disbelief to the news , Japanese Army headquarters officers proceeded with plans to deliver additional troops to Guadalcanal to reattempt to capture Henderson Field . The next major Imperial attack on the Lunga perimeter occurred at the Battle of Edson 's Ridge about three weeks later , this time employing a much larger force than had been employed in the Tenaru battle .
= = Depictions = =
The Battle of the Tenaru is a key part of the 1945 biographical film on Al Schmid , Pride of the Marines . The brunt of the Japanese assault was borne by Marines Cpl. Lee Diamond , PFC . John Rivers and Pvt. Albert Schmid . The three were credited with 200 Japanese killed in action ( KIA ) . Awarded the Navy Cross ( America 's second highest decoration ) for their actions , the trio paid dearly . Rivers lost his life , while Schmid and Diamond suffered horrendous wounds . Schmid lost sight in one eye and was left with very little in the other . Shot in his arm early in the fight , Diamond 's arms and hands were also ripped by the same grenade which blinded Schmid . In 2010 , the battle became the climax of Episode One of Steven Spielberg 's and Tom Hanks ' miniseries , The Pacific .
= Esparza 's =
Esparza 's Tex Mex Cafe , or simply Esparza 's , was a Tex @-@ Mex restaurant in Portland , Oregon , in the United States . Opened by Martha and Joe Esparza in 1990 , the restaurant operated for more than 24 years before closing in January 2014 . Its unusual menu included buffalo tostadas , ground ostrich and nopalitos , several varieties of tongue , beef brisket , and more traditional options such as enchiladas , quesadillas , tacos and tamales . Esparza 's was one of Portland 's most popular restaurants during the 1990s and was named " Restaurant of the Year " by The Oregonian in 1992 .
= = Description and history = =
Esparza 's , located at the intersection of SE 28th Avenue and SE Ankeny Street in Portland 's Buckman neighborhood , served Tex @-@ Mex cuisine . Opening in 1990 , it became one of Portland 's most popular restaurants . The Portland Mercury described Esparza 's as a " quaint little cafe " with " interesting " menu options , including buffalo tostadas , ground ostrich and nopalitos ( cactus deep @-@ fried in cornmeal batter ) . It served several varieties of tongue , including beef , buffalo , calf , lamb , pork and venison . The menu also included beef brisket ( " Smiley Burnette " ) and more traditional options such as enchiladas , quesadillas , tacos and tamales , with most entrees ranging from $ 9 – 11 . The most expensive entree on the menu cost $ 12 @.@ 95 , making Esparza 's known for its reasonable pricing .
The restaurant 's owners , Martha and Joe Esparza , shared four of their recipes with The Oregonian between 1990 and 2002 . Joe 's recipe for " Texas @-@ Style Chili Colorado " was based on one his mother made during his childhood in Uvalde , Texas . His mother disliked short @-@ cut cooking and instead used ground chilies and other seasonings . Joe used a similar method , and his recipe was considered one of Esparza 's signature dishes . In 1994 , Martha shared her recipe for " Sudie Mae 's Sweet Potato Pecan Pie " , which came from her mother , who would make it on Sundays while growing up in Mineola , Texas . Joe 's " Nopalito Ranchero " recipe , which he shared with The Oregonian in 1996 , became popular after guests " got over their squeamishness over eating cactus leaves " . The recipe for " Turkey Guiso a la Tex @-@ Mex " ( guiso is a type of stew ) , was shared in 2002 and has been recommended for utilizing leftover Thanksgiving turkey . Esparza 's " Dirty Bird " recipe was shared on the Food Network 's The Best Of : Spicy Foods .
= = = Closure = = =
In January 2014 , the restaurant was closed temporarily for renovations , with no timeline offered for the project . The Oregonian also reported that the restaurant 's phone number was disconnected and its website inactive . Signage confirmed the closure , stating : " Esparza 's will be temporarily closed while renovating and regrouping . Thank you for your patience . We will re @-@ open soon . " However , several days later , the owners confirmed the restaurant 's permanent closure , posting a note that said : " We have closed our business after 24 years . We would like to thank you for supporting us . We have enjoyed the friendships made over the years . We are starting a new chapter in our lives – relaxing and enjoying life . Thank you for your support . " The Oregonian published an article containing memories of the restaurant submitted by readers . Esparza 's was replaced by The Blue Goose , a " Southwestern @-@ grill @-@ meets @-@ New @-@ Mexico " restaurant serving Mexican and Tex @-@ Mex cuisine , named after the neighborhood tavern of similar title that occupied the building .
= = Reception = =
The restaurant received a mostly positive reception , including " glowing " reviews in Bon Appétit and The New York Times . In 1992 , Esparza 's was named The Oregonian 's " Restaurant of the Year " . According to the paper , the restaurant played an important role in developing NE and SE 28th Avenue as a food destination . Portland Monthly called the food " so @-@ so " , but noted its menu , outdoor patio and jukebox , encouraging people to " bask in the indecipherable harmonies of norteño polka crackling from the vintage vinyl @-@ and @-@ neon Wurlitzer " .
Esparza 's was highlighted in numerous travel guides of Portland . Fodor 's published , " Be prepared for south @-@ of @-@ the @-@ border craziness at this beloved local eatery . Wild West kitsch festoons the walls , but it isn 't any wilder than some of the entrées that emerge from chef @-@ owner Joe Esparza 's kitchen . " In her book Insiders ' Guide to Portland , Oregon , Rachel Dresbeck called the menu " spicy , flavorful , and tantalizingly aromatic " , and described the atmosphere as " 1950s Texas soda shop — just the right accent to complement the hearty fare " . Yahoo ! Travel called the restaurant " fun , wild and woolly " , offering food " in the true tradition of the Lone Star State " . Yahoo ! recommended the chile rellenos , ostrich enchiladas , or nopalito for a unique dining experience .
The restaurant did not receive universal acclaim , however . In a negative review for The Portland Mercury in 2000 , Robin Rosenberg wrote :
... one expects the food at Esparza 's to be something special ; You might think that the line trickling out the door on a Thursday night is an indication of exceptional Tex @-@ Mex , worth a considerable sum . Well , certainly , Esparza 's dècor , an amalgam of Western nostalgia , Texan brawn , and Tijuana cheese is executed with flair . Unfortunately though , no thematic coup can compensate for the fact that Esparza 's food rarely exceeds mediocre , and never lives up to its price ... The bulk of the clientele resides in a comfortable economic bracket and come down to the gritty Eastside to quaff top shelf margaritas and feast on manic kitsch . The hot corn chips and fresh salsa , which come fast and free , are the height of the meal . Smoked salmon enchiladas are just wrong ; No quantity of barbecue sauce ( in this case , cloying and acrid ) is going to improve a tough , dry brisket . The pork tacos are equally dry , but the ground buffalo enchiladas are very macho and spicy ( though they will linger painfully ) ... The beans and rice that accompany most entrees are utterly flavorless , a gratuitous use of space on the plate . Some people like beans and rice ; Esparza 's doesn 't seem to care . It 's a troublesome adage , ' you get what you pay for , ' when you 've gorged on flash and formula — and yet , you 're starved for a good meal .
Following the restaurant 's closure , The Oregonian 's Grant Butler called the run that it had " remarkable " . He recalled , " [ W ] hen Esparza 's opened in 1990 , it broke the mold of what Mexican fare in Portland could be . Instead of combination plates blanketed in shrouds of sour cream and melted cheddar , Esparza 's served dishes that few people in Portlanders [ sic ] had ever experienced at the time " .
= Kepler @-@ 40 =
Kepler @-@ 40 , formerly known as KOI @-@ 428 , is an F @-@ type star in the constellation Cygnus . Kepler @-@ 40 is known to host at least one planet , Kepler @-@ 40b . The star is approximately 1 @.@ 5 times more massive than the Sun , and is over two times its size ; it was , at upon its discovery , the largest yet discovered with a transiting planet in its orbit . Kepler @-@ 40 was first noted as home to a possible transiting object by the Kepler spacecraft ; the data on the system was released to the public . A team of French and Swiss scientists used follow @-@ up data to determine the existence of the Hot Jupiter planet Kepler @-@ 40b , and later had their results published in a scientific journal on January 4 , 2011 .
= = Observational history = =
Kepler @-@ 40 was first targeted by the Kepler spacecraft , an Earth @-@ trailing NASA operation that searches for planets that transit , or cross in front of , their host stars . It was labeled a Kepler Object of Interest ( KOI ) during the satellite 's first 33 @.@ 5 days of operations , which stretched from mid @-@ May to mid @-@ June 2009 , because of the detection of a potential transit event . The data collected by Kepler 's photometer was publicly released , including data on Kepler @-@ 40 and its possible transiting companion .
Data on Kepler @-@ 40 was analyzed by a team of French and Swiss astronomers , who first tested for false positives . When all obvious false positives were cleared , the science team used the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph at the Haute @-@ Provence Observatory in southern France to gather radial velocity measurements on the star . Collected data was then checked to see if it corresponded with that of a closely orbiting binary star or that of a planet ; it was found to be that of a planet , leading to the confirmation of Kepler @-@ 40b .
After Kepler @-@ 40b was confirmed , the French and Swiss science team worked to clarify the stellar parameters its star by analyzing the star 's spectrum as collected by SOPHIE . Kepler @-@ 40 is the sixth known planetary host star with a radius of more than 1 @.@ 8 times that of the Sun . At the time of its discovery , Kepler @-@ 40 was the most evolved star known to have a transiting planet .
Kepler @-@ 40 and its exoplanet were published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics on January 4 , 2011 , after being submitted on September 15 , 2010 .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 40 is an F @-@ type star that is 1 @.@ 48 times the mass of the Sun and 2 @.@ 13 times its radius . The star has an effective temperature of 6510 K , making it hotter than the Sun . Its metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 10 means that Kepler @-@ 40 has 1 @.@ 26 times as much iron as the Sun does .
Kepler @-@ 40 was , at the time of its discovery , the largest and most evolved star known to host a transiting planet . It is the sixth known host star with a radius over 1 @.@ 8 times that of the Sun and a transiting planet , after stars that include Kepler @-@ 5 and Kepler @-@ 7 .
Kepler @-@ 40 lies 2700 parsecs ( 8 @,@ 806 @.@ 4 light years ) away from Earth , further than any star ( with a known distance ) with an exoplanet previously discovered by Kepler . With an apparent magnitude of 14 @.@ 58 , it was also dimmer than any star previously recognized by Kepler . Because of its low apparent magnitude , Kepler @-@ 40 cannot be seen with the naked eye .
= = Planetary system = =
Kepler @-@ 40b is the first ( and only ) planet discovered so far in the orbit of Kepler @-@ 40 . It has a mass that is 2 @.@ 2 times that of Jupiter 's , the rough equivalent of 700 Earths . The planet also has a radius that is 1 @.@ 17 times that of Jupiter and a density of 1 @.@ 68 grams / cm3 . Kepler @-@ 40b has an equilibrium temperature of 1620 K , over six times hotter than the equilibrium temperature of Earth . It orbits its star every 6 @.@ 87 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 081 AU .
= Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards =
Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards is a graphic adventure game originally released in 1987 as the first part of the Leisure Suit Larry series . Originally developed for the PC DOS and the Apple II , it was later ported to other platforms such as the Amiga , Atari ST , Apple IIGS , Apple Macintosh , and the Tandy Color Computer 3 . It utilizes the Adventure Game Interpreter ( AGI ) engine made famous by King 's Quest : Quest for the Crown .
The game 's story follows a middle @-@ aged male virgin named Larry Laffer as he desperately tries to " get lucky " in the fictional American city of Lost Wages . Land of the Lounge Lizards establishes several elements which recur in the later Larry games , including Larry 's campy attire , perpetual bad luck with women , and penchant for double @-@ entendres . The story and basic structure of the game are lifted from Softporn Adventure , a 1981 Apple II text adventure .
Despite a lack of advertising , the game was a sleeper hit and a commercial and critical success . Sierra developed and published a remake that used the Sierra 's Creative Interpreter ( SCI ) engine with 256 colors and a point @-@ and @-@ click , icon @-@ driven ( as opposed to text @-@ based ) user interface , released for the PC DOS , Apple Macintosh , and Amiga in 1991 . A second , high @-@ definition remake , titled Leisure Suit Larry : Reloaded , was developed by N @-@ Fusion Interactive working with series ' creator Al Lowe and published by Replay Games in 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Larry Laffer is a 38 @-@ year @-@ old ( 40 @-@ year @-@ old in the 1991 remake ) " loser " who lives in his mother 's basement and has not yet lost his virginity . Having grown weary of his lonely existence , he decides to visit the resort city of Lost Wages ( a parody of " Las Vegas " ) hoping to experience what he has not lived before , and to finally find the woman of his dreams . Larry starts with nothing but an out @-@ of @-@ style 1970s disco @-@ era leisure suit and $ 94 in his pocket . His quest involves four possible women : a nameless , seedy @-@ looking sex worker ; Fawn , a club @-@ goer of low moral fiber ; Faith , a receptionist who ( true to her name ) is faithful to her boyfriend ; and Eve , a bathing beauty and Larry 's ultimate goal .
= = Gameplay = =
The game begins outside a bar in Lost Wages . Players are given seven real @-@ time hours ( eight in the 1991 remake ) to complete the game , at which point a despairing Larry commits suicide , resulting in game over . Players control Larry 's movements with the directional keys and by inputing commands into a text parser ( e.g. " talk to man " , " open window " , etc . ) . If Larry is too far away from a person or object to comply , or if the command is invalid , a caution message appears with hints on what to do .
The city consists of five areas : Lefty 's Bar , a hotel casino , a 24 @-@ hour wedding chapel , a discothèque , and a convenience store . The player can walk between areas that are next to each other , but other areas can only be accessed by hailing a taxi , which costs the player money ; failure to do so results in Larry 's being mugged or hit by oncoming traffic . During the early stages of the game , Larry can survive most premature deaths . In the original release , a compartment opens beneath Larry 's body and takes him to a laboratory where heroes from Sierra 's computer games — such as King 's Quest — are re @-@ assembled ; in the remake , Larry 's remains are instead thrown inside a blender and reformed .
A prostitute is available as soon as the game starts . Should Larry have unprotected intercourse with her , he will contract a sexually @-@ transmitted disease and die shortly thereafter . This fate may be avoided by buying a condom at the convenience store . Larry questions the validity of losing his virginity to a prostitute , but the game resumes without a time limit .
Larry 's interactions with key women are accompanied by a detailed image of whomever he is speaking with , unlike other non @-@ player characters . With the exception of the prostitute , each of the women shun Larry at first , but respond favorably to gifts of varying sorts . Although it is not possible to woo all of the women , giving gifts is needed to advance to the game 's final area , the hotel penthouse . To this end , money is essential to advance through the game . The only available method of augmenting Larry 's funds is to gamble in the casino , playing blackjack and slots .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Al Lowe , a former high school teacher , had carved a niche for himself at Sierra with his work on such Disney @-@ licensed edutainment titles as Donald Duck 's Playground , Winnie the Pooh in the Hundred Acre Wood , and The Black Cauldron , which he wrote , designed and programmed . In 1982 , Sierra had released a text @-@ only game on the Apple II titled Softporn Adventure ( it was the only text adventure that was released by a company which had established its name on providing a graphical alternative to such games ) . In 1986 , after Sierra lost a Disney license , Al Lowe suggested that Sierra remake Softporn Adventure with the improved tools now at their disposal , and Ken Williams agreed .
Lowe , who considered the original Softporn Adventure " a primitive , early effort " , borrowed its basic structure and added a graphic game engine ( Adventure Game Interpreter ) , improvised humor , and an on @-@ screen protagonist , Larry Laffer . Chuck Benton , creator of Softporn Adventure , is included in the Leisure Suit Larry 's end credits , as the layout and puzzles of the game are identical to those found in the earlier title . However , Lowe said that in Softporn Adventure " there were no characters in the game . There was no central character at all . There were almost no characters to the women . And so it was a real role @-@ over . I think there 's one line of dialogue that I kept of the original game and all the rest was fresh . "
The game was co @-@ designed and illustrated by Mark Crowe , creator of the Space Quest series , and co @-@ programmed by Ken Williams . An accomplished jazz musician ( The Lounge Lizards being a jazz band 's name ) , Lowe also wrote the main theme music ( called " For Your Thighs Only " ) , and some of his compositions appear in later entries of the series . The theme , inspired by Irving Berlin 's 1929 song " Alexander 's Ragtime Band " , was composed within 20 minutes . Lowe said it " sounded so unusual , so different , so fresh compared to most computer game music , that I decided to write something with the same pep , simplicity , humor , and out @-@ of @-@ sync attitude . "
= = = Release = = =
Unsure of how the 1987 game would be received , Sierra 's management chose to release it with no publicity or advertising budget . Many stores also refused to stock the game because of its adult content , which was subject to controversy . In effect , its first @-@ month sales were lower than any new Sierra product launch in years .
Due to the adult nature of the game , the game includes an age verification system consisting of trivia questions that Al Lowe assumed children would not know the answer to . As many of the questions are U.S.-centric , they risked frustrating non @-@ American gamers . If played today , the questions also include out @-@ of @-@ date cultural references . ( One question begins " OJ Simpson is ... " and one wrong answer is " under indictment . " ) In the original AGI version , the age verification screen may be skipped by pressing Alt @-
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who arrived in Belgrade in November 1943 . Upon arrival , he ordered the head of the local Gestapo , SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Bruno Sattler , to form a special detachment that was to be responsible for the exhumation and burning of bodies . The detachment was led by Lieutenant Erich Grunwald , and composed of ten security policemen and 48 military policemen . The digging battalions were composed of 100 Serbian and Jewish prisoners . Exhumations occurred from December 1943 to April 1944 , and thousands of bodies were burned . All of the prisoners who were present during the exhumations were shot , except for three Serbs who managed to escape . Allied aircraft bombed Sajmište in April 1944 , killing many inmates and inflicting heavy damage on the camp itself . On 17 May 1944 , the Germans transferred control of the camp over to the NDH . The camp was closed that July .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
After the war , Yugoslavia 's new communist government announced that Sajmište had held a total of 100 @,@ 000 prisoners during the war , half of whom were killed . The Yugoslav State War Crimes Commission later estimated that as many as 40 @,@ 000 may have been killed in the camp , including 7 @,@ 000 Jews . According to the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia , the overall death toll was greatly exaggerated by the communists for political purposes , and the real number of inmates was about 50 @,@ 000 , with 20 @,@ 000 killed . It is estimated that half of all Serbian Jews were killed at Sajmište . The Staro Sajmište memorial estimates that 23 @,@ 000 people perished in the camp , of whom 10 @,@ 000 were Jews .
Most of the Germans who were responsible for the operation of the camp were captured and brought to trial . Many of those who had been prominent German officials during the occupation of Serbia , including Turner , Fuchs and Meyszner , were extradited to Yugoslavia by the Allies after the war , where they were executed . Camp commander Andorfer managed to escape with the assistance of the Roman Catholic Church , which helped him flee to South America . He returned to Austria from Venezuela in the 1960s , and was subsequently apprehended and tried on the minor charge of being an accessory to murder — for which he was sentenced to two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years imprisonment . Andorfer 's deputy , Enge , was apprehended in the 1960s , and sentenced to one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years imprisonment . His sentence was never carried out due to his old age and poor health . German guards suspected of executing Serbian prisoners were never tried , although they served as witnesses in several trials in West Germany .
Belgrade Jews murdered during the Holocaust , including those at Sajmište , were not commemorated by Yugoslavia 's post @-@ war Communist government until thirty years after the events . Croatian author Anto Knežević caused considerable controversy in May 1993 when he suggested that Serbs , not Germans , had been responsible for running the camp . This claim was vehemently denied by Jewish historians and Belgrade 's Jewish community . At present , the old Sajmište fairgrounds are marked by small plaques and a monument to commemorate those detained or killed in the camp . The plaques were dedicated in 1974 and 1984 , respectively . In 1987 , the Sajmište fairgrounds were granted cultural landmark status by the government of Yugoslavia . A monument , 10 m ( 33 ft ) high and created by the artist Miodrag Popović , was erected on the banks of the Sava in 1995 . No memorial centres or museums have ever been built on the former campgrounds . Today , the area where the camp was located is used as a state @-@ run facility housing low @-@ income residents of Belgrade . As of February 2013 , an estimated 2 @,@ 500 people live on the grounds of the former camp .
= Halley 's Comet =
Halley 's Comet or Comet Halley ( / ˈhæli / or / ˈheɪli / , named after astronomer Edmond Halley ) , officially designated 1P / Halley , is a short @-@ period comet visible from Earth every 75 – 76 years . Halley is the only known short @-@ period comet that is clearly visible to the naked eye from Earth , and the only naked @-@ eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime . Halley last appeared in the inner parts of the Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid @-@ 2061 .
Halley 's returns to the inner Solar System have been observed and recorded by astronomers since at least 240 BC . Clear records of the comet 's appearances were made by Chinese , Babylonian , and medieval European chroniclers , but were not recognized as reappearances of the same object at the time . The comet 's periodicity was first determined in 1705 by English astronomer Edmond Halley , after whom it is now named .
During its 1986 apparition , Halley 's Comet became the first comet to be observed in detail by spacecraft , providing the first observational data on the structure of a comet nucleus and the mechanism of coma and tail formation . These observations supported a number of longstanding hypotheses about comet construction , particularly Fred Whipple 's " dirty snowball " model , which correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of volatile ices – such as water , carbon dioxide , and ammonia – and dust . The missions also provided data that substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas ; for instance , now it is understood that the surface of Halley is largely composed of dusty , non @-@ volatile materials , and that only a small portion of it is icy .
= = Pronunciation = =
Comet Halley is commonly pronounced / ˈhæli / , rhyming with valley , or / ˈheɪli / , rhyming with daily . Spellings of Edmond Halley 's name during his lifetime included Hailey , Haley , Hayley , Halley , Hawley , and Hawly , so its contemporary pronunciation is uncertain .
= = Computation of orbit = =
Halley was the first comet to be recognized as periodic . Until the Renaissance , the philosophical consensus on the nature of comets , promoted by Aristotle , was that they were disturbances in Earth 's atmosphere . This idea was disproved in 1577 by Tycho Brahe , who used parallax measurements to show that comets must lie beyond the Moon . Many were still unconvinced that comets orbited the Sun , and assumed instead that they must follow straight paths through the Solar System .
In 1687 , Sir Isaac Newton published his Principia , in which he outlined his laws of gravity and motion . His work on comets was decidedly incomplete . Although he had suspected that two comets that had appeared in succession in 1680 and 1681 were the same comet before and after passing behind the Sun ( he was later found to be correct ; see Newton 's Comet ) , he was unable to completely reconcile comets into his model .
Ultimately , it was Newton 's friend , editor and publisher , Edmond Halley , who , in his 1705 Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets , used Newton 's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits . This calculation enabled him , after examining historical records , to determine that the orbital elements of a second comet that had appeared in 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets that had appeared in 1531 ( observed by Petrus Apianus ) and 1607 ( observed by Johannes Kepler ) . Halley thus concluded that all three comets were , in fact , the same object returning every 76 years , a period that has since been amended to every 75 – 76 years . After a rough estimate of the perturbations the comet would sustain from the gravitational attraction of the planets , he predicted its return for 1758 .
Halley 's prediction of the comet 's return proved to be correct , although it was not seen until 25 December 1758 , by Johann Georg Palitzsch , a German farmer and amateur astronomer . It did not pass through its perihelion until 13 March 1759 , the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn having caused a retardation of 618 days . This effect was computed prior to its return ( with a one @-@ month error to 13 April ) by a team of three French mathematicians , Alexis Clairaut , Joseph Lalande , and Nicole @-@ Reine Lepaute . Halley did not live to see the comet return , as he died in 1742 . The confirmation of the comet 's return was the first time anything other than planets had been shown to orbit the Sun . It was also one of the earliest successful tests of Newtonian physics , and a clear demonstration of its explanatory power . The comet was first named in Halley 's honour by French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in 1759 .
The possibility has been raised that first @-@ century Jewish astronomers already had recognized Halley 's Comet as periodic . This theory notes a passage in the Talmud that refers to " a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err . "
= = Orbit and origin = =
Halley 's orbital period over the last 3 centuries has been between 75 – 76 years , although it has varied between 74 – 79 years since 240 BC . Its orbit around the Sun is highly elliptical , with an orbital eccentricity of 0 @.@ 967 ( with 0 being a circle and 1 being a parabolic trajectory ) . The perihelion , the point in the comet 's orbit when it is nearest the Sun , is just 0 @.@ 6 AU . This is between the orbits of Mercury and Venus . Its aphelion , or farthest distance from the Sun , is 35 AU ( roughly the distance of Pluto ) . Unusual for an object in the Solar System , Halley 's orbit is retrograde ; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets , or , clockwise from above the Sun 's north pole . The orbit is inclined by 18 ° to the ecliptic , with much of it lying south of the ecliptic . ( Because it is retrograde , the true inclination is 162 ° ) . Due to the retrograde orbit , it has one of the highest velocities relative to the Earth of any object in the Solar System . The 1910 passage was at a relative velocity of 70 @.@ 56 km / s ( 157 @,@ 838 mph or 254 @,@ 016 km / h ) . Because its orbit comes close to Earth 's in two places , Halley is the parent body of two meteor showers : the Eta Aquariids in early May , and the Orionids in late October . Observations conducted around the time of Halley 's appearance in 1986 , however , suggest that the Eta Aquarid meteor shower might not originate from Halley 's Comet , although it might be perturbed by it .
Halley is classified as a periodic or short @-@ period comet ; one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less . This contrasts it with long @-@ period comets , whose orbits last for thousands of years . Periodic comets have an average inclination to the ecliptic of only ten degrees , and an orbital period of just 6 @.@ 5 years , so Halley 's orbit is atypical . Most short @-@ period comets ( those with orbital periods shorter than 20 years and inclinations of 20 – 30 degrees or less ) are called Jupiter @-@ family comets . Those resembling Halley , with orbital periods of between 20 and 200 years and inclinations extending from zero to more than 90 degrees , are called Halley @-@ type comets . As of 2015 , only 75 Halley @-@ type comets have been observed , compared with 511 identified Jupiter family comets .
The orbits of the Halley @-@ type comets suggest that they were originally long @-@ period comets whose orbits were perturbed by the gravity of the giant planets and directed into the inner Solar System . If Halley was once a long @-@ period comet , it is likely to have originated in the Oort Cloud , a sphere of cometary bodies that has an inner edge of 20 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 AU . Conversely the Jupiter @-@ family comets are generally believed to originate in the Kuiper belt , a flat disc of icy debris between 30 AU ( Neptune 's orbit ) and 50 AU from the Sun ( in the scattered disc ) . Another point of origin for the Halley @-@ type comets was proposed in 2008 , when a trans @-@ Neptunian object with a retrograde orbit similar to Halley 's was discovered , 2008 KV42 , whose orbit takes it from just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto . It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley @-@ type comets .
Halley has probably been in its current orbit for 16 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 years , although it is not possible to numerically integrate its orbit for more than a few tens of apparitions , and close approaches before 837 AD can only be verified from recorded observations . The non @-@ gravitational effects can be crucial ; as Halley approaches the Sun , it expels jets of sublimating gas from its surface , which knock it very slightly off its orbital path . These orbital changes cause delays in its perihelion of four days , average .
In 1989 , Boris Chirikov and Vitaly Vecheslavov performed an analysis of 46 apparitions of Halley 's Comet taken from historical records and computer simulations . These studies showed that its dynamics were chaotic and unpredictable on long timescales . Halley 's projected lifetime could be as long as 10 million years . More recent work suggests that Halley will evaporate , or split in two , within the next few tens of thousands of years , or will be ejected from the Solar System within a few hundred thousand years . Observations by D.W. Hughes suggest that Halley 's nucleus has been reduced in mass by 80 – 90 % over the last 2000 – 3000 revolutions .
= = Structure and composition = =
The Giotto and Vega missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley 's surface and structure . Like all comets , as Halley nears the Sun , its volatile compounds ( those with low boiling points , such as water , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide and other ices ) begin to sublime from the surface of its nucleus . This causes the comet to develop a coma , or atmosphere , up to 100 @,@ 000 km across . Evaporation of this dirty ice releases dust particles , which travel with the gas away from the nucleus . Gas molecules in the coma absorb solar light and then re @-@ radiate it at different wavelengths , a phenomenon known as fluorescence , whereas dust particles scatter the solar light . Both processes are responsible for making the coma visible . As a fraction of the gas molecules in the coma are ionized by the solar ultraviolet radiation , pressure from the solar wind , a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun , pulls the coma 's ions out into a long tail , which may extend more than 100 million kilometers into space . Changes in the flow of the solar wind can cause disconnection events , in which the tail completely breaks off from the nucleus .
Despite the vast size of its coma , Halley 's nucleus is relatively small : barely 15 kilometers long , 8 kilometers wide and perhaps 8 kilometers thick . Its shape vaguely resembles that of a peanut . Its mass is relatively low ( roughly 2 @.@ 2 × 1014 kg ) and its average density is about 0 @.@ 6 g / cm3 , indicating that it is made of a large number of small pieces , held together very loosely , forming a structure known as a rubble pile . Ground @-@ based observations of coma brightness suggested that Halley 's rotation period was about 7 @.@ 4 days . Images taken by the various spacecraft , along with observations of the jets and shell , suggested a period of 52 hours . Given the irregular shape of the nucleus , Halley 's rotation is likely to be complex . Although only 25 % of Halley 's surface was imaged in detail during the flyby missions , the images revealed an extremely varied topography , with hills , mountains , ridges , depressions , and at least one crater .
Halley is the most active of all the periodic comets , with others , such as Comet Encke and Comet Holmes , being one or two orders of magnitude less active . Its day side ( the side facing the Sun ) is far more active than the night side . Spacecraft observations showed that the gases ejected from the nucleus were 80 % water vapor , 17 % carbon monoxide and 3 – 4 % carbon dioxide , with traces of hydrocarbons although more @-@ recent sources give a value of 10 % for carbon monoxide and also include traces of methane and ammonia . The dust particles were found to be primarily a mixture of carbon – hydrogen – oxygen – nitrogen ( CHON ) compounds common in the outer Solar System , and silicates , such as are found in terrestrial rocks . The dust particles decreased in size down to the limits of detection ( ~ 0 @.@ 001 µm ) . The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the water released by Halley was initially thought to be similar to that found in Earth 's ocean water , suggesting that Halley @-@ type comets may have delivered water to Earth in the distant past . Subsequent observations showed Halley 's deuterium ratio to be far higher than that in found in Earth 's oceans , making such comets unlikely sources for Earth 's water .
Giotto provided the first evidence in support of Fred Whipple 's " dirty snowball " hypothesis for comet construction ; Whipple postulated that comets are icy objects warmed by the Sun as they approach the inner Solar System , causing ices on their surfaces to sublimate ( change directly from a solid to a gas ) , and jets of volatile material to burst outward , creating the coma . Giotto showed that this model was broadly correct , though with modifications . Halley 's albedo , for instance , is about 4 % , meaning that it reflects only 4 % of the sunlight hitting it ; about what one would expect for coal . Thus , despite appearing brilliant white to observers on Earth , Halley 's Comet is in fact pitch black . The surface temperature of evaporating " dirty ice " ranges from 170 K ( − 103 ° C ) at higher albedo to 220 K ( − 53 ° C ) at low albedo ; Vega 1 found Halley 's surface temperature to be in the range 300 – 400 K ( 30 – 130 ° C ) . This suggested that only 10 % of Halley 's surface was active , and that large portions of it were coated in a layer of dark dust that retained heat . Together , these observations suggested that Halley was in fact predominantly composed of non @-@ volatile materials , and thus more closely resembled a " snowy dirtball " than a " dirty snowball " .
= = Apparitions = =
Halley 's calculations enabled the comet 's earlier appearances to be found in the historical record . The following table sets out the astronomical designations for every apparition of Halley 's Comet from 240 BC , the earliest documented widespread sighting . For example , " 1P / 1982 U1 , 1986 III , 1982i " indicates that for the perihelion in 1986 , Halley was the first period comet known ( designated 1P ) and this apparition was the first seen in half @-@ month U ( the second half of October ) in 1982 ( giving 1P / 1982 U1 ) ; it was the third comet past perihelion in 1986 ( 1986 III ) ; and it was the ninth comet spotted in 1982 ( provisional designation 1982i ) . The perihelion dates of each apparition are shown . The perihelion dates farther from the present are approximate , mainly because of uncertainties in the modelling of non @-@ gravitational effects . Perihelion dates of 1531 and earlier are in the Julian calendar , while perihelion dates 1607 and after are in the Gregorian calendar .
= = = Prior to 1066 = = =
Halley may have been recorded as early as 467 BC , but this is uncertain . A comet was recorded in ancient Greece between 468 and 466 BC ; its timing , location , duration , and associated meteor shower all suggest it was Halley . According to Pliny the Elder , that same year a meteorite fell in the town of Aegospotami , in Thrace . He described it as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load . Chinese chroniclers also mention a comet in that year .
The first certain appearance of Halley 's Comet in the historical record is a description from 240 BC , in the Chinese chronicle Records of the Grand Historian or Shiji , which describes a comet that appeared in the east and moved north . The only surviving record of the 164 BC apparition is found on two fragmentary Babylonian tablets , now owned by the British Museum .
The apparition of 87 BC was recorded in Babylonian tablets which state that the comet was seen " day beyond day " for a month . This appearance may be recalled in the representation of Tigranes the Great , an Armenian king who is depicted on coins with a crown that features , according to Vahe Gurzadyan and R. Vardanyan , " a star with a curved tail [ that ] may represent the passage of Halley 's Comet in 87 BC . " Gurzadyan and Vardanyan argue that " Tigranes could have seen Halley 's Comet when it passed closest to the Sun on August 6 in 87 BC " as the comet would have been a " most recordable event " ; for ancient Armenians it could have heralded the New Era of the brilliant King of Kings .
The apparition of 12 BC was recorded in the Book of Han by Chinese astronomers of the Han Dynasty who tracked it from August through October . It passed within 0 @.@ 16 AU of Earth . Halley 's appearance in 12 BC , only a few years distant from the conventionally assigned date of the birth of Jesus Christ , has led some theologians and astronomers to suggest that it might explain the biblical story of the Star of Bethlehem . There are other explanations for the phenomenon , such as planetary conjunctions , and there are also records of other comets that appeared closer to the date of Jesus ' birth .
If , as has been suggested , the reference in the Talmud to " a star which appears once in seventy years that makes the captains of the ships err " ( see above ) refers to Halley 's Comet , it may be a reference to the 66 AD appearance , because this passage is attributed to the Rabbi Yehoshua ben Hananiah . This apparition was the only one to occur during ben Hananiah 's lifetime .
The 141 AD apparition was recorded in Chinese chronicles . It was also recorded in the Tamil work Purananuru , in connection with the death of the south Indian Chera king Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai .
The 374 AD and 607 approaches each came within 0 @.@ 09 AU of Earth . The 684 AD apparition was recorded in Europe in one of the sources used by the compiler of the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicles . Chinese records also report it as the " broom star " .
In 837 , Halley 's Comet may have passed as close as 0 @.@ 03 AU ( 3 @.@ 2 million miles ; 5 @.@ 1 million kilometers ) from Earth , by far its closest approach . Its tail may have stretched 60 degrees across the sky . It was recorded by astronomers in China , Japan , Germany , The Byzantine Empire , and the Middle East . In 912 , Halley is recorded in the Annals of Ulster , which state " A dark and rainy year . A comet appeared . "
= = = 1066 = = =
In 1066 , the comet was seen in England and thought to be an omen : later that year Harold II of England died at the Battle of Hastings ; it was a bad omen for Harold , but a good omen for the man who defeated him , William the Conqueror . The comet is represented on the Bayeux Tapestry as a fiery star , and the surviving accounts describe it as appearing to be four times the size of Venus and shining with a light equal to a quarter of that of the Moon . Halley came within 0 @.@ 10 AU of Earth at that time .
This appearance of the comet is also noted in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Eilmer of Malmesbury may have seen Halley previously in 989 , as he wrote of it in 1066 : " You 've come , have you ? ... You 've come , you source of tears to many mothers , you evil . I hate you ! It is long since I saw you ; but as I see you now you are much more terrible , for I see you brandishing the downfall of my country . I hate you ! "
The Irish Annals of the Four Masters recorded the comet as " A star [ that ] appeared on the seventh of the Calends of May , on Tuesday after Little Easter , than whose light the brilliance or light of The Moon was not greater ; and it was visible to all in this manner till the end of four nights afterwards . " Chaco Native Americans in New Mexico may have recorded the 1066 apparition in their petroglyphs .
= = = 1145 – 1378 = = =
The 1145 apparition was recorded by the monk Eadwine . The 1986 apparition exhibited a fan tail similar to Eadwine 's drawing . Some claim that Genghis Khan was inspired to turn his conquests toward Europe by the 1222 apparition . The 1301 apparition may have been seen by the artist Giotto di Bondone , who represented the Star of Bethlehem as a fire @-@ colored comet in the Nativity section of his Arena Chapel cycle , completed in 1305 . No record survives of the 1378 apparition .
= = = 1456 = = =
In 1456 , the year of Halley 's next apparition , the Ottoman Empire invaded the Kingdom of Hungary , culminating in the Siege of Belgrade in July of that year . In a Papal Bull , Pope Calixtus III ordered special prayers be said for the city 's protection . In 1470 , the humanist scholar Bartolomeo Platina wrote in his Lives of the Popes that ,
A hairy and fiery star having then made its appearance for several days , the mathematicians declared that there would follow grievous pestilence , dearth and some great calamity . Calixtus , to avert the wrath of God , ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks , the enemies of the Christian name . He likewise ordered , to move God by continual entreaty , that notice should be given by the bells to call the faithful at midday to aid by their prayers those engaged in battle with the Turk .
Platina 's account is not mentioned in official records . In the 18th century , a Frenchman further embellished the story , in anger at the Church , by claiming that the Pope had " excommunicated " the comet , though this story was most likely his own invention .
Halley 's apparition of 1456 was also witnessed in Kashmir and depicted in great detail by Śrīvara , a Sanskrit poet and biographer to the Sultans of Kashmir . He read the apparition as a cometary portent of doom foreshadowing the imminent fall of Sultan Zayn al @-@ Abidin ( AD 1418 / 1420 – 1470 ) .
After witnessing a bright light in the sky ( which most historians have identified as Halley 's Comet , visible in Ethiopia in 1456 ) , Emperor Zara Yaqob , ruler from 1434 to 1468 , founded the city of Debre Berhan ( tr . City of Light ) and made it his capital for the remainder of his reign .
= = = 1531 – 1835 = = =
Halley 's periodic returns have been subject to scientific investigation since the 16th century . The three apparitions from 1531 to 1682 were noted by Edmond Halley , enabling him to predict its 1759 return . Streams of vapour observed during the comet 's 1835 apparition prompted astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel to propose that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet 's orbit .
= = = 1910 = = =
The 1910 approach , which came into naked @-@ eye view around 10 April and came to perihelion on 20 April , was notable for several reasons : it was the first approach of which photographs exist , and the first for which spectroscopic data were obtained . Furthermore , the comet made a relatively close approach of 0 @.@ 15 AU , making it a spectacular sight . Indeed , on 19 May , Earth actually passed through the tail of the comet . One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas cyanogen , which led astronomer Camille Flammarion to claim that , when Earth passed through the tail , the gas " would impregnate the atmosphere and possibly snuff out all life on the planet . " His pronouncement led to panicked buying of gas masks and quack " anti @-@ comet pills " and " anti @-@ comet umbrellas " by the public . In reality , as other astronomers were quick to point out , the gas is so diffuse that the world suffered no ill effects from the passage through the tail .
The comet added to the unrest in China on the eve of Xinhai Revolution that would end the last dynasty in 1911 . As James Hutson , a missionary in Sichuan Province at the time , recorded ,
The people believe that it indicates calamity such as war , fire , pestilence , and a change of dynasty . In some places on certain days the doors were unopened for half a day , no water was carried and many did not even drink water as it was rumoured that pestilential vapour was being poured down upon the earth from the comet . "
The 1910 visitation is also recorded as being the travelling companion of the first known English Muslim to make the Haj pilgrimage to Mecca . However , his explanation of its scientific predictability did not meet with favour in the Holy City .
The comet was also fertile ground for hoaxes . One that reached major newspapers claimed that the Sacred Followers , a supposed Oklahoma religious group , attempted to sacrifice a virgin to ward off the impending disaster , but were stopped by the police .
American satirist and writer Mark Twain was born on 30 November 1835 , exactly two weeks after the comet 's perihelion . In his autobiography , published in 1909 , he said ,
I came in with Halley 's comet in 1835 . It is coming again next year , and I expect to go out with it . It will be the greatest disappointment of my life if I don 't go out with Halley 's comet . The Almighty has said , no doubt : ' Now here are these two unaccountable freaks ; they came in together , they must go out together.'
Twain died on 21 April 1910 , the day following the comet 's subsequent perihelion . The 1985 fantasy film The Adventures of Mark Twain was inspired by the quotation .
Halley 's 1910 apparition is distinct from the Great Daylight Comet of 1910 , which surpassed Halley in brilliance and was actually visible in broad daylight for a short period , approximately four months before Halley made its appearance .
= = = 1986 = = =
Halley 's 1986 apparition was the least favorable on record . The comet and Earth were on opposite sides of the Sun in February 1986 , creating the worst viewing circumstances for Earth observers for the last 2 @,@ 000 years . Halley 's closest approach was 0 @.@ 42 AU . Additionally , with increased light pollution from urbanization , many people failed to even see the comet . It was possible to observe it in areas outside of cities with the help of binoculars . Further , the comet appeared brightest when it was almost invisible from the northern hemisphere in March and April . Halley 's approach was first detected by astronomers David Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson on 16 October 1982 using the 5 @.@ 1 m Hale telescope at Mount Palomar and a CCD camera . The first person to visually observe the comet on its 1986 return was amateur astronomer Stephen James O 'Meara on 24 January 1985 . O 'Meara used a home @-@ built 24 @-@ inch telescope on top of Mauna Kea to detect the magnitude 19 @.@ 6 comet . On 8 November 1985 , Stephen Edberg ( then serving as the Coordinator for Amateur Observations at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory ) and Charles Morris were the first to observe Halley 's Comet with the naked eye in its 1986 apparition .
The development of space travel gave scientists the opportunity to study the comet at close quarters , and several probes were launched to do so . The Soviet Vega 1 started returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986 , and the first ever of its nucleus , and made its flyby on 6 March , followed by Vega 2 making its flyby on 9 March . On 14 March , the Giotto space probe , launched by the European Space Agency , made the closest pass of the comet 's nucleus . There were also two Japanese probes , Suisei and Sakigake . The probes were unofficially known as the Halley Armada .
Based on data retrieved by Astron , the largest ultraviolet space telescope of the time , during its Halley 's Comet observations in December 1985 , a group of Soviet scientists developed a model of the comet 's coma . The comet was also observed from space by the International Cometary Explorer . Originally International Sun @-@ Earth Explorer 3 , the probe was renamed and freed from its L1 Lagrangian point location in Earth 's orbit to intercept comets 21P / Giacobini @-@ Zinner and Halley .
Two Space Shuttle missions – the ill @-@ fated STS @-@ 51 @-@ L ( ended by the Challenger disaster ) and STS @-@ 61 @-@ E – were scheduled to observe Halley 's Comet from low Earth orbit . STS @-@ 51 @-@ L carried the Shuttle @-@ Pointed Tool for Astronomy ( SPARTAN @-@ 203 ) satellite , also called the Halley 's Comet Experiment Deployable ( HCED ) . STS @-@ 61 @-@ E was a Columbia mission scheduled for March 1986 , carrying the ASTRO @-@ 1 platform to study the comet . Due to the suspension of America 's manned space program after the Challenger explosion , the mission was canceled , and ASTRO @-@ 1 would not fly until late 1990 on STS @-@ 35 .
= = = After 1986 = = =
On 12 February 1991 , at a distance of 14 @.@ 4 AU ( 2 @.@ 15 × 109 km ) from the Sun , Halley displayed an outburst that lasted for several months , releasing a cloud of dust 300 @,@ 000 km across . The outburst likely started in December 1990 , and then the comet brightened from magnitude 24 @.@ 3 to magnitude 18 @.@ 9 . Halley was most recently observed in 2003 by three of the Very Large Telescopes at Paranal , Chile , when Halley 's magnitude was 28 @.@ 2 . The telescopes observed Halley , at the faintest and farthest any comet has ever been imaged , in order to verify a method for finding very faint trans @-@ Neptunian objects . Astronomers are now able to observe the comet at any point in its orbit .
The next predicted perihelion of Halley 's Comet is 28 July 2061 , when it is expected to be better positioned for observation than during the 1985 – 1986 apparition , as it will be on the same side of the Sun as Earth . It is expected to have an apparent magnitude of − 0 @.@ 3 , compared with only + 2 @.@ 1 for the 1986 apparition . It has been calculated that on 9 September 2060 , Halley will pass within 0 @.@ 98 AU ( 147 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) of Jupiter , and then on 20 August 2061 will pass within 0 @.@ 0543 AU ( 8 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 km ) of Venus . In 2134 , Halley is expected to pass within 0 @.@ 09 AU ( 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) of Earth . Its apparent magnitude is expected to be − 2 @.@ 0 .
= Road to the Multiverse =
" Road to the Multiverse " is the first episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . This and most of the Season 8 episodes were produced for season 7 . Directed by Greg Colton and written by Wellesley Wild , the episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on September 27 , 2009 , along with the series premiere of The Cleveland Show . In " Road to the Multiverse " , two of the show 's main characters , baby genius Stewie and anthropomorphic dog Brian , both voiced by series creator Seth MacFarlane , use an " out @-@ of @-@ this @-@ world " remote control to travel through a series of various parallel universes . They eventually end up in a world where dogs rule and humans obey . Brian becomes reluctant to return to his own universe , and he ultimately ends up breaking the remote , much to the dismay of Stewie , who soon seeks a replacement . The " Road to " episodes which have aired throughout various seasons of Family Guy were inspired by the Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour , though this episode was not originally conceived as a " Road to " show .
During the sixth season , episodes of Family Guy were delayed from regular broadcast due to the 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike . MacFarlane , the series creator and executive producer , sided with the Writers Guild and participated in the strike until its conclusion . As a result , the seventh season consisted entirely of hold @-@ overs . " Road to the Multiverse " was the first episode to be produced and aired after the strike ended . It was first announced at the 2008 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
Responses to the episode were highly positive ; critics praised its storyline , numerous cultural references , and use of various animation styles . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 10 @.@ 17 million homes during its original airing in the United States . The episode featured guest performances by Kei Ogawa , Kotaro Watanabe and Jamison Yang , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . Greg Colton won a Primetime Emmy Award for Individual Achievement in Animation , for storyboarding the episode , at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards . " Road to the Multiverse " was released on DVD along with seven other episodes from the season on June 15 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
As the Griffin family attend the county fair , Stewie announces that he has bred a winning pedigree pig for the local Quahog Clam Day . Revealing to Brian that he got the pig from a parallel universe , he shows him a remote control that allows access to the various parallel universes . Each universe depicts Quahog in the same time and place but under different conditions . Deciding to test the device , they both visit a universe where Christianity never existed , leading an impressed Brian to ask whether the remote can take them to other alternate realities . Stewie guides them both through several more parallel universes , each having its own portrayal of the Griffin family . As time passes , Brian begins to lose his amazement for the device and eventually comes to realize that Stewie has no idea how to return home .
Continuing their explorations , they reach a universe where humans are subservient to dogs . Stewie finally figures out how to modify the remote device so that they can return home ; but Brian , overwhelmed by the thought of a world run by dogs like himself , is reluctant to leave and steals the remote . Stewie and Brian fight over the device , ultimately breaking it , which traps them in the alternate universe . In desperation , the two go to the universe 's version of the Griffin family – who are all dogs except for their pet Brian , who is human – hoping to find a solution . The dog version of Stewie quickly confronts the two , revealing that he has also developed a universe @-@ traveling device that would allow them to return to their own universe . Before Dog Stewie can fetch them his remote control , Human Stewie bites the dog version of his father , Peter , and is sent to the pound where he is to be euthanized later that day . The two Brians and Dog Stewie go to the human pound to free him , and both Stewie and Brian are sent back to their original universe . As they are being transported , human Brian , dreaming of a better life in a world of intelligent inhabitants , leaps into the inter @-@ universe portal at the last moment and successfully makes it to the original universe with the other two . Excited about his new prospects in life , human Brian begins his optimistic adventure in a brand new universe but is quickly struck by a car .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was first announced at the 2008 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California , on July 26 , 2008 . It was written by series regular Wellesley Wild and directed by Greg Colton shortly after the conclusion of the seventh production season , which consisted entirely of held @-@ over episodes due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . " Road to the Multiverse " is the fifth episode of the " Road to " hallmarks of the series , which have aired in various seasons of the show , and the second to be directed by Colton . The episodes are a parody of the seven Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour . Though it was not originally intended to be a " Road to " episode , Greg Colton convinced series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane and " Spies Reminiscent of Us " director Cyndi Tang to change the episode 's title from " Sliders " , parodying the science fiction television series Sliders . Colton 's suggestion of the new title " Road to the Multiverse " was accepted , as was altering the premise of " Spies Reminiscent of Us " , the season 's original " Road to " episode . Executive producer and former Star Trek : Enterprise writer David A. Goodman , a fan of science fiction and the series Sliders , played a key role in the episode 's original development . The production staff of Family Guy , including Wellesley Wild , watched an episode of Sliders before writing the show . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg and Alex Carter working as staff writers for the episode . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Road to the Multiverse " . Ron Jones and MacFarlane also contributed to the music and lyrics featured in the episode .
The episode features several examples of animation styles that differ greatly from the series ' customary appearance . One such example involves the Disney universe , where the characters are drawn in the style of classic Walt Disney animated films . The sequence was animated entirely in Los Angeles by Main Street Productions , which were approached and recruited by series producer Kara Vallow to create the sequence , rather than in South Korea where the show is normally animated . MacFarlane described the scene as " a bit of challenge " and " kind of an experiment " since every character had to be completely redesigned based on the style of such films as " Pinocchio , Beauty and the Beast and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs . " Another difference occurs in the dog universe , where the human characters are redrawn as dogs and Brian is redrawn as a human . MacFarlane found redesigning Brian easiest , simply giving him " a big nose and a collar . " In addition to traditional animation , the episode included a parody by Sarah E. Meyer , Eileen Kohlhepp , Kelly Mazurowskiof of Robot Chicken , a stop motion series created by Family Guy cast member Seth Green for the Cartoon Network animation block Adult Swim . Green did not take part in the making of the parody ; it was instead animated by the Los Angeles company Screen Novelties , which had worked on the early seasons of Robot Chicken .
" Road to the Multiverse " , along with the seven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The DVDs included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane , various crew and cast members from several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature that discussed the process behind animating " Road to the Multiverse " and a mini @-@ feature entitled Family Guy Karaoke . The set also includes a reprint of the script for the episode .
In addition to the regular cast , Japanese actors Kei Ogawa , Kotaro Watanabe and Jamison Yang guest starred in the episode as Japanese @-@ inspired versions of the Griffin family and Glenn Quagmire . Recurring guest voice actor John G. Brennan reprised his recurring role as Mort Goldman and Adam West reprised his role as Mayor Adam West , who appears as an anthropomorphic mouse in the Disney universe . Minor appearances were made by writer and showrunner Steve Callaghan , actor Ralph Garman , writer and showrunner Mark Hentemann and writers Patrick Meighan , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin and John Viener .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode opens with Stewie revealing his ability to travel across parallel universes to Brian . The first universe that they decide to visit , after having questioned the origin of Stewie 's pedigree pig , is said to exist in a world where Christianity is absent . In this universe , everything is seemingly years in advance of the 21st century ; Quagmire is able to take a single pill and be instantly cured of the AIDS virus , and flying cars and buildings surround them . As the two travel through the universe , they come upon Stewie 's older sister Meg , who has become significantly more attractive . While they watch her walk down the street , the 1984 single " Drop Dead Legs " by Van Halen plays . Playing on the nonexistence of Christianity , Brian and Stewie visit the Sistine Chapel and discover that a large collection of photos of American actress Jodie Foster has been substituted for The Creation of Adam painting by Michelangelo , who was fired and replaced by John Hinckley .
Seeking to explore more alternate realities , Stewie takes Brian to a universe resembling the 1960 animated sitcom The Flintstones . Peter and his wife Lois are shown dressed in a manner similar to Fred Flintstone and Wilma Flintstone respectively . Becoming tired of this universe , the two then transport themselves to a universe where the atomic bombing of Japan never occurred , allowing Japan to conquer the United States in World War II .
Another universe references many works by Walt Disney . Meg appears as Ursula from the 1989 film The Little Mermaid and Herbert appears as the Queen from the 1937 film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs . Walt Disney 's alleged antisemitism is also referenced by having the universe 's occupants attack the Disney version of Mort Goldman when he enters a room , brutally beating him to death off @-@ screen . Discouraged , Brian and Stewie transport themselves to a universe resembling the Adult Swim series Robot Chicken , a show executive @-@ produced by Family Guy cast member Seth Green . The sequence reveals several action figures of cartoon characters : He @-@ Man , Optimus Prime , Lion @-@ O and Duke from G.I. Joe .
Continuing their travels , the two come across a universe where singer and performer Frank Sinatra was never born , resulting in the loss of the 1960 presidential election by President John F. Kennedy to then @-@ Vice President Richard Nixon , which causes World War III . Brian questions whether Lee Harvey Oswald shot Kennedy , and Stewie responds that he shot Mayor McCheese instead . A sequence similar to the Zapruder film , which shows the assassination of Kennedy , is shown , with Jacqueline Kennedy also appearing . Brian and Stewie next discover a universe completely depicted as a political cartoon . The final reference of the episode occurs in the dog universe when Stewie mentions , " Gosh , Brian , I sure hope this next leap , will be the leap home , " a nod to the opening narration of the time travel series Quantum Leap .
= = Reception = =
" Road to the Multiverse " was broadcast on September 27 , 2009 , as a part of the Animation Domination block on Fox , and was preceded by an episode of The Simpsons and the pilot episode of MacFarlane 's new show The Cleveland Show . It was followed by the season premiere of MacFarlane 's other show American Dad ! . It was watched by 10 @.@ 17 million viewers in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings , despite being aired simultaneously with the season premiere of Desperate Housewives on ABC , the season premiere of The Amazing Race on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 5 @.@ 2 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! , in addition to edging out all three shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings were Family Guy 's highest since the airing of the season six episode " McStroke " . The episode 's first broadcast in Canada , on Global TV , was watched by 1 @.@ 29 million viewers , making it first for its timeslot in the week it was broadcast .
" Road to the Multiverse " received critical acclaim , with one calling the storyline " right up there with the best of the early episodes we 've seen on the series . " In a simultaneous review of the episodes of The Simpsons and American Dad ! that preceded and followed the episode respectively and The Cleveland Show pilot , The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff commented that he felt " essentially predisposed to like " the episode , adding that he enjoyed the entire theme of the show , in addition the fact that it was more than just science fiction . In the conclusion of his review VanDerWerff called the episode a " solid start to the eighth season " and rated it as a B + , the best rating between The Simpsons episode " Homer the Whopper " , the American Dad ! episode " In Country ... Club " and The Cleveland Show 's series premiere . Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode a 9 @.@ 6 out of 10 , saying that the episode featured " plenty of memorable lines , some truly stunning animation [ ... ] and a relentless non @-@ stop barrage of witty jokes . " In a subsequent review in January 2010 of " Stewie and Brian 's Greatest Adventures " , Haque called the episode " creative , visually impressive , and features some of the best random gags we 've seen on the show in a long time . " Television critic Alex Rocha of TV Guide also found the episode to have " great laughs , " saying that the show is " definitely off to a great start " to a new season . The director of " Road to the Multiverse " , Greg Colton , was awarded the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation , for storyboarding the episode , on August 21 , 2010 , at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards 's Creative Arts Awards .
Although the Parents Television Council , a frequent Family Guy critic , did not name Family Guy its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for " Road to the Multiverse " , it did refer to this episode in its negative review of the following episode , " Family Goy " . The review noted that the appearance of the Griffin family 's Jewish neighbor , Mort Goldman , in " Multiverse " was notable since , in the Disney parody , Mort was beaten to a bloody pulp by Disney @-@ inspired versions of the cast – a reference to Walt Disney 's purported antisemitism . The review goes on to state , " apparently , in Seth MacFarlane 's mind , the best way to fight anti @-@ Semitism is with more anti @-@ Semitism . One must wonder what young , angry , disaffected bigots tuning into the show must think . All they see is a nebbish stereotype getting his teeth knocked out of his skull and a blood @-@ soaked Star of David tumbling to the floor . "
In a 2012 interview , Seth MacFarlane stated : " As far as the all @-@ around best episode , " Road to the Multiverse " would have to be up there . "
= = Sequel = =
A video game sequel called Family Guy : Back to the Multiverse was made . It is also a continuation of the season 9 episode " The Big Bang Theory " .
= New Jersey Route 73 =
Route 73 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 34 @.@ 64 mi ( 55 @.@ 75 km ) as an outer bypass of the Camden area from an intersection with U.S. Route 322 in Folsom , Atlantic County to the Tacony @-@ Palmyra Bridge in Palmyra , Burlington County , where it continues into Philadelphia , Pennsylvania as Pennsylvania Route 73 . South of the interchange with the Atlantic City Expressway in Winslow Township , Camden County , Route 73 is a two @-@ lane undivided county @-@ maintained road and is signed as County Route 561 Spur , a spur of County Route 561 ( CR 561 ) . North of the Atlantic City Expressway , the route is maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and is mostly four lanes , with the portion north of the County Route 561 concurrency a divided highway . North of the U.S. Route 30 ( US 30 ) interchange near Berlin , Route 73 runs through suburban areas of the Delaware Valley , intersecting Route 70 in Marlton , the New Jersey Turnpike and Interstate 295 ( I @-@ 295 ) in Mount Laurel Township , Route 38 and Route 41 in Maple Shade Township , Route 90 in Cinnaminson Township , and U.S. Route 130 in Pennsauken Township .
What is today Route 73 between the Tacony @-@ Palmyra Bridge and Berlin was legislated as Route S41 in 1927 , a spur of Route 41 . An extension of this spur called Route S41A was designated in 1938 to continue south from Berlin to Route 42 ( now U.S. Route 322 ) in Folsom . In 1953 , both these routes became Route 73 in order to match Pennsylvania Route 73 . The portion of Route 73 between Berlin and the Atlantic City Expressway became a state highway by 1969 . By the 2000s , Route 73 was extended south along County Route 561 Spur to U.S. Route 322 . Several traffic circles along Route 73 have been modified or replaced over time . Among these was the Berlin Circle , which was turned into an at @-@ grade intersection in 2006 . The Marlton Circle at Route 70 , which was modified in 1974 to allow Route 73 to pass through the circle , was replaced with an interchange completed in 2011 .
= = Route description = =
= = = US 322 to Atlantic City Expressway = = =
Route 73 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 322 ( Black Horse Pike ) in Folsom , Atlantic County , heading to the northwest on Blue Anchor Road , a two @-@ lane undivided county @-@ maintained road signed as County Route 561 Spur . This portion of the route is officially considered a part of Route 73 but is not signed as such . The road runs through forested areas of the Pine Barrens with some homes and farms , coming to a crossroads with Route 54 . Following this intersection , the road continues northwest as Mays Landing Road , crossing over a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line . It enters a small corner of Hammonton before it crosses into Winslow Township in Camden County . Here , Route 73 crosses over a Southern Railroad of New Jersey railroad line and intersects County Route 725 . From this point , the road heads north to a partial interchange with the Atlantic City Expressway that has access from southbound Route 73 to the eastbound Atlantic City Expressway and from the westbound Atlantic City Expressway to northbound Route 73 .
= = = Atlantic City Expressway to NJ 70 = = =
After the Atlantic City Expressway , Route 73 becomes officially signed and maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation , although County Route 561 Spur is still signed along the route . It heads to the north as a four @-@ lane undivided road , passing through wooded areas with some residences and businesses and crosses CR 723 . The route continues to an intersection with CR 561 , where it briefly widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway . At this junction , CR 561 Spur ends and Route 73 forms a concurrency with County Route 561 . The road intersects CR 722 and CR 721 , becoming Camden Road at the latter junction . It heads north through more rural areas , meeting CR 720 . County Route 561C , a former segment of County Route 561 , splits from Route 73 by heading north through the community of Cedar Brook while Route 73 and CR 561 bypass the community to the east , crossing under a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line .
North of Cedar Brook , the route traverses CR 536 , becoming Cedarbrook Road . It intersects CR 680 and CR 711 before widening into a divided highway prior to a junction where CR 712 heads northeast and CR 561 splits from Route 73 by heading north on Cedarbrook Road . Past this intersection , Route 73 becomes an unnamed road and encounters CR 710 at a four @-@ way intersection . A short distance later , the route enters Waterford Township and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with U.S. Route 30 ( White Horse Pike ) and County Route 536 Spur .
Following US 30 , Route 73 passes through a small corner of Berlin Boro before it goes under New Jersey Transit ’ s Atlantic City Line near the Atco station . At the railroad crossing , the route enters Berlin Township and meets CR 534 at a crossroad . After the intersection with this route , the road proceeds back into Berlin Boro , where the route runs through a mix of residences and businesses . Route 73 widens to a six @-@ lane highway and comes to the former Berlin Circle , where it meets both CR 689 and CR 708 . From here , the road turns north and reenters Berlin Township as a four @-@ lane divided highway , continuing through developed areas and intersecting CR 692 . Prior to the junction with CR 693 , the route enters Voorhees Township , where it encounters CR 675 .
At the intersection with CR 671 , Route 73 comes into Evesham Township , Burlington County . In Evesham , it heads to a junction with CR 544 before coming to Marlton , where it passes by The Promenade at Sagemore before turning northwest at CR 607 . The route intersects CR 600 and CR 620 before meeting Route 70 at an interchange that was formerly the Marlton Circle .
= = = NJ 70 to Tacony @-@ Palmyra Bridge = = =
Subsequent to the Marlton Circle , Route 73 continues through suburban commercial areas , heading into Mount Laurel Township . The route comes to an intersection with CR 616 , where it turns to the northwest . A short distance later , the road has an access ramp to the New Jersey Turnpike . Following this interchange , Route 73 widens into a six @-@ lane divided highway and encounters CR 673 before coming to a cloverleaf interchange with Interstate 295 . Between the New Jersey Turnpike and Interstate 295 , Route 73 serves as a part of a main route from North Jersey and New York City to Philadelphia as motorists use the turnpike to get to and from points north and I @-@ 295 south to access I @-@ 76 , which provides access to both the Walt Whitman Bridge and Ben Franklin Bridge to Philadelphia . From the I @-@ 295 interchange , the route goes into Maple Shade Township . Route 73 comes to two exits for Route 38 and Route 41 within a short distance of each other . After Route 41 , the road intersects County Route 610 and bypasses the center of Maple Shade to the east as a four @-@ lane divided highway . The route interchanges with CR 537 and runs under a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line before turning northwest and paralleling the North Branch of the Pennsauken Creek , meeting CR 609 .
Route 73 enters Cinnaminson Township , where the Route 90 freeway splits from the road before crossing over the South Branch of the Pennsauken Creek into Pennsauken Township , Camden County . In Pennsauken , the route has exits with County Route 644 and U.S. Route 130 . Route 73 briefly enters Cinnaminson Township , Burlington County again before entering Palmyra at the bridge over the Pennsauken Creek . In Palmyra , the road has an interchange with County Route 543 before running under New Jersey Transit ’ s River Line . The route comes to the intersection with Temple Boulevard , where it becomes maintained by the Burlington County Bridge Commission and comes to the northbound toll plaza for the Tacony @-@ Palmyra Bridge . A short distance later , the road traverses the Delaware River on the three @-@ lane Tacony @-@ Palmyra Bridge , where it continues into Philadelphia , Pennsylvania as Pennsylvania Route 73 . The Tacony @-@ Palmyra Bridge is a drawbridge designed by Ralph Modjeski , who also engineered the Ben Franklin Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge , that opened to traffic in 1929 , replacing a ferry service across the Delaware River .
Route 73 serves as a main road in South Jersey that helps provide access between the Philadelphia area and the southern part of the Jersey Shore as well as connections to several local roads . It has been rated one of the worst roads in the state in terms of traffic , accidents , and driver aggression .
= = History = =
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , a spur of Route 41 called Route S41 was legislated to run from the Tacony @-@ Palmyra Bridge south to Berlin along what is today Route 73 . A southern extension of Route S41 called Route S41A was proposed to run from Berlin south to Route 42 ( now U.S. Route 322 ) in Folsom in 1938 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route S41 and Route S41A were renumbered to Route 73 in order to match Pennsylvania Route 73 . With the establishment of the 500 @-@ series county routes in 1952 , the current alignment of Route 73 between Berlin and Blue Anchor became a part of County Route 561 while it became County Route 561 Spur between Blue Anchor and Folsom . By 1969 , Route 73 was designated south of Berlin along County Route 561 and County Route 561 Spur to the Atlantic City Expressway . By the 2000s , Route 73 was extended south along with County Route 561 Spur from the Atlantic City Expressway to U.S. Route 322 .
Over the years , several traffic circles have been modified or replaced along Route 73 . The Marlton Circle at Route 70 in Marlton was modified in 1974 to allow Route 73 to run directly straight through the circle . This circle became known for traffic backups and was replaced with an interchange . Construction on this interchange , which cost $ 31 million , began in April 2009 . In May 2010 , the circle was eliminated with a temporary at @-@ grade intersection constructed while the Route 73 bridge over Route 70 was being built . The interchange was completed in June 2011 . A traffic circle that existed at the intersection of Route 38 and Route 41 in Maple Shade Township was removed by the 1960s and replaced by the current set of interchanges . In addition , the Berlin Circle in Berlin was replaced by an at @-@ grade intersection between August 2005 and September 2006 at a cost of $ 73 million .
= = Major intersections = =
= Mimi Smith =
Mary Elizabeth " Mimi " Smith ( née Stanley ; 24 April 1906 – 6 December 1991 ) was the maternal aunt and parental guardian of the English musician , John Lennon . Mimi Stanley was born in Liverpool , England ; the oldest of five daughters . She became a resident trainee nurse at the Woolton Convalescent Hospital , and later worked as a private secretary . On 15 September 1939 , she married George Smith , who ran his family 's dairy farm and a shop in Woolton , a suburb of Liverpool .
After her younger sister , Julia Lennon , separated from her husband , she and her son ( Lennon ) , moved in with a new partner , but Mimi contacted Liverpool 's Social Services and complained about him sleeping in the same bed as the two adults . Julia was eventually persuaded to hand the care of Lennon over to the Smiths . Lennon lived with the Smiths for most of his childhood , and remained close to his aunt , even though she was highly dismissive of his musical ambitions , his girlfriends , and wives .
She often told the teenage Lennon : " The guitar 's all right John , but you 'll never make a living out of it " . In 1965 , Lennon bought her a bungalow in Poole , Dorset , where she lived until her death in 1991 . Despite later losing touch with other family members , Lennon kept in close contact and telephoned her every week , until his death in 1980 . The Smiths ' house in Liverpool was later donated to The National Trust .
= = The Stanley family = =
According to Lennon , the Stanley family once owned the whole of Woolton village . Mimi 's father , George Stanley , was born in the Everton district of Liverpool in 1874 , and became a sailor . Her mother , Annie Jane Millward , was born in Chester around 1875 , to Welsh parents . Annie 's first two children , a boy and a girl , died shortly after birth , and she had five additional children : Mary , known as ' Mimi ' ; Elizabeth ' Mater ' ( 1906 to 1991 ) ; Anne ' Nanny ' ( 1911 – 1988 ) ; Julia ' Judy ' ( 1914 – 1958 ) ; and Harriet ' Harrie ' ( 1916 – 1972 ) .
After the birth of his daughters , Stanley retired from sailing and found a job with the Liverpool and Glasgow Tug Salvage Company as an insurance investigator . He moved his family to the Liverpool suburb of Allerton , where they lived in a small terraced house at 9 Newcastle Road . According to Beatles biographer Bob Spitz , Mimi assumed a matriarchal role in the Stanley house to help her mother , and dressed " as if she was on her way to a weekly garden club meeting " . Friends of Lennon later stated that his aunt based everything on decorum , honesty , and a black @-@ and @-@ white attitude : " Either you were good enough or you were not . " Lennon 's school friend , Pete Shotton , later commented that she " had a very strong sense of what was right or wrong " . Annie Stanley died in 1945 , so Mimi accepted the responsibility of caring for her father , with help from her younger sister , Julia .
When other girls were thinking of marriage , Mimi talked of challenges and adventures that arose from her attitude of " stubborn independence " , and often said that she never wanted to get married because she hated the idea of being " tied to the kitchen sink " . She became a resident trainee nurse at the Woolton Convalescent Hospital , and later worked as a private secretary for Ernest Vickers , who was an industrial magnate with businesses in Manchester and Liverpool . She had long @-@ term plans to buy a house in a " respected suburb " of Liverpool one day so that she could entertain the " scholars and dignitaries of Liverpool society " .
= = Marriage and ' Mendips ' = =
In early 1932 she met George Smith , who lived across from the hospital where she worked , and to which he delivered milk every morning . Smith and his brother , Frank Smith , operated a dairy farm and a shop in Woolton that had been in the Smith family for four generations . Smith started courting Mimi , but was constantly thwarted by her indifference and her father 's interference . Stanley would only allow the couple to sit in the back room at Newcastle Road when he or his wife were in the front room , and before it grew too late he would burst into the back room and loudly order Smith home . The courtship lasted almost seven years , but Smith grew tired of waiting . After delivering milk to the hospital one morning he gave her an ultimatum that she must marry him , " or nothing at all ! "
Mimi and Smith were finally married on 15 September 1939 . They bought a semi @-@ detached house called Mendips — named after the range of hills — at 251 Menlove Avenue , in a middle class area of Liverpool . Menlove Avenue suffered extensive damage during World War II , and she said that she often had to throw a wet blanket on incendiary bombs that fell in the garden . During the war the government took over the Smiths ' farmland for war work , and Smith was called up for service , but was discharged three years later , working in an aircraft factory in Speke until the end of the war . Smith later left the milk trade and started a small bookmaker 's business , which led Mimi to complain later that he was a compulsive gambler , and had lost most of their money .
= = Mimi and John Lennon = =
Julia Stanley married Alfred ( " Alf " or " Fred " ) Lennon on 3 December 1938 , and on 9 October 1940 , the couple 's first and only child was born . Mimi phoned the Oxford Street Maternity Hospital that evening and was told that Julia had given birth to a boy . According to Mimi , she went straight to the hospital during the middle of an air raid , and was forced to hide in doorways to avoid the shrapnel . She ran , as she later recalled , " as fast as my legs could carry me " . When a parachute @-@ borne landmine fell outside the hospital , she later said , " My sister [ Julia ] stayed in bed , and they put the baby [ Lennon ] under the bed . They wanted me to go into the basement , but I wouldn 't . I ran all the way back to Newcastle Road to tell father [ Stanley ] the news . ' Get under the shelter , ' the wardens were shouting . ' Oh , be quiet , ' I told them . " The story about the air @-@ raid has since been repudiated , as there was no attack that night . The previous raid had been on 21 – 22 September , and the next was on 16 October , when the areas of Walton and Everton were badly hit .
After Julia separated from her husband , she and the infant Lennon moved in with her new partner , John Albert " Bobby " Dykins , but Mimi twice contacted Liverpool 's Social Services and complained about Lennon sleeping in the same bed as Julia and Dykins . Julia was eventually persuaded to hand the care of Lennon over to the Smiths , who had no children of their own . Mimi later confided to a relative that although she had never wanted children , she had " always wanted John " . In July 1946 , Alf Lennon visited the Smiths and took Lennon to Blackpool , ostensibly for a long holiday , but with the secret intention of emigrating to New Zealand with him . Julia went to Blackpool and took Lennon back to her house , but a few weeks later she handed him back over to Mimi . Lennon then lived continuously at Mendips , in the smallest bedroom above the front door . Although she was a caring guardian , she was also known for being very strict , compared to the more relaxed influence of her husband and Lennon 's mother . Family friends described Mimi as stubborn , impatient , and unforgiving , but also said that she had a strong sense of humour . On many occasions when she criticised Lennon , he would respond with a joke , and the two of them would be " rolling around , laughing together " .
Mimi bought volumes of short stories for Lennon , and her husband taught Lennon to read at the age of five by reading aloud the headlines of the Liverpool Echo . Every summer , from the age of nine until he was fifteen , she sent Lennon alone on a ten @-@ hour bus journey to visit his Aunt Mater and cousin Stanley Parkes at their home near Loch Meadie in Durness , Scotland . Mimi also took her charge to a garden party in Calderstones Park every year , where a Salvation Army band played . She remembered Lennon pulling her by the hand to get there , saying , " Hurry up Mimi – we ’ re going to be late " . Strawberry Field , in Beaconsfield Road , was the name of a Salvation Army house that Lennon would later immortalise in the Beatles ' song , " Strawberry Fields Forever " . She would later say : " John loved his uncle George [ Smith ] . I felt quite left out of that . They 'd go off together , just leaving me a bar of chocolate and a note saying , ' Have a happy day ' " .
Smith died of a liver haemorrhage in June 1953 , at the age of fifty , leaving £ 2000 in his will . The Smiths had rented their two first @-@ floor bedrooms to students for extra income since 1947 , while the Smiths slept in the former dining room ; on the ground floor , at the back of the house . Some of the students who lodged there included John Cavill ( from September 1949 until June 1950 ) . Cavill played piano , but as the house had none he bought a guitar ; admitting he knew almost nothing about chords : " My father had a violin and I had learned to play pizzicato on it , so when I got the guitar I played tunes on the strings , and John [ Lennon ] did the same " . Michael Fishwick also lodged there ( from October 1951 until December 1958 ) , as did Keith Capron ( September 1956 to July 1959 ) . Both Capron and Cavill were studying veterinary science at the University of Liverpool , with Fishwick studying biochemistry .
Five years after Smith 's death , Lennon 's mother was killed on Menlove Avenue — shortly after a visit to Mendips — when she was knocked down by a car driven by a drunk , off @-@ duty police officer ; PC Eric Clague . Mimi did not witness the accident , but shortly after was seen crying hysterically over Julia 's body until the ambulance arrived . Clague was acquitted of all charges , given a reprimand , and a short suspension from duty . When Mimi heard the verdict she shouted " Murderer ! " at Clague .
After Lennon became famous , she berated him for speaking in a Liverpudlian accent , but Lennon replied : " That 's showbusiness , they want me to speak more Liverpool " . Despite the talk of Lennon being working class — as were Paul McCartney , George Harrison and Ringo Starr — he later refuted the idea by saying , " I was a nice clean @-@ cut suburban boy , and in the class system I was about a half an inch in a higher class than Paul , George and Ringo , who lived in subsidised government houses . We owned our own house , had our own garden . They didn 't have anything like that " .
= = = Lennon and music = = =
Although Mimi later claimed that she had bought Lennon 's first guitar , it was actually his mother , after Lennon had pestered her incessantly for weeks . Julia insisted that the £ 5 instrument had to be delivered to her house and not to her sister 's . The two sisters first saw Lennon perform with the Quarrymen at the Woolton St. Peter 's Church fête on the afternoon of 6 July 1957 . Julia ( who knew that her son would be performing ) heard music coming from the field behind the church ( now the site of the Bishop Martin School ) , and pulled Mimi along with her to listen . Lennon saw his aunt coming through the crowd and comically changed the words of a song to feature her name : " Oh @-@ oh , here comes Mimi down the aisle now ... " Mimi related two versions of what she thought that day after seeing Lennon on stage : " I was horrified to behold John in front of a microphone " , and " as pleased as Punch to see him up there " .
With help from Mimi and Lennon 's headmaster , Lennon was accepted into the Liverpool College of Art because his aunt insisted that he should have some sort of academic qualifications , even though Lennon was beginning to show an interest in music . She opposed the idea of him forming a band and disapproved of McCartney because he was , " working class " , calling him " John 's little friend " . When she later met Harrison , she " hated him " because of his thick Liverpudlian accent and Teddy Boy clothes . Lennon and McCartney often met at Mendips to write songs , and rehearsed in the glass @-@ panelled porch at the front of the house , which was the only place they were allowed to play . She once asked Parkes to take her to The Cavern to see Lennon and the Beatles play , but when she descended into the damp , dark cellar ; full of screaming teenagers , she shouted to Parkes , " Get him [ Lennon ] out , get him out ! Tell him to come off the stage ! He can 't stay here .... We 'll have to stop this ! " The band 's first residency in Hamburg exasperated her because she wanted Lennon to continue his studies , but he placated her by greatly exaggerating the sum of money he would earn .
She hoped Lennon would become bored with music ; often saying , " The guitar 's all right John , but you 'll never make a living out of it " . In later years , Lennon would jokingly remind her of the comment , and later had a silver plaque made engraved with her words . When later asked about the plaque , she would say that Lennon had it made for her husband , and not her .
= = Lennon 's relationships = =
Mimi 's attitude to Lennon 's partners was often frosty , disdainful , or sarcastic . She constantly criticised Lennon about his relationships . Mimi once referred to Cynthia , Lennon 's first wife , as " a gangster 's moll " , and was particularly unpleasant or cold towards her . In the summer of 1962 , Cynthia discovered that she was pregnant with Lennon 's child , so Lennon proposed marriage . When he told his aunt , she threatened never to speak to him again to stop him from going through with it . Lennon and Cynthia were married on 23 August , at the Mount Pleasant Register office in Liverpool , although Mimi did not attend . Lennon had wanted his half @-@ sisters , cousins , and aunts to be there , but Mimi had contacted them beforehand and advised them against attending . After the Lennons had been living at Brian Epstein 's flat for a few months ( and after hearing about Cynthia 's near @-@ miscarriage ) , she offered to rent her downstairs back room to them .
Before Christmas in 1972 , she met the then @-@ divorced Cynthia at the funeral of Mimi 's sister , Harriet , in Liverpool . Mimi sternly criticised Cynthia for divorcing Lennon — and letting him start a relationship with Yoko Ono — by saying she should have stopped him from making " an idiot of himself " . Even though Mimi was described as domineering , Ono later compared herself to her when describing her own relationship with Lennon . She later admitted that Ono was a good wife and mother . After Lennon 's death , Ono and Sean Lennon visited Mimi in Liverpool , where she was staying at her sister Anne 's house because of a heart condition . She said , " Sean is like John in every way — looks and manner — and he has got John 's sense of humour . As long as he keeps away from music , he will be all right " .
Ono later bought ' Mendips ' and donated it to The National Trust . It was renovated to make it look as it was in the 1950s when Lennon lived there , and Ono paid a visit before it was opened to the public . Lennon 's cousin , Michael Cadwallader , had advised the National Trust on how the house looked when the Smiths lived there .
= = Later years = =
Mimi had relatives in Eketahuna , New Zealand because her maternal aunt , Harriet Millward , had married and moved there . Mimi had exchanged letters with her relatives over the years , so Lennon arranged for a tour of New Zealand in 1964 . The success of The Beatles caused problems for her and she was constantly pestered by fans at ' Mendips ' , so she sold the house for £ 6 @,@ 000 in 1965 ; Lennon bought her a £ 25 @,@ 000 bungalow by the beach called Harbour 's Edge in Sandbanks , at 126 Panorama Road , Poole , Dorset , which was her home for the rest of her life . The Lennons and their son visited her there in the summer of 1965 , which was the last time all three of them visited the house together . Lennon later gave his aunt his MBE medal , but later asked for it back so that he could return it in protest .
Lennon gave Mimi an allowance of £ 30 per week , but when she found out that his wife 's mother was being given the same amount , she phoned the Lennons ' house and said , " What has she [ Cynthia 's mother ] done to deserve anything ? Tell John , when you speak to him , that I am very , very annoyed " , before slamming down the phone . Lennon moved to New York in 1971 , and never returned to England again . Despite losing touch with several family members , he kept in close contact with her and telephoned her every week . On 5 December 1980 , three days before Lennon was murdered , he called her to say he was homesick and was planning a trip back to England . After Lennon 's death , Mimi was furious to find out that he had never transferred the ownership of the house over to her , which meant that Ono owned the house , and could sell it at any time .
= = = Death = = =
Mimi died on 6 December 1991 , at the age of 85 , while being cared for at home by Lynne Varcoe , an auxiliary nurse . During the night , other carers were present . On the day of her death , Mimi collapsed in the bathroom , so Varcoe helped her to the bed , where Mimi started Cheyne @-@ Stoking . According to Varcoe , her last words were , " Hello , John " .
Although the oldest of the Stanley girls , Mimi was the last of them to die . Cynthia , Sean and Ono attended her funeral on 12 December 1991 : McCartney , Harrison , and Starr all sent floral arrangements . Despite the animosity between Cynthia and Mimi , Varcoe remembered Cynthia crying throughout the whole funeral , and said that Mimi had always spoken positively about her . Mimi was cremated at the Poole Crematorium and the reception was at the Harbour Heights Hotel . The whereabouts of her ashes is unknown . Ono put Mimi 's house up for sale on the same day as the cremation , but it was demolished in 1994 , so a four @-@ bedroomed house could be built on the site .
= = Portrayals on film = =
Mimi was portrayed on film in Birth of The Beatles ( 1979 ) , John and Yoko : A Love Story ( 1985 ) , In His Life : The John Lennon Story ( 2000 ) , and by actress Kristin Scott Thomas in Nowhere Boy ( 2010 ) . McCartney disagreed with the director of Nowhere Boy , Sam Taylor @-@ Wood , about the original script portrayal of Mimi , saying : " Aunt Mimi was not cruel . She was mock strict , but she was a good heart who loved John madly . " Taking McCartney 's advice , Taylor @-@ Wood agreed to change the script .
= War film =
War film is a film genre concerned with warfare , typically about naval , air , or land battles in the twentieth century , with combat scenes central to the drama . The fateful nature of battle scenes means that war films often end with them . Themes explored include combat , survival and escape , sacrifice , the futility and inhumanity of battle , the effects of war on society , and the moral and human issues raised by war . War films are often categorized by their milieu , such as the Korean War ; the most popular subject is the Second World War . The stories told may be fiction , historical drama , or biographical . Critics have noted similarities between the Western and the war film .
Nations such as China , Indonesia , Russia and Japan have their own traditions of war film , centred on their own revolutionary wars but taking varied forms , from action and historical drama to wartime romance .
Subgenres , not necessarily distinct , include anti @-@ war , comedy , animated , propaganda and documentary . There are similarly subgenres of the war film in specific theatres such as the western desert ( North Africa ) and the Pacific in the Second World War , or films about Vietnam ; and films set in specific domains of war , such as the infantry , the air , at sea , in submarines or prisoner of war camps .
= = Genre = =
The war film genre is not necessarily tightly defined : the American Film Institute , for example , speaks of " films to grapple with the Great War " without attempting to classify these . However , some directors and critics have offered at least tentative definitions . The director Sam Fuller defined the genre by saying that " a war film ’ s objective , no matter how personal or emotional , is to make a viewer feel war . " John Belton identified four narrative elements of the war film within the context of Hollywood production : a ) the suspension of civilian morality during times of war , b ) primacy of collective goals over individual motivations , c ) rivalry between men in predominantly male groups as well as marginalization and objectification of women , and d ) depiction of the reintegration of veterans .
The film critic Stephen Neale suggests that the genre is for the most part well defined and uncontentious , since war films are simply those about war being waged in the 20th century , with combat scenes central to the drama . However , Neale notes , films set in the American Civil War or the American Indian Wars of the 19th century were called war films in the time before the First World War . The critic Julian Smith argues , on the contrary , that the war film lacks the formal boundaries of a genre like the Western , but that in practice , " successful and influential " war films are about modern wars , in particular World War II , with the combination of mobile forces and mass killing . The film scholar Kathryn Kane points out some similarities between the war film genre and the Western . Both genres use opposing concepts like war and peace , civilization and savagery . War films usually frame World War II as a conflict between " good " and " evil " as represented by the Allied forces and Nazi Germany whereas the Western portrays the conflict between civilized settlers and the savage indigenous peoples . James Clarke notes the similarity between a Western like Sam Peckinpah 's The Wild Bunch and " war @-@ movie escapades " like The Dirty Dozen .
Film historian Jeanine Basinger states that she began with a preconception of what the war film genre would be , namely that
What I knew in advance was what presumably every member of our culture would know about World War II combat films — that they contained a hero , a group of mixed types [ of people ] , and a military objective of some sort . They take place in the actual combat zones of World War II , against the established enemies , on the ground , the sea , or in the air . They contain many repeated events , such as mail call , all presented visually with appropriate uniforms , equipment , and iconography of battle .
Further , Basinger considers Bataan to provide a definition @-@ by @-@ example of " the World War II combat film " , in which a diverse and apparently unsuited group of " hastily assembled volunteers " hold off a much larger group of the enemy through their " bravery and tenacity " . She argues that the combat film is not a subgenre but the only genuine kind of war film . Since she notes that there were in fact only five true combat films made during the Second World War , in her view these few films , central to the genre , are outweighed by the many other films that lie on the margins of being war films . However , other critics such as Russell Earl Shain propose a far broader definition of war film , to include films that deal " with the roles of civilians , espionage agents , and soldiers in any of the aspects of war ( i.e. preparation , cause , prevention , conduct , daily life , and consequences or aftermath . ) " Neale points out that genres overlap , with combat scenes for different purposes in other types of film , and suggests that war films are characterised by combat which " determines the fate of the principal characters " . This in turn pushes combat scenes to the climactic ends of war films . Not all critics agree , either , that war films must be about 20th century wars . James Clarke includes Edward Zwick 's Oscar @-@ winning Glory ( 1990 ) among the war films he discusses in detail ; it is set in the American Civil War , and he lists six other films about that war which he considers " notable " .
= = History = =
= = = The American Civil War = = =
The costliest war in U.S. history in terms of American life , this war has been the subject of , or the backdrop to , numerous films , documentaries and mini @-@ series . One of the earliest films using the Civil War as its subject was D.W. Griffith 's 1910 silent picture , The Fugitive . Films that have the war as its main subject , or about a certain aspect of the war include the 1989 film , Glory , about the first formal unit of the Union Army during the American Civil War to be made up entirely of black men . Some films such as Gettysburg focused on a single battle during the war , or even on a single incident , like the French short film , La Rivière du Hibou ( An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge ) . Others like the 1993 miniseries North and South spanned the entire breadth of the war . Some films deal with the human aspects of the war , such as The Red Badge of Courage ( 1951 ) , or Shenandoah ( 1965 ) , on the tragedy that the war inflicted on the civilian population . Ken Burns 's The Civil War is the most watched documentary in the history of PBS .
= = = The Spanish – American War = = =
The first war films come from the Spanish – American War of 1898 . Short " actualities " – documentary film @-@ clips – included Burial of the Maine Victims , Blanket @-@ Tossing of a New Recruit , and Soldiers Washing Dishes . These non @-@ combat films were accompanied by " reenactments " of fighting , such as of Theodore Roosevelt 's " Rough Riders " in action against the Spanish , staged in the United States .
= = = The First World War = = =
During the First World War , many films were made about life in the war . Topics included prisoners of war , covert operations , and military training . Both the Central Powers and the Allies produced war documentaries . The films were also used as propaganda in neutral countries like the United States . Among these was a film shot on the Eastern Front by official war photographer to the Central Powers , Albert K. Dawson : The Battle and Fall of Przemysl ( 1915 ) , depicting the Siege of Przemyśl , disastrous for the Austrians , with incidents reenacted using soldiers as extras . The 1915 Australian film Within Our Gates ( also known as Deeds that Won Gallipoli ) by Frank Harvey was described by the Motion Picture News as " a really good war story , which is exceptional " .
The 1916 British film The Battle of the Somme , by two official cinematographers , Geoffrey Malins and John McDowell , combined documentary and propaganda , seeking to give the public an impression of what trench warfare was like . Much of the film was shot on location at the Western Front in France ; it had a powerful emotional impact . It was watched by some 20 million people in Britain in its six weeks of exhibition , making it what the critic Francine Stock called " one of the most successful films of all time " .
William A. Wellman 's Wings ( 1927 ) , about the First World War , was the first film ( in any genre ) , and the only silent film , to win an Oscar for best picture . Later films of varied genres that deal with the First World War include David Lean 's " colossal epic " , both war film and biopic Lawrence of Arabia ( 1962 ) , shot in the then unfamiliar and exciting 70mm Technicolor , and described by Steven Spielberg as " maybe the greatest screenplay ever written for the motion @-@ picture medium " ; Richard Attenborough 's satirical anti @-@ war musical comedy based on Joan Littlewood 's play of the same name , Oh ! What a Lovely War ( 1969 ) ; and Spielberg 's war drama War Horse ( 2011 ) based on Michael Morpurgo 's children 's novel of the same name .
= = = The Spanish Civil War = = =
The Spanish Civil War has attracted directors from different countries . Sam Wood 's For Whom the Bell Tolls ( 1943 ) , based on Ernest Hemingway 's book of the same name , portrays the fated romance between an American played by Gary Cooper and a partisan played by Ingrid Bergman against the backdrop of the civil war . The epic 168 minute film with its landscapes shot in Technicolor and a " beautiful " orchestral score was a success both with audiences and with critics . Alain Resnais 's Guernica ( 1950 ) uses Picasso 's painting to protest against war . Carlos Saura 's La Caza ( The Hunt , 1966 ) uses the metaphor of hunting to criticise the aggressiveness of Spanish fascism . It won the Silver Bear for Best Director at the 16th Berlin International Film Festival in 1966 . Ken Loach 's Land and Freedom ( Tierra y Libertad , 1995 ) , loosely based on George Orwell 's Homage to Catalonia , follows a British communist through the war to reveal the painful contradictions within the anti @-@ fascist Republican side .
= = = The Korean War = = =
See also Korean War films
Samuel Fuller ’ s The Steel Helmet ( 1951 ) was made during the Korean War ( 1950 – 1953 ) . The critic Guy Westwell notes that it questioned the conduct of the war , as did later films like The Bridges at Toko @-@ Ri ( 1954 ) and Pork Chop Hill ( 1959 ) . Fuller agreed that all his films were anti @-@ war . No Hollywood films about the Korean War did well at the box office ; the historian Lary May suggested that they reminded American viewers of " the only war we have lost " .
In 1955 , after the fighting , the successful South Korean action film Piagol about leftist guerrilla atrocities encouraged other film @-@ makers . The 1960s military government punished pro @-@ communist film @-@ makers and gave Grand Bell Awards to films with the strongest anti @-@ communist message . Censorship loosened in the 1980s . The Taebaek Mountains ( 1994 ) dealt with leftists from the south who fought for the communists , while Silver Stallion ( 1991 ) and Spring in My Hometown ( 1998 ) showed the destructive impact of American military presence on village life . The violent action films Shiri ( 1999 ) and Joint Security Area ( 2000 ) presented North Korea in a favourable light .
Films in North Korea were made by government film studios and had clear political messages . The first was My Home Village ( 1949 ) , on the liberation of Korea from the Japanese , presented as the work of Kim Il Sung without help from the Americans . Similarly , the country 's films about the Korean War show victory without help from the Chinese . The film scholar Johannes Schönherr concludes that the purpose of these films is " to portray North Korea as a country under siege " , and that since the U.S. and its " puppet " South Korea invaded the North once , they would do so again .
= = = The Algerian War = = =
Gillo Pontecorvo 's dramatic The Battle of Algiers ( ( Italian : La battaglia di Algeri ; Arabic : معركة الجزائر ; French : La Bataille d 'Alger ) , 1966 ) portrayed events in the Algerian War ( 1954 – 1956 ) . It was shot on location as an Italo @-@ Algerian co @-@ production . It had the black and white newsreel style of Italian neorealism , and even @-@ handedly depicts violence on both sides . It won various awards including Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival . It was attacked by French critics and was for five years banned in France .
= = = The Vietnam War = = =
Few films before the late 1970s about the Vietnam War actually depicted combat . The exceptions included The Green Berets ( 1968 ) . Critics such as Basinger explain that Hollywood avoided the subject because of opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War , making the subject divisive ; in addition , the film industry was in crisis , and the army did not wish to assist in making anti @-@ war films .
From the late 1970s , independently financed and produced films showed Hollywood that Vietnam could be treated in film . Successful but very different portrayals of the war in which America had been defeated included Michael Cimino 's The Deer Hunter ( 1978 ) , and Francis Ford Coppola 's Apocalypse Now ( 1979 ) . With the shift in American politics to the right in the 1980s , military success could again be shown in films such as Oliver Stone 's Platoon ( 1986 ) , Stanley Kubrick 's Full Metal Jacket ( 1987 ) and John Irvin 's Hamburger Hill ( 1987 ) .
The Vietnamese director Nguyen Hong Sen 's The Abandoned Field : Free Fire Zone ( Canh dong hoang , 1979 ) gives an " unnerving and compelling .. subjective @-@ camera @-@ eye @-@ view " of life under helicopter fire in the Mekong Delta during the Vietnam War . The film cuts to an ( American ) " helicopter @-@ eye view " , contrasting painfully with the human tenderness seen earlier .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Films made by the Western Allies = = =
The first popular Allied war films made during the Second World War came from Britain and combined the functions documentary and propaganda . Films such as The Lion Has Wings and Target for Tonight were made under the control of the Films Division of the Ministry of Information . The British film industry began to combine documentary techniques with fictional stories in films like Noël Coward and David Lean 's In Which We Serve ( 1942 ) – " the most successful British film of the war years " , Millions Like Us ( 1943 ) , and The Way Ahead ( 1944 ) .
In America , documentaries were produced in various ways : General Marshall commissioned the Why We Fight propaganda series from Frank Capra ; the War Department 's Information @-@ Education Division started out making training films for the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy ; the Army made its own through the U.S. Signal Corps , including John Huston 's The Battle of San Pietro . Hollywood made films with propaganda messages about America 's allies , such as Mrs. Miniver ( 1942 ) , which portrayed a British family on the home front ; Edge of Darkness ( 1943 ) showed Norwegian resistance fighters , and The North Star ( 1943 ) showed the Soviet Union and its Communist Party . Towards the end of the war popular books provided higher quality and more serious stories for films such as Guadalcanal Diary ( film ) ( 1943 ) , Mervyn LeRoy 's Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo ( 1944 ) , and John Ford 's They Were Expendable ( 1945 ) .
The Russians , too , appreciated the propaganda value of film , to publicise both victories and German atrocities . Ilya Kopalin 's documentary Moscow Strikes Back ( Russian : Разгром немецких войск под Москвой , literally " The rout of the German troops near Moscow " ) , was made during the Battle of Moscow between October 1941 and January 1942 . It depicted civilians helping to defend the city , the parade in Red Square and Stalin 's speech rousing the Russian people to battle , actual fighting , Germans surrendering and dead , and atrocities including murdered children and hanged civilians . It won an Academy Award in 1943 for best documentary . Newsreel cameras were similarly rushed to Stalingrad early in 1943 to record " the spectacle which greeted the Russian soldiers " – the starvation of Russian prisoners of war in the Voropovono camp by the German Sixth Army , defeated in the Battle of Stalingrad .
Feature films made in the west during the war were subject to censorship and were not always realistic . One of the first to attempt to represent violence , and which was praised at the time for " gritty realism " , was Tay Garnett 's Bataan ( 1943 ) . The depiction actually remained stylised : Jeanine Basinger gives as an example the " worst image for stark violence " when a Japanese soldier beheads an American : the victim shows pain and his lips freeze in a scream , yet no blood spurts and his head does not fall off . Basinger points out that while this is physically unrealistic , psychologically it may not have been . The wartime audience was , she points out , well aware of friends and relatives who had been killed or who had come home wounded .
= = = Films made by the Axis powers = = =
The Axis powers similarly made films during the Second World War , for propaganda and other purposes . In Germany , the army high command brought out Sieg im Westen ( " Victory in the West " , 1941 ) . Other Nazi propaganda films had varied subjects , as with Kolberg ( 1945 ) , which depicts stubborn Prussian resistance in the Siege of Kolberg ( 1807 )
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exceed its banks in Inhambane , flooding roads up to a meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) deep and halting traffic . Across Mozambique , 26 people died due to the floods .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Boloetse = = =
A pulse in the monsoon spawned an area of convection from the Seychelles westward . A circulation was evident by January 20 , signalling its formation as a tropical disturbance . Poor inflow from the trade winds prevented any initial organization as the system tracked southeastward . A ridge steered the disturbance to the southwest on January 23 , bringing it just southeast of Tromelin Island . With light wind shear , the system developed a small area of convection over a well @-@ defined circulation . Early on January 25 , the MFR upgraded the disturbance to a tropical depression , and the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 09S . Later that day , the MFR upgraded it to a moderate tropical storm , giving it the name Boloetse . After a brief period of strengthening , the storm weakened due to increased shear and diurnal cooling . The track shifted to the south @-@ southwest , paralleling Madagascar to the east . Steered between ridges to the east and west , Boloetse stalled and turned to the west @-@ northwest . Late on January 27 , the MFR downgraded the storm to a tropical depression , and late the next day , the circulation struck eastern Madagascar just north of Mananjary . The circulation had been weak during the approach to land , although there was a large increase in convection at the time of landfall .
The circulation became difficult to locate over land , and the JTWC briefly halted issuing advisories on January 29 . On the next day , the circulation emerged westward into the Mozambique Channel , where low wind shear and good outflow allowed for restrengthening . By late on January 31 , the system had reorganized into a moderate tropical storm . On the next day , the JTWC reissued advisories on Boloetse as the storm was just 170 km ( 105 mi ) east of the Mozambique coast . Weak steering from the ridge to the southeast caused the storm to meander in the area of favorable conditions . By late on February 2 , Boloetse attain tropical cyclone status , developing an eye in the center of the organizing convection . An approaching trough caused the storm to accelerate southeastward , bringing it northeast of Europa Island . Late on February 3 , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , while the MFR estimated 10 minute winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . An eyewall replacement cycle and increased wind shear caused Boloetse to weaken , and on February 4 , the cyclone passed within 20 km ( 12 mi ) of southwestern Madagascar . The storm accelerated and weakened , transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on February 5 . The remnant system was absorbed by the approaching trough two days later .
Along much of its path , the storm dropped heavy rainfall . The formative stages of Boloetse spread rainfall to Mauritius , where Vacoas recorded 175 mm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall over 24 hours . In eastern Madagascar , the storm dropped 133 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) in Mahanoro over 18 hours . The storm deluged coastal Mozambique with over 100 mm ( 4 in ) of rainfall , causing river levels to increase in Inhambane Province . Europa Island recorded 136 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) of rainfall over just six hours . The cyclone still maintained much of its intensity during its final approach to southwestern Madagascar , bringing estimated wind gusts of 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) to the coast . Toliara recorded wind gusts of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) . In addition , heavy rainfall flooded two villages . Boloetse killed six people across southern Madagascar , while leaving 6 @,@ 500 people homeless .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm 09 = = =
On February 15 , a broad low pressure area developed east of Madagascar . Over the next few days , the system dropped heavy rainfall to the Mascarene Islands . St. Brandon recorded 229 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) of rainfall over 24 hours , and Plaisance Airport on Mauritius recorded 177 mm ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) of rainfall in 48 hours . The heaviest precipitation occurred on Réunion in a short amount of time , with 1 @-@ in @-@ 50 year rainfall rates . A station in the capital Saint @-@ Denis recorded 376 mm ( 14 @.@ 8 in ) in just three hours , and over 48 hours , Le Brûlé recorded 1 @,@ 274 mm ( 50 @.@ 2 in ) of precipitation . A weak low pressure area began organizing within the trough on February 17 , organizing enough to be classified as Tropical Disturbance 09 the next day just off the eastern coast of Madagascar . A small system , it developed a concentrated area of convection just 200 km ( 125 mi ) in diameter , which followed a powerful hot tower that spurred development . The structure rapidly organized , and by February 19 , there was an eye @-@ like feature in the center of the thunderstorms . At 18 : 00 UTC that day , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 12S , and the MFR upgraded it to a moderate tropical storm . Forecasters initially assessed the structure as akin to a mesoscale convective vortex , which is a small and short @-@ lived system , and there was also uncertainty whether the winds were at the surface . As a result , there was a disagreement between the MFR , which estimated peak 10 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , and the Meteorological Service of Mauritius , which assessed a much weaker storm . The latter agency is responsible for officially naming systems , and as a result , the severe tropical storm was unnamed .
Moving southeastward in the flow of the trough , the small storm began weakening on February 20 due to strong northwesterly wind shear , which caused the convection to dwindle over the circulation . That day , the storm passed just 80 km ( 50 mi ) north of Mauritius , by which time the center was exposed and the intensity had dropped to tropical depression status . It turned back to the northwest , steered by the low @-@ level trade winds and following its previous path . Late on February 20 , the JTWC discontinued advisories , and three days later , the circulation dissipated off the east coast of Madagascar .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Carina = = =
An active phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation increased convection across the northeastern periphery of the basin , and the ITCZ produced a distinct low pressure area on February 21 to the east of Diego Garcia . The convective structure organized , aided by good outflow and moderate but lessening wind shear . A ridge to its southeast steered the nascent system slowly to the southwest into an area of increasingly favorable conditions . On February 22 , the system was classified as Tropical Disturbance 10 . The next day , the Mauritius Meteorological Service named the disturbance Carina while it was still an intensifying system . Also on February 23 , the JTWC initiated warnings on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 14S . On the next day , the MFR upgraded Carina to a moderate tropical storm . The storm stalled on February 25 due to weakness in the ridge , and on the same day , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of hurricane status with 1 minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . By that time , an eye had developed within the center of increasingly organized convection , and the MFR upgraded Carina to tropical cyclone status on February 26 .
Continued favorable conditions , including minimal wind shear and powerful outflow , allowed Carina to intensify further while progressing slowly southwestward . Late on February 27 , the MFR upgraded the storm to an intense tropical cyclone , and the eye reached a diameter of 70 km ( 45 mi ) . Based on the storm 's presentation on satellite imagery , the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) on February 28 . On the same day , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) . Unfavorable conditions – cooler waters and stronger wind shear – caused Carina 's structure to rapidly degrade after the peak intensity . By March 2 , the storm weakened below tropical cyclone status , and soon after the circulation became exposed from the convection , prompting the JTWC to discontinue advisories . Carina stalled that day when it reached a reached a col between two ridges ; as a result , the track shifted to the northeast and later northwest due to the building influence of the ridge to the southeast . Environmental conditions prevented significant convection to regenerate , and the circulation of Carina turned westward across the Indian Ocean without redevelopment . It turned back to the southwest , passing near St. Brandon on March 10 . The MFR stopped tracking Carina on the next day , and the circulation dissipated on March 13 to the southeast of Madagascar .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Diwa = = =
In the beginning of March , the monsoon was active to the northeast of Madagascar , the first time during the season that such active convection persisted northeast of the island . The broad system had two foci of low pressure ; one was located northeast of Madagascar near St. Brandon , and the other was to its south closer to Réunion . The structure resembled a monsoon depression , but as the two low pressure areas consolidated , they became more distinct . On March 2 , the system that would become Diwa originated out of the southern low , and both systems continued to interact until Diwa absorbed the other disturbance . The wind field was large and asymmetrical , ranging 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 245 mi ) in diameter , and there was little convection near the centers . Despite the lack of organization , the Meteorological Service of Mauritius named the system Tropical Storm Diwa on March 3 due to the threat to the Mascarene Islands , as well as the presence of gale @-@ force winds . The structure slowly evolved into that of a tropical cyclone as the convection concentrated . On March 4 , Diwa passed northwest of Réunion , still disorganized with much of the convection to the south . That day , the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 16S . The storm continued slowly to the southwest at first , until it turned to the southeast on March 6 while rounding the ridge . Despite accelerating into an area of cooler waters , Diwa 's structure became much more like a tropical cyclone on March 8 . The MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , making it a severe tropical storm , and the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Diwa quickly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it interacted with a cold front to the south , completing the transition by March 9 . The circulation gradually lost its definition , dissipating on March 11 .
The formative stages of Diwa brought heavy rainfall , reaching 193 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) over 48 hours , to St. Brandon , as well as gale @-@ force winds , with gusts to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Along Mauritius , winds reached 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) , along with 495 mm ( 19 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall at a station in the southeastern portion of the island . Gale @-@ force winds affected Réunion for nearly three days , due to the storm 's lopsided structure , and gusts peaked at 194 km / h ( 121 mph ) along the coast . Diwa dropped the equivalent of six months ' worth of rainfall , peaking at 2 @,@ 943 mm ( 115 @.@ 9 in ) at Grand @-@ Îlet over four days , which approached the record totals set by Cyclone Hyacinthe in 1980 . The volcanic peak Commerson 's Crater recorded 1 @,@ 474 mm ( 58 @.@ 0 in ) over 24 hours , while coastal areas just 15 km ( 9 mi ) away recorded 188 mm ( 7 @.@ 4 in ) of rainfall over the same time . The storm caused power outages on the island , and three people died due to using a generator inside their home during the storm . One person drowned during the floods , and four people drowned in residual flooding accidents on the island in the weeks after the storm . The floods wrecked several homes during river flooding and caused several landslides , some of which occurred two weeks after the storm due to saturated grounds . On March 24 , a cliff collapsed onto a coastal road , killing two people and severely injuring two others ; the road was reopened three months later . In addition to the damaging effects , the rainfall also alleviated drought conditions .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Elia = = =
At the end of March , an active phase of the Madden @-@ Julian oscillation caused an increase in convection over the northeastern portion of the basin . A low pressure area formed on April 1 in the neighboring Australian basin , although the system soon after moved northwestward to cross 90º E. The low meandered for several days , unable to intensify much due to insufficient moisture in the region . On April 6 , the MFR designated the system as Tropical Disturbance 13 , although the agency discontinued advisories on the next day . On April 7 , the low crossed back into the Australian basin , only to turn to the southwest on April 10 , steered by a ridge to the southeast . During this time , the system passed about 185 km ( 115 mi ) northwest of the Cocos Islands . On April 12 , the JTWC designated the system as Tropical Cyclone 12S . On the same day , the system intensified into a tropical depression , after the convective structure improved amid favoring conditions .
Early on April 13 , the depression crossed 90º E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . By that time , the system had good outflow to the south , although lack of moisture prevented significant development . Late on April 13 , the MFR upgraded the system to Moderate Tropical Storm Elia , assessing peak 10 minute winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . The JTWC meanwhile estimated 1 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 55 mph ) . Increasing wind shear and cooler waters resulted in diminished intensity of the convection , causing Elia to weaken . The MFR downgraded the storm to tropical depression status on April 15 after the circulation became exposed . On the same day , the JTWC discontinued advisories . The circulation dissipated on April 17 , signaling the end of the season .
= = = Other storms = = =
The first four disturbances in the season developed in the northeastern portion of the basin in association with a near @-@ equatorial trough , but failed to develop due to wind shear .
At the beginning of September 2005 , the ITCZ was active in the northeastern portion of the basin , accompanied by a small circulation and scattered convection . Located in the presence of strong wind shear , the circulation was exposed from the convection , a sign of unfavorable conditions . However , warm waters fueled an increase in convection , and the MFR classified the system as Tropical Disturbance 1 on September 5 . That day , the JTWC issued a TCFA , but continued shear caused weakening as the disturbance tracked southeastward . By September 8 , the MFR had discontinued advisories on the system , after the circulation had become exposed . After turning to the west @-@ northwest , the circulation began dissipating on September 12 .
The second disturbance was first classified by the MFR on October 12 about 1 @,@ 575 km ( 980 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . The system had enough of a circulation and associated convection , and proceeded southwestward for its duration . After the convection consolidated more and developed curved rainbands , the MFR upgraded the system to a 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) tropical depression on October 14 . This period of organization occurred during a brief decrease in wind shear . At 12 : 00 UTC on October 14 , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 01S , estimating peak 1 minute winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Increasingly unfavorable conditions caused the convection to diminish . Late on October 15 , both the JTWC and MFR discontinued advisories due to the increasing disorganization of the disturbance . The circulation remained well @-@ organized but devoid of convection , and the MFR last monitored the center on October 21 .
Tropical Depression Three formed on November 6 while east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia ; it moved generally southward , reaching peak winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) before dissipating on November 8 . Simultaneous to the depression was Tropical Depression Four , which entered the basin on November 7 from the Australian region , and was also classified by the JTWC as Tropical Cyclone 02S with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . The depression was weakening at the time , and both the JTWC and MFR discontinued advisories on November 8 .
On December 21 , the BoM began monitoring a tropical low in the western portion of the Australian basin , which had moved eastward from the south @-@ west Indian Ocean basin . The system moved southwestward and later to the southwest , once again crossing 90º E and causing the MFR to designate it Tropical Depression 6 . At the time , the circulation was partially exposed from the convection , although it organized over the next day . This spurred the JTWC to designate it as Tropical Cyclone 04S on December 24 with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . As with other systems in the season , strong shear caused the system to weaken ; the JTWC discontinued advisories on December 25 , and the MFR followed suit the next day . However , the system continued to the southwest , reorganizing enough on December 27 for the MFR to reissue advisories . Shear again weakened the convection , and the MFR discontinued advisories again on December 29 while the system was a short distance west @-@ northwest of Rodrigues .
Tropical Disturbance 12 briefly was classified by the MFR on March 4 , located 620 km ( 385 mi ) north of the developing Tropical Storm Diwa . The disturbance moved quickly to the southeast around Diwa 's circulation , and was ultimately absorbed by the larger storm .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year so no names are retired .
= Seili ( album ) =
Seili is the second studio album by Finnish pop singer Jenni Vartiainen . It was released by Warner Music Finland digitally on 31 March 2010 , with the official physical release following on 14 April . From 31 March to the official physical release date , the album was sold at € 19 in conjunction with Ilta @-@ Sanomat . The album was re @-@ released on 14 January 2011 , in a limited vinyl edition . The Finnish @-@ language album , incorporating electro and synthpop elements along with melancholic piano ballads , is named after the island Seili ( Själö in Swedish ) , located off the south @-@ west coast of Finland . The album was produced and co @-@ written by Jukka Immonen with Vartiainen writing also two of the songs . The main lyricists were Teemu Brunila and Mariska who contributed to the thematical dualism of the album — Brunila wrote the happier songs about publicity and finding love while Mariska wrote the lyrics for the songs that deal with darker and more serious themes , such as death . Another lyricist was Paula Vesala ( from the pop rock duo PMMP ) . Vartiainen participated more in the production than with her debut album Ihmisten edessä , by playing for example piano and kantele .
Critically acclaimed for its vocals and successful combination of ballads and pop , though criticized for lack of peculiarity and a somewhat inconsistent song selection , Seili spent 62 non @-@ consecutive weeks on the Finnish Albums Chart since its release — with 15 weeks atop the chart — and sold over 95 @,@ 000 copies in 2010 , becoming the best @-@ selling album of 2010 in Finland . Altogether , Seili has sold over 150 @,@ 000 copies since its release and currently ranks 14th in the list of the best @-@ selling albums of all time in Finland . The album received three Emma Awards in February 2011 : for Album of the Year , Pop / Rock Album of the Year and Best @-@ Selling Album of the Year . The album included also two Emma @-@ winning songs , the gold @-@ selling singles " En haluu kuolla tänä yönä " and " Missä muruseni on " , winning in the categories Song of the Year and Music Video of the Year , respectively . " Nettiin " was released as the third single and the album spawned two promotional singles , " Duran Duran " , which sold also gold , and " Eikö kukaan voi meitä pelastaa ? " . " Missä muruseni on " was the major chart hit , dominating the top @-@ three spots of the Finnish Singles Chart from August 2010 to January 2011 and becoming the third @-@ best @-@ selling single of 2011 in Finland . To promote the album , Vartiainen embarked on a concert tour titled Seili , spanning from April 2010 to August 2011 and consisting of 170 shows .
= = Background and composition = =
Thematically more polarized than its predecessor Ihmisten edessä , Seili has been described as being based on contrasts as it deals with both darker and happier themes and combines elements of classical music with pop and schlager melodies with rock . Vartiainen has said the overall inspiration for the album came from the imagery of the movie Blade Runner and songs from the 1980s she used in her programs during her figure skating career . The name of the album symbolizes " a trip to an unknown island , an escape from normal life to the world of music " and the content of the album places " during the dramatical moments between 3 am and 5 am " when a day ends a new one begins and people are , as Vartiainen has put it , " sensitive to new ideas " , due to either fatigue or intoxication . Vartiainen attributes the dualistic nature of the album to her professional relation with the lyricists Mariska and Teemu Brunila , who Vartiainen is also friends with , saying " Mariska knows well Vartiainen 's darker , more philosophical side " . In an interview with Dome.fi in March 2010 , Vartiainen said that while Mariska represents the dark and serious themes such as death , Brunila with his lyrical products " goes towards the light " and that the point in the album is " to reflect on life and death " . Along with the two thematical polarities , the album deals also with tricky relationships and hunger for fame , as showcased by the Western @-@ sounding " Nettiin " , which starts with a banjo and a bass and is literally about naked pictures , taken and publicized by an ex @-@ boyfriend , and paratextually about the line between privacy and publicity .
The album introduces also more instruments than Ihmisten edessä ; Vartiainen starts the album by playing piano in the dark introitus " Koti " ( Home ) . The second song " Seili " is also dark @-@ themed — the song is about the namesake island located in the archipelago off the coast of Turku where leprotic and mentally ill patients were sent from 17th century onwards , along with boards they could build their own coffins with . The third song and the lead single " En haluu kuolla tänä yönä " — in English , I Don 't Wanna Die Tonight — goes on with the theme , though with an electronic dance beat that " emphasizes the will to live " . The fifth song and the third single " Missä muruseni on " ( Where My Sweetheart Is ) was written by Mariska who got the inspiration for the song while reading Indian erotic literature on her balcony on a hot summer 's day . The song is a ballad where the singer talks about being far away from her loved one and asks the wind to blow to the place " where [ one 's ] sweetheart is " — by November 2010 , the lyrics had even found their way to Finnish obituaries and gravestones . The sixth , dance @-@ influenced song and first promotional single " Duran Duran " is about discovering one 's soulmate as the lyrics wonder whether " this is how it feels like when you find the right one " along with saying " Jenni can 't escape this new feeling " . Vartiainen entered new musical territories also by playing piano and kantele in the song " Kiittämätön " ( Ungrateful ) , which is written by Vartiainen and Paula Vesala and deals with agony Vartiainen suffered from while growing up during high school .
= = Critical reception = =
Seili has received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Most of the reviewers have been appreciative of the vocals and the successful combination of synthpop and darker ballads , but more or less critical with the notable contrast between the thumping pop song " Nettiin " and the rest of the album and Vartiainen 's lack of peculiarity . Teemu Fiilin of the magazine Rumba gave Seili three out of five stars , saying that " Seili follows pretty much the schlager @-@ ish pattern of a poet girl 's inflated electro @-@ pop " . He complimented " En haluu kuolla tänä yönä " as " a brilliant pop song , suitable to be sung by a [ then ] 27 @-@ year @-@ old Jenni Vartiainen who is enjoying her life " . Due to the accompaniment of the more poetical , dramatical and mature songs written by Mariska , Fiilin considered " Nettiin " " a really epic fail " that " would be a lot of fun if performed by Tea Hiilloste on Kids Top 20 " . He thought " Duran Duran " is also brilliant , but considered Vartiainen to be more talented with faster songs , because she , when singing melancholic songs , " lags kilometers behind [ singer ] Chisu " . The pop rock magazine Stara said the album is not as good at first hearing as Vartiainen 's debut Ihmisten edessä , but it gave the album four out five stars . The magazine complimented the aggregate of " En haluu kuolla tänä yönä " and the beauty and elegance of " Duran Duran " . Stara was less harsh on reviewing the inclusion of " Nettiin " , saying the Western @-@ themed sounds seem a bit odd , but that the song is good in its entirety .
Helsingin Sanomat gave the song three out of five stars , saying the album is suitable but that " Vartiainen does not stand out at all with the song selections and singing voice , as Chisu does " . MTV3 gave the song four and a half stars out of five , criticizing the inclusion of " Nettiin " for the sake of consistency and saying none of the songs are particularly catchy . However , MTV3 complimented " Kiittämätön " , " Duran Duran " and " Eikö kukaan voi meitä pelastaa ? " for their massive sounds and considered Seili a brilliant summer album . Writing for the rock magazine Soundi , Antti Luukkanen gave Seili three out of five stars , saying songwriters Teemu Brunila and Mariska and producer Jukka Immonen " gain credibility for putting the dark piano ballads and the thumping pop songs into balance , creating a coherent and compact entirety " . The magazine said Vartiainen 's singing voice " saves the album " , though it regarded many of the songs as " hypocritical " or even " tasteless " ( such as " Nettiin " ) . Keskisuomalainen deemed the album 's rating as four stars out of five . The newspaper considered Seili " a splendid entirety that , however , lacks that one , ingenious song that stands out from the others " , saying also that the record — the name of which comes from the island where leprotic patients and the mentally ill were sent from the 17th century onwards — is " elaborate pop that deals with the most fundamental questions " . In conclusion , Keskisuomalainen said that the album is " a successful combination of introverted ethereality , light @-@ hearted pop and dramatical thunder " .
= = Chart performance = =
Upon its digital release in April 2010 , Seili debuted at number one on the Finnish Albums Chart . The album went gradually down to number seven in early August , after which it vacillated between seven and four . Seili rose back to number one in October , holding the top spot for 12 consecutive weeks and charted in the top three until early March 2011 . Altogether , the album spent 15 weeks atop the chart , 58 weeks in the top ten and it charted for a total of 62 non @-@ consecutive weeks , over a year , becoming the 11th @-@ longest @-@ charting of all time . Seili took a second jump in July 2011 , as it leaped from number 17 to number two , after which it dropped out of the chart . With sales surpassing 150 @,@ 000 copies ( from which 95 @,@ 000 in 2010 , 42 @,@ 000 in 2011 and 14 @,@ 000 in 2012 ) , Seili was the best @-@ selling album in Finland in 2010 and the sixth @-@ best @-@ selling in 2011 , receiving the septuple @-@ platinum certification . The album was re @-@ released by Finnish music retailers in a limited vinyl edition on 14 January 2011 , as part of their joint Levyale campaign . The edition was sold out in five days .
= = Promotion = =
To promote her album , Vartiainen embarked on her concert tour titled Seili on April 2010 . The tour , which consisted of 170 shows and lasted all the way to August 2011 , included performances for example at the Provinssirock festival in the summer of 2010 and 2011 . Amid the tour in the spring of 2011 , she denied some tabloid rumors that she would have canceled interviews due to stress and exhaustion . In July 2011 , Vartiainen and her band met with some misfortune as the tour bus broke down while on its way from Oulu to Vaasa . The last concert of the tour took place on the Main Stage at the Finnish National Theatre in Helsinki on 28 August 2011 , with the specialty that the concert was broadcast live at Finnkino film theaters in 11 other localities around Finland , for the first time in the history of the theater . The tickets to the concert were sold out within a couple of hours . At the National Theatre , Vartiainen sang the album 's song " Halvalla " as a duet with Vesa @-@ Matti Loiri , which she said was her long @-@ time " dream come true " . Due to technical difficulties , the concert could not be broadcast in Lahti and Kuopio . In August 2011 , Vartiainen released a DVD of the Seili tour , as well as a photo @-@ book , consisting of photographs from the tour , taken by Kalle Björklid .
= = Singles = =
The lead single from Seili , " En haluu kuolla tänä yönä " , was released on 1 February 2010 . Peaking at number one the second week on the Finnish Singles Chart and charting for 21 weeks , the single sold gold with over 11 @,@ 000 copies , won the Emma Award for Song of the Year and was the most @-@ played song on commercial Finnish radio stations in 2010 with over 5 @,@ 200 plays . Vartiainen was less successful with the second single " Nettiin " , following suit on 17 July and peaking at number 12 in its 11 chart weeks . The third single " Missä muruseni on " , released on 23 August , was the major chart hit from the album , spending 32 weeks on the chart until early 2011 , including 11 weeks on the top . The single sold gold with over 18 @,@ 000 copies and was the third @-@ best @-@ selling single of 2011 in Finland and its music video , depicting a woman looking to the sea and singing about her yearning for her loved one , won the 2011 Emma Award for the Music Video of the Year . In 2010 , the song was also the second @-@ most @-@ played song on the radio stations of the Finnish Broadcasting Company , the fifth @-@ most @-@ played on commercial radio stations and it was chosen the Finnish schlager of 2010 in a contest held by the radio station Iskelmä . On 13 December the first promotional single " Duran Duran " was released . Similar to " Nettiin " in its chart success , the song charted for 11 weeks , peaking at number 10 in February 2011 , but sold gold with 5 @,@ 400 copies . The song " Eikö kukaan voi meitä pelastaa ? " was released as the second promotional single in the spring of 2011 and its music video was released on 14 June .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
Notes
A ^ The song is instrumental , played with piano .
B ^ Fono.fi , a music database maintained by the Finnish Broadcasting Company , provides ambiguous credits ; the lyrics are either by Immonen , Mariska , Vartiainen and Vesala or solely by Mariska .
= = Personnel = =
The credits for Seili are adapted from Allrovi .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= HMS Woolwich ( F80 ) =
HMS Woolwich was a depot ship and destroyer tender built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . The ship was initially deployed to support destroyers of the Mediterranean Fleet . During World War II , she was assigned to the Home , Mediterranean and Eastern Fleets . She briefly returned home in 1946 , but rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet the following year . Woolwich permanently returned to the United Kingdom in 1948 where she became a maintenance and accommodation ship . The ship was sold for scrap in 1962 .
= = Description = =
Woolwich had an overall length of 610 feet 3 inches ( 186 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 64 feet ( 19 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 23 feet 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . She normally displaced 8 @,@ 750 long tons ( 8 @,@ 890 t ) and 15 @,@ 575 long tons ( 15 @,@ 825 t ) at ( full load ) . Each of the ship 's two sets of Parsons geared steam turbines drove one propeller shaft . Steam was supplied by four Admiralty three @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were rated at 6 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 4 @,@ 800 kW ) and gave Woolwich a speed of 15 @.@ 25 knots ( 28 @.@ 24 km / h ; 17 @.@ 55 mph ) . The ship carried 1 @,@ 112 long tons ( 1 @,@ 130 t ) of fuel oil , which gave her a range of 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew numbered 666 officers and enlisted men .
She was initially armed with four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) four @-@ inch Mk V gun on single high @-@ angle mounts amidships . The four @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) gun mount had a maximum elevation of + 80 degrees , and the gun could fire a 31 lb ( 14 kg ) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 387 ft / s ( 728 m / s ) to a maximum height of 31 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 448 @.@ 8 m ) or a range of 16 @,@ 430 yards ( 15 @,@ 020 m ) . They had a rate of fire of about 15 rounds per minute . The guns were controlled by a High Angle Control System ( HACS ) fire @-@ control director mounted above the bridge . To resupply her destroyers , the ship carried seventy @-@ two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes and 200 depth charges .
During World War II , Woolwich 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced by two QF two @-@ pounder light anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts on the forecastle . The gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) 2 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 91 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 400 ft / s ( 730 m / s ) to a distance of 6 @,@ 800 yards ( 6 @,@ 200 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute . Four Oerlikon 20 mm guns in single mounts were also fitted as well as two quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun mounts .
Several radars were added during the war . A Type 285 gunnery radar was mounted on top of the HACS director and a Type 271 / 73 surface search radar was installed abaft the two @-@ pounder guns on the forecastle .
Woolwich 's main deck consisted of one @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) armour plate over the machinery spaces and her platform deck was two inches ( 51 mm ) thick over the magazines .
= = Construction and service = =
The ship was ordered on 4 April 1933 as part of the 1932 Naval Construction Programme . She was laid down by Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company in Govan on the River Clyde on 24 May 1933 . Woolwich was launched on 20 September 1934 and completed on 28 June 1935 . She was deployed to the Mediterranean after completion and was in Alexandria at the beginning of World War II in September 1939 . The ship returned home and was based at Scapa Flow supporting destroyers of the Home Fleet by mid @-@ 1940 . Woolwich sailed again for the Mediterranean in September ; while circumnavigating Africa , she had to put into Mombasa , Kenya for repairs to her boilers before she arrived in Alexandria in November .
In mid @-@ June 1942 , Vice @-@ Admiral Henry Harwood , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean Fleet , ordered all non @-@ essential ships to leave Alexandria as he was preparing to demolish the port facilities there to prevent their capture by the advancing Panzer Army Africa . Woolwich and the repair ship HMS Resource , escorted by six destroyers , were transferred south of the Suez Canal until the victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein in October allowed them to return to Alexandria . She remained there until late 1943 when she was assigned to the Eastern Fleet and based at Trincomalee for the rest of the war .
Woolwich sailed back to England in 1946 , but rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet the following year where she served as flagship for the Flag Officer , Mediterranean Fleet Destroyers . The ship sailed from Valletta , Malta on 7 February 1948 for Harwich where she served as a maintenance and accommodation ship for reserve ships based there . Woolwich was refitted in Rosyth in 1952 and then transferred to Gare Loch to perform similar duties there . She was refitted again in Rosyth five years later and served as an accommodation ship in Devonport from 1958 – 1962 . Woolwich was sold to Arnott Young in 1962 for scrap and arrived at Dalmuir , Scotland , on 18 October to be broken up .
= Soviet cruiser Krasnyi Krym =
Krasnyi Krym ( Russian : Красный Крым - Red Crimea ) was a light cruiser of the Soviet Navy . She was laid down in 1913 as Svetlana for the Imperial Russian Navy , the lead ship of the Svetlana class . She was built by the Russo @-@ Baltic Yard in Tallinn , Estonia and launched in 1915 . Her hull was evacuated to Petrograd when the Germans approached the port in late 1917 and laid up incomplete during the Russian Revolution . The ship was completed by the Soviets in 1926 . During World War II she supported Soviet troops during the Siege of Odessa , Siege of Sevastopol , and the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation in the winter of 1941 — 42 . Krasnyi Krym was awarded the Guards title on 18 June 1942 . The ship was reclassified as a training ship in November 1954 before being scrapped in July 1959 .
= = Service history = =
When Svetlana was towed from Tallinn to St. Petersburg in November 1917 she was about 90 % complete and the Soviets expected to commission her in 1919 , but she was laid up incomplete due to the disruptions of the Russian Civil War . It wasn 't until November 1924 that work recommenced on her and she was renamed Profintern ( Russian : Профинтерн ) on 5 February 1925 . She was completed in October 1926 , but she had to return to the dockyard to remedy numerous problems and wasn 't commissioned until 1 July 1928 .
Profintern was completed to nearly her original design , but was modified to handle aircraft by adding cranes on either side of the middle funnel and a parking area was built for them between the central and rear funnels , although no catapult was ever fitted . Her original internal torpedo tubes were replaced by two triple 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes mounted on the deck abaft the rear funnel . And her original four 38 @-@ caliber 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by nine 30 @-@ caliber 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) Lender AA guns .
Initially based in the Baltic she was transferred to the Black Sea Fleet in 1929 , arriving on 18 January 1930 , together with the battleship Parizhskaya Kommuna . She was extensively overhauled in the late 1930s where her aircraft equipment was removed and she was fitted with new fire control equipment . The ship was given three Italian Minizini twin @-@ gun 50 @-@ caliber 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) anti @-@ aircraft mounts , one was placed on the forecastle , in front of the forward 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 gun and the other two on each side of the quarterdeck . Four single mounts for the semi @-@ automatic 45 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 21 @-@ K gun were fitted as well as seven 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) AA machine guns . At some point she exchanged her 21 @-@ K AA guns for ten single mounts for the naval version of the 37 mm automatic air defense gun M1939 ( 61 @-@ K ) . Profintern was renamed Krasnyi Krym on 31 October 1939
= = World War II = =
Krasnyi Krym provided gunfire support to Soviet forces defending Odessa and escorted convoys bringing the 157th Rifle Division into Odessa during the month of September 1941 . She also transported two battalions of the 3rd Marine Regiment from Sevastopol in a successful amphibious assault behind Romanian lines to destroy Romanian coastal batteries near Fontanka and Dofinovka . She escorted convoys from 3 — 6 October that evacuated the 157th Rifle Division from Odessa to Sevastopol . During the Siege of Sevastopol , the ship provided gunfire support and evacuated cut @-@ off troops from elsewhere in the Crimea into Sevastopol and brought in reinforcements from Caucasian ports . She helped to transport the 388th Rifle Division from Novorossisk and Tuapse to Sevastopol between 7 and 13 December and the 354th Rifle Division between 21 and 22 December , bombarding German position in the interim .
During the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation , Krasnyi Krym sailed into the harbor of Feodosiya on 29 December 1941 and disembarked reinforcements and provided gunfire support for Soviet troops already ashore . She was hit eleven times by Axis artillery and mortar fire in retaliation . Between 15 and 21 January 1942 she landed the bulk of the 266th Mountain Regiment at Sudak and reinforced them with 1576 troops of the 544th Rifle Regiment between 23 and 26 January . During the following months Krasnyi Krym brought in reinforcements for the garrison of Sevastopol and evacuated the wounded , sometimes bombarding German positions en route , her last such mission being on 3 June 1942 , after the Germans had already launched the attack that would force the city to surrender in July . She was awarded the Guards title on 18 June in recognition of her performance .
Krasnyi Krym and the destroyer Nezamozhnik evacuated 2000 men from Novorossisk to Batumi between 9 — 12 August , a regiment of the 32nd Guards Rifle Division on 12 — 13 August and a further 1850 men and 60 tons of supplies on 16 — 17 August 1942 . Between 8 — 11 September Krasnyi Krym and several destroyers ferried the 137th and 145th Rifle Regiments along with the 3rd Naval Rifle Brigade from Poti to Tuapse and Gelendzhik . Between 20 and 23 October Krasnyi Krym , her half @-@ sister Krasny Kavkaz , and three destroyers ferried 12 @,@ 600 men of the 8th , 9th and 10th Guards Infantry Brigades from Poti to Tuapse to reinforce the defenses there . Krasnyi Krym , two destroyers and a number of minesweepers transported the 9th Mountain Rifle Division from Batumi to Tuapse from 1 — 10 December 1942 . On the night of 4 February 1943 the Soviets made a series of amphibious landings to the west of Novorossisk , behind German lines . Krasnyi Krym , Krasny Kavkaz , and three destroyers provided fire support for the main landing , but the Soviet troops there were wiped out by 6 February , although one secondary landing was successful . The loss of three destroyers attempting to interdict the German evacuation of the Taman Bridgehead on 6 October 1943 caused Stalin to forbid the deployment of large naval units without his express permission and this meant the end of Krasnyi Krym 's active participation in the war .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
The ship was reclassified as a training ship in 1954 . On 7 May 1957 she was redesignated as Experimental Ship OS @-@ 20 and then reclassified on 18 March 1959 as Floating Barracks PKZ @-@ 144 before being scrapped in July 1959 .
= Requiem for a Species =
Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large @-@ scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen @-@ year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change .
Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it " Book of the Week " . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .
= = Themes = =
Hamilton points out that there have been many reports and books over the years explaining the climate change problem and just how ominous the future looks for humanity . He says Requiem for a Species is primarily about why those warnings have been ignored .
Hamilton considers that sometimes an inconvenient truth may be too difficult to bear :
Sometimes facing up to the truth is just too hard . When the facts are distressing it is easier to reframe or ignore them . Around the world only a few have truly faced up to the facts about global warming ... It 's the same with our own deaths ; we all " accept " that we will die , but it is only when our death is imminent that we confront the true meaning of our mortality .
The most immediate reason for the failure to act on global warming is seen to be the " sustained and often ruthless exercise of political power by the corporations who stand to lose from a shift to low- and zero @-@ carbon energy systems " . Hamilton cites numerous journalists and authors who have documented the influence of large companies such as ExxonMobil , Rio Tinto Group and General Motors . Hamilton makes his argument in three stages :
Firstly , he reviews the evidence about how serious the situation is already and how much worse it will get . Secondly , he examines the roots of denial , both in terms of resistance to the evidence and in relation to the actors and agencies motivated to deny climate change . Lastly , he looks at some future scenarios and explains what people should do .
Hamilton suggests that the foundations of climate change denial lie in the reaction of American conservatism to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 . He argues that as the " red menace " receded , conservatives who had put energy into opposing communism sought other outlets . Hamilton contends that the conservative backlash against climate science was led by three prominent physicists -- Frederick Seitz , Robert Jastrow , and William Nierenberg . In 1984 Seitz , Jastrow and Nierenberg founded the George C. Marshall Institute , and in the 1990s the Marshall Institute 's main activity was attacking climate science .
When describing climate science , Hamilton says that official numbers published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) are highly cautious , and so the real effects of climate change will likely be even more severe . His conclusion is that it will not be possible to stabilise emissions :
... even with the most optimistic set of assumptions -- the ending of deforestation , a halving of emissions associated with food production , global emissions peaking in 2020 and then falling by 3 per cent a year for a few decades -- we have no chance of preventing emissions rising well above a number of critical tipping points that will spark uncontrollable climate change . The Earth 's climate would enter a chaotic era lasting thousands of years before natural processes eventually establish some sort of equilibrium . Whether human beings would still be a force on the planet , or even survive , is a moot point . One thing seems certain : there will be far fewer of us .
In terms of Australia , Hamilton says that " Australians in 2050 will be living in a nation transformed by a changing climate , with widespread doubt over whether we will make it to the end of the century in a land that is recognisably Australian " .
= = Reception = =
Michael Lynn in The Common Review says that Requiem for a Species explores the gulf between acknowledgment and acceptance of climate change . Lynn explains that the gulf has two main origins and no easy solution :
Hamilton ... argues that the gulf has two primary origins : the enormity of its consequences and the way it challenges how we as individuals and as societies have constructed our identities over the past three centuries . In doing so , he suggests that meeting the challenge of climate change requires far more than implementing the right policies and making minor adjustments in our lifestyles . Instead , it implies remaking our psyches and societies on a scale unseen since the dawn of the modern age .
The Times Higher Education listed Requiem for a Species as " Book of the week " for 3 June 2010 . Steven Yearley 's review calls it a " provocative and sobering book " . He says the heart of the book are the many explanations that Hamilton puts forward for the everyday , regular denial of the danger of changing climate . Yearley says this is also the most frustrating aspect of Requiem for a Species , because Hamilton proposes so many different explanations but does not make their relative significance clear .
David Shearman , in a review for Doctors for the Environment Australia , says that " Clive Hamilton is one of Australia 's most notable public intellectuals , his work is careful and balanced , he presents the facts as they are and has written a book which is uncomfortable for all " . According to Shearman , Hamilton 's treatment of the topic of denial is one of the best available .
Mike Hulme , in Resurgence magazine , agrees with the " consumption fetish " and " spiritual malaise " of humanity that Hamilton describes . But , according to Hulme , Hamilton has underestimated the " innovative and creative potential of collective humanity " and he has put too much faith in the infallibility of science 's predictions about future climate risks . Hulme believes that Hamilton " is placing too much weight on the foresight of science to provide his desired revolution , rather than calling for it more honestly and directly through political , psychological or spiritual engagement " .
Kelsey Munro reviewed the book in the Sydney Morning Herald and The Age , suggesting that it is pessimistic and does not present any false hope . But he says pessimism is not the same thing as fatalism , and Hamilton believes there is still an urgent need for government intervention to avoid worst @-@ case scenarios by reducing emissions . Munro also points out that some eminent climate scientists , like Princeton University 's Michael Oppenheimer , remain optimistic that humanity will act before it is too late .
Camilla Royle reviewed Requiem for a Species in Socialist Review and recommends it for those who want to get a clearer idea of climate change science . She says that Hamilton is understandably angry at the corporate lobbyists who have encouraged climate change denial . Royle suggests that Hamilton accepts that " we should at least try to do something about climate change " , but he " doesn 't give much idea of what that something is " .
There was a book launch for Requiem for a Species on 24 March 2010 at The University of Queensland and another on 29 March 2010 at the Australian National University ( ANU ) . An extract of the book appeared in The Guardian on 16 April 2010 . Geographical magazine published another extract in August 2010 . The book won the 2010 " Queensland Premier 's Literary Award for a work Advancing Public Debate " .
= = Author = =
At the time of publication , Clive Hamilton was Professor of Public Ethics at the Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics ( CAPPE ) at Australia . Before taking up his position at CAPPE , he was executive director and founder of The Australia Institute , a forward @-@ looking think tank .
= = Publishing information = =
Hamilton , Clive ( 2010 ) . Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change . Earthscan . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84971 @-@ 081 @-@ 7 .
The book is available as an eBook document as well as a paper publication .
= Mobius Final Fantasy =
Mobius Final Fantasy ( Japanese : メビウスファイナルファンタジー , Hepburn : Mebiusu Fainaru Fantajī ) is an episodic role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for iOS and Android devices . It was released in Japan in June 2015 , and will release internationally in August 2016 . The player controls Wol , a man who wakes with amnesia in the world of Palamecia , and must help conquer the dark forces attacking its people . The game features gameplay elements from previous Final Fantasy titles , including leveling , exploration via standard navigation and fast @-@ travel systems , and turn @-@ based combat tied to a job system . Common themes were also drawn from the original Final Fantasy title , such as " warriors of light " and their fight against chaos and darkness .
The game , which began development in 2013 , was developed around the concept of a mobile game on a similar level to a home console game : this goal promoted skepticism from both in @-@ house staff and external sources . While some assets were outsourced , most of the development was done by Square Enix . Multiple staff from previous Final Fantasy titles were involved in development , including producer Yoshinori Kitase , writer Kazushige Nojima , artists Toshitaka Matsuda and Toshiyuki Itahana , and composer Mitsuto Suzuki .
The game registered over two million players within the first few weeks of release . Square Enix cited Mobius Final Fantasy as one of the most successful titles they released on mobile in 2015 . The graphics and gameplay were praised by reviewers , although some called the overall combat experience " simple " . The game received several awards , including being named one of Japan 's " iTunes Best of 2015 " by Apple Inc .. An English localization is currently in development .
= = Gameplay = =
Mobius Final Fantasy is a role @-@ playing game designed for mobile phones . The player controls the game 's protagonist Wol while navigating Paramitia . Players can customize settings , graphical quality , and adjust controls for their dominant hand . During local navigation on the field map , the player taps a location on a map and the character travels to that location . In some self @-@ contained areas , the player can directly control the character . Along with standard navigation , the player can navigate the game world using a fast @-@ travel system , progressively unlocked as the player progresses through the story . Many of the features in the game , such as the leveling system and exploration , are similar to those from previous home console Final Fantasy games .
Mobius features a tactics @-@ focused , turn @-@ based battle system , with players able to activate attacks by tapping enemies on screen . Players can use standard melee attacks with close @-@ range weapons such as swords , and magical attacks . During combat the player accumulates Elements , which are necessary to activate Abilities , the game 's form of summoned monsters . When ready for activation , a tile appears on @-@ screen that the player touches to activate the Ability . Abilities have different attributes : the Shiva Ability unleashes an ice attack , while the Fat Chocobo Ability raises defense for eight turns while automatically healing the player . Elements can also be used by the player to strengthen their resistance to elemental attacks . If an enemy 's weakness is struck enough times , their " break gauge " meter will be drained and they will be left weakened , allowing the player to attack freely . A job system and character abilities related to them form a key part of the system .
The player starts off with the Onion Swordsman job . Each job can be leveled up using special " seed " items collected in battle to fill in a skill panel . Once the panel is complete , the job will evolve , such as the Onion Warrior evolving into the pure Warrior class . As jobs change or evolve , the character 's appearance will be altered to a degree . In the Chapter Two content update , Samurai , Assassin , and Red Mage jobs were added . In February 2016 , multiplayer functionality was added , enabling up to four players to take on bosses .
= = Plot = =
Wol , the main protagonist , awakes stricken with amnesia in the foreign world of Palamecia . He is one of multiple " Blankers " , people brought to Palamecia from other worlds and suffering from amnesia . Palamecia is under attack from the armies of " Chaos " , and Wol must fulfill a prophecy in Palamecia that one of the Blankers is a " Warrior of Light " who will free the world from its darkness . Wol is aided on his journey by Princess Sarah Lotte Cornelia , the princess of a kingdom of Palamecia , and Mog , a moogle who volunteers to help in Wol 's quest .
Chapter 2 , entitled " Prediction and Hope " , includes Wol and Mog adventuring through the Ishtar desert and Rune Temple . A side quest was also included , entitled " El Dorado of the Oblivion " , which is set in the ruins of " Gold Volost of El Dorado " . In chapter 3 , Wol is traveling to see Princess Sarah , who is waiting at her castle when she is attacked and held captive by the armies of chaos . Wol is then tasked with saving the princess and fighting against the overwhelming power of the Chaos giants .
In the chapter 4 prologue , Wol and Sarah begin an adventure to find the " Rune of Earth " to keep it out of the hands of chaos , and later in chapter 4 the story continues through new lands . In chapter 5 , Wol journeys to find the source of the light that may give him the strength to conquer chaos .
= = Development = =
The concept behind Mobius was for a mobile experience comparable with console games . Though it was possible to make a smartphone game equivalent to console games , it had yet to be done , so game producer Yoshinori Kitase sought to fill this perceived gap in the market . It was called the first Final Fantasy mobile game of this scale . While creation of some artwork and graphics was outsourced , most of the concept work and development was done in @-@ house by Square Enix . Instead of a new development team dedicated to mobiles , the production team was largely made up of veterans from the console Final Fantasy titles . The staff included scenario writer Kazushige Nojima and producer Yoshinori Kitase . The story is connected to the original Final Fantasy only thematically through its focus on " warriors of light " fighting against chaos and darkness : it is not a remake or directly related to the plot of the original . It is also considered by the team behind the game as a full entry in the series rather than a spin @-@ off . Speaking after the game 's initial release , Nojima stated that he felt his scenario was too bulky for a mobile experience .
Development began in 2013 , and prompted skepticism from both Square Enix staff and its prospective platform managers , who were more used to the dominant 2D @-@ based mobile games . One of the problems cited by director Naoki Hamaguchi was creating realistic facial expressions equivalent to those used in the 2013 film Frozen . For development , the team used the Unity game engine . After Unity Technologies updated the engine in 2015 to the Unity 5 version , the game was also updated to run on the improved software . The team needed to take differences between different phone models into account to allow high performance . To help with development and overcome potential difficulties handling the Unity engine , a special development environment and structure was created . The team used physically based rendering to create realistic lighting and environmental effects . The budget was far lower than graphically equivalent console titles , so the team were reluctant to buy in helping tools and had restrictions on staff numbers : one person was working on all the game 's backgrounds , while three were in charge of character designs . Using experience from the development of Final Fantasy XIII , the team were able to create high @-@ end graphics within mobile restrictions . After its reveal , some changes were made to the character 's initial costume : due to negative player feedback about the amount of skin shown , the Onion Swordsman outfit was adjusted to be more covering .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Mobius Final Fantasy was composed by Mitsuto Suzuki , whose previous work includes The 3rd Birthday , Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII . When he was first asked to compose for the title , his impression was of a whole new setting that retained nostalgic elements from earlier games in the series , which he sought to incorporate into the score : a piece that encompassed this was his reorchestration of " Prelude " . As part of writing for the game , he needed to create new tracks for game updates , which put added pressure on him to create music that would appeal to players . A concept present from an early stage was changing the battle music depending on what job was equipped by the player : Suzuki created an initial battle theme that acted as a base for other themes , then added elements like electronic elements and vocal work to give derivative tracks variety . The majority of the game 's choral work , such as with the game 's main theme , was done using synthesizers . Suzuki also needed to do remixes of earlier Final Fantasy music , such as the " Chocobo " theme , and pieces from other Final Fantasy games that would appear in special in @-@ game events . Suzuki estimated that he created between 40 @-@ 50 songs for the game . The music was recorded at the Red Bull Studios in Tokyo .
An official 2 @-@ CD soundtrack album for the game , Mobius Final Fantasy Original Soundtrack , was released through Square Enix 's music label on February 26 , 2015 under the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10534 @-@ 5 . The music on the album covers Chapters 1 to 3 . According to Suzuki , this was due to the music feeling like it had reached a natural transition point by that stage of the game .
= = Release = =
A trademark for its original title , " Mevius Final Fantasy " , was filed by Square Enix in October 2014 . The game was officially announced in Famitsu two months later under the same name . Two days later , a teaser site was opened in both English and Japanese with a message from Kitase about the team 's vision for the game . Its final name was announced during a livestream by the company dedicated to the game . Both titles , along with the logo artwork , took inspiration from the concept of the Möbius strip . Because of its origin , the title was changed from Mevius to Mobius . It was also apparently done in preparation for an international release . Pre @-@ registration for Mobius opened on April 27 , 2015 , with a special weapon and item available to those who registered . In late 2015 , no localization had been officially announced , though Kitase revealed through the dedicated Final Fantasy mobile app that it was under consideration . In a later post on the app during first anniversary celebrations for the game , Kitase confirmed that a localized version was in development . Its international release was confirmed in July for August 3 .
= = Reception = =
During its pre @-@ registration period , the game received 200 @,@ 000 registered users . By July 12 , just over a week after release , the game had one million registered players in Japan . This number had expanded to over two million by the following month . Speaking after release , Kitase said that Square Enix considered the game a success as it introduced the mobile community to AAA @-@ style graphics . In Square Enix 's 2015 annual report , Mobius was noted as one of their successful mobile titles for the year , stating that the higher production values when compared to other mobile games on the market had contributed to its popularity . In addition , Mobius was among the finalists for the 2015 Unity Awards for mobile games in the " Best 3D Visual Experience " category , and was named among Japan 's " iTune 's Best of 2015 " by Apple Inc ..
Dengeki Mobile , in a pre @-@ release review , praised the gameplay and strategy present in early random encounters and boss battles , although the reviewer had minor reservations about the quality of the entire game as they were not able to play through all of it . They also stated that players might encounter difficulties during some boss battles . The reviewer summed up the experience as " simple , yet engaging " . Famitsu , in a similar feature , praised the gameplay and presentation , echoing many of Dengeki 's compliments . One thing they noted was that the performance needed to be adjusted for different mobiles as running the game rapidly drained the phones batteries when on its highest settings . The reviewer also recommended tablets over mobile phones as a means of playing the game . Western reviews were similarly mixed , with Touch Arcade praising the games visuals but calling the user interface an " overly busy nightmare " . Kotaku examined the game in July 2015 and called the gameplay " monotonous " and lacking in plot , though it noted that many chapters were still to be released .
For the Western release of Mobius , the pre @-@ registration exceeded 125 @,@ 000 registered users .
= Félix Trinidad =
Juan Félix " Tito " Trinidad García ( born January 10 , 1973 ) , best known as Félix Trinidad , is a Puerto Rican former professional boxer , considered one of the best in Puerto Rico 's history . After winning five national amateur championships in Puerto Rico , Trinidad debuted as a professional in 1990 , when he was seventeen . He would go on to become a three @-@ weight world champion , first by defeating Maurice Blocker to win the IBF welterweight title in 1993 . Trinidad holds the record for the second most welterweight title defenses , with fifteen , and also holds the record for longest reign as welterweight champion , at six years , eight months and fourteen days .
As his career continued , he defeated Oscar De La Hoya to win the WBC and lineal welterweight titles in 1999 ; Fernando Vargas to win the unified WBA and IBF light middleweight titles in 2000 ; and William Joppy to win the WBA middleweight title in 2001 . Trinidad 's first professional loss was against Bernard Hopkins later in 2001 , who scored a technical knockout . Following this , Trinidad retired from boxing for the first time . He returned to action by defeating Ricardo Mayorga in 2004 and , after a losing effort against Winky Wright in 2005 , retired for a second time . In 2008 , he returned to the ring to fight Roy Jones Jr . , losing by unanimous decision . Subsequently , Trinidad entered a five @-@ year hiatus without clarifying the status of his career .
Trinidad is frequently mentioned among the best Puerto Rican boxers of all time by sports journalists and analysts , along with Juan Laporte , Esteban De Jesús , Miguel Cotto , Wilfred Benítez , Wilfredo Gómez , Héctor Camacho , and Carlos Ortíz .
On June 4 , 2014 , Trinidad was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame , thus becoming the tenth Puerto Rican to receive such an honor .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Welterweight = = =
Trinidad debuted as a professional on March 10 , 1990 , when he was 17 years old . The fight was against Angel Romero , another debuting boxer , in a contest that Trinidad won by knockout in the second round . In the beginning of his career he knocked out nine of his first 10 opponents . He then competed against more experienced boxers like Jake Rodriguez , whom he fought on December 6 , 1991 . Trinidad won the fight by unanimous decision but suffered an injury on his right hand . He was then inactive for five months while recovering from the injury .
Raul Gonzalez fought Felix Trinidad on May 3 , 1992 in Cayey , Puerto Rico . This fight was the main event of the night . Both Gonzalez and Trinidad weighed in at 142 pounds . Gonzalez had a record of 8 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 with 5 KOs , while Trinidad had a record of 13 @-@ 0 with 10 KOs . Gonzalez went down three times , and Trinidad took the victory in round four by TKO . Trinidad would add another victory by KO to his record and would now make it 14 @-@ 0 with 11 KOs .
= = = = Welterweight title = = = =
Trinidad traveled to San Diego , California and defeated the IBF welterweight champion Maurice Blocker in two rounds , in a fight card that took place on June 19 , 1993 , televised by Showtime . Trinidad spent the first two minutes of the fight analyzing Blocker 's style . With 11 seconds left in the first round , one of Trinidad 's punches injured Blocker , who barely survived the round . In the second round , the champion 's condition appeared to improve , but after the first 30 seconds , another Trinidad punch injured him . Trinidad followed with a combination , scoring a knockout at 1 : 49 in the round when the referee stopped the fight . Afterwards , tournament organizer Don King 's exclusive relationship to stage fights for the cable channel Showtime meant that Trinidad would be showcased regularly on Showtime Championship Boxing .
= = = = Trinidad vs. Camacho = = = =
Trinidad defended his title for the next three years against several opponents . Trinidad 's first fight in Las Vegas was against Héctor Camacho on January 29 , 1994 . He was cautious during the first rounds and received a cut over his left eye . In the third round he connected a solid combination that made Camacho change to a defensive stance . Throughout the fight Trinidad was on the offensive and won the fight by unanimous decision , in what was his first decision since he won the world championship . The scores awarded by the judges were 117 – 109 , 116 – 110 , and 119 – 106 .
= = = = Trinidad vs. Campas = = = =
On September 17 , 1994 , Trinidad traveled to the MGM Grand for a second straight fight to compete in a title defense against Yori Boy Campas , who had a record of 56 @-@ 0 . In the second round Campas scored a knockdown , the second knockdown in Trinidad 's career . Following this Trinidad exchanged several combinations , injuring Campas ' face and breaking his nose . In the fourth round , the referee stopped the fight , the first defeat in Campas ' career .
= = = = Trinidad vs. Carr = = = =
Trinidad 's fourth fight outside Puerto Rico or the United States took place on Estadio de Beisbol in Monterey , Mexico . Trinidad was scheduled to defend his title against the undefeated Oba Carr . In the second round , Carr scored a knockdown , which was the product of a quick right hand punch . Trinidad continued the fight and pursued the challenger , who displayed a quick pace throughout the fight . In the fourth round Trinidad connected a solid punch that injured Carr , and in the eighth he scored three consecutive knockdowns before the referee stopped the fight by technical knockout .
Trinidad spent the next four years defending his title against numerous fighters in bouts televised on Showtime . Among these fights was a defense against Mahenge Zulu , the number two challenger for Trinidad 's championship . This fight was part of a card that took place on April 3 , 1998 in Bayamón , Puerto Rico and marked the first time that Trinidad had performed in the island in five years . Trinidad began the first round by cautiously analyzing the challenger 's style , but the round ended with quick exchanges after Zulu took the initiative in the offensive . In the second round Zulu was actively pursuing the champion , but retreated when he received a solid jab sequence . Early in the third round a series of jabs opened a wound on Zulu 's mouth , while the challenger 's punches were not reaching their target . Trinidad began the fourth round heavily on in the offensive connecting several combinations which hurt the challenger , using this to land more punches in Zulu 's head and body . One punch hit Zulu in the jaw , he fell to the floor and tried to rise , but the referee stopped the fight before he could do so .
= = = = Trinidad vs. Whitaker = = = =
On February 20 , 1999 , Trinidad defended the welterweight championship against Pernell Whitaker , winning the fight by unanimous decision in a contest that marked his thirteenth successful defense . The fight began with both boxers displaying aggressive styles , which included excessive pushing . In the following rounds both boxers used their jabs most of the time with Trinidad gaining an advantage when Whitaker attempted to attack inside , eventually scoring a knockdown in round two . In the fourth , fifth and sixth rounds the fighters exchanged combinations . Later in the fight both boxers fell to the floor in what were ruled as " accidental slips . " On the seventh round Whitaker displayed more offense , trading power punches with Trinidad , but the champion retained control in the fight 's tempo during the eight , ninth , and tenth rounds . In the last round Whitaker , with a badly swollen right eye , displayed a purely defensive stance , avoiding his opponent throughout the round while Trinidad continued on the offensive until the fight concluded . The judges gave the champion scores of 117 – 111 , 118 – 109 and 118 – 109 .
= = = = Trinidad vs. De La Hoya = = = =
In the spring of 1999 , Don King and Oscar De la Hoya 's promoter , Bob Arum , agreed to co @-@ promote a mega @-@ fight for the Lineal , World Boxing Council and International Boxing Federation welterweight championships on September 18 , 1999 at the Mandalay Bay Hotel in Las Vegas . Early in the fight De la Hoya employed boxing to connect combinations while avoiding Trinidad 's attacks . The second round began with both boxers trading punches but De la Hoya quickly returned to his previous tactic , which he employed in the third round . In the fourth round Trinidad pressured the offense while De la Hoya tried to avoid his punches by moving , both boxers eventually exchanged punches . In the fifth round Trinidad continued in the offensive while De la Hoya attempted to remain on the outside corners of the ring , Trinidad 's eye was swollen following a trade of punches , and his nose was also bleeding . Trinidad was having a lot of problems finding De La Hoya and couldn 't connect as flush as usual with his punches , although he scored at times , Oscar 's movement was not letting him land in combination and it was proclaimed by many to have been a lackluster fight . In the eighth round the swelling on Trinidad 's eye was worsening . Oscar was scoring on Trinidad but half way through the tenth , De La Hoya stopped sticking and basically disengaged . De La Hoya gassed out and had remained on his toes for the remainder of the bout , and Trinidad won all the final rounds.The judges gave Trinidad a very controversial majority decision , with scores of 115 – 113 , 115 – 114 and 114 – 114 .
= = = Light Middleweight = = =
= = = = Light Middleweight title = = = =
In 2000 , Trinidad vacated the welterweight championships and moved to the junior middleweight division , in order to challenge the World Boxing Association 's champion David Reid . Early in the fight Trinidad concentrated his punches on Reid 's body , connecting hard punches to his ribs and belly . In the second round Reid connected a solid punch to his opponent 's jaw , and in the third round scored a knockdown . In the fourth and fifth rounds Trinidad used his jab consistently , gaining control of the fight 's tempo in the sixth round . The fight 's score was close at the beginning of the seventh round but Trinidad opened the second half of the contest in the offensive , scoring the fight 's second knockdown . Controlling the fight in the eighth , ninth and tenth rounds , and opening a cut over Reid 's eye . Trinidad dominated the eleventh round , scoring three consecutive knockdowns . Reid tried to close the fight on the offensive but his opponent boxed and countered his attacks . The judges gave scores of 114 – 107 , 114 – 106 and 115 – 106 , all in favor of Trinidad .
= = = = Trinidad vs. Vargas = = = =
On December 2 , 2000 , he was scheduled to fight in a unification card against Fernando Vargas , the International Boxing Federation 's junior middleweight champion . The fight began in a fast pace with Trinidad connecting a solid combination that led to his opponent being knocked down . Vargas was able to stand up , but another combination injured him a second time and led to another knockdown . Early in the second round Trinidad was in the offensive but Vargas connected a solid combination at the round 's closing moments which opened a cut over Trinidad 's right eye . In the fourth round 's opening seconds one of Vargas ' punches connected on Trinidad 's jaw and he fell , marking the eighth knockdown in his career . In the fifth round Vargas was in control of the fight 's offensive , connecting combinations to Trinidads ' body . In the sixth round Trinidad regained control of the fight 's tempo that lasted throughout the contest , connecting punches on Vargas ' head and left jabs to the ribs . In the eighth , Vargas displayed signs of exhaustion which slowed his offensive while Trinidad then pursued the offense with combinations to the body . This pattern continued throughout the ninth , tenth and eleventh rounds . Opening the final round Vargas was on the offensive , connecting a solid left hook . Trinidad countered the attack with a left hook that made Vargas collapse ; Vargas was able to stand up , but was subsequently knocked down for a second time . With Vargas injured , Trinidad continued connecting combinations , until the referee stopped the fight by technical knockout .
= = = Middleweight = = =
= = = = Trinidad vs. Joppy = = = =
Following his fight with Vargas , Trinidad moved up in weight – this time to participate in Don King 's middleweight unification tournament featuring IBF champion Bernard Hopkins , WBA champion William Joppy , and WBC champion Keith Holmes . Trinidad was matched with Joppy , whom he defeated by technical knockout in the fifth round of a contest that took place on May 12 , 2001 . Joppy opened the first round on the offensive , but late in the round Trinidad scored a knockdown with a combination of punches that came close to throwing Joppy underneath the ropes . Trinidad subsequently scored a knockdown in the fourth round , during this stage of the competition he was using combinations of left hooks and right punches to the head . In the fifth round Trinidad scored another knockdown , Joppy attempted to continue the fight , but while he was using the ropes to help him stand , the referee stopped the fight . When the contest was over , Trinidad explained his strategy by stating : " I knew he wanted to impose his will , his weight , and I wouldn 't let him do it " .
= = = = Trinidad vs. Hopkins = = = =
The middleweight unification fight between Hopkins and Trinidad was originally scheduled for September 15 , 2001 , at the Madison Square Garden . On the morning of September 11 , terrorists attacked the World Trade Center . Following this incident , the fight was postponed indefinitely . After receiving assurances from Madison Square Garden officials and the City of New York , Don King rescheduled the fight for September 29 . The pace of the fight in the early rounds was slow , with each boxer studying his opponent . In the second round Hopkins connected some combinations while Trinidad pursued the offensive in the fourth round and both boxers traded sequences of punches . This pattern continued in the fifth round with Trinidad showing an aggressive style while Hopkins relied on jabs . In the sixth Trinidad continued an offensive stance and won the round after trading several combinations . Both fighters continued to exchange punches in the eighth and ninth round with Hopkins connecting three consecutive solid punches . In the twelfth round Hopkins ' scored a knockdown , but before the contest could continue Trinidad 's father entered the ring , which led to the referee stopping the fight by technical knockout .
= = Next fight = =
Trinidad was subsequently scheduled to fight against Hacine Cherifi in a contest that he won by technical knockout in the fourth round . The event was part of a card that took place on May 11 , 2002 , and was organized in San Juan , Puerto Rico . Early in the first round Trinidad 's strategy consisted of using his jab while Cherifi did not try to directly engage in the offensive . In the last minute of the round a punch by Trinidad hit Cherifi 's chin leaving him disoriented , he followed this with a combination and scored a knockdown . In the second round , Trinidad displayed more boxing and was on the offensive by using combinations to the head and ribs . In the third Cherifi landed more punches than in the previous two , but Trinidad relied on throwing left jabs . One of his punches hit Cherifi 's liver , followed by a punch to the jaw , making Cherifi fall to the floor . In the fourth , a series of combinations injured Cherifi , who collapsed to the floor twice , forfeiting the fight on the second occasion . Following this contest Trinidad announced his retirement , at the moment leaving the sport with a record of 41 wins , one defeat , and 34 wins by knockout .
= = = Comeback = = =
= = = = Trinidad vs. Mayorga = = = =
Trinidad announced a comeback on March 2 , 2004 . On October 2 , 2004 he fought against Ricardo Mayorga , in Madison Square Garden . Early in the first round Mayorga was on the offensive connecting several combinations , later in the round Trinidad connected some punches to his opponent 's face . Mayorga reacted defiantly while lowering his defense , which Trinidad used to continue the offensive during the closing seconds . In the second round he continued connecting with combinations to Mayorga 's face which caused him to bleed from his nose ; the round concluded with both fighters exchanging punches . In the third round Mayorga attempted to counter with punches to the body but did not do significant damage to his opponent , however later in the round one of these punches made Trinidad lose his balance and touch the floor with one glove which the referee counted as a knockdown . In the fourth round both boxers traded hard combinations . In the fifth Trinidad displayed control of the offense 's tempo injuring Mayorga and opening a cut under one of his eyes . This pattern continued in the sixth and seventh round , and the cut on Mayorga 's face began to swell . In the eight round Trinidad scored several knockdowns , Mayorga continued after two knockdowns , but lost by technical knockout following a third knockdown .
= = = = Trinidad vs. Wright = = = =
On May 14 , 2005 , Trinidad competed against Winky Wright , in a fight where the winner would become the World Boxing Council 's number one challenger in the Middleweight division . Wright won the fight by decision , receiving scores of 120 – 107 and 119 – 108 twice by the judges . Trinidad 's fighting style appeared to be out of rhythm in the first round , while Wright presented a defensive stance and relied on jabs . During the first three rounds Wright was in the offensive scoring with jabs . On the fourth round Trinidad connected a solid combination . In the sixth , Wright continued the strategy used in the previous rounds while Trinidad employed a strategy where he tried to neutralize his opponent 's punches by standing in front of him . In the later rounds Trinidad tried to take the contest 's offensive but his adversary managed to block most of his punches while continuing his previous tactic . In the twelfth round Trinidad pursued Wright while trying to score a knockout , but his opponent boxed away from him until the round ended . Following this fight , Trinidad retired temporarily , after his father informed him that he would not continue in his corner .
= = = Second comeback = = =
= = = = Trinidad vs. Jones = = = =
Trinidad came out of his second retirement for the fight against Roy Jones , a former four @-@ division champion on January 19 , 2008 . According to the contract , it was to be at a catch weight of 170 lbs ; and was broadcast live on HBO Pay @-@ Per @-@ View . The card took place at Madison Square Garden in New York city . Trinidad began the fight on the offensive and won the first two rounds . The third and fourth rounds were won by Jones who relied on the velocity of his punches . This pattern continued in the fifth and sixth rounds . In the seventh round , Jones scored a knockdown following a right hand . Following this Jones continued to use his speed while Trinidad pursued the offensive , in the tenth round Jones scored a second knockdown after landing a combination . The judges declared the fight a unanimous decision in favor of Jones with scores of 117 – 109 and 116 – 110 twice .
= = = Retirement = = =
After this fight , Trinidad was inactive for almost two years , before announcing on October 14 , 2009 , that he was " between 95 and 98 percent sure ( that he would ) not do anything more within boxing " . During this timeframe , he made sporadic public appearances , attending boxing cards and participating in public activities , including a ceremony where Juan Manuel López and Iván Calderón received rings for five successful defenses of their world championships . Beginning in July 2009 , Trinidad became involved with the World Wrestling Council , participating as a guest referee at their anniversary show . Three months later , he was included in a storyline that also included Orlando Colón . In 2010 , Trinidad expressed interest in purchasing the Changos de Naranjito .
= = = Controversy = = =
According to an interview with Bernard 's trainer Bouie Fisher , prior to the fight members of Hopkins ' team visited the Trinidad dressing room in what is considered a normal boxing custom to watch the taping of Trinidad 's hands before his gloves were placed on . The Hopkins camp claimed that Trinidad 's hands were wrapped in an incorrect fashion , and threatened to cancel the fight unless they were wrapped correctly . Fisher also stated that the Chief Inspector of the NYSAC insisted to Trinidad 's camp that they needed to re @-@ wrap his hands in a correct fashion . Additionally , according to the New York State Athletic Commission , Layering ( which is layers of gauze , then layers of tape , then more gauze and tape ) is illegal .
= = International Boxing Hall of Fame = =
In 2013 , Trinidad became eligible and was voted into the 2014 Class of the International Boxing Hall of Fame . He was officially inducted into the hall during a ceremony held on June 4 , 2014 , becoming the tenth Puerto Rican to receive such an honor .
= = Personal life = =
Félix Trinidad was born in Fajardo , Puerto Rico , to a Puerto Rican family . During his childhood the family moved to Cupey Alto , a subdivision of San Juan , Puerto Rico , where he grew up . His future wife , Sharon Santiago , lived in Cupey and first met Trinidad in the home of her neighborhood friend , a classmate of Trinidad 's . Trinidad pursued a relationship with Santiago , including an attempt to impress her with his red Ford Mustang . He continued to press for her affection and , with the help of Santiago 's neighbor , Trinidad was able to win her over . Early on , Santiago 's mother thought that Trinidad was related to her daughter 's friend , but she realized the true situation when she visited the friend 's house and he acted nervous in her presence . Santiago 's father objected to the relationship because Trinidad was an athlete ; at the time many athletes had a negative public image . Santiago became rebellious , but Trinidad eventually won her family 's trust . The couple was married four years after they began dating and have had four daughters . Trinidad has a fifth daughter , named Alondra Nicole , from another relationship .
= = Professional record = =
= Indicates the person is no longer alive
= Costello Music =
Costello Music is the debut album by Scottish rock band The Fratellis . It was released on 30 October 2006 on Fallout Records and Drop the Gun Recordings and on 13 March 2007 on Cherrytree Records in the U.S. and was a success , peaking at # 2 in the UK Albums Chart and spent 83 weeks in the Top 100 . It debuted behind FutureSex / LoveSounds by Justin Timberlake and stayed in the # 2 position for two more weeks , this time behind Ta @-@ Dah by Scissor Sisters . The album had five single releases , as well as the download @-@ only EP Flathead . " Chelsea Dagger " was the most successful single , peaking at # 5 in the UK and # 4 in the Netherlands , but the other singles failed to chart in most countries .
Its success resulted in the band touring internationally , playing shows in Europe , the United States and Japan . The band ’ s ensuing popularity saw them win the 2007 BRIT Award for Best British Breakthrough Act . The album has sold 1 @,@ 121 @,@ 251 copies as of August 2015 .
= = Background = =
The band ’ s first gig was in a basement in Glasgow in February 2005 and the band were spotted by a record company talent scout shortly after . Music Week 's Stuart Clarke said , " A month after the scout discovered them , labels were flying up to Scotland to see them . Most , if not all , the major labels and a handful of indies showed a lot of interest in the band . " The band was eventually signed to Island Records and the album was released under its UK subsidiary , Fallout Records . The band were flown to LA to record the album in the Sunset Sound recording studio , which was previously used by Bob Dylan and the Beach Boys . The choice to record in Sunset Studios rather than the UK was due to Jon ’ s desire to create an old @-@ fashioned , analogue sound . They were in Studio 3 , which contains vintage equipment . Jon said , " It makes you feel a bit more like you ’ re part of something you were interested in " . Producer Tony Hoffer was flown in to help complete the album . The album was named " Costello Music " after a studio they used to rent in Budhill , Glasgow .
= = Lyrics and composition = =
Critics likened the album to the works of The Libertines , Babyshambles and Arctic Monkeys , all bands known for their British rock roots . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said that ‘ they sound like songs by about 15 other Britpop acts ’ but went on to say ‘ it ’ s one thing to copy a look , a sound , or a formula , it 's another to do it so utterly convincingly and with such infectious raucousness ’ .
Paul McNamee of NME noted that most tracks on the album told a story ; " Henrietta " , tells the story of an older woman who stalks the song 's narrators ; " Vince the Lovable Stoner " is about a man with a drug addiction , and " Chelsea Dagger " is said by Jon Fratelli to be about a showgirl .
= = Release = =
Costello Music was released on vinyl and CD on 11 September 2006 in the UK . Five songs were released as singles ; " Henrietta " , " Chelsea Dagger " , " Whistle for the Choir " , " Baby Fratelli " and " Ole Black ‘ n ’ Blue Eyes " . " Flathead " was used in an iPod commercial , which led to it being released as a download only single via iTunes and later as an EP . The album was then released on 13 March 2007 in the US . The cover art for the album and its singles was created by Sam Hadley .
The album did best in the UK , peaking at number two on the charts there . It reached forty @-@ two on the US Billboard 200 , and managed to chart in Switzerland , Austria , the Netherlands , France and New Zealand . " Chelsea Dagger " was the most successful single , peaking at five in the UK and four in the Netherlands . The other singles with the exception of " Flathead " only managed to chart in the UK , where they were moderately popular .
A Japanese version of Costello Music was released on 21 February 2007 containing two tracks unavailable on other versions : " Dirty Barry Stole the Bluebird " – a B @-@ side of the " Chelsea Dagger " single , and " Cigarello " from the Flathead EP . This version of the album also contained the videos for " Flathead " , " Chelsea Dagger " , and " Henrietta " , which could be viewed directly from the disc using an Adobe Flash program .
The album 's success led to the band winning the BRIT award for Best British Breakthrough Act in 2007 . The album also won an EBBA award in January 2008 . In total , the band sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies of Costello Music worldwide and over 900 @,@ 000 copies in the UK .
= = Critical reception = =
Costello Music received generally favourable reviews . Pitchfork Media ’ s Stuart Bertman called The Fratellis ‘ artless but amiable ’ , ‘ predictable ’ , and ‘ intermittently rewarding ’ . Elizabeth Goodman of Rolling Stone called the single Flathead ‘ preternaturally catchy ’ and stated that ‘ it makes you elated in the moment ’ . Helen Phares of Allmusic called it ‘ high energy ’ and ‘ fun in the moment ’ . Stylus Magazine 's Ryan Foley shared similar views , describing it as ‘ beyond infectious ’ and claiming that they fill ‘ their three @-@ minute , pop @-@ punk ditties with melodic snarl , flouncing sass , and enough lusty sing @-@ along parts to keep the punters busy ’ . IGN ’ s Chad Grischow gave the album an Outstanding rating in his review of the album saying it was ‘ not the most refined album you will buy this year , but surely one you will not regret ’ . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine was the most negative , calling it ‘ tediously misogynistic ’ and ‘ instantly memorable but thankfully wordless ’ .
= = Tour = =
Following the release of the album , The Fratellis embarked on a tour of the UK festival circuit , headlining at popular festivals such as NME 's Rock ‘ n ’ Riot tour and T in the Park 2007 , amongst others . They opened for The Who at the BBC Electric Proms in October 2006 , and in December they supported Kasabian on their UK tour before playing 10 dates by themselves in February and March 2007 . The locations included Nottingham , Manchester , Glasgow , Birmingham and London .
They then set out on a worldwide tour to play dates in Japan , Europe and the US . They cut short the US leg of their tour , canceling nine dates , citing fatigue from their many months of touring as the cause .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by The Fratellis .
= = = Bonus tracks = = =
" The Gutterati ? " – 2 : 28 ( Replaces " Cuntry Boys & City Girls " on US version as Track # 5 , moving " Whistle for the Choir " to Track # 3 and " Chelsea Dagger " to Track # 4 )
" Ole Black ‘ n ’ Blue Eyes " is a hidden track on the US version .
" Dirty Barry Stole The Bluebird " – 4 : 04 ( Bonus track on Japanese version )
" Cigarello " – 3 : 06 ( Bonus track on Japanese version )
Some versions of the CD have the track " Cuntry Boys & City Girls " moved to a hidden track , Track # 14 .
= = Personnel = =
Jon Fratelli – lead vocals , guitar
Barry Fratelli – bass guitar , shouting
Mince Fratelli – drums , backup vocals , banjo
Tony Hoffer – production , mixing
Todd Burke and Tony Hoffer – engineering
Shane Watson – horn
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Chart archives = = =
= The X @-@ Files ( season 4 ) =
The fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing on the Fox network in the United States on October 4 , 1996 , concluding on the same channel on May 18 , 1997 , and contained 24 episodes . Following the filming and airing of the season , production began on The X @-@ Files feature film , which was released in 1998 following the show 's fifth season .
The fourth season of the series focuses heavily on FBI federal agents Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) and his partner Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) investigation of an alien conspiracy , which is protected by the mysterious Syndicate . Midway through the season , Scully is diagnosed with terminal cancer , a result of her previous abduction , and Mulder begins to lose his faith in the idea of extraterrestrials . Debuting with high viewing figures and ranking as the twentieth most watched television series during the 1996 – 97 television year in the United States , the season was a success , with figures averaging around 20 million viewers an episode . This made it , at the time , the highest rated season of The X @-@ Files to air . The season 's twelfth episode , " Leonard Betts " was chosen as the Fox lead @-@ out program following Super Bowl XXXI , and was viewed by 29 @.@ 1 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated episode in the series ' run . Critical reception from television critics was mostly positive .
= = Plot overview = =
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When the Syndicate suspect that one of their members is passing information to Mulder and Scully , they organize a canary trap to find the leak , using information about the safety of Mulder 's mother as bait . X 's ( Steven Williams ) role as an informant is discovered , and he is shot dead , although he is able to pass along the name of another informant who can be of use to Mulder — Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) , the Special Representative to the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations . Covarrubias ' aid is sought when Mulder attempts to reach Tunguska in Russia to investigate the source of a further black oil contamination . Whilst there , Mulder is held in a gulag and used as a successful test subject for a black oil vaccine . He escapes and is able to return to America , having found that Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) is working with the Russians .
Having been diagnosed with cancer , Scully is unsure of her future with the FBI . Mulder is convinced that her condition is a result of her earlier abduction ( " Ascension " ) , and is prepared to make a deal with the Syndicate to find a cure . He is dissuaded by Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , who secretly makes such a deal instead . While being pursued by an assassin responsible for a hoax alien corpse discovered on a mountaintop , Mulder fakes his own suicide , mutilating the assassin 's face to provide a decoy body . He uses the distraction this offers to infiltrate The Pentagon to find a cure for Scully 's cancer , while Scully is able to uncover and reveal a Syndicate connection within the FBI .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The season saw drastic changes to the series ' alien mythology . In the premiere episode , " Herrenvolk " , Williams — the actor who played Mulder 's informant X — was written out of the show . He said that , " Carter called me up personally [ and said ] ' Got good news , got bad news . The good news is we 're gonna bring you up for another episode this week . The bad news is you 're gonna take a bullet . " The writers created a new character , Marita Covarrubias , to function as Mulder 's informant . Carter felt it would be " more interesting for Mulder 's next contact to be a woman " , noting that he " wanted there to be some suspicion about whether Mulder would become involved with her romantically . " Herrenvolk " also introduced the killer bees , who would go on to play a larger part in the 1998 film . Carter described the fourth season as " maybe the most intense and difficult season of the show . "
The season is notable in that it introduced a story arc about Scully developing terminal cancer , which would not be resolved until the beginning of the fifth season . The show 's producers decided to give Gillian Anderson 's character Dana Scully cancer early in the season . Carter initially discussed giving Scully 's mother cancer but decided to have Scully suffer from it instead . Carter felt the move would give the show an interesting platform on which to discuss things such as faith , science , health care and a certain element of the paranormal . Some of the writing staff felt that the decision was a poor one to make , citing it as " a cheap TV thing " . However , Frank Spotnitz felt that , given the appearances of cancer @-@ stricken abductees in previous episodes , it was an " obligatory " move to have Scully follow suit .
Following the cancellation of the Fox television series Space : Above and Beyond , Carter called the series ' creators Glen Morgan and Wong — who had previously been writers for the first two seasons of The X @-@ Files — and asked if they wanted to rejoin the series . Morgan told Carter that the two of them would rejoin , but only for four episodes , and only if they could use members from the cast of Space : Above and Beyond , so that " the world can finally see them " . Carter accepted this condition , and the two dutifully provided four of the seasons episodes .
= = = Filming = = =
The season finale , " Gethsemane " , was notable in that an entire set created to emulated icy caverns was constructed inside a warehouse which had previously been used for cold storage ; and required the use of truckloads of lumber and 10 @,@ 000 square feet ( 930 m2 ) of Styrofoam . The set would become one of the most expensive and elaborate built during the series ' history . The set required a constant temperature of − 21 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) in order to maintain the real snow and ice used to decorate it . This refrigeration allowed the actors ' breath to visibly fog up , and allowed the cast to " have a place that feels real " to aid their acting . The outdoor scenes for the episode were filmed around Vancouver 's Mount Seymour , with weather conditions making shooting difficult enough to require an extra day of work .
Although the series ' 1998 movie would take place after the events of the fifth season , the movie was actually filmed in the hiatus between the show 's fourth and fifth season and re @-@ shoots were conducted during the filming of the show 's fifth season .
= = = Crew = = =
Series creator Chris Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote eight episodes . Howard Gordon continued as executive producer and wrote five episodes for his final season on the series . Spotnitz was promoted to co @-@ producer and wrote seven episodes . Vince Gilligan was promoted to co @-@ producer and wrote five episodes . Former X @-@ Files writers Glen Morgan and James Wong returned after a one season absence from the series as consulting producers and wrote three episodes together , with Morgan writing an additional episode solo that Wong directed . John Shiban was promoted to story editor and wrote four episodes . David Greenwalt joined mid @-@ season as co @-@ executive producer and wrote one episode for his only season on the series . Writing team Valerie and Vivian Mayhew wrote one freelance episode . Executive producer and frequent series director R. W. Goodwin wrote his first and only episode for the series . Other producers included producer Joseph Patrick Finn , co @-@ producer Paul Rabwin , and consulting producer Ken Horton , who joined the series with this season .
Producing @-@ directors for the show included Rob Bowman and Kim Manners , who directed the bulk of the episodes for the season . Manners directed eight episodes , while Bowman directed seven . Executive producer R. W. Goodwin again directed the season premiere and finale . James Charleston directed three episodes , while Tucker Gates , Michael Lange , Cliff Bole , and series writer James Wong each directed one episode .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder ( 24 episodes )
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully ( 23 episodes ) a
a ^ She does not appear in " Zero Sum " .
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = = Also starring = = = =
Mitch Pileggi as Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( 12 episodes )
William B. Davis as Cigarette Smoking Man ( 6 episodes )
= = = = Guest starring = = = =
= = Episodes = =
Episodes marked with a double dagger ( ) are episodes in the Mythology of The X @-@ Files Alien story arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The fourth season of The X @-@ Files debuted with " Herrenvolk " on October 4 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 2 , with a 23 share , meaning that roughly 13 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 23 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . The episode was viewed by 21 @.@ 11 million people , a marked increase from the third season 's finale , " Talitha Cumi " , which was viewed by 17 @.@ 86 million viewers . " Herrenvolk " was , at the time , the highest @-@ rated episode of The X @-@ Files to air , as well as the first episode of the series to be watched by over 20 million viewers . As the season continued , however , ratings began to drop slightly , stabilizing around approximately less than 20 million viewers @-@ per @-@ episode . The season hit a high with its twelfth episode , " Leonard Betts " , which had been chosen as the Fox lead @-@ out program following Super Bowl XXXI . The episode was viewed by 29 @.@ 1 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated episode in the series ' run . The season hit a low with the fifteenth and sixteenth episodes , " Kaddish " and " Unrequited " , respectively , which were both viewed by 16 @.@ 56 million viewers . The season finale , " Gethsemane " , earned a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 2 , with a 19 share , and was viewed by 19 @.@ 85 viewers , marking a 5 @.@ 9 percent drop in viewers when compared to the season premiere , but a 10 percent increase in viewers when compared to the previous season finale . The season ranked as the twelfth most watched television series during the 1996 – 97 year , with an average of 19 @.@ 2 million viewers , making it , at the time , the highest @-@ rated season of The X @-@ Files to air .
= = = Reviews = = =
The fourth season of The X @-@ Files received largely positive reviews from television critics , although several critics noted that the season was not as good as its predecessors . The Contra Costa Times noted that The X @-@ Files during its fourth year was creatively good and " always fascinating even when it 's frustrating . " Rick Kushman Bee of the Sacramento Bee wrote that Fox ' Sunday block of The Simpsons , King of the Hill and The X @-@ Files was televisions " real ' Must See TV ' " . Matt Roush of USA Today wrote that the fourth season was not the series ' best year , but " when good , [ The X @-@ Files is ] still shockingly great " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave an overall positive review of the season and wrote that many of the episodes dabbled in existentialism . However , he also contended that many of the mythology episodes — especially the season finale — began to have " a ring of familiarity to " them and that " the repetition is getting old " .
Episodic reviews were diverse . Some episodes were praised . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episodes " Home " , " Unruhe " , " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " , " Paper Hearts " , and " Small Potatoes " five stars out of five . Paula Vitaris of Cinefantastique also awarded " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " , " Paper Hearts " , and " Small Potatoes " perfect scores of four out of four . Tom Kessenich named " Memento Mori " the fourth best episode of the series , writing that it was the definitive example of Mulder and Scully 's devotion for each other . " . He also wrote highly of " Home " , " Paper Hearts " , Small Potatoes " , and " Never Again " , ranking them as the fifth , eleventh , sixteenth , and twenty @-@ fourth best episodes of The X @-@ Files , respectively . Other episodes were derided . Shearman and Pearson called " El Mundo Gira " an " aching unambitious take on Latin American culture " and " rubbish " . Vitaris summaried " Unrequited " as a " slight story that collapses under the weight of its message " .
" Gethsemane " created intense media speculation about whether or not Mulder was actually dead . An article in the Wall Street Journal discussed fan theories behind Mulder 's madness while a cartoon ran in The New Yorker a few weeks later surrounding Mulder 's " death " . Series creator Chris Carter noted that " the whole plot line of ' Gethsemane ' revolved around a hoax , but there are actually huge revelations in this show . And it 's an amazing thing that we could get people to believe that Mulder could actually kill himself because his belief system was stolen from him " . UGO Networks listed the episode at number 21 in a countdown of " TV 's Best Season Finales " , noting that it " rocked the core of the series ' entire mythology " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The fourth season earned the series twelve Primetime Emmy Award nominations , with three wins . Anderson won for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series , after being nominated the previous year . The episodes " Memento Mori " and " Tempus Fugit " won for Outstanding Art Direction for a Series and Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series , respectively . Notable nominations included its third consecutive nomination for Outstanding Drama Series , Duchovny 's first nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series , James Wong nominated for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " , and Carter , Gilligan , Shiban , and Spotnitz being nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for " Memento Mori " . Other nominations were Jim Gross and Heather MacDougall each being nominated for Outstanding Editing for a Series – Single Camera Production for the episodes " Tempus Fugit " and " Terma " , respectively ; Outstanding Makeup for a Series for " Leonard Betts " ; Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series for " Tempus Fugit " ; and Mark Snow being nominated for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) for " Paper Hearts " . The series also won its second Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama , while Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny won in the television series drama acting categories .
= = DVD release = =
= Marmes Rockshelter =
The Marmes Rockshelter ( also known as ( 45 @-@ FR @-@ 50 ) ) is an archaeological site first excavated in 1962 , near the confluence of the Snake and Palouse Rivers , in Franklin County , southeastern Washington . This rockshelter is remarkable in the level of preservation of organic materials , the depth of stratified deposits , and the apparent age of the associated Native American human remains . The site was discovered on the property of Roland Marmes , and was the site of the oldest human remains in North America at that time . In 1966 , the site became , along with Chinook Point and the American and English Camps on San Juan Island , the first National Historic Landmarks listed in Washington . In 1969 , the site was submerged in water when a levee protecting it from waters rising behind the then newly constructed Lower Monumental Dam , which was 20 miles ( 32 km ) down the Snake River , failed to hold back water that leaked into the protected area through gravel under the soil , creating Lake Herbert G. West .
= = The excavation = =
The existence of the site was first brought to the attention of Professor Richard Daugherty in 1952 by a rancher named John McGregor . Excavations at the site were started by Daugherty and Roald Fryxell , a geologist , under the auspices of Washington State University ( WSU ) and the National Park Service in 1962 , and continued until 1964 . In 1965 , Fryxell returned to the site along with Professor Carl Gustafson and students from WSU , and had Roland Marmes dig a trench in front of the rockshelter with his bulldozer , which turned up human and elk bones . Radiocarbon dating indicated that the human remains were about 10 @,@ 000 years old . In 1968 , Fryxell returned , this time with several WSU professors ( including a visiting professor from Poland ) and members of the United States Geological Survey , and found more human and animal remains , along with bone tools . April 29 of that year , Washington Senator Warren Magnuson made a public announcement of the finds .
= = Inundation of the site = =
After a bill that would have provided funds to protect the site failed , then @-@ President Lyndon B. Johnson signed an Executive Order that authorized funding for the Army Corps of Engineers to build a levee around the site to protect it from the imminent flooding caused by construction of the Lower Monumental Dam . Late that year , Daugherty left the dig , leaving Fryxell to lead the project . Once the Lower Monumental Dam was closed in February 1969 , within three days , the site was completely underwater , due to the seepage of thick layers of gravel that had not been accounted for . However , as the site was being flooded , the excavation team laid down plastic sheeting topped with gravel in the hopes of being able to return to the dig in the future .
The location of the site is still known today , and has come under some threat of erosion from the wakes of motorized vehicles on the lake . The Army Corps of Engineers considers the site to be in stable condition with a " Satisfactory " threat rating since 2004 .
= = Findings at the site = =
The excavations at the site revealed evidence of human occupation from a period that lasted 8 @,@ 000 years , and that the area was home to humans as long ago as 11 @,@ 230 years ago . The people living at the site hunted game such as elk and deer using atlatls , and also hunted smaller mammals such as beavers , while they gathered mussels from the river . The excavation turned up graves , which included beads carved from shells and spear points . One grave , that of a child , held five matching knives made of stone . The excavation also turned up chalcedony and chert arrowheads . Those in the upper layers were made of agate , which is not found in the area . Stone tools were found as well , such as scrapers for use in tanning hides , and mortars and pestles . In layers dated to 7 @,@ 000 years ago , large amounts of shells belonging to a snail of the genus Olivella were found , which would have been imported from the West Coast of the United States , 200 miles ( 322 km ) away . The majority of the shells had holes drilled through them , indicating that they had adorned necklaces .
In addition , one of the five known Jefferson Peace Medals was found associated with the most recent human remains at the site , evidently having been given to a local Native American leader ( presumably of the Nez Perce ) during the Lewis and Clark Expedition . This medal has since been returned to the Nez Perce and reburied , as per Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act regulations .
Analyzing the pollen sequences at the site showed a steppe ecosystem immediately following the retreat of glaciers 13 @,@ 000 years ago , which gave way to a mixed forest of pine and spruce , which led into the current sagebrush prairie ecosystem .
= = Implications of the findings = =
Unlike many archaeological finds , the human remains at the site were able to be dated with environmental , geological , and archaeological methods . Human remains at the site are the oldest that have been found in Washington , and at the time were the oldest set of remains found in North America . Later radiocarbon work has confirmed the original dating of this site , indicating that these human remains , albeit very fragmentary , are still some of the oldest ever excavated in the New World . This finding was useful in confirming the early chronology of the region and confirming the antiquity of the styles of associated bone tools .
= Harris 's List of Covent Garden Ladies =
Harris 's List of Covent Garden Ladies , published from 1757 to 1795 , was an annual directory of prostitutes then working in Georgian London . A small , attractive pocketbook , it was printed and published in Covent Garden , and sold for two shillings and sixpence . A contemporary report of 1791 estimates its circulation at about 8 @,@ 000 copies annually .
Each edition contains entries describing the physical appearance and sexual specialities of about 120 – 190 prostitutes who worked in and around Covent Garden . Through their erotic prose , the lists ' entries review some of these women in lurid detail . While most compliment their subjects , some are critical of bad habits , and a few women are even treated as pariahs , perhaps having fallen out of favour with the lists ' authors , who are never revealed .
Samuel Derrick is the man normally credited for the design of Harris 's List , possibly having been inspired by the activities of a Covent Garden pimp , Jack Harris . A Grub Street hack , Derrick may have written the lists from 1757 until his death in 1769 ; thereafter , the annual 's authors are unknown . Throughout its print run it was published pseudonymously by H. Ranger , although from the late 1780s it was printed by three men : John and James Roach , and John Aitkin .
As the public 's opinion began to turn against London 's sex trade , and with reformers petitioning the authorities to take action , those involved in the release of Harris 's List were in 1795 fined and imprisoned . That year 's edition was the last to be published ; by then its content was cruder , lacking the originality of earlier editions . Modern writers tend to view Harris 's List as erotica ; in the words of one author , it was designed for " solitary sexual enjoyment " .
= = Description = =
= = = Introduction = = =
The earliest printed editions of Harris 's List of Covent Garden Ladies appeared after Christmas 1756 . Published by " H. Ranger " , the annual was advertised on the front pages of newspapers , and sold in Covent Garden and at booksellers ' stalls . Each edition comprises an attractive pocketbook , " beautifully packaged ... in the modish style of the twelves " . They usually contain no more than 150 pages of relatively thin paper , on which are printed the details of between 120 and 190 prostitutes then working in Covent Garden . Priced in 1788 at two shillings and sixpence , Harris 's List was affordable for the middle classes but expensive for a working class man .
It was not the first directory of prostitutes to be circulated in London . The Wandering Whore ran for five issues between 1660 and 1661 , in the early ( and newly liberal ) years of the Restoration . Allegedly an exposé of the capital 's sex trade and usually attributed to John Garfield , it lists streets in which prostitutes might have been found , and the locations of brothels in areas like Fleet Lane , Long Acre and Lincoln 's Inn Fields . The Wandering Whore incorporates dialogue between " Magdalena , a Crafty Whore , Julietta , an Exquisite Whore , Francion , a Lascivious Gallant , and Gusman , a Pimping Hector " , with the caveat that it was disseminated only so that law @-@ abiding folk might avoid such people . Another publication was A Catalogue of Jilts , Cracks & Prostitutes , Nightwalkers , Whores , She @-@ friends , Kind Women and other of the Linnen @-@ lifting Tribe , printed in 1691 . This catalogues the physical attributes of 21 women who could be found about St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Great Church during Bartholomew Fair , in Smithfield . Mary Holland was apparently " tall , graceful and comely , shy of her favours " , but could be mollified " at a cost of £ 20 " . Her sister Elizabeth was less expensive , being " indifferent to Money but a Supper and Two Guineas will tempt her " .
= = = Content = = =
Each edition of Harris 's List opens with a frontispiece showing a mildly erotic stock image opposite the title page , which , from the 1760s to 1780s , is followed by a lengthy commentary on prostitution . This preamble argues that the prostitute is of benefit to the public , able to relieve man 's natural inclination towards violence . It describes the customer as a patron supportive of a good cause : " be your purse strings never closed ; nor let the name of prostitute deter you from your pious resolve ! " Prostitutes were generally scorned by 18th @-@ century society , and the 1789 edition 's preface complains " Why should the victims of this natural propensity ... be hunted like outcasts from society , perpetually gripped by the hand of petty tyranny " , continuing : " Is not the minister of state who sacrifices his country 's honour to his private interest ... more guilty than her ? "
At a basic level , the entries in Harris 's List detail each woman 's age , her physical appearance ( including the size of her breasts ) , her sexual specialities , and sometimes a description of her genitals . Additional information such as how long she had been active as a prostitute , or if she sang , danced or conversed well , is also included . Addresses and prices , which range from five shillings to five pounds , are provided . The types of prostitute the lists present vary from " low @-@ born errant drabs " , to prominent courtesans like Kitty Fisher and Fanny Murray ; later editions contain only " genteel mannered prostitutes worthy of praise " . The charms of a Mrs Dodd , who lived at number six Hind Court in Fleet Street , were listed in 1788 as " reared on two pillars of monumental alabaster " , continuing : " the symmetry of its parts , its borders enriched with wavering tendrils , its ruby portals , and the tufted grove , that crowns the summit of the mount , all join to invite the guest to enter . " In the same edition , a similarly lurid description precedes the latter part of Miss Davenport 's entry , which concludes : " Her teeth are remarkably fine ; she is tall , and so well proportioned ( when you examine her whole naked figure , which she will permit you to do , if you perform the Cytherean Rites like an able priest ) that she might be taken for a fourth Grace , or a breathing animated Venus de Medicis ... she has a keeper ( a Mr. Hannah ) both kind and liberal ; notwithstanding which , she has no objection to two supernumerary guineas . " Miss Clicamp , of number two York Street near Middlesex Hospital , is described as " one of the finest , fattest figures as fully finished for fun and frolick as fertile fancy ever formed ... fortunate for the true lovers of fat , should fate throw them into the possession of such full grown beauties . " More characteristic of Harris 's List though , is the 1764 entry for Miss Wilmot , which tells of an amorous encounter with King George III 's brother , the Duke of York :
He gazed on her a while with eyes of transport and fondness , and gave her a world of kisses ; at the close of which , in a pretended struggle , she contrived matters so artfully , that the bed @-@ cloaths having fallen off , her naked beauties lay exposed at full length . The snowy orbs on her breast , by their frequent rising and failing , beat Cupid 's alarm @-@ drum to storm instantly , in case an immediate surrender should be refused . The coral @-@ lipped mouth of love seemed with kind movements to invite , nay , to provoke an attack ; while her sighs , and eyes half @-@ closed , denoted that no farther resistance was intended . What followed , may be better imagined than described ; but if we may credit Miss W @-@ lm @-@ t 's account , she never experienced a more extensive protrusion in any amorous conflict either before or since .
The Duke of York was only one of many famous men to have been mentioned in the lists ; others included James Boswell , Ernest Augustus I of Hanover , the clergyman William Dodd , Charles James Fox , George IV , William Hickey , Francis Needham , 1st Earl of Kilmorey , Robert Walpole and many others .
= = = Commentary = = =
The women 's route into the sex trade , as described by the lists , is usually ascribed to youthful innocence , with tales of young girls leaving their homes for the promises of men , only to be abandoned once in London . Some entries mention rape , euphemistically described as women being " seduced against their will " . Lenora Norton was apparently " seduced " in such fashion , her entry elucidating on her experience , which occurred while she was still a child . The " old urban legend " of young girls being apprehended from the crowd by devious bawds is illustrated by William Hogarth 's A Harlot 's Progress , but although in
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aged by Mariner 10 was mapped during these fly @-@ bys . The probe successfully entered an elliptical orbit around the planet on March 18 , 2011 . The first orbital image of Mercury was obtained on March 29 , 2011 . The probe finished a one @-@ year mapping mission , and then entered a one @-@ year extended mission into 2013 . In addition to continued observations and mapping of Mercury , MESSENGER observed the 2012 solar maximum .
The mission was designed to clear up six key issues : Mercury 's high density , its geological history , the nature of its magnetic field , the structure of its core , whether it has ice at its poles , and where its tenuous atmosphere comes from . To this end , the probe carried imaging devices that gathered much @-@ higher @-@ resolution images of much more of Mercury than Mariner 10 , assorted spectrometers to determine abundances of elements in the crust , and magnetometers and devices to measure velocities of charged particles . Measurements of changes in the probe 's orbital velocity were expected to be used to infer details of the planet 's interior structure . MESSENGER 's final maneuver was on April 24 , 2015 , and it crashed into Mercury 's surface on April 30 , 2015 . The spacecraft 's impact with Mercury occurred near 3 : 26 PM EDT on April 30 , 2015 , leaving a crater estimated to be 16 m ( 52 ft ) in diameter .
= = = = BepiColombo = = = =
The European Space Agency is planning a joint mission with Japan called BepiColombo , which will orbit Mercury with two probes : one to map the planet and the other to study its magnetosphere . Once launched in 2018 , BepiColombo is expected to reach Mercury in 2024 . It will release a magnetometer probe into an elliptical orbit , then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit . Both probes will operate for one terrestrial year . The mapper probe will carry an array of spectrometers similar to those on MESSENGER , and will study the planet at many different wavelengths including infrared , ultraviolet , X @-@ ray and gamma ray .
= = Comparison = =
= New York State Route 167 =
New York State Route 167 ( NY 167 ) is a north – south state highway in the Mohawk Valley region of New York in the United States . It extends for 26 @.@ 17 miles ( 42 @.@ 12 km ) from an intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in the Otsego County village of Richfield Springs to a junction with NY 29 in the Herkimer County village of Dolgeville . Midway between the two endpoints , NY 167 passes through the city of Little Falls , where it meets NY 5 and indirectly connects to the New York State Thruway by way of NY 169 . Most of NY 167 is a two @-@ lane rural highway ; however , in Little Falls , NY 167 ranges in width from two to four lanes as it serves commercial and industrial sections of the city .
The piece of NY 167 between Richfield Springs and Paines Hollow , a small hamlet southwest of Little Falls , was originally part of an unsigned legislative route in the early 20th century . Farther north , the segment between Little Falls and Dolgeville was added to the legislative route system in 1910 . In 1924 , the Richfield Springs – Paines Hollow route became part of NY 28 ; however , that route was altered as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to follow a new alignment to the west . NY 28 's former routing between Richfield Springs and Paines Hollow became part of the new NY 167 , which continued north through Little Falls to Dolgeville as it does today .
= = Route description = =
= = = Richfield Springs to Little Falls = = =
NY 167 begins at an intersection with US 20 ( West Main Street ) near the northern tip of Canadarago Lake in the village of Richfield Springs . The route proceeds north as a two @-@ lane highway along Church Street , passing through the village 's residential northern portion before leaving Richfield Springs and crossing the Otsego – Herkimer county line just a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from the junction with US 20 . The residential surroundings follow NY 167 into the town of Warren ; however , they give way to more open , undeveloped areas as the route intersects Millstone Road ( County Route 78 or CR 78 , an unsigned number ) about a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from the county line . From Millstone Road , the route winds northeast through Warren , traveling through increasingly rural areas as it serves the hamlet of Cullen and intersects Cullen and Hogsback roads ( CR 183 ) in the center of the small community .
Past Cullen , NY 167 makes a gradual bend to the northeast , passing by a series of farms on its way to the hamlet of Jordanville . Here , the highway intersects with Jordanville Road ( CR 18 ) , an east – west two @-@ lane road that NY 167 briefly follows as it runs through the community . A short distance east of Jordanville , NY 167 splits from Jordanville Road to head northeast as a two @-@ lane rural road . It intersects with country roads , such as Rock Hill Road ( CR 135 ) and Robinson Road ( CR 46 ) For the next 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , the route meanders across Warren , following an erratic northeasterly course across largely undeveloped areas to reach the rural hamlet of Paines Hollow , located at the junction of NY 167 and NY 168 .
After leaving Paines Hollow , NY 167 continues northeast into the town of Little Falls . The route remains rural through the town , intersecting with Johnny Cake and Oregon roads ( CR 136 and CR 120 , respectively ) as it winds to the northeast . Just under 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from Paines Hollow , the highway briefly curves to the southeast ahead of a hairpin turn that leads northward to a junction with Newville Road ( CR 45 ) .
= = = Little Falls to Dolgeville = = =
NY 167 heads generally northward through Little Falls , veering to the east and west at various points as it traverses the town . About 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of the city of Little Falls , the highway passes under the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) with no connection to the road . After the Thruway overpass , NY 167 heads into a residential area surrounding its junction with NY 5S . The two routes briefly overlap before NY 167 turns north into a less populated , mostly wooded area along the southern bank of the Mohawk River ( here part of the Erie Canal ) . NY 167 follows the river into an industrial section of the city of Little Falls , where it becomes Overhead Street and soon crosses the Mohawk via the Overhead Street Bridge .
North of the river , the highway passes over NY 5 before intersecting Albany Street just west of downtown Little Falls . Albany Street is the eastbound half of a one @-@ way couplet with nearby Main Street ; as a result , the two directions of NY 167 split to follow different alignments through western Little Falls . From Overhead Street , northbound NY 167 turns east to follow Albany Street for two blocks to Little Falls ' commercial center , where it intersects with southbound NY 169 at South Ann Street . NY 169 turns east here to follow Albany Street while NY 167 heads south along the two @-@ way South Ann Street for one block to reach NY 5 , a four @-@ lane divided highway on the north bank of the Mohawk River . At this point , NY 167 northbound reconnects to the southbound route , which follows NY 5 west from South Ann Street to NY 5 's junction with the west end of Albany Street .
East of South Ann Street , both directions of NY 167 overlap with NY 5 , following the four @-@ lane road along the southern edge of downtown to a junction with East Main Street on the city 's east side . NY 167 reconnects with NY 169 here , which leaves East Main Street to briefly follow NY 5 and NY 167 along the riverside arterial . The resulting overlap between NY 167 and NY 169 is a wrong @-@ way concurrency , with NY 169 southbound overlapping NY 167 northbound and vice versa . NY 169 splits from the highway after just one block to proceed south across the Mohawk River while NY 5 and NY 167 remain concurrent to the eastern edge of the city . Here , NY 167 forks from NY 5 , running east as a two @-@ lane street through the undeveloped eastern fringe of Little Falls . The highway rises in elevation as it heads out of the Mohawk River valley and passes into the adjacent town of Manheim .
Now known as Dolgeville Road , NY 167 heads northeastward through dense forests to the hamlet of Manheim Center , a small residential community 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Little Falls . Here , the route connects to Dockey Road ( CR 42 ) . After leaving Manheim Center , the route becomes rural again , heading northward for several miles past farms , power lines , and the terminus of Snells Bush Road ( CR 23 ) . North of Snells Bush Road , NY 167 trends to the northeast , loosely paralleling East Canada Creek as it heads toward the village of Dolgeville as South Main Street . The rural areas along the route gradually give way to homes , which in turn lead to Dolgeville 's central business district . In the center of Dolgeville , NY 167 runs alongside the creek for several blocks before ending at an intersection with NY 29 ( State Street ) .
= = History = =
Two sections of what is now NY 167 were included as part of legislative routes when the New York State Legislature created a statewide legislative route system in 1908 . From Richfield Springs to Paines Hollow , it was designated as part of Route 5 , which continued southeast to Kingston via Oneonta and northwest to Mohawk . The section of what is now NY 167 north of Little Falls became part of Route 26 , which ran from Little Falls to Remsen via Dolgeville . In 1910 , Route 26 was realigned to follow a more direct routing between Little Falls and Remsen via Middleville and Poland . The former alignment of Route 26 between Little Falls and Dolgeville went unnumbered until March 1 , 1921 , when it became part of Route 37 , which was extended southwestward from Dolgeville to Little Falls .
The alignment of NY 167 follows the Paine 's Hollow Road , constructed between Little Falls and Paines Hollow . This new road would shorten time between the two communities through Herkimer County . The Paine 's Hollow Road opened on October 4 , 1921 , opening a new road through the dairy country of the Mohawk Valley . The new road had branch alignments toward Oneonta , Cooperstown and Richfield Springs . At 1 p.m. ( 1800 UTC ) that day , a convoy of vehicles drove the route south from Little Falls , with a band on a large truck and a coach with six horses . When the group reached Paines Hollow , a ceremony was held , led by the president of the Little Falls Chamber of Commerce and H.P. Snyder , the local legislator for Herkimer County . The new section between Paines Hollow and Jordanville cost $ 123 @,@ 136 @.@ 25 ( 1921 USD ) and was designated as State Highway 1363 .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , most of legislative Route 5 north of Oneonta — including the section between Richfield Springs and Mohawk — became part of NY 28 , which originally began in Oneonta and headed north through Richfield Springs and Mohawk before ending in Utica . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the section of NY 28 between Richfield Springs and Mohawk was moved onto a new highway to the west that went directly between the two locations . The portion of its former routing between Richfield Springs and Paines Hollow became part of the new NY 167 , which continued north from Paines Hollow to Dolgeville via Little Falls and old legislative Route 37 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Bale Out =
" Bale Out : RevoLucian 's Christian Bale Remix ! " is a satirical dance remix by American composer Lucian Piane , also known as RevoLucian , released on February 2 , 2009 , to YouTube and Myspace . The piece parodies Christian Bale by utilizing audio from a July 2008 rant made by the actor on the set of Terminator Salvation . Various other elements are used in the remix , including pulsating dance track beats and clips of Barbra Streisand from a 2006 exchange with a supporter of then @-@ President George W. Bush , creating the impression of Streisand arguing with Bale .
The day after its release , the YouTube page for the song had been viewed over 200 @,@ 000 times , and over a million times by February 5 , 2009 . The Associated Press called it a " hypnotic dance track " , and United Press International noted it was " catchy " , characterizing it as a " YouTube sensation " . Gil Kaufman of MTV.com described the piece as " a techno @-@ ripping , demonic dance party " . Time magazine 's website called the track " hilarious " , and Nine News characterized it as a " raging online success " . The director of Terminator Salvation McG liked the remix and put a copy of it on his iPod , and Bale said he had heard the remix and thought " they did a good job " .
= = Background = =
In July 2008 , Christian Bale was filming a scene in New Mexico for the film Terminator Salvation with actress Bryce Dallas Howard . The film 's director of photography , Shane Hurlbut , walked into Bale 's line of sight , and the actor proceeded to yell obscenities at Hurlbut . Bale said he would quit the film if Hurlbut repeated the error and was not subsequently fired . Hurlbut responded calmly and apologized several times to Bale , and continued shooting for seven hours after the incident .
The website TMZ.com reported the occurrence soon after it happened , and posted an audio recording on February 2 , 2009 . The event did not become widely publicized until after TMZ.com had posted the audio of Bale 's outburst . TMZ.com reported that film executives for Terminator Salvation sent a copy of the audio recording to the film 's insurance company , in case Bale refused to continue filming .
Four days after the audio recording was posted to the Internet , Bale appeared as a guest on Los Angeles radio station KROQ @-@ FM , where he was asked about the altercation . He said he " acted like a punk " , and that he and Hurlbut talked after the conflict and " resolved this completely " . Bale acknowledged the two worked together for several hours after the episode , and " at least a month after that " , and noted , " I 've seen a rough cut of the movie and he has done a wonderful job . It looks fantastic . "
= = Composition = =
Prior to the release of Bale Out , Lucian Piane was known for a variety of satirical remixes , including tracks featuring Alaska Governor Sarah Palin , political commentator Bill O 'Reilly during an on @-@ camera outburst in the 1980s , and Andrew Meyer , who received national media attention when he was tasered by police during a speech given by U.S. Senator John Kerry at the University of Florida .
The Associated Press reported that Piane was " drawn to the musicality of Bale 's rage @-@ filled voice " . Piane spent three hours working on the remix . " When I heard Christian Bale flip out I had to remix the track . ... It 's good to hear that clubs have already started playing it as it is very funny , " said Piane . In an interview with LA Weekly , Piane commented that he wants his remix remembered , instead of Bale 's outburst : " We 're all people in this world . So I figured , [ instead of ] remembering that one time Christian Bale went crazy on set , maybe people will remember the remix . "
The " Bale Out " mashup incorporates audio clips of Bale lashing out , and Hurlbut responding " I was looking at the lights . " The chorus includes a clip of Bale saying " it 's fucking distracting " , and " What don 't you fuckin ' understand ? " . The sound collage includes clips of Barbra Streisand from a 2006 exchange with a supporter of former @-@ President George W. Bush , making it sound as though Streisand is arguing with Bale . Piane told the Associated Press : " I don 't know if Christian Bale is enjoying it , but I hope he does . I think I 've taken something that maybe made him look really bad and turned it into something that all these people are enjoying . "
= = Release = =
Piane uploaded the piece to MySpace and YouTube on February 2 , 2009 , hours after the original clip of Bale appeared on the internet . Piane made an MP3 file of " Bale Out " available as a free download from his MySpace page . " Bale Out " had been viewed over 200 @,@ 000 times one day after it was uploaded to YouTube , and within two days it had received 700 @,@ 000 hits . Three days after its posting , " Bale Out " had been viewed over one million times on YouTube , and over 1 @.@ 5 million times after one week .
In a report on the remix for The Situation Room on CNN , correspondent Brooke Anderson noted " ... by the looks of this musical parody already posted on YouTube , this infamous rant will be talked about – for a long time to come . " Anderson Cooper of Anderson Cooper 360 ° described the RevoLucian remix as " the ballistic Bale boogie " . A piece in Vue Weekly posed the question " what does it all mean in the end when a remixed diatribe by a Hollywood star will get way more hits in a day than any film @-@ criticism site in a year ? "
= = Reception = =
LA Weekly reported that McG , the director of Terminator Salvation , had a copy of " Bale Out " on his iPod . " And I have to admit , that dance remix [ on YouTube ] is pretty hot , " said McG in an interview with Fast Company . In an interview with E ! : Entertainment Television to discuss Terminator : Salvation , Christian Bale said he had heard the remix and commented : " It was a good remix ; they did a good job . " Bale said he had received a remix of his outburst from a friend : " They did a bloody good job ! I 've gotta say , what a great impulse , you know ? To take something ugly like that and make it into a dance ? That 's a wonderful thing . "
The Associated Press described the piece as a " hypnotic dance track " , " beat @-@ driven " , and a " pulsating tune " . The AP noted " Bale has become an unwitting music sensation because of the incident . " A Los Angeles Times blog described " Bale Out " as " a genius piece of mixing by L.A. ' s very own RevoLucian " , and called the piece a " brilliant " club remix . MTV.com called it " a techno @-@ ripping , demonic dance party in which Bale 's berating is repeated ad nauseam under pictures of the actor and random f @-@ bomb interjections from Barbra Streisand " . United Press International characterized the remix as a " YouTube sensation " , calling it " catchy " .
LA Weekly described the remix as " a mash @-@ up of Bale 's best quotes set to a synth @-@ heavy beat " , and noted " ' Bale Out ' turned ' What don 't you fuckin ' understand ? ' into one of the year 's most addictive choruses and spun a little art out of the debacle . " The Irish Independent called the piece a " painstakingly constructed dance track " , and described the chorus as " oddly catchy " . The Globe and Mail commented that the remix has " an imperilling beat , a genius comedic flair and more sheer scariness than American Psycho and Terminator combined " . The Wall Street Journal wrote that Piane combined Bale 's language with " a driving house music track " .
TIME magazine 's website described the piece as " a hilarious YouTube musical remix " . Nine News called RevoLucian 's piece a " cheeky remix " and a " raging online success " . The Daily Telegraph in London highlighted the RevoLucian piece among the " Best of the mash @-@ ups and spoofs " of the Bale outburst , noting he arranged the audio clips from Bale into a " potential dancefloor success " . Dose magazine commented " We 've been throwing light @-@ switch raves to the RevoLucian mix all week , " and BlackBook Magazine described it as " a brilliant club mix of Bale 's meltdown that 's bound to scream in your head all day " . The A.V. Club called the piece " a Hater @-@ worthy techno remix " , and The Celebrity Cafe commented " Revolucian 's remix must have had techno artists everywhere sweating to come up with something half as good , and likely inspired a few outlandish requests by club goers . "
North Carolina State University doctoral student Matt Morain commented on the remixes spawned by Bale 's rant , in an April 2009 paper on Internet memes . Morain noted that remixes of Bale 's rant received more hits than the rant itself , " What is more surprising than the nearly two million views is that a number of remixes appeared , in response to the clip , which have substantially higher view @-@ counts than the original . In this process of remixing we can clearly see the elements of fantasy theme and rhetorical transmission . " Perez Hilton commented , " Once again , Lucian Piane has outdone himself ! You must listen to this . " Hilton posted a video to his blog of himself dancing to Piane 's remix .
On November 17 , 2009 , Piane 's remix received a nomination for " Best Remix of the Year " by the website Urlesque . The website 's staff noted the Piane remix " spread like wildfire " , and became an Internet phenomenon . Piane 's remix was one of five nominations ; it lost to the " Slap Chop Rap " parodying Vince Offer . " Bale Out " was a finalist in the category of " Latest Favorite Viral Video " , in the " 2009 Best of Clicker Awards " ; the winner was " David After Dentist " . " Bale Out " was nominated for a Webby Award in 2010 , in the category of " Best Video Remixes / Mashups " . The 2010 winner in the category for the Webby was " Auto @-@ Tune the News " .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Charles Heaphy =
Charles Heaphy VC ( 1820 – 3 August 1881 ) was an English @-@ born New Zealand explorer and recipient of the Victoria Cross ( VC ) , the highest military award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces . He was the first soldier of the New Zealand armed forces to be awarded the VC . He was also a noted artist and executed several works of early colonial life in New Zealand .
Born in England , Heaphy joined the New Zealand Company in 1839 . He arrived in New Zealand later that year and was commissioned to create art for advertising the country to potential English migrants . Much of the next two and half years was spent travelling and executing paintings of landscapes and life around the centre of the country . When his contract with the company ended in 1842 , he lived in Nelson for several years and explored large parts of the West Coast . He later moved north to Auckland to take up employment as a surveyor .
During the Invasion of the Waikato , his militia unit was mobilised and it was his conduct at Paterangi , where he rescued British soldiers under fire , that saw him awarded the VC . He was the first recipient of the VC to be a non @-@ regular soldier . After his military service ended , Heaphy served a term as Member of Parliament for Parnell . From 1870 to 1881 , he held a variety of civil service positions but his health declined and he moved to Queensland , in Australia , seeking a better climate in which to recover . He died a few months after his arrival .
= = Early life = =
Charles Heaphy was born sometime in 1820 in London , England . He was the youngest child of Thomas Heaphy , who was a professional painter and three of his siblings also became noted painters . His grandfather John Gerrard Heaphy was a merchant from Ireland . The family lived in St John 's Wood in north @-@ west London and enjoyed a comfortable , middle @-@ class existence although his mother died sometime during his early childhood . Thomas earned painting commissions from high society and in 1812 accompanied Arthur Wellesley , who was later to become the Duke of Wellington , as staff artist during the Peninsular War . Thomas died in 1835 and left the entire estate to his second wife , who he had married in 1833 . Charles , who had obtained work as a draughtsman at the London & Birmingham Railway Company , moved out of the family home soon after . As a child , Charles was taught to paint by his father and in December 1837 , sponsored by a family friend , he entered the Royal Academy school of painting . He was the only child of the Heaphy family to receive this level of education .
In May 1839 , after 18 months at the Royal Academy , Heaphy joined the New Zealand Company as a draughtsman . The company was established by Edward Wakefield as a private venture , to organise colonies in New Zealand and sought well @-@ educated men as staff for planning and surveying new settlements in the country . Heaphy sailed with William Wakefield , Edward 's brother , aboard the Tory on an expedition to purchase land suitable for settlement . In late 1839 , the Tory arrived in what became known as Wellington .
= = Service with the New Zealand Company = =
Heaphy 's contract with the company was for three years , primarily to create art that could be used as advertising for the company . In doing so he travelled extensively around the country and occasionally participated in overland treks , living out of a tent or staying with local Māori . He also sailed around parts of the country aboard the Tory and learned surveying from its captain . Another employee of the company travelling on the Tory was Ernst Dieffenbach , who taught Heaphy basic geology .
Heaphy painted a variety of subjects including landscapes , flora and fauna and notable Māori , including the chieftain Te Rauparaha . The success of the company depended on attracting emigrants to New Zealand so his work was almost always intended to present the country and its inhabitants in its best light . Heaphy was at times exposed to some danger ; on an expedition to the Chatham Islands , his party intervened in a skirmish between two warring tribes and he was wounded in the leg . It was unlikely to have been a serious wound for a few weeks later , he went on a trek back in New Zealand to the Taranaki Region , where he produced some of his more notable landscapes .
From October 1840 , Heaphy was based in Wellington and with a friend built a small cottage , that allowed him to execute several views of Wellington Harbour , which was much used in advertising for the New Zealand Company . A few months later , in early 1841 , he joined Arthur Wakefield on the expedition that led to the founding of Nelson . Heaphy was among several employees of the New Zealand Company to scout the area around Tasman Bay , before the location for Nelson was decided and executed several paintings highlighting the quality of the land intended for settlement . By late 1841 , Heaphy 's services as an artist were no longer required , given the number of works that he had produced and Wakefield decided to send him to London , to make a report to the company directors . He took nearly six months to reach London , by which time his three @-@ year contract had expired . The directors were impressed with his report and it was published as a book entitled Narrative of a Residence in Various Parts of New Zealand .
= = Life in Nelson = =
Although no longer employed by the New Zealand Company , Heaphy , emboldened by the success of his report and the public reception to his paintings , sought further opportunities for similar work . From London , he wrote to the company secretary seeking support for exploration of the area inland of Nelson . The response was unenthusiastic , the company was concentrating on developing its settlements , rather than undertaking in further exploration of the country . Despite this , Heaphy returned to New Zealand and arrived in Nelson on 22 December 1842 .
There was little in way of work opportunities for Heaphy in Nelson and he based himself in Motueka . Here he farmed land with a friend , Frederick Moore and this took much of what little funds he had . His farming venture was hard work and not particularly successful . By late 1843 , the New Zealand Company was in need of good pastoral land around Nelson . It had clashed with Māori in the Wairau Affray in the Wairau Valley , to the south @-@ east of Nelson and several company employees , including Arthur Wakefield , were killed . The company needed to scout the area to the south @-@ west and Heaphy finally got the chance to explore .
Wakefield 's replacement as resident agent in Nelson for the New Zealand Company , William Fox , was a keen advocate of expansion for settlement in the area around Nelson . Fox authorised Heaphy and a surveyor to scout south @-@ west to the Buller River in November 1843 . In December 1843 , Heaphy and two Māori trekked to what is now known as Golden Bay , and returned to Motueka via the coast , a journey which he regarded as the most difficult he had undertaken . Both expeditions failed to locate suitable land for settlement as did an expedition back to the Buller River in March 1845 . Heaphy was reasonably well compensated for his exploration efforts and for additional funds , he undertook art commissions for Nelson 's more wealthy residents .
In February 1846 , Heaphy , accompanied by Fox and Thomas Brunner , another employee of the New Zealand Company , as well as a Māori named Kehu , undertook another expedition to the south @-@ west . Difficult terrain faced them ; high mountain ranges topped with snow and ice , steep bush , numerous rivers and gorges . Food sources included roots and berries ; birds could be snared and eels caught from streams . Along the coast , shellfish and gull eggs added to the diet . The party , each carrying a load of 34 kilograms ( 75 lb ) , trekked to the Buller River and walked its banks as far as the Maruia River . Here , believing themselves to be only 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) from the coast , dwindling provisions prevented them proceeding to the mouth of the Buller River . Guided by Kehu , the party traversed the Hope Saddle on their way back to Nelson , which they reached on 1 March .
Heaphy and Brunner were keen for further exploration and with Kehu , left Nelson on 17 March 1846 , to scout along the West Coast to the mouth of the Buller . The expedition traced the western coast of South Island as far south as the Arahura River . Their journey began from Golden Bay and they made their way to West Wanganui where Etau , a local Māori , was hired as a porter . The local chief barred their journey south but Heaphy and Brunner mollified him with some tobacco . They continued along the coast , climbing sometimes steep cliffs and fording rivers as they went and their movements were held up at times , due to rain and high tides . At night , they sheltered in small caves , augmented with a screen of Nikau palm leaves . They crossed the Karamea River on 20 April and reached the Buller River ten days later . This had to be crossed using an old canoe that was repaired by Kehu and Etau and after crossing , they stayed at the local pā ( village ) . In early May , they sighted the Southern Alps and at the Arahura River ( a tributary of the Grey River ) , the southernmost point of the expedition , they were hosted by the local Ngāi Tahu tribe at Taramakau Pā . Poor weather plagued their return along the coast but they reached Nelson on 18 August . The harsh conditions that Heaphy had experienced during his travels , left him disillusioned with the potential prospects for settlements , along the West Coast region .
Life in Nelson remained difficult for Heaphy , who had by now lost his appetite for exploration . He eked out a living taking occasional jobs for the next six months . For much of 1847 , he undertook survey work around Tasman Bay and later in that year was the representative of the New Zealand Company , when the government investigated the amount of land set aside by the company for the local Māori . Work had dried up by early 1848 and when he was offered employment with the Auckland Survey Office in April 1848 , he accepted .
= = Life in Auckland = =
Moving north to Auckland , Heaphy 's new role as the chief draughtsman for the Auckland Survey Office , kept him occupied with the preparation of maps and plans . After a few years , he began to spend a greater amount of time in the field , where he carried out survey work . As he had done when living in Nelson , he supplemented his income with commissioned artworks . He began to build on his geological knowledge , taking a particular interest in vulcanology and wrote an article on Auckland 's volcanoes for a geological journal in England . He completed several paintings of volcanoes as well as thermal attractions in the Bay of Plenty including the famous Pink and White Terraces . Hoping to raise his profile , he sent many of his works to London and some remain on display at the offices of the Geological Society .
When he was 30 , Heaphy met and began courting Kate Churton , the 21 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a reverend . The couple were married on 30 October 1851 , at St Paul 's Church in Auckland . A year later , he was appointed " Commissioner of Gold Fields " at Coromandel , following the recent discovery of gold . His role required him to supervise claims made by miners and negotiate land sales with local Māori . The gold rush in Coromandel soon petered out and he returned to his work at the Auckland Survey Office by mid @-@ 1853 .
In November 1853 , Sir George Grey ended his first term as Governor of New Zealand and sailed to the islands around New Caledonia , to indulge his interest in languages . He also wanted to investigate French claims on the islands . Heaphy accompanied him as his private secretary and took the opportunity to execute artworks of the islands he visited and their inhabitants . He gave some of his works to Grey , who took them back to England in December 1853 and donated them to the British Museum .
Heaphy and his wife moved north of Auckland to what is now known as Warkworth in early 1854 , following his appointment as district surveyor for the Mahurangi Peninsula , which was being opened for settlement . For two years , Heaphy surveyed the plots of land that were to be sold to people moving to the area . In 1856 he became Auckland 's provincial surveyor following the retirement of his predecessor . He moved back to Auckland and took up residence in Parnell . Surveying kept him busy for the next few years but in early 1859 , he accompanied Ferdinand von Hochstetter , who had been invited by the government to make a report on a coalfield discovered south of Auckland . The two became friendly and Hochstetter was impressed with Heaphy 's bush skills , although privately did not accord him much respect for his scientific knowledge . When Hochstetter left for Europe later in the year , he took with him many examples of Heaphy 's artwork . The two later fell out , when Heaphy had an article published in a geological journal . Hochstetter felt usurped by someone he considered an inferior scholar and publicly questioned Heaphy 's credentials . He also made allegations that Heaphy had plagiarised portions of his work on the coalfields . Heaphy mounted a spirited defence and generally had the sympathy of the public . The dispute did not stop Hochstetter from using Heaphy 's artwork in a book he published on New Zealand 's geology .
= = Military career = =
Soon after returning to Auckland in 1856 , Heaphy joined a militia unit , the Auckland Rifle Volunteers , with the rank of private . In 1863 , his unit was mobilised and Heaphy commissioned as an officer . Later that year he was appointed captain of the Parnell Company . During the Invasion of the Waikato ( a campaign of the New Zealand Wars ) , he was sent to survey the military road being constructed into the Waikato as well as charting the river ways , as pilot of the gunboat Pioneer . He was present at the Battle of Rangiriri and later made a sketch of the action , which unusually for him , included representations of British casualties . He was later attached to the staff of Lieutenant Colonel Henry Havelock as the British advanced deeper into the Waikato .
The Waikato Māori had withdrawn to fortified positions at Pikopiko and Paterangi by early 1864 . While their positions were under siege , war parties would mount raids on small groups of British soldiers . On 11 February , soldiers of the 40th Regiment of Foot were bathing in the Mangapiko Stream near Paterangi and were ambushed by a raiding party . Heaphy , commanding some men of the 50th Regiment of Foot , came to the aid of the defenders and moved to cut off the Māori line of retreat . He then overcame the Māori reserve , before leading his men to the ambush site , to assist the British soldiers . Despite being outnumbered , the British repulsed the Māori and began to pursue them into the bush . A soldier was wounded and Heaphy and three others went to his aid but Heaphy and one of the others were wounded and a third was killed . Unable to extricate themselves , Heaphy and the remaining fit soldier provided cover to prevent the wounded men from being axed by the Māori . They were eventually relieved by reinforcements but the two wounded men that Heaphy and the soldier were trying to protect , died of their wounds . Despite injuries to his arm , hip and ribs , Heaphy remained in the field for much of the remainder of the day , until the ambushed party was relieved . Following the action at Paterangi , Heaphy was promoted to major ; a month later , with the end of the war in the Waikato , he ceased active duty and returned to civilian life .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
In late 1864 , Major General Thomas Galloway , the commander of the New Zealand colonial forces , recommended Heaphy for the Victoria Cross ( VC ) for his actions at Peterangi . The recommendation was supported by Sir George Grey ( serving a second term as the Governor of New Zealand ) , despite knowing that Heaphy and another man recommended for the VC , for an action earlier in the campaign , was not in the British Army or Royal Navy . At the time , only personnel from the regular British military could be awarded the VC and thus Heaphy , as a militiaman , was not eligible . Grey argued that as Heaphy was under the effective command of British officers he should be made an exception . In London , the authorities disagreed and the recommendation was turned down . Heaphy refused to accept this and began to agitate , with support from Grey , Havelock , and General Duncan Cameron , commander of British forces in New Zealand , with the British government . He was eventually successful and on 8 February 1867 , Queen Victoria made a declaration that the local forces of New Zealand would be eligible for the VC . That day , the award of a VC to Heaphy , the first to a New Zealander and also to a non @-@ regular soldier , was gazetted . The citation read :
For his gallant conduct at the skirmish on the banks of the Mangapiko River , in New Zealand , on the 11th of February , 1864 , in assisting a wounded soldier of the 40th Regiment , who had fallen into a hollow among the thickest of the concealed Maories . Whilst doing so , he became the target for a volley at a few feet distant . Five balls pierced his clothes and cap , and he was wounded in three places . Although hurt , he continued to aid the wounded until the end of the day . Major Heaphy was at the time in charge of a party of soldiers of the 40th and 50th Regiments , under the orders of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Sir Henry Marshman Havelock , Bart. , V.C. , G.C.B , D.L. the Senior Officer on the spot , who had moved rapidly down to the place where the troops were hotly engaged and pressed .
Heaphy was presented with his VC at a parade at Albert Barracks in Auckland on 11 May 1867 . The medal is now on display at the Auckland War Memorial Museum .
= = Later life = =
After the cessation of hostilities , Heaphy was contracted as the " Chief Surveyor to the General Government of New Zealand " and surveyed much of the land seized from the Waikato Māori by the British , which included that on which the towns of Hamilton and Cambridge were established . In Hamilton , Heaphy Terrace , a thoroughfare in the suburb of Claudelands , is named after him . His contract ended in early 1866 and he was reinstated to his pre @-@ war position as Auckland 's provincial surveyor .
In April 1867 , Frederick Whitaker resigned his posts as Superintendent of the Auckland Province and Member of Parliament for the Parnell electorate in Auckland . Whitaker 's resignation became known soon after Heaphy 's award of the VC was announced and Heaphy declared his candidacy for the vacant seat . The publicity around his award of the VC helped raise his profile and when the nomination meeting for the 1867 by @-@ election was held at the Parnell Hall on 6 June , he was returned unopposed as the electorate 's representative in the New Zealand Parliament . Although he was a hard working representative for the people of the Parnell electorate , Heaphy 's time in parliament was undistinguished . A parliamentary colleague was William Fox , an old acquaintance from Heaphy 's days in Nelson . When Fox became Premier of New Zealand in June 1869 , Heaphy was a supporter . Offered the position of " Commissioner of Native Reserves " by the Fox administration , he resigned from parliament on 13 April 1870 .
As Commissioner , Heaphy 's role was to administer native reserves set aside by the government and to determine areas of land that could be opened to migrants . His work took him up and down the country , inspecting land and negotiating with Māori landowners , a process he did not always enjoy . He still advocated for aggrieved Māori , whose land had been stolen by colonials . An added stress in Heaphy 's first year as Commissioner , was an enquiry into his conduct during the period he was " Chief Surveyor to the General Government of New Zealand " and working in the Waikato . Allegations had been raised that he took bribes , for illegally adjusting land boundaries . The enquiry cleared Heaphy of corruption although he was criticised for taking payments from young trainee surveyors , in return for work . In 1872 , he and his wife moved to Wellington , which was more centrally located and thus convenient for his work , which now included an appointment as ' Trust Commissioner for the Wellington District ' , dealing with land fraud .
By 1875 , Heaphy , beginning to suffer from rheumatism , had reduced the amount of time he spent in the field for his work on native reserves and it ended altogether in 1880 . In the interim , he picked up more civil service work ; he became a justice of the peace and presided over cases of petty crime brought to the Resident Magistrates Court in Wellington . In April 1878 he was appointed " Government Insurance Commissioner " and later that year became a judge of the Native Land Court .
= = Death and legacy = =
By May 1881 , Heaphy 's health was in severe decline , still affected by his rheumatism , he caught tuberculosis . He resigned from all his civil service positions the following month and with his wife , moved to Brisbane , in Queensland , Australia . They hoped the warmer climate would help with Heaphy 's health but Heaphy died on 3 August 1881 . Survived by his wife ( the couple had no children ) , he was buried at Toowong Cemetery , formerly the Brisbane General Cemetery . His grave , located in Portion 1 of the cemetery , approximately 20 m ( 22 yd ) north @-@ east up the hill from the " 8th Avenue " roadway , was at first marked with a numbered plaque and became overgrown . A descendant of his wife discovered the burial site in 1960 and a headstone was erected by the New Zealand Government . The inscription reads : He served New Zealand in peace and war as artist , explorer and member of parliament . He was the first non @-@ regular soldier to be awarded the Victoria Cross .
As well as the first New Zealander to be awarded the Victoria Cross , Heaphy was an accomplished artist . His watercolours , mostly produced between 1841 and 1855 , are an important record of many scenes in the early days of European settlement in New Zealand . Many of his works have been published in histories of New Zealand but his name is best known now through the Heaphy Track in the north @-@ west corner of the South Island . He and Brunner were probably the first Europeans to walk through this area of the South Island and the Heaphy Track , though he never followed its route , is named in his honour .
= Solomon Islands skink =
The Solomon Islands skink ( Corucia zebrata ) , also known as prehensile @-@ tailed skink , monkey @-@ tailed skink , giant skink , zebra skink , and monkey skink , is an arboreal species of skink endemic to the Solomon Islands archipelago . It is the largest known extant species of skink .
The Solomon Islands skink is completely herbivorous , eating many different fruits and vegetables including the pothos plant . It is one of the few species of reptile known to function within a social group or circulus . Both male and female specimens are known to be territorial and often hostile towards members not a part of their family group .
Corucia is a monotypic genus , containing a single species . However , in 1997 it was determined that there are two subspecies of the Solomon Islands skink : the common monkey @-@ tailed skink ( Corucia zebrata zebrata ) and the northern monkey @-@ tailed skink ( Corucia zebrata alfredschmidti ) . Among other variances , the northern skink is smaller and has darker eyes with a black sclera .
Extensive logging is a serious threat to the survival of this species . Consumption for food by indigenous Solomon Islanders and excessive pet trade exports have affected wild populations . Export of this species from the Solomon Islands is now restricted and the animal is protected under CITES appendix II .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The Solomon Islands skink was first described by John Edward Gray in 1856 as Corucia zebrata . The generic name Corucia derives from the Latin word coruscus meaning " shimmering " . This is in reference to Gray 's description of " a play of colors effect from the body scales " . Its specific name zebrata is a Latinized form of the word zebra , in reference to the animal 's zebra @-@ like stripes . Its common names ( prehensile @-@ tailed skink , monkey @-@ tailed skink or monkey skink ) refer to its fully prehensile tail which the species uses as a fifth limb for climbing .
Although appearances of skinks vary from island to island , a subspecies from the western islands of the Solomons Archipelago was described by Dr. Gunther Köhler in 1996 as C. z. alfredschmidti , its trinomial name was in honor of the German amateur herpetologist Alfred A. Schmidt .
The closest living relatives of C. zebrata are the Blue @-@ tongued skinks of the genus Tiliqua and skinks of the genus Egernia of Australia , New Guinea , and Indonesia ; all of which are found in the subfamily Lygosominae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Solomon Islands skink is native to Solomon Islands archipelago , a group of islands in the south @-@ west Pacific Ocean . The common subspecies ( C. z. zebrata ) is found on the islands of Choiseul Island , New Georgia , Isabel , Guadalcanal , Ngela , Malaita , Makira ( Solomon Islands ) , Ugi and Santa Ana . The northern subspecies ( C. z. alfredschmidti ) is known from the islands of Bougainville and Buka and the Shortland Island Group . Bougainville and Buka are geographically part of the Solomons Archipelago , though politically part of Papua New Guinea . Both subspecies of the Solomon Islands skink are strictly arboreal , usually inhabiting the upper canopy of forested areas throughout its range . It commonly occurs in the strangler fig tree ( Ficus sp . ) , provided the epiphytic growth of its several food plants are present . It occurs in trees in semi @-@ cleared areas and cultivated food gardens , again provided its food plants occur there .
= = Biology = =
The Solomon Islands skink is the world 's largest species of extant skink ; adults can reach a length of 32 inches ( 81 cm ) from nose to the tip of their tail when fully grown , with the tail accounting for more than half this length .
The Solomon Islands skink has a long , slender body , strong , short legs , and a triangular shaped head with small round eyes . The skink has a strong crushing jaw but the teeth are small and used for eating plant material . Its prehensile tail helps it maneuver from branch to branch with ease and gives the skink its more common names : monkey @-@ tailed skink , prehensile @-@ tailed skink , or monkey skink . Male Solomon Islands skinks tend to have a broader head and a more slender body shape than do female skinks . Males have a " V " -shaped pattern of scales just aft of the cloacal opening , which is not present in female skinks .
The scales of Solomon Islands skinks are a dark green but are often speckled with light brown or black . The scales on the underside vary from light yellow to different shades of green . The toes on all four legs have thick , curved nails used for climbing and gripping tree limbs .
As a crepuscular animal , it is most active during the dusk and dawn hours , feeding primarily at dusk. it also is active and eats during the hours of dawn , though to a lesser extent. it has quite good eyesight and relies upon it to identify threats , as well as potential food .. it relies heavily on its sense of smell , and uses it to identify its territory and other members of its group , called a circulus . Like snakes , the skink " smells " by flicking its tongue to gather scents and when the tongue is retracted it touches it to the opening of a Jacobson 's organ at the roof of its mouth .
= = = Subspecies = = =
The common Solomon Islands skink ( C. z. zebrata ) has a white sclera with its eyes while the northern Solomon Islands skink ( C. z. alfredschmidti ) has a black sclera . The iris of the northern Solomon Islands skink is a mix of green and yellow whereas the iris of the common Solomon Islands skink can vary from several different shades of green to orange to a dark black . According to Dr. Gunther Köhler , who described the northern subspecies , this subspecies possesses " larger dorsal and ventral scales " and has " seven instead of usually five parietal scales " .
The northern Solomon Islands skink is the shorter of the two subspecies with males averaging 24 inches ( 61 cm ) and females averaging 22 inches ( 56 cm ) in length when measured from nose to tip of tail . The common Solomon Islands skinks are slightly longer with the males averaging 28 inches ( 71 cm ) and the females averaging 24 inches ( 61 cm ) when measured from nose to tip of tail . The common Solomon Islands skink , at 850 grams ( 1 @.@ 87 lb ) , weighs more than the northern Solomon Islands skink , which weighs closer to 500 grams ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) .
= = = Diet = = =
Solomon Islands skinks are herbivores , feeding on the leaves , flowers , fruit , and growing shoots of several different species of plants . This includes the somewhat toxic ( due to high concentrations of calcium oxalate ) Epipremnum pinnatum ( cf.E. aureum ) plant , a which the lizard eats without ill @-@ effect.b Juvenile skinks often eat feces from adults in order to acquire the essential microflora to digest their food . Newborn skinks have been observed consuming their placental sac after birth and will not feed on other food for the first 2 days .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The Solomon Islands skink is one of the few species of reptile that lives in a communal group known as a circulus . The Solomon Islands skink reproduces by viviparous matrotrophy : c the female provides a placenta for its young , which are born after a gestation period of six to eight months ; this is a rare trait among reptiles . The newborn skink is of a large size compared to its mother ; the northern Solomon Islands skinks are approximately 29 centimetres ( 11 in ) in length and weigh 80 grams ( 0 @.@ 18 lb ) , whereas the common Solomon Islands skinks are 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) and 175 grams ( 0 @.@ 386 lb ) when they are born . This reduced size disparity led the former curator of reptiles at the Philadelphia Zoo , Dr. Kevin Wright , to compare it to " a human mother giving birth to a six year – old " . Almost all births are single babies but occasionally twins will be born . At least one instance of triplets has occurred according to herpetologist Bert Langerwerf .
The newborn skink will stay within its circulus for six to twelve months during which time it will be protected by not only its parents but other unrelated adult skinks within the group . Around one year of age , sometimes earlier , the juvenile will move off to form a new family group . Individuals have been documented to stay within the group for several births without being expelled , however . Adult skinks have even been known to " adopt " orphaned young skinks into their groups . Females exhibit fierce protective behavior around the time of birth ; this protectiveness of young is a rare occurrence in reptiles but is shorter in duration when compared to the protective behavior exhibited by a typical mammal .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Threats = = =
Extensive logging is a serious ongoing threat to the survival of this species , as is consumption for food by native people , and export demand for the pet trade . Because of the large numbers of lizards that were being exported for the pet trade , the small region to which the skink is native , and its low reproductive rate , in 1992 Corucia zebrata was listed as a CITES Appendix II animal , which allows limits to be placed on the number of animals in commercial trade between countries .
Since there is no regulation on the rapid deforestation occurring in the Solomon Islands , limited export to recognized institutions may be needed to aid this species in genetic diversity for its survival via ex situ breeding programs . According to herpetologists who study the Solomon Islands skink , such as Dr. David Kirkpatrick and the late Dr. Kevin Wright , captive breeding alone is not practical as a sole method of species survival due to the limited number of offspring and long gestation periods .
= = = In captivity = = =
The Solomon Islands skink is represented in both public and private collections . The Philadelphia Zoo has bred these skinks over multiple generations for the past 40 years . The keeping of the Solomon Islands skink in captivity is not without its challenges : as it is a large arboreal tropical animal . It requires a large arboreal enclosure , with a constant temperature between 75 @-@ 80 degrees Fahrenheit , with heat being provided from above as well as below , allowing the skink to bask in the heat from above as it would during dusk , while providing a radiant heat from below to aid digestion . The dynamics of the skink 's circulus means that not all groups do well when new animals are introduced . Despite successful breeding programs , their somewhat unique nature of single births and slow growth has made these programs challenging . A well @-@ cared for monkey @-@ tailed skink can live twenty @-@ five to thirty years . A well @-@ balanced diet consisting primarily of kale , green beans , and cooked sweet potato , supplemented with slices of peeled kiwi fruit , apple , and papaya , as well as access to a large shallow , clean water source aid in increasing longevity . Bathing them in shallow lukewarm water during the beginning of the monthly shed , greatly reduces the stress inherent in shedding , as well as speeds the process .
Biologist Michael Balsai of Temple University has noted a significant number of breedings between skinks from different islands has resulted in non @-@ productive unions . Balsai 's theory is that there are enough differences between animals from different islands that pairing of lizards from different locales will be unproductive , further frustrating many captive breeding attempts .
= 2015 Russian Grand Prix =
The 2015 Russian Grand Prix ( formally known as the 2015 Formula 1 Russian Grand Prix ; Russian : Гран @-@ при России 2015 года ) was a Formula One motor race that took place on 11 October 2015 . The fifty @-@ three lap race was held at the Sochi Autodrom . This was the fifteenth round of the 2015 season and marked the second time that the Russian Grand Prix was run as a round of the Formula One World Championship since its inception in 1950 .
Lewis Hamilton won the race for the second season in a row , extending his Drivers ' Championship lead to 66 points . With Nico Rosberg retiring early in the race , Sebastian Vettel reclaimed second place in the standings for the first time since his round two victory in Malaysia with a second @-@ place finish . Sergio Pérez completed the podium in third for Force India .
Mercedes secured their second consecutive Constructors ' Championship , having done so at the same event the previous season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
After the previous year 's race showed lower @-@ than @-@ expected tyre degradation , Pirelli opted to supply the yellow @-@ banded soft compound as the prime selection and the red @-@ banded supersoft tyre as the option selection . The previous season 's event saw Nico Rosberg complete 52 of 53 laps on the white @-@ banded medium compound on his way to a second @-@ place finish . Even with the softer tyre choice , tyre degradation was not an issue at the event , with drivers able to record fast lap times all through the race on a one @-@ stop strategy .
Roberto Merhi replaced Alexander Rossi for Marussia , in accordance with Rossi 's five @-@ race contract that saw him sit out this race and the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix . Jolyon Palmer replaced Romain Grosjean for Lotus for Friday 's first free practice session for the tenth time this season .
Fernando Alonso began the weekend 's event knowing he would start from the back of the grid due to a number of penalties incurred for changing engine parts . Honda provided him with an upgraded internal combustion engine , which had been designed using the team 's last four in @-@ season development tokens . Alonso 's McLaren teammate Jenson Button had to continue using the old @-@ specification engine at this race as Honda only had one of the upgraded power units available . However , Alonso used the new power unit only in the first practice session before switching back to the older unit , albeit voicing satisfaction with the performance of the new specification .
Going into the weekend , Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers ' Championship with a 48 @-@ point advantage over teammate Rosberg , with Sebastian Vettel another eleven points behind in third . Mercedes led the Constructors ' Standings on 506 points , 169 points ahead of Ferrari . In third was Williams , another 129 points behind .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were held , two 90 @-@ minute sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . However , all three sessions were disrupted and little running took place . During the first session on Friday morning , a spillage of diesel on track prevented the cars from going out on until very late in the session . Eventually , Nico Hülkenberg topped the session for Force India , ahead of his compatriots Nico Rosberg and Sebastian Vettel . Since water was used to clear the surface , the first laps were run on intermediate tyres by most drivers , with both Williams cars being equipped with full wet tyres , but Valtteri Bottas spun on them entering the pit lane . Later , the track dried enough to use slick tyres , Fernando Alonso being the first to do so . Due to the limited running , the last minutes were busy with most cars out on track . Marcus Ericsson however was confined to the sidelines as he stopped with an engine problem . As Lewis Hamilton spun on his last timed lap , he needed to settle for seventh fastest .
With a lot of rain falling , the second practice session saw only eight drivers set timed laps , with just 14 taking to the track . Felipe Massa set the fastest time with a lap of 2 ’ 00 @.@ 458 . Both Lotus and Manor Marussia did not run at all , while Fernando Alonso ran the most number of laps with twelve , following an engine change .
The third practice session on Saturday saw limited running as well , as training was halted due to a massive crash by Carlos Sainz , Jr .. The Spaniard lost control of his car going into turn 13 , hit a wall and went on to crash into the safety barriers , burying the nose of his car in the process . The session was stopped while Sainz was taken out of the car and transported to hospital , albeit uninjured . Practice was not resumed afterwards and the time of 1 ’ 38 @.@ 561 set by Nico Rosberg before the accident remained the fastest lap of the session . He was more than seven tenths of a second faster than Valtteri Bottas in second , with Lewis Hamilton another tenth behind . Sainz 's teammate Max Verstappen finished the session 17th fastest after spinning in the final corner .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Conditions were dry for qualifying on Saturday afternoon . Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . Only the two Mercedes drivers were capable of proceeding into the second part of qualifying ( Q2 ) without having to use the faster , soft tyres . Nico Rosberg was fastest , ahead of Williams ' Valtteri Bottas and Lewis Hamilton . As Carlos Sainz was unable to compete following his crash in practice , only four running drivers were eliminated . Those were both Manor Marussia drivers , the Sauber of Marcus Ericsson and Fernando Alonso for McLaren .
The two Mercedes exchanged new track record times as Rosberg , then Hamilton , and once again Rosberg set fast times during Q2 . Bottas was again the fastest non @-@ Mercedes runner , but teammate Felipe Massa was hindered by traffic and did not proceed into Q3 . Also eliminated were Pastor Maldonado , Jenson Button , Felipe Nasr , and Daniil Kvyat , the latter two being bettered by a late fast lap from Max Verstappen .
Nico Rosberg was again fastest in Q3 , denying teammate Hamilton his fiftieth career pole position in the process . His time of 1m37.113 was more than three tenths of a second quicker than Hamilton 's , ensuring he started from the front of the grid for the second race running . Valtteri Bottas confirmed his strong pace and qualified third , marginally ahead of Sebastian Vettel . The second Ferrari of Kimi Räikkönen was almost half a second behind in fifth , having made a mistake at turn 13 , followed by the two Force India cars of Nico Hülkenberg and Sergio Pérez . Hamilton had also gone off at turn 13 on his second fast lap , preventing him from challenging Rosberg for pole position .
= = = Race = = =
Carlos Sainz was cleared to race albeit not setting a time in qualifying , being allowed to start from the back of the grid . At the start , Nico Rosberg led away from Lewis Hamilton , while further back , Nico Hülkenberg spun into turn two , tagging Max Verstappen and Marcus Ericsson . Verstappen had a puncture while Hülkenberg and Ericsson retired on the spot , causing the safety car to be deployed . Meanwhile , Räikkönen and Kvyat experienced good starts , gaining two and four places respectively . Racing resumed on the end of lap 3 , with Rosberg retaining his race lead . However , further back Bottas overtook Räikkönen to take third . By lap 7 , Sainz had moved up into 14th place , while Felipe Massa was up into ninth place from 15th on the grid . Race leader Nico Rosberg needed to retire at the end of the seventh lap due to a locked throttle , handing the race lead to championship leader Lewis Hamilton . On lap 10 , Pastor Maldonado moved ahead of Jenson Button to take tenth , while Hamilton was extending his lead over second placed Bottas . A second safety car phase occurred on lap 12 , when Romain Grosjean lost the back of his Lotus in turn 3 and crashed into the barriers . While Grosjean escaped uninjured , his car was heavily damaged . With a lot of debris on track , the safety car stayed out until lap 17 . At the restart , Vettel attacked teammate Räikkönen for third . While the Finn was able to stay ahead by going wide into turn 2 , he subsequently gave up the place to Vettel . One lap later , Ricciardo and Sainz fought for tenth place , with Daniel Ricciardo coming out on top and retaining the position .
By lap 20 , Max Verstappen , impeded by his tyre failure at the start , had moved up into twelfth while at the front , Hamilton extended his advantage over Bottas to 7 @.@ 5 seconds on lap 24 with Vettel also moving closer to the Finn . After several drivers had opted to pit during the second safety car phase , most drivers at the front decided to come in for their regular pit stops starting on lap 25 . Carlos Sainz crossed the white line when exiting pit lane , receiving a five @-@ second penalty to be served at his second stop . Bottas was the first of the front runners to pit on lap 27 , emerging into traffic . This allowed Sebastian Vettel to make up time by staying out longer , eventually emerging from his pit stop ahead of Bottas on lap 31 . On lap later , Räikkönen pitted as well , coming out just behind Bottas . Race leader Hamilton came in another lap later , retaining his lead without incident . On lap 37 , Räikkönen used the Drag Reduction System ( DRS ) to move ahead of Bottas for fifth place , only for the Williams driver to retake the position in the next corner .
An early pit stop during the safety car phase had put Sergio Pérez up into third place , with Daniel Ricciardo behind in fourth . By lap 43 , Ricciardo , Bottas and Räikkönen had all moved into striking distance of Pérez , who was trying to keep his older tyres alive . On lap 45 , Bottas used DRS to move ahead of Ricciardo 's Red Bull . One lap later , Räikkönen tried to follow suit , only to run wide , having to concede the position back to Ricciardo . On lap 47 , Carlos Sainz retired after spinning off the track due to a brake failure , losing his rear wing . Retrieving the wing from the track under racing conditions , a track marshall was called " one very brave Russian " by the passing Sebastian Vettel , who barely avoided contact . Just after being passed by Räikkönen on lap 49 , Daniel Ricciardo had to retire with a suspension failure . The end of lap 52 saw Valtteri Bottas move ahead of Pérez into third place , with Räikkönen moving past the Force India as well . However , just some corners later on the last lap of the race , the two collided , forcing Bottas to retire and causing heavy damage to Räikkönen 's Ferrari . Pérez thereby reclaimed third place and achieved Force India 's first podium finish of the season . At the front , Vettel moved closer to Hamilton due to the latter suffering from a compromised rear wing , probably caused by rubber debris in the slot gap . However , Hamilton held on and took his ninth victory of the season , finishing ahead of Vettel , who was now his closest championship rival .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Räikkönen was demoted to from fifth to eighth place for causing the final lap collision with Bottas and scored only four points rather than ten , and this secured the constructors championship for Mercedes . McLaren driver Fernando Alonso was given a five @-@ second penalty for exceeding track limits , promoting Toro Rosso 's Max Verstappen to tenth . When asked about the collision with Bottas at the press conference for the following United States Grand Prix , Kimi Räikkönen remained unregenerate , saying : " [ My view ] hasn 't changed . There were some discussions . I would still do it tomorrow again , that doesn 't change the story . " Bottas took a different viewpoint , saying : " I don 't think it was a racing incident . I didn 't see anyone there and I was in front , and then suddenly someone hits me . I should be on the podium , but I 'm here with zero points instead . That 's just disappointing . "
Former Jordan team principal Eddie Jordan carried out the podium interviews . Hamilton expressed disappointment at not being able to battle his teammate to win the race , while he also stressed the title was " not done and dusted " . Sebastian Vettel expressed satisfaction with his car , saying that he had hoped to be able to catch Hamilton towards the end of the race . However , he was disappointed by not having both Ferrari cars on the podium . Sergio Pérez said that he had been " really unhappy " with himself until the last lap that handed him third place , calling the result " just amazing " . He would later go on to call the race " the best moment in my career " .
After the race , Sebastian Vettel criticised Lewis Hamilton for what he believed was excessive low speed at the restart after the safety car period , calling his behaviour " ridiculous " . He added : " There was no reason to go that slow . If you want to pack up the field you can do it earlier and not in the very last bit . " Following his 46G impact on Saturday , Carlos Sainz conceded that he felt " a bit of dizziness " in the early stages of the Grand Prix , though he added : " But after lap 10 it went off and I could push normally without problems . " After his accident on lap twelve , Romain Grosjean spoke of his " biggest impact for quite a while " . He also revealed that the seat of his car broke at impact , but also emphasised the fact that he was able to escape unharmed : " It 's a testament to all the safety inherent in the car and the other safety devices . "
As a result of the race , Mercedes extended their lead in the Constructors ' Championship to 172 points , enough to secure their second consecutive title . Williams was still in third on 220 points , 71 points ahead of Red Bull . In the Drivers ' Standings , Lewis Hamilton 's lead over second place grew to 66 points , with his closest challenger now being Sebastian Vettel . Nico Rosberg dropped to third , seven points behind Vettel on 229 points .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Fernando Alonso received a thirty @-@ five @-@ place grid penalty for a variety of changes made to his power unit . ^ 2 – Roberto Merhi received a twenty @-@ place grid penalty for a variety of changes made to his power unit . ^ 3 – Carlos Sainz , Jr. did not take part in qualifying after a heavy crash during FP3 ; he was later permitted to race by the stewards . ^ 4 – Carlos Sainz , Jr. received a twenty @-@ place grid penalty for a variety of changes made to his power unit and replacing his gearbox .
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Kimi Räikkönen originally finished fifth but received a 30 @-@ second time penalty after the race following a collision with Valtteri Bottas .
^ 2 – Fernando Alonso originally finished tenth but received a 5 @-@ second time penalty after the race for exceeding track limits .
^ 3 – Carlos Sainz , Jr. received a 5 @-@ second penalty after the race for crossing the line at the pit entry .
^ 4 – Valtteri Bottas and Daniel Ricciardo were classified as they completed over 90 % of the race distance .
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Bold text indicates who still has a mathematical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= James Dean ( film ) =
James Dean is a 2001 biographical television film based on the life of the American actor James Dean . James Franco plays the title role under the direction of Mark Rydell , who chronicles Dean 's rise from a struggling actor to an A @-@ list movie star in 1950s Hollywood . The film 's supporting roles included director Rydell , Michael Moriarty , Valentina Cervi , Enrico Colantoni , and Amy Rydell .
The James Dean biopic began development at Warner Bros. in the early 1990s . At one point , Michael Mann was contracted to direct with Leonardo DiCaprio starring in the lead role . After Mann 's departure , Des McAnuff , Dennis Hopper and Milčo Mančevski were considered as directors . Rydell was hired as director in 1996 , but the film continued to languish in development hell .
Warner Bros. then decided to produce James Dean as a TV movie for Turner Network Television ( TNT ) ; both Warners and TNT are owned by Time Warner . Franco was cast as Dean in May 2000 after a search that resulted in 500 auditions . Franco researched his role to more closely portray Dean . James Dean was shown on TNT in the United States on August 5 , 2001 , receiving generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
At eight years old , James Dean lives with his estranged father Winton and mother Mildred in 1939 Santa Monica , California . When Mildred dies of cancer in 1940 , Winton sends James on a train to Fairmount , Indiana , along with the coffin containing her body . Winton does not show up at the funeral , leaving James to be raised by his aunt and uncle on a farm in Fairmount . Over the years , he becomes more curious about his father 's decision to abandon him . He tries to impress him by sending him a package displaying his various athletic trophies in high school sports .
James moves back to Santa Monica in June 1949 , shortly after high school graduation , and finds that Winton has remarried . He decides to become an actor and takes classes under James Whitmore . Whitmore is impressed by his acting ability , which encourages him to move to New York City in September 1951 to pursue an acting career . Despite being a struggling actor , he enjoys the new lifestyle . He befriends fellow actor Martin Landau and has a romantic relationship with Christine White . Both are accepted into the prestigious Actors Studio . He receives critical acclaim in Broadway theatre productions and for a role in a television movie drama that is broadcast nationwide . He tries to tell Winton about his successful rise in acting , but his father still reacts with indifference , causing more emotional turmoil for him .
Film producer @-@ director Elia Kazan hires James for the leading role in East of Eden ( 1955 ) , marking his Hollywood debut . He moves to Hollywood in April 1954 to begin filming for Eden and is introduced to Jack L. Warner , the stern president of Warner Bros. Studios who is determined to transform him into a movie star . Warner becomes suspicious of his personal life ( such as his possible bisexuality and passions for auto racing and motorcycling ) . On the Warner Bros. backlot , he falls in love with actress Pier Angeli , who is working on the neighboring production of The Silver Chalice ( 1954 ) .
Despite concerns from Pier 's domineering mother , James and his girlfriend buy a beach house in which they live together . Meanwhile , eccentric director Nicholas Ray casts him in the lead role for Rebel Without a Cause ( 1955 ) . He once again hopes to impress his father with his rising movie star career in Hollywood , but Winton persists with his indifference . When East of Eden debuts , Warner is furious that he does not show up at the premiere . He considers shutting down production of Rebel Without a Cause , but he drops the idea due to James 's praised performance in Eden . Later , he finds out that Warner sided with Pier 's mother over his break up with her . She ends up marrying Vic Damone , while James then signs a one million dollar contract with Warner Bros. and is cast in Giant ( 1956 ) . His mental breakdowns become more apparent when he starts conflicting with director George Stevens .
Angered with his life , James decides to learn the truth about his father 's disinterest toward him since he was eight years old . Winton tells him that his real father was a man with whom his mother had an affair during the marriage and that he did not have the courage to raise him , not being his real father . With his inner demons resolved , he begins to enjoy life once more and adopts a friendly relationship with director Stevens . Shortly afterward , he dies in a car crash that shocks the film industry and the general public . En route on a train to Indiana , Winton sits next to his coffin in the storage room .
= = Cast = =
James Franco as James Dean : A movie star who has emotional struggles with his father , Hollywood policies , acting , and romantic relationships .
Kyle Chambers portrays young James Dean
Michael Moriarty as Winton " Winnie " Dean : James ' father who abandons him at a young age .
Valentina Cervi as Pier Angeli : Italian actress who James first meets on the Warner Bros. backlot . Under pressure from her domineering mother , Pier breaks off her relationship with James and marries Vic Damone .
Enrico Colantoni as Elia Kazan : Acclaimed Hollywood film director . Kazan casts James in East of Eden , using unconventional directing techniques that land James critical praise .
Amy Rydell as Christine White : James ' girlfriend in New York . The two successfully audition their way into the Actors Studio .
Director Mark Rydell as Jack L. Warner : President of Warner Bros. Pictures. who signs James under contract . Mr. Warner acts as a strict father figure to James ' Hollywood lifestyle .
Samuel Gould as Martin Landau : Actor who befriends James in New York .
Wendy Benson as Julie Harris : East of Eden actress who expresses sympathy for James ' break @-@ up with Pier .
David Parker as James Whitmore : James ' acting teacher in Los Angeles .
Lisa Robins as Mildred Dean : James ' mother . Mildred dies of cancer when her son is just a child .
Karen Kondazian as Mrs. Pierangeli : Pier 's strict religious mother who convinces her daughter to marry Vic Damone .
Barry Primus as Nicholas Ray : Eccentric director of Rebel Without a Cause who avoids pressure to cast Marlon Brando in the lead role .
Peggy McCay as Emma Dean : James Dean 's grandma .
Edward Herrmann as Raymond Massey : Distinguished actor who portrays Dean 's screen father on East of Eden . Massey is dubious over James ' method acting .
Craig Barnett as George Stevens : Director of Giant who , at first , has trouble accommodating James ' emotional and movie star status .
Joanne Linville as Hedda Hopper : Hollywood gossip columnist who praises James ' acting abilities in East of Eden .
Andrew Prine as Rogers Brackett : Homosexual New York theater director who meets James and Martin Landau ( then struggling actors ) in a diner .
Lisa Blake Richards as Ethel Dean : Winton 's wife after the death of Mildred . She is not satisfied over her husband 's fathering of James .
Holly Beavon as Marilyn Monroe ( uncredited )
Elizabeth Karsell as Judy Garland ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
In the early 1990s , Warner Bros. planned to produce a feature biographical film about actor James Dean , and the studio hired Israel Horovitz to write the script . One of the working titles was James Dean : An Invented Life before it was finalized as James Dean . When Horovitz wrote the script , he explored the " psychological insight " of Dean by showcasing the abandonment of his father , which became the fulcrum of the storyline . Horovitz recalled , " Why would a father ship his wife 's body back on a train with an 8 @-@ year @-@ old son , never go to the funeral and never pick the son up again , never bring the son back out to him ? " The screenwriter felt it was best to portray Dean 's purported homosexuality by innuendo rather than explicitly . He wanted to focus on the romance between Dean and Pier Angeli and Dean 's growth as an actor , and believed that a homosexuality subplot would distract from the storyline . Producer Marvin Worth explained in July 1995 , " We 'll try to make a good movie ... not one of rumor and innuendo . "
Michael Mann was contracted to direct James Dean in September 1993 , and filming was scheduled to start in May 1994 . Johnny Depp and Brad Pitt were under serious consideration for the lead role , while both actors were also attached to the part . Mann approached Leonardo DiCaprio for the role of James Dean , feeling that DiCaprio was the best candidate . Gary Oldman was also discussed for a supporting role . In March 1994 , Mann decided not to direct James Dean due to scheduling conflicts with Heat ( 1995 ) . Mann also thought that DiCaprio was too young and wanted to wait another year .
Des McAnuff replaced Mann as director , and filming was rescheduled to December 1994 . Screenwriter Horovitz was busy playwrighting in Europe , so McAnuff and producer Marvin Worth were constantly rewriting the script in July 1994 . The budget was estimated at $ 20 million . McAnuff stepped down as director and was replaced by Dennis Hopper . Hopper was a close friend with Dean and co @-@ starred with the actor in both Rebel Without a Cause and Giant . Hopper met with DiCaprio for the lead role , but the director eventually dropped out of the film . By May 1995 , DiCaprio was still the top candidate to portray Dean with Milčo Mančevski in discussions to direct the film .
After negotiations with Mančevski fell through , Mark Rydell was contracted to direct the biopic in February 1996 . Rydell was also close friends with Dean ; the two studied together at Actors Studio in Manhattan , New York during the early 1950s . DiCaprio dropped out of the lead role entirely when his asking price was determined to be too high after the actor 's success with Romeo + Juliet ( 1996 ) and Titanic ( 1997 ) . Meanwhile , Rydell worked with Horovitz on another rewrite , and Warner Bros. planned to fast track production . Don Was was hired to write and compose the film score , but he was later replaced by John Frizzell . Shortly after Rydell 's hiring , Stephen Dorff entered discussions to portray James Dean . Ethan Hawke would later turn down the role .
With the film languishing in development hell , producer Bill Gerber from Warner Bros. decided James Dean would work best as a television movie for Turner Network Television ( TNT ) ; both Warners and TNT are owned by Time Warner . Gerber explained the format choice , " It was just hard to find bankable names that the studio would finance a $ 20 million movie with . And there were marketing problems . He died in a highway accident in 1955 so almost everyone would know the outcome of the movie . James Dean also isn 't that well known by the general movie @-@ going public these days . " Actor James Franco was cast into the lead role , and principal photography for James Dean started in June 2000 . Filming took place around the Los Angeles area and at the Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City .
= = = Casting = = =
Rydell and other filmmakers started a casting call in late March 2000 to find the most suitable actor for the lead role . The call encompassed New York , Los Angeles , Toronto , Vancouver , Atlanta , Chicago and the Midwestern United States . Casting director Nancy Foy commented that the search included " everyone from highly @-@ trained , experienced actors in their early and mid @-@ 20s , to people who had no training and had sent in self @-@ made tapes " . Five hundred actors auditioned , and James Franco was ultimately cast as James Dean in May 2000 . Franco acknowledged he was cautious of taking the role over fear of typecasting .
Franco did extensive research for his role . He went from being a non @-@ smoker to smoking two packs of cigarettes a day , but has since quit the habit . He learned how to ride a motorcycle , play guitar , as well as the conga and bongo drums . The actor also carefully studied Dean 's mannerisms by simultaneously watching his three films ( East of Eden , Rebel Without a Cause and Giant ) . Franco also read numerous biographies on Dean 's life . The actor also took advice from some of Dean 's closest friends , including Martin Landau , Dennis Hopper , Liz Sheridan ( Dean 's former girlfriend ) and Leonard Rosenman . " Martin was the most informative person that I spoke to . He helped me tremendously with James 's physical mannerisms , " Franco reflected . " I isolated myself a lot during the filming . I did this because I think he had a pervasive loneliness throughout his life and I wanted to feel what that felt like . Not talking to my family or loved ones had quite an emotional effect on me . "
= = Release = =
James Dean premiered at the 27th Deauville American Film Festival in July 2001 . Press conferences were held with the screening , and James Dean 's three feature films , East of Eden , Rebel Without a Cause and Giant , were also screened at the festival . Turner Network Television ( TNT ) originally intended to premiere the film on United States national television in June 2001 , but the release date for James Dean was pushed to August 5 , 2001 . The film attracted 3 @.@ 18 million viewers and received generally favorable reviews from critics . James Dean was released on DVD in January 2002 by Warner Home Video . David Thomson , reviewing in The New York Times , felt Franco 's performance as Dean gave Baby Boomer audiences a positive sense of nostalgia of the 1950s . James Poniewozik of Time magazine also highly praised Franco 's performance , but felt the script was overtly cliché . Ken Tucker wrote in Entertainment Weekly that James Dean , alongside Life with Judy Garland : Me and My Shadows ( 2001 ) , was a revolutionary force in the television movie genre .
Rydell received a Directors Guild of America Award nomination , while Franco was nominated for his performance at the 8th Screen Actors Guild Awards . In addition , Franco won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Miniseries or Television Film . The film also received multiple awards and nominations at the 54th Primetime Emmy Awards . Michael Moriarty won the Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie for his portrayal of Winton Dean . The art department ( led by Robert Pearson , Marc Dabe and Leslie McCarthy @-@ Frankenheimer ) , also won an Emmy . Nominations included Outstanding Made for Television Movie , Lead actor ( James Franco ) , Direction ( Mark Rydell ) , Cinematography ( Robbie Greenberg ) , Casting ( Nancy Foy ) , Costume design ( Yvonne Blake and Randy Gardell ) , Film editing ( Antony Gibbs ) , Makeup ( John M. Elliot , Jr . ) and Hairstyling ( Carol A. O 'Connell ) .
= ( What Is ) Love ? =
" ( What Is ) Love ? " is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez . Originally entitled " What Is Love ? " , the song appeared on the soundtrack to The Back @-@ up Plan ( 2010 ) , a film in which Lopez stars . The song was later included on Lopez 's seventh studio album Love ? ( 2011 ) , as the album 's title track . " ( What Is ) Love ? " is a midtempo electropop song written by Diana " Wynter " Gordon , with the song 's producer Emile " D 'Mile " Dernst II . The song is about " not knowing what love is , " according to Gordon . A remix of " ( What Is ) Love ? " , entitled " What Is Love ? Part II " , was produced by Jean @-@ Baptiste . It was considered for inclusion on Love ? and was leaked onto the internet in April 2013 .
The song was due to be released as a promotional single from Love ? on April 26 , 2011 , but was " unlocked " and released on April 22 , 2011 by Island Records through a campaign on Lopez 's Facebook page . Upon its promotional release , the song debuted at number 97 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart and at 33 on the Productores de Música de España .
= = Writing and production = =
" ( What Is ) Love ? " written by Diana " Wynter " Gordon and Emile " D 'Mile " Dernst ; the latter who also produced the song . Lopez 's vocals for the song were recorded and produced by Kuk Harrell , with recording assistance from Jim Annunziato and Josh Gudwin at Conway Studios in Hollywood , California . Annunziato and Eric Eylands handled audio engineering of " ( What Is ) Love ? " , while the song was later mixed by Mike " Handz " Donaldson at Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California .
" ( What Is ) Love ? " deals with the topic of " not knowing what love is " . The song 's co @-@ writer Gordon stated that : " I felt like so many woman have that same story . No fathers , families , abusive boyfriends and husbands .. no parental support , they feel alone .. I 've had my few relationships and have yet to feel love [ sic ] . "
= = Leak and release = =
" What Is Love ? " was leaked onto the internet in May 2009 . Wynter Gordon , the co @-@ writer of " What Is Love ? " , expressed her dismay at the " unfinished and unmastered " song 's leak in a post on her official MySpace blog . She stated : " I wrote this song from a deep place in my heart . If the world was gonna hear it , I wanted them to hear it right ... It 's as good as gone to me now ... The story was given a Lifetime TV special instead of a movie ... sad . " Gordon did note that she was dissatisfied with the circumstances , but was in " no way dissing Lopez . "
A mastered version of " What Is Love ? " was included on the soundtrack to The Back @-@ up Plan ( 2010 ) , a film in which Lopez stars . " What Is Love ? " was re @-@ titled as " ( What Is ) Love ? " and appeared on Love ? ( 2011 ) . " ( What Is ) Love ? " was due to be released as a promotional single from Love ? on April 26 , 2011 , but was " unlocked " and released four days earlier , on April 22 , 2011 by through a campaign on Lopez 's Facebook page . It was released in many European countries on April 25 .
= = Critical response = =
The song received a positive review from Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey , who although stating that it isn 't any " we haven 't heard before , " Lopez carries " it off with her unrivalled glamour and effortless sophistication . " He concluded by stating that the song was worthy of a standalone release . Monica Herrera from Billboard commented that on the song , Lopez channels " J.Lo circa 2003 . " Herrera added the song would have been " slayed if the gender had been flipped " , and it had been sung by Justin Bieber . Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle said that Lopez uses " ( What Is ) Love ? " ( and the album cut " Starting Over " ) to play the jilted lover . Us Weekly noted the song 's lyrics to be pointing " a few fingers " at Lopez 's previous relationships , seen in the line dissing " blind dates " and the declaration of : " Musicians are the worst . "
= = " What Is Love ? ( Part II ) " = =
During the first album listening party for Love ? in 2009 , Rap @-@ Up magazine revealed that Jean @-@ Baptiste had produced a second version of the song called " What Is Love ? ( Part II ) " . It was considered for included on the album but ultimately did not make the final track listing . It samples the " club @-@ friendly " riff of Edwin Starr 's 1970 single " War " . " What Is Love ? Part II " was leaked onto the internet on April 20 , 2013 . According to Jessica Sager of PopCrush , it picks up where the original song left off . Sager wrote that the song " likely isn 't about [ Marc ] Anthony — but for those new to the song , it 's surely easy to interpret it as such . Lopez gets pretty revealing in the new song , addressing a divorce directly and explicitly " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love ? .
= = Charts = =
= William P. Halliday =
William Parker Halliday ( July 21 , 1827 – September 22 , 1899 ) was an American steamboat captain , banker , printer , hotel owner , vast land owner and businessman . Halliday began his professional career working on steamboats on the Mississippi and Ohio rivers and eventually became a captain of a steamboat based out of Louisville , Kentucky . A pioneer in the river and railroad transportation businesses , Halliday was responsible for the expansion of Cairo , Illinois , following the American Civil War .
Before the war , Halliday predicted that it would greatly impact river and railroad transportation and moved to Cairo , Illinois , a town at a critical position , at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers . Soon after relocating , Halliday established many businesses that focused on river transportation and general merchandise . During the war , Halliday became good friends with General Ulysses S. Grant , and this relationship increased his personal fortune considerably through favorable military contracts .
After the Civil War , Halliday , his four brothers , and other family members rapidly expanded their business interests in the region . Halliday purchased real estate , businesses , hotels , mines , railroads , lumber yards , steamboats , and furniture companies , and took advantage of many other business opportunities . His business success led to the advancement of the region and specifically contributed to the development of Cairo , Illinois , and Hallidayboro , Illinois .
= = Early years = =
Halliday was born to Samuel Halliday and Eliza Parker in Ohio in 1827 , the eldest of seven children . His father , an immigrant from Scotland , had graduated from the University of Edinburgh at the age of 19 and immigrated to America in 1818 to receive a professorship at the University of Ohio . However , his travel was difficult , and he became stranded in the small village of Rutland , where he was convinced to stay and open a school . Eventually , Samuel surveyed and planned a town with William Parker , Halliday 's grandfather . Samuel held the position of county auditor in Meigs County , Ohio , for 25 years .
Halliday received a general education in Ohio and was first employed as a printer . His first job was as proprietor of Meigs County Gazette and later he worked at the Cincinnati Gazette . Sometime before 1857 Halliday became a surveyor working for the United States Department of the Interior under Marcus Baker and other surveyors . The purpose of the surveying group was to determine the northwestern most boundary of the United States . Halliday worked on the surveying teams that surveyed the Poteau Mountain Quadrangle ( Arkansas @-@ Indian Territory ) , Tuskahoma Quadrangle , Antlers Quadrangle , Clarksville Quadrangle ( Indian Territory @-@ Texas ) , and other areas .
After a short time he switched careers and became a clerk on a steamboat , frequently working alongside Charles T. Hinde , who later married his sister . Halliday gradually advanced in the steamboat business until he was made a captain . In 1860 , he relocated with his family to Cairo and initially worked as a commission merchant . Later , he was a merchant , cotton planter , lumberman , banker , miller , coal mine operator , owned of vast tracts of coal and farm lands , owned salt mines in Illinois , and was a pioneer lumber dealer in Cairo . Halliday was a very successful businessman and by the end of his life was a multimillionaire . He owned steamboats , hotels , commercial shipping businesses , and other investments .
= = Civil War = =
Before the Civil War , Halliday lived in Lousville , Kentucky , and owned a grain business . In 1860 , Halliday moved to Cairo , Illinois , predicting that war would come to Cairo thanks to its strategic location , and he set up businesses to benefit from the conflict . By February 1861 , Halliday had established Halliday , Graham , & Co. and moved his " mammoth wharfboat " from Mound City , Illinois , down river to Cairo . Once the wharfboat arrived , journalists predicted that Halliday 's company would be the most extensive forwarder in the Mississippi Valley , and Halliday organized a citywide celebration to mark the boat 's arrival .
Halliday and his partner , N. W. Graham , signed a contract with Ulysses S. Grant for the Union Army 's use of the wharfboat during the war . The contract compensated Halliday and Graham $ 1 @,@ 000 per month and did not have an expiration date . Some commentators have suggested that the contract was a result of the close personal friendship of General Grant and Halliday , instead of sound military strategy . For a short time , General Grant made his military headquarters in the Halliday hotel in Cairo , Illinois .
During the war , Halliday and Grant became close friends . Grant commandeered one of Halliday 's wharfboats for use in the Union Commissary Department , and soon after the boat was commandeered Halliday signed up to work as the commissary agent . Halliday gained the trust of Grant and , though he never enlisted in the army , Halliday accompanied General Grant to numerous battles and expeditions . In addition to the military uses Halliday 's wharfboats were also used to connect the Mobile and Ohio Railroad with the Illinois Central Railroad at Cairo .
= = Civil War ends = =
In 1865 , at the close of the Civil War , Halliday established several railroads with his close associates . On February 15 , 1865 , Halliday , Asa Eastman , S. Staats Taylor , N. R. Casey , Isham N. Haynie , Henry W. Webb , and John Q. Harman were granted a charter by the State of Illinois legislature to incorporate the Cairo and Mound City Railroad and were authorized to have $ 200 @,@ 000 in capital stock . The next day the Illinois legislature approved the railroad charter for the Cairo and St. Louis Railroad on February 16 , 1865 and Sharon Tyndale , Isham N. Haynie , Samuel Staats Taylor , John Thomas , William H. Logan , Halliday , and Tilman B. Cantrell were the original incorporators and were authorized to have $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in capital stock . Also in 1865 , Halliday and his brothers established the First Bank and Trust Company and bought the largest hotel in Cairo , renaming it after the family name .
= = Riverlore Mansion = =
Halliday built the Riverlore Mansion in 1865 in Cairo , Illinois , across the street from the Magnolia Manor . The brick mansion has 11 rooms , three floors , and a basement . When the mansion was completed in 1865 , it spanned the entire city block .
The first floor of the mansion has the front entry , sitting area , family room , parlor , kitchen , sunroom , dining room , hallway and powder room . An oval central stairway with a curved cherry balustrade winds more than three stories , encompassing some 38 feet to the slate mansard roof , which is capped by an ornamental iron railing . The second floor has three guest bedrooms , a guest bath , a sitting room , a master bedroom , and a luxurious bath complete with a sunken tub . The third floor has a sitting area , an office , a library , and a theater complete with a stage and 18 movie seats .
Part of the original design of the Riverlore is the distinctive river boat theme of the house . There is a glassed @-@ in pilothouse with a sliding hatch that serves as the entrance to the roof . The roof was designed to be flat and resemble the deck of a steamboat , so that Halliday could view the river and reminisce about his early days working as a steamboat captain while standing on his roof . Captain Halliday lived at the Riverlore for 34 years .
= = Business career following the Civil War = =
Halliday and his brothers achieved substantial business success following the Civil War through a variety of businesses and investments . One commentator has stated that by the 1880s the Halliday family was among the most powerful in the region , and Halliday was the significant figure in the family . W.P. Halliday the driving force behind the firm of Halliday Bros in Cairo had four brothers , the brothers together operated as members of the Firm Halliday Bros. The brother ’ s character in business and personal life has been noted in many writings , publications , and books , one such book A History of the City of Cairo Illinois by John M. Lansden speaks of the brothers :
There were five of them , a somewhat exceptional number : William P. Halliday , Samuel B. Halliday , Edwin W. Halliday , Henry L. Halliday , and Thomas W. Halliday . Of them all , I may be permitted to say that while they all differed from each other , they all exhibited features of character and conduct that would have given them prominence anywhere in the business world . No doubt in some one or two important respects , each one excelled the others . This was shown in those matters and things to which they gave their chief attention . Speaking of them and their families , so well represented here with us and elsewhere , it can be said that they have always stood for better things , not with assumption or pharisaically , but openly and firmly . They pushed their business enterprises with diligence , and had there been more of such men it would have been better for the city and for them also , I have no doubt .
The Halliday business empire following the Civil War comprised numerous businesses in Cairo , cotton lands in Arkansas , a hotel in Memphis , Tennessee , furniture companies in Memphis and New Orleans , coal mines in southern Illinois , salt wells in southern Illinois and Indiana , numerous large farms , and many other investments . Halliday and his brothers dealt heavily in flour following the Civil War .
In order to keep updated on their daily business activities Halliday and his brothers installed private telegraph lines between their residences and their business offices . In the early 1870s Halliday held the public office of city councilman for the city of Cairo Illinois , for the city at large ward with Daniel Hurd .
On March 5 , 1867 , Halliday , David J. Baker , Jr . , Alfred B. Safford , Daniel Hurd , and George D. Williamson were granted permission by the Illinois legislature to incorporate The Valley Iron Company .
The capital stock of the company was $ 200 @,@ 000 and the company headquarters were in Cairo , Illinois . The company 's purpose was to mine and manufacture iron and other metals , with the stated purpose of supplying railroads . Also at this time , Halliday , Hurd , Safford , and others served on the transportation committee of the Illinois Central Railroad .
During the Civil War Halliday was associated with the Mobile and Ohio Railroad through the railroad 's use of his wharfboats . After the war , Halliday became a major investor in the railroad along with William Butler Duncan , Charles Walsh , and Charles Edward Tracy . Halliday 's investments centered around the railroad 's expansion to Cairo in the late 1870s . On April 22 , 1874 , the shareholders of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad elected Halliday to the board of directors .
As Halliday 's business interests grew , he began investing in businesses that supported his railroad and steamboat businesses , primarily coal mines . Halliday purchased his first coal mine in St. John , Illinois , to supply his steamships and coal depots .
Due to the success of the coal mines , Halliday began to purchase property in the area to search for oil . He was unsuccessful in locating oil deposits but did find one of the most productive salt mines in the region . Haliiday 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Marion Wright , ran and oversaw the Halliday coal and salt mines .
Although Halliday had originally invested in the Cairo and Vincennes Railway in 1865 , it was not completed and incorporated until July 9 , 1880 . In the 15 years in between , Halliday was able to attract many influential and important investors to the project . Banking tycoon , J. P. Morgan served as president and as a director of the railroad with Halliday . In 1869 , Halliday spent eight weeks in New York City with co @-@ investors Burnside , Hurd , and Raum trying to get investment for the Cairo and Vinncennes Railway project . During the trip , Halliday was able to gain the support and investment of the United States railroad construction company .
= = William P. Halliday and the town of Hallidayboro Illinois = =
The town of Muddy Valley , Illinois , which was located in Jackson County , Illinois , was renamed Hallidayboro in 1894 in honor of Halliday . Halliday was a major investor and owner of the Muddy Valley Mining and Manufacturing Company located in the town . The company remained in Halliday 's estate for over 30 years after his death . When the company was sold , it consisted of 5 @,@ 700 acres of coal lands , numerous mine buildings and property , and several farms . The town was planned by Halliday based on his friend George Pullman 's ideas developed from a similar industrial mining town he had founded earlier . Halliday wanted to avoid the labor and capital disputes that plagued the era by creating a model town for his mine workers and their families . At the height of the mine 's production , Halliday employed over 500 men . White and black families lived and worked together , and it was one of the first towns in southern Illinois to have electricity .
William Parker Halliday became acquainted with George Pullman through his many business interests which took him to Chicago , Springfield , and Washington , D.C. Halliday owned his own Pullman Palace Car , a personal gift from George Pullman .
The town , originally named Muddy Valley , contrasted sharply with other southern Illinois coal towns , commonly referred to as " mining camps " . Some aspects of Halllidayboro so closely resembled Pullman as to leave no doubt of William Halliday 's intention to pattern his community after the cook county town . Tenements showing a distinctive style of architecture set in the midst of well @-@ manicured trees and gardens caused journalists to designate the town a " Storybook Village " .
Employees at Hallidayboro commonly worked a ten @-@ hour day , but by 1898 William Halliday 's mines adopted an eight @-@ hour schedule on all shifts and agreed to pay union wage .
An interest in farming came naturally to William Halliday . Besides teaching , his father , Samuel , farmed successfully in Scotland and in the United States . Halliday owned a prosperous cotton plantation in Arkansas in addition to several thousand cultivated acres not connected with the model town . The 3500 cultivated acres surrounding the village provided important staples for the town . Forage for the mine mules as well as food for mining families came from company farms . In order to process its own meat , the company operated a slaughterhouse . By using this system the store was able to sell fresh meat at affordable prices .
George Pullman and William Halliday familiarized themselves with their industrial operations , giving attention to the minutest details . Their labor forces , tempered by the demands of industry in America , expected to work hard in exchange for the necessities of life . Cooperation between managers and workers created a higher standard of living , which in turn , encouraged better working conditions.Good housing also helped promote good work habits .
In the United States , unbearably inadequate housing and overcrowded neighborhoods pushed working men out of the home and into saloons where they congregated for drink and discussion . Wealthy capitalists wishing to strike a balance between the demands of labor and desires of capital looked to Robert Owen 's example . George Pullman and William Halliday implemented a policy of tolerance in their towns identical to that of Robert Owen . The peaceful atmosphere in Pullman and Hallidayboro can be attributed in part to the absence of alcohol .
That Hallidayboro was relatively peaceful is especially significant because most coal towns in the region were prone to " heinous crime " . Residents in other southern Illinois coal towns , containing no policy of temperance , often experienced murder and fatal injuries resulting from bar @-@ room brawls . Violence sometimes took the form of wife @-@ beating . Several southern Illinois miners lost their lives at the hands of a frustrated spouse .
Reformers reasoned that adequate housing could counter the drinking problems . George Pullman adhered to this idea . He believed that a good residential surrounding would benefit the workers and that beauty in the town would breed good character in the residents . Pullman hoped the comfortable , beautiful environment of his town would encourage cleanliness , industriousness and sobriety in the work force . Attractive housing with adequate living space did create good work habits in the towns .
William Halliday , like George Pullman , had cherished a desire to create a model company town .
Hallidayboro 's housing compared favorably to that in other model company towns during this period . Not until the turn of the century did comparable company houses appear in southern Illinois , when Joseph Leiter built the town of Zeigler . In contrast to Hallidayboro 's bustling , peaceful environment , coal miners never lived in the attractive houses provided by Joseph Leiter .
Until 1920 , electricity was rare in southern Illinois communities , except in Hallidayboro .
Raised by teachers , William Halliday also believed in the value of education . One of the original buildings in Hallidayboro , the schoolhouse followed the overall architecture scheme of the village . Nestled at the west end of Main Street , the frame schoolhouse accommodated forty students . Typical of the period , separated entrances for boys and girls appeared under the twin bell towers . It is also likely that Halliday maintained a book collection for the use of the residents of his company town . In his home city he served on the Cairo Library Board and he endowed the Cairo Library with $ 5 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 in his will . A high degree of literacy existed in Hallidayboro .
Towns such as Pullman and Hallidayboro supported Robert Owen 's original belief that owners could profit from helping their workers .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Towards the end of his life , Halliday was the president of the Illinois Bankers Association . In 1885 , Halliday was President of the City National Bank of Cairo and his brother , Thomas W. Halliday was listed as Cashier of the bank . At the time the bank had $ 772 @,@ 994 @.@ 34 of available funds . Based on inflation from 1885 to 2012 , $ 772 @,@ 994 @.@ 34 is the money equivalent to approx $ 19 @,@ 451 @,@ 163 today .
Ever since moving to Cairo in 1860 , Halliday was a huge force in the development of the city and region . One source describes his contributions in the following manner , " In life he was one of the city 's staunchest friends . No labor in her interests was too arduous for him to undertake , no expense for her welfare or promotion too great for him too assume . Numerous monuments to his far @-@ seeing sagacity exist to @-@ day and will exist for centuries to come . " Another source described Halliday by stating , " He is an effective worker , accomplishing more by action than a half dozen men might by talking . "
In addition to the town , Halliday also named one of his steamboats the William P. Halliday . It was under the command of Sobieski Jolly and was mentioned in Mark Twain 's papers . The boat was destroyed by fire on a Monday morning in February 1884 while it was next to the St. Louis City wharf .
In 1895 , Halliday and other leading men were appointed to the first set of officers to direct the Ohio Valley Improvement Association . The primary purpose of the organization was to be the collection , preparation , and presentation to the United States Congress statistics and other information relating to commerce and navigation on the Ohio River . Halliday served as one of six vice presidents , and the sitting governor of West Virginia , Mac Corkle was present . The following year in 1896 , Halliday was reelected as a vice president of the Ohio Valley Improvement Association at the second annual convention held in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania .
In 1898 , about one year before Halliday died , he and other merchants and businessmen in Cairo sponsored a boat race from Mound City , Illinois to Cairo , Illinois . The race offered a cash prize to the winner and was widely reported in the newspapers of towns and villages along the Ohio River . Halliday stood next to the Halliday House and shot a gun when the first boat crossed the finish line to announce to the crowd of people the winning boat .
Halliday spent the last six months of his life residing in the Lexington Hotel in Chicago , Illinois . He had been battling an illness during his stay in Chicago and died from the condition . At his death he was reputed to be worth from $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Based on inflation from 1899 to 2012 , $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 is the money equivalent to approx $ 108 @,@ 649 @,@ 539 today . After Halliday 's death in 1899 , his estate left the Cairo Public Library $ 5 @,@ 000 , to be used to expand the collection of rare and fine edition books . Halliday had served as president of the library board . In 1906 , Halliday 's daughter Mary presented the Hewer to the city of Cairo in honor of her father . The Hewer is a historic bronze nude by George Grey Barnard that was exhibited at the St. Louis World 's Fair and was considered to be one of the two best nudes in the United States .
Halliday and his wife , Eliza W. Halliday , separated from each other and had a legally binding separation agreement in force at the time of his death . His wife dissented from the terms of his will and instead took her dower rights under Illinois law , which at that time amounted to one third of all property and personalty in his estate . Soon after his wife was granted her dower rights , his wife and six children created the W. P. Halliday trust and funded it in 1900 with $ 1 @,@ 062 @,@ 921 @.@ 88 from Halliday 's estate . In 1939 the estate was held to be an association , and tax deficiencies were levied against the trust beneficiaries for unpaid taxes owed to the Internal Revenue Service . Over the course of time the trust was in existence the beneficiaries expanded the trust holdings through the purchase of stock , real estate , and businesses and the majority of these investments were very profitable .
= = Funeral and obituary = =
Obituaries and Death Notices The Cairo Citizen 5 Jan 1899- 28 Dec 1899 Cairo , Alexander County , Illinois Thursday , 28 Sep 1899 :
CAIRO SUFFERS LOSS
In the Death of Capt. W. P. Halliday , Her Foremost Citizen .
He Passed Away at Chicago Last Friday Night . — Funeral from Halliday Hotel Tuesday Afternoon and Buried at Beech Grove Cemetery — Sketch of the Life of a Great Man .
Capt. William P. Halliday , Cairo ’ s most prominent citizen , died at the Lexington Hotel in Chicago at midnight Friday night . Capt. Halliday had been ill for about six weeks . He went to Chicago to receive treatment and change of air to ward off an attack of malaria . While feeling badly , he was able to be up and around until a few days before his death . His friends and family did not anticipate his demise would come so soon , but it appeared the captain himself did . He made his will while in Chicago and prepared for the end . A few days before his death , however , his condition grew so bad that his family were summoned to his bedside . Thursday morning about 3 o ’ clock he lost consciousness , and although life was kept up by artificial means for many hours , he slept away and Friday night at midnight the final dissolution came .
The remains were immediately prepared for burial and were brought down from Chicago on the train leaving there Saturday afternoon . The Illinois Central railroad very kindly furnished two private cars for the use of the family and friends . Arriving here the remains were taken to the Halliday Hotel and lay in state in parlor A until Tuesday . All that was earthly of Capt. Halliday lay in a handsome cloth covered metallic casket , and throngs of people passed through the rooms Sunday and Monday to gaze once more upon his features . His illness had left its traces on his face , which looked thin and haggard . Profuse floral pieces surrounded the casket , and the life @-@ size oil painting of the deceased , which hung at the head of the casket , was draped heavily in mourning .
The same evidences of mourning were seen along the levee . The Halliday Hotel the City National Bank and the gas office all bore crepe on their doors , while a number of buildings along the levee were draped in black and flags hung at half @-@ mast .
The funeral of the late Capt. Halliday was held at the Halliday Hotel Tuesday afternoon . Long before two o ’ clock the crowds commenced to gather and when the services began the parlors and halfway were crowded with people and numbers could not get upstairs but waited in the office or outside on the street . Rev. F. A. DeRosset , rector of the Church of the Redeemer , conducted the last solemn rites and a quartette choir composed of Mr. Buchanan , Miss Lelia Miller , and Messrs. Buchanan and Tunnel sang several beautiful hymns . The funeral address was delivered by Rev. C. T. Phillips , of Princeville , Ill . , formerly pastor of the Presbyterian Church here . Mr. Phillips was a close friend of the deceased , and it was the wish of Capt. Halliday that he might assist in the service . Mr. Phillips spoke of the Captain ’ s kindness and generosity , how he rendered assistance to so many and did it in such a delicate way that no sensitive or proud natures were hurt . He spoke of the Captain ’ s loyalty to Cairo . How he aided the city in its struggle against the great floods ; how he instructed the bank to cash all paper issued by the city in those dark days ; how his fortune was ready to be used in protecting life and property here , and how his barges were always placed in readiness to be sunk opposite weak places in the levee . He told of a conversation the Captain had with him in the panic days of 1892- ’ 93 , when banks were failing everywhere , in which the deceased said his entire fortune was ready to preserve the integrity of the bank here and to protect the businessmen from loss . He told what a kind employer Capt. Halliday was , how a
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2 , and the first Galloway registry was introduced in the USA in 1882 . In 1911 , 35 @,@ 000 cattle were registered in the American Galloway Herd Book which was first created in 1882 . The British Galloway Society formed in 1908 . They did not recognise dun coloured Galloway cattle , which was met with outrage and this ban was later lifted . In 1951 , Galloway cattle were introduced to Australia .
In the 1950s the breed enjoyed much success because the beef market demanded low input ( feed ) cattle with high quality meat . However , the BSE crisis ( commonly referred to as mad cow disease ) caused an export ban in 1990 , although there were no cases of BSE found in Galloway cattle . This created a fear associated with cattle , so breed numbers declined .
Recent years have seen changes as bigger leaner carcasses were demanded . This issue of size featured in Galloway circles causes great debate . Some of the adjustments made was the adoption of AI and Embryo Transfer . Today the breed 's original characteristics are now back in demand . This is due to the demand of high quality meat that requires economical production .
= = Characteristics = =
The average Galloway cow will weigh 1000 to 1500 pounds and the average bull weighing 1700 to 2300 pounds . The healthy birth weight for a calf is 75 pounds .
Galloways have a thick double @-@ layered coat that is wavy or curly . This thick coat of hair insulates their bodies so well that they have a minimal outer layer of fat on their bodies , which would otherwise create waste at slaughter . This coat sheds out in the summer months and in warmer climates . Despite the animal 's usual use in beef production , there is evidence of Galloway herds being milked in Cumberland for cheese production .
The Galloway is naturally hornless , and instead of horns has a bone knob at the top of its skull called the poll . This breed 's shaggy coat has both a thick , woolly undercoat for warmth and stiffer guard hairs that help shed water , making them well adapted to harsher climates .
= = = Population = = =
It is thought that the breed number fewer than 10 @,@ 000 cattle in the world , most located in Northern Europe , specifically Scotland . The breed is ' rare ' in the United States and the Livestock Conservancy class it as a breed to ' watch ' .
= = Societies = =
Galloway Cattle Society of New Zealand
American Galloway Breeders Association
The Galloway Cattle Society of Great Britain and Ireland
Australian Galloway Association
= Steve Dahl =
Steven Robert Dahl ( born November 20 , 1954 in Pasadena , California ) is an American radio personality and humorist . He is the owner and operator of the Steve Dahl Network , a subscription @-@ based podcasting network as well as the host of The Steve Dahl Show which airs weekdays on WLS @-@ AM .
Originally , Dahl broadcast with Detroit stations WABX and WWWW and later with Chicago stations WCKG , WDAI , WLUP , WMVP and WLS . He also served as a columnist for the Chicago Tribune in their Live section as the resident " vice advisor " until November 2010 . Additionally , Dahl has served on the Board of Trustees at Columbia College Chicago .
Dahl 's radio show takes an " every guy " approach to life in Chicago and Dahl often tells bucolic stories about his life and family on the air . Dahl is also well known in Chicago for his song parodies and his impressions . He is considered a pioneer in talk radio and has been influential for many other radio personalities . He gained a measure of national attention after the Disco Demolition Night promotion at Comiskey Park , and he is also known in Chicago for his longstanding former role as one half of the " Steve and Garry " team ( with Garry Meier ) .
In addition to his radio career , Dahl is a singer , songwriter , and guitarist . His band , Teenage Radiation , recorded and performed a number of song parodies ( which he often played on his show throughout the 1980s ) and since 1990 he has performed and recorded as Steve Dahl and the Dahlfins . Dahl has also dabbled in acting , appearing in the 1984 cult classic , Grandview , U.S.A. with John and Joan Cusack . He also appeared in the 2004 film Outing Riley , and in the 2006 indie comedy I Want Someone to Eat Cheese With ( which was written and directed by Chicago native Jeff Garlin ) .
= = Early life = =
Dahl grew up in La Cañada , California , a Los Angeles suburb northwest of Pasadena . He is the son of Roger and Carolyn Dahl , an electronics parts manufacturer 's representative and a homemaker .
= = Radio career = =
= = = Early radio career = = =
In the 9th grade , Dahl began hanging around a local underground radio station , KPCC @-@ FM , in his home state of California . At the age of sixteen , after he starting working at the radio station full @-@ time , he unofficially dropped out of high school . Dahl later explained , " I convinced my parents and the school that I would do an independent work @-@ study thing . I never got around to it . " At the age of eighteen , he obtained his GED and briefly married a woman he met after she called him on @-@ air to request Suzanne , a song by Leonard Cohen which told a tale of a troubled relationship . Dahl later explained his short @-@ lived marriage by commenting , " I should have paid more attention to that song . "
Dahl was told by radio executives that he 'd never make it in radio because his voice was too high . At one point , Dahl was so discouraged that he quit for about six months and attempted to pursue a career as a recording engineer . However , this never amounted to anything more than making mix tapes of popular songs for play on airplanes . Throughout this time period , he was making efforts to reconcile with his ex @-@ wife , who by then was dating the program director at the Los Angeles radio station where she worked . He later admitted to stalking her by sleeping in his Subaru outside her house .
In 1976 , Dahl 's ex @-@ wife told him about an opening for a morning show in Detroit , Michigan on WABX @-@ FM . He managed to secure the job , despite the fact that he did not think he was good enough for it ( he later learned that the station was owned by the same company his ex @-@ wife worked for ) . At WABX , Dahl learned as much as he could about what constituted " good radio " and also began experimenting with his content . His popularity increased to the point that he achieved a 7 @.@ 2 market share .
During his time at WABX , Dahl was introduced to Janet , a junior high school English and drama teacher in a Detroit suburb , who was casually dating a friend of his and was also a listener of his show . The two hit it off after Dahl invited her to a " hump day " broadcast he was doing from the camel area of the Detroit Zoo .
WDAI executives in Chicago , attracted by Dahl 's 7 @.@ 1 share , approached him and offered to double his salary to $ 50 @,@ 000 a year . However , Janet did not want to leave her family in Detroit and he did not want to leave her . This prompted Dahl to ask his bosses for $ 35 @,@ 000 a year to stay in Detroit . They flatly refused by telling him to " Go fuck yourself . Go to Chicago . Fall on your fat face . " In 1978 , after Janet accepted his marriage proposal , Dahl left Detroit for WDAI in Chicago . The pair eventually married in 1980 .
= = = Rude Awakening = = =
Dahl began at WDAI Chicago on February 23 , 1978 with his solo " Steve Dahl 's Rude Awakening " show , but it never achieved solid ratings despite media attention . Ten months later , on Christmas Eve , 1978 , WDAI changed formats from rock to disco and fired Dahl .
= = = Steve and Garry = = =
In March 1979 , after a few months without a job , Dahl was hired to do a morning show at WLUP where he met overnight DJ Garry Meier ( who was then broadcasting under the pseudonym of " Matthew Meier " ) . Shortly thereafter , the two began a cross talk that eventually led to Meier being teamed up with Dahl as both sidekick and newsman . Dahl effectively forced Meier to use his actual name by calling him " Garry " on @-@ air accidentally . After openly discussing the subject , again , on @-@ air , Meier officially dropped his pseudonym .
= = = = Disco Demolition Night = = = =
In response to Dahl 's firing from WDAI , Dahl and Meier mocked and heaped scorn on disco records and WDAI ( calling it " Disco @-@ D.I.E. " mocking the station 's slogan , " Disco @-@ D.A.I. " ) on the air . Dahl even recorded and started playing a parody of Rod Stewart 's " Da Ya Think I 'm Sexy ? " , which he called " Do You Think I 'm Disco ? " . The song managed to crack the national charts to peak at # 58 on the Billboard Hot 100 and received airplay across the country .
During this same time period , Dahl and Meier , along with Mike Veeck ( son of then Chicago White Sox owner Bill Veeck ) , Jeff Schwartz of WLUP Sales and Dave Logan , the WLUP Promotions Director , came up with a radio promotion and tie @-@ in to the White Sox called Disco Demolition Night which took place on Thursday , July 12 , 1979 . The concept was to create an event to " end disco once and for all " in the center field of Comiskey Park that night by allowing people to get tickets at the box office if they brought $ 0 @.@ 98 ( for WLUP @-@ FM 's 97 @.@ 9 location on the dial ) and at least one disco record . More than 50 @,@ 00 fans showed up , the records were collected , piled up on the field and blown up . Hundreds of rowdy fans stormed the field , refused to leave , and caused the second game of the doubleheader to be postponed . American League President Lee MacPhail later declared the second game of the doubleheader a forfeit victory for the visiting Detroit Tigers . Six people reported minor injuries , and thirty @-@ nine were arrested for disorderly conduct .
= = = = Height of collaboration = = = =
As a result of Disco Demolition Night , Dahl attained national recognition and his popularity increased significantly . He established a syndicate and the Steve and Garry show began airing in Detroit and Milwaukee , where it performed well . However , in February 1981 , WLUP fired Dahl , citing " continued assaults on community standards . " " It was going on in El Paso and Los Angeles , like , on Monday , and on Friday they fired me , " Dahl later said . Meier was offered the opportunity to continue the show by himself , but he refused .
During the Iranian Hostage Crisis , Dahl , along with his backing band Teenage Radiation , recorded and released a parody of The Knack 's song " My Sharona , " called " Ayatollah . " He also made on @-@ the @-@ air prank phone calls to the " Islamic Fried Chicken " ( a play on Kentucky Fried Chicken ) , ordering buckets of chicken for the hostages in the US embassy , for which the State Department later reprimanded him . Dahl also parodied the John Wayne Gacy murders with his song " Another Kid in the Crawl " ( to the tune of Pink Floyd 's " Another Brick in the Wall " ) . The playing of the song was stopped after parents of the murdered children called to complain .
Dahl and Meier won a local Emmy award for a television special they did in 1981 called , Greetings from Graceland , which was a comedy spoof on the tourist shrine and featured Elvis Presley 's " Uncle Vester " selling Elvis cookbooks from the guardhouse . They briefly had a morning television show , called It 's Too Early on local Chicago station , WFBN @-@ TV , which nationally syndicated columnist Bob Greene called " the best program on television " , " amazing " , and " hypnotic " in his June 20 , 1983 column . The show was canceled after four weeks on the air because it was deemed " unsuitable for general viewing ... in particular for young children " after Dahl was shown fully clothed sitting on a toilet seat reading a newspaper .
In 1982 , he stated on the air that motorists could allegedly substitute Necco Wafers for coins in automatic toll booths on Chicago 's tollways . The Illinois Tollway System later said that approximately a dozen toll machines broke down due to people trying to use the candy to pay tolls .
Dahl decided to get a vasectomy in March 1989 , which was performed live on the air at a urologist 's office in Indiana . According to Arbitron ratings for that survey period , Dahl and Meier 's ratings jumped from a tie for seventh place in afternoons to a tie for third place .
According to Paul D. Colford , a former writer for Long Island Newsday , Howard Stern listened to tapes of Steve and Garry sent from Chicago by a friend of the chief engineer at WCCC Hartford . Colford claims Stern eventually developed his on @-@ air style as a result of these tapes . Later , Stern was hired at WWWW Detroit ( which Dahl had left when he moved to Chicago ) .
= = = = End of collaboration = = = =
Steve and Garry moved to WLS , but ultimately returned to WLUP where they stayed until their split in 1993 . The alleged reason for the break @-@ up was Dahl 's on @-@ the @-@ air comments about Meier ’ s new wife , commercial real @-@ estate broker Cynthia Fircak , while the new couple were on their honeymoon . Meier also blamed Dahl 's alcoholism and unpredictable behavior . Dahl , for his part , blamed Fircak for the split , once saying on air " When I met her , I knew the rules had just changed . "
In 2003 , Robert Feder , a columnist for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , said , " It 's the divorce that just keeps on giving : A decade after Steve Dahl and Garry Meier severed their legendary radio partnership , their breakup remains a source of bitterness and anger for them — and continuing fascination for their fans . "
After the team broke up , Dahl went to Sports Talk WMVP AM and teamed with Chicago sportscaster Bruce Wolf .
= = = WCKG years = = =
Dahl ended up on WCKG , broadcasting an afternoon show on that station . He eventually teamed up with Buzz Kilman , who was Dahl 's newsman starting in 1980 on WLUP , and the show was available as a podcast at Dahl 's website and streamed live on WCKG 's website . Dahl 's afternoon show was rated fifth ( 4 @.@ 1 ) among men 25 @-@ 54 in the winter 2006 @-@ 2007 ratings report . In 2007 , Dahl was named one of the ' 100 Most Important Radio Talk Show Hosts ' by Talkers Magazine .
On Friday , August 18 , 2006 , Dahl was doing a remote broadcast of his show at Oak Street Beachstro , a restaurant on Chicago 's Oak Street Beach . Coincidentally , Garry Meier was eating lunch there with friends . After Dahl learned of Meier 's presence there , he invited Meier to appear on the air with him , which Meier accepted . Meier wound up staying for the remainder of the show . This event was covered widely throughout the Chicago media that evening .
On April 2 , 2007 , Meier returned to Chicago radio , doing the 8 AM @-@ 11 AM show on WCKG . He appeared briefly on Dahl 's show that same day . They occasionally contributed to each other 's shows , and Meier spent the first hour and a half in studio during Dahl 's show on the 28th year anniversary of Disco Demolition Night , recounting the events of that night .
= = = Jack FM = = =
Dahl announced on October 29 , 2007 that he would move to mornings at WJMK on November 5 , 2007 as WCKG changed formats . He was the only live personality at the Jack FM outlet as the rest of the station was pre @-@ programmed and run by computer . Dahl 's son Matt was part of the regular WCKG lineup and hosted the show immediately following his father 's . However , the WCKG format change , from an FM talk station to an adult contemporary station was the end of Matt 's show on WCKG .
On December 5 , 2008 , Dahl announced the end of his show on Jack FM due to low ratings .
" They were saying , ' Well , do a couple of weeks , a farewell . ' " Dahl said . " I said , ' It 's not a farewell . You guys are taking me off the air . I 'm not retiring . ' ... " I still have two and a half years left on my deal so , quite frankly , I 'm not letting them out of it . " Dahl also said he was prepared to stay off the air for the remainder of his contract , which was to end in mid @-@ 2011 and was said to be worth more than $ 1 million annually .
After the end of Dahl 's final broadcast , Howard Cogan , the normally sarcastic signature voice , Jack , heard on many Jack FM stations , delivered a sincere sendoff to Dahl followed by " Life 's Been Good " by Joe Walsh , a long @-@ time friend of Dahl .
= = = Back to WLS = = =
On October 7 , 2014 , media blogger Robert Feder reported that Dahl would be returning to terrestrial radio on WLS AM 890 . Feder wrote : " Dahl , 59 , will join the Cumulus Media news / talk station as afternoon personality , from 2 to 6 p.m. Monday though Friday . If all goes as planned , Dahl would start in early November . Sources familiar with the deal said Dahl will continue his subscription podcast venture , with Cumulus Media becoming a partner in the Steve Dahl Network . Under the agreement , Cumulus would provide financial , technical and marketing support , while Dahl would continue to host a separate , 90 @-@ minute daily podcast for his paid subscribers . " Dahl confirmed Feder 's report on October 8 saying " he 's eager to get back on the air to become ' part of the daily conversation in Chicago ' " .
Dahl 's first day back on WLS was November 3 , 2014 . His show included an appearance by Ron Magers and a phone interview with Bob Odenkirk . Prior to the show , Dahl said in an email , " My plan for the show is to be funny and get good ratings . " Dahl also said that he sees his return as not only a good opportunity to try and re @-@ energize radio , but also as a way to turn people onto his podcast .
= = Podcasts = =
On September 8 , 2009 , Dahl began doing daily podcasts from a studio in the basement of his home . At the time , Dahl was still under contract with CBS , who had agreed in July 2009 to partner with him to produce a daily , hour long podcast complete with a few commercials . On August 1 , 2011 , Dahl , no longer under contract with CBS , began the Steve Dahl Network whose 11 unique weekly shows can be either downloaded or streamed via his official website and app or downloaded from iTunes . Originally , there was only just a daily podcast from Dahl ; the network , however , has expanded and now includes podcasts by friends Kevin Matthews and Daniel Van Kirk among others .
In addition to podcasting , Steve has maintained a presence with his fans through Facebook , Twitter , blogs , occasional newspaper articles ( he wrote a regular column for the Chicago Tribune up until 2011 ) as well as various television / radio appearances .
= = Musical career = =
In addition to recording parody songs for his radio show with his early band Teenage Radiation , Dahl began recording and playing live performance with a new band in 1990 , called Steve Dahl and the Dahlfins . This band has recorded and released several albums , including 1992 's " Tropical Tides " and 1997 's " Mai Tai Roa Ae " . In 2007 , backed by Des Moines , Iowa band The Nadas , Dahl embarked on a tour of Chicago @-@ area concert venues . In collaboration with record producer Joe Thomas , Dahl played a large role in the comeback of Beach Boy Brian Wilson . The three co @-@ wrote the song " Your Imagination " which appeared as a single and on Wilson 's 1998 album Imagination . Dahl provided backup vocals on the song as well . An alternate version of " Your Imagination " with slightly different lyrics and Steve Dahl singing lead is occasionally played on The Steve Dahl Show .
= = Honors = =
On November 9 , 2013 , Dahl and former partner Meier were both inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in recognition of their work together on the " Steve and Garry Show . "
= = Personal life = =
Currently , Dahl resides in the western suburbs of Chicago with his wife Janet , a non @-@ practicing lawyer , whom he married in 1978 . Before law school , she taught junior high for seven years in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan . Dahl has three sons and six grandchildren .
Dahl is an avid Chicago sports fan , and holds season tickets for the Chicago Blackhawks .
Dahl has battled alcoholism throughout his adult life , which he has alluded to a number of times . He has been sober since 1995 , the day after a drinking bout at the White Sox home opener , achieving it cold turkey .
It was sort of prompted by the fact that I realized that Patrick ( eldest of his three sons ) was 14 and I was rapidly approaching a ' Do as I say , not as I do ' situation . I didn 't think I had a right to comment on [ my sons ' ] behavior based on my behavior . Plus , once I turned 40 ( in November 1994 ) some metabolic thing happened to me and I guess I just got old .
In 1999 , his wife filed a multi – million dollar lawsuit against Mancow Muller over lewd comments Muller made about her on his show . In 2001 , the case was settled . Although the terms of the deal were not disclosed , it was reportedly seven figures .
Also in 1999 , Steve Dahl admitted secretly recording conversations among staffers at WCKG because he suspected they were talking about him behind his back . In snippets Dahl has played on his afternoon show , two station employees can be heard mocking him as " Steve Dull " and ridiculing his show . Dahl said , " I did it within my organization to confirm my suspicions . This was in a studio filled with microphones and cameras . Legally , I don 't feel they had any expectation of privacy in that case . "
Criminal suspect Drew Peterson and his lawyer , Joel Brodsky , called in to Dahl 's show on January 23 , 2008 . Dahl had been lampooning Peterson since the start of the former police officer 's notoriety . Brodsky suggested that Dahl host an on @-@ air " dating game " with Peterson the following day , but WJMK managers and Dahl later decided not to go through with it . "
= Song dynasty =
The Song dynasty ( Chinese : 宋朝 ; pinyin : Sòng cháo ; 960 – 1279 ) was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279 . It succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period , and was followed by the Yuan dynasty . It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy . This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder , as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass .
The Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods , Northern and Southern . During the Northern Song ( Chinese : 北宋 ; 960 – 1127 ) , the Song capital was in the northern city of Bianjing ( now Kaifeng ) and the dynasty controlled most of what is now Eastern China . The Southern Song ( Chinese : 南宋 ; 1127 – 1279 ) refers to the period after the Song lost control of its Northern half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin – Song Wars . During this time , the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze and established its capital at Lin 'an ( now Hangzhou ) . Although the Song dynasty had lost control of the traditional " birthplace of Chinese civilization " along the Yellow River , the Song economy was still strong , as the Southern Song Empire contained a large population and productive agricultural land . The Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad .
To repel the Jin , and later the Mongols , the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder . In 1234 , the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols , who took control of northern China , maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song . Möngke Khan , the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire , died in 1259 while besieging the city of Chongqing . His younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan , though his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west . In 1271 , Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Emperor of China . After two decades of sporadic warfare , Kublai Khan 's armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279 . The Mongol invasion led to a reunification under the Yuan dynasty ( 1271 – 1368 ) .
The Song dynasty restored unity and made Song the richest , most skilled , and most populous country on earth . The population doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries . This growth was made possible by expanded rice cultivation in central and southern Song , the use of early @-@ ripening rice from south @-@ east and southern Asia , and the production of widespread food surpluses . The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million , much like the Han and Tang dynasties . This data is found in the Standard Histories . However , it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people , and 200 million by the time of the Ming dynasty . This dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in pre @-@ modern China . The expansion of the population , growth of cities , and the emergence of a national economy led to the gradual withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs . The lower gentry assumed a larger role in grassroots administration and local affairs . Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the scholarly gentry for their services , sponsorship , and local supervision .
Social life during the Song was vibrant . Citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks , the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs , and cities had lively entertainment quarters . The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the rapid expansion of woodblock printing and the 11th @-@ century invention of movable @-@ type printing . Technology , science , philosophy , mathematics , and engineering flourished over the course of the Song . Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary , infused with Buddhist ideals , and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought out the core doctrine of Neo @-@ Confucianism . Although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty , it became much more prominent in the Song period . The officials who gained power by succeeding in the exams became a leading factor in the shift from a military @-@ aristocratic elite to a bureaucratic elite .
= = History = =
= = = Northern Song , 959 – 1126 = = =
Emperor Taizu of Song ( r . 960 – 976 ) unified the empire by conquering other lands during his reign , ending the upheaval of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . In Kaifeng , he established a strong central government over the empire . He ensured administrative stability by promoting the civil service examination system of drafting state bureaucrats by skill and merit ( instead of aristocratic or military position ) and promoted projects that ensured efficiency in communication throughout the empire . In one such project , cartographers created detailed maps of each province and city that were then collected in a large atlas . Emperor Taizu also promoted groundbreaking scientific and technological innovations by supporting such works as the astronomical clock tower designed and built by the engineer Zhang Sixun .
The Song court maintained diplomatic relations with Chola India , the Fatimid Caliphate , Srivijaya , the Kara @-@ Khanid Khanate of Central Asia , and other countries that were also trade partners with Japan . 316 However , China 's closest neighbouring states most affected its domestic and foreign policy . From its inception under Taizu , the Song dynasty alternated between warfare and diplomacy with the ethnic Khitans of the Liao dynasty in the northeast and with the Tanguts of the Western Xia in the northwest . The Song dynasty used military force in an attempt to quell the Liao dynasty and to recapture the Sixteen Prefectures , a territory under Khitan control that was traditionally considered to be part of China proper . Song forces were repulsed by the Liao forces , who engaged in aggressive yearly campaigns into northern Song territory until 1005 , when the signing of the Shanyuan Treaty ended these northern border clashes . The Song were forced to provide tribute to the Khitans , although this did little damage to the Song economy since the Khitans were economically dependent upon importing massive amounts of goods from the Song . More significantly , the Song state recognized the Liao state as its diplomatic equal . The Song dynasty managed to win several military victories over the Tanguts in the early 11th century , culminating in a campaign led by the polymath scientist , general , and statesman Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) . However , this campaign was ultimately a failure due to a rival military officer of Shen disobeying direct orders , and the territory gained from the Western Xia was eventually lost . There was also a significant war fought against the Lý dynasty of Vietnam from 1075 to 1077 over a border dispute and the Song 's severing of commercial relations with the Đại Việt kingdom . After Lý forces inflicted heavy damages in a raid on Guangxi , the Song commander Guo Kui ( 1022 – 1088 ) penetrated as far as Thăng Long ( modern Hanoi ) . Heavy losses on both sides prompted the Lý commander Thường Kiệt ( 1019 – 1105 ) to make peace overtures , allowing both sides to withdraw from the war effort ; captured territories held by both Song and Lý were mutually exchanged in 1082 , along with prisoners of war .
During the 11th century , political rivalries divided members of the court due to the ministers ' differing approaches , opinions , and policies regarding the handling of the Song 's complex society and thriving economy . The idealist Chancellor , Fan Zhongyan ( 989 – 1052 ) , was the first to receive a heated political backlash when he attempted to institute the Qingli Reforms , which included measures such as improving the recruitment system of officials , increasing the salaries for minor officials , and establishing sponsorship programs to allow a wider range of people to be well educated and eligible for state service .
After Fan was forced to step down from his office , Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) became Chancellor of the imperial court . With the backing of Emperor Shenzong ( 1067 – 1085 ) , Wang Anshi severely criticized the educational system and state bureaucracy . Seeking to resolve what he saw as state corruption and negligence , Wang implemented a series of reforms called the New Policies . These involved land value tax reform , the establishment of several government monopolies , the support of local militias , and the creation of higher standards for the Imperial examination to make it more practical for men skilled in statecraft to pass .
The reforms created political factions in the court . Wang Anshi 's " New Policies Group " ( Xin Fa ) , also known as the " Reformers " , were opposed by the ministers in the " Conservative " faction led by the historian and Chancellor Sima Guang ( 1019 – 1086 ) . As one faction supplanted another in the majority position of the court ministers , it would demote rival officials and exile them to govern remote frontier regions of the empire . One of the prominent victims of the political rivalry , the famous poet and statesman Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) , was jailed and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang 's reforms .
While the central Song court remained politically divided and focused upon its internal affairs , alarming new events to the north in the Liao state finally came to its attention . The Jurchen , a subject tribe of the Liao , rebelled against them and formed their own state , the Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) . The Song official Tong Guan ( 1054 – 1126 ) advised Emperor Huizong ( 1100 – 1125 ) to form an alliance with the Jurchens , and the joint military campaign under this Alliance Conducted at Sea toppled and completely conquered the Liao dynasty by 1125 .
However , the poor performance and military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchens , who immediately broke the alliance , beginning the Jin – Song Wars of 1125 and 1127 ; during the latter invasion , the Jurchens captured not only the capital , but the retired emperor Huizong , his successor Emperor Qinzong , and most of the Imperial court . This took place in the year of Jingkang ( Chinese : 靖康 ) and it is known as the Jingkang Incident ( Chinese : 靖康之恥 ) .
The remaining Song forces regrouped under the self @-@ proclaimed Emperor Gaozong of Song ( 1127 – 1162 ) and withdrew south of the Yangtze to establish a new capital at Lin 'an ( modern Hangzhou ) . The Jurchen conquest of North China and shift of capitals from Kaifeng to Lin 'an was the dividing line between the Northern and Southern Song dynasties .
= = = Southern Song , 1127 – 1279 = = =
Although weakened and pushed south beyond the Huai River , the Southern Song found new ways to bolster its strong economy and defend itself against the Jin dynasty . It had able military officers such as Yue Fei and Han Shizhong . The government sponsored massive shipbuilding and harbor improvement projects , and the construction of beacons and seaport warehouses to support maritime trade abroad , including at the major international seaports , such as Quanzhou , Guangzhou , and Xiamen , that were sustaining China 's commerce . To protect and support the multitude of ships sailing for maritime interests into the waters of the East China Sea and Yellow Sea ( to Korea and Japan ) , Southeast Asia , the Indian Ocean , and the Red Sea , it was necessary to establish an official standing navy . The Song dynasty therefore established China 's first permanent navy in 1132 , with a headquarters at Dinghai . With a permanent navy , the Song were prepared to face the naval forces of the Jin on the Yangtze River in 1161 , in the Battle of Tangdao and the Battle of Caishi . During these battles the Song navy employed swift paddle wheel driven naval vessels armed with trebuchet catapults aboard the decks that launched gunpowder bombs . Although the Jin forces commanded by Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ) boasted 70 @,@ 000 men on 600 warships , and the Song forces only 3 @,@ 000 men on 120 warships , the Song dynasty forces were victorious in both battles due to the destructive power of the bombs and the rapid assaults by paddle wheel ships . The strength of the navy was heavily emphasized after that . A century after the navy was founded it had grown in size to 52 @,@ 000 fighting marines . The Song government confiscated portions of land owned by the landed gentry in order to raise revenue for these projects , an act which caused dissension and loss of loyalty amongst leading members of Song society but did not stop the Song 's defensive preparations . Financial matters were made worse by the fact that many wealthy , land @-@ owning families — some of which had officials working for the government — used their social connections with those in office in order to obtain tax @-@ exempt status .
Although the Song dynasty was able to hold back the Jin , a new foe came to power over the steppe , deserts , and plains north of the Jin dynasty . The Mongols , led by Genghis Khan ( r . 1206 – 1227 ) , initially invaded the Jin dynasty in 1205 and 1209 , engaging in large raids across its borders , and in 1211 an enormous Mongol army was assembled to invade the Jin . The Jin dynasty was forced to submit and pay tribute to the Mongols as vassals ; when the Jin suddenly moved their capital city from Beijing to Kaifeng , the Mongols saw this as a revolt . Under the leadership of Ögedei Khan ( r.1229 – 1241 ) , both the Jin dynasty and Western Xia dynasty were conquered by Mongol forces . The Mongols also invaded Korea , the Abbasid Caliphate of the Middle East , and Kievan Rus ' . The Mongols were at one time allied with the Song , but this alliance was broken when the Song recaptured the former imperial capitals of Kaifeng , Luoyang , and Chang 'an at the collapse of the Jin dynasty . The Mongol leader Möngke Khan led a campaign against the Song in 1259 but died on August 11 during the Battle of Diaoyu Fortress in Chongqing . Möngke 's death and the ensuing succession crisis prompted Hulagu Khan to pull the bulk of the Mongol forces out of the Middle East where they were poised to fight the Egyptian Mamluks ( who defeated the remaining Mongols at Ain Jalut ) . Although Hulagu was allied with Kublai Khan , his forces were unable to help in the assault against the Song , due to Hulagu 's war with the Golden Horde .
Kublai continued the assault against the Song , gaining a temporary foothold on the southern banks of the Yangtze . Kublai made preparations to take Ezhou , but a pending civil war with his brother Ariq Böke — a rival claimant to the Mongol Khaganate — forced Kublai to move back north with the bulk of his forces . In Kublai 's absence , the Song forces were ordered by Chancellor Jia Sidao to make an opportune assault , and succeeded in pushing the Mongol forces back to the northern banks of the Yangzi . There were minor border skirmishes until 1265 , when Kublai won a significant battle in Sichuan . From 1268 to 1273 , Kublai blockaded the Yangzi River with his navy and besieged Xiangyang , the last obstacle in his way to invading the rich Yangzi River basin . Kublai officially declared the creation of the Yuan dynasty in 1271 . In 1275 , a Song force of 130 @,@ 000 troops under Chancellor Jia Sidao was defeated by Kublai 's newly appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief , general Bayan . By 1276 , most of the Song territory had been captured by Yuan forces . In the Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River Delta in 1279 , the Yuan army , led by the general Zhang Hongfan , finally crushed the Song resistance . The last remaining ruler , the 8 @-@ year @-@ old emperor Emperor Huaizong of Song , committed suicide , along with Prime Minister Lu Xiufu and 800 members of the royal clan . On Kublai 's orders , carried out by his commander Bayan , the rest of the former imperial family of Song were unharmed ; the deposed Emperor Gong was demoted , being given the title ' Duke of Ying ' , but was eventually exiled to Tibet where he took up a monastic life . The former emperor would eventually be forced to commit suicide under the orders of Kublai 's great @-@ great grandson , Gegeen Khan , out of fear that Emperor Gong would stage a coup to restore his reign . Other members of the Song Imperial Family continued to live in the Yuan dynasty , including Zhao Mengfu and Zhao Yong .
= = Society and culture = =
The Song dynasty was an era of administrative sophistication and complex social organization . Some of the largest cities in the world were found in China during this period ( Kaifeng and Hangzhou had populations of over a million ) . People enjoyed various social clubs and entertainment in the cities , and there were many schools and temples to provide the people with education and religious services . The Song government supported social welfare programs including the establishment of retirement homes , public clinics , and paupers ' graveyards . The Song dynasty supported a widespread postal service that was modeled on the earlier Han dynasty ( 202 BCE – CE 220 ) postal system to provide swift communication throughout the empire . The central government employed thousands of postal workers of various ranks to provide service for post offices and larger postal stations . In rural areas , farming peasants either owned their own plots of land , paid rents as tenant farmers , or were serfs on large estates .
Although women were on a lower social tier than men ( according to Confucian ethics ) , they enjoyed many social and legal privileges and wielded considerable power at home and in their own small businesses . As Song society became more and more prosperous and parents on the bride 's side of the family provided larger dowries for her marriage , women naturally gained many new legal rights in ownership of property . Under certain circumstances , an unmarried daughter without brothers , or a surviving mother without sons , could inherit one @-@ half of her father 's share of undivided family property . There were many notable and well @-@ educated women , and it was a common practice for women to educate their sons during their earliest youth . The mother of the scientist , general , diplomat , and statesman Shen Kuo taught him essentials of military strategy . There were also exceptional women writers and poets , such as Li Qingzhao ( 1084 – 1151 ) , who became famous even in her lifetime .
Religion in China during this period had a great effect on people 's lives , beliefs , and daily activities , and Chinese literature on spirituality was popular . The major deities of Daoism and Buddhism , ancestral spirits , and the many deities of Chinese folk religion were worshipped with sacrificial offerings . Tansen Sen asserts that more Buddhist monks from India travelled to China during the Song than in the previous Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . With many ethnic foreigners travelling to China to conduct trade or live permanently , there came many foreign religions ; religious minorities in China included Middle Eastern Muslims , the Kaifeng Jews , and Persian Manichaeans .
The populace engaged in a vibrant social and domestic life , enjoying such public festivals as the Lantern Festival and the Qingming Festival . There were entertainment quarters in the cities providing a constant array of amusements . There were puppeteers , acrobats , theatre actors , sword swallowers , snake charmers , storytellers , singers and musicians , prostitutes , and places to relax , including tea houses , restaurants , and organized banquets . People attended social clubs in large numbers ; there were tea clubs , exotic food clubs , antiquarian and art collectors ' clubs , horse @-@ loving clubs , poetry clubs , and music clubs . Like regional cooking and cuisines in the Song , the era was known for its regional varieties of performing arts styles as well . Theatrical drama was very popular amongst the elite and general populace , although Classical Chinese — not the vernacular language — was spoken by actors on stage . The four largest drama theatres in Kaifeng could hold audiences of several thousand each . There were also notable domestic pastimes , as people at home enjoyed activities such as the go and xiangqi board games .
= = = Civil service examinations and the gentry = = =
During this period greater emphasis was laid upon the civil service system of recruiting officials ; this was based upon degrees acquired through competitive examinations , in an effort to select the most capable individuals for governance . Selecting men for office through proven merit was an ancient idea in China . The civil service system became institutionalized on a small scale during the Sui and Tang dynasties , but by the Song period it became virtually the only means for drafting officials into the government . The advent of widespread printing helped to widely circulate Confucian teachings and to educate more and more eligible candidates for the exams . This can be seen in the number of exam takers for the low @-@ level prefectural exams rising from 30 @,@ 000 annual candidates in the early 11th century to 400 @,@ 000 candidates by the late 13th century . The civil service and examination system allowed for greater meritocracy , social mobility , and equality in competition for those wishing to attain an official seat in government . Using statistics gathered by the Song state , Edward A. Kracke , Sudō Yoshiyuki , and Ho Ping @-@ ti supported the hypothesis that simply having a father , grandfather , or great @-@ grandfather who had served as an official of state did not guarantee one would obtain the same level of authority . Robert Hartwell and Robert P. Hymes criticized this model , stating that it places too much emphasis on the role of the nuclear family and considers only three paternal ascendants of exam candidates while ignoring the demographic reality of Song China , the significant proportion of males in each generation that had no surviving sons , and the role of the extended family . Many felt disenfranchised by what they saw as a bureaucratic system that favored the land @-@ holding class able to afford the best education . One of the greatest literary critics of this was the official and famous poet Su Shi . Yet Su was a product of his times , as the identity , habits , and attitudes of the scholar @-@ official had become less aristocratic and more bureaucratic with the transition of the periods from Tang to Song . At the beginning of the dynasty , government posts were disproportionately held by two elite social groups : a founding elite who had ties with the founding emperor and a semi @-@ hereditary professional elite who used long @-@ held clan status , family connections , and marriage alliances to secure appointments . By the late 11th century , the founding elite became obsolete , while political partisanship and factionalism at court undermined the marriage strategies of the professional elite , which dissolved as a distinguishable social group and was replaced by a multitude of gentry families .
Due to Song 's enormous population growth and the body of its appointed scholar @-@ officials being accepted in limited numbers ( about 20 @,@ 000 active officials during the Song period ) , the larger scholarly gentry class would now take over grassroots affairs on the vast local level . Excluding the scholar @-@ officials in office , this elite social class consisted of exam candidates , examination degree @-@ holders not yet assigned to an official post , local tutors , and retired officials . These learned men , degree @-@ holders , and local elites supervised local affairs and sponsored necessary facilities of local communities ; any local magistrate appointed to his office by the government relied upon the cooperation of the few or many local gentry in the area . For example , the Song government — excluding the educational @-@ reformist government under Emperor Huizong — spared little amount of state revenue to maintain prefectural and county schools ; instead , the bulk of the funds for schools was drawn from private financing . This limited role of government officials was a departure from the earlier Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , when the government strictly regulated commercial markets and local affairs ; now the government withdrew heavily from regulating commerce and relied upon a mass of local gentry to perform necessary duties in their communities .
The gentry distinguished themselves in society through their intellectual and antiquarian pursuits , while the homes of prominent landholders attracted a variety of courtiers , including artisans , artists , educational tutors , and entertainers . Despite the disdain for trade , commerce and the merchant class exhibited by the highly cultured and elite exam @-@ drafted scholar @-@ officials , commercialism played a prominent role in Song culture and society . A scholar @-@ official would be frowned upon by his peers if he pursued means of profiteering outside of his official salary ; however , this did not stop many scholar @-@ officials from managing business relations through the use of intermediary agents . 68 – 69
= = = Law , justice , and forensic science = = =
The Song judicial system retained most of the legal code of the earlier Tang dynasty , the basis of traditional Chinese law up until the modern era . Roving sheriffs maintained law and order in the municipal jurisdictions and occasionally ventured into the countryside . Official magistrates overseeing court cases were not only expected to be well @-@ versed in written law but also to promote morality in society . Magistrates such as the famed Bao Qingtian ( 999 – 1062 ) embodied the upright , moral judge who upheld justice and never failed to live up to his principles . Song judges specified the guilty person or party in a criminal act and meted out punishments accordingly , often in the form of caning . A guilty individual or parties brought to court for a criminal or civil offense were not viewed as wholly innocent until proven otherwise , while even accusers were viewed with a high level of suspicion by the judge . Due to costly court expenses and immediate jailing of those accused of criminal offences , people in the Song preferred to settle disputes and quarrels privately , without the court 's interference .
Shen Kuo 's Dream Pool Essays argued against traditional Chinese beliefs in anatomy ( such as his argument for two throat valves instead of three ) ; this perhaps spurred the interest in the performance of post @-@ mortem autopsies in China during the 12th century. footnote 27 The physician and judge known as Song Ci ( 1186 – 1249 ) wrote a pioneering work of forensic science on the examination of corpses in order to determine cause of death ( strangulation , poisoning , drowning , blows , etc . ) and to prove whether death resulted from murder , suicide , or accidental death . Song Ci stressed the importance of proper coroner 's conduct during autopsies and the accurate recording of the inquest of each autopsy by official clerks . 72
= = = Military and methods of warfare = = =
The Song military was chiefly organized to ensure that the army could not threaten Imperial control , often at the expense of effectiveness in war . Northern Song 's Military Council operated under a Chancellor , who had no control over the imperial army . The imperial army was divided among three marshals , each independently responsible to the Emperor . Since the Emperor rarely led campaigns personally , Song forces lacked unity of command . The imperial court often believed that successful generals endangered royal authority , and relieved or even executed them ( notably Li Gang , Yue Fei , and Han Shizhong
Although the scholar @-@ officials viewed military soldiers as lower members in the hierarchic social order , a person could gain status and prestige in society by becoming a high @-@ ranking military officer with a record of victorious battles . At its height , the Song military had one million soldiers divided into platoons of 50 troops , companies made of two platoons , battalions composed of 500 soldiers . Crossbowmen were separated from the regular infantry and placed in their own units as they were prized combatants , providing effective missile fire against cavalry charges . The government was eager to sponsor new crossbow designs that could shoot at longer ranges , while crossbowmen were also valuable when employed as long @-@ range snipers . Song cavalry employed a slew of different weapons , including halberds , swords , bows , spears , and ' fire lances ' that discharged a gunpowder blast of flame and shrapnel .
Military strategy and military training were treated as science that could be studied and perfected ; soldiers were tested in their skills of using weaponry and in their athletic ability . The troops were trained to follow signal standards to advance at the waving of banners and to halt at the sound of bells and drums .
The Song navy was of great importance during the consolidation of the empire in the 10th century ; during the war against the Southern Tang state the Song navy employed tactics such as defending large floating pontoon bridges across the Yangzi River in order to secure movements of troops and supplies . There were large naval ships in the Song that could carry 1 @,@ 000 soldiers aboard their decks , while the swift @-@ moving paddle @-@ wheel craft were viewed as essential fighting ships in any successful naval battle .
In a battle on January 23 , 971 , massive arrow fire from Song dynasty crossbowmen decimated the war elephant corps of the Southern Han army . This defeat not only marked the eventual submission of the Southern Han to the Song dynasty , but also the last instance where a war elephant corps was employed as a regular division within a Chinese army .
There was a total of 347 military treatises written during the Song period , as listed by the history text of the Song Shi ( compiled in 1345 ) . However , only a handful of these military treatises have survived , which includes the Wujing Zongyao written in 1044 . It was the first known book to have listed formulas for gunpowder ; it gave appropriate formulas for use in several different kinds of gunpowder bombs . It also provided detailed descriptions and illustrations of double @-@ piston pump flamethrowers , as well as instructions for the maintenance and repair of the components and equipment used in the device .
= = = Arts , literature , and philosophy = = =
The visual arts during the Song dynasty were heightened by new developments such as advances in landscape and portrait painting . The gentry elite engaged in the arts as accepted pastimes of the cultured scholar @-@ official , including painting , composing poetry , and writing calligraphy . The poet and statesman Su Shi and his associate Mi Fu ( 1051 – 1107 ) enjoyed antiquarian affairs , often borrowing or buying art pieces to study and copy . Poetry and literature profited from the rising popularity and development of the ci poetry form . Enormous encyclopedic volumes were compiled , such as works of historiography and dozens of treatises on technical subjects . This included the universal history text of the Zizhi Tongjian , compiled into 1000 volumes of 9 @.@ 4 million written Chinese characters . The genre of Chinese travel literature also became popular with the writings of the geographer Fan Chengda ( 1126 – 1193 ) and Su Shi , the latter of whom wrote the ' daytrip essay ' known as Record of Stone Bell Mountain that used persuasive writing to argue for a philosophical point . Although an early form of the local geographic gazetteer existed in China since the 1st century , the matured form known as " treatise on a place " , or fangzhi , replaced the old " map guide " , or tujing , during the Song dynasty .
The imperial courts of the emperor 's palace were filled with his entourage of court painters , calligraphers , poets , and storytellers . Emperor Huizong was a renowned artist as well as a patron of the arts . A prime example of a highly venerated court painter was Zhang Zeduan ( 1085 – 1145 ) who painted an enormous panoramic painting , Along the River During the Qingming Festival . Emperor Gaozong of Song initiated a massive art project during his reign , known as the Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute from the life story of Cai Wenji ( b . 177 ) . This art project was a diplomatic gesture to the Jin dynasty while he negotiated for the release of his mother from Jurchen captivity in the north .
In philosophy , Chinese Buddhism had waned in influence but it retained its hold on the arts and on the charities of monasteries . Buddhism had a profound influence upon the budding movement of Neo @-@ Confucianism , led by Cheng Yi ( 1033 – 1107 ) and Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) . Mahayana Buddhism influenced Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi through its concept of ethical universalism , while Buddhist metaphysics deeply affected the pre – Neo @-@ Confucian doctrine of Cheng Yi . The philosophical work of Cheng Yi in turn influenced Zhu Xi . Although his writings were not accepted by his contemporary peers , Zhu 's commentary and emphasis upon the Confucian classics of the Four Books as an introductory corpus to Confucian learning formed the basis of the Neo @-@ Confucian doctrine . By the year 1241 , under the sponsorship of Emperor Lizong , Zhu Xi 's Four Books and his commentary on them became standard requirements of study for students attempting to pass the civil service examinations . The East Asian countries of Japan and Korea also adopted Zhu Xi 's teaching , known as the Shushigaku ( 朱子學 , School of Zhu Xi ) of Japan , and in Korea the Jujahak ( 주자학 ) . Buddhism 's continuing influence can be seen in painted artwork such as Lin Tinggui 's Luohan Laundering . However , the ideology was highly criticized and even scorned by some . The statesman and historian Ouyang Xiu ( 1007 – 1072 ) called the religion a " curse " that could only be remedied by uprooting it from Chinese culture and replacing it with Confucian discourse . A true revival of Buddhism in Chinese society would not occur until the Mongol rule of the Yuan dynasty , with Kublai Khan 's sponsorship of Tibetan Buddhism and Drogön Chögyal Phagpa as the leading lama . The Christian sect of Nestorianism , which had entered China in the Tang era , would also be revived in China under Mongol rule .
= = = Cuisine and apparel = = =
Sumptuary laws regulated the food that one consumed and the clothes that one wore according to status and social class . Clothing was made of hemp or cotton cloths , restricted to a colour standard of black and white . Trousers were the acceptable attire for peasants , soldiers , artisans , and merchants , although wealthy merchants might choose to wear more ornate clothing and male blouses that came down below the waist . Acceptable apparel for scholar @-@ officials was rigidly defined by social ranking system . However , as time went on this rule of rank @-@ graded apparel for officials was not as strictly enforced . Each official was able to display his awarded status by wearing different @-@ coloured traditional silken robes that hung to the ground around his feet , specific types of headgear , and even specific styles of girdles that displayed his graded @-@ rank of officialdom .
Women wore long dresses , blouses that came down to the knee , skirts and jackets with long or short sleeves , while women from wealthy families could wear purple scarves around their shoulders . The main difference in women 's apparel from that of men was that it was fastened on the left , not on the right .
The main food staples in the diet of the lower classes remained rice , pork , and salted fish . Song restaurant and tavern menus are recorded which list entrées for feasts , banquets , festivals , and carnivals . They reveal a diverse and lavish diet for those of the upper class . They could choose from a wide variety of meats and seafood , including shrimp , geese , duck , mussel , shellfish , fallow deer , hare , partridge , pheasant , francolin , quail , fox , badger , clam , crab , and many others . Dairy products were rare in Chinese cuisine at this time . Beef was rarely consumed since the bull was a valuable draft animal , and dog meat was absent from the diet of the wealthy , although the poor could choose to eat dog meat if necessary ( yet it was not part of their regular diet ) . People also consumed dates , raisins , jujubes , pears , plums , apricots , pear juice , lychee @-@ fruit juice , honey and ginger drinks , pawpaw juice , spices and seasonings of Sichuan pepper , ginger , soy sauce , oil , sesame oil , salt , and vinegar .
= = = Daily life in the Southern Song = = =
During the era of the Southern Song there was a vast imbalance of population between city and country . The small group of elite had all very uniform customs , and tried to control others , especially country people , to take their way of life .
= = = = Urban commoners = = = =
At this time the main concentration of wealth was in cities . In contrast poverty spanned the countryside . This resulted in many people to moving to the city to seek their fortune . The result of this mass immigration of people was a surplus of manpower . This caused labor to be cheap and wages meager . Guilds formed to help people find jobs , and employers find workers , as there was almost always a middle @-@ man involved in hiring people . Since the wealthy mainly lived in cities there was a large job market for positions such as servants , gardeners , and cooks . Some of the richest families even had their own artisans and private militia . This led to the majority of people in the city to work for the wealthy . The rest had to work such jobs as heavy laborers , peddlers , shop keepers , actors , storytellers , puppeteers , and other various entertainment positions .
“ Shadow [ puppet ] plays originated in the old capital … The stories of the shadow plays are pretty much the same as used by the storytellers ; generally speaking they are a mixture of truth and fiction . The loyal and righteous were given a handsome appearance , whereas the wicked and treacherous are depicted monstrously ugly- a kind of implicit criticism that is easily understood by the people in the streets ”
Another job with a vast market was prostitution . While their Mongol counterparts in the north forced prostitutes to live outside the city the Song in the South allowed prostitutes free roam of the city .
= = = = Country residents = = = =
Another result of the mass immigration of people to cities was that the country lacked enough producers such as farmers and fishermen to adequately sustain urban life . Many of the wealthy city dwellers also possessed vast tracts of land which they rented out to tenant farmers . Harvests were poor which brought debt , and interest on loans were high . Many of them lived their lives as virtual slaves because of this . Even with all the hardships people in the country kept their spirits up with annual festivals . Children cared for the animals , collected wood , fetched water , and of course if there was time played .
= = Economy , industry , and trade = =
The Song dynasty had one of the most prosperous and advanced economies in the medieval world . Song Chinese invested their funds in joint stock companies and in multiple sailing vessels at a time when monetary gain was assured from the vigorous overseas trade and domestic trade along the Grand Canal and Yangzi River . Prominent merchant families and private businesses were allowed to occupy industries that were not already government @-@ operated monopolies . Both private and government @-@ controlled industries met the needs of a growing Chinese population in the Song . Artisans and merchants formed guilds that the state had to deal with when assessing taxes , requisitioning goods , and setting standard worker 's wages and prices on goods . 94
The iron industry was pursued by both private entrepreneurs who owned their own smelters as well as government @-@ supervised smelting facilities . 181 – 183 The Song economy was stable enough to produce over a hundred million kilograms ( over two hundred million pounds ) of iron product a year . Large @-@ scale deforestation in China would have continued if not for the 11th @-@ century innovation of the use of coal instead of charcoal in blast furnaces for smelting cast iron . Much of this iron was reserved for military use in crafting weapons and armouring troops , but some was used to fashion the many iron products needed to fill the demands of the growing domestic market . The iron trade within China was advanced by the construction of new canals , facilitating the flow of iron products from production centres to the large market in the capital city .
The annual output of minted copper currency in 1085 reached roughly six billion coins . The most notable advancement in the Song economy was the establishment of the world 's first government issued paper @-@ printed money , known as Jiaozi ( see also Huizi ) . For the printing of paper money , the Song court established several government @-@ run factories in the cities of Huizhou , Chengdu , Hangzhou , and Anqi . The size of the workforce employed in paper money factories was large ; it was recorded in 1175 that the factory at Hangzhou employed more than a thousand workers a day .
The economic power of Song China heavily influenced foreign economies abroad . The Moroccan geographer al @-@ Idrisi wrote in 1154 of the prowess of Chinese merchant ships in the Indian Ocean and of their annual voyages that brought iron , swords , silk , velvet , porcelain , and various textiles to places such as Aden ( Yemen ) , the Indus River , and the Euphrates in modern @-@ day Iraq . Foreigners , in turn , affected the Chinese economy . For example , many West Asian and Central Asian Muslims went to China to trade , becoming a preeminent force in the import and export industry , while some were even appointed as officers supervising economic affairs . Sea trade with the South @-@ east Pacific , the Hindu world , the Islamic world , and East Africa brought merchants great fortune and spurred an enormous growth in the shipbuilding industry of Song @-@ era Fujian province . However , there was risk involved in such long overseas ventures . In order to reduce the risk of losing money on maritime trade missions abroad , wrote historians Ebrey , Walthall , and Palais :
[ Song era ] investors usually divided their investment among many ships , and each ship had many investors behind it . One observer thought eagerness to invest in overseas trade was leading to an outflow of copper cash . He wrote , ' People along the coast are on intimate terms with the merchants who engage in overseas trade , either because they are fellow @-@ countrymen or personal acquaintances .... [ They give the merchants ] money to take with them on their ships for purchase and return conveyance of foreign goods . They invest from ten to a hundred strings of cash , and regularly make profits of several hundred percent ' .
= = Technology , science , and engineering = =
= = = Gunpowder warfare = = =
Advancements in weapons technology enhanced by gunpowder , including the evolution of the early flamethrower , explosive grenade , firearm , cannon , and land mine , enabled the Song Chinese to ward off their militant enemies until the Song 's ultimate collapse in the late 13th century . The Wujing Zongyao manuscript of 1044 was the first book in history to provide formulas for gunpowder and their specified use in different types of bombs . While engaged in a war with the Mongols , in 1259 the official Li Zengbo wrote in his Kezhai Zagao , Xugaohou that the city of Qingzhou was manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron @-@ cased bomb shells a month , dispatching to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time . In turn , the invading Mongols employed northern Chinese soldiers and used these same types of gunpowder weapons against the Song . By the 14th century the firearm and cannon could also be found in Europe , India , and the Islamic Middle East , during the early age of gunpowder warfare .
= = = Measuring distance and mechanical navigation = = =
As early as the Han dynasty , when the state needed to effectively measure distances traveled throughout the empire , the Chinese relied on the mechanical odometer device . The Chinese odometer came in the form of a wheeled @-@ carriage , its inner gears functioning off the rotated motion of the wheels , and specific units of distance — the Chinese li — marked by the mechanical striking of a drum or bell for auditory alarm . The specifications for the 11th century odometer were written by Chief Chamberlain Lu Daolong , who is quoted extensively in the historical text of the Song Shi ( compiled by 1345 ) . In the Song period , the odometer vehicle was also combined with another old complex mechanical device known as the south @-@ pointing chariot . This device , originally crafted by Ma Jun in the 3rd century , incorporated a differential gear that allowed a figure mounted on the vehicle to always point in the southern direction , no matter how the vehicle 's wheels ' turned about . The device concept of the differential gear for this navigational vehicle is now found in modern automobiles in order to apply the equal amount of torque to wheels rotating at different speeds .
= = = Polymaths , inventions , and astronomy = = =
Polymath figures such as the statesmen Shen Kuo and Su Song ( 1020 – 1101 ) embodied advancements in all fields of study , including biology , botany , zoology , geology , mineralogy , mechanics , horology , astronomy , pharmaceutical medicine , archeology , mathematics , cartography , optics , art criticism , and more .
Shen Kuo was the first to discern magnetic declination of true north while experimenting with a compass . Shen theorized that geographical climates gradually shifted over time . He created a theory of land formation involving concepts accepted in modern geomorphology . He performed optical experiments with camera obscura just decades after Ibn al @-@ Haytham was the first to do so . He also improved the designs of astronomical instruments such as the widened astronomical sighting tube , which allowed Shen Kuo to fix the position of the pole star ( which had shifted over centuries of time ) . Shen Kuo was also known for hydraulic clockworks , as he invented a new overflow @-@ tank clepsydra which had more efficient higher @-@ order interpolation instead of linear interpolation in calibrating the measure of time .
Su Song was best known for his horology treatise written in 1092 , which described and illustrated in great detail his hydraulic @-@ powered , 12 metres ( 39 ft ) tall astronomical clock tower built in Kaifeng . The clock tower featured large astronomical instruments of the armillary sphere and celestial globe , both driven by an early intermittently working escapement mechanism ( similarly to the western verge escapement of true mechanical clocks appeared in medieval clockworks , derived from ancient clockworks of classical times ) . Su 's tower featured a rotating gear wheel with 133 clock jack mannequins who were timed to rotate past shuttered windows while ringing gongs and bells , banging drums , and presenting announcement plaques . 445 In his printed book , Su published a celestial atlas of five star charts . These star charts feature a cylindrical projection similar to Mercator projection , the latter being a cartographic innovation of Gerardus Mercator in 1569 .
= = = Mathematics and cartography = = =
There were many notable improvements to Chinese mathematics during the Song era . Mathematician Yang Hui 's 1261 book provided the earliest Chinese illustration of Pascal 's triangle , although it had earlier been described by Jia Xian in around 1100 . Yang Hui also provided rules for constructing combinatorial arrangements in magic squares , provided theoretical proof for Euclid 's forty @-@ third proposition about parallelograms , and was the first to use negative coefficients of ' x ' in quadratic equations . 59 – 60 , 104 Yang 's contemporary Qin Jiushao ( c . 1202 – 1261 ) was the first to introduce the zero symbol into Chinese mathematics ; before this blank spaces were used instead of zeroes in the system of counting rods . He is also known for working with the Chinese remainder theorem , Heron 's formula , and astronomical data used in determining the winter solstice . Qin 's major work was the Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections published in 1247 .
Geometry was essential to surveying and cartography . The earliest extant Chinese maps date to the 4th century BCE , yet it was not until the time of Pei Xiu ( 224 – 271 ) that topographical elevation , a formal rectangular grid system , and use of a standard graduated scale of distances was applied to terrain maps . Following a long tradition , Shen Kuo created a raised @-@ relief map , while his other maps featured a uniform graduated scale of 1 : 900 @,@ 000 . A 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) squared map of 1137 — carved into a stone block — followed a uniform grid scale of 100 li for each gridded square , and accurately mapped the outline of the coasts and river systems of China , extending all the way to India . Plate LXXXI Furthermore , the world 's oldest known terrain map in printed form comes from the edited encyclopedia of Yang Jia in 1155 , which displayed western China without the formal grid system that was characteristic of more professionally made Chinese maps . Plate LXXXII Although gazetteers had existed since 52 CE during the Han dynasty and gazetteers accompanied by illustrative maps ( Chinese : tujing ) since the Sui dynasty , the illustrated gazetteer became much more common in the Song dynasty , when the foremost concern was for illustrative gazetteers to serve political , administrative , and military purposes . 409 – 412
= = = Movable type printing = = =
[ [ File : Su Song Star Map 1.JPG | alt = A rectangular ink on paper diagram with several hundred dots , several of which are organized into constellations , such as a drawn bow ( bottom center ) and a tree ( top left ) . | thumb | left | One of the star charts from Su Song 's Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao published in 1092 , featuring cylindrical projection similar to Mercator projection and the corrected position of the pole star thanks to Shen Kuo 's astronomical observations . Su Song 's celestial atlas of five star maps is actually the oldest in printed form . The innovation of movable type printing was made by the artisan Bi Sheng ( 990 – 1051 ) , first described by the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088 . The collection of Bi Sheng 's original clay @-@ fired typeface was passed on to one of Shen Kuo 's nephews , and was carefully preserved . Movable type enhanced the already widespread use of woodblock methods of printing thousands of documents and volumes of written literature , consumed eagerly by an increasingly literate public . The advancement of printing deeply affected education and the scholar @-@ official class , since more books could be made faster while mass @-@ produced , printed books were cheaper in comparison to laborious handwritten copies . The enhancement of widespread printing and print culture in the Song period was thus a direct catalyst in the rise of social mobility and expansion of the educated class of scholar elites , the latter which expanded dramatically in size from the 11th to 13th centuries .
The movable type invented by Bi Sheng was ultimately trumped by the use of woodblock printing due to the limitations of the enormous Chinese character writing system , yet movable type printing continued to be used and was improved in later periods . The Yuan dynasty scholar @-@ official Wang Zhen ( fl . 1290 – 1333 ) implemented a faster typesetting process , improved Bi 's baked @-@ clay movable type character set with a wooden one , and experimented with tin @-@ metal movable type . 217 The wealthy printing patron Hua Sui ( 1439 – 1513 ) of the Ming dynasty established China 's first metal movable type ( using bronze ) in 1490 . In 1638 the Beijing Gazette switched their printing process from woodblock to movable type printing . Yet it was during the Qing dynasty that massive printing projects began to employ movable type printing . This includes the printing of sixty @-@ six copies of a 5 @,@ 020 volume long encyclopedia in 1725 , the Gujin Tushu Jicheng ( Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times ) , which necessitated the crafting of 250 @,@ 000 movable type characters cast in bronze . By the 19th century the European style printing press replaced the old Chinese methods of movable type , while traditional woodblock printing in modern East Asia is used sparsely and for aesthetic reasons .
= = = Hydraulic and nautical engineering = = =
The most important nautical innovation of the Song period seems to have been the introduction of the magnetic mariner 's compass , which permitted accurate navigation on the open sea regardless of the weather . The magnetized compass needle – known in Chinese as the " south @-@ pointing needle " – was first described by Shen Kuo in his 1088 Dream Pool Essays and first mentioned in active use by sailors in Zhu Yu 's 1119 Pingzhou Table Talks .
[ [ File : Canallock.png | alt = A diagram of the pound lock system , from a bird 's eye perspective and from a side perspective . The bird 's eye view illustrates that water enters the enclosed area through two culverts on either side of the upper lock gate . The side view diagram illustrates how the elevation is higher before reaching the top gate than it is afterwards . | thumb | right | 200px | A plan and side view of a canal pound lock , a concept pioneered in 984 by the Assistant Commissioner of Transport for Huainan , the engineer Qiao Weiyo . There were other considerable advancements in hydraulic engineering and nautical technology during the Song dynasty . The 10th @-@ century invention of the pound lock for canal systems allowed different water levels to be raised and lowered for separated segments of a canal , which significantly aided the safety of canal traffic and allowed for larger barges . There was the Song @-@ era innovation of watertight bulkhead compartments that allowed damage to hulls without sinking the ships . If ships were damaged , the Chinese of the 11th century employed drydocks to repair them while suspended out of the water . The Song used crossbeams to brace the ribs of ships in order to strengthen them in a skeletal @-@ like structure . Stern @-@ mounted rudders had been mounted on Chinese ships since the 1st century , as evidenced with a preserved Han tomb model of a ship . In the Song period , the Chinese devised a way to mechanically raise and lower rudders in order for ships to travel in a wider range of water depths . The Song arranged the protruding teeth of anchors in a circular pattern instead of in one direction . David Graff and Robin Higham state that this arrangement " [ made ] them more reliable " for anchoring ships .
= = = Structural engineering and architecture = = =
Architecture during the Song period reached new heights of sophistication . Authors such as Yu Hao and Shen Kuo wrote books outlining the field of architectural layouts , craftsmanship , and structural engineering in the 10th and 11th centuries , respectively . Shen Kuo preserved the written dialogues of Yu Hao when describing technical issues such as slanting struts built into pagoda towers for diagonal wind bracing . Shen Kuo also preserved Yu 's specified dimensions and units of measurement for various building types . The architect Li Jie ( 1065 – 1110 ) , who published the Yingzao Fashi ( ' Treatise on Architectural Methods ' ) in 1103 , greatly expanded upon the works of Yu Hao and compiled the standard building codes used by the central government agencies and by craftsmen throughout the empire . He addressed the standard methods of construction , design , and applications of moats and fortifications , stonework , greater woodwork , lesser woodwork , wood @-@ carving , turning and drilling , sawing , bamboo work , tiling , wall building , painting and decoration , brickwork , glazed tile making , and provided proportions for mortar formulas in masonry . In his book , Li provided detailed and vivid illustrations of architectural components and cross @-@ sections of buildings . These illustrations displayed various applications of corbel brackets , cantilever arms , mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross beams , and diagrams showing the various building types of halls in graded sizes . 108 – 109 He also outlined the standard units of measurement and standard dimensional measurements of all building components described and illustrated in his book .
Grandiose building projects were supported by the government , including the erection of towering Buddhist Chinese pagodas and the construction of enormous bridges ( wood or stone , trestle or segmental arch bridge ) . Many of the pagoda towers built during the Song period were erected at heights that exceeded ten stories . Some of the most famous are the Iron Pagoda built in 1049 during the Northern Song and the Liuhe Pagoda built in 1165 during the Southern Song , although there were many others . The tallest is the Liaodi Pagoda of Hebei built in 1055 , towering 84 m ( 276 ft ) in total height . Some of the bridges reached lengths of 1 @,@ 220 m ( 4 @,@ 000 ft ) , with many being wide enough to allow two lanes of cart traffic simultaneously over a waterway or ravine . The government also oversaw construction of their own administrative offices , palace apartments , city fortifications , ancestral temples , and Buddhist temples .
The professions of the architect , craftsman , carpenter , and structural engineer were not seen as professionally equal to that of a Confucian scholar @-@ official . Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years in China , in many cases from a father craftsman to his son . Structural engineering and architecture schools were known to have existed during the Song period ; one prestigious engineering school was headed by the renowned bridge @-@ builder Cai Xiang ( 1012 – 1067 ) in medieval Fujian province .
Besides existing buildings and technical literature of building manuals , Song dynasty artwork portraying cityscapes and other buildings aid modern @-@ day scholars in their attempts to reconstruct and realize the nuances of Song architecture . Song dynasty artists such as Li Cheng , Fan Kuan , Guo Xi , Zhang Zeduan , Emperor Huizong of Song , and Ma Lin painted close @-@ up depictions of buildings as well as large expanses of cityscapes featuring arched bridges , halls and pavilions , pagoda towers , and distinct Chinese city walls . The scientist and statesman Shen Kuo was known for his criticism of artwork relating to architecture , saying that it was more important for an artist to capture a holistic view of a landscape than it was to focus on the angles and corners of buildings . For example , Shen criticized the work of the painter Li Cheng for failing to observe the principle of " seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large " in portraying buildings .
There were also pyramidal tomb structures in the Song era , such as the Song imperial tombs located in Gongxian , Henan province . About 100 km ( 62 mi ) from Gongxian is another Song dynasty tomb at Baisha , which features " elaborate facsimiles in brick of Chinese timber frame construction , from door lintels to pillars and pedestals to bracket sets , that adorn interior walls . " The two large chambers of the Baisha tomb also feature conical @-@ shaped roofs . Flanking the avenues leading to these tombs are lines of Song dynasty stone statues of officials , tomb guardians , animals , and mythological creatures .
= = = Archaeology = = =
In addition to the Song gentry 's antiquarian pursuits of art collecting , scholar @-@ officials during the Song became highly interested in retrieving ancient relics from archaeological sites , in order to revive the use of ancient vessels in ceremonies of state ritual . Scholar @-@ officials of the Song period claimed to have discovered ancient bronze vessels that were created as far back as the Shang dynasty ( 1600 – 1046 BCE ) , which bore the written characters of the Shang era . Some attempted to recreate these bronze vessels by using imagination alone , not by observing tangible evidence of relics ; this practice was criticized by Shen Kuo in his work of 1088 . Yet Shen Kuo had much more to criticize than this practice alone . Shen objected to the idea of his peers that ancient relics were products created by famous " sages " in lore or the ancient aristocratic class ; Shen rightfully attributed the discovered handicrafts and vessels from ancient times as the work of artisans and commoners from previous eras . He also disapproved of his peers ' pursuit of archaeology simply to enhance state ritual , since Shen not only took an interdisciplinary approach with the study of archaeology , but he also emphasized the study of functionality and investigating what was the ancient relics ' original processes of manufacture . Shen used ancient texts and existing models of armillary spheres to create one based on ancient standards ; Shen described ancient weaponry such as the use of a scaled sighting device on crossbows ; while experimenting with ancient musical measures , Shen suggested hanging an ancient bell by using a hollow handle .
Despite the gentry 's overriding interest in archaeology simply for reviving ancient state rituals , some of Shen 's peers took a similar approach to the study of archaeology . His contemporary Ouyang Xiu ( 1007 – 1072 ) compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze which pioneered ideas in early epigraphy and archaeology . During the 11th century , Song scholars discovered the ancient shrine of Wu Liang ( 78 – 151 CE ) , a scholar of the Han dynasty ( 202 BCE – 220 CE ) ; they produced rubbings of the carvings and bas @-@ reliefs decorating the walls of his tomb so that they could be analyzed elsewhere . On the unreliability of historical works written after the fact , scholar @-@ official Zhao Mingcheng ( 1081 – 1129 ) stated " ... the inscriptions on stone and bronze are made at the time the events took place and can be trusted without reservation , and thus discrepancies may be discovered . " Historian R.C. Rudolph states that Zhao 's emphasis on consulting contemporary sources for accurate dating is parallel with the concern of the German historian Leopold von Ranke ( 1795 – 1886 ) , and was in fact emphasized by many Song scholars . The Song scholar Hong Mai ( 1123 – 1202 ) heavily criticized what he called the court 's " ridiculous " archaeological catalogue Bogutu compiled during the Huizong reign periods of Zheng He and Xuan He ( 1111 – 1125 ) . Hong Mai obtained old vessels from the Han dynasty and compared them with the descriptions offered in the catalogue , which he found so inaccurate he stated he had to " hold my sides with laughter . " Hong Mai pointed out that the erroneous material was the fault of Chancellor Cai Jing ( 1047 – 1126 ) , who prohibited scholars from reading and consulting the written histories .
= Amir Hamzah =
Tengku Amir Hamzah ( 28 February 1911 – 20 March 1946 ) was an Indonesian poet and National Hero of Indonesia . Born into a Malay aristocratic family in the Sultanate of Langkat in North Sumatra , he was educated in both Sumatra and Java . While attending senior high school in Surakarta around 1930 , the youth became involved with the nationalist movement and fell in love with a Javanese schoolmate , Ilik Sundari . Even after Amir continued his studies in legal school in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) the two remained close , only separating in 1937 when Amir was recalled to Sumatra to marry the sultan 's daughter and take on responsibilities of the court . Though unhappy with his marriage , he fulfilled his courtly duties . After Indonesia proclaimed its independence in 1945 , he served as the government 's representative in Langkat . The following year he was killed in a socialist revolution led by the Communist Party of Indonesia and buried in a mass grave .
Amir began writing poetry while still a teenager : though his works are undated , the earliest are thought to have been written when he first travelled to Java . Drawing influences from his own Malay culture and Islam , as well as from Christianity and Eastern literature , Amir wrote 50 poems , 18 pieces of lyrical prose , and numerous other works , including several translations . In 1932 he co @-@ founded the literary magazine Poedjangga Baroe . After his return to Sumatra , he stopped writing . Most of his poems were published in two collections , Nyanyi Sunyi ( 1937 ) and Buah Rindu ( 1941 ) , first in Poedjangga Baroe then as stand @-@ alone books .
Poems by Amir deal with the themes of love and religion and his poetry often reflects a deep inner conflict . His diction , using both Malay and Javanese words and expanding on traditional structures , was influenced by the need for rhythm and metre , as well as symbolism related to particular terms . His earlier works deal with a sense of longing and both erotic and idealised love , whereas his later works have a deeper religious meaning . Of his two collections , Nyanyi Sunyi is considered the most developed . Amir has been called the " King of the Poedjangga Baroe @-@ era Poets " and the only international @-@ class Indonesian poet from before the Indonesian National Revolution .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Amir was born as Tengkoe Amir Hamzah Pangeran Indra Poetera in Tanjung Pura , Langkat , North Sumatra , the youngest son of Vice Sultan Tengku Muhammad Adil and his third wife Tengku Mahjiwa . Through his father , he was related to the Sultan of Langkat , Machmud . Sources disagree over his date of birth . The date officially recognised by the Indonesian government is 28 February 1911 , a date Amir used throughout his life . However , his elder brother Abdullah Hod states that the poet was born on 11 February 1911 . Amir later took the name of his grandfather , Teungku Hamzah , as a second name ; thus , he was referred to as Amir Hamzah . Though a child of nobility , he would often associate with non @-@ nobles .
It is known that Amir was schooled in Islamic principles such as Qu 'ran reading , fiqh , and tawhid , and studied at the Azizi Mosque in Tanjung Pura from a young age . He remained a devout Muslim throughout his life . Sources disagree on the period in which he completed his formal studies . Several sources , including the Indonesian government 's Language Centre , state that he started school in 1916 , while the biographer M. Lah Husny puts the future poet 's first year of formal schooling as 1918 . At the Dutch @-@ language elementary school where Amir first studied , he began writing and received good marks ; in her biography of him , Nh . Dini writes that Amir was nicknamed " older brother " ( abang ) by his classmates as he was much taller than them .
In 1924 or 1925 , Amir graduated from the school in Langkat and moved to Medan to study at the Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs ( MULO ; middle school ) there . After completing his studies some two years later , he entered a formal relationship with his cousin from his mother 's side , Aja ( also Aje ) Bun . Husny writes that the two were arranged to be married by their parents , while Dini casts the relationship as a vow to be always faithful . As his parents permitted him to finish his studies in Java , Amir moved to the colonial capital at Batavia ( now Jakarta ) to complete his studies .
= = = Java = = =
Alone aboard the Plancus , Amir made the three @-@ day boat trip to Java . Upon arriving at Batavia , he enrolled at a Christian MULO there , where he completed his last year of junior high school . Anthony H. Johns of Australian National University writes that he learned some Christian concepts and values . Also in Batavia , Amir became involved with the social organisation Jong Sumatera . During this period , the young man wrote his first poems . Husny credits several to his heartbreak after he found that Aja Bun had been married to another man without Amir 's knowing ( the two never spoke again ) , while Dini suggests that the poem " Tinggallah " was written not long after he boarded the Plancus , while he was longing after his parents .
After a brief return to Sumatra , Amir continued to a Boedi Oetomo @-@ operated Algemene Middelbare School ( AMS ; senior high school ) in Surakarta , Central Java , where he studied eastern literature and languages , including Javanese , Sanskrit , and Arabic . Preferring solitude to the bustle of the dormitories , Amir boarded at a privately @-@ owned home of a Surakartan resident . Later he met several future writers , including Armijn Pane and Achdiat Karta Mihardja ; they soon found him to be a friendly and diligent student with complete notes and a spotless bedroom ( sheets folded so well , Mihardja later recalled , that a " lost fly could have easily slid over them " ) , but also a romantic prone to thinking wistfully beneath the lamplight and isolating himself from his classmates .
In Surakarta Amir joined the nationalist movement . He would meet with fellow Sumatrans and discuss the social plight of the Malay archipelago 's populace under Dutch colonial rule . Though most educated youth at the time preferred using Dutch , he insisted on speaking Malay . In 1930 Amir became head of the Surakartan branch of the Indonesia Muda ( Young Indonesians ) , delivering a speech at the 1930 Youth Congress and serving as an editor of the organisation 's magazine Garuda Merapi . At school he also met Ilik Sundari , a Javanese woman nearly his age with whom he fell in love . Sundari , the daughter of Raden Mas Kusumodihardjo , was one of the few female students at the school , and her home was near one of those in which Amir boarded . According to Dini , the two grew closer , Amir teaching Sundari Arabic and Sundari teaching him Javanese . They were soon meeting every day , conversing on a variety of topics .
Amir 's mother died in 1931 , and his father the year after , meaning that his education could no longer be funded . After his AMS studies concluded , he wanted to continue to study at a law school in Batavia . As such , he wrote to his brother , Jakfar , who arranged for the remainder of his studies to be paid for by the Sultan . In 1932 Amir was able to return to Batavia and begin his legal studies , taking up a part @-@ time job as a teacher . At first , his relationship with Sundari was continued through letters , though she soon continued her studies in Lembang , a city much closer than Surakarta ; this allowed the two to meet furtively – when Sundari 's parents had discovered their relationship , Amir and Sundari had been forbidden from meeting .
This year Amir 's first two poems , " Sunyi " ( " Silent " ) and " Mabuk ... " ( " Nauseous ... " ) , were published in the March edition of the magazine Timboel . His other eight works published in 1932 included a syair based on the Hikayat Hang Tuah , three other poems , two pieces of lyrical prose , and two short stories ; the poems were again published in Timboel , while the prose was included in the magazine Pandji Poestaka . Around September 1932 Armijn Pane , upon the urgings of Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana , editor of " Memadjoekan Sastera " ( " Advancing Literature " , the literary section of Pandji Poestaka ) , invited Amir to help them establish an independent literary magazine . Amir accepted , and was tasked with writing letters to solicit submissions ; a total of fifty letters were sent to noted writers , including forty sent to contributors to " Memadjoekan Sastera " . After several months of preparations , the initial edition was published in July 1933 , under the title Poedjangga Baroe . The new magazine was left under the editorial control of Armijn and Alisjahbana , while Amir published almost all of his subsequent writings there .
In mid @-@ 1933 Amir was recalled to Langkat , where the Sultan informed him of two conditions which he had to fulfil to continue his studies : be a diligent student and abandon the independence movement . Despite the Sultan 's disapproval , Amir became more heavily involved in the nationalist movement , bringing him under increasing Dutch scrutiny . He continued to publish in Poedjangga Baroe , including a series of five articles on Eastern literatures from June to December 1934 and a translation of the Bhagavad Gita from 1933 to 1935 . His legal studies , however , were delayed , and by 1937 he had still not graduated .
= = = Return to Langkat = = =
The Dutch , concerned about Amir 's nationalistic tendencies , convinced the Sultan to send him back to Langkat , an order which the fledgling poet was unable to refuse . In 1937 , Amir , together with two of the Sultan 's vassals tasked with escorting him , boarded the Opten Noort from Tanjung Priok and returned to Sumatra . Upon arriving in Langkat , he was informed that he was to be married to the Sultan 's eldest daughter , Tengku Puteri Kamiliah , a woman he had barely met . Before the wedding Amir returned to Batavia to face his final exam – and have one last meeting with Sundari . Several weeks later he returned to Langkat , where he and Kamiliah were married in an extravagant ceremony . His cousin , Tengku Burhan , later stated that Amir 's indifference throughout the seven @-@ day event was due to his thinking of Sundari .
Now a prince ( pangeran ) , Amir was given the title Tengku Pangeran Indra Putera . He lived with Kamiliah in their own home . By all accounts , she was a devout and loving wife , and in 1939 the couple had their only child , a daughter named Tengku Tahura . According to Dini , Amir professed to Kamiliah that he could never love her as he had Sundari and that he felt obligated to marry her , something which Kamiliah reportedly accepted . The poet retained an album with his Javanese sweetheart 's photographs at home and would often isolate himself from his family , lost in thought . As a prince of Langkat , Amir became a court official , handling administrative and legal matters , and at times judging criminal cases . He once represented the sultanate at the funeral of Pakubuwono X in Java – Amir 's last trip to the island .
Although Amir had little correspondence with his friends in Java , his poems – most of which had been written in Java – continued to be published in Poedjangga Baroe . His first poetry collection , Nyanyi Sunyi ( Songs of Silence ) , was published in the magazine 's November 1937 edition . Nearly two years later , in June 1939 , the magazine published a collection of poems Amir had translated , entitled Setanggi Timur ( Incense from the East ) . In June 1941 his last collection , Buah Rindu ( Fruits of Longing ) , was published . All were later republished as stand @-@ alone books . A last book , Sastera Melayu Lama dan Raja @-@ Rajanya ( Old Malay Literature and its Kings ) , was published in Medan in 1942 ; this was based on a radio speech Amir had delivered .
After the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940 , the government of the Indies began preparing for a possible Japanese invasion . In Langkat , a Home Guard , or Stadswacht , division was established to defend Tanjung Pura , in Langkat . Amir and his cousin Tengku Harun were in charge ; the nobility , trusted by the general populace , was selected to ensure easier recruitment of commoners . When the invasion became a reality in early 1942 , Amir was one of the soldiers sent to Medan to defend it . He and the other Dutch @-@ allied forces were quickly captured by the Japanese . He was held as a prisoner of war until 1943 , when influence from the Sultan allowed him to be released . Throughout the remainder of the occupation , which lasted until 1945 , Amir was employed as a radio commentator and censor in Medan . In his position as prince , he was tasked with helping to collect rice to feed the Japanese occupation army .
= = = Post @-@ Independence and death = = =
After Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945 , the entirety of Sumatra was declared a de facto part of the country . The central government established Teuku Muhammad Hasan as the island 's first governor , and on 29 October 1945 Hasan selected Amir as the government representative in Langkat ( later equated to regent ) , with his office at Binjai . Amir accepted the position readily , subsequently handling numerous tasks set by the central government , including inaugurating the first local division of the People 's Safety Army ( Tentara Keamanan Rakjat ; the predecessor to the Indonesian Army ) opening meetings of various local branches of national political parties , and promoting education – particularly Latin @-@ alphabet literacy .
The ongoing Indonesian National Revolution , with various battles in Java , meant that the newly established republic was unstable . In early 1946 , rumours spread in Langkat that Amir had been seen dining with representatives of the returning Dutch government , and there was growing unrest within the general populace . On 7 March 1946 , during a socialist revolution led by factions of the Communist Party of Indonesia , a group staunchly against feudalism and the nobility , Amir 's power was stripped from him and he was arrested ; Kamiliah and Tahura escaped . Together with other members of the Langkat nobility , he was sent to a Communist @-@ held plantation at Kuala Begumit , some 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) outside of Binjai . Later testimony suggests that the detainees were tried by their captors , forced to dig holes , and tortured .
Amir 's last piece of writing , a fragment from his 1941 poem " Buah Rindu " , was later found in his cell :
On the morning of 20 March 1946 , Amir was killed with 26 other people and buried in a mass grave which the detainees had dug ; several of his siblings were also killed in the revolution . After it was quashed by nationalist forces , the revolution 's leaders were questioned by a team led by Amir Sjarifuddin and Adnan Kapau Gani : they are reported to have repeatedly asked " Where is Amir Hamzah ? " during the investigation . In 1948 the grave at Kuala Begumit was dug up and the remains identified by family members ; Amir 's bones were identified owing to a missing false tooth . In November 1949 his body was reinterred at the Azizi Mosque in Tanjung Pura , Langkat .
= = Influences = =
Amir was raised in a court setting , where he spoke Malay until it had " become his flesh and blood " . From a young age he was exposed to oral and written pantuns and syair , both listening and improvisationally creating his own . As with his father before him , Amir enjoyed traditional texts , such as Hikayat Hang Tuah , Syair Siti Zubaidah , and Hikayat Panca Tanderan . He would listen to these when they were read in public ceremonies , and as an adult he kept a large collection of such texts , though these were destroyed during the communist revolution .
Throughout his formal education Amir read works of Arabic , Persian , and Hindu literature . He was also influenced by works from other Eastern countries : poems translated in Setanggi Timur , for instance , include works by Omar Khayyám ( Persia ) , Du Fu ( China ) , Fukuda Chiyo @-@ ni ( Japan ) , and Rabindranath Tagore ( India ) . These works were not read in the original , but from Dutch translations . The literary critic Muhammad Balfas writes that , unlike his contemporaries , Amir drew little influence from sonnets and the neo @-@ romantic Dutch poets , the Tachtigers ; Johns comes to the same conclusion . The Australian literary scholar Keith Foulcher , however , noting that the poet quoted Willem Kloos 's " Lenteavond " in his article on pantuns , suggests that Amir was very likely influenced by the Tachtigers .
Many writers have commented on Amir 's influence from Islamic doctrine . The Indonesian literary documentarian H.B. Jassin and the poet Arief Bagus Prasetyo , among others , argue that Amir was a purely orthodox Muslim and that it showed in his work . Prasetyo argues that this was evident in his treatment of God ; he does not view God as his equal , a theme found in the works of such Sufi poets as Hamzah Fansuri , but as the master to Amir 's servant . Johns writes that , though he was not a mystic , Amir was also not a purely devotional writer , instead promoting a form of " Islamic Humanism " . Others , such as the Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw and the Indonesian scholar of literature Abdul Hadi WM , find Amir to be influenced by Sufism . Aprinus Salam of Gadjah Mada University , of the same position , points to the instances where Hamzah treats God as a lover as indicative of Sufi influence . Ultimately , the poet Chairil Anwar wrote that Amir 's Nyanyi Sunyi could be termed " obscure poetry " as readers cannot understand the works without prior knowledge of Malay history and Islam .
Some attempts have also been made to connect Amir 's works to a Christian perspective . In analysing " Padamu Jua " , the Indonesian critic Bakri Siregar suggests that some influences from the Christian Bible are evident , pointing to several aspects of the poem that would seem to support such a view , including the depiction of an anthropomorphic God ( not allowed in orthodox Islam ) and the idea of a jealous God . He writes that the concept of a jealous God is not found in Islam , but is in the Bible , citing Exodus 20 : 5 and Exodus 34 : 14 . In another poem , " Permainanmu " , Hamzah uses the sentence " Kau keraskan kalbunya " ( You harden his heart ) ; Jassin draws a parallel to God hardening the Pharaoh 's heart in the Book of Exodus .
Jassin writes that Amir 's poems were also influenced by his love for one or more women , in Buah Rindu referred to as " Tedja " and " Sendari @-@ Dewi " ; he opines that the woman or women are never named as Amir 's love for them is the key . Husny writes that at least nine of the works in Buah Rindu were inspired by his longing for Aja Bun , portraying a sense of disappointment after their engagement was called off . Regarding the book 's three @-@ part dedication , " to the mournful Greater Indonesia / to the ashes of the Mother @-@ Queen / and to the feet of the Sendari @-@ Goddess " , Mihardja writes that Sundari was immediately recognisable to any of Amir 's classmates ; he considers her the poet 's inspiration as " Laura to Petrarch , Mathilde to Jacques Perk " . The critic Zuber Usman finds Sundari 's influence on Nyanyi Sunyi as well , suggesting his parting from her led Amir closer to God , an opinion Dini echoes . The translator Burton Raffel connects a couplet at the end of the book , reading " Sunting sanggul melayah rendah / sekaki sajak seni sedih " ( " A flower floating in a loose knot of hair / Gave birth to my sorrowful poems " ) as a call out to a forbidden love . Dini credits Amir 's love for Sundari for his frequent use of Javanese terms in his writing .
= = Works = =
Altogether Amir wrote fifty poems , eighteen pieces of lyrical prose , twelve articles , four short stories , three poetry collections , and one original book . He also translated forty @-@ four poems , one piece of lyrical prose , and one book ; these translations , Johns writes , generally reflected themes important in his original work .
The vast majority of Amir 's writings were published in Poedjangga Baroe , although some earlier ones were published in Timboel and Pandji Poestaka . None of his creative works are dated , and there is no consensus regarding when individual poems were written . However , there is a consensus that the
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igayo " is played during school ceremonies .
On 30 May 2011 and 6 June 2011 , two panels of the Supreme Court of Japan ruled that it was constitutional to require teachers to stand in front of the Hinomaru and sing the Kimigayo during school ceremonies . In making the ruling , the panels ratified the decision of the Tokyo High Court in ruling against 13 teachers who had asked for court relief after being disciplined between 2003 and 2005 for refusing to stand and sing the anthem .
Outside of the school system , there was a controversy regarding " Kimigayo " soon after the passage of the 1999 law . A month after the law 's passage , a record containing a performance of " Kimigayo " by Japanese rocker Kiyoshiro Imawano was removed by Polydor Records from his album Fuyu no Jujika . Polydor did not want a record to stir up emotion in Japan . In response , Imawano re @-@ released the album through an independent label with the track in question .
= White Pines Forest State Park =
White Pines Forest State Park , more commonly referred to as White Pines State Park , is an Illinois state park in Ogle County , Illinois . It is located near the communities of Polo , Mount Morris and Oregon . The 385 @-@ acre ( 156 ha ) park contains the southernmost remaining stand of native white pine trees in the state of Illinois , and that area , 43 acres ( 17 ha ) , was designated an Illinois Nature Preserve in 2001 .
The area was poised to become a state park in 1903 , but a veto by Governor Richard Yates prevented that from occurring . Supporters continued to press for the White Pines Woods , as it was once known , to receive state park designation throughout the period 1903 @-@ 1927 . In 1927 the park was established with help from supporters in the Chicago media . The park contains two freshwater streams , dolomite rock formations , and a variety of activities generally associated with Illinois state parks . Along Pine Creek , one of the park 's two streams , fords were constructed instead of bridges allowing visitors to drive through the creek .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
White Pines Forest State Park is located in what was once a part of the Sauk leader Black Hawk 's territory and encompasses an area once known as White Pines Woods . White Pines State Park nearly became an Illinois State Park as early as 1903 , when the state established its first state park at Fort Massac . Members of the Oregon , Illinois Woman 's Council started the process by lobbying the Illinois legislature to set aside White Pines Woods as a state park . In 1903 the Illinois legislature appropriated US $ 30 @,@ 000 for the purchase of White Pines Woods , the southernmost stand of virgin , native white pine trees in the state . The move was stalled when then @-@ Illinois Governor Richard Yates vetoed the measure , citing costs . After 1903 and before 1927 ( when the state park was established ) , the " Pines Woods Bill " was introduced several times without success . The designation of Starved Rock State Park in 1912 reportedly frustrated the supporters of White Pines Woods ' designation as a state park .
The influential Friends of Our Native Landscape included the area around the Rock River between Dixon and Oregon on a list of 20 places in Illinois that should be designated state parks . Located in " Rock River country , " along an old Indian trail , was White Pines Woods covering 500 acres ( 200 ha ) in a canyon of dolomite rock carved by Pine Creek . At the time , within White Pines Woods , the tallest trees stood 90 feet ( 27 m ) in height . The area was noted by Elia W. Peattie , a poet and member of the Eagle 's Nest Art Colony ( located at present @-@ day Lowden State Park ) , who expressed the need for preservation of the White Pines Woods in one of her poems .
The Illinois Board of State Park Advisers was established under a 1925 state law . The law , which was amended in 1931 , gave the director of the Illinois Department of Public Works jurisdiction over the state parks . The Public Works position was a result of 1917 reforms by Governor Frank Lowden . The law also mandated a system of state parks , under the Illinois Department of Conservation , later renamed the Illinois Department of Natural Resources . Per the 1925 mandate , White Pines Forest became a state park in 1927 after its proponents enlisted the support of the Chicago Tribune and WGN Radio . That year , Governor Len Small moved to purchase White Pines for $ 63 @,@ 949 .
= = = Lodge and cabins = = =
In 1933 , with the Great Depression in full swing , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) sought to relieve the work needs of unemployed Americans . The National Park Service sought to work with state governments in an effort to meet those ends . Many of the projects the CCC was involved with were construction projects . The project at White Pines was originally meant to be the construction of a lodge building . From 1933 to 1939 , two hundred men , many of them World War I veterans , worked on the State Park construction project .
After the lodge was completed , it was decided to build a restaurant and breezeway onto the lodge building . Logs for most of the project were shipped via railroad from as far away as Oregon and Washington state , unloaded in Stratford , Illinois and dragged to the construction site by teams of horses . The CCC project also completed sixteen one @-@ room log cabins and three four @-@ bedroom cabins . The work crews also built picnic shelters , trail shelters , and foot bridges . Only the logs for the cabins came from another source . They were purchased from a salvage company that had purchased utility poles from a defunct utility company at the price of 30 cents a piece .
= = = Nature Preserve designation = = =
In September 2001 the Illinois Nature Preserves Commission dedicated a 43 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) section of the state park at White Pines Forest as Illinois ' 300th nature preserve . Nature preserve designation gave the stand of white pine trees in the park the highest form of legal protection in the state . The designation restricts activities to those that do not impact the area 's natural features such as hiking and birdwatching . Activities such as logging , farming , hunting , and fishing are all prohibited within Illinois Nature Preserves , though in some cases there are exceptions for hunting and fishing .
= = Description = =
White Pines State Park is a 385 @-@ acre ( 156 ha ) state park located in the heart of the Rock River Valley in Ogle County . The park represents the southernmost remaining stand of virgin white pine forest in the state . The state park , like all Illinois state parks , is operated and maintained by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources ( IDNR ) . White Pines Forest State Park provides habitat for a variety of plant and animal life and has two freshwater streams within its boundaries .
Among the park 's most distinctive and well @-@ known features are the vehicular river crossings . At three places , crossing Pine Creek , fords were constructed instead of bridges . The fords offer visitors a chance to actually drive through the creek , though high water frequently closes the crossings . Hikers are relegated to pedestrian bridges or stepping stones in the creek to cross the stream . Floods are frequent enough on Pine Creek , a large watershed to the north of the park , that there is an emergency exit from the campground . When high water closes the fords , the campground is cut off and the emergency exit is the only way out .
= = Wildlife = =
The banks of Pine Creek and Spring Creek are lined with large rock and cliff formations that provide habitat to plants ranging from large trees to moss to hanging vines . The cliffs harbor plants rare in the state of Illinois such as Canada yew and sullivantia ( family Saxifragaceae ) , an Illinois state @-@ threatened species . When in season , the park 's many species of wildflowers bloom , some of the flowers found in the park include : trout lily , Solomon 's seal , bloodroot , blue @-@ eyed grass , spring beauty , and hepatica . The forest undergrowth provides small mammal habitat and among the mammals that can be seen in the park are : red squirrels , raccoons , deer , and chipmunks . Birds include , the pine thrush , warblers , wild turkey , and winter @-@ migratory birds . The creeks are populated with smallmouth bass , rock bass , channel catfish and , when they are stocked by the IDNR , rainbow trout .
= = Activities = =
The park , Illinois ' third oldest , has become one of the state 's most visited parks , hosting over 350 @,@ 000 visitors each year . It was visited by 10 @,@ 000 people on given weekends during the 1930s , and the 1958 record @-@ setting attendance mark was documented at 874 @,@ 000 .
The park is a public area and has a variety of activities that are typically associated with protected areas meant to be visited by the public . During the warmer months , picnicking , camping , lodging , hiking , and fishing are available . During the winter , cross @-@ country skiing trails open , and other activities such as camping remain available as well . The lodge and cabins are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places . The 25 cabins are operated by a privately owned entity , the White Pines Inn , and the lodge features a popular private restaurant .
White Pines has 103 campsites all accessible by vehicle ; the campgrounds are sometimes closed because of high water or soft ground . Seven hiking trails wind a total of five miles ( 8 km ) through the park ; three of the seven trails are less than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in length . The two cross @-@ country ski trails total 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) in length and are open as winter weather permits . The park 's lodge and cabins consist of 13 one @-@ room cabins and 3 four @-@ room cabins ; all cabins have a shower and other modern amenities . The lodge , though renovated , maintains its historic integrity , and new features were blended with the old . The lounge , in the lodge , is filled with crafts and artwork .
= Hours of service =
Hours of Service ( HOS ) regulations are issued by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration ( FMCSA ) and govern the working hours of anyone operating a commercial motor vehicle ( CMV ) in the United States . These regulations apply to truck drivers , commercial and city bus drivers , and school bus drivers who operate CMVs . These rules limit the number of daily and weekly hours spent driving and working , and regulate the minimum amount of time drivers must spend resting between driving shifts . For intrastate commerce , the respective state 's regulations apply .
The FMCSA is a division of the United States Department of Transportation ( DOT ) , which is generally responsible for enforcement of FMCSA regulations . The driver of a CMV is required to keep a record of working hours using a log book , outlining the total number of hours spent driving and resting , as well as the time at which the change of duty status occurred . In lieu of a log book , a motor carrier may keep track of a driver 's hours using an electronic on @-@ board recorder ( EOBR ) , which automatically records the amount of time spent driving the vehicle .
The HOS 's main purpose is to prevent accidents caused by driver fatigue . This is accomplished by limiting the number of driving hours per day , and the number of driving and working hours per week . Fatigue is also prevented by keeping drivers on a 21- to 24 @-@ hour schedule , maintaining a natural sleep / wake cycle ( or circadian rhythm ) . Drivers are required to take a daily minimum period of rest , and are allowed longer " weekend " rest periods to combat cumulative fatigue effects that accrue on a weekly basis .
Enforcement of the HOS is generally handled by DOT officers of each state , and are sometimes checked when CMVs pass through weigh stations . Drivers found to be in violation of the HOS can be forced to stop driving for a certain period of time , which may negatively affect the motor carrier 's safety rating . Requests to change the HOS are a source of contentious debate , and many surveys indicate some drivers get away with routinely violating the HOS . These facts have started another debate on whether motor carriers should be required to use EOBRs in their vehicles , instead of relying on paper @-@ based log books .
= = Purpose = =
Drivers subject to the HOS include any driver of a vehicle which has a gross vehicle weight of 10 @,@ 001 pounds ( 4 @,@ 536 kg ) or more ; which is designed or used to transport more than 8 passengers ( including the driver ) for compensation ; which is designed or used to transport more than 15 passengers ( including the driver ) and is not used to transport passengers for compensation ; or which is used to transport hazardous materials in quantities requiring the vehicle to be marked or placarded under the hazardous materials regulations .
The purpose of the HOS is to reduce accidents caused by driver fatigue . As the graph to the right illustrates , the number of hours spent driving has a strong correlation to the number of fatigue @-@ related accidents . According to numerous studies , the risk of fatigue is also greatest between the hours of midnight and six in the morning , and increases with the total length of the driver 's trip .
The FMCSA identifies three main factors in driver fatigue : Circadian rhythm effects , sleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects , and industrial or " time @-@ on @-@ task " fatigue .
Circadian rhythm effects describe the tendency for humans to experience a normal cycle in attentiveness and sleepiness through the 24 @-@ hour day . Those with a conventional sleep pattern ( sleeping for seven or eight hours at night ) experience periods of maximum fatigue in the early hours of the morning and a lesser period in the early afternoon . During the low points of this cycle , one experiences reduced attentiveness . During the high points , it is difficult to sleep soundly . The cycle is anchored in part by ambient lighting ( darkness causes a person 's body to release the hormone melatonin , which induces sleep ) , and by a person 's imposed pattern of regular sleeping and waking times . The influence of the day @-@ night cycle is never fully displaced ( standard artificial lighting is not strong enough to inhibit the release of melatonin ) , and the performance of night shift workers usually suffers . Circadian rhythms are persistent , and can only be shifted by one to two hours forward or backward per day . Changing the starting time of a work shift by more than these amounts will reduce attentiveness , which is common after the first night shift following a " weekend " break during which conventional sleep times were followed .
Sleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects describe how individuals who fail to have an adequate period of sleep ( 7 – 8 hours in 24 hours ) or who have been awake longer than the conventional 16 – 17 hours will suffer sleep deprivation . A sleep deficit accumulates with successive sleep @-@ deprived days , and additional fatigue may be caused by breaking daily sleep into two shorter periods in place of a single unbroken period of sleep . A sleep deficit is not instantly reduced by one night 's sleep ; it may take two or three conventional sleep cycles for an individual to return to unimpaired performance .
Industrial or " time @-@ on @-@ task " fatigue describes fatigue that is accumulated during the working period , and affects performance at different times during the shift . Performance declines the longer a person is engaged in a task , gradually during the first few hours and more steeply toward the end of a long period at work . Reduced performance has also been observed in the first hour of work as an individual adjusts to the working environment .
= = Definition of terms = =
Parts of a driver 's work day are defined in four terms : On @-@ duty time , off @-@ duty time , driving time , and sleeper berth time .
FMCSA regulation § 395 @.@ 2 states :
On @-@ duty time is all time from when a driver begins to work or is required to be in readiness to work until the driver is relieved from work and all responsibility for performing work .
On @-@ duty time includes :
All time at a plant , terminal , facility , or other property of a motor carrier or shipper , or on any public property , waiting to be dispatched , unless the driver has been relieved from duty by the motor carrier .
All time inspecting , servicing , or conditioning any CMV at any time .
Crossing a border
All driving time as defined in the term " driving time " .
All time , other than driving time , in or upon any CMV except time spent resting in a sleeper berth .
All time loading or unloading a CMV , supervising , or assisting in the loading or unloading , attending a CMV being loaded or unloaded , remaining in readiness to operate the CMV , or in giving or receiving receipts for shipments loaded or unloaded .
All time repairing , obtaining assistance , or remaining in attendance upon a disabled CMV .
All time spent providing a breath sample or urine specimen , including travel time to and from the collection site , to comply with the random , reasonable suspicion , post @-@ accident , or follow @-@ up drug testing .
Performing any other work in the capacity , employ , or service of a motor carrier .
Performing any compensated work for a person who is not a motor carrier . ( This rule does not explicitly forbid a driver from obtaining a second or part @-@ time job . It simply prevents a driver switching from a non @-@ driving job to a driving job without the required 10 hours of rest . )
Driving time is all time spent at the driving controls of a CMV .
Sleeper berth time is any amount of time spent inside the sleeper berth ( e.g. , resting or sleeping ) . FMCSA regulation § 393 @.@ 76 gives the minimum requirements for a space to be defined as a sleeper berth . The simple definition is an area separate from ( usually immediately behind ) the driving controls that includes a bed . The rules do not explicitly require that a driver must sleep , only that a driver must take a period of " rest " within the sleeper berth or off @-@ duty ( i.e. , home ) . A statement made by the ICC in 1937 gives the reason : " We have no control over the manner in which a driver may spend his time off @-@ duty , although some of his spare time activities may tire him as much as any work would do . We can only emphasize , by this comment , the responsibility which is the driver 's own to assure himself of adequate rest and sleep , in the time available for this purpose , to ensure safety of his driving , and likewise the employer 's responsibility to see that his drivers report for work in fit condition . "
Off @-@ duty time is any time not spent on @-@ duty , driving , or in the sleeper berth .
= = History = =
In 1938 , the now @-@ abolished Interstate Commerce Commission ( ICC ) enforced the first HOS rules . Drivers were limited to 12 hours of work within a 15 @-@ hour period . Work was defined as loading , unloading , driving , handling freight , preparing reports , preparing vehicles for service , or performing any other duty pertaining to the transportation of passengers or property . The ICC intended the 3 @-@ hour difference between 15 hours on @-@ duty and 12 hours of work to be used for meals and rest breaks . The weekly maximum was limited to 60 hours over 7 days ( non @-@ daily drivers ) , or 70 hours over 8 days ( daily drivers ) . These rules allowed for 12 hours of work within a 15 @-@ hour period , 9 hours of rest , with 3 hours for breaks within a 24 @-@ hour day .
Within a short time , however , representatives of organized labor ( including the American Federation of Labor , the Teamsters , and the International Association of Machinists ) petitioned for a stay of the original regulations . A few motor carriers made a similar request . The ICC agreed , and oral arguments were heard again . Labor wanted HOS limits of 8 hours per day and 48 hours per week . The ICC commented " there was no statistical or other information which would enable [ them ] to say definitely how long a driver can safely work . "
Within six months of the original ruling , the ICC ultimately decided to change the 12 @-@ hour work limit in 24 hours to a 10 @-@ hour driving limit in 24 hours , and the 15 @-@ hour on @-@ duty limit was rescinded . Motor carriers were required to give drivers 8 , rather than 9 , consecutive hours off @-@ duty each day . These rules allowed for 10 hours of driving and 8 hours of rest within a 24 @-@ hour day .
In 1962 , for reasons it never clearly explained , the ICC eliminated the 24 @-@ hour cycle rule , and reinstated the 15 @-@ hour on @-@ duty limit . With 10 hours of driving and 8 hours of sleep , drivers were allowed to maintain an 18 @-@ hour cycle , disrupting the driver 's natural 24 @-@ hour circadian rhythm . This change allowed up to 16 hours of driving per day , allowing the driver to exhaust their weekly limits in as little as five days . Later , an added exception for trucks equipped with sleeper berths meant drivers were allowed to " split " their 8 @-@ hour off @-@ duty time into two parts . With the new splitting provision , a driver could take two 4 @-@ hour periods of rest . Using one of these short rest periods would effectively " stop the on @-@ duty clock " , allowing the driver to split the 15 @-@ hour on @-@ duty time limit into two parts as well . These rules allowed for 10 hours of work within a 15 @-@ hour time limit , and 8 hours of rest within an 18 @-@ hour day .
Between 1962 and 2003 , there were numerous proposals to change the HOS again , but none were ever finalized . By this time , the ICC had been abolished , and regulations were now issued by the FMCSA . The 2003 changes applied only to property @-@ carrying drivers ( i.e. , truck drivers ) . These rules allowed 11 hours of driving within a 14 @-@ hour period , and required 10 hours of rest . These changes would allow drivers ( using the entire 14 @-@ hour on @-@ duty period ) to maintain a natural 24 @-@ hour cycle , with a bare minimum 21 @-@ hour cycle ( 11 hours driving , 10 hours rest ) . However , the retention of the split sleeper berth provision would allow drivers to maintain irregular , short @-@ burst sleeping schedules .
The most notable change of 2003 was the introduction of the " 34 @-@ hour restart . " Before the change , drivers could only gain more weekly driving hours with the passing of each day ( which reduced their 70 @-@ hour total by the number of hours driven on the earliest day of the weekly cycle ) . After the change , drivers were allowed to " reset " their weekly 70 @-@ hour limit to zero , by taking 34 consecutive hours off @-@ duty . This provision was introduced to combat the cumulative fatigue effects that accrue on a weekly basis , and to allow for two full nights of rest ( e.g. , during a weekend break ) .
In 2005 , the FMCSA changed the rules again , practically eliminating the split sleeper berth provision . Drivers are now required to take a full 8 hours of rest , with 2 hours allowed for off @-@ duty periods , for a total of 10 hours off @-@ duty . This provision forced drivers to take one longer uninterrupted period of rest , but eliminated the flexibility of allowing drivers to take naps during the day without jeopardizing their driving time . Today 's rule still allows them to " split " the sleeper berth period , but one of the splits must be 8 hours long and the remaining 2 hours do not stop the 14 @-@ hour on @-@ duty period . This rule is confusing and impractical for most drivers , resulting in the majority of drivers taking the full 10 @-@ hour break .
In the years since 2005 , groups such as Public Citizen Litigation Group , Parents Against Tired Truckers ( PATT ) , Owner @-@ Operator Independent Drivers Association ( OOIDA ) , Citizens for Reliable and Safe Highways ( CRASH , which has merged with PATT ) , and the American Trucking Associations ( ATA ) , have been working to change the HOS again . Each group has their own ideas about what should be changed , and different agendas on why the rules should be changed .
= = Property @-@ carrying vehicles = =
FMCSA rules prohibit driving a property @-@ carrying CMV ( e.g. , trucks ) more than 11 hours or to drive after having been on @-@ duty for 14 hours . The 3 @-@ hour difference between the 11 @-@ hour driving limit and the 14 @-@ hour on @-@ duty limit gives drivers the opportunity to take care of non @-@ driving working duties such as loading and unloading cargo , fueling the vehicle , and required vehicle inspections , as well as non @-@ working duties such as meal and rest breaks . After completing an 11- to 14 @-@ hour on @-@ duty period , the driver must be allowed 10 hours off @-@ duty .
FMCSA rules prohibit drivers from operating a CMV after having been on @-@ duty 60 hours in 7 consecutive days ( if the motor carrier does not operate CMVs every day of the week ) , or after having been on @-@ duty 70 hours in 8 consecutive days ( if the motor carrier operates CMVs every day of the week ) .
After accumulating , for example , 70 hours of driving and on @-@ duty time within a period of 8 days , a driver 's daily driving limit may be reduced ( 70 / 8 = 8 @.@ 75 driving hours per day ) . A driver may be allowed ( but not required ) to take 34 hours off @-@ duty to reset the weekly total back to zero ( also known as a " 34 @-@ hour restart " ) .
= = Passenger @-@ carrying vehicles = =
FMCSA rules prohibit driving a passenger @-@ carrying CMV ( e.g. , commercial and city buses , passenger vans , and school buses ) for more than 10 hours , or to drive after having been on @-@ duty for 15 hours . The 5 @-@ hour difference between the 10 @-@ hour driving limit and the 15 @-@ hour on @-@ duty limit gives drivers the opportunity to take care of non @-@ driving work @-@ related duties such as loading and unloading of passengers and luggage , and fueling the vehicle , as well as non @-@ working duties such as meal and rest breaks . After completing a 10 to 15 @-@ hour on @-@ duty period , the driver must be allowed 8 hours off @-@ duty .
The FMCSA weekly hours limitations for passenger @-@ carrying vehicles are identical to those for property @-@ carrying vehicles .
After accumulating , for example , 60 hours of driving and on @-@ duty time within a period of 7 days , a driver 's daily driving limit may be reduced ( 60 / 7 = 8 @.@ 57 driving hours per day ) . The driver of a passenger @-@ carrying vehicle may not use the 34 @-@ hour restart provision .
= = Log book = =
Every driver of a CMV is required to keep track of his / her time with a log book or an EOBR . A log book is simply a notebook with a grid pattern on every page , dividing the 24 @-@ hour day into 15 @-@ minute ( 1 / 4 @-@ hour ) segments . Drivers are required to make carbon copies of each page , so one page may be kept with the driver ( to be produced upon inspection by DOT officers ) , and so the other copy may be sent to the driver 's employer .
An electronic on @-@ board recorder can be thought of as an automated electronic log book . An EOBR records the same information as a manual paper log book , and requires less input from the driver . The EOBR automatically records driving time and location , leaving the driver responsible only for reporting on @-@ duty and off @-@ duty time . In these respects , the EOBR is less susceptible to forgery than a paper log book .
FMCSA rules require that a log book ( or EOBR ) must record for each change of duty status ( e.g. , the place of reporting for work , or starting to drive ) , the name of the city , town or village , with state abbreviation . If a change of duty status occurs at a location other than a city , the highway number and nearest milepost or the nearest two intersecting roadways followed by the name of the nearest city must be recorded . In addition to the time grid , a log book must record the date , total miles driven for the day , truck and trailer number , name of carrier , bill of lading number , and the driver 's signature . The driver is required to retain a copy of each log page for the previous seven consecutive days which must be in his / her possession and available for inspection while on @-@ duty .
= = Exceptions = =
There are numerous exceptions to these rules , some of these include but are not limited to :
During adverse weather or emergency driving conditions , drivers are permitted to exceed the 11 hour maximum daily driving time . However , drivers may not extend the 14 hour on duty time .
Drivers who venture less than a 150 air @-@ mile radius from the work reporting location are not required to maintain log books ( but are not exempt from limits on driving time ) , provided their employers maintain accurate records of their driving time .
Drivers who start and stop their work day at the same location for at least the previous 5 work days may drive past the 14 hour mark , for an extra 2 hours , if 11 driving hours are not exceeded . The 16 @-@ hour rule extends the work day by two hours , but does not extend the allowable driving hours . The 16 @-@ hour rule may be invoked once per 34 hour reset , if the 5 day pattern has been established . The driver must be relieved from work after the 16th hour .
Drivers for oilfield operations in the petroleum industry , groundwater drilling operations , construction materials , and utility service vehicles are permitted to take a 24 @-@ hour restart .
Retail store drivers who venture less than a 100 air @-@ mile radius are allowed to exceed daily driving limits to make store deliveries from December 10 to December 25 , due to the demands of the Christmas shopping season .
Drivers in Alaska can drive up to 15 hours within a 20 @-@ hour period .
Drivers in Hawaii are not required to maintain log books , provided their employer keeps an accurate record of their driving time .
Drivers in California are allowed up to 12 driving hours and 16 on duty hours .
Drivers for theatrical or television motion picture productions are exempt if the driver operates within a 100 air @-@ mile radius of the location where the driver reports to and is released from work . These drivers may take an 8 @-@ hour break , and are allowed 15 hours on duty .
= = Enforcement = =
The HOS are issued , among other industry @-@ related regulations , by the FMCSA . In this instance , federal regulations apply only to interstate commerce . Commerce which does not involve the crossing of state lines is considered intrastate , and is under the jurisdiction of the respective state 's laws . However , most states have adopted intrastate regulations which are identical or very similar to the federal HOS regulations .
Enforcement of the HOS rules is generally handled by DOT officers of their respective states , although any ordinary police officer may inspect a driver 's log book . States are responsible for maintaining weigh stations commonly located at the borders between states , where drivers are pulled in for random vehicle inspections ( although some of the inspections are based on the motor carrier 's safety rating ) . Otherwise , a driver may be pulled over for random checks by police officers or DOT officials at any time . Drivers are required to maintain their log books to current status , and if inspections reveal any sort of discrepancy , drivers may be put " out of service " until the driver has accumulated enough off @-@ duty time to be back in compliance . Being put out of service means a driver may not drive his / her truck during the prescribed limit under risk of further penalty . Repeated violations can result in fines from $ 1 @,@ 000 to $ 11 @,@ 000 and a downgrade in the motor carrier 's safety rating .
Long @-@ haul drivers are normally paid by the mile , not by the hour . Legally , truck drivers are not required to receive overtime pay for hours worked in excess of the standard 40 @-@ hour work week . Some drivers may choose to violate the HOS to earn more money . Being paid by the mile , any work performed that is not actual driving is of no value to the driver , providing incentive to falsify the amount of time spent performing non @-@ driving duties . Drivers who falsify their log books often under @-@ report their non @-@ driving duties ( such as waiting to be loaded and unloaded ) which they are not paid for , and under @-@ report their driving time or total miles . Many drivers who receive mileage pay are not paid by logged miles or actual miles , instead , motor carriers use computer mapping software ( such as PC Miler ) or published mileage guides ( such as the Rand McNally Household Goods Carriers ' Bureau Mileage Guide ) . PATT suggests that paying all drivers by the hour would reduce HOS violations by removing the incentive to " cheat the system " by driving more miles than are being logged . Surveys by OOIDA report 80 % of drivers are not paid for waiting times while loading and unloading , and the majority of those drivers log these times as off @-@ duty ( while regulations require they be logged as on @-@ duty ) . These same drivers reported they would log these times as on @-@ duty if they were paid reasonably for such delays .
Drivers can get away with this rule @-@ breaking due to their paper @-@ based log books . As a driver records their time spent behind the wheel , there is very little to stop them from forging their log books . There is very superficial oversight and some drivers take advantage of this fact . Surveys indicate that between 25 % and 75 % of drivers violate the HOS . Other drivers maintain more than one log book , showing falsified versions to enforcement officers .
Trucking companies ( motor carriers ) can also play a role in HOS violations . Certain carriers may choose to knowingly ignore HOS violations made by their drivers , or even encourage their drivers to do so . Allowing drivers to violate the HOS is an effective cost @-@ cutting measure used mostly by non @-@ union , long haul carriers . Permitting HOS violations allows a carrier to hire fewer drivers , and run on fewer trucks than a company which follows the rules . To comply with the HOS , these companies would have to hire more drivers ( possibly driving up wages ) and purchase additional trucks and trailers . Making a change to comply with the law is complicated by competition with carriers that already comply with HOS regulations . Due to this competition , carriers who choose to switch from non @-@ compliance could not pass on all of their increased costs associated with HOS compliance to their customers .
In 1999 , two trucking company officials were sentenced to federal prison for violating hours of service regulations . Charles Georgoulakos Jr. and his brother , James Georgoulakos were sentenced to four months in prison , eight months in home confinement , and one year of supervised release . Their company , C & J Trucking Company of Londonderry , New Hampshire , was placed on two years probation and fined $ 25 @,@ 000 ( the maximum amount ) . The sentences were the result of an investigation which began when one of the trucking company 's drivers was involved in a collision on Interstate 93 in Londonderry on Aug. 2 , 1995 , in which four individuals were killed .
Several private and public motor carriers such as Frito @-@ Lay , United Parcel Service , and Werner Enterprises , have voluntarily implemented electronic on @-@ board recorders to ensure drivers are in compliance with the federal regulations , to reduce the errors and hassles associated with paper log books , and to improve driver retention and recruitment . EOBRs automatically record the driving time and cannot be easily forged . Any violation of the HOS will automatically be recorded and reported to the company . The FMCSA is considering making EOBRs mandatory for all motor carriers .
= = Rewriting the Hours of Service = =
Whereas the 11 and 14 hour rules are still in effect , drivers will also be required to take a 30 @-@ minute break after 8 hours of on duty time . The 34 hour restart provision will still be in effect . However , drivers will only be allowed 1 restart per week ( 168 hours ) . Up to 2 hours either side of a sleeper @-@ berth period while in the passenger seat will count as off @-@ duty . Drivers inside a parked CMV who are not in the sleeper berth must log it as on @-@ duty .
This regulation has been codified into the Final Rule , and will come into force on the 27th February 2013 ( for the additional Off Duty allowances ) and 1 July 2013 ( for the break rules , and restart limits ) .
HOS Final Rule On December 27 , 2011 ( 76 FR 81133 ) , FMCSA published a final rule amending its hours @-@ of @-@ service ( HOS ) regulations for drivers of property @-@ carrying commercial motor vehicles ( CMVs ) . The final rule adopted several changes to the HOS regulations , including a new provision requiring drivers to take a rest break during the work day under certain circumstances . Drivers may drive a CMV only if 8 hours or less have passed since the end of the driver ’ s last off @-@ duty or sleeper @-@ berth period of at least 30 minutes . FMCSA did not specify when drivers must take the 30 @-@ minute break , but the rule requires that they wait no longer than 8 hours after the last off @-@ duty or sleeper @-@ berth period of that length or longer to take the break . Drivers who already take shorter breaks during the work day could comply with the rule by taking one of the shorter breaks and extending it to 30 minutes . The new requirement took effect on July 1 , 2013 .
On August 2 , 2013 , the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit issued its ruling on the Hours of Service litigation brought by the American Trucking Associations and Public Citizen . The Court upheld the 2011 Hours of Service regulations in all aspects except for the 30 @-@ minute break provision as it applies to short haul drivers . While the decision does not officially take effect until the mandate is issued 52 days after the decision ( unless a party files a petition for rehearing , either by the panel or en banc , or moves to stay the mandate pending the filing of a petition for certiorari in the Supreme Court ) , FMCSA announces the Agency will immediately cease enforcement of the 30 @-@ minute rest break provision of the HOS rule against short @-@ haul operations . The Agency requests that its State enforcement partners also cease enforcement of this provision . States that do so will not be found in violation of the Motor Carrier Safety Assistance Program ( MCSAP ) . ENFORCEMENT POLICY Effective August 2 , 2013 , FMCSA will no longer enforce 49 CFR 395 @.@ 3 ( a ) ( 3 ) ( ii ) against any driver that qualifies for either of the “ short haul operations ” exceptions outlined in 49 CFR 395 @.@ 1 ( e ) ( 1 ) or ( 2 ) . The Agency requests that State and local enforcement agencies also refrain from enforcing the 30 @-@ minute rest break against these drivers . Specifically , the following drivers would not be subject to the 30 @-@ minute break requirement : • All drivers ( CDL and non @-@ CDL ) that operate within 150 air @-@ miles of their normal work reporting location and satisfy the time limitations and recordkeeping requirements of 395 @.@ 1 ( e ) ( 1 ) .
• Non @-@ CDL drivers that operate within a 150 air @-@ mile radius of the location where the driver reports for duty and satisfy the time limitations and recordkeeping requirements of 395 @.@ 1
= George S. Patton slapping incidents =
In early August 1943 , Lieutenant General George S. Patton slapped two United States Army soldiers under his command during the Sicily Campaign of World War II . Patton 's hard @-@ driving personality and lack of belief in the medical condition post @-@ traumatic stress disorder , then known as " battle fatigue " or " shell shock " , led to the soldiers becoming the subject of his ire in incidents on 3 and 10 August , when Patton struck and berated them after discovering they were patients at evacuation hospitals away from the front lines without apparent physical injuries .
Word of the incidents spread , eventually reaching Patton 's superior , General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who ordered him to apologize to the men . Patton 's actions were initially suppressed in the news until journalist Drew Pearson publicized them in the United States . While the U.S. Congress and the general public expressed both support and disdain for Patton 's actions , Eisenhower and Army Chief of Staff George Marshall opted not to fire Patton as a commander . He was nonetheless sidelined from combat command for almost a year .
Seizing the opportunity the predicament presented , Eisenhower used Patton as a decoy in Operation Fortitude , sending faulty intelligence to German agents that Patton was leading the Invasion of Europe . While Patton eventually returned to combat command in the European Theater in mid @-@ 1944 , the slapping incidents were seen by Eisenhower , Marshall , and other leaders to be examples of Patton 's brashness and impulsiveness . Patton 's career was halted as former subordinates such as Omar Bradley became his superiors .
= = Background = =
The Allied invasion of Sicily began on 10 July 1943 , with Lieutenant General George S. Patton landing 90 @,@ 000 men of the Seventh United States Army near Gela , Scoglitti , and Licata to support Bernard Montgomery 's British 8th Army landings to the north . Initially ordered to protect the British forces ' flank , Patton took Palermo after Montgomery 's forces were slowed by heavy resistance from troops of Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy . Patton then set his sights on Messina . He sought an amphibious assault , but it was delayed by lack of landing craft and his troops did not land in Santo Stefano until 8 August , by which time the Germans and Italians had already evacuated the bulk of their troops to mainland Italy . Throughout the campaign , Patton 's troops were heavily engaged by German and Italian forces as they pushed across the island . By the end of the battle on 16 August , the 200 @,@ 000 @-@ man Seventh Army had suffered 7 @,@ 500 casualties , and had killed or captured 113 @,@ 000 Axis troops and destroyed 3 @,@ 500 vehicles .
Patton had already developed a reputation in the U.S. Army as an effective , successful , and hard @-@ driving commander , punishing subordinates for the slightest infractions but also rewarding them when they performed well . As a way to promote an image that inspired his troops , Patton created a larger @-@ than @-@ life personality . He became known for his flashy dress , highly polished helmet and boots , and no @-@ nonsense demeanor . General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the commander of the Sicily operation and Patton 's friend and commanding officer , had long known of Patton 's colorful leadership style , and also knew that Patton was prone to impulsiveness and a lack of self @-@ restraint .
= = = Battle fatigue = = =
Prior to World War I , the U.S. Army considered the symptoms of battle fatigue to be cowardice or attempts to avoid combat duty . Soldiers who reported these symptoms received harsh treatment . At the time of the incidents , the two soldiers Patton slapped were believed to be suffering from " battle fatigue , " otherwise known as " shell shock " or " battle stress . " Today , this condition is characterized as a form of post @-@ traumatic stress disorder , which can result from prolonged severe exposure to death and destruction , among many other traumatic events . While the causes , symptoms , and effects of the condition were familiar to physicians by the time of the two incidents , it was generally less understood in military circles .
An important lesson from the Tunisia Campaign was that neuropsychiatric casualties had to be treated as soon as possible , and not evacuated from the combat zone . This was not done in the early stages of the Sicilian Campaign , and large numbers of neuropsychiatric casualties were evacuated to North Africa , with the result that treatment became complicated , and only 15 percent of them were returned to duty . As the campaign wore on , the system became better organized , and nearly 50 percent were restored to combat duty .
Some time before what would become known as the " slapping incident , " Patton spoke with Major General Clarence R. Huebner , the newly appointed commander of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division , in which the soldiers both served . Patton had asked Huebner for a status report . Huebner replied : " The front lines seem to be thinning out . There seems to be a very large number of ' malingerers ' at the hospitals , feigning illness in order to avoid combat duty . " For his part , Patton did not believe the condition was real . In a directive issued to commanders on 5 August , he forbade " battle fatigue " in the Seventh Army :
It has come to my attention that a very small number of soldiers are going to the hospital on the pretext that they are nervously incapable of combat . Such men are cowards and bring discredit on the army and disgrace to their comrades , whom they heartlessly leave to endure the dangers of battle while they , themselves , use the hospital as a means of escape . You will take measures to see that such cases are not sent to the hospital but dealt with in their units . Those who are not willing to fight will be tried by court @-@ martial for cowardice in the face of the enemy .
= = Incidents = =
= = = 3 August = = =
Private Charles H. Kuhl , of L Company , U.S. 26th Infantry Regiment , reported to an aid station of C Company , 1st Medical Battalion , on 2 August 1943 . Kuhl , who had been in the U.S. Army for eight months , had been attached to the 1st Infantry Division since 2 June 1943 . He was diagnosed with " exhaustion , " a diagnosis he had been given three times since the start of the campaign . From the aid station , he was evacuated to a medical company and given sodium amytal . Notes in his medical chart indicated " psychoneurosis anxiety state , moderately severe ( soldier has been twice before in hospital within ten days . He can 't take it at the front , evidently . He is repeatedly returned . " ) Kuhl was transferred from the aid station to the 15th Evacuation Hospital near Nicosia for further evaluation .
Patton arrived at the hospital the same day , accompanied by a number of medical officers , as part of his tour of the U.S. II Corps troops . He spoke to some patients in the hospital , commending the physically wounded . He then approached Kuhl , who did not appear to be physically injured . Kuhl was sitting slouched on a stool midway through a tent ward filled with injured soldiers . When Patton asked Kuhl where he was hurt , Kuhl reportedly shrugged and replied that he was " nervous " rather than wounded , adding , " I guess I can 't take it . " Patton " immediately flared up , " slapped Kuhl across the chin with his gloves , then grabbed him by the collar and dragged him to the tent entrance . He shoved him out of the tent with a kick to his backside . Yelling " Don 't admit this son of a bitch , " Patton demanded that Kuhl be sent back to the front , adding , " You hear me , you gutless bastard ? You 're going back to the front . "
Corpsmen picked up Kuhl and brought him to a ward tent , where it was discovered he had a temperature of 102 @.@ 2 ° F ( 39 @.@ 0 ° C ) ; and was later diagnosed with malarial parasites . Speaking later of the incident , Kuhl noted " at the time it happened , [ Patton ] was pretty well worn out ... I think he was suffering a little battle fatigue himself . " Kuhl wrote to his parents about the incident , but asked them to " just forget about it . " That night , Patton recorded the incident in his diary : " [ I met ] the only errant coward I have ever seen in this Army . Companies should deal with such men , and if they shirk their duty , they should be tried for cowardice and shot . "
Patton was accompanied in this visit by Major General John P. Lucas , who saw nothing remarkable about the incident . After the war he wrote :
There are always a certain number of such weaklings in any Army , and I suppose the modern doctor is correct in classifying them as ill and treating them as such . However , the man with malaria doesn 't pass his condition on to his comrades as rapidly as does the man with cold feet nor does malaria have the lethal effect that the latter has .
Patton was heard by a war correspondent angrily denying the reality of shell shock , claiming that the condition was " an invention of the Jews . "
= = = 10 August = = =
Private Paul G. Bennett , 21 , of C Battery , U.S. 17th Field Artillery Regiment , 1st Infantry Division , was a four @-@ year veteran of the U.S. Army , and had served in the division since March 1943 . Records show he had no medical history until 6 August 1943 , when a friend was wounded in combat . According to a report , he " could not sleep and was nervous . " Bennett was brought to the 93rd Evacuation Hospital . In addition to having a fever , he exhibited symptoms of dehydration , including fatigue , confusion , and listlessness . His request to return to his unit was turned down by medical officers .
The shells going over him bothered him . The next day he was worried about his buddy and became more nervous . He was sent down to the rear echelon by a battery aid man and there the medical aid man gave him some medicine which made him sleep , but still he was nervous and disturbed . On the next day the medical officer ordered him to be evacuated , although the boy begged not to be evacuated because he did not want to leave his unit . — A medical officer describing Bennett 's condition
On 10 August , Patton entered the receiving tent of the hospital , speaking to the injured there . Patton approached Bennett , who was huddled and shivering , and asked what the trouble was . " It 's my nerves , " Bennett responded . " I can 't stand the shelling anymore . " Patton reportedly became enraged at him , slapping him across the face . He began yelling : " Your nerves , hell , you are just a goddamned coward . Shut up that goddamned crying . I won 't have these brave men who have been shot at seeing this yellow bastard sitting here crying . " Patton then reportedly slapped Bennett again , knocking his helmet liner off , and ordered the receiving officer , Major Charles B. Etter , not to admit him . Patton then threatened Bennett , " You 're going back to the front lines and you may get shot and killed , but you 're going to fight . If you don 't , I 'll stand you up against a wall and have a firing squad kill you on purpose . In fact , I ought to shoot you myself , you goddamned whimpering coward . " Upon saying this , Patton pulled out his pistol threateningly , prompting the hospital 's commander , Colonel Donald E. Currier , to physically separate the two . Patton left the tent , yelling to medical officers to send Bennett back to the front lines .
As he toured the remainder of the hospital , Patton continued discussing Bennett 's condition with Currier . Patton stated , " I can 't help it , it makes my blood boil to think of a yellow bastard being babied , " and " I won 't have those cowardly bastards hanging around our hospitals . We 'll probably have to shoot them some time anyway , or we 'll raise a breed of morons . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Private reprimand and apologies = = =
The 10 August incident — particularly the sight of Patton threatening a subordinate with a pistol — upset many of the medical staff present . The II Corps surgeon , Colonel Richard T. Arnest , submitted a report on the incident to Brigadier General William B. Kean , chief of staff of II Corps , who submitted it to Lieutenant General Omar Bradley , commander of II Corps . Bradley , out of loyalty to Patton , did nothing more than lock the report in his safe . Arnest also sent the report through medical channels to Brigadier General Frederick A. Blesse , General Surgeon of Allied Force Headquarters , who then submitted it to Eisenhower , who received it on 16 August . Eisenhower ordered Blesse to proceed immediately to Patton 's command to ascertain the truth of the allegations . Eisenhower also formulated a delegation to investigate the incidents from the soldiers ' points of view , including Major General John P. Lucas , two colonels from the Inspector General 's office , and a theatre medical consultant , Lieutenant Colonel Perrin H. Long , to investigate the incident and interview those involved . Long interviewed medical personnel who witnessed each incident , then filed a report entitled " Mistreatment of Patients in Receiving Tents of the 15th and 93rd Evacuation Hospitals , " that extensively detailed Patton 's actions at both hospitals .
By 18 August , Eisenhower had ordered that Patton 's Seventh Army be broken up , with a few of its units remaining garrisoned in Sicily . The majority of its combat forces would be transferred to the Fifth United States Army under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark . This had already been planned by Eisenhower , who had previously told Patton that his Seventh Army would not be part of the upcoming Allied invasion of Italy , scheduled for September . On 20 August , Patton received a cable from Eisenhower regarding the arrival of Lucas at Palermo . Eisenhower told Patton it was " highly important " that he personally meet with Lucas as soon as possible , as Lucas would be carrying an important message . Before Lucas arrived , Blesse arrived from Algiers to look into the health of the troops in Sicily . He was also ordered by Eisenhower to deliver a secret letter to Patton and investigate its allegations . In the letter , Eisenhower told Patton he had been informed of the slapping incidents . He said he would not be opening a formal investigation into the matter , but his criticism of Patton was sharp .
I clearly understand that firm and drastic measures are at times necessary in order to secure the desired objectives . But this does not excuse brutality , abuse of the sick , nor exhibition of uncontrollable temper in front of subordinates . ... I feel that the personal services you have rendered the United States and the Allied cause during the past weeks are of incalculable value ; but nevertheless if there is a very considerable element of truth in the allegations accompanying this letter , I must so seriously question your good judgement and your self @-@ discipline as to raise serious doubts in my mind as to your future usefulness . — Eisenhower 's letter to Patton , dated 17 August 1943
Eisenhower noted that no formal record of the incidents would be retained at Allied Headquarters , save in his own secret files . Still , he strongly suggested Patton apologize to all involved . On 21 August , Patton brought Bennett into his office ; he apologized and the men shook hands . On 22 August , he met with Currier as well as the medical staff who had witnessed the events in each unit and expressed regret for his " impulsive actions . " Patton related to the medical staff a story of a friend from World War I who had committed suicide after " skulking " ; he stated he sought to prevent any recurrence of such an event . On 23 August , he brought Kuhl into his office , apologized , and shook hands with him as well . After the apology , Kuhl said he thought Patton was " a great general , " and that " at the time , he didn 't know how sick I was . " Currier later said Patton 's remarks sounded like " no apology at all , an attempt to justify what he had done . " Patton wrote in his diary that he loathed making the apologies , particularly when he was told by Bennett 's brigade commander , Brigadier General John A. Crane , that Bennett had gone absent without leave ( AWOL ) and arrived at the hospital by " falsely representing his condition . " Patton wrote , " It is rather a commentary on justice when an Army commander has to soft @-@ soap a skulker to placate the timidity of those above . " As word of the actions had spread informally among troops of the Seventh Army , Patton drove to each division under his command between 24 and 30 August and gave a 15 @-@ minute speech in which he praised their behavior and apologized for any instances where he had been too harsh on soldiers , making only vague reference to the two slapping incidents . In his final apology speech to the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division , Patton was overcome with emotion when the soldiers supportively began to chant " No , general , no , no , " to prevent him from having to apologize .
In a letter to General George Marshall on 24 August , Eisenhower praised Patton 's exploits as commander of the Seventh Army and his conduct of the Sicily campaign , particularly his ability to take initiative as a commander . Still , Eisenhower noted Patton continued " to exhibit some of those unfortunate traits of which you and I have always known . " He informed Marshall of the two incidents and his requirement that Patton apologize . Eisenhower stated he believed Patton would cease his behavior " because fundamentally , he is so avid for recognition as a great military commander that he will ruthlessly suppress any habit of his that will tend to jeopardize it . " When Eisenhower arrived in Sicily to award Montgomery the Legion of Merit on 29 August , Patton gave him a letter expressing his remorse about the incidents .
= = = Media attention = = =
Word of the slapping incidents spread informally among soldiers before eventually circulating to war correspondents . One of the nurses who witnessed the 10 August incident apparently told her boyfriend , a captain in the Seventh Army public affairs detachment . Through him a group of four journalists covering the Sicily operation heard of the incident , among them Demaree Bess of the Saturday Evening Post , Merrill Mueller of NBC News , Al Newman of Newsweek , and John Charles Daly of CBS News . The four journalists interviewed Etter and other witnesses , but decided to bring the matter to Eisenhower instead of filing the story with their editors . Bess , Mueller , and Quentin Reynolds of Collier 's Magazine flew from Sicily to Algiers , and on 19 August Bess gave a summary on the slapping incidents to Eisenhower 's chief of staff , Major General Walter Bedell Smith . The reporters asked Eisenhower directly about the incident , and Eisenhower requested that the story be suppressed because the war effort could not afford to lose Patton . Bess and other journalists initially complied . However , the news reporters then demanded Eisenhower fire Patton in exchange for them not reporting the story , a demand which Eisenhower refused .
The story of Kuhl 's slapping broke in the U.S. when newspaper columnist Drew Pearson revealed it on his 21 November radio program . Pearson received details of the Kuhl incident and other material on Patton from his friend Ernest Cuneo , an official with the Office of Strategic Services , who obtained the information from War Department files and correspondence . Pearson 's version not only conflated details of both slapping incidents but falsely reported that the private in question was visibly " out of his head " , telling Patton to " duck down or the shells would hit him " and that in response " Patton struck the soldier , knocking him down . " Pearson punctuated his broadcast by twice stating that Patton would never again be used in combat , despite the fact that Pearson had no factual basis for this prediction . In response , Allied Headquarters denied that Patton had received an official reprimand , but confirmed that Patton had slapped at least one soldier .
Patton 's wife , Beatrice Patton , spoke to the media to defend him . She appeared in True Confessions , a women 's confession magazine , where she characterized Patton as " the toughest , most hard boiled General in the U.S. Army ... but he 's quite sweet , really . " She was featured in a Washington Post article on 26 November . While she did not attempt to justify Patton 's action , she characterized him as a " tough perfectionist , " stating that he cared deeply about the men under his command and would not ask them to do something he would not do himself :
He had been known to weep at men 's graves — as well as tear their hides off . The deed is done and the mistake made , and I 'm sure Georgie is sorrier and has punished himself more than anyone could possibly realize . I 've known George Patton for 31 years and I 've never known him to be deliberately unfair . He 's made mistakes — and he 's paid for them . This was a big mistake , and he 's paying a big price for it . — Beatrice Patton in the Washington Post , 26 November 1943
= = = Public response = = =
Demands for Patton to be relieved of duty and sent home were made in Congress and in newspapers across the country . U.S. Representative Jed Johnson of Oklahoma 's 6th district described Patton 's actions as a " despicable incident " and was " amazed and chagrined " Patton was still in command . He called for the general 's immediate dismissal on the grounds that his actions rendered him no longer useful to the war effort . Representative Charles B. Hoeven of Iowa 's 9th district said on the House floor that parents of soldiers need no longer worry of their children being abused by " hard boiled officers " . He wondered whether the Army had " too much blood and guts . " Eisenhower submitted a report to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , who presented it to Senator Robert R. Reynolds , Chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs . The report laid out Eisenhower 's response to the incident and gave details of Patton 's decades of military service . Eisenhower concluded that Patton was invaluable to the war effort and that he was confident the corrective actions taken would be adequate . Investigators Eisenhower sent to Patton 's command found the general remained overwhelmingly popular with his troops .
By mid @-@ December , the government had received around 1 @,@ 500 letters related to Patton , with many calling for his dismissal and others defending him or calling for his promotion . Kuhl 's father , Herman F. Kuhl , wrote to his own congressman , stating that he forgave Patton for the incident and requesting that he not be disciplined . Retired generals also weighed in on the matter . Former Army Chief of Staff Charles P. Summerall wrote to Patton that he was " indignant about the publicity given a trifling incident " , adding that " whatever [ Patton ] did " he was sure it was " justified by the provocation . Such cowards used to be shot , now they are only encouraged . " Major General Kenyon A. Joyce , another combat commander and one of Patton 's friends , attacked Pearson as a " sensation mongerer , " stating that " niceties " should be left for " softer times of peace . " In one notable dissension , Patton 's friend , former mentor and General of the Armies John J. Pershing publicly condemned his actions , an act that left Patton " deeply hurt " and caused him to never speak to Pershing again .
After consulting with Marshall , Stimson , and Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy , Eisenhower retained Patton in the European theater , though his Seventh Army saw no further combat . Patton remained in Sicily for the rest of the year . Marshall and Stimson not only supported Eisenhower 's decision , but defended it . In a letter to the U.S. Senate , Stimson stated that Patton must be retained because of the need for his " aggressive , winning leadership in the bitter battles which are to come before final victory . " Stimson acknowledged retaining Patton was a poor move for public relations but remained confident it was the right decision militarily .
= = Effect on plans for invasion of Europe = =
Contrary to his statements to Patton , Eisenhower never seriously considered removing the general from duty in the European Theater . Writing of the incident before the media attention , he said , " If this thing ever gets out , they 'll be howling for Patton 's scalp , and that will be the end of Georgie 's service in this war . I simply cannot let that happen . Patton is indispensable to the war effort – one of the guarantors of our victory . " Still , following the capture of Messina in August 1943 , Patton did not command a force in combat for 11 months .
Patton was passed over to lead the invasion in northern Europe . In September , Bradley — Patton 's junior in both rank and experience — was selected to command the First United States Army that was forming in England to prepare for Operation Overlord . According to Eisenhower , this decision had been made months before the slapping incidents became public knowledge , but Patton felt they were the reason he was denied the command . Eisenhower had already decided on Bradley because he felt the invasion of Europe was too important to risk any uncertainty . While Eisenhower and Marshall both considered Patton to be a superb corps @-@ level combat commander , Bradley possessed two of the traits that a theater @-@ level strategic command required , and that Patton conspicuously lacked : a calm , reasoned demeanor , and a meticulously consistent nature . The slapping incidents had only further confirmed to Eisenhower that Patton lacked the ability to exercise discipline and self @-@ control at such a command level . Still , Eisenhower re @-@ emphasized his confidence in Patton 's skill as a ground combat commander by recommending him for promotion to four @-@ star general in a private letter to Marshall on 8 September , noting his previous combat exploits and admitting that he had a " driving power " that Bradley lacked .
By mid @-@ December , Eisenhower had been appointed Supreme Allied Commander in Europe , and moved to England . As media attention surrounding the incident began to subside , McCloy told Patton he would indeed be eventually returning to combat command . Patton was briefly considered to lead the Seventh Army in Operation Dragoon , but Eisenhower felt his experience would be more useful in the Normandy campaign . Eisenhower and Marshall privately agreed that Patton would command a follow @-@ on field army after Bradley 's army conducted the initial invasion of Normandy ; Bradley would then command the resulting army group . Patton was told on 1 January 1944 only that he would be relieved of command of the Seventh Army and moved to Europe . In his diary , he wrote that he would resign if he was not given command of a field army . On 26 January 1944 , formally given command of a newly arrived unit , the Third United States Army , he went to the United Kingdom to prepare the unit 's inexperienced soldiers for combat . This duty occupied Patton throughout early 1944 .
Exploiting Patton 's situation , Eisenhower sent him on several high @-@ profile trips throughout the Mediterranean in late 1943 . He traveled to Algiers , Tunis , Corsica , Cairo , Jerusalem , and Malta in an effort to confuse German commanders as to where the Allied forces might next attack . By the next year , the German High Command still had more respect for Patton than for any other Allied commander and considered him central to any plan to invade Europe from the north . Because of this , Patton was made a central figure in Operation Fortitude in early 1944 . The Allies fed the German intelligence organizations , through double agents , a steady stream of false intelligence that Patton had been named commander of the First United States Army Group ( FUSAG ) and was preparing for an invasion of Pas de Calais . The FUSAG command was actually an intricately constructed " phantom " army of decoys , props and radio signals based around south @-@ east England to mislead German aircraft and to make Axis leaders believe a large force was massing there . Patton was ordered to keep a low profile to deceive the Germans into thinking he was in Dover throughout early 1944 , when he was actually training the Third Army . As a result of Operation Fortitude , the German 15th Army remained at Pas de Calais to defend against the expected attack . The formation remained there even after the invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944 . Patton and the Third Army traveled to Europe and entered combat in July .
= Alconétar Bridge =
The Alconétar Bridge ( Spanish : Puente de Alconétar ) , also known as Puente de Mantible , was a Roman segmental arch bridge in the Extremadura region , Spain . The ancient structure , which featured flattened arches with a span @-@ to @-@ rise ratio of 4 – 5 : 1 , is one of the earliest of its kind . Due to its design , it is assumed that the bridge was erected in the early 2nd century AD by the emperors Trajan or Hadrian , possibly under the guidance of Apollodorus of Damascus , the most famous architect of the time .
The almost 300 m long Alconétar Bridge served as a crossing point for the Roman Via de la Plata , the most important north @-@ south connection in western Hispania , over the Tagus , the longest river of the Iberian peninsula . It presumably remained in service until the Reconquista , after which numerous early modern reconstruction attempts by Spanish engineers failed . The ruins , which were mainly to be found on the right river bank , were relocated from their original position in 1970 when the Alcántara reservoir was created .
= = Location and road access = =
The historic Alconétar Bridge , which should not be confused with the monumental Alcántara Bridge further downstream , spanned the Tagus not far from the mouth of the Almonte , in the heart of the Spanish Cáceres Province in the Extremadura region . A modern motorway and a railway , which cross the Tagus in the immediate vicinity , underline the historical importance of this crossing point between northern and southern Spain . During the building of the Alcántara Dam in 1970 , the remains of the bridge were moved from their original site to a meadow six kilometers to the north , close to the municipality of Garrovillas de Alconétar . By contrast , few traces are left of the neighbouring ancient bridge over the river Almonte .
In the classical period , the Alconétar Bridge was part of the Roman road Iter ab Emerita Caesaraugustam , that was later called Via de la Plata . This important inner Iberian connection led from the provincial capital Mérida in the south , through the river valleys of Alagón , Tiétar and Tagus to the north , then on to the western part of Meseta Central , passing the major town of Salamanca . Its terminal point was Astorga in north @-@ western Spain . The Via de la Plata was one of the four main routes which were established by Augustus ( 30 BC – 14 AD ) and his successors for military control of the peninsula and for facilitating the exploitation of the rich Spanish silver and gold mines .
Apart from the junction over the Tagus , the remains of four other ancient bridges can be found along the road : one over the Albarregas , another over the Aljucén , a third close to Caparra and a fourth over the Tormes . In the hills overlooking the Alconétar Bridge , a Roman mansio with the name of Turmulus ( Spanish : " Ad Túrmulos " ) was established , according to the then customary distance intervals . It was the fourth of a total number of sixteen between Mérida and Astorga .
= = History = =
The exact construction date of the Puente de Alconétar is unknown because of missing literary and epigraphic sources . Its segmental arches suggest that it was built in the early 2nd century AD , more specifically during the reign of the emperors Trajan ( 98 – 117 AD ) or Hadrian ( 117 – 138 AD ) , as the use of this arch form was typical of that era . Both rulers were born in the southern Spanish province of Baetica and Trajan is known to have ordered the restoration of the Iter ab Emerita Caesaraugustam when he came to power . Segmental arches were often employed by Trajan 's court architect Apollodorus of Damascus , such as in Trajan 's Forum and most notably in the greatest civil engineering achievement of its time , Trajan 's Bridge , which rested on twenty huge concrete piers and was used during the Dacian Wars for moving troops across the more than 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) wide Danube .
Moorish geographers make no mention of the Alconétar Bridge , even though they praise the Roman bridge of Alcántara which also leads across the Tagus . There is some evidence that a community called Alconétar , Alconétara or Alcontra ( Arabic : " small bridge " ) existed at least temporarily – probably an indirect reference to the high @-@ rising bridge of Alcántara . It also remains unknown why the bridge of Alconétar is called Puente de Mantible in the local vernacular , an expression which alludes to the legend of Charlemagne and his Twelve Paladins .
The bridge was probably in use until the time of the Reconquista , when the Tagus constituted the border between the Christian and the Moorish realm from the 11th to the 13th century , and the frequent clashes might have easily made the ancient bridge unusable . According to another theory , the water could have begun to wash away the ancient foundations at the time .
The Alconétar Bridge first appears in records in 1231 and , again , in 1257 , when it is explicitly referred to as being in use . It was probably repaired by the Knights Templar who had taken control of the bridge as well as the village in the meantime . The extant arches 1 and 3 , both of which are not of Roman fabric , are assumed to date back to this period . Around 1340 , however , the bridge was apparently unusable again , so that a ferry service was established to cross the river , which is also recorded at later times . On the site of the ancient way station , a fortress was erected in the Middle Ages ; its tower built of Roman spolia emerges from the Alcántara reservoir at low water .
Several attempts to reopen the bridge in the early modern era proved unsuccessful . In 1553 , the architect Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón calculated a cost of 80 @,@ 000 Ducats for the reconstruction of the bridge without ever realising his plans . The construction project of Alonso de Covarrubias and Hernán Ruiz of 1560 never went beyond the planning stage , and neither did another project between 1569 and 1580 .
In the 18th century two further attempts to repair the bridge failed , in 1730 and 1760 – 70 . The latter plan of the military engineer José García Galiano included a complete reconstruction with three large @-@ span segmental arches . The planning sketch shows that already at that time the remaining arches were limited to the right bank , a finding confirmed by the drawing of Fernando Rodríguez from 1797 and engravings in Alexandre de Labordes ' Voyage pittoresque de l 'Espagne a few years later . The reconstruction sketch produced by Rodriguez ( see diagram below ) shows the profile of the bridge , rising evenly and dominated by three central arches in the centre of the river . These arches are flanked by a further nine segmental arches on both sides . The symmetry of the arches suggests that , in lieu of the fortification on the right bank viewed upstream , there might have been another segmental arch in Roman times .
The basis for the modern scientific analysis of the bridge was laid out by the civil engineer Antonio Prieto in his 1925 survey , which details the condition of the bridge before its relocation in 1970 . Although this was a serious attempt to reconstruct the bridge as close to the original as possible , the Spanish scholar Durán points out that slight changes to the main body can never be avoided in the course of such a difficult undertaking .
The Alconétar Bridge has been classified as " historical heritage " since 1931 by the Spanish authorities .
= = Construction = =
Main feature of the Alconétar Bridge was the segmental shape of its arches , which were rather uncommon in ancient bridge building : in a survey of Roman bridges in Hispania , only one in ten showed the same characteristics , the vast majority being of semi @-@ circular design . According to Prieto , the bridge had sixteen arches , not including the flood openings on the right approach , with the following spans ( estimates are in square brackets ) :
Meters : 7 @.@ 30 – 8 @.@ 20 – 9 – 10 @.@ 15 – [ 11 – 12 – 13 – 14 – 15 – 14 ] – 13 – 12 – 11 – [ 10 ] – 9 @.@ 30 – 9 @.@ 10
( Feet : 24 @.@ 0 – 26 @.@ 9 – 30 – 33 @.@ 3 – [ 36 – 39 – 43 – 46 – 49 – 46 ] – 43 – 39 – 36 – [ 33 ] – 30 @.@ 5 – 29 @.@ 9 . )
Other sources however vary from eleven to fifteen arches . The total length of the rectilinear structure was 290 m ( 950 ft ) , of which 190 m ( 620 ft ) spanned the riverbed at low water . If one adds the clear span of the arches and assumes , on the basis of the preserved piers , an average pier thickness of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) , then the distance between both bridge ramps was 244 m ( 801 ft ) ( = 178 + 15 x 4 @.@ 4 ) , which corresponded to a river cross section of 73 % . By comparison , the corresponding discharge profiles for the Roman bridges of Córdoba , of Mérida and Salamanca were 62 % , 64 % and 80 % respectively .
Most of the surviving fabric was concentrated on the right bank of the Tagus where the current was less strong ; a number of pier stumps rose just above the water surface in the middle of the river , whilst on the left bank a further two piers remained standing , next to which the left abutment followed . The parts of the bridge moved to a safe place were essentially ( see images ) : the right bridge ramp with its two arch @-@ shaped flood openings , the piers 1 , 2 , and 3 with the remains of 4 and 6 , as well as the vaults 1 and 3 . The other scarce remains were submerged by the flooding of the Alcantara reservoir in 1970 .
The approach to the ramp is 42 m ( 138 ft ) long and 6 @.@ 55 – 6 @.@ 80 m ( 21 @.@ 5 – 22 @.@ 3 ft ) wide . The clear spans of its two segmental arches are 6 @.@ 95 m ( 22 @.@ 8 ft ) and 7 @.@ 40 m ( 24 @.@ 3 ft ) , which corresponds to a span @-@ to @-@ rise ratio of 4 @.@ 0 and 3 @.@ 3 to 1 respectively . The accurately fitting inclined contact surface of the springings clearly proves the Roman origin of these arches . With an extraordinary width of 1 @.@ 20 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) , the voussoirs appear oversized in relation to the span ( arch slenderness of 1 : 5 @.@ 8 and 6 @.@ 2 respectively ) . In contrast , the two surviving bridge arches no . 1 and 3 are instable substitutions , made of carelessly laid rubble . The date of these arches is unknown , as with all other repairs ; possibly they were built in the period of the Knights Templar .
Equally evidently of post @-@ classical origin is the masonry of the first two piers above the lower cornice , which projects from all piers at the same height . The superstructure of these piers could have been reconstructed for a drawbridge or a tower , which , according to an illustration in the Voyage Pittoresque , rested upon pier 2 . In contrast , the third pier has still preserved its original Roman character up to the top at 12 @.@ 50 m ( 41 @.@ 0 ft ) . Its carefully worked ashlar and the second cornice , which ran along all ancient piers , provide us with the most distinct impression of the original shape of the Roman bridge .
In particular , it is possible to reconstruct relatively precisely the rise of the Roman segmental arches on the basis of the angles of the inclined stone supports at the springing level . Thus , the third arch originally described a circular sector of 95 ° , which points to a span @-@ to @-@ rise ratio of about 4 – 5 to 1 for the other segmental arches . This value is supported by de Labordes ' engravings which depict an intact Roman segmental arch spanning the adjoining fourth bay as late as the early 19th century . Along with other early examples , such as Limyra Bridge and the Ponte San Lorenzo , the Alconétar Bridge therefore ranks among the oldest segmental arched bridges in the world . Its existence demonstrates that , in contrast to what had previously been widely believed and taught , Roman bridge builders possessed intimate knowledge of flattened arches .
The pier thicknesses , measuring 4 @.@ 25 m ( 13 @.@ 9 ft ) , 4 @.@ 45 m ( 14 @.@ 6 ft ) and 4 @.@ 55 m ( 14 @.@ 9 ft ) , increase slightly towards the middle of the river , while the distances between the piers increase from 7 @.@ 30 m ( 24 @.@ 0 ft ) to 10 @.@ 20 m ( 33 @.@ 5 ft ) . The fifth and ultimate pier , which carries the distinctive nickname " Bishop 's table " , takes an advanced position in the riverbed and possesses by far the largest cross @-@ section ( 8 @.@ 10 m ( 26 @.@ 6 ft ) ) . It may be of medieval origin and could have served as a base for a watchtower , replacing two ancient arches . All five piers are strengthened on the upstream face by pointed cutwaters .
The facing of the piers consists of local granite ashlar , set in parallel courses without the use of mortar or iron ties ( opus quadratum ) ; their interior , as those of the ramps , was filled with Roman concrete , a common method applied for Roman bridges . Outwardly , the flattened arches must have lent the bridge a rather elongated appearance , with its roadway following a horizontal or slightly convex line .
= = Reconstruction and measurements = =
Recorded measurements from left to right bank ( viewed upstream ) :
= = Annotations = =
= The Council ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" The Council " is the seventy @-@ fourth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the twenty @-@ second episode of season three . It first aired on May 12 , 2004 , on the UPN network in the United States . The episode was the fifth of the series written by Manny Coto , and it was directed by David Livingston , his fourth of the third season .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . Season three of Enterprise features an ongoing story following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi . In this episode , Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) attempts to convince the Xindi Council not to use their superweapon on Earth . Meanwhile , Subcommander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) leads an away team to a nearby sphere to attempt to retrieve a data core in order to get more information on the Sphere @-@ Builders .
The episode featured several returning guest stars , including Randy Oglesby , Tucker Smallwood , Josette DiCarlo and Sean McGowan . Additional sets were required for the scenes at the Xindi Council , while the sets for Degra 's ship had been created for an earlier episode . Although most scenes were filmed between February 12 and 23 , the scenes featuring the Sphere @-@ Builders were filmed in conjunction with the following episode on February 26 . Two reviewers praised the episode , and it was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects . There was a slight increase in ratings with the episode earning a 3 @.@ 4 / 5 % audience share , translating into approximately 3 @.@ 35 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
It is now mid @-@ February 2154 , and Enterprise is en route to the Xindi Council . Under escort by Degra 's ship , Captain Archer is briefed by him on the five member species of the Council . Other friendly Xindi ships soon join the escort . As they approach the planet , however , the flagship of Reptilian Commander Dolim intervenes . After a tense standoff , Dolim backs down . On the planet , Archer and Ensign Sato enter the Council chamber and present their evidence to the gathered representatives ; Dolim , angered at the move , walks out in protest . A Guardian appears to him later , promising Reptilian dominance if he continues their original plan .
Meanwhile , a shuttlepod containing Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol , Lieutenant Reed , Ensign Mayweather and MACO Corporal Hawkins , departs to investigate a nearby sphere in order to try to collect more data on the Sphere Builders ( who are now becoming increasingly concerned with the human threat ) . The away team successfully enters an exhaust vent , and reaching the core , they are able to retrieve a memory module . The intrusion alerts an automated defense system , however , and Hawkins is disintegrated helping the others escape .
Doctor Phlox and Commander Tucker then create a holographic version of the Sphere Builder from " Harbinger " which Archer presents to the Council . Many admit its resemblance to the Guardian race , a people who the Xindi both revere and worship . The Council votes to delay the weapon 's launch , with even Dolim agreeing . That night , however , Dolim covertly confronts Degra in the Primate 's quarters and stabs him , declaring revenge for the destruction of the Reptilian ship and a vendetta against his family
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based on those stocks . Hardworking , highly ambitious , and with his eyes set on the very top from the very beginning , Little commonly spent twelve hours a day working on such maneuvers in his office and a further six during the evening engaged in currency speculation .
His first great coup was when in 1834 he successfully bought out the Morris Canal and Banking Company , machinations which pushed its stock price from $ 10 ( $ 237 today ) per share in December 1834 to $ 185 ( $ 4 @,@ 385 today ) a share in January 1835 , at which point Little chose to collect his debts . Although theoretically he could have asked for more ( he was , after all , in total control of the company ) , Little chose not to force the issue because he feared the resulting bankruptcies would destabilize the market potentially cause a collapse . He repeated this feat in September of the same year , cornering stocks for the construction of the Harlem Railroad . Approximately 60 @,@ 000 shares had been sold short by that time , but only 7 @,@ 000 shares had yet been issued ; needless to say , Little prospered immensely .
By this time Little was already one of the richest men in America , accruing millions of dollars in security holdings through short sales , a market volume that made him the " Napoleon of the Board . " He was noted for being personally retired in manner , diffident except to business , in correspondence with most of the major economic voices of the nation , and a devout member of the Episcopal Church . As a trader , he was unscrupulous and serendipitous ; in one instance he promised a group of Bostonian traders that he would not sell his holdings in the Norwich and Worcester Railroad below the price of 90 dollars a share , but promptly did so soon after when noticed its price slipping , earning him much condemnation and lasting outrage from other traders . But he was also known for his practiced judgement , the promptness of his dealings , and his great financial foresight ; Little was able to predict Andrew Jackson 's campaign against the Bank of the United States and the resultant Panic of 1837 , and was able to protect his interests during the financial debacle by short selling his own holdings , a lucrative operation that earned him his most lasting title : " The Great Bear of Wall Street . " Little himself often stated he was in the business of " bearing stock " , in the tradition of the bear market .
Little distinguished himself with large , early investments into the railroad construction industry , still regarded with some suspicion by financiers . As with his other activities , these paid off handily , eventually earning him a new title , that of the " Railroad King " . However , for all of his wealth Little was little loved by his peers , many of whom secretly believed him to be lacking personal integrity , a hulking , manipulative figure who built his fortune through speculation and market manipulation and crushed other traders underfoot as he did . Little " had been known to gorge and digest more stock in one day than the weight of bulk of his whole body in certificates . " Other investors followed his actions closely , terming him " too shrewd to be caught , too rich to be ruined " , and his sway and influence in the market was indeed enormous .
However , this aura of untouchability nearly came to an end when the cornermaster was himself cornered . Little particularly favored shorting the stocks of the Erie Railroad Company , and it was here that he was trapped by the cornering of the company 's stock by a hostile syndicate of rival stockbrokers calling itself the " Happy Family " ( in much the same way as he had done to countless other traders before ) . This led to a rather dramatic showdown between Little and the financiers involved . At the time , making good on a purchase promise required a transaction at the associated clerk 's office , and on the day it was due the brokers gathered at the Erie Railroad Company clerk 's office , smug at the likelihood that they had beaten Little at his own game . What the traders did not know was that Little had purchased convertible bonds at a company sale in London a few years before ; Little entered the premises , apparently unrushed , carrying an oversize bag of what was revealed to be those very bonds , which Little had converted to stocks . To the astonishment of all , Little not only outplayed the syndicate but came out hundreds of thousands of dollars ahead ; such a maneuver was never attempted again .
This action ( and others like it ) was intensely unpopular with the other investors , however , and he was blackballed from entry in the New York Stock Exchange several times before regaining admittance . Following the event , a rule was made to limit the length of any option contracts to sixty days , to prevent a similar coup on the short side . After some troubles , Little was again worth $ 2 million by 1846 ( equivalent to about $ 52 @.@ 7 million today ) . However , his fortunes were again reversed that year when he attempted but failed to corner the Norwich and Worcester Railroad and was obligated to pay out for thousands of inflated shares that he had himself bid up in price , losing about a million dollars in the process — a staggering sum at the time .
Reversals of fortune were common in the stock market , and Little was no exception , going bankrupt three or nine times over the course of his career . After one such fall , walking with a friend along Union Square , site of some of the most prestigious and expensive housing in the city and in the world , he remarked that " I have lost money enough today to buy this whole square . Yes , and half the people in it . " It was in these instances that Little most surely showed his strength of character ; after each of his falls from fortune Little was able to rebuild his commercial empire , and even pay back his old contracts in full , leading some to remark that " Jacob Little 's suspended papers were better then [ sic ? ] the checks of most men . "
Nonetheless at length Little 's predictive fallacies finally failed him . The Panic of 1857 completely blindsided the investor , who at the time was " long " , possessing huge amounts of stock , much bought on the " margin " ( on loan ) . Thus when the stock prices fell Little was forced into bankruptcy by margin calls , lenders demanding recompense for the fall in the value of the stocks . This time there was no bouncing back . Little had lost all but everything he held , and did not have the confidence of others on Wall Street needed to obtain their backing . Little 's reign as Wall Street giant and one of the richest men in the country was over .
= = Later life and legacy = =
A speculator to his very core , Little never put away any of his fortune to prepare for a rainy day ; any money he made on the stock market , he immediately invested back into it . Thus when the Panic of 1857 destroyed his investment fortune , Little was left penniless . He would live out the rest of his life under the wing of his last protége , David Groesbeck . Little was only ever able to make small trading returns to the market in his later years , and the magnitude of his fall was often the target of mockery from his former peers . He died a broken man . Little died on March 28 , 1865 , and his funeral was held on March 31 at New York 's Grace Church . His pall @-@ bearers included Jesse Hoyt and Edward Prime ; Reverend Thomas House Taylor officiated at his funeral .
In his 1908 account on the early world of finance , Fifty Years in Wall Street , Henry Clews ( who knew Little personally ) penned that Little was " generous and liberal to a fault with his brother speculators who had experienced misfortune ... remarkable for his great memory , he could easily remember all the operations he made in the course of a day without making a note or a mistake , " and another stock market historian , Leonard Louis Levinson , said that he was " a nervous perfectionist who personally attended to every detail ... kind , magnanimous , honorable , and a genius in market maneuvers . " Having fallen into bankruptcy many times before , Little was a particularly sensitive debtor , and would often waive the debts held to him by others who fell on hard times ; thus it came to be that , by the time of his death , Little was owed millions of dollars by others , of which only 150 @,@ 000 was successfully collected by his friends and family , a modest sum given the size of his former wealth .
However , the opinion of him held by most investors of the day was not quite so rosy . A reflection on the Erie Railroad Company coup published by The New York Times in 1882 all but accused him of being a robber baron :
" He drove Wall @-@ street before him just as in his earlier days he would have lashed a recalcitrant ox into obedience . No method was too severe for Jacob Little . If a man stood in the way , that man got hurt . Naturally , the whole Street was dead set against him . Innumerable schemes were laid for his discomfiture , simply to end in miscarriage . Combinations were formed , to be speedily dissolved under the crack of the Little whip . "
Little was not the first to gain and lose his fortune in the stock market , but he was a pioneering speculator , the first to rely on his ability to predict market fluctuations to inform his speculations instead of bidding with what would today be considered insider information . He was the first Great Bear ; before his rapid rise speculation and market manipulation was virtually unknown in the stock market , as no one before him had had the still nerve and financial foresight necessary to profit from such risky endeavors , and many market historians consider him the first modern stock market tycoon . His ability to gain and lose fortunes on a day @-@ by @-@ day basis was a microcosm of the meteoric possibilities and insecurities of speculation , and after his death and even during his life many other investors tried to imitate his success , with little success . His victory over the Erie Railroad scheme ( and market cornering activities in general ) inspired similar plots in the years thereafter ; in 1863 the industrialist Cornelius Vanderbilt successfully cornered the Harlem Railroad in much the same way that Little had done almost thirty years earlier , and fell into a corner trap formed by Daniel Drew and others himself in the later Erie War . This did much to give credence to convertible bonds , then still a novelty .
Nonetheless for all of his wealth and innovation Little 's ignominious end ensured he was quickly forgotten , and by the time Edwin Lefèvre published his now @-@ classic Reminiscences of a Stock Operator in 1923 he was virtually unknown . To demonstrate this Lefèvre details asking nine seasoned members of the NYSE whether or not they had ever heard of Jacob Little before ; only three of them did , and none could name who he was or what he had done , only knowing of his existence from having heard his name before . Lefèvre provided for this fact by saying " what happened to Jacob was no more than what happens to thousands every year . The difference in degree does not make it more memorable . " Though it had once been that " on [ the stock ex ] change his tread was that of a king " , today Little has been relegated to obscurity , and survives only as a footnote in histories of the stock market .
= Iven Mackay =
Lieutenant General Sir Iven Giffard Mackay , KBE , CMG , DSO & Two Bars , VD ( 7 April 1882 – 30 September 1966 ) was a senior Australian Army officer who served in both world wars .
Mackay graduated from the University of Sydney in 1904 and taught physics there from 1910 until 1914 , when he joined the Australian Imperial Force shortly after the outbreak of the First World War . He served with the 4th Infantry Battalion at Gallipoli , where he distinguished himself in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting at the Battle of Lone Pine . In April 1916 , he assumed command of the 4th Infantry Battalion on the Western Front and led it at the Battle of Pozières , Battle of Bullecourt and Battle of Broodseinde . He was promoted to brigadier general in June 1918 , and led the 1st Infantry Brigade at the Battle of Hazebrouck , the Battle of Amiens and in the attack on the Hindenburg Line .
After the war , Mackay studied physics at the University of Cambridge under Ernest Rutherford before returning to Australia and his old job as a lecturer at the University of Sydney . From 1933 to 1940 he was headmaster of Cranbrook School , Sydney . He remained in the Militia between the wars , and was a major general by the time the Second World War broke out . He was selected to command the 6th Division in 1940 , and led it through the Australian Army 's first battles of the war . Any doubts about his ability soon disappeared with the commitment of the division to the Western Desert Campaign . During the Battle of Bardia in January 1941 , the 6th Division captured the fortified town along with 36 @,@ 000 Italian prisoners . In the Battle of Greece , he became the only Australian general to face the Waffen @-@ SS in battle . He suffered a series of reverses in Greece , but impressed the troops under his command with his courage under fire . He was recalled to Australia in 1941 to serve as General Officer Commanding Home Forces . On 6 April 1942 , he assumed command of the Second Army . During 1943 he twice commanded New Guinea Force in the fighting in the New Guinea campaign . His active service ended with his appointment as High Commissioner to India in November 1943 .
= = Early life and career = =
Iven Giffard Mackay was born in Grafton , New South Wales , on 7 April 1882 . The eldest of three children , he was the only son of the Reverend Isaac Mackay , a Presbyterian minister from Armadale , Sutherland , Scotland , and his Canadian wife Emily Frances , née King . Iven was educated at Grafton Superior Public School , Newington College , and the University of Sydney , where he opened the batting for the university 's cricket team , and won Blues for rugby union football and rowing . He graduated with his Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) degree in 1904 .
Mackay had served in the Newington College cadet unit , reaching the rank of sergeant and winning a trophy in 1899 for being the school 's best rifle shot . In 1911 , he became a lieutenant in the Cadet Corps . On 20 March 1913 , he transferred to the Militia as a lieutenant . In July he became the adjutant of the 26th Infantry Battalion , which was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Henry MacLaurin . As part of his training , he attended the School of Musketry in Randwick , New South Wales . He was promoted to captain on 1 June 1914 . Mackay joined Sydney Church of England Grammar School in 1905 , teaching various subjects and coaching the rowing and rugby teams . In 1910 he returned to the University of Sydney to teach physics . From 1913 to 1914 , he studied for a Diploma of Military Science course at the University of Sydney .
= = First World War = =
Mackay joined the Australian Imperial Force on 27 August 1914 as adjutant of the 4th Infantry Battalion , with the rank of captain . On 4 September 1914 , he married his fiancée , Marjorie Eveline Meredith , the daughter of Lieutenant Colonel John Meredith , in a ceremony at St Philip 's Church , Sydney . The couple had met while Mackay was on holiday in Paterson , New South Wales , in 1910 .
In October 1914 , Mackay suffered a riding accident and was taken to Royal Prince Alfred Hospital with a punctured lung and broken ribs . The injury forced him to miss the scheduled embarkation of his battalion . He sailed for Egypt with the 1st Reinforcements of the 13th Infantry Battalion , departing Sydney on the transport Berrima on 19 December 1914 , arriving at Alexandria on 31 January 1915 . He was then posted back to the 4th Infantry Battalion as the Transport Officer . He observed the landing at Gallipoli from the transport SS Lake Michigan , but did not go ashore with the battalion , as his job was to take care of the horses . He re @-@ joined the battalion on shore on 8 May 1915 . Heavy casualties in the early fighting had depleted the officer ranks and Mackay was promoted to major on 14 July 1915 , and given command of a company in August .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
On 6 August 1915 , Mackay was involved in the Battle of Lone Pine . When the attack began , Mackay went over the top at the head of an attack . He ignored the first Turkish trench , taking a direct line to his objective . Firing from the hip , he shot and killed several Turks in the trenches below . Mackay positioned himself at the junction of two trenches , shooting down more enemy troops . When no others appeared , he came to the belief that the trenches were in Australian hands and ran across the junction into a wide bay . The first man who attempted to follow was shot dead , as were the next two after him . The rest decided not to follow . Mackay took up a position on a fire step , a raised part of the trench floor which allows men to fire over the top . Three Turkish soldiers appeared in the trench . Mackay attempted to fire but his magazine was empty . He lunged at the Turks , grazing one and making all three run . Mackay then instructed his party to fortify the position with sandbags . As the barricade was built up , it became possible for the rest of the party to join Mackay . The post became the north eastern corner of the new Australian position at Lone Pine . It was in an exposed position and came under hand grenade attack from Turkish troops . Mackay was slightly injured in one such attack . When Lieutenant Jack Massie was sent to relieve Mackay during the night , Mackay refused to leave the post .
By the next day , Mackay realised that the position could not be held . He personally kept the enemy at bay with his rifle while new barricades were constructed . When he was satisfied with the security of the new position he reported to the battalion commander , who sent him to have his wounds dressed . Mackay 's injuries were severe enough for him to be evacuated to Malta and then England , and he did not rejoin his battalion until February 1916 , by which time it had been withdrawn to Egypt . For his actions at Lone Pine , Mackay was nominated for the Victoria Cross . He was overlooked for the award , although he was later mentioned in despatches .
= = = Western Front = = =
Mackay sailed for France on 20 March 1916 on the transport Minnewaska as part of the Advance Party of the 1st Division . On 18 April 1916 , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and assumed command of the 4th Infantry Battalion . He led it at the Battle of Pozières in July , where it was involved in the capture of the town . Here , a famous incident occurred :
Colonels Stevens and Mackay had left their headquarters and walked forward up Dead Man 's Road ( the sunken end of the Chalk Pit road ) to its junction with the main road for the purpose of making hurried plans for the advance of their men , and instructing the company commanders . As they stood at this desolate corner ( the most actively shelled in Pozières ) , surrounded by shredded tree @-@ trunks and the dead , a panting messenger stumbled up to them with an envelope marked " Urgent and Secret " . They hurriedly tore it open . The message read : " A number of cases have lately occurred of men failing to salute the army commander when passing in his car , in spite of the fact that the car carries his flag upon the bonnet . This practice must cease . "
For his part in the battle , Mackay was mentioned in despatches a second time . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his gallantry at Lone Pine , his part in the capture of Pozières , and his role in repelling a German counterattack at Mouquet Farm , near Pozières .
Mackay held the temporary position of commander of the 1st Infantry Brigade in January 1917 , for the first of what would be five times totalling 92 days in 1917 . He commanded the 4th Infantry Battalion in the advance to the Hindenburg Line , including the capture of the fortified town of Hermies . During the German counter @-@ attack at Lagnicourt in April 1917 his battalion held its positions , repulsing the Germans with heavy casualties .
Acting brigade commander again during the Second Battle of Bullecourt in May , Mackay was mentioned in despatches for the third time , and awarded a bar to his Distinguished Service Order . His citation read :
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . While acting as brigadier , when the brigade on the right was broken into by the enemy , the battalion under his orders counter @-@ attacked and assisted to drive out the enemy and restore the position . His action in repelling the counter @-@ attack was of the utmost value , and his prompt action and extreme resolution showed leadership of a high order .
Along with Brigadier General H. Gordon Bennett and others , Mackay received personal congratulations from Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig . He later received his medals from King George V in a ceremony at Buckingham Palace . Mackay led his battalion once more at the Battle of Broodseinde , earning a fourth mention in despatches . In March 1918 , the four machine gun companies in each division were grouped into machine gun battalions . Mackay was given command of the 1st Machine Gun Battalion , the 1st Division 's new battalion , which he led in the Battle of Hazebrouck . He was given the brevet rank of major in the 26th Infantry Battalion in the AMF back home on 3 June 1918 .
On 6 June 1918 , Mackay was heading on leave to London to visit his wife , who had managed to reach England after a long battle with wartime travel restrictions , when he was stopped and turned back at Boulogne by British military police . He had been appointed to command the 1st Infantry Brigade and had to return at once . He was immediately promoted to colonel and temporary brigadier general . Mackay commanded the 1st Infantry Brigade in the later stages of the fighting around Hazebrouck . In the operations east of there in June and July , his brigade was exceptionally active in the form of minor operations and patrolling that became known as the peaceful penetration .
In August , the 1st Division moved south to the Somme sector to participate in the Battle of Amiens and later the attack on the Hindenburg Line . Through his " careful preliminary preparations and sound tactical knowledge " , Mackay contributed to the successes of his brigade and was once more mentioned in despatches . For his service as a brigade commander , he was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George ( CMG ) in the 1919 New Year Honours . He was also awarded the French Croix de guerre for his service on the Western Front .
= = Between the wars = =
After the end of the war , Mackay took advantage of Brigadier General George Long 's education scheme to study physics at Emmanuel College at the University of Cambridge under Ernest Rutherford . His first child , Jean Margaret , was born in Cambridge in 1919 . Iven and Marjorie later had two more children , a son , Iven John , born in Sydney in 1920 , and another daughter , Alison , born in Sydney in 1930 .
They returned to Australia aboard the transport Mantua , which reached Sydney on 19 February 1920 . With the war over , the AIF was demobilised , and Mackay 's appointment to the AIF was terminated on 4 April 1920 . Mackay returned to lecturing in physics at the University of Sydney . Between 1922 and 1932 , he was student adviser . From 1925 he was also faculty secretary . From 1932 to 1940 , Mackay also worked evenings as a Commonwealth Film Appeals Censor .
In 1933 , he was appointed headmaster of Cranbrook School , Sydney . The school 's constitution was changed to allow Mackay , a Presbyterian , to hold the post . As a result of a case of mistaken identity following the death of Major General James Mackay in 1935 , Mackay got to read his own obituary in The Times , entitled " Athlete , Soldier and Headmaster " . He normally avoided publicity , but this incident brought him to national attention .
Mackay remained active in the Militia throughout the inter @-@ war period . He held the rank of honorary brigadier general from 21 January 1920 to late June 1937 , when he was promoted to that rank substantively . He commanded the 9th Infantry Brigade from 1 July 1920 to 30 April 1921 , the 8th Infantry Brigade from 1 May 1921 to 30 April 1926 and the 5th Infantry Brigade from 1 May 1930 to 31 December 1932 . On 24 March 1937 , he took command of the 2nd Division . He was promoted to major general on 1 July 1937 . Mackay was one of only four Militia officers to be substantively promoted to that rank between 1929 and 1939 .
His term of office at Cranbrook ended acrimoniously after Justice Kenneth Street and others blamed Mackay for the school 's slow recovery from the Great Depression , and the school council voted to remove him on 25 October 1939 . Mackay was given twelve months ' notice . When , in December 1939 , Mackay 's daughter Jean married Lieutenant W. H. Travers , the grandson of Major General William Holmes , the reception was held at Cranbrook .
= = Second World War = =
At the outbreak of war in 1939 , Mackay was ranked seventh on the army 's seniority list . Following formation of a second infantry division for the Second Australian Imperial Force in 1940 , Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey was elevated to command of the newly created I Corps . Mackay was selected to command the 7th Division on the advice of General Sir Brudenell White but Cabinet , after consulting with Blamey , switched this appointment to the 6th Division . Mackay assumed command on 4 April 1940 , receiving the serial number NX363 , and sailed from Melbourne for the Middle East on the ocean liner RMS Strathaird on 15 April .
The troops nicknamed him " Mr Chips " , after the title character of the best selling 1934 novel Goodbye , Mr. Chips and the subsequent 1939 film , a reference to his peacetime profession , but also to the impression he gave of being cool , reserved and strict . Some of his staff had reservations about him . Colonel Alan Vasey , his Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster General , asserted that Mackay lacked the ruthlessness to remove Militia officers who were not performing well . Vasey fumed about " that bloody schoolteacher who wants to dot every ' i ' and cross every ' t ' " . Many regular officers were embittered by years of slow promotion followed by Prime Minister Robert Menzies ordering that commands in the 6th Division be given to Militia officers . Colonel Frank Berryman considered this " a damn insult to the professional soldier , calculated to split the Army down the centre . We were to be the hewers of wood and the drawers of water . We , the only people who really knew the job , were to assist these Militia fellows " . Berryman , who worked closely with Mackay as his chief of staff , held him in high regard . " For moral and physical courage " , said Berryman , " few equalled him — none ever surpassed him . He was an educated and most knowledgeable soldier ... and extremely patient " . His Commander , Royal Australian Artillery , a reservist , Brigadier Edmund Herring , considered Mackay " a most competent and able commander in North Africa and Greece , but a bit old ... Modest , dignified , shy and scholarly ... In action he never knew the meaning of fear ... "
= = = Libya = = =
His appointment to command the 6th Division meant that Mackay led its — and the Australian Army 's — first battles of the war . Doubts about Mackay 's ability soon disappeared with the commitment of the division to Operation Compass . During the Battle of Bardia , in Libya in January 1941 , the 6th Division captured the fortified town along with 36 @,@ 000 Italian prisoners . For this success , Mackay was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) . In a war of rapid movement over long distances , Mackay demonstrated careful planning and recognised the need to reinforce success . He also impressed others with the way he cared for soldiers ' lives . " Not only do I want Tobruk quickly " , he told his brigadiers before the battle , " but I also want it cheaply " . The victory at Bardia was followed by successes at Tobruk , Derna and Benghazi .
= = = Greece = = =
The 6th Division 's next campaign was the failed Battle of Greece , a disaster for the British Commonwealth forces sent there . While in Greece , Mackay led a hastily assembled Australian @-@ British @-@ New Zealand @-@ Greek formation known as Mackay Force , defending the Klidi Pass at the Battle of Vevi . The Allies were forced to retreat in a fierce assault by the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler brigade . Mackay was the only Australian general to face the Waffen @-@ SS in battle .
As in Libya , Mackay shared the hardships of living in the field with his men , and impressed them by his coolness during air raids . They watched him sit in the open during attacks ; on one such occasion on 19 April 1941 , Mackay waited out a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour raid when his car was hit and his driver wounded . One staff officer " noticed Mackay moving in front of his tent quite unconcerned about the movement of enemy planes . He neither looked at the planes nor at the men dashing about , but they saw him , and those moving towards shelter stopped , and many of those who had gained shelter returned to their duties . Personal example is the only paying proposition in such circumstances " . For his actions in Greece , he was mentioned in despatches a sixth time , and awarded the Greek War Cross ( First Class ) .
Casualties in Greece included Mackay 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Captain W. H. Travers , who was captured in the Battle of Crete . Mackay resolved to reform the battalions that had been destroyed in Greece , and to rebuild his shattered division from the remnants that had been evacuated to Alexandria . He developed a training program in Syria in which he attempted to apply the lessons of the campaign in Greece .
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
One lesson of Greece was that modern war was a young man 's trade . Brigadier Sydney Rowell recommended to Blamey that all generals over the age of 50 be retired . In July 1941 , Ernest Turnbull , representing the motion picture industry , approached Menzies and several members of his Cabinet about the possibility of Mackay becoming Chief Commonwealth Film Censor . Menzies had a different post in mind . On 24 July 1941 the War Cabinet decided to appoint a General Officer Commanding Home Forces . In a cable to Blamey , Menzies stipulated that the War Cabinet wanted a high @-@ ranking officer like Mackay with active service in the current war . Blamey replied that he considered " Mackay most suitable for the appointment " .
On 14 August 1941 , Mackay handed over command of the 6th Division to Herring . Mackay departed Cairo for Australia by flying boat on 22 August . En route , he stopped in Singapore to confer with Bennett , now the commander of the 8th Division , which was based there , and had dinner at the Raffles Hotel with his son , Lieutenant Iven Mackay , an officer with the 8th Division 's 2 / 18th Infantry Battalion .
Mackay assumed command of Home Forces on 1 September 1941 , with the rank of lieutenant general . His task was to prepare the Militia to repel a Japanese invasion . Official historian Dudley McCarthy noted that :
If Mackay had been in any way deceived by the grandiloquence of his new title his illusions were soon dissipated when he assumed command on 1 September . Initially there was reluctance to grant him the substantive promotion he had been promised . He found that his authority did not extend over the forward areas of New Guinea and the Northern Territory ; nor was he to be responsible for " the defence of Australia " as such , as this responsibility remained with General Sturdee , the Chief of the General Staff . In short his command was far more circumscribed than he might have expected , with the added disadvantage of calling for a political finesse to the possession of which he laid few claims . He was a gallant and successful soldier , with a long record of distinguished service to his country , and a man of instinctive and unassuming courtesy . But neither his qualities of character and temperament nor the academic seclusion of his life between the wars fitted him well for the role of a senior military adviser to a Cabinet inexperienced in military affairs .
With the Fall of Singapore in February 1942 , Mackay 's son Iven became a prisoner of war of the Japanese . A Japanese invasion of Australia now became a real possibility , so Mackay submitted a contingency plan in which he outlined a defence strategy whereby the army would concentrate on the defence of the most vital areas of eastern and southern Australia . This later gave rise to the controversial but mythical " Brisbane Line " .
Regular officers took the opportunity to give Mackay petty snubs . Army Headquarters continually addressed him as " major general " , although his promotion to lieutenant general had been gazetted , and his pay was only £ 1 @,@ 564 compared with Sturdee 's £ 2 @,@ 269 . His AIF serial number was taken away from him and he was sent a new recruit 's papers to fill in . The Military Board even attempted to bring him before a medical board to decide his fitness for further service . Only the intervention of the Minister for the Army , Frank Forde , averted this . During a sweeping reorganisation of the army by Blamey , Mackay became commander of the Second Army on 6 April 1942 .
= = = New Guinea = = =
When Blamey relieved Rowell of command of I Corps in New Guinea , he nominated Herring as successor . Blamey proposed Mackay as a second choice but preferred Herring as he was much younger , and this was important in the taxing New Guinea climate . When Blamey relinquished command of New Guinea Force on 30 January 1943 , he handed over temporary command to Mackay to enable Herring to go on leave . The period was a quiet one , with no major operations being carried out , and Mackay handed back to Herring and returned to command of the Second Army at Parramatta , New South Wales , in May 1943 .
On 28 August 1943 , Mackay once again assumed command of New Guinea Force . This time , important operations were being undertaken in the Battle of Finschhafen and Mackay 's period of command was marred by disagreements with General Douglas MacArthur 's staff over the reinforcement of Finschhafen . Junior commanders felt that Mackay should have been more forceful , and should have enlisted the help of his superior , Blamey , at an earlier stage . Blamey agreed with them , feeling that his old colleague was slowing down , and no longer possessed the vigour required for the campaign in New Guinea . Mackay left New Guinea in November 1943 , handing over command of New Guinea Force to Lieutenant General Sir Leslie Morshead , and on 20 January 1944 Mackay relinquished command of Second Army and New Guinea Force .
= = = India = = =
In November 1943 , it was announced that Prime Minister John Curtin , with Blamey 's approval , had appointed Mackay as High Commissioner to India . Sir Iven and Lady Mackay sailed from Perth , on SS Tanda on 14 February 1944 . Their arrival in Delhi marked the beginning of an Australian diplomatic presence in India . When Lieutenant Iven Mackay was liberated , the Supreme Allied Commander of South East Asia Command , Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten had him brought to Delhi to be reunited with his family . With the war 's end , Mackay retired from the army on 27 February 1946 , and the post of High Commissioner gradually became a civilian one . India was not yet independent , but was about to become so , and Mackay met with future leaders Jawaharlal Nehru , Indira Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah . Mackay and the Minister for External Affairs , Dr H. V. Evatt , supported Indian independence , while expressing the hope that India would remain in the British Commonwealth . Mackay also promoted trade between India and Australia , and fostered a plan for Indian students and technicians to study and train in Australia . His term as high commissioner ended in May 1948 .
= = Post war = =
Mackay was approached to consider nomination as a Liberal Party of Australia candidate for the Australian Senate , but declined . Instead , he accepted a directorship of Australian Cotton Textile Industries . From 1950 to 1952 , he chaired the New South Wales recruiting committee which was set up by the Federal government to increase enlistment in the armed forces . The University of Sydney appointed Mackay an honorary Esquire Bedell in 1950 and awarded him an honorary degree of Doctor of Laws in 1952 . When Blamey died in 1951 , Mackay rushed to Melbourne to be one of his pallbearers . Mackay visited Greece in 1952 for the unveiling of a memorial to British Commonwealth servicemen who died in the 1941 campaign . In 1961 , he returned for the dedication of the Commonwealth War Cemetery at Faliro . This time he also revisited the Gallipoli battlefields , sailing to the Dardanelles on HMY Britannia as a guest of Field Marshal Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester . Mackay climbed from the beach at ANZAC Cove up to Lone Pine once more . When it became known that he was visiting the United States in 1961 , the US Army took him to see Fort Sill .
Mackay died at his home in East Lindfield , New South Wales , on 30 September 1966 and was cremated after a service at St Stephen 's , Sydney . He was survived by his wife , his son and his two daughters . Veterans lined the streets and he had ten generals for his pallbearers : Herring , Woodward , Stevens , Pulver , Stevenson , Macarthur @-@ Onslow , Dougherty , Harrison , Cullen and Galleghan . Mackay 's papers and portraits are held in the Australian War Memorial in Canberra .
= Celtic Park =
Celtic Park is a football stadium in the Parkhead area of Glasgow , and is the home ground of Celtic Football Club . Celtic Park , an all @-@ seater stadium with a capacity of 60 @,@ 411 , is the largest football stadium in Scotland and the sixth @-@ largest stadium in the United Kingdom . It is also commonly known by Celtic fans as either Parkhead or Paradise .
Celtic was formed in November 1887 and the first Celtic Park was opened in the Parkhead area in 1888 . The club moved to a different site in 1892 , however , when the rental charge was greatly increased . The new site was developed into an oval shaped stadium , with vast terracing sections . The record attendance of 83 @,@ 500 was set by an Old Firm derby on 1 January 1938 . The terraces were covered and floodlights were installed between 1957 and 1971 . The Taylor Report mandated that all major clubs should have an all @-@ seated stadium by August 1994 . Celtic was in a bad financial position in the early 1990s and no major work was carried out until Fergus McCann took control of the club in March 1994 . He carried out a plan to demolish the old terraces and develop a new stadium in a phased rebuild , which was completed in August 1998 .
Celtic Park has often been used as a venue for Scotland internationals and Cup Finals , particularly when Hampden Park has been unavailable . Before the First World War , Celtic Park hosted various other sporting events , including composite rules shinty @-@ hurling , track and field and the 1897 Track Cycling World Championships . Open @-@ air Mass celebrations and First World War recruitment drives were also held there . More recently , Celtic Park hosted the opening ceremony of the 2014 Commonwealth Games and has also been used for concerts , including performances by The Who and U2 .
= = History = =
= = = 1888 – 1957 = = =
Celtic F.C. was formed in November 1887 . The original Celtic Park was built at the north east junction of Springfield Road and London Road in Parkhead by a volunteer workforce within six months of formation . Its opening game was a match between Hibernian and Cowlairs . Celtic played its first match on 28 May 1888 at Celtic Park , against Rangers , which Celtic won 5 – 2 . It hosted a British Home Championship match between Scotland and Ireland on 28 March 1891 . Celtic was forced to leave this site in 1892 , however , when the landlord increased the annual rent from £ 50 to £ 450 .
The new stadium was built in a disused brickyard at Janefield Street , 200 yards from the old site . The first turf , which had been transported from County Donegal , was laid by Irish patriot Michael Davitt and planted with shamrocks . He recited a verse that said the turf would " take root and flourish " , but it was stolen soon afterwards . A journalist said the move was like " leaving the graveyard to enter paradise " , which led to the ground being nicknamed " Paradise " . The new Celtic Park was opened on 20 August 1892 with a match against Renton . A journalist writing in the Athletic News described Celtic Park as the best ground in Britain at the time , a title for which it may only have been challenged by Goodison Park , the home of Everton . Celtic Park was immediately successful , attracting record gate receipts and an attendance of 45 @,@ 107 for the Scotland v England game in the 1894 British Home Championship . Celtic F.C. purchased the site for £ 100 @,@ 000 in 1897 .
The new stadium initially consisted of terracing with a capacity of approximately 40 @,@ 000 . It was an elongated oval shape , similar to Hampden Park . A running track and concrete cycling track were also constructed around the periphery of the pitch . On the northern side of the pitch there was a pavilion and a seated stand . In 1898 , club director James Grant financed the construction of a grandstand and press gallery , built on stilts , on the south side of the pitch . The patrons watched through sliding windows from padded seats , but they had to climb four flights of stairs to reach their position and the windows frequently steamed up .
The Grant Stand was burned down in 1927 and replaced by a single @-@ tier Main Stand , designed by Duncan and Kerr . This stand , which cost £ 35 @,@ 000 and provided 4 @,@ 800 seats , was smaller and less ornate than the Main Stand at Ibrox . The Celtic Park main stand had a similar feature to Ibrox , however , in the pedimented roof gable over the press box . Although it was only the third biggest ground in Glasgow , Celtic Park had a greater capacity than any club stadium in England . The record attendance for a Celtic match at Celtic Park was set by an Old Firm derby against Rangers on New Year 's Day 1938 . Some sources give the attendance for this game as 92 @,@ 000 , but contemporary sources suggest that the attendance was approximately 83 @,@ 500 .
= = = 1957 – 1994 = = =
Significant improvements were carried out between 1957 and 1971 , partly due to the great success Celtic achieved under the management of Jock Stein . A roof was built over the western " Celtic End " terrace in 1957 , while floodlights were installed in 1959 . They were first used on 12 October , in a friendly match against Wolves . The northern terrace , which became known as the " Jungle " , was concreted in 1966 and a new roof was erected . A roof was built over the eastern " Rangers End " terrace in 1967 , using the same design as the Rangers End at Hampden Park . All of this work meant that Celtic had more covered terracing than any other stadium in Britain , except Wembley . There were 4 @,@ 800 seats , all in the Main Stand , in an overall capacity of 80 @,@ 000 . A further 3 @,@ 900 seats were installed in the Main Stand paddock area in 1971 . A new roof was erected over the Main Stand in 1971 , which cost £ 250 @,@ 000 . It was supported by a " goalpost " framework , with the top girder measuring 97 @.@ 5 metres long . The design was flawed , however , as the roof provided little shelter to the paddock seats , and retractable columns had to be installed to provide stability in case of high winds or heavy snow . Celtic later sued the designers and won damages .
The regulations in the Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975 reduced the capacity of Celtic Park to 56 @,@ 500 , but the club then increased the terracing to raise capacity to 67 @,@ 000 . In 1986 , £ 1 million was spent on replacing the western terrace roof with a replica of the eastern terrace , which had been designed nearly twenty years earlier . The original red brick facade to the Main Stand was replaced during the club 's centenary year in 1988 , while lounges and offices were installed . Although the Main Stand had been modernised , terracing was still predominant at Celtic Park . This stood in contrast to most other major stadia in Britain , particularly Ibrox , where seating capacities had been increased . This left Celtic badly placed when the Taylor Report mandated that all major clubs had to have an all @-@ seater stadium .
Celtic was heavily in debt and had been significantly outgrown by Rangers commercially in the early 1990s . The Celtic board initially prevaricated in response to the Taylor Report , partly due to divisions in the board . Celtic director Brian Dempsey proposed a development on land he controlled at Robroyston , but he was opposed by fellow directors , Michael Kelly and Chris White , who had Dempsey removed from the board . Despite these divisions , a proposal to build a new 52 @,@ 000 seat stadium on industrial waste ground at Cambuslang was unveiled in April 1992 . The £ 100 million scheme was meant to include wider commercial developments that would fund the completed stadium , which would have only provided 32 @,@ 000 seats in a first phase of construction . There was scepticism about the plan , however , as it was unclear how Celtic or their partner in the project , Superstadia , would raise the necessary finance . The proposed site would have had to be decontaminated , and contradictory statements about the ownership structure of the development were issued . Outline planning permission was granted in May 1993 .
A deadline of August 1994 had been set to convert all major grounds to be fully seated . Even with planning permission granted , the first phase of the Cambuslang scheme would not be ready until 1995 . As a stop @-@ gap measure , Celtic installed 5 @,@ 033 seats in the Jungle at the end of the 1992 – 93 season , at a cost of £ 350 @,@ 000 . The board hoped Celtic would be given a special dispensation from the rules . Installing seats in the Jungle itself caused an emotional reaction . Due to redevelopment work at Hampden , the 1993 Scottish Cup Final between Rangers and Aberdeen was to be played at Celtic Park . This meant that in the last competitive game in front of the Jungle , it would be occupied by Rangers fans . To give the Celtic supporters last use , a friendly match between veteran Celtic and Manchester United players was arranged .
During the 1993 – 94 season , the board continued to talk optimistically about their plans . They claimed in February to have £ 20 million of funding in place from Gefinor , a Swiss financial institution . The claim was denied by Gefinor , who denied that they had even had any contact with the club . Celtic then came under severe pressure from the Bank of Scotland , who demanded a £ 1 million reduction in the club 's overdraft , placing the club under threat of bankruptcy . With minutes to spare before a deadline set by the Bank , the board capitulated and sold control to Scots @-@ Canadian businessman Fergus McCann .
= = = 1990s redevelopment = = =
McCann quickly discarded the Cambuslang scheme and instead started plans to bring Celtic Park into compliance with the Taylor Report . The capacity would have been only 34 @,@ 000 if seats had been installed in the remaining terraces , which was greater than Celtic 's average attendance in the previous six seasons . McCann , who believed the club could fill a much larger stadium , decided instead to effectively build a new stadium . In the summer of 1994 , the Jungle , East Terracing and West Terracing were demolished , with only the structure of the Main Stand left intact . The relatively new Jungle seats were used to refresh the seating in the Main Stand . Celtic played their home games at Hampden Park during the 1994 – 95 season , which cost the club £ 500 @,@ 000 in rent . Celtic raised over £ 26 million to fund the work from two share issues : £ 12 @.@ 3 million in a rights issue ( £ 9 @.@ 4 million invested by McCann ) and £ 14 million in a public offering . 10 @,@ 000 ordinary fans bought into the public offering , while season ticket sales rose from 7 @,@ 000 to 26 @,@ 000 .
The detailed plans were finalised in December 1994 . The club intended to build a 60 @,@ 000 seat stadium , to be completed in three phases . The first phase was the new North Stand , which was designed by Percy Johnson @-@ Marshall Associates , engineered by Hutter Jennings Titchmarsh , and built by Miller Construction . Celtic Park reopened with a friendly against Newcastle on 5 August 1995 , with the new 26 @,@ 970 @-@ capacity North Stand and the existing 7 @,@ 850 @-@ capacity Main ( South ) Stand in place . This was augmented by a temporary stand on the site of the former West Terracing , which held 2 @,@ 800 seats . Phase two of the redevelopment was completed in August 1996 , with the opening of the 13 @,@ 006 @-@ capacity East Stand . Phase 3a was completed in February 1998 with the opening of the South West Corner . This was followed by Phase 3b , the Jock Stein Stand on the former West Terracing site , which was opened in August 1998 with a match against Liverpool . This third phase added another 13 @,@ 006 seats , bringing the total capacity of the new Celtic Park to 60 @,@ 411 . Phases 2 and 3 were built by Barr Construction . The whole redevelopment , which made Celtic Park the biggest club stadium in Britain , cost £ 40 million . In the 1998 – 99 season the average attendance was 59 @,@ 224 and season ticket sales exceeded 53 @,@ 000 , the highest number in Britain at the time .
= = Structure and facilities = =
Celtic Park is an all @-@ seated bowl stadium , although the ground is split into four geographic sections , officially known as the North , Jock Stein ( West ) , Lisbon Lions ( East ) and Main ( South ) Stands . The North , East and West stands form a continuous two tier loop . The two end stands each have a capacity of 13 @,@ 000 , while the North Stand holds 27 @,@ 000 . The Main Stand holds just under 8 @,@ 000 , giving a total capacity of 60 @,@ 411 . Celtic Park is now a rectangular shape , creating an enclosed and intimidating atmosphere for big games . It received 60 % of the votes when BBC Radio Five Live conducted a poll in 2002 to find the favourite sports venue in the United Kingdom .
The North Stand is squeezed into a tight space between the pitch and the Eastern Necropolis ( cemetery ) . Part of the upper tier is cantilevered over the graveyard . To save at least £ 1 million of additional steelwork , fourteen internal pillars were installed to support the roof . Some local residents objected to the North Stand because of the shadow cast over the cemetery , which Celtic believed was necessary to complete the overall project . The proposals were passed because the local officials felt that Celtic had come up with the best solution possible to the problem . Celtic paid £ 10 @,@ 000 to compensate residents who had been promised open space " from the centre of the earth to the sky " . The structure also had to take account of the need to maintain access into the North Stand along Janefield Street , which has been closed to the public since the redevelopment . Between the two tiers there are 18 executive boxes and a restaurant . There are 1600 seats in the lower section of the North Stand which have a heated element , operated by a foot switch .
The Main ( South ) Stand is now the oldest part of the stadium , having first been built in 1929 , although a new roof was installed in 1971 and the facade was rebuilt in 1988 . Translucent sheets were added to the Main Stand roof in 1998 , to allow more sunlight to reach the pitch . Suspended from the roof girder of the Main Stand is a glass @-@ fronted box , which used to house the press box , but was converted into two executive boxes in 1988 . Alongside the main horizontal truss are two retractable columns . These can swing down to a fixing point on the rear wall of the former paddock , which provides additional stability in case of high winds or heavy snow .
The East Stand opened in 1996 ; it was renamed in 2000 after the Lisbon Lions , the Celtic team that won the 1967 European Cup Final . The renaming ceremony was a few days after a Scottish Cup tie had to be postponed after strong winds had damaged guttering in the stand . Away team fans are housed in the Lisbon Lions Stand , in the south east corner of the ground . Some of the away section has its view restricted by one of the supporting pillars of the Main Stand . Celtic offer a discounted price on these seats .
Writing in 1996 , Simon Inglis noted that the approaches to the Main Stand were an area of urban deprivation " reminiscent of Belfast during the Troubles " . Redevelopment work was carried out in the area ahead of the 2014 Commonwealth Games , in a scheme dubbed the ' Celtic Triangle ' . Since 2005 , statues of Brother Walfrid , Jimmy Johnstone and Jock Stein have been erected outside the Main Stand .
Celtic have considered the possibility of increasing the capacity of Celtic Park by redeveloping the Main Stand . A completed two @-@ tier bowl stadium would give Celtic Park a capacity of nearly 75 @,@ 000 . Celtic chief executive Peter Lawwell stated in April 2007 that another 8 @,@ 000 could be added to the capacity , but the work was not considered cost @-@ effective .
In September 2011 , Celtic started a feasibility study into creating a safe standing section in Celtic Park . Although there is a law in England preventing top @-@ flight clubs from having standing sections , no such law exists in Scotland . In June 2015 , Celtic received safety approval for a proposal to install rail seating . A section of 2 @,@ 975 rail seats was installed in the Lisbon Lions Stand during the 2016 close season .
= = Other uses = =
Celtic Park has been a home venue for the Scotland national football team over 20 times , the most of any ground apart from the national stadium , Hampden Park . Scotland secured qualification for the 1998 FIFA World Cup with a 2 – 0 win against Latvia at Celtic Park . The ground most recently hosted a Scotland game in November 2014 , when Hampden was unavailable because it had been reconfigured for use as an athletics stadium during the 2014 Commonwealth Games . Celtic Park also hosted both national cup finals during the 2013 – 14 season for this reason . While Hampden Park was being redeveloped during the 1990s , Celtic Park hosted the 1993 and 1998 Scottish Cup Finals and the 1993 , 1996 and 1998 Scottish League Cup Finals .
Before the First World War , Celtic Park was a multi @-@ event venue . It hosted the first ever composite rules shinty @-@ hurling match in Scotland , in 1897 . Track and field meetings were held every summer , while the only World Cycling Championship to be staged in Scotland was held at Celtic Park in 1897 . An experimental floodlit football game was played on Christmas Day 1893 . This was unsuccessful due to the ball repeatedly striking the lamps , which were hung over the pitch by wiring . Rugby league football was first played in Scotland at Celtic Park , when it hosted a game between a Northern Rugby Football Union representative side and the touring Australian team in 1909 . Open @-@ air Masses and a parade for the Coronation of King George V were staged . Celtic Park , along with many other football stadiums , hosted recruitment drives during the First World War . During one such event at Celtic Park , a demonstration of trench warfare was carried out . The first pukka speedway race meeting in Scotland was held at Celtic Park on 28 April 1928 . It staged 12 meetings in all before closing in July 1928 .
Celtic Park has been used for concerts by The Who ( 1976 ) , Bryan Adams ( 1992 ) , Prince ( 1992 ) and U2 ( 1993 ) . Wet Wet Wet played there in September 1997 , but their performance had to be postponed by a day to avoid clashing with the funeral of Diana , Princess of Wales . Paul McCartney planned a Celtic Park date in his 2003 Back in the World tour , but it was cancelled . American evangelical Christian missionary Billy Graham held an outdoor event at the ground in 1991 , his first visit to Scotland since 1955 . One of the supporting speakers was Aberdeen player Brian Irvine , who had scored the winning penalty kick against Celtic in the 1990 Scottish Cup Final .
Celtic Park was used for the opening ceremony of the 2014 Commonwealth Games . With Hampden also being used for the Games , Celtic played two European ties at Murrayfield Stadium instead . Owing to further redevelopment work on Celtic Park in 2015 , Celtic scheduled three pre @-@ season games for St Mirren Park .
= = Transport = =
The main railway stations in Glasgow , Central and Queen Street , are approximately 30 minutes walking distance from Celtic Park . Local trains from Glasgow Central on the Argyle Line serve Dalmarnock railway station , which is about 10 minutes walking distance from the ground . Fans travelling to Celtic Park also use Bellgrove and Bridgeton stations , which are both approximately one mile away . Between 1897 and 1964 , Celtic Park was served by the eponymous Parkhead Stadium railway station . The stadium is served by First Glasgow bus route numbers 43 , 61 and 62 . Celtic Park sits adjacent to the A74 ( London Road ) , near to the M74 and M8 motorways . Visitors to the ground travelling by car can park in the surrounding streets . The new Glasgow East End Regeneration Route , which will link the two motorways , will run close by Celtic Park .
= Šajkača =
The šajkača ( Serbian Cyrillic : шајкача , pronounced [ ʃǎjkatʃa ] ) is the Serbian national hat or cap . Traditionally worn by men in the Serbian countryside , it is named after Serb river troops known as šajkaši , who protected the Austrian Empire against the Ottoman Turks in the 18th century . A popular nationalist symbol in Serbia since the beginning of the early 20th century , it is typically black or grey in colour and is usually made of soft , homemade cloth . It became widely worn by Serb men during the First Serbian Uprising and was a key component in the uniform of the Serbian military from the beginning of the 19th century until the end of the 20th century . Today , it is mostly worn by elderly men in rural communities .
= = History = =
The šajkača is a traditional hat worn by men in the Serbian countryside . It is the national hat of Serbia and is believed to have originated in the Serbian region of Banat during the 18th century , when šajkaši ( Serb river troops in the service of the Austrian Empire ) guarded the Danube and Sava rivers against the Ottoman Empire and wore caps in the shape of an overturned chaika ( Serbian : Šajka , Шајка ) boat . It became widely worn amongst Serbs at the time of the First Serbian Uprising , when the men of Serbian revolutionary Karađorđe Petrović began discarding their Turkish fezzes in favour of the cap .
The typical cap of peasants from the Šumadija region of Serbia , the šajkača eventually acquired a dual purpose : during times of peace it was worn in the countryside , and in wartime it became part of the standard Serbian military uniform . During World War I , the cap was regularly worn by the soldiers of the Kingdom of Serbia . Serbia was eventually overrun by a combined Austro @-@ Hungarian , German and Bulgarian invasion in 1915 , and in 1916 the wearing of the šajkača , alongside other Serbian folk attire , was outlawed by Bulgarian authorities in the wake of the Bulgarian occupation of southern Serbia . After the war , the wearing of the hat in Bosnia was made obligatory by Serbian authorities in place of the Turkish fez . During World War II , the šajkača was the standard hat worn by Serbian Chetnik irregulars in the Axis @-@ occupied Kingdom of Yugoslavia . After the war , it was replaced by the Titovka cap in the armed forces of communist Yugoslavia .
The šajkača was worn by Serb soldiers during the breakup of Yugoslavia . Bosnian Serb reservists and paramilitaries wore the cap during the 1992 – 95 Bosnian War , and it was later adopted by Bosnian Serb forces to be the official headgear of the Army of Republika Srpska ( Serbian : Vojska Republike Srpske , VRS ) . Following the 1991 Battle of Vukovar , fought during the Croatian War of Independence , Croatian Serb authorities erected gravestones to the Serb soldiers who were killed fighting for the city . These were originally topped with sculptural evocations of the šajkača cap . After Vukovar 's reintegration into Croatia the gravestones were repeatedly vandalized , leading the Serb community in the town to replace them with more neutral gravestones without any overt military connotations . The 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia saw McDonald 's chains in Serbia promote their products by distributing posters and lapels which depicted the šajkača standing atop the golden arches of the McDonald 's logo in an attempt to bolster Serbian national pride .
The šajkača has been a popular nationalist symbol in Serbia since the beginning of the 20th century . It is commonly worn by elderly men in the Serbian countryside , whereas Serbian youth wear traditional costumes only for folklore concerts .
= = Design = =
Designed with a V @-@ shaped top in the form of an overturned chaika , the šajkača is narrow and typically black or grey in colour . It is usually made of soft , homemade cloth and is worn without any symbols during peacetime . During times of war , cockades featuring the Serbian double @-@ headed eagle and the motto Only Unity Saves the Serbs are often seen on the cap . The šajkača worn by Serbian soldiers during World War I had a non @-@ reflecting peak and was topped with a royal monogram .
= Katamari Damacy =
Katamari Damacy ( 塊魂 , Katamari Damashii , lit . " clump soul " ) is a third @-@ person puzzle @-@ action video game developed and published by Namco for the PlayStation 2 . It was first released in Japan and then later in North America . The game resulted from a school project from the Namco Digital Hollywood Game Laboratory , and was developed for less than $ 1 million . In designing Katamari Damacy , the development team aimed to maintain three key points : novelty , ease of understanding , and enjoyment .
The game 's plot concerns a diminutive prince on a mission to rebuild the stars , constellations , and Moon , which were accidentally destroyed by his father , the King of All Cosmos . This is achieved by rolling a magical , highly adhesive ball called a katamari around various locations , collecting increasingly larger objects , ranging from thumbtacks to people to mountains , until the ball has grown great enough to become a star . Katamari Damacy 's story , characters , and settings are bizarre and heavily stylized , rarely attempting any semblance of realism , though the brands and items used are based on those current in Japan during the game 's production .
Overall , Katamari Damacy was well received in Japan and North America . The game was dubbed a sleeper hit , and won several awards . Katamari Damacy inspired the development of other video games , and led to the release of eight sequels in Japan and other territories : We Love Katamari ( PlayStation 2 ) , Me & My Katamari ( PlayStation Portable ) , Beautiful Katamari ( Xbox 360 ) , i Love Katamari ( iOS , Windows Phone 7 , Android ) , Katamari Forever ( PlayStation 3 ) , Katamari Amore ( iOS ) , Touch My Katamari ( PlayStation Vita ) , and Tap My Katamari ( iOS , Android )
= = Synopsis = =
The primary story in Katamari Damacy deals with the aftermath of the planet @-@ sized King of All Cosmos ' binge drinking spree that wiped out all the stars and other celestial bodies from the sky . The King ( who appears to be chronically dissatisfied with his 5 @-@ cm @-@ tall son 's small size ) charges the Prince to go to Earth with a " katamari " — a magical ball that allows anything smaller than it to stick to it and make it grow — and collect enough material for him to recreate the stars and constellations . The Prince is successful , and the sky is returned to normal .
A side @-@ story follows the Hoshino family as the Prince works at his tasks . The father , an astronaut , is unable to go to the moon after it is wiped out by the King , and the daughter , whose name is Michiru , " senses " the Prince 's work — she can feel when each constellation returns to the sky . Ultimately , the family , along with their house and town , are rolled up in the katamari that is used to remake the moon .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls the Prince as he rolls the katamari around houses , gardens , and towns in order to meet certain parameters set by the King of All Cosmos . The player uses the two analog sticks on the DualShock controller in a manner similar to the classic arcade game Battlezone to control the direction the katamari rolls . Other controls can be triggered by the player to gain a quick burst of speed , flip the Prince to the other side of the katamari , and more .
Objects that are smaller than the katamari will stick to it when the player comes into contact with them , while greater objects can be hurdles ; colliding at high speed with any may cause objects to fall off the katamari , slowing the player 's progress . The game uses size , weight , and surface area to determine if an object will stick to the katamari . This allows slender objects , such as pencils , that are longer than the katamari is wide , to be picked up , and these will alter how the katamari rolls until more objects are picked up . Animals such as cats will chase the katamari , knocking things from it , but once the katamari is great enough , it will scare the animals away , and they can be rolled up once they are chased down . As objects stick to the katamari , the katamari will grow , eventually allowing objects that were once hurdles to be picked up , and creating access to areas that were formerly blocked . In this manner , the player might start the game by picking up thumbtacks and ants , and slowly work up to the point where the katamari is picking up buildings , mountains , and clouds .
The typical mission given by the King of All Cosmos is the " Make a Star " mode , where the player needs to grow the katamari to a specific size within a given timeframe . Other missions have more specific collecting rules , such as collecting as many items ( swans , crabs , pairs ) as possible within a given time , or collecting the largest item possible ( such as a cow or bear ) . The player can attempt a score attack mode for any level , in which they try to make the greatest katamari possible in the time allotted . Certain levels can unlock an " eternal mode " by creating an exceptionally large katamari . In eternal modes , the player can explore the level with no time limit .
Each level features two secret items that can be found . The first item is a royal present that contains an object that the Prince can wear . Most gifts are non @-@ functional , but one includes a camera that can be used to take in @-@ game screenshots . The other secret item is a cousin of the Prince , which , once rolled up in main gameplay , can be used as a character in the various multiplayer modes . However , cousins can only be found and rolled up after the game is beaten . The game also tracks which objects the player has collected at any time , allowing them to review all the various objects within the game .
In the two @-@ player mode , a player can choose to play as either the Prince or one of his numerous Cousins . The screen is split vertically ; player one , and player two is on the right . Players compete simultaneously in a small arena to collect the most objects within three minutes . The playfield is replenished with new objects periodically . Players can ram into each other , knocking items from their opponents ' katamaris , and if one player leads by a fair amount , then it is possible to roll up the opponent 's katamari .
= = Development = =
Toru Iwatani , head of research and development for Namco , stated that the idea for Katamari Damacy resulted from Keita Takahashi 's school project from the Namco Digital Hollywood Game Laboratory , a sponsored institute for game development education . Keita Takahashi 's final thesis bore out the core gameplay ideas , while a team of ten ( including the student ) developed the final product . The game was developed for less than US $ 1 million , a tenth of the cost of Namco blockbuster titles such as Ridge Racer or Soulcalibur . The game took a year and a half to develop , with eight months of prototyping .
Lead developer Keita Takahashi said that the team was aiming for four key points in developing the game : novelty , ease of understanding , enjoyment , and humor . Iwatani compared the game to Namco 's Pac @-@ Man , which focused on simplicity and innovation , and served as a template for future games from the company . At one point during development , Takahashi " proactively ignored " advice from Namco to increase the complexity of the game .
The core gameplay of Katamari Damacy is the subject of U.S. Patent 7 @,@ 402 @,@ 104 , " Game performing method , game apparatus , storage medium , data signal and program " . The patent , issued in 2009 , primarily describes how the game maintains the roughly spherical nature of the katamari when objects are picked up , though extends to concepts such as tracking objects collected based on temperature or weight values , which were modes included with later games of the series .
= = = Reveal and release = = =
Katamari Damacy was first revealed at the 2003 Tokyo Game Show , at which the press dubbed it a " snowball simulator " . The image featured on the cover of the pre @-@ release demo showed the large red ball used in " Tamakorogashi " , a game played at Japanese school sports meets ( undokai ) that was an influence for the game . Plans for releasing the game in Western countries were tied to its performance in Japan . Katamari Damacy was first shown in the United States at the Experimental Gameplay Workshop during the March 2004 Game Developers Conference . Due to its popularity at trade shows and a write @-@ in campaign , Namco decided to release the game in the United States .
= = = Name = = =
In Japanese , Katamari ( 塊 ) means " clump " or " clod " and Damashii is the rendaku form of tamashii ( 魂 ) which means " soul " or " spirit " . Therefore , the phrase approximates to " clump soul " . The two kanji that form the name look similar ( sharing the same right @-@ side element 鬼 ) , in a kind of visual alliteration . The name is officially transliterated as Katamari Damacy in most releases . In an interview with Dengeki Online , producer Keita Takahashi said that when asked about the title , " It just popped into my head suddenly , and this is what it has been from the beginning . "
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The music in Katamari Damacy was widely hailed as imaginative and original ( winning both IGN 's and GameSpot 's " Soundtrack of the Year 2004 " awards ) , and was considered one of the game 's best features . The soundtrack was released in Japan as Katamari Fortissimo Damacy . Its eclectic composition featured elements of traditional electronic video game music , as well as heavy jazz and samba influences ( Shibuya @-@ kei ) . Most of the tracks were composed by Yuu Miyake , and many feature vocals from popular J @-@ pop singers , such as Yui Asaka from the Sukeban Deka 3 TV series , and anime voice actors , including Nobue Matsubara and Ado Mizumori . One track is sung and written by Charlie Kosei , composer of the Lupin III soundtrack .
= = Reception = =
Katamari Damacy enjoyed moderate success in Japan . The game was sold at about two @-@ thirds of the price of a new game at the time . It was the top selling game the week of its release with 32 @,@ 000 units sold , and sold over 155 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 2004 . However , Namco originally estimated that over 500 @,@ 000 units would be sold in Japan .
Katamari Damacy was one of the recipients of the 2004 Good Design Award in Japan , the first time a video game has won this award . The game was included at a 2012 exhibit at the New York Museum of Modern Art , entitled " Century of the Child : Growing by Design " , and was used to demonstrate the change in toys and playthings over the 20th century , specifically praising the game for its " quirky manipulations of scale " that makes it accessible for all ages . In 2015 , the game placed 13th on USgamer 's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list .
The game was not released in PAL territories such as Europe and Australia , since publishers thought it was too " quirky " for these markets ; however , Electronic Arts picked up both sequels , We Love Katamari and Me & My Katamari , for release in Europe .
The North American release of the game was very well received by professional reviewers , was mentioned and praised on TechTV , and was a featured sidebar in the May 23 , 2004 , edition of Time magazine . Time continued to praise the game in its November 22 , 2004 " Best games of the year " special , calling it " the most unusual and original game to hit PlayStation2 " . Most retailers underestimated the demand for such a quirky game , and only purchased a few copies of this sleeper hit ; it rapidly sold out nationwide , with sales surpassing 120 @,@ 000 units in North America . It also won the U.S. award for " Excellence in Game Design " at the 2005 Game Developers Choice Awards , and G4 awarded Katamari Damacy its " Best Innovation " prize in its G @-@ Phoria of that year .
Although the game has rapidly achieved a cult following and has been praised by many reviewers , it also has its share of criticism . A common complaint is that the game is relatively short and repetitive — it can be completed in under ten hours , and the gameplay stays virtually the same all the way through . However , others , such as Electronic Gaming Monthly reviewer Mark McDonald ( who gave the game 8 @.@ 5 out of ten with his EGM staff ) , argue that the game 's limitations are made up for by its strengths : " Sure , you 're basically doing the same thing each mission , but Katamari 's elegant controls , killer soundtrack , and wicked humor make it perfectly suited for replay . " As a well @-@ executed , non @-@ traditional game , Katamari Damacy has been influential in the game development community . Since its release , a number of designers have developed works inspired by Katamari : one example is The Wonderful End of the World .
= = Sequels = =
Katamari Damacy has spawned numerous sequels on the PlayStation 2 and newer game consoles . The game 's direct sequel on the PlayStation 2 , We Love Katamari ( みんな大好き塊魂 , Minna Daisuki Katamari Damashii , literally Everyone Loves Katamari Damacy ) , was released internationally in 2005 and 2006 . Its story is self @-@ referential , following on the success of the first game , most of the levels are based on requests from newfound fans of the King and the Prince . Though sharing the same mechanics , We Love Katamari introduces new gameplay features , such as co @-@ operative play , and new goals , such as collecting the most valuable objects , that would continue through its sequels . Me & My Katamari ( 僕の私の塊魂 , Boku no Watashi no Katamari Damashii , literally My My Katamari Damacy using the two words in Japanese for " I " which connote a masculine ( ' boku ' ) or neutral ( ' watashi ' ) speaker ) was released for the PlayStation Portable in 2005 and 2006 , featuring levels based on helping the animals of an island devastated by a tsunami .
Beautiful Katamari ( Beautiful Katamari Damacy ( ビューティフル塊魂 , Byūtifuru Katamari Damashii ) ) was an Xbox 360 title released in 2007 and 2008 , following the Royal Family using katamaris to close up a black hole created while the King was playing tennis . The newer console allowed for higher @-@ resolution graphics and support for online network play , leaderboards , and downloadable content . While PlayStation 3 and Wii ports were planned for Beautiful Katamari , these never were released . Katamari Forever ( Katamari Damacy Tribute ( 塊魂TRIBUTE , Katamari Damashii TRIBUTE ) ) was released for the PlayStation 3 internationally in 2009 . Katamari Forever incorporates a mix of previous levels from the series , framed around the King trying to recover from amnesia , and new levels where the katamari is needed to repair damage done by a rampaging " RoboKing " . It further improved on the graphics capabilities of Beautiful Katamari , and introduced new moves for the player .
Korogashi Puzzle Katamari Damacy was released for the Nintendo DSi via DSiWare in 2009 . Similar in play to Tetris , the player used the prince to drop a katamari into the playing field to clear the puzzle field . Touch My Katamari ( Katamari Damacy No @-@ Vita ( 塊魂ノビータ , Katamari Damashī Nobīta ) ) is a regional launch title for the PlayStation Vita portable game system in late 2011 and early 2012 . The No @-@ Vita moniker is a play on the Vita console name and the Japanese word nobita , meaning " to lengthen or extend " . While the core mechanics are similar to other games in the series , Touch My Katamari allows the player to use the rear touch @-@ pad on the Vita to temporarily stretch the katamari into an ovoid shape , allowing it to roll through narrow spaces or collect small objects .
Several mobile versions have also been released . Rolling With Katamari was released in Japan in 2007 for the Mitsubishi P904i series of phones , using their tilt @-@ sensitive technology to let the player control the katamari . It was ported to J2ME for release in other countries . Katamari Damacy Mobile was released in 2009 for several wireless devices , and is a 2D side @-@ scrolling version of Katamari Damacy similar to a mini @-@ mode included with Me & My Katamari . I Love Katamari was released in 2008 for the iPhone and iPod Touch , with later patched for the iPad and other iOS devices and for Windows Phone 7 . Another iOS game , Katamari Amore , was released in early 2011 .
WindySoft , a South Korean developer , announced plans for a Katamari Damacy Online game , which was due to be released in 2007 . It was never brought to the US .
= = Legacy = =
The character of the Prince became a mascot for Namco alongside Pac @-@ Man , and makes an appearance in some other Namco @-@ Bandai games , such as Pac @-@ Man World Rally , Noby Noby Boy , the Taiko no Tatsujin series and Keroro RPG : Kishi to Musha to Densetsu no Kaizoku .
= Shackleford ( horse ) =
Shackleford ( foaled February 25 , 2008 ) is a retired chestnut Thoroughbred race horse who won the 2011 Preakness Stakes . His pedigree traces to major sires of significance , including his grandsire Storm Cat and his damsire Unbridled as well as numerous fourth generation who were champion breeders . The colt was sired by Forestry out of the mare Oatsee , who was purchased in 2006 by Shackleford 's owners for $ 135 @,@ 000 . After giving birth to Shackleford , Oatsee was bred to A.P. Indy and sold , in foal , for $ 1 @.@ 55 million .
Shackleford was placed into training with Dale Romans , who raced the colt twice as a 2 @-@ year @-@ old . As a 3 @-@ year @-@ old , he had three races , including the Florida Derby , where he finished second and qualified for the Kentucky Derby . In the Kentucky Derby he finished fourth , and then , at 13 @-@ 1 odds , went on to win the Preakness Stakes on May 21 , 2011 . In doing so , Shackleford became the beneficiary of the largest payoff purse in Preakness history , winning not only the $ 600 @,@ 000 winner 's purse , but also $ 550 @,@ 000 as the XpressBet Bonus winner for a total payout of $ 1 @,@ 150 @,@ 000 . He was retired in 2012 after winning the Clark Handicap in November and currently stands at Darby Dan Farm .
= = Early life = =
Shackleford was foaled on February 25 , 2008 . He was named after Shackleford Banks , a barrier island system in North Carolina , home to a herd of feral Banker horses and a place often visited by his owners .
The horse is owned by Michael Lauffer and W.D. Cubbedge . Lauffer was previously a co @-@ owner of the filly Rachel Alexandra , prior to her 2009 Preakness win . Initially , Lauffer and Cubbedge had put Shackleford up for sale as a yearling at the Keeneland auction , but when the bids failed to reach the reserve price of $ 275 @,@ 000 , Cubbedge and Lauffer bought back the colt and kept him .
= = 2010 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = =
Shackleford is trained by Dale Romans . The colt 's first race was on October 16 , 2010 , where he finished ninth in a 7 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) $ 44 @,@ 000 maiden special weight race at Keeneland Race Course on a synthetic surface . That race was won by eventual Blue Grass Stakes runner @-@ up and Kentucky Derby starter Twinspired . In November 2010 , his second start , Shackleford won a $ 59 @,@ 000 maiden special weight race at Churchill Downs on dirt at 7 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) , taking the rail down the stretch and prevailing over a field of 11 .
= = 2011 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = =
Shackleford 's first start as a three @-@ year @-@ old was an allowance race at Gulfstream Park on February 5 , 2011 , at 1 1 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) . He was ridden by his soon @-@ to @-@ be regular jockey , Jesus Castanon . In that race , he broke well and stalked the leader from second position , then put on a burst of speed and drew clear to win . Romans next entered Shackleford in the Grade II Fountain of Youth Stakes on February 26 at Gulfstream Park . In that race , he was far back early and attempted to rally on the far turn but was hung out wide . He faltered in the stretch and finished fifth to Soldat .
In April 2011 , Shackleford was entered in the Grade 1 $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Florida Derby , again at Gulfstream . He drew post number 5 and was listed at post time as a 60 @-@ 1 longshot . Breaking slowly , he floated wide going into the club house turn . On that turn , he took over the lead from Arch Traveler and To Honor and Serve in a field that stretched 14 lengths back to Dialed In at the rear . Shackleford led down the back stretch and around the final turn , setting a 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 800 m ) fraction of 46 @.@ 3 and a 3 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) in 1 : 10 @.@ 6 . At the top of the lane , he was challenged by To Honor and Serve and repelled him . Three strides from the wire , he was caught by eventual Kentucky Derby co @-@ favorite Dialed In and just missed the win , finishing second by a head .
That second @-@ place finish earned Shackleford a purse of $ 200 @,@ 000 and enough graded earnings to enter the Kentucky Derby . In addition , by virtue of his start in the Fountain of Youth Stakes and his top @-@ three finish in the Florida Derby , the colt became eligible for the XpressBet Consolation Bonus $ 550 @,@ 000 , part of the Preakness 5 @.@ 5 Million Dollar Bonus program , if he won the Preakness Stakes . The bonus would pay $ 500 @,@ 000 to the owner and $ 50 @,@ 000 to the trainer of a Preakness winner who had finished in the top 3 of either the Florida Derby or the Santa Anita Derby and finished in one of a set of other listed races .
= = = Triple Crown races = = =
In the 2011 Kentucky Derby , Shackleford broke well and outran Comma To the Top for the lead passing the stands for the first time . He continued to lead around the clubhouse turn and into the stretch . With about 200 yards ( 183 m ) to go , he was overtaken by the eventual winner , Animal Kingdom , who won by 2 3 / 4 lengths . Meanwhile , Shackleford , now in second place with about 50 yards ( 46 m ) left to go , was caught by Nehro and Mucho Macho Man . He finished fourth by a length and a half in the field of 20 .
Two weeks later , at the 2011 Preakness Stakes , Shackleford went off at odds of 13 @-@ 1 . He broke from the 5 gate in a capacity field of 14 . Passing the grandstand for the first time , Flashpoint took the lead with Shackleford at his flank in a fast 22 @-@ 3 / 5 for the first 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 402 m ) . Down the backstretch , the leaders slowed the pace , clocking 3 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) in 1 : 12 @.@ 01 . At the top of the home stretch , Shackleford took the lead . Astrology challenged him until the 200 yards ( 183 m ) mark . Castanon then used the whip and Shackleford accelerated , holding off the strong late charge of Animal Kingdom to win by half a length .
Bets on Shackleford paid $ 27 @.@ 20 , $ 10 @.@ 20 and $ 6 @.@ 80 . With that win , Shackleford became the beneficiary of the largest payoff purse in Preakness history . He won $ 600 @,@ 000 for coming in first in the Preakness and $ 550 @,@ 000 as the XpressBet Bonus winner for a total payout of $ 1 @,@ 150 @,@ 000 .
On June 11 , 2011 , the three year @-@ old finished fifth in the Belmont Stakes after holding the lead for much of the race on a sloppy track . As the pacesetter , Shackleford led throughout most of the 1 @-@ 1 / 2 mile race , which started with a moderate quarter @-@ mile in : 23 @.@ 9 , then slowed to a leisurely : 49 @.@ 0 for the opening half , 1 : 14 @.@ 5 for three @-@ quarters , and 1 : 39 @.@ 9 for a mile . After leading the first nine furlongs , he faded in the stretch . Winner Ruler On Ice as well as Stay Thirsty , Brilliant Speed and Nehro passed him .
= = = Triple Crown summary = = =
Shackleford 's first- and fourth @-@ place finishes in Preakness Stakes and Kentucky Derby respectively handed the Triple Crown 's consolation title to Animal Kingdom . But Shackleford ended the trifecta of classic races with the a second @-@ place finish in the Triple Crown Productions ' Highest combined Triple Crown finish for the 2011 season . He was outfinished three year @-@ old archrival Animal Kingdom by three points , 15 points to 12 points . Ruler on Ice finished third with ten points and Nehro finished fourth with six points . That finish put Shackleford squarely in contention ( along with Animal Kingdom ) for the " Eclipse Award " as the American Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Male Horse .
= = = Remainder of season = = =
On July 31 , 2011 , Shackleford lost by a head in the Haskell Invitational at Monmouth Park in New Jersey to the Bob Baffert @-@ trained colt Coil , who had a six @-@ pound weight break advantage . In that race , Shackleford stumbled at the start , then caught up down the backstretch . Around the final turn , he took the lead . On August 27 , 2011 , Shackleford was eighth in the 2011 Travers Stakes , which was won by the Pletcher @-@ trained colt Stay Thirsty . On October 1 , 2011 , he finished second to Wilburn in the Indiana Derby . On November 5 , 2011 , he ran second to Caleb 's Posse in the Breeders ' Cup Dirt Mile . On January 3 , 2012 Shackleford was nominated as one of three finalists at the Eclipse Award for American Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Male Horse , but the award went to Animal Kingdom .
= = 2012 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = =
On February 11 , Shackleford was seventh out of a field of eleven horses in the Grade 1 Donn Handicap run at Gulfstream Park . Ruler on Ice also ran and finished eighth . On April 7 , 2012 , Shackleford ran in the $ 400 @,@ 000 Grade 1 Carter Handicap at seven furlongs at Aqueduct Racetrack . Longshot Jackson Bend won by a nose over Caleb 's Posse , with Shackleford another length and a half back in third .
Returning to Churchill Downs on Derby Day , May 5 , 2012 , Shackleford raced in the $ 400 @,@ 000 Grade 2 Churchill Downs Stakes at seven furlongs on the dirt . In that race , he beat the favorite , American Champion Sprint Horse Amazombie , by a length . The two horses separated themselves from the rest of the field by five lengths with Shackleford on the inside . Just inside the sixteenth pole , he edged away and beat Amazombie under jockey Mike Smith by a length . Gantry was another five and a half lengths back in the third . The time was 1 : 21 on a fast track .
On Memorial Day , May 28 , 2012 , Shackleford raced in what analysts called the deepest field of the year featuring favorites To Honor and Serve , Caleb 's Posse , Jackson Bend and Caixa Eletronica in the $ 750 @,@ 000 Grade 1 Metropolitan Handicap ( known by most as the Met Mile run at one mile on the dirt at Belmont Park ) . Shackleford had just enough left to withstand the furious late rush of Caleb 's Posse , stopping the clock in 1 : 33 1 / 5 over the fast track to win by a nose . Favorite To Honor and Serve was another three and half lengths back in third . With this win , Shackleford turned the tables on old rival Caleb 's Posse , who beat him in the 2011 Breeders ' Cup Dirt Mile . The horses met each other four times , with each winning two races . However , Caleb 's Posse retired soon after the Met Mile .
On November 23 , Shackleford ended his career with a victory in the Grade 1 , $ 500 @,@ 000 Clark Handicap at Churchill Downs with Preakness jockey Castanon on board . He defeated Take Charge Indy by one length in the 1 @-@ 1 / 8 mile race that he completed in a time of 1 : 49 @.@ 12 seconds .
= = Racing statistics = =
= = Stud career = =
Shackleford was retired to stud duty in November 2012 and was sent to the Darby Dan Farm in Lexington , Kentucky . He will stand for a $ 20 @,@ 000 stud fee for the 2013 breeding season . His first foals will race in 2016 .
= = Pedigree = =
Shackleford was sired by Forestry , and out of Oatsee , a daughter of Unbridled . Oatsee was purchased in 2006 by Shackleford 's owners for $ 135 @,@ 000 , and after giving birth to Shackleford , was bred to A.P. Indy and sold , in foal , for $ 1 @.@ 55 million . His pedigree traces to major sires of significance .
Shackleford has champion breeding lines on both sides . Northern Dancer , the paternal great @-@ grand sire of Forestry , was a four @-@ time leading sire in Great Britain and Ireland , leading sire in North America ( 1971 ) , and the leading broodmare sire in North America ( 1991 ) . He also traces on his sire 's side to fourth generation sires , Secretariat , His Majesty and Dr. Fager , who were all leading sires . Mr. Prospector , the paternal great @-@ grandsire of his dam Oatsee , was a nine @-@ time leading broodmare sire in North America twice the leading sire in North America . Shackleford 's grandsire , Storm Cat , was a two @-@ time leading sire in North America and his maternal grandsire is Unbridled , who sired multiple winners of various Triple Crown races .
Shackleford inherits speed through his sire , Forestry , who had his most notable wins at one @-@ turn events : the Grade 1 7 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) King 's Bishop Stakes at Saratoga and the Grade 2 1 1 ⁄ 16 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) Dwyer Stakes at Belmont . Most of Forestry 's notable progeny are similarly described , with a few exceptions . In addition , Forestry 's maternal grandsire was Pleasant Colony , who won both the Kentucky Derby and , like Shackleford , the Preakness Stakes . Shackleford inherits stamina through his dam . His breeding is considered most similar to Etched , another son of Forestry who is a two @-@ time Grade 2 winner at 1 1 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) . Both inherited stamina from Unbridled @-@ line mares , with Etched having Unbridled 's Song as a grandsire and Shackleford 's grandsire being Unbridled himself . Oatsee has transmitted Unbridled 's stamina , producing six racing foals of whom four have been winners including Lady Joanne , who won the Alabama Stakes and Baghdaria , winner of the Silverbulletday Stakes , Grade 3 Iowa Oaks and G3 Indiana Oaks . Unbridled was a 1 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) specialist who won both the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders ' Cup Classic in 1990 . Unbridled has sired progeny who separately won each of the Triple Crown races , including Grindstone , Red Bullet , and Empire Maker , achieving the feat only three years after his grandsire Mr. Prospector did with Fusaichi Pegasus , Tank 's Prospect and Conquistador Cielo . Shackleford 's pedigree chart is as follows :
= So Seductive =
" So Seductive " is a song by American rapper Tony Yayo . Solicited as the first single from his debut studio album Thoughts of a Predicate Felon ( 2005 ) , it features guest vocals from fellow rapper 50 Cent , and was produced by record producer Punch , who helped write the song along with Yayo and 50 Cent . Released following a highly publicized campaign by Yayo 's record label , G @-@ Unit Records , to release Yayo from a prison sentence being served prior to the song 's release , " So Seductive " is an uptempo " club banger " containing elements of string instruments and a repetitive bassline in its instrumentation . The song received little promotion from Yayo at the time of its release , as he was still under house arrest following the end of his prison sentence , although he has since performed the song during various live performances .
" So Seductive " became Yayo 's most commercially successful song , reaching number 48 on the US Billboard Hot 100 ; it also remains Yayo 's only song to chart outside the United States , peaking in the top 30 of the Irish and United Kingdom singles charts . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who complimented its energy and 50 Cent 's performance in the chorus , although some wrote negatively towards Yayo 's rapping and also noted a lack of originality in the song 's production . " So Seductive " was nominated for best " Club Banger " at the 2005 Vibe Awards , but lost to " 1 Thing " by Amerie .
= = Background = =
On December 31 , 2002 , G @-@ Unit rappers Tony Yayo and 50 Cent were arrested for illegal weapon possession . Following a further background check , it was discovered that Yayo had an outstanding warrant for a previous such charge : as a result , he was sentenced for bail jumping , and spent the entirety of 2003 in prison at Lakeview Shock Incarceration Correctional Facility . During this time , 50 Cent and the other members of G @-@ Unit rose to mainstream prominence following the commercial success of 50 Cent 's album Get Rich or Die Tryin ' ( 2003 ) , which sold 872 @,@ 000 copies in its first week on sale in the United States and contained the Billboard number @-@ one singles " In da Club " and " 21 Questions " . The group also released their debut album , Beg for Mercy , in 2003 , which featured the US top @-@ 15 singles " Stunt 101 " and " Wanna Get to Know You " . Yayo appeared on the song " Like My Style " , which appears on Get Rich or Die Tryin ' , and on the songs " Groupie Love " and " I Smell Pussy " , which are included on Beg for Mercy .
During Yayo 's incarceration , the G @-@ Unit members began a campaign called " Free Yayo " , which involved wearing " Free Yayo " shirts advertising his situation ; due to the mainstream prominence of the group , Yayo thus began to receive increased attention from the hip @-@ hop community , becoming known as the " mythical fourth member of G @-@ Unit " , although Yayo himself was unaware of the coverage he attracted . The campaign received widespread publicity , even in countries such as Brazil and Iraq . At the 46th Grammy Awards , 50 Cent and fellow rapper Eminem performed whilst wearing " Free Yayo " shirts . Yayo watched the performance on television in prison after receiving a call from the Shady Records offices advising him to do so ; he had never seen the shirts before , and was inspired by them to work hard to improve his rapping before his release from prison . He was granted parole from his sentence on January 8 , 2004 , but was discovered to be in possession of a forged passport , following a check from his parole officer , and was sent back to prison until May 25 , 2004 .
Following his release , Yayo appeared on several mixtapes to increase his exposure amongst underground hip hop audiences , and began to record his debut studio album , titled Thoughts of a Predicate Felon ( 2005 ) , almost immediately after leaving prison , although he was still detained under house arrest and required to wear an ankle bracelet , and thus could not personally promote any of the album 's material . " So Seductive " was released as the album 's first single via Interscope Records in the United
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= = =
On their way to Vaes Dothrak with Drogo 's khalasar , Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) reveals to Viserys ( Harry Lloyd ) that he was exiled for selling poachers to slavers . Viserys assures Jorah that he would not have been punished if Viserys had been the king and demonstrates impatience for Drogo ( Jason Momoa ) to lend Viserys his army .
Daenerys ( Emilia Clarke ) has difficulty adjusting to her new marriage and the nomadic lifestyle of her adopted people . Her only comfort is the three petrified dragon eggs given to her by Illyrio . She is visibly distraught and in pain during intimate relations with the Khal . In order to feel more in control of her marital life , she asks one of her handmaidens , former courtesan Doreah ( Roxanne McKee ) , to teach her how to please her new husband .
= = = In the North = = =
Bran ( Isaac Hempstead @-@ Wright ) has been in a coma for more than a month since being thrown from the tower by Jaime Lannister . After slapping his nephew Prince Joffrey ( Jack Gleeson ) for refusing to give his condolences to the Starks , Tyrion Lannister ( Peter Dinklage ) informs his siblings that despite Bran 's fall , the boy will survive , much to the dismay of the incestuous Lannister twins .
It is time for farewells , with the Stark family having to split apart . Ned 's two daughters journey with their father to the capital . Jon Snow ( Kit Harington ) journeys to join his uncle Benjen ( Joseph Mawle ) as a man of the Night 's Watch at the Wall . Tyrion , who wants to see the " edge of the world " , accompanies them . Before leaving , Jon gives a sword to his sister Arya ( Maisie Williams ) as a present . Lady Catelyn Stark ( Michelle Fairley ) is devastated by her husband 's imminent departure and has stood vigil beside her son Bran since his fall . Having always deeply resented Jon , Catelyn asks him to leave when he comes to say goodbye to Bran and then chastises her husband Ned ( Sean Bean ) for leaving her and giving in to the demands of King Robert ( Mark Addy ) . Before they part , Jon asks Ned about his mother , and Ned promises to tell Jon about her the next time they meet . While stopping for a meal , Robert tells Ned that he has received word about Daenerys Targaryen 's wedding to Khal Drogo and voices concern about the possibility of Viserys crossing the Narrow Sea with a Dothraki army to overthrow him with help from those in the Seven Kingdoms who still support the Targaryens ' claim to the throne and think of Robert as a usurper .
Late one night after Ned 's departure , a fire breaks out at Winterfell , and during the ensuing chaos , a hired assassin tries to kill Bran . Catelyn holds off the attacker long enough for Bran 's direwolf to jump in and tear out the assassin 's throat . The murder attempt arouses Catelyn 's suspicions , and after finding a strand of long blonde hair in the abandoned tower where Bran fell , she concludes that the Lannisters are somehow involved . After confiding with her most trusted advisers - her son Robb ( Richard Madden ) , Maester Luwin ( Donald Sumpter ) , Master @-@ at @-@ Arms Ser Rodrik Cassel ( Ron Donachie ) and the Starks ' ward Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) - she decides to go to King 's Landing in secret with Rodrik as her escort to warn her husband .
= = = At the Wall = = =
Jon and Tyrion see the Wall for the first time as they arrive with Benjen and the other recruits . En route to the Wall , Tyrion and Jon discuss the Night 's Watch . Tyrion is quick to disabuse Jon of his romantic notions of the Watch as a noble calling battling the mythical horrors beyond the Wall ( as it was in history ) , pointing out that now it is more a dumping ground for the unwanted of Westeros : criminals , prisoners , and bastards .
= = = At the Inn at the Crossroads = = =
On their way to King 's Landing , the king 's entourage has stopped to rest at an inn . While the recently promised Prince Joffrey ( Jack Gleeson ) and Sansa Stark ( Sophie Turner ) are walking along the river , they run into Arya sparring with sticks with her friend , a butcher 's boy named Mycah ( Rhodri Hosking ) . Taunting the boy , Joffrey draws his sword and demands a duel , under pretext of punishing him for accidentally hitting Arya , a member of the nobility . Mycah and Arya desperately explain that she asked him to spar with her so she could practice . As Joffrey savors the butcher boy 's pain and fear , Arya hits Joffrey while her friend flees . Enraged , Joffrey turns on Arya and is about to strike her with his sword when her direwolf Nymeria bites his wrist . Arya seizes his sword and throws it into the river before running into the forest , where she drives away Nymeria and hides until dark .
Afterward , Joffrey lies to the courtly entourage and accuses Arya and her direwolf of ganging up on him . Unwilling to lose favor with her betrothed by publicly exposing his lie , Sansa claims she remembers nothing . Sick of the petty bickering , King Robert chastises his son for allowing himself to be disarmed by the younger girl and declares that the fathers themselves will punish their respective children , dismissing the audience . However , Robert gives in to his wife Cersei 's ( Lena Headey ) demands and orders the direwolf killed . Since Nymeria has fled , Sansa 's wolf , Lady , is to be sacrificed . Unable to convince the king otherwise , Eddard takes responsibility for killing Sansa 's pet himself . As he walks to the back of the inn , he encounters Joffrey 's bodyguard , Sandor " The Hound " Clegane ( Rory McCann ) , who has ridden down the butcher 's boy and brought in his bloody corpse for the prince .
Eddard approaches Lady and holds her down as he unsheathes a blade . Saddened , he kills the direwolf , who utters a sharp cry of pain . Meanwhile , up North , Bran suddenly awakens from his coma and opens his eyes as Sansa 's wolf is killed .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The second episode was written by the show creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , based on the original book by George R. R. Martin . " The Kingsroad " includes chapters 10 @-@ 11 , 13 @-@ 18 and 24 . ( Tyrion I , Jon II , Eddard II , Tyrion II , Catelyn III , Sansa I , Eddard III , Bran III , Daenerys III . )
While the events in this episode follow the book , differences in the screen adaptation include not introducing the council 's delegation with Ser Barristan and Lord Renly and the conversation between Robert and Eddard taking place during breakfast instead of on horseback . Some scenes were also created for the series , most notably a conversation between Catelyn and Cersei at Bran 's bedside remembering a Queen 's dead infant , and a confrontation between Jaime and Jon before Jon leaves for the Wall .
= = = Casting = = =
This episode marks the first appearance of regular guest star Roxanne McKee , best known for her role of Louise Summers in the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks . McKee was chosen among a great number of candidates to play the part of Doreah , a slave serving as Daenerys Targaryen 's handmaiden .
Also introduced in this episode is British musician Wilko Johnson as the executioner Ilyn Payne . The mute headsman of Game of Thrones is Johnson 's first acting job .
= = = Filming locations = = =
The principal shooting for the episode was done at The Paint Hall studio . The scenes at the Inn at the Crossroads were filmed on location at the Redhall Estate , in Ballycarry , during the first days of September 2010 .
= = = Direwolves = = =
" The Kingsroad " has a significant number of scenes that include direwolves . To stand in for the extinct species , the production team considered using real wolves , but the UK safety laws and close work with child actors made this impractical . Instead , they chose to use Northern Inuit Dogs due to their resemblance to wolves .
During this episode , the dogs had to interact with the main characters , which proved difficult . Actor Sean Bean reported that for the final scene where he has to sacrifice Lady , the animal was too scared to remain still . They had to keep rehearsing the scene until the dog felt comfortable , making a shot that should have taken a few minutes about three hours long .
The dog that portrayed Lady , Zanni , was adopted after the season wrapped by the family of Sophie Turner , the actress playing the direwolf 's owner , Sansa Stark .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The second episode of Game of Thrones attracted the same viewing figures as the premiere , with 2 @.@ 2 million viewers . The second repeat obtained 0 @.@ 7 million , which was also similar to the previous week 's figure . These ratings have been considered positive , especially considering that it was aired on an Easter Sunday .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reaction was favorable , although some critics felt it was inferior to the first episode . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 10 reviews of the episode and judged 100 % of them to be positive . The website 's critical consensus reads , " ' The Kingsroad ' brings surprising new developments for characters undergoing change while pushing the various plots forward at an effective pace . " Entertainment Weekly 's James Hibberd considered the second episode better than the first one , while TV Squad 's Maureen Ryan gave " The Kingsroad " the lowest score from the first six episodes of the series . Matt Fowler , who reviewed the episode for IGN , gave it a score of 8 / 10 , and maintained that it was still a solid effort that focused on shifting all the main characters out of their comfort zones . Tod VanDerWerff , from The A.V. Club , gave the episode a " B , " saying " it was a small step up from the pilot ... and is a particularly eventful hour of Game Of Thrones , layering on plot point after plot point in a brisk , fairly economical matter . "
Alan Sepiwall , from HitFix , has described " The Kingsroad " as a transition episode and therefore " not as likely to excite as the premiere or some of the season 's later episodes . " Maureen Ryan felt that the show lacked a thematic unity , and while it had some effective moments , in some ways " lacked emotional spark . " At Cultural Learnings , Myles McNutt admitted that having to move all pieces into place made the episode resemble a travelogue , but he considered the lack of cohesion to be very purposeful since it helped to emphasize the splitting of the Stark family and the different motivations and destinies that awaited the protagonists .
= Flu Shot ( 30 Rock ) =
" Flu Shot " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by Jon Pollack , and directed by series producer Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on January 15 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include George Bartenieff , Scott Bryce , Salma Hayek , and Chris Parnell .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) campaigns for her staff 's right to get flu shots from Dr. Leo Spaceman ( Parnell ) , but Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) will not allow it due to a limited supply . Meanwhile , Jack tries to think of creative ways to spend time with his girlfriend , Elisa ( Hayek ) , as she works seven days a week . At the same time , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) and Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) try to do something nice for the crew .
" Flu Shot " received a mixed response from television critics , with Robert Canning of IGN concluding that the episode fell below 30 Rock standards . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it was watched by 6 @.@ 6 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is excited about her vacation week , until she gets a text message from her assistant , Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) , that the hotel she had planned to stay at was overbooked . Liz goes to see Dr. Leo Spaceman ( Chris Parnell ) who is giving out flu shots at the 30 Rock studios . She learns that the shots are given to select few employees . Her boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , asks her to let him know about the most important individuals in her staff that should receive flu shots . Liz does not agree with Jack that he should ration out health care , which results in Liz not getting a shot . Jack considers giving the show 's page , Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , one of the remaining shots , as he is very ill with the flu , though Kenneth refuses . Later , Jack continuously asks Liz , but still refuses . This time , she displays her solidarity in front of the The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) crew who show her their appreciation . However , as she sees the crew getting sicker , as days go by , she panics and gets the shot .
Meanwhile , Jack wants to spend time with his girlfriend , Elisa ( Salma Hayek ) , but her job as a nurse does not allow it . While taking care of an elderly man named Mr. Templeton ( George Bartenieff ) , who suffers from dementia , Jack persuades her to spend time with him , to which Elisa gives in to , and results in the two bringing Mr. Templeton along on their dates . One day , as they prepare to go out again , Jack and Elisa are shocked when Mr. Templeton 's son , Michael ( Scott Bryce ) , visits unexpectedly . The elderly man tells his son about the late night escapades , though Elisa tells the son that his story is not true . As Elisa distracts the son , Jack tries to leave the apartment , until Mr. Templeton sees him . Jack explains his situation with Elisa to Mr. Templeton , which he understands , and promises Jack he will not tell his son anything more of the late nights .
At the 30 Rock studios , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) and Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) , the stars of TGS , decide they want to help the sick crew . They think about getting the crew soup but are too lazy to do it ; instead they decide that laughter is the best medicine . Jenna and Tracy , dressed as clowns , put on a very unsuccessful show at the TGS stage where they end up throwing a pie on Liz 's face . The crew stands up for Liz until they see the red dot where she received the shot . She confesses that she chose the vacation over the crew , as she later was told by Cerie that the hotel had rooms available , which results in the crew hating her for it .
= = Production = =
" Flu Shot " was written by Jon Pollack and directed by Don Scardino . This was Pollack 's second writing credit , having written season two episode " Greenzo " . This was Scardino 's seventeenth directed episode . " Flu Shot " originally aired on NBC as the eighth episode of the show 's third season in the United States on January 15 , 2009 .
This episode was actress Salma Hayek 's second appearance on 30 Rock as the character Elisa . She first appeared in the episode " Señor Macho Solo " as a nurse for Jack Donaghy 's mother and love interest for Jack . In this episode , composer Jeff Richmond wrote a theme for the Elisa character . Actor Chris Parnell , who played Dr. Leo Spaceman in " Flu Shot " , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of SNL . Alec Baldwin , who plays Jack , has also hosted SNL fifteen times . This was Parnell 's eighth appearance on the show . Actor Scott Bryce guest @-@ starred as Michael Templeton , the son of Mr. Templeton ( George Bartenieff ) , though Bryce would make an appearance on the show 's fourth season episode " Don Geiss , America and Hope " as Dave Hess , a former colleague of Jack 's .
According to Fey , in the DVD commentary for this episode , the show was not allowed to " say or imply " that the United States government had truly run out of flu shots , as many jokes in the original script were cut out . In addition , there were " a lot of meetings " in regards to where the red dot on Liz Lemon 's arm would be . In the commentary , Fey revealed that the show had to ask Disney permission to " imply " that Jack and Elisa , while on their date , were in attendance at The Lion King musical , which was granted . The romantic scenes between Jack and Elisa , which showed them at a park at night , were filmed in front of a green screen . The show 's producers initially wanted to go to different locations around New York , but believed it would be too hard to shoot . In addition , Liz 's scenes at the beach were also shot in front of a green screen .
Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Michael Bublé performed the song " Mr. Templeton " that was featured in this episode . In a January 2009 interview , the singer said he was notified by his manager that both Alec Baldwin and Salma Hayek — fans of the singer — hoped he could write a " funny little tune " to the " Flu Shot " episode , to which he agreed . Bublé was referenced in the previous episode , " Señor Macho Solo " , as Hayek 's character teases Baldwin 's Jack over his many album collections of the singer . Bublé , a fan of 30 Rock , in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , said he was asked by the show to perform the song , and as a result , Bublé went to Canadian singer Bryan Adams ' studio in Vancouver and recorded " Mr. Templeton " there .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Flu Shot " was watched by 6 @.@ 6 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was an increase from the previous episode , " Señor Macho Solo " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 4 million American viewers .
Since airing , the episode has received a mixed response from television critics . IGN contributor Robert Canning said " Flu Shot " had a number of aspects that he enjoyed , but " as a whole " the episode was not completely satisfying , and reasoned that this episode fell below 30 Rock standards . He said that he personally did not buy the idea of Liz taking a tropical vacation , " [ t ] hat 's just not the Liz I know . But even ignoring this , the bits involved , especially the flashes to Liz on the beach , weren 't all that inspired . " Canning also was critical of Jack and Elisa 's story as he felt it was weak . Overall , he rated the episode a 7 @.@ 6 out of 10 . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad wrote , " Is it just me or was this one of the more lacking episodes of 30 Rock ? It 's not that it was terrible ... but this one just seemed to meander . It wasn 't as funny as other episodes ... and that whole crew @-@ as @-@ zombies @-@ with @-@ the @-@ flu stuff was a little bit too surreal , even for this show . " Further in his review , Sassone wrote that the Tracy and Jenna subplot started funny , but ended " in a lame , predictable manner . " Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger , also disliked " Flu Shot " , opining that it was a disappointment . Sepinwall further added that the Jack and Elisa story " felt like something out of a bad ' 80s sitcom – and not even the 30 Rock take on a bad ' 80s sitcom episode . " Sepinwall , however , wrote that the episode did have a good moment with Kenneth suggesting to Tracy that he and Jenna get soup for the sick crew themselves , and with Tracy replying " With what ? My arms ? " .
Not all reviews were negative . Claire Zulkey for The A.V. Club wrote , " For me , there are two types of episodes of 30 Rock : the really really good ones , where all the parts come together to make a wonderful whole , and the pretty good ones , where there memorable jokes and lines are all there , but put all together create a kind of uneven episode . That struck me as tonight 's type of episode . " Though , Zulkey felt that the zombies scene " didn 't really work " except for when Liz smashed a picture frame over Pete Hornberger 's ( Scott Adsit ) head . She said that the " funniest part " from " Flu Shot " was the look on Jack and Elisa 's faces " as the animals from The Lion King walked through the audience . " The Palm Beach Post ’ s Kevin D. Thompson , in his review of " Flu Shot " , said it featured many funny lines .
= Laryngitis ( Glee ) =
" Laryngitis " is the eighteenth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on May 11 , 2010 . It was directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon and written by series creator Ryan Murphy . In " Laryngitis " , glee club member Puck ( Mark Salling ) dates Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) in an attempt to raise his social status . Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) is jealous of the time his father is spending with Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , and Rachel ( Lea Michele ) worries about her future when she is diagnosed with tonsillitis . Mike O 'Malley guest @-@ stars as Kurt 's father Burt , and Zack Weinstein appears as disabled former football player Sean Fretthold .
The episode features cover versions of seven songs , five of which were released as singles , available for digital download , and three of which are included on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 – Showstoppers . " Laryngitis " was watched by 11 @.@ 57 million American viewers and received mixed reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club , Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle , Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk and James Poniewozik of Time all enjoyed the episode , noting that it came after several lesser @-@ quality episodes since the show 's return from its mid @-@ season break . In contrast , Lisa Respers France of CNN felt that " Laryngitis " was lecturing in tone , and more sad than it was comedic . Henrik Batallones of BuddyTV and Entertainment Weekly 's Darren Franich both expressed concern with the disability plot , the former finding it forced and the latter questioning whether Glee honors its disabled actors , or uses them shamelessly .
= = Plot = =
When glee club member Puck ( Mark Salling ) has his mohawk shaved off at the insistence of his dermatologist for medical purposes , he discovers he is no longer considered a credible bully . He realizes that Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) has become popular since joining the cheerleading squad , and resolves to date her . Mercedes initially attempts to dissuade him , but after the two sing a duet of " The Lady Is a Tramp " , she warms to him . Puck 's former girlfriend Santana ( Naya Rivera ) is jealous , and she and Mercedes sing " The Boy Is Mine " . When Mercedes realizes that Puck has returned to being a bully , she breaks up with him and resigns from the cheerleading squad .
Meanwhile , Rachel ( Lea Michele ) realizes that some glee club members are faking their singing . She tells glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) , complaining that she is doing most of the work , exhausting herself and getting ill in the process . She reveals the non @-@ participants as Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) , Puck , Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , and Santana . Will gathers the students and gives them a new task for the week : each club member will have to do solos , and each must choose a song that best represents their feelings .
Rachel then confronts the non @-@ participating glee members and insults them , but when she starts to sing Miley Cyrus 's " The Climb " , she sounds terrible : she has started to lose her voice . Later , after an examination by Rachel 's doctor reveals that she suffers from tonsillitis and may need to have her tonsils removed , she is afraid to have the surgery lest it affect her voice , as she believes her singing ability is her only asset . Finn , who accompanied her to the doctor 's , tries to convince her that he loves everything about her and that there is more to her than her voice . He warns her that if she loses her ability to sing then Jesse ( Jonathan Groff ) would no longer find her attractive . Rachel tells Finn that she still cares about Jesse and that he needs to move on , prompting Finn to sing " Jessie 's Girl " as his solo assignment . To put her fear into perspective , Finn introduces her to his friend Sean ( Zack Weinstein ) , who was paralyzed from the upper chest down during a football game . At first , Rachel is nervous and overwhelmed by the meeting , but Finn forces her to stay as Sean tells her about his grueling experiences with his disability and how he realized that a person is not just one single thing . She then begins to understand why Finn brought her and thanks Sean as she leaves .
In the meantime , Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) is jealous of the time his father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) is spending with Finn , now that their parents are dating , and attempts to emulate Burt 's personality . He dresses in outdoorsman gear , sings John Mellencamp 's " Pink Houses " during a glee club rehearsal , and attempts to have a fling with Brittany , making out with her in his bedroom and ensuring that his father is aware of his new behavior . Frustrated that Burt is still spending time alone with Finn , Kurt reverts to his former personality and sings " Rose 's Turn " . Burt overhears his performance , praises Kurt 's singing and apologizes for not spending enough time with him . He reassures Kurt that he still loves him , and always will , no matter who his son chooses to be with .
Rachel eventually recovers her voice after taking the antibiotics her doctor prescribed . She goes back to Sean 's house to thank him again , and offers to give him singing lessons . They start singing U2 's " One " , and the scene switches back and forth between her duet with Sean and the full glee club 's performance of the song on stage at school .
= = Production = =
Recurring characters who appear in " Laryngitis " are Kurt 's father Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) , glee club members Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) and AV club president Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) . Rizwan Manji plays Dr. Gidwani . Zack Weinstein guest stars as Sean Fretthold , a football player who was paralyzed below the upper chest after injuring his spinal cord at C4 in an accident , similar to the actor 's injury in real life . Sean is the second wheelchair @-@ using character to appear on Glee . In November 2009 , the episode " Wheels " attracted criticism from disability advocates , who called attention to the fact that disabled character Artie Abrams is played by able @-@ bodied actor Kevin McHale . Weinstein defended McHale 's casting , opining that if he was the best auditioning actor for the role , then his ability to walk should be irrelevant . However , Weinstein also stated he " would like to see wheelchair users given the chance to audition and be seriously considered for roles that aren 't specifically written for someone with a disability . " Weinstein revealed that he wished he had auditioned for the role of Artie , and that Glee was his favorite show . Around February 2010 , Weinstein 's agent got him an audition to play Sean , and within a week and a half , he learned he had got the part . Glee was Weinstein 's first professional acting job . He called the twelve hours he spent filming his scenes " twelve of the most important hours of [ his ] life " .
The episode features cover versions of seven songs . Rachel performs " The Climb " by Miley Cyrus , and Finn sings " Jessie 's Girl " by Rick Springfield . Puck and Mercedes duet on Sammy Davis Jr . ' s " The Lady Is a Tramp " , and Mercedes and Santana sing " The Boy Is Mine " by Brandy and Monica . Kurt sings John Mellencamp 's " Pink Houses " , and " Rose 's Turn " from Gypsy : A Musical Fable . The glee club closes the episode with " One " by U2 , featuring guest vocals from Weinstein as Sean . " Jessie 's Girl " , " The Lady Is a Tramp " , " The Boy Is Mine " , " Rose 's Turn " and " One " were released as singles , available for digital download . " The Lady Is a Tramp " , " Rose 's Turn " and " One " are also included on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 – Showstoppers .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Laryngitis " was watched by 11 @.@ 57 million American viewers and attained a 4 @.@ 8 / 12 rating / share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 81 million viewers and was the most @-@ watched show of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels . In Canada , " Bad Reputation " was watched by 1 @.@ 97 million viewers , making Glee the 13th most watched program of the week . In Australia , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 44 million viewers , making " Laryngitis " the 15th most @-@ watched program of the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Lisa Respers France of CNN felt that " Laryngitis " highlighted a trend of Glee storylines becoming progressively sadder , rather than comedic . She wrote that the plotlines came across as lecturing , and concluded : " I still heart Glee , which is clearly one of the best shows on television right now . I just think they may want to lighten the life lessons a bit or spread them out more over several episodes rather than clobbering us all at once . " Henrik Batallones of BuddyTV wrote that he was uncertain what to make of the episode , noting : " Sure , there were some high points , and it was a pretty enjoyable watch , but unlike the last few episodes this one left me a little high and dry . " Batallones observed that the Sean storyline felt " totally forced into the episode , making Rachel 's epiphany [ ... ] very forced and unnatural . " Entertainment Weekly 's Darren Franich was also troubled by the storyline , noting : " It seems like the height of vanity to basically use this storyline to teach Rachel an important lesson about being herself . [ ... ] Glee has used disabled actors before , and I think it 's worth debating whether the show honors that or uses it shamelessly . "
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club graded the episode " B + " . While he had been disappointed with several episodes since the show 's mid @-@ season break , VanDerWerff noted : " Glee still has its inconsistencies , but it 's getting back to the show I so enjoyed last fall . " He wrote of the Sean storyline that it : " should feel offensive but mostly skates away from actually being so because it treats the paralyzed character with a great deal of respect " . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle also noted that he had been underwhelmed with the show since its return , but loved " Laryngitis " , writing : " The story focused exclusively on the kids — not Mr. Shue or Sue Sylvester — and the performances were realistically small @-@ scale . [ ... ] All that classic Glee charm came washing over me once more and it was glorious . " Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times similarly stated : " When Glee is at its best , you get episodes like this week 's . There were no gimmicks , no over @-@ the @-@ top productions , no unnecessary stars [ ... ] It was just great storytelling and superb finger @-@ snapping music . " Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk deemed " Laryngitis " a " truly successful episode " , but also highlighted the show 's inconsistency in quality since its return . James Poniewozik of Time called " Laryngitis " the first episode of Glee since its mid @-@ season break that he enjoyed " ( mostly ) without reservation . " Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode 8 @.@ 8 / 10 , deeming it one of his favorite episodes of Glee , " with some of the funniest material the show has delivered thus far . "
= Lie Kim Hok =
Lie Kim Hok ( Chinese : 李金福 ; pinyin : Lǐ Jīnfú ; 1 November 1853 – 6 May 1912 ) was a peranakan Chinese teacher , writer , and social worker active in the Dutch East Indies and styled the " father of Chinese Malay literature " . Born in Buitenzorg ( now Bogor ) , West Java , Lie received his formal education in missionary schools and by the 1870s was fluent in Sundanese , vernacular Malay , and Dutch , though he was unable to understand Chinese . In the mid @-@ 1870s he married and began working as the editor of two periodicals published by his teacher and mentor D. J. van der Linden . Lie left the position in 1880 . His wife died the following year . Lie published his first books , including the critically acclaimed syair ( poem ) Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari and grammar book Malajoe Batawi , in 1884 . When van der Linden died the following year , Lie purchased the printing press and opened his own company .
Over the following two years Lie published numerous books , including Tjhit Liap Seng , considered the first Chinese Malay novel . He also acquired printing rights for Pembrita Betawi , a newspaper based in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , and moved to the city . After selling his printing press in 1887 , the writer spent three years working in various lines of employment until he found stability in 1890 at a rice mill operated by a friend . The following year he married Tan Sioe Nio , with whom he had four children . Lie published two books in the 1890s and , in 1900 , became a founding member of the Chinese organisation Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan , which he left in 1904 . Lie focused on his translations and social work for the remainder of his life , until his death from typhus at age 58 .
Lie is considered influential to the colony 's journalism , linguistics , and literature . According to the Malaysian scholar Ahmad Adam , he is best remembered for his literary works . Several of his writings were printed multiple times , and Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari was adapted for the stage and screen . However , as a result of the language politics in the Indies and independent Indonesia , his work has become marginalised . When several of his writings were revealed as uncredited adaptations of existing works , Lie was criticised as unoriginal . Other critics , however , have found evidence of innovation in his writing style and handling of plots .
= = Early life = =
Lie was born in Buitenzorg ( now Bogor ) , West Java , on 1 November 1853 , the first child of seven born to Lie Hian Tjouw and his second wife Oey Tjiok Nio . The elder Lie had four children from a previous marriage , with Lie Kim Hok his first child from the new marriage . The well @-@ to @-@ do peranakan Chinese couple was living in Cianjur at the time but went to Buitenzorg , Lie Hian Tjouw 's hometown , for the birth as they had family there . The family soon returned to Cianjur , where Lie Kim Hok was homeschooled in Chinese tradition and the local Sundanese culture and language . By age seven he could haltingly read Sundanese and Malay .
In the mid @-@ 19th century the colony 's ethnic Chinese population was severely undereducated , unable to enter schools for either Europeans or natives . Aged ten , Lie was enrolled in a Calvinist missionary school run by Christiaan Albers . This school had roughly 60 male students , mostly Chinese . Under Albers , a fluent speaker of Sundanese , he received his formal education in a curriculum which included the sciences , language , and Christianity – the schools were meant to promote Christianity in the Dutch East Indies , and students were required to pray before class . Lie , as with most students , did not convert , although biographer Tio Ie Soei writes that an understanding of Christianity likely affected his world view .
Lie and his family returned to Buitenzorg in 1866 . At the time there were no schools offering a European @-@ style education in the city , and thus he was sent to a Chinese @-@ run school . For three years , in which the youth studied under three different headmasters , he was made to repeat traditional Hokkien phrases and copy Chinese characters without understanding them . Tio suggests that Lie obtained little knowledge at the school , and until his death Lie was unable to understand Chinese . During his time in Buitenzorg , he studied painting under Raden Saleh , a friend of his father 's . Although he reportedly showed skill , he did not continue the hobby as his mother disapproved . He also showed a propensity for traditional literary forms such as pantun ( a form of poetry ) and was fond of creating his own .
When Sierk Coolsma opened a missionary school in Buitenzorg on 31 May 1869 , Lie was in the first class of ten . Once again studying in Sundanese , he took similar subjects to his time in Cianjur . Around this time he began studying Dutch . After a government @-@ run school opened in 1872 , most of Lie 's classmates were ethnic Chinese ; the Sundanese students , mostly Muslim , had transferred to the new school for fear of being converted to Christianity . In 1873 Coolsma was sent to Sumedang to translate the Bible into Sundanese and was replaced by fellow missionary D. J. van der Linden . Studies resumed in Malay , as van der Linden was unable to speak Sundanese . Lie and his new headmaster soon became close . The two later worked together at van der Linden 's school and publishing house and shared an interest in traditional theatre , including wayang ( puppets ) .
= = Teacher and publisher = =
By the age of twenty Lie had a good command of Sundanese and Malay ; he also spoke fair Dutch , a rarity for ethnic Chinese at the time . Lie assisted van der Linden at the missionary school , and in the mid @-@ 1870s operated a general school for poor Chinese children . He also worked for the missionary 's printing press , Zending Press , earning forty gulden a month while serving as editor of two religious magazines , the Dutch @-@ language monthly De Opwekker and the Malay @-@ language bi @-@ weekly Bintang Djohor . He married Oey Pek Nio , seven years his junior , in 1876 . Tio , in an interview with the scholar of Chinese Malay literature Claudine Salmon , stated that Lie had been betrothed to Oey 's elder sister , but when she ran away the night before the ceremony , he was told to by his parents to marry Oey Pek Nio to save face . Although displeased with the arrangement , he obeyed . The pair soon grew close . The following year they had their first child , although the baby died soon after birth . Lie 's mother died in 1879 , and his father died the next year .
Following these deaths Lie was unable to support his wife . He therefore sold his school to Oey Kim Hoat and left his position at Zending Press to take a job as a land surveyor . In the next four years he held various jobs . In 1881 Oey Pek Nio gave birth again . She died soon afterwards and the baby was sent to live with her grandfather father in Gadog , a village to the southeast of Buitenzorg , to be raised . The child died in 1886 . Lie published his first books in 1884 . Two of these , Kitab Edja and Sobat Anak @-@ Anak , were published by Zending Press . The former was a study book to help students learn to write Malay , while the latter was a collection of stories for children that Aprinus Salam of Gadjah Mada University credits as the first work of popular literature in the Indies . The other two books were published by W. Bruining & Co . , based in the colonial capital at Batavia ( now Jakarta ) . One of these , Malajoe Batawi , was a grammar of Malay intended to standardise the language 's spelling . The other was the four @-@ volume syair ( a traditional Malay form of poetry ) Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari ; this book , dealing with a gender @-@ disguised warrior who conquers the Sultanate of Hindustan to save her husband , became one of Lie 's best @-@ known works .
After van der Linden 's death in 1885 , Lie paid his teacher 's widow a total of 1 @,@ 000 gulden to acquire the Zending Press ; the funds were , in part , borrowed from his friends . He changed the printer 's name to Lie Kim Hok soon afterwards . He devoted most of his time to the publishing house , and it grew quickly , printing works by other authors and reprinting some of Lie 's earlier writings . The publishing house was , however , unable to turn a profit . That year he published a new syair , consisting of 24 quartets , entitled Orang Prampoewan . He also wrote opinion pieces in various newspapers , including Bintang Betawi and Domingoe .
The following year Lie purchased publishing rights to the Malay @-@ language newspaper Pembrita Betawi , based in Batavia and edited by W. Meulenhoff , for 1 @,@ 000 gulden . He again borrowed from his friends . From mid @-@ 1886 , Lie 's publishing house ( which he had moved to Batavia ) was credited as the newspaper 's printer . While busy with the press , he wrote or contributed to four books . Two were pieces of nonfiction , one a collection of Chinese prophecies and the last outlined lease laws . The third was a partial translation of the One Thousand and One Nights , a collection already popular with Malay audiences . The last was his first novel , Tjhit Liap Seng . Following a group of educated persons in mainland China , Tjhit Liap Seng is credited as the first Chinese Malay novel .
Lie continued to publish novels set in China through 1887 , writing five in this period . Several of these stories were based on extant Chinese tales , as retold by his Chinese @-@ speaking friends . The writer sold his shares in Pembrita Betawi to Karsseboom & Co. in 1887 , but continued to print the newspaper until it – and Lie 's printing press – were acquired by Albrecht & Co. later that year . Lie did not work as a publisher again , although he continued to contribute writings to various newspapers , including Meulenhoff 's new publication Hindia Olanda . Over the next three years he did not have fixed employment , taking a multitude of jobs , including bamboo salesman , contractor , and cashier .
= = Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan , translations , and death = =
In 1890 Lie began working at a rice mill operated by his friend Tan Wie Siong as a supervisor ; this would be his main source of income for the remainder of his life . The following year he married Tan Sioe Nio , twenty years his junior . The new couple had a comfortable life : his salary was adequate , and the work did not consume much energy . To supplement his income Lie returned to translating , Dutch to Malay or vice versa . Sometimes he would translate land deeds or other legal documents . Other times he translated works of literature . This included De Graaf de Monte Cristo , an 1894 translation of Alexandre Dumas ' Le Comte de Monte @-@ Cristo , which he completed in collaboration with the Indo journalist F. Wiggers . The two included footnotes to describe aspects of European culture which they deemed difficult for non @-@ European readers to understand . Three years later Lie published Hikajat Kong Hoe Tjoe , a book on the teachings of Confucius . Its contents were derived from European writings on Confucianism and his friends ' explanations .
With nineteen other ethnic Chinese , including his former schoolmate Phoa Keng Hek , Lie was an establishing member of the Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan ( THHK ) school system and social organisation in 1900 . Meant to promote ethnic Chinese rights at a time when they were treated as second @-@ class citizens and provide standardised formal education to ethnic Chinese students where the Dutch had not , the organisation was based on the teachings of Confucius and opened schools for both boys and girls . The THHK grew quickly and expanded into different fields , and Lie helped organise a debating club , sports club , and charity fairs and concerts . From 1903 to 1904 Lie was a managing member of the board , serving mainly as its treasurer .
Lie left the THHK in 1904 , although he remained active in social work . Despite increasingly poor health , he wrote opinion pieces for the dailies Sin Po and Perniagaan . He also translated extensively . In 1905 Lie published the first volume of his last Chinese @-@ themed novel , Pembalasan Dendam Hati . This was followed three years later by Kapitein Flamberge , a translation of Paul Saunière 's Le Capitaine Belle @-@ Humeur . In the following years he translated several books featuring Pierre Alexis Ponson du Terrail 's fictional adventurer Rocambole , beginning with Kawanan Pendjahat in 1910 . Two final translations were published in newspapers and collated as novels after Lie 's death : Geneviève de Vadans , from a book entitled De Juffrouw van Gezelschap , and Prampoean jang Terdjoewal , from Hugo Hartmann 's Dolores , de Verkochte Vrouw . The former translation was completed by the journalist Lauw Giok Lan .
On the night of 2 May 1912 Lie became ill , and two days later his doctor diagnosed him with typhus . His condition steadily declined and on 6 May 1912 he died . He was buried in Kota Bambu , Batavia . THHK schools throughout the city flew their flags at half @-@ mast . Lie was survived by his wife and four children : Soan Nio ( born 1892 ) , Hong Nio ( born 1896 ) , Kok Hian ( born 1898 ) , and Kok Hoei ( born 1901 ) . Tan Sioe Nio died the following year .
= = Legacy = =
In his journalism career Lie attempted to avoid the yellow press tactics used by his contemporaries and preferred to avoid extensive polemics in the press . Malaysian journalism historian Ahmat Adam , writing in 1995 , notes that Lie 's entry into the press sparked a wave of peranakan Chinese writers to become newspaper editors , and Sumardjo suggests that Lie remained best known to native Indonesians through his work in the press .
From a linguist 's perspective , Kasijanto Sastrodinomo of the University of Indonesia describes Malajoe Batawi as " extraordinary " , noting that the first Malay @-@ language textbook was written by a non @-@ Malay . He also emphasises that the book did not use any English @-@ derived linguistics terms which were omnipresent in 20th @-@ century Indonesian textbooks . Linguist Waruno Mahdi writes that Lie 's Malajoe Batawi was the " most remarkable achievement of Chinese Malay writing " from a linguist 's point of view . In his doctoral dissertation , Benitez suggests that Lie may have hoped for bazaar Malay to become a lingua franca in the Dutch East Indies . In his history of Chinese Malay literature , Nio Joe Lan finds that Lie , influenced by his missionary education , tried to maintain an orderly use of language in a period where such attention to grammar was uncommon . Nio describes Lie as the " only contemporary peranakan Chinese writer who had studied Malay grammar methodically . " Adam considers Lie 's works to have left " an indelible mark on the development of modern Indonesian language " .
Adam suggests that Lie is best remembered for his contributions to Indonesian literature , with his publications well received by his contemporaries . Tio writes that " old and young intimately read his ( Lie 's ) writings , which were praised for their simple language , rhythm , clarity , freshness , and strength . The skill and accuracy with which he chose his words , the neatness and orderliness with which he arranged his sentences . ... People said that he was ahead of his time . He was likened to a large shining star , a stark contrast to the small , faded stars in the dark sky . " Further praise was awarded by other contemporaries , both native and Chinese , such as Ibrahim gelar Marah Soetan and Agus Salim . When ethnic Chinese writers became common in the early 1900s , critics named Lie the " father of Chinese Malay literature " for his contributions , including Siti Akbari and Tjhit Liap Seng .
Several of Lie 's books , including Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari , Kitab Edja , Orang Prampoewan , and Sobat Anak @-@ anak , had multiple printings , though Tio does not record any after the 1920s . In 2000 Kitab Edja was reprinted in the inaugural volume of Kesastraan Melayu Tionghoa dan Kebangsaan Indonesia , an anthology of Chinese Malay literature . His Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari , which he considered one of his best works , was adapted for the stage several times . Lie used a simplified version for a troupe of teenaged actors , which was successful in West Java . In 1922 the Sukabumi branch of the Shiong Tih Hui published another stage adaptation under the title Pembalesan Siti Akbari , which was being performed by the theatre troupe Miss Riboet 's Orion by 1926 . The Wong brothers directed a film entitled Siti Akbari , starring Roekiah and Rd . Mochtar . The 1940 film was purportedly based on Lie 's poem , although the extent of the influence is uncertain .
After the rise of the nationalist movement and the Dutch colonial government 's efforts to use Balai Pustaka to publish literary works for native consumption , Lie 's work began to be marginalised . The Dutch colonial government used Court Malay as a language of administration , a language for everyday dealings that was taught in schools . Court Malay was generally spoken by the nobility in Sumatra , whereas bazaar Malay had developed as a creole for use in trade through much of the Western archipelago ; it was thus more common among the lower class . The Indonesian nationalists appropriated Court Malay to help build a national culture , promoted through the press and literature . Chinese Malay literature , written in " low " Malay , was steadily marginalised and declared to be of poor quality . Tio , writing in 1958 , found that the younger generation were not learning about Lie and his works , and four years later Nio wrote that bazaar Malay had " made its way to the museums " . Literary historian Monique Zaini @-@ Lajoubert indicates that no critical studies of Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari were undertaken between 1939 and 1994 .
= = Controversy = =
Writing for the Chinese @-@ owned newspaper Lay Po in 1923 , Tio revealed that Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari had been heavily influenced by the 1847 poem Sjair Abdoel Moeloek , credited variously to Raja Ali Haji or his sister Saleha . He noted that Sair Siti Akbari , which Lie stated to be his own , closely followed the earlier work 's plot . In his 1958 biography , Tio revealed that Lie 's Tjhit Liap Seng was an amalgamation of two European novels : Jacob van Lennep 's Klaasje Zevenster ( 1865 ) and Jules Verne 's Les Tribulations d 'un Chinois en Chine ( 1879 ) . Tio noted that a third book , Pembalasan Dendam Hati , had extensive parallels with a work by Xavier de Montépin translated as De Wraak van de Koddebeier . In face of these revelations , literary critics such as Tan Soey Bing and Tan Oen Tjeng wrote that none of Lie 's writings were original .
This conclusion has been extensively challenged by writers who have shown original elements in Lie 's work . Tio noted that in translating Kapitein Flamberge , Lie had changed the ending : the main character no longer died in an explosion of dynamite , but survived to marry his love interest , Hermine de Morlay . In exploring the similarities between Sjair Abdoel Moeloek and Siti Akbari , Zaini @-@ Lajoubert noted that the main plot elements in both stories are the same , although some are present in one story and not the other – or given more detail . She found that the two differed greatly in their styles , especially Lie 's emphasis on description and realism . Salmon wrote that Tjhit Liap Seng 's general plot mostly followed that of Klaasje Zevenster , with some sections that seemed to be direct translations . However , she found that Lie also added , subtracted , and modified contents ; she noted his more sparse approach to description and the introduction of a new character , Thio Tian , who had lived in Java . The Indonesian literary critic Jakob Sumardjo summarised that Lie " may be said to have been original in his style , but not in his material " .
= = = Poetry = = =
Sair Tjerita Siti Akbari . Batavia : W. Bruining & Co . 1884 . ( 200 pages in 2 volumes )
Orang Prampoewan . Buitenzorg : Lie Kim Hok . 1885 . ( 4 pages in 1 volume )
= = = Fiction = = =
Sobat Anak @-@ anak . Buitenzorg : Zending Pers . 1884 . ( collection of children 's stories ; 40 pages in 1 volume )
Tjhit Liap Seng . Batavia : Lie Kim Hok . 1886 . ( novel ; 500 pages in 8 volumes )
Dji Touw Bie . Batavia : Lie Kim Hok . 1887 . ( novel ; 300 pages in 4 volumes )
Nio Thian Lay . Batavia : Lie Kim Hok . 1887 . ( novel ; 300 pages in 4 volumes )
Lok Bouw Tan . Batavia : Lie Kim Hok . 1887 . ( novel ; 350 pages in 5 volumes )
Ho Kioe Tan . Batavia : Lie Kim Hok . 1887 . ( novelette ; 80 pages in 1 volume )
Pembalasan Dendam Hati . Batavia : Hoa Siang In Kiok . 1905 . ( novel ; 239 pages in 3 volumes )
= = = Non @-@ fiction = = =
Kitab Edja . Buitenzorg : Zending Pers . 1884 . ( 38 pages in 1 volume )
Malajoe Batawi . Batavia : W. Bruining & Co . 1885 . ( 116 pages in 1 volume )
Aturan Sewa @-@ Menjewa . Batavia : Lie Kim Hok . 1886 . ( with W. Meulenhoff ; 16 pages in 1 volume )
Pek Hauw Thouw . Batavia : Lie Kim Hok . 1886 .
Hikajat Khonghoetjoe . Batavia : G. Kolff & Co . 1897 . ( 92 pages in 1 volume )
Dactyloscopie . Batavia : Hoa Siang In Kiok . 1907 .
= = = Translation = = =
1001 Malam . Batavia : Albrecht & Co . 1887 . ( at least nights 41 to 94 )
Graaf de Monte Cristo . Batavia : Albrecht & Co . 1894 . ( with F. Wiggers ; at least 10 of the 25 volumes published )
Kapitein Flamberge . Batavia : Hoa Siang In Kiok . 1910 . ( 560 pages in 7 volumes )
Kawanan Pendjahat . Batavia : Hoa Siang In Kiok . 1910 . ( 560 pages in 7 volumes )
Kawanan Bangsat . Batavia : Hoa Siang In Kiok . 1910 . ( 800 pages in 10 volumes )
Penipoe Besar . Batavia : Hoa Siang In Kiok . 1911 . ( 960 pages in 12 volumes )
Pembalasan Baccorat . Batavia : Hoa Siang In Kiok . 1912 . ( 960 pages in 12 volumes ; posthumous )
Rocambale Binasa . Batavia : Hoa Siang In Kiok . 1913 . ( 1250 pages in 16 volumes ; posthumous )
Geneviere de Vadana . Batavia : Sin Po . 1913 . ( with Lauw Giok Lan ; 960 pages in 12 volumes ; posthumous )
Prampoewan jang Terdjoeal . Surabaya : Laboret . 1927 . ( 240 pages in 3 volumes ; posthumous )
= Pete Best =
Randolph Peter " Pete " Best ( born Randolph Peter Scanland , 24 November 1941 ) is an English musician , principally known as the original drummer for the Beatles from 1960 to 1962 .
Best was born in the city of Madras , then part of British India . After Best 's mother , Mona Best ( 1924 – 1988 ) , moved to Liverpool in 1945 , she opened the Casbah Coffee Club in the cellar of the Bests ' house in Liverpool . The Beatles ( at the time known as the Quarrymen ) played some of their first concerts at the club .
The Beatles invited Best to join on 12 August 1960 , on the eve of the group 's first Hamburg season of club dates . Ringo Starr eventually replaced Best on 16 August 1962 when the group 's manager , Brian Epstein , dismissed Best under the direction of John Lennon , Paul McCartney and George Harrison , following their first recording session at Abbey Road Studios in London .
After working in a number of commercially unsuccessful groups , Best gave up the music industry to work as a civil servant for 20 years , before starting the Pete Best Band . He has been married for over 50 years to Kathy Best ; they have two daughters , Babs and Bonita , and four grandchildren .
= = Early life = =
Best 's mother , Mona Best ( born Alice Mona Shaw ) , was born in Delhi , India , and was the daughter of Thomas ( an Irish major ) and Mary Shaw . Randolph Peter Scanland ( later surnamed Best ) , her first child , was born in Madras ( now Chennai ) , Madras Presidency , British India , on 24 November 1941 . Best 's biological father was marine engineer Donald Peter Scanland , who subsequently died during World War II . Best 's mother was training to become a doctor in the service of the Red Cross when she met Johnny Best , who came from a family of sports promoters in Liverpool who ran Liverpool Stadium . During World War II , Johnny Best was a commissioned officer serving as a Physical Training Instructor in India , and was the Army 's middleweight boxing champion . After their marriage on 7 March 1944 at St Thomas 's Cathedral , Bombay , Rory Best was born . In 1945 , the Best family sailed for four weeks to Liverpool on the Georgic , the last troop ship to leave India , carrying single and married soldiers who had previously been a part of General Sir William Slim 's forces in south @-@ east Asia . The ship docked in Liverpool on 25 December 1945 .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Best 's family lived for a short time at the family home , " Ellerslie " in West Derby , until Best 's mother fell out with her sister @-@ in @-@ law , Edna , who resented her brother 's choice of wife . The family then moved to a small flat on Cases Street , Liverpool , but Mona Best was always looking for a large house — as she had been used to in India — instead of a smaller semi @-@ detached house , which were prevalent in the area . After moving to 17 Queenscourt Road in 1948 , where the Bests lived for nine years , Rory Best saw a large Victorian house for sale at 8 Hayman 's Green in 1957 and told Mona about it . The Best family claim that Mona then pawned all her jewellery and placed a bet on Never Say Die , a horse that was ridden by Lester Piggott in the 1954 Epsom Derby ; it won at 33 – 1 and she used her winnings to buy the house in 1957 . The house had previously been owned by the West Derby Conservative Club and was unlike many other family houses in Liverpool as the house ( built around 1860 ) was set back from the road , had 15 bedrooms and an acre of land . All the rooms were painted dark green or brown and the garden was totally overgrown . Mona later opened the Casbah Coffee Club in its large cellar . The idea for the club first came from Best , as he asked his mother for somewhere his friends could meet and listen to the popular music of the day .
Best passed the eleven plus exam at Blackmoor Park primary school in West Derby , and was studying at the Liverpool Collegiate Grammar School in Shaw Street when he decided he wanted to be in a music group . Mona bought him a drum kit from Blackler 's music store and Best formed his own band , the Black Jacks . Chas Newby and Bill Barlow joined the group , as did Ken Brown , but only after he had left the Quarrymen . The Black Jacks later became the resident group at the Casbah , after the Quarrymen cancelled their residency because of an argument about money .
During 1960 , Neil Aspinall became good friends with the young Best and subsequently rented a room in the Best 's house . During one of the extended business trips of Best 's stepfather , Aspinall became romantically involved with Mona . Aspinall fathered a child by Mona : Vincent " Roag " Best , Mona 's third son — who is Best 's half @-@ brother . Aspinall later became the Beatles ' road manager , and denied the story for years before publicly admitting that Roag was indeed his son .
= = The Beatles and Hamburg = =
In 1960 , Allan Williams , the Beatles manager , arranged a season of bookings in Hamburg , starting on 17 August 1960 , but complained that they did not impress him , and hoped that he could find a better act .
Having no permanent drummer , Paul McCartney looked for someone to fill the Hamburg position . Best had been seen playing in the Casbah with his own group , the Black Jacks , and it was noted that he was a steady drummer , playing the bass drum on all four beats in the bar , which pushed the rhythm . In Liverpool , his female fans knew him as being " mean , moody , and magnificent " , which convinced McCartney he would be good for the group . After the Black Jacks broke up , McCartney convinced Best to go to Hamburg with the group , by saying they would each earn £ 15 per week . As Best had passed his school exams ( unlike Lennon , McCartney and Harrison , who had failed most of theirs ) , he had the chance to attend teacher @-@ training college , but he decided that playing in Hamburg would be a better career move . Best had an audition in the Jacaranda club , which Williams owned , and travelled to Hamburg the next day . Williams later said that the audition with Best was unnecessary , as the group had not found any other drummer willing to travel to Hamburg , but did not tell Best in case he asked for more money .
The Beatles first played a full show with Best on 17 August 1960 at the Indra club in Hamburg , and the group slept in the Bambi Kino cinema in a small , dirty room with bunk beds , a cold and noisy former storeroom directly behind the screen . Upon first seeing the Indra , where they were booked to play , Best remembered it as a depressing place filled with a few tourists , and having heavy , old , red curtains that made it seem shabby compared to the larger Kaiserkeller . As Best had been the only group member to study O @-@ Level German at school , he could talk with the club 's owner , Bruno Koschmider , and the clientele . After the Indra closed due to complaints about the noise , the group started a residency in the Kaiserkeller .
In October 1960 , the group left Koschmider 's club to work at the Top Ten Club , which Peter Eckhorn ran , as he offered the group more money and a slightly better place to sleep . In doing so they broke their contract with Koschmider . When Best and McCartney went back to the Bambi Kino to retrieve their belongings they found it in almost total darkness . As a snub to Koschmider , McCartney found a condom , attached it to a nail on the concrete wall of the room , and set it alight . There was no real damage done , but Koschmider reported them both for attempted arson . Best and McCartney spent three hours in a local prison and were subsequently deported , as was George Harrison , for working under the legal age limit , on 30 November 1960 .
Back in Liverpool , the group members had no contact with each other for two weeks , but Best and his mother made numerous phone calls to Hamburg to recover the group 's equipment . Mona arranged all the bookings for the group in Liverpool , after parting company with Williams in late 1961 .
Chas Newby , the ex @-@ Black Jacks guitarist , was invited to play bass for four concerts , as bassist Stuart Sutcliffe had decided to stay in Hamburg . Newby played with the group at Litherland Town Hall and at the Casbah . He was shocked at the vast improvement in their playing and singing , and remembered Best 's drumming to be very powerful , which pushed the group to play harder and louder . It was probably due to McCartney that Best developed a loud drumming style , as he would often tell Best in Hamburg to " crank it up " ( play as loud as possible ) . When the group returned to Hamburg , Best was asked to sing a speciality number , " Peppermint Twist " , while McCartney played drums , but always felt uncomfortable being at the front of the stage .
= = = " My Bonnie " = = =
The reunited Beatles returned to Hamburg in April 1961 . While they played at the Top Ten Club , singer Tony Sheridan recruited them to act as his backing band on a recording for the German Polydor label , produced by bandleader Bert Kaempfert , who signed the group to a Polydor contract at the first session on 22 June 1961 . On 31 October 1961 , Polydor released the recording " My Bonnie " ( Mein Herz ist bei dir nur / My heart is only for you ) which appeared on the German charts under the name " Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers " — a generic name used for whoever happened to be in Sheridan 's backup band . The song was later released in the UK . There was a second recording session on 23 June that year , and a third in May 1962 .
= = Decca , Parlophone , and dismissal = =
Brian Epstein , who had been unofficially managing the Beatles for less than a month , arranged a recording audition at Decca Records in London on New Year 's Day , 1962 . The group recorded 15 songs , mostly cover versions with three Lennon – McCartney songs . John Lennon later admitted they were " terrified and nervous " . A month later , Decca informed Brian Epstein the group had been rejected . The band members were informed of the rejection except for Best . Brian Epstein officially became the manager of the Beatles on 24 January 1962 with the contract signed in Pete 's house .
Brian Epstein negotiated ownership of the Decca audition tape , which was transferred to an acetate disc to promote the band to other record companies in London . In the meantime , Brian Epstein negotiated the release of the Beatles from their recording contract with Bert Kaempfert and Polydor Records in Germany , which expired on 22 June 1962 . As a part of this contract , the Beatles recorded at Polydor 's Studio Rahlstedtin on 24 May 1962 in Hamburg as a sessions band backing Tony Sheridan . Less than two weeks later the Beatles would be recording again at Abbey Road studios in London for EMI .
The record producer at EMI , George Martin , met with Epstein on 9 May 1962 at the Abbey Road studios and was impressed by his enthusiasm . He agreed to sign the Beatles on a recording contract based on listening to the Decca audition tape , without having met them or seeing them play live .
Soon after the recording contract was signed , the Beatles performed a " commercial test " ( i.e. an evaluation of a signed artist ) on 6 June 1962 in studio two at the Abbey Road studios . Assistant producer Ron Richards and his engineer Norman Smith recorded four songs : " Bésame Mucho " , " P.S. I Love You " , " Ask Me Why " and " Love Me Do " . The last three songs were the Beatles ' own compositions , which was very unusual for bands new to recording . Martin was in the building but not in the studio . Martin was called into the studio by Norman Smith when he heard the band play " Love Me Do " . At the end of the session Martin asked the individual Beatles if there was anything they personally did not like , to which George Harrison replied , " Well , there 's your tie , for a start . " That was the turning point , according to Smith , as John Lennon , Paul McCartney and Best joined in with jokes and comic wordplay .
The Beatles were not new to studio recording and Best 's drumming had been found acceptable by Polydor in Hamburg , but Richards had alerted Martin to Best 's unsuitability for British studio work . Martin wanted to substitute Best with an experienced studio session drummer for the recordings . This was common practice at the time in British recording studios . When Lennon , McCartney and Harrison learned that Martin and the engineers preferred replacing Best with a session drummer for their upcoming recording session on 4 September 1962 , they considered using it as a pretext to permanently sack Best from the group . Eventually , after a very long delay , they asked Epstein to dismiss Best from the band . Epstein agonised over the decision . As he wrote in his autobiography , A Cellarful of Noise , he " wasn 't sure " about Martin 's assessment of Best 's drumming and " was not anxious to change the membership of the Beatles at a time when they were developing as personalities … I asked the Beatles to leave the group as it was " . Epstein also asked Liverpool DJ Bob Wooler , who knew the Beatles intimately , for advice to which Wooler replied that it was not a good idea as Best was very popular with the fans . Ultimately , Epstein decided that " If the group was to remain happy , Pete Best must go " . Epstein summoned Best to his office and dismissed him on Thursday 16 August 1962 , ten weeks and one day after the first recording session . Epstein asked Best to continue to play with the band until Ringo joined on Saturday 18 August 1962 . Best played his last two gigs with the Beatles on 15 August 1962 at the Cavern Club , Liverpool . He was due to play his last show on 16 August 1962 at the Riverpark Ballroom , Chester , but never turned up ; Johnny Hutchinson of the Big Three was rushed in as a substitute . Best had been with the group for two years and four days .
Best had been good friends with Neil Aspinall since 1961 when he rented a room in the house where Best lived with his parents . Best asked Aspinall to become the band 's road manager and personal assistant ; accepting the job , he bought an old Commer van for £ 80 . During one of the extended business trips of Best 's stepfather , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Aspinall became romantically involved with Best 's mother , Mona Best , who was 17 years his senior . During this period , he fathered a child by Mona : Vincent " Roag " Best . Roag Best was born in late July 1962 , just three weeks before Best 's dismissal . Aspinall was waiting for Best downstairs in Epstein 's NEMS record shop after the dismissal meeting on 16 August 1962 . The two went to the Grapes pub on Mathew Street , the same street as the Cavern Club where the group had played . Aspinall was furious at the news , insisting to Best that he would also resign from the Beatles . Best strongly advised him to remain with the group . Aspinall 's relationship with Mona Best ( and their three @-@ week @-@ old baby , Roag ) was ended . At the next concert Aspinall asked Lennon why they had fired Best , to which he replied " It 's got nothing to do with you , you 're only the driver . "
George Martin was surprised to learn that Epstein had sacked Best , hearing the news from Mona Best via telephone . Martin denied that he had ever suggested sacking him , telling Mona :
" I never suggested that Pete Best must go . All I said was that for the purposes of the Beatles ' first record I would rather use a sessions man . I never thought that Brian Epstein would let him go . He seemed to be the most saleable commodity as far as looks went . It was a surprise when I learned that they had dropped Pete . The drums were important to me for a record , but they didn 't matter much otherwise . Fans don 't pay particular attention to the quality of the drumming "
-George Martin
Mersey Beat magazine 's editor , Bill Harry , claimed that Epstein initially offered the vacant drummer position in the group to Johnny Hutchinson , whom he also managed . Hutchinson refused the job , saying , " Pete Best is a very good friend of mine . I couldn 't do the dirty on him . " Hutchinson filled in as drummer at short notice when Best failed to appear on the evening of his dismissal , playing at a further two bookings until Starr joined the group . Starr had previously played with Rory Storm and the Hurricanes - the alternating band in the Kaiserkeller - and had deputised when Best was ill or unable to play in Hamburg and Liverpool . Harry reported Best 's dismissal on the front page of Mersey Beat magazine , upsetting many Beatles fans . The group encountered some jeering and heckling in the street and on stage for weeks afterwards , with some fans shouting , " Pete forever , Ringo never ! " One agitated fan headbutted Harrison in The Cavern , giving him a black eye .
Best 's replacement , Ringo Starr , accompanied the band on their second recording session with EMI at Abbey Road studios on 4 September 1962 . George Martin was also not impressed with Starr for studio work . On 11 September 1962 at the third EMI recording session Martin used session musician Andy White on the drums for the whole session and not Starr . Starr played tambourine on some songs while White played drums . Starr told Hunter Davies years later that he had thought , " That 's the end . They 're pulling a Pete Best on me . "
Many years later Martin still expressed regret about his decision and what followed :
" I decided that the drums , which are really the backbone of a good rock group , didn 't give the boys enough support . They needed a good solid beat , and I said to Brian , ' Look , it doesn 't matter what you do with the boys , but on record , nobody need know . I 'm gonna use a hot drummer . ' Brian [ Epstein ] said , ' Okay , fine . ' I felt guilty because I felt maybe I was the catalyst that had changed his [ Best 's ] life … "
Paul McCartney remembers it differently :
" George Martin was used to drummers being very ' in time ' , because all the big @-@ band session drummers he used had a great sense of time . Now , our Liverpool drummers had a sense of spirit , emotion , economy even , but not a deadly sense of time . This would bother producers making a record . George took us to one side and said , ' I 'm really unhappy with the drummer . Would you consider changing him ? ' We said , ' No , we can 't ! ' It was one of those terrible things you go through as kids . Can we betray him ? No . But our career was on the line . Maybe they were going to cancel our contract … "
Paul McCartney finally stated , in his Wingspan documentary in May 2001 , that the sacking of Pete Best had nothing to do with his ability as a drummer . Explaining why one particular member of his subsequent band , Wings , " didn 't last long " in that group McCartney said : " It 's like in the Beatles , we had Pete Best , who was a really good drummer , but there just was something , he wasn 't quite like the rest of us , we had like a sense of humour in common and he was nearly in with it all , but it 's a fine line , you know , as to what is exactly in and what is nearly in . So he ' left ' the band and we were looking for someone who would fit . " He told Mark Lewisohn , similarly , that when George Martin suggested " changing their drummer " the Beatles responded : " Well , we 're quite happy with him , he works great in the clubs , " but also that " Pete had never quite been like the rest of us . We were the wacky trio and Pete was perhaps a little more sensible ; he was slightly different from us , he wasn 't quite as artsy as we were . "
= = Reasons for dismissal = =
Best was never told to his face , by anybody directly involved in his sacking , exactly why he was dismissed ; the only reason Epstein stated to him was , " The lads don 't want you in the group any more " . Epstein subsequently claimed in his autobiography that Lennon , McCartney and Harrison thought that Best was " too conventional to be a Beatle " and added that " though he was friendly with John , he was not liked by George and Paul " . It has been documented , notably in Cynthia Lennon 's book , John , that while Lennon , McCartney , and Harrison usually spent their offstage time together in Hamburg and Liverpool , writing songs or socialising , Best generally went off alone . This left Best on the outside , as he was not privy to many of the group 's experiences , references , and in @-@ jokes .
A German photographer , Astrid Kirchherr , asked if they wouldn 't mind letting her take photographs of them in a photo session , which impressed them , as other groups only had snapshots taken by friends . The next morning Kirchherr took photographs in der Dom , a municipal park , close to the Reeperbahn . In the afternoon Kirchherr took them to her mother 's house in Altona , minus Best , who decided not to attend . Dot Rhone , McCartney 's girlfriend at the time who later visited Hamburg , described Best as being very quiet and never taking part in conversations with the group .
= = = Clothes , drugs and hairstyle = = =
On their first trip to Hamburg , the group soon realised that the stage suits they wore could not stand up to the hours of sweating and jumping about on stage every night , so they all bought leather jackets , jeans and cowboy boots , which were much tougher . Best initially preferred to play in cooler short sleeves on stage , and so did not match the sartorial style of the group , even though he was later photographed wearing a leather jacket and jeans . Lennon , McCartney , Harrison , and Sutcliffe were introduced to recreational drugs in Hamburg . As they played for hours every night , they often took Preludin to keep themselves awake , which they received from German customers or Astrid Kirchherr , whose mother bought them . Lennon would often take four or five , but Best always refused .
It has been claimed that Epstein became exasperated with Best 's refusal to adopt the mop @-@ top @-@ style Beatle haircut as part of their unified look keeping his quiffed hairstyle , although Best later stated that he was never asked to change his hairstyle . In a 1995 BBC Radio Merseyside interview , Kirchherr explained : " My boyfriend , Klaus Voormann , had this hairstyle , and Stuart [ Sutcliffe ] liked it very , very much . He was the first one who really got the nerve to get the Brylcreem out of his hair , and asking me to cut his hair for him . Pete Best has really curly hair , and it wouldn 't work " .
= = = Popularity = = =
Best 's popularity with fans was a source of friction , as many female fans considered him to be the band 's best @-@ looking member . Radio Merseyside presenter Spencer Leigh wrote a book chronicling Best 's firing , suggesting that the other members , McCartney in particular , were jealous . In the 31 August 1961 issue of Bill Harry 's Mersey Beat music publication in Liverpool , Bob Wooler reported on the Beatles ' local musical impact and singled out Best for special praise , calling the group " musically authoritative and physically magnetic , example the mean , moody magnificence of drummer Pete Best -- a sort of teenage Jeff Chandler " . During the Teenagers ' Turn showcase in Manchester , Lennon , McCartney and Harrison walked on stage to applause , but when Best walked on , the girls screamed . Afterwards , attentive females surrounded Best at the stage door , while the other members were ignored after signing a few autographs . McCartney 's father , Jim McCartney , was present at the time and admonished Best : " Why did you have to attract all the attention ? Why didn 't you call the other lads back ? I think that was very selfish of you " . Lennon called the accusations of jealousy a " myth " , and claimed that Best was recruited only because they needed a drummer to go to Hamburg , saying , " We were always going to dump him when we found a decent drummer " .
In 1963 on British television , Mona Best , with her son present , said of his dismissal : " From the point of clash of personalities , well , probably that
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may be it because Peter did have a terrific fan club , you know , compared to the others . [ Interviewer : Too good looking perhaps ? ] I 'll leave that for other people to say but from my point of view we haven 't come here to sort of throw sticks and stones at the boys because there is no really hard feeling . There was at first , but it 's just the way that it was done that has annoyed us . If it had been done a bit more straightforward it would have been more to the mark . " Hunter Davies , in his authorised Beatles biography published in 1968 , agreed : " There is some justification for a little of Mrs. Best 's anger . The sacking of Pete Best is one of the few murky incidents in the Beatles ' history . There was something sneaky about the way it was done . "
= = = Best as a drummer = = =
Musically , Best has been judged to have had a limited rhythmic vocabulary that was seen as holding the other three band members back from their collective musical growth . Martin ( see above ) deemed Best 's drumming to be inadequate for a recording . As stated in Bob Spitz 's 2005 biography : " All Pete could do was play ' Fours ' " , a style of drumming that uses kick drum notes on every quarter note to hold down the beat . Spitz 's book also contains engineer Ron Richards ' account of his failed attempts to teach Best somewhat more complicated beats for different songs . Critic and Beatles historian Richie Unterberger described Best 's drumming at the Decca session as " thinly textured and rather unimaginative " , adding that Best " pushes the beat a little too fast for comfort " . Unterberger thought Starr to be " more talented " . Beatles ' critic Alan W. Pollack compared the Best , Starr , and Andy White versions of " Love Me Do " , and concluded that Best was " an incredibly unsteady and tasteless drummer " on his version . Beatles ' historian Ian MacDonald , recounting the Decca audition , said that " Best 's limitations as a drummer are nakedly apparent " . MacDonald notes of the 6 June EMI recording session that " ... this audition version [ of " Love Me Do " ] shows one of the reasons why Pete Best was sacked : in moving to the ride cymbal for the first middle eight , he slows down and the group falters " . MacDonald incorrectly notes that the session was an audition ; it actually was the first recording for a single release .
All the other Beatles went on record about the dismissal of Best . McCartney stated : " It was a strictly professional decision . If he wasn 't up to the mark ... then there was no other choice . " He also pronounced Best to be " a bit limited " . Harrison said that " Pete kept being sick and not showing up for gigs " and admitted , " I was quite responsible for stirring things up . I conspired to get Ringo in for good ; I talked to Paul and John until they came round to the idea . " For his part , Starr said : " I felt I was a much better drummer than he [ Best ] was " .
Lennon , McCartney , and Harrison all later stated that they regretted the manner in which Best was sacked . Lennon admitted that " we were cowards when we sacked him . We made Brian do it . " McCartney stated : " I do feel sorry for him , because of what he could have been on to . " Harrison said : " We weren 't very good at telling Pete he had to go , " and " Historically it may look like we did something nasty to Pete and it may have been that we could have handled it better . " Starr , on the other hand , feels he has no apology to make : " I never felt sorry … I was not involved . " In 1968 , authorised Beatles biographer Hunter Davies wrote : " But for the sake of Pete 's career , whatever happened to the Beatles afterward , the handling and especially the announcing of the sacking might have been done more neatly and cleanly . He could have been fixed up with a job in another group before the news was announced . " Over twenty years later Mark Lewisohn concluded that " Despite his alleged shortcomings , it was still shabby treatment for Pete , who had served the group unstintingly from their hapless , drummerless Silver Beatles days through three lengthy Hamburg seasons and over 200 Cavern Club performances . He had shared in the heartaches and the headaches , had controlled the Beatles ' bookings before Epstein took over , and had made his home -- the Casbah-- their home . The Beatles had had two years in which to dismiss him but hadn 't done so , and now -- as they were beginning to reap the rewards for their long , hard slog , with money rolling in and an EMI contract secured -- he was out . It was the most underhand , unfortunate and unforgivable chapter in the Beatles ' rise to monumental power . "
= = = Difficulties between Mona Best and others = = =
Before Brian Epstein took the Beatles on , Mona Best had been handling most of the management and promotional work . According to promoter and manager Joe Flannery , Mona had done a great deal for the band by arranging a number of important early gigs and lending them a badly needed helping hand when they returned from Hamburg the first time , but this came at the cost of having to contend with her overbearing nature . At this crucial time in the history of the Beatles , John Lennon confided to Flannery that he considered Mona " bossy like [ his aunt ] Mimi " and believed that she was using the Beatles only for the sake of her son , though this should be weighed against the fact that the Beatles ' cordial relations with Mona would soon resume . She often met them while visiting Neil Aspinall at his London home . On these occasions , the Beatles often had small gifts for her which they had acquired on their travels . For her part , Mona allowed them to use her father 's military medals in the photo shoot for the Sgt. Pepper album cover .
Although Brian Epstein 's publicly stated reluctance to fire Best quickly became a matter of record in the early biographies , he had found Mona Best to be the cause of mounting aggravation . Brian 's distaste for her interference in the Beatles ' management , including her " aggressive opinions about his handling of her son 's career " was obvious to everyone , and he also reportedly considered Mona Best a loose cannon who must not be allowed to interfere in his operations . Moreover , the very recent birth of Pete 's half @-@ brother Vincent " Roag " Best , from the union of 38 @-@ year @-@ old Mona and 19 @-@ year @-@ old Neil Aspinall , further complicated matters . Although Pete himself was not personally responsible for this development , it would still have caused a grave scandal had it become generally known , and Brian may have been horrified at the prospect .
= = After the Beatles = =
Soon after Best was dismissed , Epstein attempted to console him by offering to build another group around him , but Best refused . Feeling let down and depressed , he sat at home for two weeks — not wanting to face anybody or answer the inevitable questions about why he had been sacked . Epstein secretly arranged with his booking agent partner , Joe Flannery , for Best to join Lee Curtis & the All Stars , which then broke off from Curtis to become Pete Best & the All Stars . They signed to Decca Records , releasing the single " I 'm Gonna Knock On Your Door " , which was not successful .
In 1968 , Best settled a libel lawsuit he had initiated against the Beatles , Ringo Starr and Playboy magazine that centred on comments Starr made to the magazine about Best 's alleged drug use . The conditions of the settlement prevented disclosure of the amount .
Best later moved to the United States along with songwriters Wayne Bickerton and Tony Waddington . As the Pete Best Four , and later as the Pete Best Combo ( a quintet ) , they toured the US with a combination of 1950s songs and original tunes , recording for small labels , but they had little success . They ultimately released an album on Savage Records , Best of the Beatles ; a play on Best 's name , leading to disappointment for record buyers ( who neglected to read the song titles on the front cover and expected a Beatles compilation ) . The group disbanded shortly afterwards . Bickerton and Waddington were to find greater success as songwriters in the 1960s and 1970s , writing a series of hits for the American female group the Flirtations and the British group the Rubettes . In 2000 , the record label Cherry Red reissued the Pete Best Combo 's recordings as a compact disc compilation . Richie Unterberger , reviewing the CD , stated that the music 's " energy level is reasonably high , " that Bickerton and Waddington 's songwriting is " kind of catchy , " and that Best 's drumming is " ordinary . "
= = Later years = =
Best decided to leave show business , and by the time of Hunter Davies ' authorised Beatles ' biography in 1968 , he was not willing to talk about his Beatles association . Years later he stated in his autobiography , " the Beatles themselves certainly never held out a helping hand and only contributed to the destruction with their readily printed gossip that I had never really been a Beatle , that I didn 't smile , that I was unsociable and definitely not a good mixer . There was not a single friendly word from any one of them " . This culminated in a Beatles ' interview published in Playboy magazine in February 1965 in which Lennon stated that " Ringo used to fill in sometimes if our drummer was ill . With his periodic illness . " Starr added : " He took little pills to make him ill . " Best sued the Beatles for defamation of character , eventually winning an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement for much less than the $ 18 million he had sought .
Hunter Davies recalled that while working with the Beatles on their authorised biography in 1968 , " when the subject of Pete Best came up they seemed to cut off , as if he had never touched their lives . They showed little reaction … I suppose it reminded them not just that they had been rather sneaky in the handling of Pete Best 's sacking , never telling him to his face , but that for the grace of God , or Brian Epstein , circumstances might have been different and they could have ended up [ like Pete ] . " During the height of Beatlemania Best attempted to commit suicide , but his mother , Mona , and his brother , Rory , talked him out of it .
In 1963 , he married Kathy , who worked behind the biscuit counter at a Woolworth 's store . Their marriage has lasted for 50 years : they have two daughters ( Beba and Bonita ) and four grandchildren . Best did shift work loading bread into the back of delivery vans , earning £ 8 a week . His education qualifications subsequently helped him become a civil servant working at the Garston Jobcentre in Liverpool , where he rose from employment officer to training manager for the Northwest of England , and , ironically , remembered " a steady stream of real @-@ life Yosser Hughes types " imploring him to give them jobs . The most he could do , he recalls , was to offer to retrain them in other fields , " which was an emotional issue for people who had done one kind of work all their lives . "
In time , Best began giving interviews to the media , writing about his time with the group , and serving as a technical advisor for the television film Birth of the Beatles . He found a modicum of independent fame , and has admitted to being a fan of his former band 's music and owning their records . In 1995 , the surviving Beatles released Anthology 1 , which featured a number of tracks with Best as drummer , including songs from the Decca and Parlophone auditions . Best received a substantial windfall — between £ 1 million and £ 4 million — from the sales , although he was not interviewed for the book or the documentaries . The collage of torn photographs on the Anthology 1 album cover includes an early group photo that featured Best , but Best 's head was removed , revealing a photo of Starr 's head , taken from the Please Please Me cover photo ( the missing section of the photograph appears on the cover of the album Haymans Green ) . A small photograph of Best can be seen on the left side of the Anthology cover . Best appeared in an advertisement for Carlsberg lager that was broadcast during the first commercial break of the first episode of the Anthology TV series on ITV in November 1995 . The tag line was " Probably the Pete Best lager in the world " , a variation of Carlsberg 's well @-@ known slogan .
= = = The Pete Best Band = = =
In 1988 , after twenty years of turning down all requests to play drums in public , Best finally relented , appearing at a Beatles convention in Liverpool . He and his brother Roag performed , and afterwards his wife and mother told him , " You don 't know it , but you 're going to go back into show business " . Best now regularly tours the world with the Pete Best Band , sharing the drumming with his younger brother Roag . The Pete Best Band 's album Haymans Green , made entirely from original material , was released on 16 September 2008 in the US , 24 October 2008 worldwide excluding the UK and 27 October 2008 in the UK .
= = = Honours = = =
On 6 July 2007 , Best was inducted into the All You Need Is Liverpool Music Hall of Fame as the debut Charter Member . Best was presented with a framed certificate before his band performed . Liverpool has further honoured Best with the announcement , on 25 July 2011 , that two new streets in the city would be named Pete Best Drive and Casbah Close .
= = Portrayals of Best = =
= = = Film and television = = =
Best is portrayed in several films about the Beatles . In the 1979 biopic Birth of the Beatles , for which Best was a technical advisor , he is played by Ryan Michael . In both the 1994 film Backbeat and in the 2000 television biopic In His Life : The John Lennon Story , Best is played by Liverpool native Scot Williams . The 2008 Rainn Wilson film The Rocker , about a drummer kicked out of a glam metal band through no fault of his own , was inspired by Best 's termination . Best had a cameo in the movie .
= = = Theatre = = =
BEST ! , a comedy play written by Liverpool playwright Fred Lawless , was staged at the Liverpool Everyman Theatre and the Dublin Theatre Festival in 1995 and 1996 . The play , which was mainly fiction , showed a scenario where after Pete Best 's sacking , he went on to become a world famous rock superstar while his ex @-@ group struggled as one hit wonders . The play was critically acclaimed in both the Liverpool Echo and also in Spencer Leigh 's 1998 book Drummed Out : The Sacking of Pete Best .
Pete Best is a main character in David Harrower 's 2001 play Presence , premièred at the Royal Court Theatre , London , dramatising The Beatles ' time in Hamburg .
= = Discography = =
= = = Singles = = =
" I 'm Gonna Knock on Your Door " b / w " Why Did I Fall in Love with You " ( Decca F 11929 , Released : 1964 )
" Don 't Play With Me ( Little Girl ) " b / w " If You Can 't Get Her " ( Happening 405 , Released : 1965 )
" If You Can 't Get Her " b / w " The Way I Feel About You " ( Happening HA1117 , Released : 1965 )
" Kansas City " b / w " Boys " ( Cameo 391 , Released : 1965 )
" ( I 'll Try ) Anyway " b / w " I Wanna Be There " ( Original Beatles Drummer 800 , Released : 1965 )
" I Can 't Do Without You Now " b / w " Keys to My Heart " ( Mr. Maestro Records 711 , Released : 1965 )
Another " Peter Best " single , " Carousel Of Love " / " Want You " ( Capitol 2092 ) is not by Best , but an Australian performer with the same name .
= = = Albums = = =
Best of the Beatles ( Savage BM 71 , Released : 1965 ) Includes : " I Need Your Lovin " ; " Just Wait and See " ; " Casting My Spell " ; " Keys to My Heart " ; " Why Did You Leave Me Baby ? " ; " Like My Sister Kate " ; " I Can 't Do Without You Now " ; " I 'm Blue " ; " Some Other Guy " ; " She 's Alright " ; " Nobody But You " ; " Last Night "
The Beatle That Time Forgot [ Original Version ] ( Phoenix PB @-@ 22 , Released : 1981 ) Includes : " I 'm Checking Out Now Baby " ; " I 'll Try Any Way " ; " I Don 't Know Why ( I Just Do ) " ; " How 'd You Get to Know Her Name " ; " She 's Not the Only Girl in Town " ; " If You Can 't Get Her " ; " More Than I Need My Self " ; " I 'll Have Everything Too " ; " The Way I feel About You " ; " Don 't Play With Me ( Little Girl ) " ; " Rock and Roll Music " ; " All Aboard "
Rebirth ( Phoenix PB @-@ 44 , Released : 1981 ) Includes : " I Can 't Do Without You Now " ; " Off the Hook " ; " She 's Alright " ; " I Need Your Lovin ' " ; " Why Did You Leave Me Baby " ; " High School Shimmy " ; " I Wanna Be There " ; " Everybody " ; " Pete 's Theme " ; " Keys to My Heart "
The Beatle That Time Forgot [ Reissue ] ( Phoenix PHX 340 , Released : 1982 ) Includes : " I 'll Try Anyway " ; " I Don 't Know Why I Do ( I Just Do ) " ; " She 's Not the Only Girl in Town " ; " More Than I Need My Self " ; " I 'll Have Everything Too " ; " I 'm Checking Out Now Baby " ; " How 'd You Get to Know Her Name " ; " If You Can 't Get Her " ; " Rock and Roll Music "
Back to the Beat – ( 1995 )
The Pete Best Combo : Beyond the Beatles 1964 – 1966 ( 1 February 1996 )
Live at the Adelphi Liverpool 1988 – ( 23 September 1996 )
Best ( 18 August 1998 )
Casbah Coffee Club 40th Anniversary Limited Edition ( 1999 )
The Savage Young Beatles ( 10 May 2004 )
Haymans Green – Released 16 September 2008 ( US ) , August 2008 ( UK ) ( The Pete Best Band )
= = On film = =
The Rocker ( Cameo ) DVD ( UK ) Directed by Peter Cattaneo 2008 .
= Albert Speer =
Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer ( German : [ ˈʃpeːɐ ̯ ] ; March 19 , 1905 – September 1 , 1981 ) was a German architect who was , for most of World War II , Minister of Armaments and War Production for Nazi Germany . Speer was Adolf Hitler 's chief architect before assuming ministerial office . As " the Nazi who said sorry " , he accepted moral responsibility at the Nuremberg trials and in his memoirs for complicity in crimes of the Nazi regime , while insisting he was ignorant of the Holocaust .
Speer joined the Nazi Party in 1931 , launching himself on a political and governmental career which lasted fourteen years . His architectural skills made him increasingly prominent within the Party and he became a member of Hitler 's inner circle . Hitler instructed him to design and construct structures including the Reich Chancellery and the Zeppelinfeld stadium in Nuremberg where Party rallies were held . Speer also made plans to reconstruct Berlin on a grand scale , with huge buildings , wide boulevards , and a reorganized transportation system .
In February 1942 , Hitler appointed Speer Minister of Armaments and War Production . He was fêted at the time , and long afterwards , for performing an " armaments miracle " in which German war production dramatically increased ; this " miracle " , however , was brought to a halt by the summer of 1943 by , among other factors , the first sustained Allied bombing of 1943 .
After the war , he was tried at Nuremberg and sentenced to 20 years in prison for his role in the Nazi regime , principally for the use of forced labor . Despite repeated attempts to gain early release , he served his full sentence , most of it at Spandau Prison in West Berlin . Following his release in 1966 , Speer published two bestselling autobiographical works , Inside the Third Reich and Spandau : The Secret Diaries , detailing his close personal relationship with Hitler , and providing readers and historians with a unique perspective on the workings of the Nazi regime . He later wrote a third book , Infiltration , about the SS . Speer died of natural causes in 1981 while on a visit to London .
= = Early years = =
Speer was born in Mannheim , into an upper @-@ middle @-@ class family . He was the second of three sons of Luise Máthilde Wilhelmine ( Hommel ) and Albert Friedrich Speer . In 1918 , the family moved permanently to their summer home Villa Speer on Schloss @-@ Wolfsbrunnenweg , Heidelberg . According to Henry T. King , deputy prosecutor at Nuremberg who later wrote a book about Speer , " Love and warmth were lacking in the household of Speer 's youth . " Speer was active in sports , taking up skiing and mountaineering . Speer 's Heidelberg school offered rugby football , unusual for Germany , and Speer was a participant . He wanted to become a mathematician , but his father said if Speer chose this occupation he would " lead a life without money , without a position and without a future " . Instead , Speer followed in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and studied architecture .
Speer began his architectural studies at the University of Karlsruhe instead of a more highly acclaimed institution because the hyperinflation crisis of 1923 limited his parents ' income . In 1924 when the crisis had abated , he transferred to the " much more reputable " Technical University of Munich . In 1925 he transferred again , this time to the Technical University of Berlin where he studied under Heinrich Tessenow , whom Speer greatly admired . After passing his exams in 1927 , Speer became Tessenow 's assistant , a high honor for a man of 22 . As such , Speer taught some of Tessenow 's classes while continuing his own postgraduate studies . In Munich , and continuing in Berlin , Speer began a close friendship , ultimately spanning over 50 years , with Rudolf Wolters , who also studied under Tessenow .
In mid @-@ 1922 , Speer began courting Margarete ( Margret ) Weber ( 1905 – 1987 ) , the daughter of a successful craftsman who employed 50 workers . The relationship was frowned upon by Speer 's class @-@ conscious mother , who felt that the Webers were socially inferior . Despite this opposition , the two married in Berlin on 28 August 1928 ; seven years were to elapse before Margarete Speer was invited to stay at her in @-@ laws ' home .
= = Nazi architect = =
= = = Joining the Nazis ( 1930 – 1934 ) = = =
Speer stated he was apolitical when he was a young man , and that he attended a Berlin Nazi rally in December 1930 at the urging of some of his students . On March 1 , 1931 , he applied to join the Nazi Party and became member number 474 @,@ 481 .
In 1931 , Speer surrendered his position as Tessenow 's assistant and moved to Mannheim . His father gave him a job as manager of the elder Speer 's properties . In July 1932 , the Speers visited Berlin to help out the Party prior to the Reichstag elections . While they were there , his friend , Nazi Party official Karl Hanke , recommended the young architect to Joseph Goebbels to help renovate the Party 's Berlin headquarters . Speer agreed to do the work . When the commission was completed , Speer returned to Mannheim and remained there as Hitler took office in January 1933 .
The organizers of the 1933 Nuremberg Rally asked Speer to submit designs for the rally , bringing him into contact with Hitler for the first time . Neither the organizers nor Rudolf Hess were willing to decide whether to approve the plans , and Hess sent Speer to Hitler 's Munich apartment to seek his approval . This work won Speer his first national post , as Nazi Party " Commissioner for the Artistic and Technical Presentation of Party Rallies and Demonstrations " .
Speer 's next major assignment was as liaison to the Berlin building trades for Paul Troost 's renovation of the Chancellery . As Chancellor , Hitler had a residence in the building and came by every day to be briefed by Speer and the building supervisor on the progress of the renovations . After one of these briefings , Hitler invited Speer to lunch , to the architect 's great excitement . Hitler evinced considerable interest in Speer during the luncheon , and later told Speer that he had been looking for a young architect capable of carrying out his architectural dreams for the new Germany . Speer quickly became part of Hitler 's inner circle ; he was expected to call on Hitler in the morning for a walk or chat , to provide consultation on architectural matters , and to discuss Hitler 's ideas . Most days he was invited to dinner .
The two men found much in common : Hitler spoke of Speer as a " kindred spirit " for whom he had always maintained " the warmest human feelings " . The young , ambitious architect was dazzled by his rapid rise and close proximity to Hitler , which guaranteed him a flood of commissions from the government and from the highest ranks of the Party . Speer testified at Nuremberg , " I belonged to a circle which consisted of other artists and his personal staff . If Hitler had had any friends at all , I certainly would have been one of his close friends . "
= = = First Architect of Nazi Germany ( 1934 – 1939 ) = = =
When Troost died on January 21 , 1934 , Speer effectively replaced him as the Party 's chief architect . Hitler appointed Speer as head of the Chief Office for Construction , which placed him nominally on Hess 's staff .
One of Speer 's first commissions after Troost 's death was the Zeppelinfeld stadium — the Nürnberg parade grounds seen in Leni Riefenstahl 's propaganda masterpiece Triumph of the Will . This huge work was able to hold 340 @,@ 000 people . Speer insisted that as many events as possible be held at night , both to give greater prominence to his lighting effects and to hide the individual Nazis , many of whom were overweight . Speer surrounded the site with 130 anti @-@ aircraft searchlights . Speer described this as his most beautiful work , and as the only one that stood the test of time .
Nürnberg was to be the site of many more official Nazi buildings , most of which were never built ; for example , the German Stadium would have accommodated 400 @,@ 000 spectators , while an even larger rally ground would have held half a million people . While planning these structures , Speer conceived the concept of " ruin value " : that major buildings should be constructed in such a way they would leave aesthetically pleasing ruins for thousands of years into the future . Such ruins would be a testament to the greatness of Nazi Germany , just as ancient Greek or Roman ruins were symbols of the greatness of those civilizations .
When Hitler deprecated Werner March 's design for the Olympic Stadium for the 1936 Summer Olympics as too modern , Speer modified the plans by adding a stone exterior . Speer designed the German Pavilion for the 1937 international exposition in Paris . The German and Soviet pavilion sites were opposite each other . On learning ( through a clandestine look at the Soviet plans ) that the Soviet design included two colossal figures seemingly about to overrun the German site , Speer modified his design to include a cubic mass which would check their advance , with a huge eagle on top looking down on the Soviet figures . Speer received , from Hitler Youth leader and later fellow Spandau prisoner Baldur von Schirach , the Golden Hitler Youth Honor Badge with oak leaves .
In 1937 , Hitler appointed Speer as General Building Inspector for the Reich Capital with the rank of undersecretary of state in the Reich government . The position carried with it extraordinary powers over the Berlin city government and made Speer answerable to Hitler alone . It also made Speer a member of the Reichstag , though the body by then had little effective power . Hitler ordered Speer to develop plans to rebuild Berlin . The plans centered on a three @-@ mile long grand boulevard running from north to south , which Speer called the Prachtstrasse , or Street of Magnificence ; he also referred to it as the " North @-@ South Axis " . At the northern end of the boulevard , Speer planned to build the Volkshalle , a huge assembly hall with a dome which would have been over 700 feet ( 210 m ) high , with floor space for 180 @,@ 000 people . At the southern end of the avenue a great triumphal arch would rise ; it would be almost 400 feet ( 120 m ) high , and able to fit the Arc de Triomphe inside its opening . The outbreak of World War II in 1939 led to the postponement , and later the abandonment , of these plans . Part of the land for the boulevard was to be obtained by consolidating Berlin 's railway system . Speer hired Wolters as part of his design team , with special responsibility for the Prachtstrasse . When Speer 's father saw the model for the new Berlin , he said to his son , " You 've all gone completely insane . "
In January 1938 , Hitler asked Speer to build a new Reich Chancellery on the same site as the existing structure , and said he needed it for urgent foreign policy reasons no later than his next New Year 's reception for diplomats on January 10 , 1939 . This was a huge undertaking , especially as the existing Chancellery was in full operation . After consultation with his assistants , Speer agreed . Although the site could not be cleared until April , Speer was successful in building the large , impressive structure in nine months . The structure included a " Marble Gallery " 146 metres long , almost twice the length of the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles . Speer employed thousands of workers in two shifts . Hitler , who had remained away from the project , was overwhelmed when Speer presented it , fully furnished , two days early . In appreciation for the architect 's work on the Chancellery , Hitler awarded Speer the Nazi Golden Party Badge . Tessenow was less impressed , suggesting to Speer that he should have taken nine years over the project . The second Chancellery was damaged in the Battle of Berlin in 1945 and was eventually dismantled by the Soviets , its stone used for a war memorial .
During the Chancellery project , the pogrom of Kristallnacht took place . Speer made no mention of it in the first draft of Inside the Third Reich , and it was only on the urgent advice of his publisher that he added a mention of seeing the ruins of the Central Synagogue in Berlin from his car .
Speer was under significant psychological pressure during this period of his life . He would later remember :
Soon after Hitler had given me the first large architectural commissions , I began to suffer from anxiety in long tunnels , in airplanes , or in small rooms . My heart would begin to race , I would become breathless , the diaphragm would seem to grow heavy , and I would get the impression that my blood pressure was rising tremendously ... Anxiety amidst all my freedom and power !
= = = Wartime architect ( 1939 – 1942 ) = = =
Speer supported the German invasion of Poland and subsequent war , though he recognized that it would lead to the postponement , at the least , of his architectural dreams . In his later years , Speer , talking with his biographer @-@ to @-@ be Gitta Sereny , explained how he felt in 1939 : " Of course I was perfectly aware that [ Hitler ] sought world domination ... [ A ] t that time I asked for nothing better . That was the whole point of my buildings . They would have looked grotesque if Hitler had sat still in Germany . All I wanted was for this great man to dominate the globe . "
Speer placed his department at the disposal of the Wehrmacht . When Hitler remonstrated , and said it was not for Speer to decide how his workers should be used , Speer simply ignored him . Among Speer 's innovations were quick @-@ reaction squads to construct roads or clear away debris ; before long , these units would be used to clear bomb sites . As the war progressed , initially to great German success , Speer continued preliminary work on the Berlin and Nürnberg plans . Speer also oversaw the construction of buildings for the Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe .
In 1940 , Joseph Stalin proposed that Speer pay a visit to Moscow . Stalin had been particularly impressed by Speer 's work in Paris , and wished to meet the " Architect of the Reich " . Hitler , alternating between amusement and anger , did not allow Speer to go , fearing that Stalin would put Speer in a " rat hole " until a new Moscow arose . When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 , Speer came to doubt , despite Hitler 's reassurances , that his projects for Berlin would ever be completed .
= = Minister of Armaments = =
= = = Appointment and increasing power = = =
On February 8 , 1942 , Minister of Armaments Fritz Todt died in a plane crash shortly after taking off from Hitler 's eastern headquarters at Rastenburg . Speer , who had arrived in Rastenburg the previous evening , had accepted Todt 's offer to fly with him to Berlin , but had canceled some hours before takeoff ( Speer stated in his memoirs that the cancellation was because of exhaustion from travel and a late @-@ night meeting with Hitler ) . Later that day , Hitler appointed Speer as Todt 's successor to all of his posts . In Inside the Third Reich , Speer recounts his meeting with Hitler and his reluctance to take ministerial office , saying that he only did so because Hitler commanded it . Speer also states that Hermann Göring raced to Hitler 's headquarters on hearing of Todt 's death , hoping to claim Todt 's powers . Hitler instead presented Göring with the fait accompli of Speer 's appointment .
At the time of Speer 's accession to the office , the German economy , unlike the British one , was not fully geared for war production . Consumer goods were still being produced at nearly as high a level as during peacetime . No fewer than five " Supreme Authorities " had jurisdiction over armament production — one of which , the Ministry of Economic Affairs , had declared in November 1941 that conditions did not permit an increase in armament production . Few women were employed in the factories , which were running only one shift . One evening soon after his appointment , Speer went to visit a Berlin armament factory ; he found no one on the premises .
Speer overcame these difficulties by centralizing power over the war economy in himself . Factories were given autonomy , or as Speer put it , " self @-@ responsibility " , and each factory concentrated on a single product . Backed by Hitler 's strong support ( the dictator stated , " Speer , I 'll sign anything that comes from you " ) , he divided the armament field according to weapon system , with experts rather than civil servants overseeing each department . No department head could be older than 55 — anyone older being susceptible to " routine and arrogance " — and no deputy older than 40 . Over these departments was a central planning committee headed by Speer , which took increasing responsibility for war production , and as time went by , for the German economy itself . According to the minutes of a conference at Wehrmacht High Command in March 1942 , " It is only Speer 's word that counts nowadays . He can interfere in all departments . Already he overrides all departments ... On the whole , Speer 's attitude is to the point . " Goebbels would note in his diary in June 1943 , " Speer is still tops with the Führer . He is truly a genius with organization . " Speer was so successful in his position that by late 1943 , he was widely regarded among the Nazi elite as a possible successor to Hitler .
While Speer had tremendous power , he was of course subordinate to Hitler . Nazi officials sometimes went around Speer by seeking direct orders from the dictator . When Speer ordered peacetime building work suspended , the Gauleiters ( Nazi Party district leaders ) obtained an exemption for their pet projects . When Speer sought the appointment of Hanke as a labor czar to optimize the use of German labor , Hitler , under the influence of Martin Bormann , instead appointed Fritz Sauckel . Rather than increasing female labor and taking other steps to better organize German labor , as Speer favored , Sauckel advocated importing labor from the occupied nations – and did so , obtaining workers for ( among other things ) Speer 's armament factories , using the most brutal methods .
On December 10 , 1943 , Speer visited the underground Mittelwerk V @-@ 2 rocket factory that used concentration camp labor . Speer later said he had been shocked by the conditions there ( 5 @.@ 7 percent of the work force died that month ) .
By 1943 , the Allies had gained air superiority over Germany , and bombings of German cities and industry had become commonplace . However , the Allies in their strategic bombing campaign did not concentrate on industry , and Speer , with his improvisational skill , was able to overcome bombing losses . In spite of these losses , German production of tanks more than doubled in 1943 , production of planes increased by 80 percent , and production time for Kriegsmarine 's submarines was reduced from one year to two months . Production would continue to increase until the second half of 1944 , by which time enough equipment to supply 270 army divisions was being produced — although the Wehrmacht had only 150 divisions in the field .
In January 1944 , Speer fell ill with complications from an inflamed knee , and was away from the office for three months . During his absence , his political rivals ( mainly Göring , and Martin Bormann ) , attempted to have some of his powers permanently transferred to them . According to Speer , SS chief Heinrich Himmler tried to have him physically isolated by having Himmler 's personal physician Karl Gebhardt treat him , though his " care " did not improve his health . Speer 's wife and friends managed to have his case transferred to his friend Dr. Karl Brandt , and he slowly recovered . In April , Speer 's rivals for power succeeded in having him deprived of responsibility for construction , and Speer promptly sent Hitler a bitter letter , concluding with an offer of his resignation . Judging Speer indispensable to the war effort , Field Marshal Erhard Milch persuaded Hitler to try to get his minister to reconsider . Hitler sent Milch to Speer with a message not addressing the dispute but instead stating that he still regarded Speer as highly as ever . According to Milch , upon hearing the message , Speer burst out , " The Führer can kiss my ass ! " After a lengthy argument , Milch persuaded Speer to withdraw his offer of resignation , on the condition his powers were restored . On April 23 , 1944 , Speer went to see Hitler who agreed that " everything [ will ] stay as it was , [ Speer will ] remain the head of all German construction " . According to Speer , while he was successful in this debate , Hitler had also won , " because he wanted and needed me back in his corner , and he got me " .
= = = Fall of the Reich = = =
Speer 's name was included on the list of members of a post @-@ Hitler government drawn up by the conspirators behind the July 1944 assassination plot to kill Hitler . The list had a question mark and the annotation " to be won over " by his name , which likely saved him from the extensive purges that followed the scheme 's failure .
When Speer learned that the Red Army had overrun the Silesian industrial region , he drafted a memo to Hitler noting that Silesia 's coal mines now supplied 60 percent of the Reich 's coal . Without them , Speer wrote , Germany 's coal production would only be a quarter of its 1944 total — not nearly enough to continue the war . He told Hitler in no uncertain terms that without Silesia , " the war is lost . " Hitler merely filed the memo in his safe .
By February 1945 , Speer was working to supply areas about to be occupied with food and materials to get them through the hard times ahead . On March 19 , 1945 , Hitler issued his Nero Decree , ordering a scorched earth policy in both Germany and the occupied territories . Hitler 's order , by its terms , deprived Speer of any power to interfere with the decree , and Speer went to confront Hitler , reiterating that the war was lost . Hitler gave Speer 24 hours to reconsider his position , and when the two met the following day , Speer answered , " I stand unconditionally behind you . " However , he demanded the exclusive power to implement the Nero Decree , and Hitler signed an order to that effect . Using this order , Speer worked to persuade generals and Gauleiters to circumvent the Nero Decree and avoid needless sacrifice of personnel and destruction of industry that would be needed after the war .
Speer managed to reach a relatively safe area near Hamburg as the Nazi regime finally collapsed , but decided on a final , risky visit to Berlin to see Hitler one more time . Speer stated at Nuremberg , " I felt that it was my duty not to run away like a coward , but to stand up to him again . " Speer visited the Führerbunker on April 22 . Hitler seemed calm and somewhat distracted , and the two had a long , disjointed conversation in which the dictator defended his actions and informed Speer of his intent to commit suicide and have his body burned . In the published edition of Inside the Third Reich , Speer relates that he confessed to Hitler that he had defied the Nero Decree , but then assured Hitler of his personal loyalty , bringing tears to the dictator 's eyes . Speer biographer Gitta Sereny argued , " Psychologically , it is possible that this is the way he remembered the occasion , because it was how he would have liked to behave , and the way he would have liked Hitler to react . But the fact is that none of it happened ; our witness to this is Speer himself . " Sereny notes that Speer 's original draft of his memoirs lacks the confession and Hitler 's tearful reaction , and contains an explicit denial that any confession or emotional exchange took place , as had been alleged in a French magazine article .
The following morning , Speer left the Führerbunker ; Hitler curtly bade him farewell . Speer toured the damaged Chancellery one last time before leaving Berlin to return to Hamburg . On April 29 , the day before committing suicide , Hitler dictated a final political testament which dropped Speer from the successor government . Speer was to be replaced by his own subordinate , Karl @-@ Otto Saur .
= = Nuremberg trial = =
After Hitler 's death , Speer offered his services to the so @-@ called Flensburg Government , headed by Hitler 's successor , Karl Dönitz , and took a significant role in that short @-@ lived regime . On May 15 , an allied delegation arrived and asked Speer if he would be willing to provide information on the effects of the air war . Speer agreed , and over the next several days , provided information on a broad range of subjects . On May 23 , two weeks after the surrender of German forces , British troops arrested the members of the Flensburg Government and brought Nazi Germany to a formal end .
Speer was taken to several internment centres for Nazi officials and interrogated . In September 1945 , he was told that he would be tried for war crimes , and several days later , he was taken to Nuremberg and incarcerated there . Speer was indicted on all four possible counts : first , participating in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of crime against peace ; second , planning , initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace ; third , war crimes ; and lastly , crimes against humanity .
U.S. Supreme Court Justice Robert Jackson , the chief U.S. prosecutor at Nuremberg , alleged , " Speer joined in planning and executing the program to dragoon prisoners of war and foreign workers into German war industries , which waxed in output while the workers waned in starvation . " Speer 's attorney , Dr. Hans Flächsner , presented Speer as an artist thrust into political life , who had always remained a non @-@ ideologue and who had been promised by Hitler that he could return to architecture after the war . During his testimony , Speer accepted responsibility for the Nazi regime 's actions .
An observer at the trial , journalist and author William L. Shirer , wrote that , compared to his codefendants , Speer " made the most straightforward impression of all and ... during the long trial spoke honestly and with no attempt to shirk his responsibility and his guilt " . Speer also testified that he had planned to kill Hitler in early 1945 by introducing tabun poison gas into the Führerbunker ventilation shaft . He said his efforts were frustrated by the impracticability of tabun and his lack of ready access to a replacement nerve agent , and also by the unexpected construction of a tall chimney that put the air intake out of reach . Speer stated his motive was despair at realising that Hitler intended to take the German people down with him . Speer 's supposed assassination plan subsequently met with some skepticism , with Speer 's architectural rival Hermann Giesler sneering , " the second most powerful man in the state did not have a ladder . "
Speer was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity , though he was acquitted on the other two counts . His claim that he was unaware of Nazi extermination plans , which probably saved him from hanging , was finally revealed to be false in a private correspondence written in 1971 and publicly disclosed in 2007 . On 1 October 1946 , he was sentenced to 20 years ' imprisonment . While three of the eight judges ( two Soviet and one American ) initially advocated the death penalty for Speer , the other judges did not , and a compromise sentence was reached " after two days ' discussion and some rather bitter horse @-@ trading " .
The court 's judgment stated that :
... in the closing stages of the war [ Speer ] was one of the few men who had the courage to tell Hitler that the war was lost and to take steps to prevent the senseless destruction of production facilities , both in occupied territories and in Germany . He carried out his opposition to Hitler 's scorched earth programme ... by deliberately sabotaging it at considerable personal risk .
= = Imprisonment = =
For additional detail on Speer 's time at Spandau Prison , see Rudolf Wolters # Spandau years
On July 18 , 1947 , Speer and his six fellow prisoners , all former high officials of the Nazi regime , were flown from Nuremberg to Berlin under heavy guard . The prisoners were taken to Spandau Prison in the British Sector of what would become West Berlin , where they would be designated by number , with Speer given Number Five . Initially , the prisoners were kept in solitary confinement for all but half an hour a day , and were not permitted to address each other or their guards . As time passed , the strict regimen was relaxed , especially during the three months in four that the three Western powers were in control ; the four occupying powers took overall control on a monthly rotation . Speer considered himself an outcast among his fellow prisoners for his acceptance of responsibility at Nuremberg .
Speer made a deliberate effort to make as productive a use of his time as possible . He wrote , " I am obsessed with the idea of using this time of confinement for writing a book of major importance ... That could mean transforming prison cell into scholar 's den . " The prisoners were forbidden to write memoirs , and mail was severely limited and censored . However , as a result of an offer from a sympathetic orderly , Speer was able to have his writings , which eventually amounted to 20 @,@ 000 sheets , sent to Wolters . By 1954 , Speer had completed his memoirs , which became the basis of Inside the Third Reich , and which Wolters arranged to have transcribed onto 1 @,@ 100 typewritten pages . He was also able to send letters and financial instructions , and to obtain writing paper and letters from the outside . His many letters to his children , all secretly transmitted , eventually formed the basis for Spandau : The Secret Diaries .
With the draft memoir complete and clandestinely transmitted , Speer sought a new project . He found one while taking his daily exercise , walking in circles around the prison yard . Measuring the path 's distance carefully , Speer set out to walk the distance from Berlin to Heidelberg . He then expanded his idea into a worldwide journey , visualizing the places he was " traveling " through while walking the path around the prison yard . Speer ordered guidebooks and other materials about the nations through which he imagined he was passing , so as to envisage as accurate a picture as possible . Meticulously calculating every meter traveled , and mapping distances to the real @-@ world geography , he began in northern Germany , passed through Asia by a southern route before entering Siberia , then crossed the Bering Strait and continued southwards , finally ending his sentence 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) south of Guadalajara , Mexico .
Speer devoted much of his time and energy to reading . Though the prisoners brought some books with them in their personal property , Spandau Prison had no library so books were sent from Spandau 's municipal library . From 1952 the prisoners were also able to order books from the Berlin central library in Wilmersdorf . Speer was a voracious reader and he completed well over 500 books in the first three years at Spandau alone . He read classic novels , travelogues , books on ancient Egypt , and biographies of such figures as Lucas Cranach , Édouard Manet , and Genghis Khan . Speer took to the prison garden for enjoyment and work , at first to do something constructive while afflicted with writer 's block . He was allowed to build an ambitious garden , transforming what he initially described as a " wilderness " into what the American commander at Spandau described as " Speer 's Garden of Eden " .
Speer 's supporters maintained a continual call for his release . Among those who pledged support for Speer 's sentence to be commuted were Charles de Gaulle , U.S. diplomat George Ball , former U.S. High Commissioner John J. McCloy , and former Nuremberg prosecutor Hartley Shawcross . Willy Brandt was a strong advocate of Speer 's , supporting his release , sending flowers to his daughter on the day of his release , and putting an end to the de @-@ Nazification proceedings against Speer , which could have caused his property to be confiscated . A reduced sentence required the consent of all four of the occupying powers , and the Soviets adamantly opposed any such proposal . Speer served his full sentence , and was released on the stroke of midnight as October 1 , 1966 , began .
= = Release and later life = =
Speer 's release from prison was a worldwide media event , as reporters and photographers crowded both the street outside Spandau and the lobby of the Berlin hotel where Speer spent his first hours of freedom in over 20 years . He said little , reserving most comments for a major interview published in Der Spiegel in November 1966 , in which he again took personal responsibility for crimes of the Nazi regime . Abandoning plans to return to architecture ( two proposed partners died shortly before his release ) , he revised his Spandau writings into two autobiographical books , and later researched and published a third work , about Himmler and the SS . His books , most notably Inside the Third Reich ( in German , Erinnerungen , or Reminiscences ) and Spandau : The Secret Diaries , provide a unique and personal look into the personalities of the Nazi era , and have become much valued by historians . Speer was aided in shaping the works by Joachim Fest and Wolf Jobst Siedler from the publishing house Ullstein . Speer found himself unable to re @-@ establish his relationship with his children , even with his son Albert , who had also become an architect . According to Speer 's daughter Hilde , " One by one my sister and brothers gave up . There was no communication . "
Following the publication of his bestselling books , Speer donated a considerable amount of money to Jewish charities . According to Siedler , these donations were as high as 80 % of his royalties . Speer kept the donations anonymous , both for fear of rejection , and for fear of being called a hypocrite .
As early as 1953 , when Wolters strongly objected to Speer referring to Hitler in the memoirs draft as a criminal , Speer had predicted that were the writings to be published , he would lose a " good many friends " . This came to pass , as following the publication of Inside the Third Reich , close friends , such as Wolters and sculptor Arno Breker , distanced themselves from him . Hans Baur , Hitler 's personal pilot , suggested , " Speer must have taken leave of his senses . " Wolters wondered that Speer did not now " walk through life in a hair shirt , distributing his fortune among the victims of National Socialism , forswear all the vanities and pleasures of life and live on locusts and wild honey " .
Speer made himself widely available to historians and other enquirers . He did an extensive , in @-@ depth interview for the June 1971 issue of Playboy magazine , in which he stated , " If I didn 't see it , then it was because I didn 't want to see it . " In October 1973 , Speer made his first trip to Britain , flying to London under an assumed name to be interviewed on the BBC Midweek programme by Ludovic Kennedy . Upon arrival , he was detained for almost eight hours at Heathrow Airport when British immigration authorities discovered his true identity . The Home Secretary , Robert Carr , allowed Speer into the country for 48 hours . In the same year he appeared in the The World at War television programme . While in London eight years later to participate in the BBC Newsnight programme , Speer suffered a stroke and died on September 1 , 1981 . Speer had formed a relationship with an Englishwoman of German origin , and was with her at the time of his death .
Even to the end of his life , Speer continued to question his actions under Hitler . In his final book , Infiltration , he asks , " What would have happened if Hitler had asked me to make decisions that required the utmost hardness ? ... How far would I have gone ? ... If I had occupied a different position , to what extent would I have ordered atrocities if Hitler had told me to do so ? " Speer leaves the questions unanswered .
= = Legacy and controversy = =
The view of Speer as an unpolitical " miracle man " is challenged by Columbia historian Adam Tooze . In his 2006 book , The Wages of Destruction , Tooze , following Gitta Sereny , argues that Speer 's ideological commitment to the Nazi cause was greater than he claimed . Tooze further contends that an insufficiently challenged Speer " mythology " ( partly fostered by Speer himself through politically motivated , tendentious use of statistics and other propaganda ) had led many historians to assign Speer far more credit for the increases in armaments production than was warranted and give insufficient consideration to the " highly political " function of the so @-@ called armaments miracle .
= = = Architectural legacy = = =
Little remains of Speer 's personal architectural works , other than the plans and photographs . No buildings designed by Speer during the Nazi era are extant in Berlin , other than the Schwerbelastungskörper ( heavy load bearing body ) , built around 1941 . The 46 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) high concrete cylinder was used to measure ground subsidence as part of feasibility studies for a massive triumphal arch and other large structures proposed as part of Welthauptstadt Germania , Hitler 's planned postwar renewal project for the city . The cylinder is now a protected landmark and is open to the public . Along the Strasse des 17 . Juni , a double row of lampposts designed by Speer still stands . The tribune of the Zeppelinfeld stadium in Nuremberg , though partly demolished , can also be seen . More of Speer 's own personal work can be found in London , where he redesigned the interior of the German Embassy to the United Kingdom , then located at 7 – 9 Carlton House Terrace . Since 1967 , it has served as the offices of the Royal Society . His work there , stripped of its Nazi fixtures and partially covered by carpets , survives in part .
Another legacy was the Arbeitsstab Wiederaufbau zerstörter Städte ( Working group on Reconstruction of destroyed cities ) , authorized by Speer in 1943 to rebuild bombed German cities to make them more livable in the age of the automobile . Headed by Wolters , the working group took a possible military defeat into their calculations . The Arbeitsstab 's recommendations served as the basis of the postwar redevelopment plans in many cities , and Arbeitsstab members became prominent in the rebuilding .
= = = Actions regarding the Jews = = =
As General Building Inspector , Speer was responsible for the Central Department for Resettlement . From 1939 onward , the Department used the Nuremberg Laws to evict Jewish tenants of non @-@ Jewish landlords in Berlin , to make way for non @-@ Jewish tenants displaced by redevelopment or bombing . Eventually , 75 @,@ 000 Jews were displaced by these measures . Speer was aware of these activities , and inquired as to their progress . At least one original memo from Speer so inquiring still exists , as does the Chronicle of the Department 's activities , kept by Wolters .
Following his release from Spandau , Speer presented to the German Federal Archives an edited version of the Chronicle , stripped by Wolters of any mention of the Jews . When David Irving discovered discrepancies between the edited Chronicle and other documents , Wolters explained the situation to Speer , who responded by suggesting to Wolters that the relevant pages of the original Chronicle should " cease to exist " . Wolters did not destroy the Chronicle , and , as his friendship with Speer deteriorated , allowed access to the original Chronicle to doctoral student Matthias Schmidt ( who , after obtaining his doctorate , developed his thesis into a book , Albert Speer : The End of a Myth ) . Speer considered Wolters ' actions to be a " betrayal " and a " stab in the back " . The original Chronicle reached the Archives in 1983 , after both Speer and Wolters had died .
= = = Knowledge of the Holocaust = = =
Speer maintained at Nuremberg and in his memoirs that he had no knowledge of the Holocaust . In Inside the Third Reich , he wrote that in mid @-@ 1944 , he was told by Hanke ( by then Gauleiter of Lower Silesia ) that the minister should never accept an invitation to inspect a concentration camp in neighbouring Upper Silesia , as " he had seen something there which he was not permitted to describe and moreover could not describe " . Speer later concluded that Hanke must have been speaking of Auschwitz , and blamed himself for not inquiring further of Hanke or seeking information from Himmler or Hitler :
These seconds [ when Hanke told Speer this , and Speer did not inquire ] were uppermost in my mind when I stated to the international court at the Nuremberg Trial that , as an important member of the leadership of the Reich , I had to share the total responsibility for all that had happened . For from that moment on I was inescapably contaminated morally ; from fear of discovering something which might have made me turn from my course , I had closed my eyes ... Because I failed at that time , I still feel , to this day , responsible for Auschwitz in a wholly personal sense .
Much of the controversy over Speer 's knowledge of the Holocaust has centered on his presence at the Posen Conference on 6 October 1943 , at which Himmler gave a speech detailing the ongoing Holocaust to Nazi leaders . Himmler said , " The grave decision had to be taken to cause this people to vanish from the earth ... In the lands we occupy , the Jewish question will be dealt with by the end of the year . " Speer is mentioned several times in the speech , and Himmler seems to address him directly . In Inside the Third Reich , Speer mentions his own address to the officials ( which took place earlier in the day ) but does not mention Himmler 's speech .
In October 1971 , American historian Erich Goldhagen published an article arguing that Speer was present for Himmler 's speech . According to Fest in his biography of Speer , " Goldhagen 's accusation certainly would have been more convincing " had he not placed supposed incriminating statements linking Speer with the Holocaust in quotation marks , attributed to Himmler , which were in fact invented by Goldhagen . In response , after considerable research in the German Federal Archives in Koblenz , Speer said he had left Posen around noon ( long before Himmler 's speech ) to journey to Hitler 's headquarters at Rastenburg . In Inside the Third Reich , published before the Goldhagen article , Speer recalled that on the evening after the conference , many Nazi officials were so drunk that they needed help boarding the special train which was to take them to a meeting with Hitler . One of his biographers , Dan van der Vat , suggests this necessarily implies he must have still been present at Posen then , and must have heard Himmler 's speech . In response to Goldhagen 's article , Speer had alleged that in writing Inside the Third Reich , he erred in reporting an incident that happened at another conference at Posen a year later , as happening in 1943 . In 2007 , The Guardian reported that a letter from Speer dated December 23 , 1971 had been found in Britain in a collection of his correspondence to Hélène Jeanty , widow of a Belgian resistance fighter . In the letter , Speer states that he had been present for Himmler 's presentation in Posen . Speer wrote : " There is no doubt – I was present as Himmler announced on October 6 , 1943 , that all Jews would be killed . "
In 2005 , the Daily Telegraph reported that documents had surfaced indicating that Speer had approved the allocation of materials for the expansion of Auschwitz after two of his assistants toured the facility on a day when almost a thousand Jews were killed . The documents supposedly bore annotations in Speer 's own handwriting . Speer biographer Gitta Sereny stated that , due to his workload , Speer would not have been personally aware of such activities .
The debate over Speer 's knowledge of , or complicity in , the Holocaust made him a symbol for people who were involved with the Nazi regime yet did not have ( or claimed not to have had ) an active part in the regime 's atrocities . As film director Heinrich Breloer remarked , " [ Speer created ] a market for people who said , ' Believe me , I didn 't know anything about [ the Holocaust ] . Just look at the Führer 's friend , he didn 't know about it either . ' "
= = Career summary = =
Joined NSDAP : March 1 , 1931
Party Number : 474 @,@ 481
= = = Nazi Party positions = = =
Member , National Socialist Motor Corps : 1931
Commissioner for the Artistic and Technical Presentation of Party Rallies and Demonstrations : 1933
Department Chief , German Labor Front : 1934
Chief , NSDAP Directorate for Technical Matters : 1942
From 1934 to 1939 , Speer was often referred to as " First Architect of the Reich " , however this was mainly a title given to him by Hitler and not an actual political position within the Nazi Party or German government .
= = = Government positions = = =
General Building Inspector for the Reich Capitol : 1937
Reich Minister for Weapons , Munitions , and Armaments : 1942
In 1943 , under his authority as Reich Minister of Armaments , Speer also became the Director of Organisation Todt . The standard uniform Speer wore during the later half of World War II was an insignia @-@ less Nazi Party brown jacket , with an " Org Todt " armband .
= = = Political ranks = = =
Mitglied : 1931
Amtsleiter der Reichsleitung ( later replaced by Einsatzleiter ; equivalent to Leutnant or Second Lieutenant ) : 1934
Hauptamtsleiter der Reichsleitung ( later replaced by Haupteinsatzleiter ; equivalent to Captain ) : 1935
Dienstleiter ( no equivalent , but senior to Colonel ) : 1939
Hauptdienstleiter ( no equivalent , but senior to Colonel ) : 1941
Befehlsleiter ( equivalent to Generalmajor or Brigadier @-@ General ) : 1942
Oberbefehlsleiter ( equivalent to Generalleutnant or Major @-@ General ) : 1944
= = = Awards and decorations = = =
Golden Party Badge
Golden Hitler Youth Badge ( with Oak Leaves )
Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross
NSDAP Long Service Award ( Silver – 15 Years )
Honour Chevron for the Old Guard
= Volvopluteus earlei =
Volvopluteus earlei is a species of mushroom in the family Pluteaceae . It was originally described in 1911 by American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill as Volvariopsis earlei , based on collections made in a Cuban banana field . The fungus was later shuffled to the genera Volvaria and Volvariella before molecular studies placed it in Volvopluteus , a genus newly described in 2011 .
The cap of Volvopluteus earlei is typically between 2 @.@ 5 – 5 cm ( 1 – 2 in ) in diameter , white , and is markedly viscid when fresh . The gills start out as white but they soon turn pink . The stipe is white and measures 5 cm ( 2 in ) long and 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) wide . It has a smooth , white , sac @-@ like volva at its base . The cap produces a pinkish @-@ brown spore print made of individual elliptical spores measuring up to 11 micrometers long . A saprotrophic fungus that grows on grassy fields , V. earlei has been reported from Africa , Europe , and North America . Microscopic features and DNA sequence data are of great importance for separating this taxon from related species . V. earlei can be distinguished from the three other Volvariella by differences in the size of the fruit bodies , cap color , spore size , and the presence or absence and form of cystidia .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was originally described by American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill in 1911 based on three collections made by his colleague Franklin Sumner Earle in Santiago de las vegas ( Cuba ) a few years earlier . It was originally described by Murrill in the genus Volvariopsis , created in the same publication , because at that time there was considerable confusion about which generic name was more appropriate for the mushrooms traditionally classified in the genus Volvariella . At the time of Murrill 's proposal most species in this group were classified in the genus Volvaria erected by Paul Kummer in 1871 , but mycologists realized that the name Volvaria was already taken as it had been coined by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle for a genus of lichens in 1805 . A year later Murrill transferred his species of Volvariopsis to the genus Volvaria , citing practical concerns about usage of names for non @-@ taxonomists : " A number of species of gill @-@ fungi described by me from tropical America in Mycologia , 1911 – 1912 , under genera not found in Saccardo 's Sylloge , are here recombined for the benefit of those having or using herbaria arranged according to this work . Collectors , pathologists , and others who may not be intimately acquainted with taxonomic methods will probably find it more convenient to follow the one system until a comprehensive revison is completed , at least for some important groups " .
Ultimately , neither Volvaria nor Volvariopsis would be used as the correct name for this group . The generic name Volvariella , proposed by the Argentinean mycologist Carlos Luis Spegazzini in 1899 , would be adopted for this group in 1953 after a proposal to conserve Kummer ’ s Volvaria against De Candolle ’ s Volvaria was rejected by the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi established under the principles of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants . The combination Volvariella earlei would be made by Robert L. Shaffer , who authored the first comprehensive monographic revision of Volvariella in North America in 1957 .
The phylogenetic study of Alfredo Justo and colleagues showed that Volvariella earlei is closely related to Volvariella gloiocephala and that this group of species constitutes a separate lineage from the majority of the species traditionally classified in Volvariella . Therefore , this taxon was transferred to the newly proposed genus Volvopluteus . The specific epithet earlei comes from the surname of Franklin Sumner Earle , the collector of the original samples , to whom Murrill dedicated the species . The original specimens of this species are still preserved at the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden .
= = Description = =
The cap of Volvopluteus earlei is between 25 and 50 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , more or less ovate or hemispherical when young , then expanding to convex or flat . It can have a low , broad umbo in the center in old specimens ; the surface is markedly viscid in fresh fruit bodies ; the cap is pure white , but sometimes develops pale brown tinges with age . The gills are crowded together , free from attachment to the stipe , ventricose , and up to 6 mm broad ; they are white when young but turn pink with age as the spores mature . The cylindrical stipe is 30 – 50 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long and 2 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) wide , and broadening towards the base . Its surface is white , smooth or slightly pruinose ( as if covered with a fine white powder ) . The sac @-@ like volva is up to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) high , white and has a smooth surface . The context is white in the stipe and cap and it does not change color when bruised or exposed to air . The smell and taste of the flesh are described as indistinct or herbaceous . The spore print is pinkish @-@ brown .
The spores are ellipsoid and measure 11 – 16 by 8 – 11 µm . Basidia are 20 – 40 by 8 – 16 µm ; they are usually four @-@ spored but sometimes two @-@ spored , and , more rarely , one @-@ spored forms can occur . Pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are absent in most collections ; if present they are scarce and similar to the cheilocystidia . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) measure 30 – 70 by 10 – 35 µm , and are club- , spindle- , or flask @-@ shaped , and usually each one has an apical outgrowth up to 40 µm long . The cheilocystidia completely cover the gill edge . In the form acystidiatus ( N.C.Pathak ) Vizzini & Contu , both pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia are completely absent . The cap cuticle ( pileipellis ) is an ixocutis ( parallel hyphae embedded in a gelatinous matrix ) . The stipe cuticle ( stipitipellis ) is a cutis ( parallel hyphae not embedded in a gelatinous matrix ) . Caulocystidia ( cystidia on the cap ) are sometimes present ; they measure 65 – 140 by 10 – 25 µm , and are mostly cylindrical .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
Volvopluteus earlei is a saprotrophic mushroom that grows in gardens and grassy fields . It was originally found in banana fields in Cuba . In Africa , Spain and Italy it has been reported mostly in urban or anthropogenic garden areas . It usually fruits in groups of several mushrooms but it can also be found growing solitary . This species has been reported from Cuba , North Carolina , Mexico , Spain and Italy . Molecular data have so far corroborated that the European and African collections correspond to the same species .
= = Similar species = =
Molecular analyses of the internal transcribed spacer region clearly separate the four species currently recognized in Volvopluteus , but morphological identification can be more difficult due to the sometimes overlapping morphological variation among the species . Size of the fruit bodies , color of the cap , spore size , presence or absence of cystidia and morphology of the cystidia are the most important characters for morphological species delimitation in the genus . Volvopluteus gloiocephalus has larger fruit bodies ( cap more than 5 cm ( 2 in ) in diameter ) , has pleurocystidia , and the cheilocystidia lack long apical outgrowths . V. asiaticus has pleurocystidia and has predominantly flask @-@ shaped cheilocystidia without long apical outgrowths . In V. michiganensis , pleurocystidia are also present , and this species has smaller spores , typically less than 12 @.@ 5 µm long .
= Pennsylvania Route 370 =
Pennsylvania Route 370 ( designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation as SR 370 ) is a 16 @.@ 73 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 26 @.@ 92 km ) state highway located in Susquehanna and Wayne counties in Pennsylvania . The western terminus is at Route 171 in East Ararat . The eastern terminus is at Route 191 in Buckingham Township near Hancock , New York . Route 370 was first designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Highways in 1928 from the intersection with then Route 70 in East Ararat to an intersection with Route 570 in the hamlet of Preston Park ( in Preston Township ) . The route was extended to an intersection with Route 90 ( now Route 191 ) in 1946 , when the 23 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 37 km ) Route 570 was decommissioned .
= = Route description = =
Route 370 begins at an intersection with Route 171 in the hamlet of East Ararat in Ararat Township . Route 370 heads to the northeast through tree patches and fields before entering a dense patch of woods . Upon leaving the woods , Route 370 crosses the county line from Susquehanna County to Wayne County and enters Preston Township . At the intersection with Mud Pond Road , the highway bends eastward but returns to its northeastern progression at an intersection with Blewett Road . Route 370 turns to the east once again and enters the community of Orson .
In Orson , Route 370 passes local farms and some houses . Shortly after it intersects with the northern terminus of Route 670 ( Belmont Turnpike North ) , which continues north as Oxbow Road . Route 370 continues eastward out of Orson , passing Orson Pond and several residences in a mainly rural area before entering the hamlet of Poyntelle . In Poyntelle , the highway passes to the north of Lake Lorain and Lake Lorain Golf Course . At the intersection with Lake Lorain Road , Route 370 turns to the northeast once again , paralleling Cribbs Road into downtown Poyntelle . The two roads cross a former alignment of the Ontario and Western Railroad before merging just north of Poyntelle .
After Cribbs Road , Route 370 turns northward , entering Lakewood in dense woods . The route passes Little Hickory Lake and soon Hickory Lake . After entering the Tamarack Swamp and passing a local pond , Route 370 makes a gradual curve to the east at an intersection with Dixie Highway . The route remains rural , paralleling the Ontario and Western Railroad alignment into the hamlet of Tallmanville . In Tallmanville , the route is primarily residential , passing the local school . At the intersection with Como Road , Route 370 turns to the northeast , paralleling the railroad alignment into the hamlet of Preston Park .
Through Preston Park , Route 370 intersects with an old alignment of itself twice before coming to the main intersection in town , the northern terminus of Route 247 ( Creamton Drive ) and its continuation Rabbit Run Road . The road turns northeastward and passes several residences before intersecting with Shehawken Road , where the road becomes mainly wooded once again . The route parallels an alignment of former State Route 570 and the former Ontario and Western Railroad into Buckingham Township , where the route enters the hamlet of Starlight . In Starlight , Route 370 passes the former Ontario and Western station and turns eastward once the old alignment of Route 570 merges in . After passing a pond , the highway leaves Starlight and continues northeastward in dense forestry . A short while later , the route turns northward and weaves to an intersection with Route 191 ( the Hancock Highway ) in Buckingham Township . This serves as the northern terminus of Route 370 .
= = History = =
Route 370 was first signed along Crosstown Highway in 1928 from its current western terminus of Route 171 ( then designated Route 70 ) in Ararat Township to an intersection with Route 570 , another spur of Route 70 in the hamlet of Preston Park . The entire stretch was paved by the Pennsylvania Department of Highways in 1932 . At that point , Route 570 used the current alignment from the intersection with Shehawken Road to the intersection with Route 90 ( now Route 191 ) . Route 570 , along with Route 470 and Route 270 were decommissioned in 1946 by the Department of Highways , and Route 370 was extended along the alignment from Shehawken Road to Route 90 . In 1961 , Route 370 's termini both changed to Route 171 and Route 191 when both were renumbered to prevent duplication with Interstate 70 and Interstate 90 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Hatem Ben Arfa =
Hatem Ben Arfa ( Arabic : حاتم بن عرفة , French pronunciation : [ atɛm bɛnaʁfa ] ; born 7 March 1987 ) is a French footballer who plays as a winger and an attacking midfielder for Paris Saint @-@ Germain . He has been described as " one of the best @-@ rated talents in France " , but has been criticised by the media and players alike for lacking discipline .
Ben Arfa 's career started in the Île @-@ de @-@ France region , where he trained at AC Boulogne @-@ Billancourt and Versailles . In 1999 , he was selected to attend the Clairefontaine academy . He spent three years there before leaving for Lyon , where he won four Ligue 1 titles . In his early career at Lyon , he played as a centre forward , but moved into a winger role during the 2007 – 08 season . In the summer of 2008 , Ben Arfa signed with rivals Marseille for € 11 million in a move that required the intervention of the Ligue de Football Professionnel . With Marseille , he won the 2009 – 10 league title , his fifth overall , as well as the Coupe de la Ligue in 2010 . After two years at Marseille , Ben Arfa joined English club Newcastle United on loan for the 2010 – 11 season . The deal was made permanent later in the season .
Ben Arfa spent four years at Newcastle , with a loan spell at Hull City in his final season at the club . He signed for Nice in January 2015 , but was unable to make his debut until August , having already represented Newcastle United Reserves and Hull City the previous season . He scored seventeen goals in thirty @-@ two league appearances for Nice , attracting the interest of several European clubs , and signed for Paris Saint @-@ Germain on 1 July 2016 .
Ben Arfa is a former French youth international and has played at all levels for France . At the under @-@ 17 level , he was a part of the team that won the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Championship . Ben Arfa was called up to the senior team for the first time in October 2007 for a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against the Faroe Islands . He has made fifteen appearances for France , scoring twice .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Ben Arfa was born into a family with a football history . His father was the former Tunisian international footballer Kamel Ben Arfa . Ben Arfa began his career in France at ASV Châtenay @-@ Malabry . After two years at the club , he moved a few miles north to Montrouge CF 92 . In 1998 , Ben Arfa joined sporting club AC Boulogne @-@ Billancourt . The following year , he was selected to attend the Clairefontaine academy . While at Clairefontaine , he was a part of A la Clairefontaine , a documentary series which chronicled the lives of some of France 's top young footballers during their time at the academy . During the series , an episode showed Ben Arfa getting into an argument with Abou Diaby . While training at Clairefontaine during the weekdays , he played for FC Versailles on the weekends .
= = = Lyon = = =
Already labeled a prodigy at the age of fifteen , Ben Arfa joined Lyon , a club that had just won its first ever Ligue 1 championship . In August 2004 , after spending two years in the youth divisions of the Lyon academy , he signed his first professional contract , agreeing to a three @-@ year deal despite late interest from English club Chelsea and Dutch outfit Ajax . Along with fellow youth player Karim Benzema , he was promoted to the senior squad and was assigned the number 34 shirt .
Ben Arfa made his professional debut on the opening day of the 2004 – 05 season against Nice . Lyon won the match 1 – 0 with a goal from Giovane Élber , a few minutes after Ben Arfa had come on . After making a few substitute appearances , he made his first start on 11 September 2004 in a 2 – 1 victory over Rennes playing 56 minutes . Ben Arfa scored his first professional goal two months later on 10 November in a Coupe de la Ligue match against Lille , converting from the penalty spot in extra time to give Lyon a 2 – 1 lead , though Lille scored two late goals , beating Lyon 3 – 2 . He made his UEFA Champions League debut in a group stage match against Manchester United coming on as a substitute for Sidney Govou .
The following season , Ben Arfa switched to the first team number 18 shirt , but his substitute @-@ to @-@ start ratio was still high as seven of his 12 appearances were as a substitute . He made his first Champions League start in a 2 – 1 victory over Norwegian club Rosenborg , providing the assist on the game @-@ winning goal scored by the Brazilian Fred in the last minutes of the match . Ben Arfa scored his first league goal during the 2006 – 07 season against Sedan just before half @-@ time . The goal proved to be the winner as Lyon won the match 1 – 0 .
After the departure of wingers Florent Malouda and Sylvain Wiltord , new manager Alain Perrin preferred the more modern 4 – 3 – 3 formation , and moved Ben Arfa to left wing for the 2007 – 08 season . Ben Arfa quickly adapted to the position and scored his first goal in a 5 – 1 demolition of Metz on 15 September , though his performance was overshadowed by a Karim Benzema hat trick . Arguably his best performances in a Lyon shirt came in a period of 12 days , during which he played a league match on 28 October against Paris Saint @-@ Germain and a Champions League game against German club VfB Stuttgart on 7 November . He scored two goals in each match with both results being in favor of Lyon . Following the season , he was named the National Union of Professional Footballers ( UNFP ) Young Player of the Year .
Despite rumors of a rift between himself and Benzema , Ben Arfa signed a contract extension with Lyon in March 2008 until 2010 . However , his career at Lyon reached an impasse after he got into a training session scuffle with Sébastien Squillaci .
= = = Marseille = = =
Despite reported interest from English clubs Everton , Manchester United , Arsenal , and Spanish club Real Madrid , rumors of a move to rivals Marseille began to surface . On 28 June 2008 , Lyon confirmed that a proposed transfer to Marseille had been cancelled for the time being . However , Ben Arfa confirmed to the local La Provence newspaper on 29 June that he had signed for the southern coast club and would not return to Lyon for pre @-@ season training the following day . La Provence later reported that Ben Arfa had in fact missed training in Lyon on 30 June , confirming his intentions .
Ben Arfa officially joined Marseille on 1 July 2008 for € 12 million , with future incentives to be included later , after an agreement was reached between Marseille and Lyon in a meeting organized by the Ligue de Football Professionnel . As a result of the disagreement over the transfer , in December 2008 , Ben Arfa told the local Lyon newspaper Le Progrès that his former team lacked class and was not a great team . Ben Arfa was presented to the media and had his first training session with the club the same day . He was given the number 20 shirt . On 16 July , Ben Arfa was involved in another training session bust @-@ up , this time with striker and France international Djibril Cissé . Cissé later joined English club Sunderland on loan .
Ben Arfa made his league debut on the opening day of the season in a 4 – 4 draw with Rennes . He scored his first goal for Les Marseillais in that match . He continued in form scoring six times in his first 11 matches . However , his reputation for controversy continued to haunt him when he was involved in another dispute , this time with the Cameroon international Modeste M 'bami during a warm up session ahead of the club 's UEFA Champions League match against Liverpool . The two had to be separated by Ronald Zubar . Controversy arose again following Marseille 's 4 – 2 loss to Le Classique rivals Paris @-@ Saint Germain . He drew the ire of manager Eric Gerets after his refusal to leave the bench to warm up . Ben Arfa later said he was injured much to the chagrin of Gerets , but later apologized for the incident to the media and Gerets himself . Upon his return to the squad , Ben Arfa responded by scoring a goal and providing the assists on both the other goals in a 3 – 1 victory over Saint @-@ Étienne .
Ben Arfa switched to the number 10 shirt for the 2009 – 10 season and made his debut on the opening match day of the season in a 2 – 0 away victory over Grenoble appearing as a substitute in the 68th minute . The following week , he earned his first start of the season against Lille and assisted the winning goal scored by Brandão . Controversy surfaced again , however , when , on 8 October 2009 , Ben Arfa was fined € 10 @,@ 000 by the club for missing a training session . Ben Arfa blamed the absence on airport delays as he was in Tunisia visiting family members during the international break . A month later , on 18 November , he got into a heated argument with manager Didier Deschamps during a training session , for which Ben Arfa later apologized . Under Deschamps in the first half of the season , Ben Arfa appeared in 15 of the club 's 20 league matches and only played the full 90 minutes in two matches , a 2 – 1 defeat against Monaco and a 2 – 0 defeat to Auxerre .
Ben Arfa 's play during the 2010 portion of the season earned praise from both Deschamps and sporting director José Anigo . On 10 January 2010 , Ben Arfa scored his first goal of the season against amateur club Trélissac in the Coupe de France . A month later , he was instrumental in Marseille 's 5 – 1 victory over Valenciennes assisting on the opening goal scored by Lucho González . Later that month , Ben Arfa scored an away goal in the first leg of the club 's UEFA Europa League tie against Danish club FC København . In the return leg in Marseille , Ben Arfa struck again , scoring the opening goal in the 43rd minute . Marseille won the match 3 – 1 and the tie 6 – 2 on aggregate . On 27 February , he scored his first league goal of the season in a 3 – 0 victory over Paris Saint @-@ Germain . Ben Arfa 's play in the month of February was validated when he was named the UNFP Player of the Month . Marseille won all four of the league matches the team contested with Ben Arfa starting all of them . On 7 April , Ben Arfa converted a penalty in a 3 – 0 win over Sochaux . The victory placed the club at the top of the table , and they remained there for the rest of the season and clinched the title on 5 May with a 3 – 1 win over Rennes . Ben Arfa appeared as a substitute in the match .
= = = = Departure from Marseille = = = =
On 22 July 2010 , reports surfaced suggesting that English club Newcastle United were looking to sign Ben Arfa . After being questioned , Newcastle 's manager Chris Hughton denied the reports . Five days later , Ben Arfa 's agent declared that Newcastle were indeed interested in the player , along with German clubs Hoffenheim and Werder Bremen , Turkish club Galatasaray , and Italian club A.C. Milan . On 9 August , a season @-@ long loan with an option to make the move permanent was reportedly being negotiated between the two clubs . However , a loan @-@ fee for the deal could not be reached with Newcastle offering £ 650 @,@ 000 ; £ 350 @,@ 000 short of what Marseille wanted . On 12 August , Marseille president Jean @-@ Claude Dassier announced that Ben Arfa would not be moving to Newcastle and even went as far as to say that an offer from the club had not even existed .
Similar to his actions in leaving Lyon , Ben Arfa responded to the statement by telling the French sports newspaper L 'Equipe that he would not be returning to La Commanderie , Marseille 's training facility , and would not play with the team for the remainder of the season . He also stated that his relationship with Deschamps had turned sour and was beyond repair . Ben Arfa confirmed his intentions by travelling to Newcastle upon Tyne , without authorization , with hopes that Newcastle and Marseille would come to an agreement . After returning to Marseille , he missed several training sessions with his parent club and was , subsequently , left off the match day squad for two league matches against Valenciennes and Lorient . Ben Arfa 's number 10 was later given to new signing André @-@ Pierre Gignac , which signaled a transfer was imminent .
On 19 August , a proposed move to Werder Bremen failed to come to fruition after the club 's sporting director Klaus Allofs declared that the club was not interested in Ben Arfa , despite reports of Werder Bremen offering Marseille a transfer fee of € 8 million . On 27 August , Dassier confirmed that the club had reached an agreement on a loan fee with Newcastle for the transfer of Ben Arfa with personal terms being the only stumbling block in the deal . Marseille agreed to a £ 2 million loan fee . Newcastle had been set to pay Marseille another £ 5 million if Ben Arfa had made 25 club appearances in the 2010 – 11 season , which would have made the transfer permanent .
= = = = Newcastle United ( loan ) = = = =
On 27 August 2010 , Ben Arfa agreed to personal terms with Newcastle and , the following day , the club confirmed that it had signed Ben Arfa on a season @-@ long loan . He made his debut on 11 September 2010 , appearing as a substitute in a 2 – 0 defeat at home to Blackpool . He scored his first goal for Newcastle on his full debut on 18 September in the 1 – 0 victory against Everton . On 3 October , Ben Arfa suffered a broken tibia and fibula in his left leg while playing in a league match against Manchester City . The injury came as a result of a tackle by opposing midfielder Nigel de Jong . On 5 January 2011 , Marseille and Newcastle both confirmed on their websites that they had reached an agreement for the permanent transfer of Ben Arfa to Newcastle with the player agreeing to a four and a half year contract . The transfer fee was undisclosed .
Ben Arfa spent most of his rehabilitation in his home city of Paris recuperating at the Clairefontaine ( football ) academy . In January 2011 , it was reported by the English media that Ben Arfa had undergone another surgery in November 2010 to repair complications that were preventing his shin bones from healing properly . On 23 February , Newcastle manager Alan Pardew confirmed that Ben Arfa was running and could return to the team in April . However , days later , Pardew revealed that he wasn 't prepared to rush the player 's rehabilitation process and that Ben Arfa probably wouldn 't be available until May , stating " I am going to protect him . I can 't just throw him in " . Ben Arfa returned to training with Newcastle on 5 April . He participated fully in warm @-@ ups with the first @-@ team , but spent the majority of the training session doing light training and fitness work . Ben Arfa ultimately failed to make any more appearances with the team in the 2010 – 11 season .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
After continuing his rehabilitation during the summer , ahead of the 2011 – 12 season , Ben Arfa began participating in friendly matches with the senior team . He made his return to the team on 15 July 2011 in a match against Conference National club Darlington . Five days later , in the team 's pre @-@ season tour of the United States , he sustained an ankle injury in a match against Sporting Kansas City . Ben Arfa ventured back to his home country to rehab the injury and returned to Newcastle on 18 September . He was , subsequently , named to the first @-@ team to participate in the team 's Football League Cup tie against Nottingham Forest on 21 September . Ben Arfa made his season debut in the match against Nottingham Forest appearing as a substitute . Three days later , he made his Premier League return , coming on as a substitute in a 3 – 1 win over Blackburn Rovers . On 26 December 2011 , after going the majority of the autumn campaign without scoring a goal , Ben Arfa scored his first goal of the season in a 2 – 0 away win over Bolton .
On 7 January 2012 , Ben Arfa scored Newcastle 's opening goal in its FA Cup third round tie against Blackburn Rovers . The goal , described by BBC Sport as " magical " , drew the match 1 – 1 and Newcastle later went on to win the tie 2 – 1 . On 22 January 2012 , Ben Arfa scored in Newcastle 's 5 – 2 defeat to Fulham at Craven Cottage . Two months later , Ben Arfa scored the opener in Newcastle 's away league match against Arsenal . The hosts , however , won the match 2 – 1 . On 25 March , he scored one goal and provided the assists on the other two goals in a 3 – 1 victory against West Brom . Two weeks later , on Easter Monday , Ben Arfa scored again against Bolton Wanderers . The goal , described as " a moment of genius " by British publication The Independent , as he was passed the ball just inside his own half , he proceeded to turn and speed past 4 Bolton players , showing incredible control in doing so , and slotted it past Bolton goalkeeper Ádám Bogdán , the goal was the opener and Newcastle went on to win the match 2 – 0 .
Despite having a disrupted pre @-@ season due to his participation in Euro 2012 , Ben Arfa enjoyed a good start to the new Premier League season . On the opening weekend of the season he won and converted a penalty that gave Newcastle a 2 – 1 victory over Tottenham . Two weeks later he scored with a spectacular 25 @-@ yard drive , on his weaker right foot , to earn Newcastle a point in a 1 – 1 draw against Aston Villa . He injured his hamstring during December , and made his comeback against Anzhi Makhachkala in the Europa League on 7 March 2013 , his 26th birthday . He then developed an injury which kept him out of the team until the second leg of the Europa League quarter final against Benfica on the 11 April 2013 when he came on as a second @-@ half substitute . Ben Arfa scored the equaliser in a 2 – 1 away win at Loftus Road from the penalty spot as Newcastle confirmed their Premier League status for the next season .
Ben Arfa started the 2013 – 14 season in a rich vein of form , securing Newcastle 's first win of the season by scoring an individual goal against Fulham and scoring and making an assist in the following game against Aston Villa . Ben Arfa 's third goal of the season when the Frenchman converted a late penalty away at Crystal Palace to help Newcastle ease to 3 – 0 victory .
= = = = Hull City ( loan ) = = = =
On 2 September 2014 , Ben Arfa signed for Hull City on a season @-@ long loan . He made his debut on 15 September , replacing fellow debutant Abel Hernández for the final 11 minutes of a 2 – 2 home draw against West Ham United . In December 2014 , however , Ben Arfa unexpectedly left England , with Hull manager Steve Bruce later admitting he did not know where the player was and that his career with Hull appeared to be over .
On 4 January 2015 , Ben Arfa was released from his Newcastle United contract .
= = = Nice = = =
On 5 January 2015 , Ben Arfa signed a deal with Ligue 1 side Nice , stating that " Even if Real Madrid had called at that moment , my mind was made up . " He said that he had returned to France because " There are people here who trust me , who do not judge me as some people want to judge me through the press . "
Ben Arfa would be ineligible to play for the club , due to a rule that a player can only play for two clubs in a single season , having already played for both Newcastle United and Hull City . On 3 February , Ben Arfa told a press conference his deal with Nice had been terminated , however , on 9 June , Nice would re @-@ sign Ben Arfa at the start of the 2015 – 16 Ligue 1 season .
Ben Arfa made his debut for Nice against AS Monaco on 14 August 2015 at home . He scored his first goal for his new club against Troyes from the penalty spot . The game ended 3 – 3 . In the next match , Ben Arfa scored a solo goal against Caen .
= = = Paris Saint @-@ Germain = = =
On 1 July 2016 , amidst reported interest from all over Europe , Ben Arfa signed for Paris Saint @-@ Germain on a two @-@ year deal , after his contract ran out at Nice .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Ben Arfa has earned caps with all of France 's youth teams . With the under @-@ 16 team , he made ten appearances scoring seven goals . Ben Arfa made his debut with the team at the 2003 edition of the Aegean Cup in Turkey . He scored his first goal in the tournament on 12 January in a 3 – 2 win over Belgium . The victory assured France a third @-@ place finish . At the Montaigu Tournament , Ben Arfa scored a team @-@ leading six goals . He scored two goals in the team 's 8 – 0 win over Gabon in the opening match . In the following match , Ben Arfa scored the final goal in the team 's 3 – 0 win over Russia and , in the final group stage match , bagged another double in a 3 – 1 victory over England . He capped the tournament by scoring a goal in the final against Italy , though France lost the match 5 – 1 .
Ben Arfa made his debut with the under @-@ 17 team in the opening match of the season against Sweden converting a first @-@ half hat @-@ trick in a 5 – 2 victory . In the Tournio de Val @-@ de @-@ Marne , Ben Arfa scored two goals as France were crowned champions without conceding a goal . At the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship , Ben Arfa , alongside teammates Samir Nasri , Benzema , and Jérémy Menez contributed to the team winning the competition . Ben Arfa appeared in all five matches and scored goals against Northern Ireland , Turkey and Portugal . In total with the under @-@ 17s , he made 17 appearances and scored a team @-@ high 11 goals . Because of his increased playing time with Lyon , Ben Arfa missed a significant portion of playing time with the under @-@ 18 team . He made his debut on 15 March 2005 , playing in a 3 – 3 draw with Germany . Ben Arfa appeared in the final three matches of the season for the team to bring his appearance total to four . He scored no goals .
The foursome of Ben Arfa , Nasri , Benzema , and Menez returned to international play together for under @-@ 19 duty . The four were joined by Issiar Dia , Blaise Matuidi , and Serge Gakpé with the objective of winning the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship . In the first round of qualification for the tournament , Ben Arfa scored his lone goal in the opening match against Wales as France advanced through the round undefeated . Due to injury , Ben Arfa was absent from the final round of qualification for the tournament and , despite going undefeated in the round , France were eliminated after being beaten on points by Scotland . Ben Arfa only made one competitive appearance with the under @-@ 21 team , appearing in a 2009 UEFA Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification match against Romania .
= = = Senior = = =
Before representing France , Ben Arfa was eligible to represent Tunisia and was offered a place in the 2006 World Cup , held in Germany . Like Sami Khedira he turned down the opportunity , preferring to continue his career with the French national team . Ben Arfa was called up to the senior team for the first time on 10 October 2007 by Raymond Domenech to replace the injured Louis Saha and played in the Euro 2008 qualifying matches against the Faroe Islands and Lithuania . This move stunned critics of Domenech as they expected striker David Trezeguet to get the call @-@ up . Ben Arfa made his debut on 13 October when he came on for Franck Ribéry in the 64th minute and scored the last goal in France 's 6 – 0 victory over the Faroe Islands . Ben Arfa was , however , omitted from Domenech 's final 23 @-@ man Euro 2008 squad on 28 May .
On 25 February 2010 , after a long period without a call @-@ up , Ben Arfa returned to the team , alongside teammates Steve Mandanda and Benoît Cheyrou , after being called up for France 's friendly match with Spain on 3 March . On 11 May , he was named to the 30 @-@ man preliminary list by Domenech to play in the 2010 World Cup , but failed to make the final 23 .
After going nearly two years without representing France internationally , on 5 August 2010 , Ben Arfa was called up to the senior team by new manager Laurent Blanc for the team 's friendly match against Norway on 11 August 2010 . Ben Arfa made his return to the team in the match appearing as a half @-@ time substitute for Moussa Sissoko . He scored the opening goal of the match in a 2 – 1 defeat . On 29 May 2012 Ben Arfa was included in France 's 23 man squad for UEFA Euro 2012 , making his first start in the final game of Group D , losing 2 – 0 to Sweden .
On 12 May 2016 , Ben Arfa was named on the standby list for France 's UEFA Euro 2016 squad .
= = Personal life = =
Ben Arfa was born in the Paris suburb of Clamart , and was raised in Châtenay @-@ Malabry . His father Kamel Ben Arfa , a former Tunisian international footballer , arrived in France in 1973 settling in Saint @-@ Michel , Aisne to work in a foundry . He later starred for a local club in the commune . Ben Arfa describes himself as a moderately practising Muslim .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 1 May 2016
= = = International = = =
As of 17 November 2015 .
= = = = International goals = = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Lyon
Ligue 1 : 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08
Coupe de France : 2007 – 08
Trophée des champions : 2006 , 2007
Marseille
Ligue 1 : 2009 – 10
Coupe de la Ligue : 2009 – 10
Trophée des Champions : 2010
= = = International = = =
France
UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Championship : 2004
= = = Individual = = =
UNFP Young Player of the Year : 2007 – 08
UNFP Player of the Month : February 2010
UNFP Team of the Year : 2015 @-@ 16
= The X Factor ( UK series 7 ) =
The X Factor is a British television music competition to find new singing talent . The seventh series started on ITV on 21 August 2010 and ended on 12 December 2010 . The winner was Matt Cardle and his debut single " When We Collide " was released after the final . Cardle was mentored throughout by Dannii Minogue , who won as mentor for the second time . A total of 15 @,@ 448 @,@ 019 votes were cast throughout the series . It was presented by Dermot O 'Leary , with spin @-@ off show The Xtra Factor presented by Konnie Huq on ITV2 , who took over from Holly Willoughby .
The competition was split into several stages : auditions , bootcamp , judges ' houses and live shows . Auditions took place throughout June and July 2010 , with Simon Cowell , Louis Walsh and Cheryl Cole returning as judges . Minogue missed the auditions and bootcamp due to being on maternity leave , so Geri Halliwell , Natalie Imbruglia , Katy Perry , Pixie Lott and Nicole Scherzinger were brought in as guest judges . Cole missed the auditions in Manchester and bootcamp because she had malaria . Following bootcamp , successful acts were split into four categories : Boys ( male soloists aged 16 to 28 ) , Girls ( female soloists aged 16 to 28 ) , Over 28s ( soloists aged 29 and over ) and Groups . Minogue and Cole returned for the judges ' houses stage , and each judge mentored eight acts through judges ' houses . The live shows started on 9 October 2010 . Four acts eliminated at judges ' houses were brought back as wildcards , making this the first series to have 16 acts perform in the live shows .
This was the first series of the show to be filmed in high definition , and was simulcast on ITV1 HD and STV HD . From October , The Xtra Factor was also shown in high definition , simulcast on the new channel ITV2 HD . It was sponsored by TalkTalk in the United Kingdom and Dominos Pizza in Ireland .
This series proved to be highly controversial , with many people complaining about the use of pitch correction software on the broadcast of contestants ' auditions , the decision to form two groups out of rejected soloists , the rejection of popular contestant Gamu Nhengu at judges ' houses and Cole 's failure to vote to eliminate an act in week 5 of the live shows . Controversy also surrounded contestants Shirlena Johnson , who was axed over fears for her mental health , and Treyc Cohen , who was reported to already have a record deal when the live shows started . There were also accusations of fixing , which were denied by the show 's producers . It was the most watched series to date , with an average of 14 @.@ 13 million viewers per episode . The final was watched by 17 @.@ 71 million people , making it the highest rated television episode of 2010 in the UK .
= = Judges , presenters and other personnel = =
In February 2010 , Dannii Minogue confirmed that she would not attend the auditions for series 7 due to being pregnant . It was confirmed that guest judges would take Minogue 's place alongside Simon Cowell , Louis Walsh and Cheryl Cole during the auditions . The guest judges were Geri Halliwell , Natalie Imbruglia , Katy Perry , Pixie Lott and Nicole Scherzinger . On 11 June , Minogue was confirmed by ITV to return for the judges ' houses stage . Cole missed the Manchester auditions and bootcamp due to having malaria , so Scherzinger returned as a guest judge for bootcamp . Cole then returned for the judges ' houses stage .
Dermot O 'Leary returned for his fourth series as presenter of the main show on ITV , but Holly Willoughby did not return for her third series as presenter on The Xtra Factor on ITV2 and was replaced by Konnie Huq . Brian Friedman returned as creative director , while Ali Tennant and Savan Kotecha were hired as vocal coaches . However , Tennant 's contract was ended before the live shows and was replaced by Yvie Burnett , who worked as vocal coach from series 2 – 6 . Richard " Biff " Stannard began working as show song producer for Minogue 's contestant , and Grace Woodward began working on the show as fashion director .
= = Selection process = =
= = = Applications and auditions = = =
The first appeal for applicants for series 7 was broadcast during series 6 on 5 December 2009 . Applicants for the seventh series were given the opportunity to apply by uploading a video audition to the Internet . Auditions began in June 2010 in six cities : Glasgow ( SECC , 9 June ) , Birmingham ( LG Arena , 13 – 14 June ) , London ( ExCeL London , 21 – 24 June ) , Dublin ( Convention Centre Dublin , 28 June ) , Cardiff ( International Arena , 2 July ) , and Manchester ( Manchester Central , 9 – 11 July ) . Dublin returned as an audition city for the first time since the third series in 2006 .
Halliwell was the first guest judge , and attended the Glasgow auditions . Imbruglia was the second guest judge , appearing for the Birmingham auditions . The guest judge slot was axed for the London auditions , but continued with Perry judging in Dublin , Lott in Cardiff and Scherzinger at the auditions in Manchester . Cole was unable to attend the Manchester auditions because she had contracted malaria and was not replaced for them .
The first episode , broadcast on 21 August 2010 , featured auditions from Glasgow and London , while episode two , on 28 August , showcased Dublin 's auditions and more from London . More London auditions were shown on 4 September , along with those from Birmingham , and Cardiff was featured in the 11 September broadcast along with the final set of London auditions . Finally , the Manchester auditions were shown in the 18 and 19 September episodes .
= = = Bootcamp = = =
The bootcamp stage of the competition began on 22 July 2010 at Wembley Arena , London and was broadcast on 25 – 26 September . Minogue continued her maternity leave and Cole did not attend because she was still in recovery . As Cole and Minogue were absent , producers of the show decided to axe bootcamp 's live audience . The bootcamp stage was broadcast in two episodes on 25 and 26 September . The first day of bootcamp saw Cowell and Walsh split the 211 acts into their four categories : Boys , Girls , Over 25s and Groups . They received vocal coaching and each category later performed one song : the Boys sang " Man in the Mirror " , the Girls sang " If I Were a Boy " , the Over 25s sang " Poker Face " and the Groups sang " Nothing 's Gonna Stop Us Now " . At the end of the day , the number of acts was cut to 108 . On the second day , acts were given dance lessons by creative director Brian Friedman but they were not judged on their performances .
Scherzinger then returned as a guest judge on the third day , where each act performed one song from a list of 40 . On the fifth day , Scherzinger suggested that the Over @-@ 25s category be changed to Over 28s , as the quality of older singers was high . The Boys and Girls categories then comprised singers aged 16 to 28 , rather than 16 to 25 . As the groups category was the weakest , five rejected soloists from the Boys category and four from the Girls category were asked to form two groups , Belle Amie and One Direction . After bootcamp , each judge was assigned a category : Cowell was given the Groups , Walsh had the Over @-@ 28s , Minogue was asked to look after the Boys and Cole was assigned the Girls .
= = = Judges ' houses and wildcards = = =
Minogue and Cole returned to the judging panel for the judges ' houses stage of the competition , where each judge mentored eight acts , increased from six in previous series . Each judge had help from a guest judge to choose their final acts . Original judge Sharon Osbourne returned to assist Walsh at Adare Manor in Adare , County Limerick , Ireland , Cole was assisted by will.i.am in Coworth Park , Ascot , Berkshire , England , Cowell by Sinitta in Marbella , Spain , and Natalie Imbruglia returned to assist Minogue in Melbourne , Australia . Contestants spent a week at judges ' houses and performed two songs for their respective judge . Each judge and their guest eliminated five acts , leaving twelve remaining . The judges ' houses stage was broadcast in two episodes on 2 and 3 October 2010 .
In the first live show on 9 October , Paije Richardson , Treyc Cohen , Wagner and Diva Fever were brought back as wildcards .
= = Finalists = =
After the wildcards were revealed in the first live show , the final sixteen acts were confirmed as follows :
Key :
– Winner
– Runner @-@ up
– Third place
= = Live shows = =
= = = Format = = =
The live shows took place at The Fountain Studios in Wembley , north @-@ west London . They started on 9 October 2010 , with contestants performing on the Saturday night shows and the results being announced on the Sunday night shows . As previously , each week had a different song theme . The two acts with the fewest public votes were in the bottom two and sang again in the " final showdown " . The songs they performed in the bottom two were of their own choice and did not necessarily follow that week 's theme . The four judges then each chose one act from the bottom two that they wanted to be eliminated from the show . If each act received an equal number of judges ' votes , the result was deadlocked and the act with the fewest public votes was eliminated . The first live show was extended to two and a half hours to include a surprise twist , namely that each judge was given a wildcard , allowing them to bring back one rejected act from judges ' houses , thus bringing the number of finalists up from twelve to sixteen . Owing to the addition of the wildcards , the first two results were double eliminations . The eighth result was also a double elimination . In the case of a double elimination , instead of the bottom two , the bottom three were announced and the act with the fewest votes was automatically eliminated . The two remaining acts from the bottom three then performed in the final showdown . Starting from the eighth week of live shows , contestants performed two songs each on the Saturday night .
At the start of each results show , the remaining finalists performed a song as a group . However , the song was pre @-@ recorded and the contestants mimed , because of technical issues with mixing the number of microphones . Starting this series , the contestants ' live performances were made available to download from iTunes . However , the songs are not eligible to chart to protect the integrity of the contest . Viewers in Ireland were allowed vote again , having been unable to for four years .
Each results show featured a number of guest performers . Joe McElderry and Usher performed on the first live results show , and Diana Vickers and Katy Perry performed in the second week . The third results show featured performances from judge Cole and Michael Bublé . Rihanna , Bon Jovi and Jamiroquai performed in the fourth results show , and Shayne Ward and Kylie Minogue performed in the fifth week . Take That , Westlife and JLS all performed on the sixth results show , and Olly Murs performed on the seventh . Week eight featured performances from Justin Bieber , The Wanted and Nicole Scherzinger . The cast of Glee performed on the semi @-@ final on 5 December , along with Alexandra Burke and The Black Eyed Peas . Rihanna performed again in the first show of the final , and Christina Aguilera also performed . Take That performed again in the second show of the final .
The final took place on 11 and 12 December , with each episode lasting two hours . During the first show , the voting lines were frozen and the fourth placed contestant was eliminated . The votes carried over and the third placed contestant left on the second show following another freeze . The final two performed the potential winner 's singles before the winner was announced .
= = = Results summary = = =
Colour key
^ 1 Cowell was not required to vote as there was already a majority .
^ 2 The voting percentages in week 10 for Sunday rounds 1 and 2 do not add up to 100 % , owing to the freezing of votes . Cher Lloyd received 6 @.@ 65 % of the vote at the second freeze , and 4 @.@ 07 % of the final vote . One Direction received 12 @.@ 69 % of the final vote .
= = = Live show details = = =
= = = = Week 1 ( 9 / 10 October ) = = = =
Theme : Number @-@ one singles
Group performance : " The Rhythm of the Night "
Musical guests : Usher ( " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " / " OMG " ) and Joe McElderry ( " Ambitions " )
Owing to the addition of four wildcard contestants , two acts were eliminated from the series ' first results show . The three acts with the fewest votes were announced as the bottom three and the act with the fewest public votes was then automatically eliminated . The remaining two acts then performed in the final showdown for the judges ' votes .
Judges ' votes to eliminate
Cowell : Katie Waissel – backed his own act , F.Y.D.
Cole : F.Y.D. – based on the final showdown performance , effectively backing her own act , Katie Waissel
Minogue : F.Y.D. – based on the final showdown performance
Walsh : F.Y.D. – stated that he had to choose the act with more potential , as well as " the right act "
= = = = Week 2 ( 16 / 17 October ) = = = =
Theme : Heroes
Group performance : " Telephone "
Musical guests : Diana Vickers ( " My Wicked Heart " ) and Katy Perry ( " Firework " )
Owing to the addition of the wildcard contestants , two acts were eliminated from the series ' second results show . The three acts with the fewest public votes were announced as the bottom three and then the act with the fewest votes was automatically eliminated . The remaining two acts then performed in the final showdown for the judges ' votes .
Judges ' votes to eliminate
Walsh : Diva Fever – thought Belle Amie would get better in the competition
Minogue : Diva Fever – based on final showdown performances
Cole : Diva Fever – gave no reason
Cowell was not required to vote as there was already a majority and refused to say how he would have voted as both his acts were in the sing @-@ off .
= = = = Week 3 ( 23 / 24 October ) = = = =
Theme : Guilty pleasures
Group performance : " Forget You "
Musical guests : Michael Bublé ( " Hollywood " ) and Cheryl Cole ( " Promise This " )
Judges ' votes to eliminate
Walsh : Treyc Cohen – said Adeleye had more potential , effectively backing his own act , John Adeleye
Minogue : John Adeleye – based on the final showdown performances
Cole : John Adeleye – backed her own act , Treyc Cohen
Cowell : John Adeleye – based on the final showdown performances
= = = = Week 4 ( 30 / 31 October ) = = = =
Theme : Halloween
Group performance : " Livin ' on a Prayer " ( with Bon Jovi )
Musical guests : Bon Jovi with finalists ( " Livin ' on a Prayer " ) , Jamiroquai ( " White Knuckle Ride " ) and Rihanna ( " Only Girl ( In the World ) " )
Judges ' votes to eliminate
Cowell : Katie Waissel – backed his own act , Belle Amie
Cole : Belle Amie – gave no reason , though effectively backed her own act , Katie Waissel
Minogue : Belle Amie – based on the final showdown performance
Walsh : Katie Waissel – gave no reason
With the acts in the bottom two receiving two votes each , the result was deadlocked and reverted to the earlier public vote . Belle Amie were eliminated as the act with the fewest public votes .
= = = = Week 5 ( 6 / 7 November ) = = = =
Theme : American anthems
Group performance : " So What "
Musical guests : Shayne Ward ( " Gotta Be Somebody " ) and Kylie Minogue ( " Better than Today " )
Judges ' votes to eliminate
Cowell : Treyc Cohen – based on who he would prefer to see again the following week
Cole refused to vote off either of her acts and offered to vote last to force a deadlock , but O 'Leary then announced it would go to a majority vote
Minogue : Katie Waissel – gave no reason
Walsh : Treyc Cohen – stated that he would follow his heart and save Katie Waissel
= = = = Week 6 ( 13 / 14 November ) = = = =
Theme : Songs by Elton John
Group performance : " Can 't Stop Moving "
Musical guests : JLS ( " Love You More " ) , Westlife ( " Safe " ) and Take That ( " The Flood " )
Judges ' votes to eliminate
Cowell : Aiden Grimshaw – gave no reason
Cole : Aiden Grimshaw – backed her own act , Katie Waissel
Minogue : Katie Waissel – gave no reason , though effectively backed her own act , Aiden Grimshaw
Walsh : Katie Waissel – felt Grimshaw had more potential
With the acts in the bottom two receiving two votes each , the result was deadlocked and reverted to the earlier public vote . Grimshaw was eliminated as the act with the fewest public votes .
= = = = Week 7 ( 20 / 21 November ) = = = =
Theme : Songs by The Beatles
Group performance : " Heroes " ( all finalists )
Musical guest : Olly Murs ( " Thinking of Me " )
Judges ' votes to eliminate
Cowell : Paije Richardson – said he would want to back Lloyd whom he had continually supported
Cole : Paije Richardson – backed her own act , Cher Lloyd
Minogue : Cher Lloyd – backed her own act , Paije Richardson
Walsh : Paije Richardson – gave no reason
= = = = Week 8 ( 27 / 28 November ) = = = =
Theme : Rock
Musical guests : The Wanted ( " Lose My Mind " ) , Justin Bieber ( " Somebody to Love " / " Baby " ) and Nicole Scherzinger ( " Poison " )
For the first time this series , each contestant performed two songs .
Two acts were eliminated from the series ' eighth results show . The three acts with the fewest votes
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August , his forces crossed the Rhine by Mannheim , and participated in the bombardment of Thionville , on the Moselle , in early September . Although the invading forces of the allies readily captured Longwy on 23 August and slowly marched on to Verdun , which was even less defensible than Longwy . The Duke of Brunswick now began his march on Paris and approached the defiles of the Argonne . In combination with the Army of Condé and Hessian troops , a portion of his force , 15 @,@ 000 , covered the left ( southern ) flank of the Prussian advance on Valmy .
As a seasoned and experienced officer , he had been chosen as a mentor for the young Archduke Charles , and the archduke was assigned to his force ; they were not at Valmy , but could hear the cannonade . The Duke of Brunswick 's force was to engage the northern flank of the French army , called the Army of the Sedan , while Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg 's force engaged the southern flank ( Army of the Metz ) .
In December of 1792 , Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg 's forces defended Trier from the Army of the Moselle so well that its commander , General of Division Pierre de Ruel , marquis de Beurnonville , was removed from his command by his superiors in Paris . On 31 December , Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg was awarded the Grand Cross of Military Order of Maria Theresa for his success at Trier .
In May 1793 , his forces played a decisive role in the victory at the Battle of Famars . He was appointed as General Quarter Master and Chief of Staff to the Coalition 's main army in Flanders , succeeding General Karl Mack . As part of the Belgian Corps under Field Marshal Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld he played a decisive role in the action at Avesnes @-@ le @-@ Sec and later at the Battle of Fleurus ( 1794 ) . Subsequently , Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg commanded a corps on the upper Rhine and was responsible for the recapture of Speyer from the French on 17 September 1794 . This was his final military action ; he retired from service in early 1795 because of his failing health and died in 1796 .
= = Family = =
Born in the family county of Hohenlohe , Friedrich Wilhelm ( William ) was the first son of Karl August , Fürst zu Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg and his second wife , Susanne Margarete Louisa , Gräfin von Auersperg . Eight other children followed until her death 12 September 1748 . His father remarried ( 21 January 1749 ) and had four more children . In 1770 , Friedrich Wilhelm married the divorced Frederike , Countess of Reuss zu Greiz ( Greiz 9 July 1750 – Prague 14 June 1816 ) ; they had no children . He died in Prague , Bohemia , 10 August 1796 .
= = = Sibling connections = = =
Seven of his 12 siblings died before the age of ten . The surviving siblings were :
Christian Friedrich Karl , Fürst zu Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg ( 19 October 1729 Kirchberg – 18 August 1819 Kirchberg )
August Ludwig , Prinz zu Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg ( 3 September 1735 Kirchberg – 19 January or June 1780 Kirchberg
Friedrich Eberhard , Prinz zu Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg ( 21 October 1737 Kirchberg – 21 January 1804 Kirchberg ) ( married Albertina Renata v.Castell @-@ Remlingen )
Friedrich Karl Ludwig , Prinz zu Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg ( 19 March / November 1751 Kirchberg – 12 September 1791 Weikersheim )
Friedrich Karl Ludwig was an amateur artist . He had started a career in cavalry but an accident during a review caused him to abandon the military . He studied first under Valentine Tischbein and later under Oeser in Leipzig . His artistic pursuits included drawing , miniature painting ( at which he was apparently quite good ) , and ivory carving .
Christiane Friederike Sophie zu Hohenlohe @-@ Kirchberg ( 1 April 1731 – 15 March 1787 )
= Australian weasel shark =
The Australian weasel shark ( Hemigaleus australiensis ) is an uncommon species of ground shark in the family Hemigaleidae . It inhabits shallow waters off northern Australia to a depth of 170 m ( 560 ft ) ; smaller sharks frequent sand and seagrass habitat and shift to coral reefs as they grow older . A slim , drab species reaching a length of 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) , it has sickle @-@ shaped fins with dark tips on the second dorsal fin and caudal fin upper lobe . Its upper teeth are broad with strong serrations only on the trailing edge . The lateral line along each side is prominent and exhibits a downward curve below the second dorsal fin .
Feeding almost exclusively on octopuses and other cephalopods , the Australian weasel shark mostly hunts near the sea floor . It is viviparous , with the developing embryos nourished through a placental connection and born after a six @-@ month gestation period . This species is productive for a shark , with females bearing litters of 1 – 19 pups usually twice per year . The Australian weasel shark is caught by trawl and to a lesser extent gillnet and longline fisheries , though not in such numbers that its population is threatened . Thus , it has been listed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
Originally regarded as conspecific with the sicklefin weasel shark ( H. microstoma ) , the Australian weasel shark was first documented as a potentially distinct species by John Stevens and Glen Cuthbert in 1983 . Its scientific description was authored by William White , Peter Last , and Leonard Compagno in a 2005 volume of the scientific journal Zootaxa . They gave it the specific epithet australiensis on the basis of its range , and designated as the type specimen an adult male 92 cm ( 36 in ) long caught at a depth of 41 m ( 135 ft ) off Geraldton , Western Australia .
= = Description = =
Reaching 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) in length , the Australian weasel shark has a slender , spindle @-@ shaped body and a moderately long head with a thick , rounded snout . The large , oval eyes possess nictitating membranes and have notched posterior rims . Tiny spiracles are located behind and above the eyes . The large nostrils are preceded by fairly long , triangular flaps of skin . The short , curved mouth bears prominent furrows at the corners . There are 28 – 30 upper and 46 – 52 lower tooth rows , which are not visible when the mouth is closed ; the upper teeth are broad and angled with large serrations on the trailing edge only , whereas the lower teeth are thin and upright with smooth edges . There are five pairs of fairly short gill slits .
All of the fins , particularly the narrow pectoral fins , are falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) to some degree . The medium @-@ sized first dorsal fin originates just behind the pectoral fin rear tips . The second dorsal fin is about two @-@ thirds as tall as the first , and there is no midline ridge running between them . The pelvic fins are broad and slightly larger than the anal fin . The anal fin has a strong notch in the trailing margin and is positioned slightly behind the second dorsal fin . The caudal peduncle bears a crescent @-@ shaped notch at the upper origin of the caudal fin . The asymmetrical caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a long , narrow upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . The prominent lateral line curves downward below the second dorsal fin . The skin is densely covered by small , overlapping dermal denticles ; each bears five horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . This species is light grey to bronze above , darkening at the tips of the second dorsal fin and upper caudal fin lobe ( though this may be indistinct in larger sharks ) , and pale below . The underside is off @-@ white , and the first dorsal fin has a pale trailing margin .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Australian weasel shark inhabits continental and insular shelves off northern Australia , from Geraldton in Western Australia to Brunswick Heads in New South Wales . Additional records from Papua New Guinea are as yet unconfirmed . It seems to be naturally rather uncommon . This species tends to swim close to the sea floor and can be found from inshore waters down to 170 m ( 560 ft ) deep . Juveniles and small adults are generally found in sandy areas with seagrass cover , while large adults occur more around coral reefs .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The Australian weasel shark feeds predominantly on octopuses such as Callistoctopus spp . , either swallowing them whole or removing the arms first . Octopuses become increasingly important to its diet with age , such that sharks over 90 cm ( 35 in ) long eat almost nothing else ; this increasing dietary specialisation is accompanied by a habitat shift toward coral reefs , which may serve to reduce competition between older and younger individuals . Bobtail squids represent a minor secondary food source , particularly for smaller sharks . In addition , other cephalopods , mud lobsters , crabs , and echinoderms are rarely consumed . This species probably hunts mostly at dawn and dusk ; it typically seeks bottom @-@ dwelling prey but will also rise into the water column if opportunity presents , such as during seasonal aggregations of broad squid ( Uroteuthis etheridgei ) . Known parasites of the Australian weasel shark include the tapeworms Nybelinia mehlhorni , Paraorygmatobothrium kirstenae , and P. taylori , and the copepods Perissopus dentatus and Pseudopandarus australis .
Like other members of its family , the Australian weasel shark is viviparous with the developing embryos sustained through a placental connection with the mother . Mature females have a single functional ovary and two functional uteruses . The gestation period is six months long and typically two litters are produced annually , one around February and the other around September . Litter size varies from 1 to 19 pups ( average 8 ) . The embryos lose their external gills at a length of 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) , have developed colouration by a length of 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) , and are born at a length of 30 cm ( 12 in ) . Males and females reach sexual maturity at approximately 60 cm ( 24 in ) and 65 cm ( 26 in ) long respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the Australian weasel shark is commonly caught by prawn and fish trawlers operating off northern Australia . Smaller numbers are also captured in gillnets and on longlines . As this species has a relatively high reproductive rate and losses to fisheries are not severe enough to affect its population , it has been assessed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= French ironclad Reine Blanche =
The French ironclad Reine Blanche was a wooden @-@ hulled armored corvette built for the French Navy in the late 1860s as an improvement over the Belliqueuse armored covervette . She played a minor role in the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 and was accidentally rammed by one of her sisters in 1877 . The ship bombarded the port of Sfax during the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881 before being sent to the Pacific in 1884 . She quickly returned to port with worn @-@ out boilers and was condemned later that year .
= = Design and description = =
The Alma @-@ class ironclads were designed as improved versions of the armored corvette Belliqueuse , suited for foreign deployments . Unlike their predecessor , the Alma @-@ class ships were true central battery ironclads as they were fitted with armored transverse bulkheads . Like most ironclads of their era , they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram .
Reine Blanche measured 69 @.@ 02 meters ( 226 ft 5 in ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 13 @.@ 94 meters ( 45 ft 9 in ) . She had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 48 meters ( 21 ft 3 in ) and displaced 3 @,@ 768 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 708 long tons ) . Her crew numbered 316 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a single horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single propeller . Her engine was powered by four oval boilers . On sea trials the engine produced 1 @,@ 860 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 390 kW ) and the ship reached 11 @.@ 72 knots ( 21 @.@ 71 km / h ; 13 @.@ 49 mph ) . Reine Blanche carried 250 metric tons ( 250 long tons ) of coal , allowing the ship to steam for 1 @,@ 610 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 980 km ; 1 @,@ 850 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 1 @,@ 454 square meters ( 15 @,@ 650 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Reine Blanche mounted her four 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) Modèle 1864 breech @-@ loading guns in the central battery on the battery deck . The other two 194 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , sponsoned out over the sides of the ship . The four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were also mounted on the upper deck . She may have exchanged her Mle 1864 guns for Mle 1870 guns . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 20 @-@ caliber Mle 1870 gun weighed 165 @.@ 3 pounds ( 75 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 7 @.@ 83 long tons ( 7 @.@ 96 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 739 ft / s ( 530 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 320 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
= = = Armor = = =
Reine Blanche had a complete 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wrought iron waterline belt , approximately 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of wrought iron and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness . The barbette armor was 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick , backed by 240 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of wood . The unarmored portions of her sides were protected by 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) iron plates .
= = Service = =
Reine Blanche was laid down at Lorient in 1865 and launched on 10 March 1868 . The ship began her sea trials on 15 April 1869 and was put into reserve at Brest after they were completed . She was commissioned on 20 July 1870 and made one cruise to the Shetland Islands during the Franco @-@ Prussian War before she was placed in reserve again on 20 September . Reine Blanche was recommissioned in July 1871 as flagship of the second division of the Evolutionary Squadron . During the Cantonal Revolution Reine Blanche and her sister Thétis spent much of September – October 1873 in the port of Cartagena , Spain , where they could protect French citizens . She was reduced to reserve on 1 February 1876 and recommissioned in April 1877 .
On 3 July 1877 she was accidentally rammed by Thétis and had to be run ashore to prevent her from sinking . Reine Blanche was placed back into reserve in 1878 . She was recommissioned on 15 April 1879 for service with the Levant Squadron . From 5 – 16 July 1881 Reine Blanche bombarded the Tunisian port of Sfax as part of the French occupation of Tunisia . The ship was named as the flagship of the Pacific Squadron on 20 January 1884 under command of Rear Admiral Franquet , but she returned to Cherbourg on 22 May 1884 with worn @-@ out boilers and her hull in poor shape . Reine Blanche was paid off and condemned on 12 November 1884 .
= Rock Steady ( album ) =
Rock Steady is the fifth studio album by American rock band No Doubt , released on December 11 , 2001 by Interscope Records . The band began writing the album with initial recording sessions in Los Angeles and San Francisco , then traveled to London and Jamaica to work with various performers , songwriters , and producers . Sly & Robbie , The Neptunes , and William Orbit were among the many artists the band collaborated with on the album .
As a result of these collaborations , Rock Steady touches on many musical styles , focusing on dub , synthpop , and dance styles more so than in the past . The band attempted to capture the vibe of Jamaican dancehall music , and experimented with writing songs without its standard instrumentation . Singer Gwen Stefani wrote her lyrics quickly in comparison to previous records , and dealt with topics ranging from partying to ruminations on her relationship with Gavin Rossdale .
Rock Steady received mostly positive reviews from music critics , and it was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2003 Grammy Awards . The album was a commercial comeback for the band , surpassing sales of their previous offering , Return of Saturn , released in 2000 . Rock Steady spawned four singles , two of which won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal . Rolling Stone ranked Rock Steady number 316 on its 2003 list of " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " .
= = Background and production = =
Every night on the tour to support their 2000 album Return of Saturn , No Doubt threw after @-@ show parties where people danced to Jamaican dancehall music . During a discussion over dinner in late 2000 , the band members decided they wanted to explore dancehall @-@ style rhythms for their next album . Drawing inspiration from artists such as Bounty Killer , Cutty Ranks , and Mr. Vegas , the band began work on the album in January 2001 by creating beats on Pro Tools at guitarist Tom Dumont 's apartment . The group often tried recreating beats from other song files on the computer , which resulted in modified versions of the original rhythms . They worked with producer Philip Steir at Toast Studios in San Francisco during this time , where the beginnings of " Hey Baby " emerged . When writing lyrics for previous albums , Stefani typically read works by Sylvia Plath that would make her depressed " or find different words that inspire me . " In contrast , for Rock Steady she wrote the lyrics quicker and on the spot to meet the goal of writing a song a day . Many of the demos recorded during these early sessions were used in the final tracks , rather than completely reworking the songs . The band saw this as a way to preserve the " initial spark " from when the songs were conceived .
The next month , Stefani left Los Angeles for London to visit boyfriend Gavin Rossdale , and the band traveled with her to finish recording " Detective " . There , they worked with Eurythmics member David A. Stewart and wrote the song " Underneath It All " in only ten minutes . In March , No Doubt traveled to Jamaica , staying at the Blue Lagoon in Port Antonio . The band " spent most of the time swimming and getting sunburned and drinking and smoking and recording a little music " , according to Dumont . The group would often have Red Stripe beers or rum and cokes with jerk food for breakfast ; on one occasion , Dumont passed out from heavy drinking while recording a track . They began work in the mid @-@ afternoon and worked into the night , with an after @-@ party following the session . The group collaborated with Sly & Robbie , who produced " Underneath It All " and " Hey Baby " and brought in dancehall toasters Lady Saw and Bounty Killer , and Steely & Clevie , who produced " Start the Fire " .
The band returned from Jamaica and resumed work in June 2001 , collaborating with producers Nellee Hooper and Timbaland . The Timbaland track , titled " It 's a Fight " , and a Dr. Dre @-@ produced song titled " Wicked Day " were excluded from the album because their hip hop sounds did not work well on the album . The band then worked with producer and former Cars frontman Ric Ocasek in late June . Stefani commented that No Doubt worked with so many people for the record because none were available for the time needed to make an LP , but that she would have liked to work with Ocasek longer . The band and its A & R manager Mark Williams chose collaborators based on how well they thought the person would fit the personality of the song that No Doubt had written . In late August , the band returned to London for Mark " Spike " Stent to polish off the songs with audio mixing .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The band members often did not play their standard instruments when working on the songs for Rock Steady . As a result , the album 's instrumentation contains less guitar and bass guitar than the band 's previous work . Many of the album 's sounds come from electronic keyboard effects , which bassist Tony Kanal called " Devo @-@ y bleeps and Star Wars noises " . Dumont commented that many of the effects came from being unfamiliar with the equipment and " just twiddling knobs " . Dumont created an effect similar to that of an echo chamber by placing a microphone inside a metal garbage can with the can 's open end facing a drum kit . Richard B. Simon of MTV News asserted that the sound of Rock Steady was part of the decade nostalgia of the 1980s retro movement .
Stefani 's vocals range from innocent to seductive , sometimes transitioning from one to the other within a song . Her lyrics are based on her relationship with Rossdale , whom she married less than a year after the album 's release . Stefani is openhearted and unreserved as on Return of Saturn , but her approach becomes more immediate and instinctive . The lyrics are more youthful than those on Return of Saturn and detail partying and feelings of lust . An overarching theme on the album is Stefani 's impatience in the couple 's long @-@ distance relationship . She discusses wanting to see Rossdale on " Making Out " and " Waiting Room " , and she reveals her distrust in Rossdale on " In My Head " . On " Hey Baby " she gives an innocuous account of the debauchery between her bandmates and their groupies during parties , as she observes the party . The lyrics of " Underneath It All " question whether or not Rossdale is a good match for her , an issue resolved in the chorus , which was written based on a journal entry where Stefani wrote the line " You 're lovely underneath it all " about Rossdale .
= = Composition = =
Rock Steady maintains many of the styles present in No Doubt 's previous work , while introducing influences from the music of Jamaica . " Hey Baby " , " Underneath It All " and " Start the Fire " all feature dancehall and ragga , an electronic @-@ oriented subgenre , as well as guest toasters . The latter , written using backward string samples , also contains the band 's traditional ska and reggae sounds . Ocasek produced the New Wave @-@ influenced tracks " Don 't Let Me Down " and " Platinum Blonde Life " , the former of which was described as sounding " more like the Cars than the Cars " . " Platinum Blonde Life " was so strongly influenced by The Cars ' work that Kanal apologized to Ocasek , though Ocasek apologized back that he hadn 't seen the similarity . The synthpop ballad " Running " was composed on a Yamaha keyboard purchased for Kanal in the 1980s and drew inspiration from the Thompson Twins . Its simple keyboard riff drew comparisons to the work of Depeche Mode , Erasure , and Yazoo .
Because of the number of collaborations , the album touches on several other styles . " Waiting Room " , a song written and sung with Prince for Return of Saturn , evokes his R & B style over a drum and bass beat . " Hella Good " , an electro rock song co @-@ written with hip hop production duo The Neptunes , is inspired by the funk songs of the late 1970s such as Queen 's " Another One Bites the Dust " and the Commodores ' " Brick House " . William Orbit , best known for his work on Madonna 's electronica @-@ oriented Ray of Light , incorporates trance music in the production of " Making Out " . " Detective " , one of the five tracks produced by Hooper , takes slight influence from pop music . The album 's title track closes the album by tying together the many musical themes . It is a slow dub song , with acid house @-@ style bleeps and moans .
= = Critical reception = =
Rock Steady received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 69 , based on 15 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Rolling Stone 's Rob Sheffield said it was " impressive to hear No Doubt summon the musical imagination to transcend the formula that used to imprison them " and ranked Rock Steady number 316 on its 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic referred to the album as " a good , hooky , stylish mainstream pop record " . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly remarked that there was " something oddly flimsy " about No Doubt that prevented it from becoming a milestone in pop music , but that the band 's " party @-@ throwing skills improve with each new gathering . " Stylus Magazine commented that the band sounded like it had " growing pains " and was unsure of its place in mainstream rock , predicting that No Doubt would either become a singles band " or go all Radiohead on us and make an album of avant @-@ jazz @-@ electro @-@ acid @-@ funk @-@ polka . "
Many reviewers focused on the large number of styles that Rock Steady incorporates . PopMatters , noting that Rock Steady maintains the introspection of Return of Saturn without the latter 's " longing and wistfulness " , stated that " it is to No Doubt 's credit ... that they manage to keep the album together with little more than their collective personalities . " Blender , however , called it " an intermittently engaging but overall shapeless collection ... the product of happy @-@ go @-@ lucky musicians who once cavorted in bad track suits but now spend their days commuting between London , Jamaica and Los Angeles seeking the wisdom of expensive studio geeks . " Nevertheless , Blender included the album on its 2003 list of " 500 CDs You Must Own Before You Die ! " . The NME viewed the album 's " enormous waterfront of styles " positively , noting that it had many strong potential singles , but found that some of the " empty @-@ headed guitar pop " on the second half of the album spoiled the listening experience . Time stated that Rock Steady was able to integrate ska , pop , New Wave , and dancehall " without sounding contrived or chaotic " . It added that though the album lacked the energy and sales of No Doubt 's 1995 breakthrough album Tragic Kingdom , Rock Steady was " their greatest effort to date ... the sound of band dropping pretense to realize its potential . " Slant Magazine included Rock Steady on its list of 50 Essential Pop Albums , commenting that " not since Blondie ... has a rock act so effortlessly , irreverently , and fashionably skidded across so many different genre boundaries at one time . " LAUNCHcast said that " even with so many producers attempting to steer this bus along the superstar highway , they end up in a better @-@ than @-@ most parking lot " .
= = Chart performance = =
Rock Steady sold approximately three million copies . NME reviewer Alex Needham compared the album 's revival of No Doubt 's popularity to the performance of Madonna 's 1998 album Ray of Light . The album debuted at number nine on the Billboard 200 , selling 254 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Rock Steady was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on October 11 , 2002 , and by July 2012 , it had sold 2 @,@ 842 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . At the 2003 Grammy Awards , the album was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album but lost to Norah Jones ' Come Away with Me . The lead single " Hey Baby " and third single " Underneath It All " won the award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals at the 2003 and 2004 Grammy Awards , respectively .
The album did not perform as strongly outside the US . In September 2002 , Rock Steady was certified platinum in Canada , and in the United Kingdom , the album was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on July 22 , 2013 . It peaked at number fifteen on the ARIA Albums Chart and spent nine non @-@ consecutive weeks in the top forty . The album was listed at number ninety @-@ seven on the 2002 Australian Recording Industry Association end @-@ of @-@ year chart , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
= = Legacy and impact = =
Following the success of the regular edition , Rock Steady had two special edition re @-@ releases in October 2002 , each of which had a bonus CD . The two @-@ song CD features acoustic live performances of " Underneath It All " and " Just a Girl " recorded at 1LIVE in Cologne , Germany in June 2002 as well as the music video for " Underneath It All " . The four @-@ song CD includes a remix of " Hey Baby " featuring Outkast and Killer Mike ; another remix by F.A.B.Z. ; Roger Sanchez 's remix of " Hella Good " , which won a Grammy Award for Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical in 2003 ; and a remix of Return of Saturn 's lead single " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " made by Philip Steir , who helped produce " Hey Baby " . The songs from the two @-@ song bonus disc were released in North American iTunes Stores , and those from the four @-@ song bonus disc were released in other countries . Rock Steady Live , a live DVD of No Doubt performing in 2002 in support of Rock Steady , was released in November 2003 .
Rock Steady produced the band 's most successful singles . " Hey Baby " preceded the album with an October 2001 release . It set a record for the band when it reached number five on the Billboard Hot 100 . The positive response to " Hey Baby " from radio stations and video channels prompted the band to push forward the release of Rock Steady from December 18 to December 11 . The next single , " Hella Good " , was released in April 2002 . It was somewhat less successful and peaked at number thirteen . It was followed by " Underneath It All " , which was released that August . The single is No Doubt 's most successful American single to date , peaking at number three on the Hot 100 , and like " Hey Baby " , it managed to top the Billboard Top 40 Mainstream chart . The fourth and final single was " Running " in April 2003 . Peaking at number sixty @-@ two , " Running " became No Doubt 's lowest position on the Hot 100 to date .
When singer @-@ songwriter Jewel released her fifth album 0304 in June 2003 , reinventing and sexualizing her public image , music critics identified Rock Steady and Ray of Light as influences on the album . Slant Magazine compared 0304 's retro tribute to new wave music with that on Rock Steady . Blender commented that Jewel had " brushed up on two sacred pop texts , the Manual of Madonna and the Gospel According to Gwen " . The magazine compared her use of a more restrained , throaty purr to Stefani 's vocals and noted 0304 's use of " jumpy bubblegum choruses and boop @-@ boop @-@ beeping keyboards " as descendants of No Doubt 's production .
= = Track listing = =
Enhanced content
" Hey Baby " video
Rock Steady screensaver
" The Making of Rock Steady " documentary
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rock Steady .
No Doubt
No Doubt – production
Gwen Stefani – vocals ( all tracks ) ; additional programming ( tracks 4 , 13 ) ; album art concept
Tony Kanal – bass , keyboards ( all tracks ) ; additional engineering ( tracks 3 , 6 – 9 , 11 , 13 ) ; programming ( tracks 3 , 7 , 8 , 11 ) ; additional programming ( tracks 4 , 6 , 9 , 13 ) ; saxophone ( track 5 )
Tom Dumont – guitar , keyboards ( all tracks ) ; additional engineering ( tracks 3 , 6 – 9 , 11 , 13 ) ; programming ( tracks 3 , 7 , 8 , 11 ) ; additional programming ( tracks 4 , 6 , 9 , 13 )
Adrian Young – drums
Additional personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= History of the Cleveland Browns =
The history of the Cleveland Browns American football team began in 1944 when taxi @-@ cab magnate Arthur B. " Mickey " McBride secured a Cleveland , Ohio franchise in the newly formed All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . Paul Brown , who coach Bill Walsh once called the " father of modern football " , was the team 's namesake and first coach . From the beginning of play in 1946 at Cleveland Municipal Stadium , the Browns were a great success . Cleveland won each of the AAFC 's four championship games before the league dissolved in 1949 . The team then moved to the more established National Football League ( NFL ) , where it continued to dominate . Between 1950 and 1955 , Cleveland reached the NFL championship game every year , winning three times .
McBride and his partners sold the team to a group of Cleveland businessmen in 1953 for a then @-@ unheard @-@ of $ 600 @,@ 000 . Eight years later , the team was sold again , this time to a group led by New York advertising executive Art Modell . Modell fired Brown before the 1963 season , but the team continued to win behind running back Jim Brown . The Browns won the championship in 1964 and reached the title game the following season , losing to the Green Bay Packers . The team subsequently reached the playoffs three times in the late 1960s , but fell short of playing in the Super Bowl , the inter @-@ league championship game between the NFL and the rival American Football League ( AFL ) that started in 1966 .
When the AFL and NFL merged before the 1970 season , Cleveland became part of the new American Football Conference ( AFC ) . While the Browns made it back to the playoffs in 1971 and 1972 , they fell into mediocrity through the mid @-@ 1970s . A revival of sorts took place in 1979 and 1980 , when quarterback Brian Sipe engineered a series of last @-@ minute wins and the Browns came to be called the " Kardiac Kids " . Under Sipe , however , the Browns did not make it past the first round of the playoffs . Quarterback Bernie Kosar , who the Browns drafted in 1985 , led the team to three AFC Championship games in the late 1980s but lost each time . In 1995 , Modell announced he was relocating the Browns to Baltimore , sowing a mix of outrage and bitterness among Cleveland 's dedicated fan base . Negotiations and legal battles led to an agreement where Modell was allowed to move the team , but Cleveland kept the Browns ' name , colors and history . After three years of suspension while the old municipal stadium was demolished and Cleveland Browns Stadium took its place , the Browns started play again in 1999 under new owner Al Lerner . Since resuming operations , the Browns have made the playoffs only once , as a wild @-@ card team in 2002 .
The Browns are only one of 12 NFL franchises to predate the 1960 launch of the American Football League , and only one of three such teams in the AFC .
= = Founding and dominance in the AAFC ( 1946 – 1949 ) = =
In 1944 Arch Ward , the influential sports editor of the Chicago Tribune , proposed a new professional football league called the All @-@ America Football Conference . The AAFC was to challenge the dominant National Football League once it began operations at the end of World War II , which had forced many professional teams to curtail activity , merge or go on hiatus as their players served in the U.S. military . It was a bold proposition , given the failure of three previous NFL competitors and the dominance of college football , which was more popular than the professional game at the time . Ward , who had gained fame and respect for starting all @-@ star games for baseball and college football , lined up deep @-@ pocketed owners for the new league 's eight teams in hopes of giving it a better chance against the NFL . One of them was Arthur B. " Mickey " McBride , a Cleveland businessman who grew up in Chicago and knew Ward from his involvement in the newspaper business . McBride spent his early career as a circulation manager for the Cleveland News , and went into business for himself in the 1930s , buying a pair of Cleveland taxi companies and running a wire service that supplied bookies with information about the results of horse races . He had connections to organized crime in Chicago and Cleveland arising from the wire service .
McBride developed a passion for football attending games at Notre Dame , where his son went to college . In the early 1940s he tried to buy the NFL 's Cleveland Rams , owned by millionaire supermarket heir Dan Reeves , but was rebuffed . Having been awarded the Cleveland franchise in the AAFC , McBride asked Cleveland Plain Dealer sportswriter John Dietrich for head coaching suggestions . Dietrich recommended Paul Brown , the 36 @-@ year @-@ old Ohio State Buckeyes coach . After consulting with Ward , McBride followed Dietrich 's advice in early 1945 , naming Brown head coach and giving him an ownership stake in the team and full control over player personnel . Brown , who had built an impressive record as coach of a Massillon , Ohio high school team and brought the Buckeyes their first national championship , at the time was serving in the U.S. Navy and coached the football team at Great Lakes Naval Station near Chicago .
The name of the team was at first left up to Brown , who rejected calls for it to be christened the Browns . McBride then held a contest to name the team in May 1945 ; " Cleveland Panthers " was the most popular choice , but Brown rejected it because it was the name of an earlier failed football team . " That old Panthers team failed , " Brown said . " I want no part of that name . " In August , McBride gave in to popular demand and named the team the Browns , despite Paul Brown 's objections .
As the war began to wind down with Germany 's surrender in May 1945 , the team parlayed Brown 's ties to college football and the military to build its roster . The first signing was Otto Graham , a former star quarterback at Northwestern University who was then serving in the Navy . The Browns later signed kicker and offensive tackle Lou Groza and wide receivers Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie . Fullback Marion Motley and nose tackle Bill Willis , two of the earliest African @-@ Americans to play professional football , also joined the team in 1946 . Cleveland 's first training camp took place at Bowling Green University in northwestern Ohio . Brown 's reputation for winning notwithstanding , joining the team was a risk ; the Browns and the AAFC were nascent entities and faced tough competition from the NFL . " I just went up there to see what would happen , " center Frank Gatski said many years later .
Cleveland 's first regular @-@ season game took place September 6 , 1946 at Cleveland Municipal Stadium against the Miami Seahawks before a then @-@ record crowd of 60 @,@ 135 . That contest , which the Browns won 44 – 0 , kicked off an era of dominance . With Brown at the helm , the team won all four of the AAFC 's championships from 1946 until its dissolution in 1949 , amassing a record of 52 wins , four losses and three ties . This included the 1948 season , in which the Browns became the first unbeaten and untied team in professional football history . The Browns had few worthy rivals among the AAFC 's eight teams , but the New York Yankees and San Francisco 49ers were their closest competition .
While the Browns excelled on defense , Cleveland 's winning ways were driven by an offense that employed Brown 's version of the T formation , which emphasized speed , timing and execution over set plays . Brown liked his players " lean and hungry , " and championed quickness over bulk . Graham became a star under Brown 's system , leading all passers in each of the AAFC 's seasons and racking up 10 @,@ 085 passing yards . Motley , who Brown in 1948 called " the greatest fullback that ever lived " , was the AAFC 's all @-@ time leading rusher . Brown and six players from the Browns ' AAFC years were later elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame : Graham , Motley , Groza , Lavelli , Willis and Gatski .
The Cleveland area showered support on the Browns from the outset . Meanwhile , the Browns unexpectedly had Cleveland to themselves ; the NFL 's Cleveland Rams , who had continually lost money despite winning the 1945 NFL championship , moved to Los Angeles after that season . The Browns ' on @-@ field feats only amplified their popularity , and the team saw average attendance of 57 @,@ 000 per game in its first season . The Browns , however , became victims of their own success . Cleveland 's dominance exposed a lack of balance among AAFC teams , which the league tried to correct by sending Browns players including quarterback Y.A. Tittle to the Baltimore Colts in 1948 . Attendance at Browns games fell in later years as fans lost interest in lopsided victories , while attendance for less successful teams fell even more precipitously . The Browns led all of football during the undefeated season in 1948 with an average crowd of 45 @,@ 517 , but that was more than 10 @,@ 000 less than the average per game the previous year . These factors – combined with a war for players between the two leagues that raised salaries and ate into owners ' profits – ultimately led to the dissolution of the AAFC and the merger of three of its teams , including the Browns , into the NFL in 1949 . The NFL does not acknowledge AAFC statistics and records because these achievements – including the Browns ' perfect season – did not take place in the NFL or against NFL teams , and not in a league fully absorbed by the NFL .
= = Success and challenges in the NFL ( 1950 – 1956 ) = =
The AAFC proposed match @-@ ups with NFL teams numerous times during its four @-@ year existence , but no inter @-@ league game ever materialized . That made Cleveland 's entry into the NFL in the 1950 season the first test of whether its early supremacy could continue into a more established league . The proof came quickly : Cleveland 's NFL regular @-@ season opener was against the two @-@ time defending champion Philadelphia Eagles on September 16 in Philadelphia . The Browns lit up the Eagles ' vaunted defense for 487 total yards — including 246 passing yards from Graham and his receivers — in a 35 – 10 win before a crowd of 71 @,@ 237 . This decisive win quashed any doubts about the Browns ' prowess . Behind an offense that featured Graham , Groza , Motley , Lavelli and running back Dub Jones , Cleveland finished the 1950 season with a 10 – 2 record , tied for first place in the Eastern Conference . After winning a playoff game against the New York Giants , the Browns advanced to the NFL championship match against the Los Angeles Rams in Cleveland . The Browns won 30 – 28 on a last @-@ minute Groza field goal . Fans stormed the field after the victory , carting off the goalposts , ripping off one player 's jersey and setting a bonfire in the bleachers . " It was the greatest game I ever saw , " Brown later said .
After five straight championship wins in the AAFC and NFL , the Browns appeared poised to bring another trophy home in 1951 . The team finished the regular season with 11 wins and a single loss in the first game of the season . Cleveland faced the Rams on December 23 in a rematch of the previous year 's title game . The score was deadlocked 17 – 17 in the final period , but a 73 @-@ yard touchdown pass by Rams quarterback Norm van Brocklin to wide receiver Tom Fears broke the tie and gave Los Angeles the lead for good . The 24 – 17 loss was the Browns ' first in a championship game .
The 1952 and 1953 seasons followed a similar pattern : Cleveland reached the championship game but lost both times to the Detroit Lions . In 1952 's championship game , Detroit won 17 – 7 after a muffed punt by the Browns , several Lions defensive stands and a 67 @-@ yard touchdown run by Doak Walker scuttled Cleveland 's chances . The team finished 11 – 1 in 1953 , but lost the championship to the Lions 17 – 16 on a 33 @-@ yard Bobby Layne touchdown pass to Jim Doran with just over two minutes left . While the championship losses disappointed Cleveland fans who had grown accustomed to winning , the team continued to make progress . Len Ford , who the Browns picked up from the defunct AAFC 's Los Angeles Dons team , emerged as a force on the defensive line , making the Pro Bowl each year between 1951 and 1953 . Second @-@ year wideout Ray Renfro became a star in 1953 , also reaching the Pro Bowl .
During the summer before the 1953 season , the Browns ' original owners sold the team for a then @-@ unheard @-@ of $ 600 @,@ 000 . The buyers were a group of prominent Cleveland men : Dave R. Jones , a businessman and former Cleveland Indians director , Ellis Ryan , a former Indians president , Homer Marshman , an attorney , and Saul Silberman , owner of the Randall Park race track . McBride had been called in 1950 to testify before the Kefauver Committee , a congressional body investigating organized crime , which partly exposed his ties to mafia figures but did not result in any charges . While McBride never said so , the Kefauver hearings and the growing public association between him and the mafia may have played a role in his decision to get out of football .
While the Browns came into 1954 as one of the top teams in the NFL , the future was far from certain . Graham , whose leadership and throwing skills were instrumental in the Browns ' championship runs , said he planned to retire after the season . Motley , the team 's best rusher and blocker , retired at the beginning of the season with a bad knee . Star defensive lineman Bill Willis also retired before the season . Still , Cleveland finished the regular season 9 – 3 and met Detroit the day after Christmas in the championship game for a third consecutive time . This time Cleveland dominated on both sides of the ball , intercepting Bobby Layne six times while Graham threw three touchdowns and ran for three more . The Browns , who lost the last game of the regular season to the Lions only a week before , won their second NFL championship 56 – 10 . " I saw it , but still hardly can believe it , " Lions coach Buddy Parker said after the game . " It has me dazed . "
Cleveland 's success continued in 1955 after Brown convinced Graham to come back , arguing that the team lacked a solid alternative . Cleveland finished the regular season 9 – 2 – 1 and went on to win its third NFL championship , beating the Los Angeles Rams 38 – 14 . It was Graham 's last game ; the win capped a 10 @-@ year run in which he led his team to the league championship every year , winning four in the AAFC and three in the NFL . Rams fans gave Graham a standing ovation when Brown pulled him from the game in the final minutes .
Without Graham , the Browns floundered in 1956 . Injuries to two Browns quarterbacks left relative unknown Tommy O 'Connell as the starter , and Cleveland finished with a 5 – 7 record , its first losing season . Dante Lavelli and Frank Gatski retired at the end of the season , leaving Groza as the only original Browns player still on the team . While the Browns ' on @-@ field play in 1956 was uninspiring , off @-@ the @-@ field drama developed after a Cleveland @-@ based inventor let Brown test a helmet with a radio transmitter inside . After trying it out in training camp , Brown used the helmet to call plays during the pre @-@ season with long @-@ time backup George Ratterman behind center . The device allowed the coach to direct his quarterback on the fly , giving him an advantage over franchises who had to use messenger players to relay instructions . The Browns used the device off and on into the regular season , and other teams began to experiment with their own radio helmets . Bert Bell , the NFL commissioner , banned the device in October 1956 . Today , however , all NFL teams use in @-@ helmet radios to communicate with players .
= = Jim Brown era and new ownership ( 1957 – 1965 ) = =
With Otto Graham and most of the other original Browns in retirement , by 1957 the team was struggling to replenish its ranks . In the first round of that year 's draft , Cleveland took fullback Jim Brown out of Syracuse University . In his first season , Brown led the NFL with 942 yards of rushing and was voted rookie of the year in a United Press poll . Cleveland finished 9 – 2 – 1 and again advanced to the championship game against Detroit . The Lions dominated the game , forcing six turnovers and allowing only 112 yards passing in a 59 – 14 rout .
Before the 1958 season , O 'Connell , who lacked the stature and durability Paul Brown wanted in a starter , retired to take a coaching job in Illinois , and Milt Plum was named as his replacement . Cleveland , however , was relying increasingly on the running game , in contrast to its pass @-@ happy early years under Graham . As the team built up a 9 – 3 regular @-@ season record , Brown in 1958 ran for 1 @,@ 527 yards – almost twice as much as any other back and a league record at the time .
Entering the final game of the 1958 season , Cleveland needed to either win or tie against the New York Giants to clinch the Eastern Conference title and the right to host the championship game . Cleveland lost that game under snowy conditions on a 49 @-@ yard field goal by Pat Summerall as time expired , and then lost a playoff game against the Giants the following week to end the season . The Giants went on to play the Baltimore Colts in the championship , a game often cited as the seed of professional football 's popularity surge in the U.S.
Cleveland 's campaigns in 1959 and 1960 were unremarkable , aside from Brown 's league @-@ leading rushing totals in both seasons . Plum , meanwhile , became the established starting quarterback , bringing a measure of stability to the squad not seen since Graham 's retirement . He led the team to a 7 – 5 record in 1959 and an 8 – 3 – 1 record in 1960 , but neither was good enough to win the Eastern Conference and advance to the championship . Behind the scenes , however , all was not well . A conflict took shape between Paul Brown and Jim Brown ; emboldened by his success , the fullback began to question his coach 's disciplinarian methods . He called the coach " Little Caesar " behind his back . At halftime during a game in 1959 , Paul Brown questioned the severity of an injury Jim Brown was sidelined for , which further inflamed tensions between the two .
= = = Art Modell takes ownership = = =
Fred " Curly " Morrison , a former Browns running back who worked as an advertising executive for CBS television , learned in 1960 that Dave Jones was looking to sell the Browns and told the story to Art Modell , a 35 @-@ year @-@ old advertising and television executive from Brooklyn . Modell was intrigued , partly because of the potentially lucrative television rights that one of the NFL 's most successful franchises could bring as football began to challenge baseball as America 's biggest sport . Having borrowed as much money as he could , Modell completed the purchase in March 1961 for $ 3 @.@ 925 million . Bob Gries , who had a share in the Browns from the beginning , agreed to buy in again at the new valuation and take a stake of almost 40 % , defraying Modell 's costs substantially . As the previous owners did when they took over , Modell quickly assured Cleveland fans that Brown would " have a free hand " in running the organization and awarded him a new eight @-@ year contract . " As far as I 'm concerned Paul Brown can send [ plays ] in by carrier pigeon , " Modell said . " In my opinion he has no peer as a football coach . His record speaks for itself . I view our relationship as a working partnership . "
The 1961 season was typical on the field : Jim Brown led the league in rushing for the fifth straight season and the team ended with an 8 – 5 – 1 record . That left Cleveland two games out of a berth in the championship . During that year , however , players began to question Paul Brown 's strict and often overbearing demeanor , while many challenged his control over the team 's strategy . Milt Plum spoke out against Brown calling all the team 's offensive plays , and Jim Brown said on a weekly radio broadcast that the coach 's play @-@ calling and handling of Plum were undermining the quarterback 's confidence . They found a willing listener in Modell , a bachelor who was closer to their age than the coach 's .
Further cracks appeared in the " working partnership " between Paul Brown and Modell before the 1962 season . Brown made a trade without informing Modell , giving up star halfback Bobby Mitchell to acquire the rights to Syracuse running back Ernie Davis , the first African @-@ American to win the Heisman Trophy . Davis was chosen by the Washington Redskins with the first overall pick in the 1962 draft , but while Davis was the first black player ever selected by Washington , team owner George Preston Marshall made the move only after being given an ultimatum to add an African @-@ American player or risk losing his stadium lease . Davis demanded a trade , leaving the door open to the Browns , who signed him to a three @-@ year contract worth $ 80 @,@ 000 . As Davis was preparing for the College All @-@ Star Game , however , he came down with a mystery illness and was later diagnosed with leukemia . Brown ruled Davis out for the season , but the running back returned to Cleveland and began a conditioning program after one of his doctors said playing football would not exacerbate his condition . Modell thought Davis could be prepared to play , and Davis , who by then knew he was dying , wanted to be part of the team . Brown , however , continued to insist that he sit out , driving a deeper wedge between him and Modell . Davis died the following May .
The rift between Brown and Modell only widened as the 1962 season progressed . Frank Ryan took Milt Plum 's place as the team 's starting quarterback by the end of the season , and the Browns finished with a 7 – 6 – 1 record . Jim Brown was not the NFL 's leading rusher for the only time in his career .
= = = Paul Brown is fired = = =
On January 9 , 1963 , Art Modell sent a statement to the newswires : " Paul E. Brown , head coach and general manager , will no longer serve the team in those capacities , " it said . Immediate reaction to the decision was muted due to a newspaper strike that kept the Cleveland Plain Dealer and Cleveland Press off the newsstands until April . A printing company executive , however , got together a group of sportswriters and published a 32 @-@ page magazine fielding players ' views on the firing . Opinions were mixed ; Modell came in for his share of criticism , but tackle and team captain Mike McCormack said he did not think the team could win under Brown . Nonetheless , it was a shocking end to the 17 @-@ year Cleveland career of a coach who was already a seminal figure in the city 's sports history . Among many innovations , Brown was the first coach to call plays for his quarterback , give players IQ and personality tests and use game film to evaluate opponents . Even Jim Brown lauded his pioneering role in integrating the game :
Paul Brown integrated pro football without uttering a single word about integration . He just went out , signed a bunch of great black athletes , and started kicking butt . That 's how you do it . You don 't talk about it . ... [ I ] n his own way , the man integrated football the right way – and no one was going to stop him .
Modell named Brown 's chief assistant , Blanton Collier , as the team 's new head coach . Collier was a friendly , studious man who became a player favorite as an assistant on both offense and defense under Brown . He installed an open offense and allowed Ryan to call his own plays . In Collier 's first season , the Browns finished with a 10 – 4 record but fell short of a division title . Jim Brown won the MVP award in 1963 with a record 1 @,@ 863 yards rushing . Dominant blocking from the Browns ' offensive line , which included guard Gene Hickerson and left tackle Dick Schafrath , helped boost his totals .
= = = 1964 championship = = =
Cleveland climbed back to the top of the eastern division in 1964 with a 10 – 3 – 1 record behind Jim Brown 's league @-@ leading 1 @,@ 446 yards of rushing . Rookie wide receiver Paul Warfield led the team with 52 catches , and Frank Ryan cemented his place as the team 's starting quarterback , recording the best game of his career in the season closer against the New York Giants , a game the Browns needed to win to advance to the championship . Yet despite Cleveland 's prowess , the Browns went into the championship game as heavy underdogs against the Baltimore Colts . Most sportswriters predicted an easy win for the Colts , who led the league in scoring behind quarterback Johnny Unitas and halfback Lenny Moore . The Browns ' defense , moreover , was suspect . The team gave up 20 more first downs than any other in the league . The teams , however , had not faced each other for three years . Before the game , Collier and Colts coach Don Shula agreed to give each other full access to video of regular @-@ season games . Ever the student , Collier took full advantage of the opportunity . The Browns had run what was dubbed a " rubber band " pass defense , allowing short throws while trying to prevent big plays . The Colts ' top receivers , however , Raymond Berry and Jimmy Orr , were not fast . They tended to pick apart defenses with short , tactical completions , which led Collier to institute a man @-@ to @-@ man pass defense for the game . This , he figured , would buy more time for the defensive line and force Unitas to scramble — not his forte .
The strategy paid off , and in the wind @-@ whipped Cleveland Municipal Stadium two days after Christmas , the Browns beat the Colts 27 – 0 . Neither team scored in the first half , prompting New York Times columnist Red Smith to quip , " Never have so many paid so dearly – $ 10 , $ 8 , and $ 6 – and suffered so sorely to see so little . " In the second half , the Browns ' defense held on and the offense kicked into gear . Baltimore 's cornerbacks were double @-@ teaming Warfield , which Ryan exploited by throwing three touchdowns to his second wideout , Gary Collins . The Browns scored 10 points in the third quarter and a further 17 in the fourth , clinching the first title since Otto Graham 's departure after the 1955 season . Collins was named the game 's MVP . To date , this is the most recent league championship that the Browns have won , as well as the most recent time that any professional sports team from Cleveland has won a league title .
The following year was a strong one as Jim Brown gritted out another league @-@ leading rushing season . The Browns ended with an 11 – 3 record and comfortably won the eastern division . That set up a second straight appearance in the NFL Championship game against the Packers on a slippery , mucky Lambeau Field on January 2 , 1966 . While the score was close early on , Vince Lombardi 's team held the Browns scoreless in the second half , winning 23 – 12 in an upset on a Paul Hornung touchdown . After the season , the NFL and the competing American Football League agreed to merge starting in 1970 , but would play an inter @-@ league championship from the 1966 season onward . The 1965 championship thus became the NFL 's last before the Super Bowl era , which ushered in a new age of popularity and prosperity for professional football .
In time , this game would be nearly forgotten , lost in the middle of Lombardi 's great triumphs . ... This was both unfair and fitting in a sense , because the game was best considered on its own , a faded dream played in the mist and slop , a transitory moment between football past and future .
= = Playoff disappointments ( 1966 – 1973 ) = =
In early 1966 Jim Brown , who had begun an acting career two years before , was shooting for his second film in London . The Dirty Dozen cast Brown as Robert Jefferson , a convict sent to France during World War II to assassinate German officers meeting at a castle near Rennes in Brittany . Production delays due to bad weather meant he would miss at least the first part of training camp on the campus of Hiram College , which annoyed Modell , who threatened to fine Brown $ 1 @,@ 500 for every week of camp he missed . Brown , who had previously said that 1966 would be his last season , announced his retirement instead . At the end of his nine @-@ year career , Brown held records for most rushing yards in a game , a season and a career . He also owned the record for all @-@ purpose yards in a career and best average per carry for a running back at 5 @.@ 22 yards , a mark that still stands .
With Brown gone , halfback Leroy Kelly became the team 's primary rusher in 1966 . Kelly , an eighth @-@ round draft choice who saw limited playing time in two years as a backup , ably filled his predecessor 's shoes . Cleveland missed the playoffs in 1966 , but made it to the postseason the following year after a realignment of the NFL 's divisions that placed the Browns in the new Century Division . The Browns , however , lost the 1967 eastern conference championship to the Dallas Cowboys . After a year in which he made just 11 of 23 field goal attempts , placekicker Lou Groza , the last remaining player from the inaugural 1946 Browns team , retired before the start of the 1968 season . Groza , who had been on the roster for 21 seasons and was 44 years old when he hung up his spikes , said in his memoir that retiring was " the saddest day of my football life . "
Further playoff defeats followed . In 1968 , as a 32 @-@ year @-@ old Ryan was benched in favor of Bill Nelsen , the Browns finished with a 10 – 4 record but lost to the Colts in the playoffs . Another playoff loss ended the Browns ' season in 1969 , this time to the Minnesota Vikings . After the American Football League 's merger with the NFL was finalized in early 1970 , the Browns , Pittsburgh Steelers and Baltimore Colts moved to the new American Football Conference along with the 10 teams of the former AFL . The Browns were slotted in the AFC Central in the 26 @-@ team league , alongside the Steelers , the Houston Oilers and the Cincinnati Bengals , a team Paul Brown founded in 1968 in the AFL . Cleveland 's first big move under the new league structure was to trade star receiver Paul Warfield in January 1970 to the Miami Dolphins for the rights to draft Purdue University quarterback Mike Phipps as a replacement for Bill Nelsen , who had a pair of bad knees .
The Browns opened the 1970 season by beating Joe Namath and the New York Jets in the first @-@ ever broadcast of Monday Night Football on September 21 . The following month , Cleveland faced Paul Brown 's Bengals for the first time in a regular @-@ season game , winning 30 – 27 . That game was a highlight in an otherwise unsuccessful season . The Browns lost their second match against the Bengals 14 – 10 in November , when Phipps made his first start — Brown called it " my greatest victory " — and finished 7 – 7 .
Plagued by hearing problems , the 64 @-@ year @-@ old Collier announced his retirement before the end of the 1970 season . In eight years as coach , Collier led Cleveland to a championship and a 74 – 33 – 2 record . Nick Skorich was named as his replacement the following year . Skorich came to the Browns as offensive coordinator in 1964 , when the team won the championship . In Cleveland 's first year under Skorich , the team improved to 9 – 5 but lost to the Colts in a divisional playoff . Mike Phipps was promoted to starting quarterback over Nelsen before the 1972 season . After a sluggish start , the Browns went on tear and finished with a 10 – 4 record . That put Cleveland in a playoff against the undefeated Miami Dolphins . The Browns took a lead in the fourth quarter on a touchdown catch by wide receiver Fair Hooker , but the Dolphins responded with a long drive of their own , aided by a pair of Paul Warfield receptions . Running back Jim Kiick ran for a touchdown , sealing a 20 – 14 win and preserving the Dolphins ' perfect season . The following year , Phipps threw 20 interceptions and completed less than half of his passes . After winning four of the first six games , the Browns slumped and placed third in the division with a 7 – 5 – 2 record .
= = Brian Sipe era and the Kardiac Kids ( 1974 – 1984 ) = =
Transition and poor play marked the mid- to late @-@ 1970s . Though Collier agreed to come back to the Browns as a quarterbacks coach on an informal basis , his retirement severed the last direct link to Brown and the team 's early years . Meanwhile , a new generation of players began to replace the old hands who kept Cleveland in playoff contention through most of the 1960s . Gene Hickerson , an anchor on the offensive line in the 1960s , retired at the end of the 1973 season . An aging Leroy Kelly left the same year to play in the short @-@ lived World Football League . Offensive lineman Dick Schafrath , a six @-@ time Pro Bowl selection , retired in 1971 .
Against that backdrop , the Browns finished the 1974 season with a 4 – 10 record , only the second losing season in the team 's history . Phipps ' woes persisted , and he shared playing time with rookie quarterback Brian Sipe , who Cleveland selected in the 13th round of the 1972 draft out of San Diego State . Modell fired Skorich after the season . " You 've got to be a winner in this game , and I just didn 't produce , " Skorich said at the time . After pursuing Dolphins offensive line coach Monte Clark , Modell hired Forrest Gregg as Skorch 's replacement . Gregg , an assistant coach and former Green Bay Packers offensive lineman , preached a hard @-@ nosed , physical brand of football , learned as an offensive lineman on Green Bay 's dynastic 1960s teams under Lombardi . His success as a player , however , did not immediately translate into success as a coach . The regular season began with the worst losing streak in Cleveland 's history . Gregg 's first win did not come until November 23 against Paul Brown 's Cincinnati Bengals , and Cleveland finished with a 3 – 11 record .
The team improved the following year , ending with a 9 – 5 record but missing the playoffs . The highlight of that season was an 18 – 16 victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers on October 10 . Kicker Don Cockroft booted four field goals , while defensive end Joe " Turkey " Jones ' pile @-@ driving sack of quarterback Terry Bradshaw added fuel to the heated rivalry between the teams . While Gregg won the NFL 's Coach of the Year award for turning the Browns around as Sipe became the starting quarterback , by the beginning of the 1977 season the same kind of friction that dogged Paul Brown 's relationship with Modell was surfacing between the owner and the hotheaded Gregg . Cleveland got off to a strong start that year , but Sipe hurt his shoulder and elbow in a November 13 game against the Steelers , and backup Dave Mays took the reins . With Mays as the quarterback – Modell traded Phipps to the Chicago Bears for a couple of draft picks – Cleveland slipped to 6 – 7 going into the final game of the season and Modell asked Gregg to resign .
Modell said he would look outside the Browns organization for a new coach , a break from past hirings that drew from the team 's own ranks . Peter Hadhazy , who Modell had hired as the Browns ' first general manager , recommended a 45 @-@ year @-@ old New Orleans Saints receivers coach named Sam Rutigliano . After an interview before Christmas in which Modell and Rutigliano spent hours talking and watching game film in Modell 's basement , the owner named him head coach on December 27 , 1977 . An affable , charismatic man with an even temper , Rutigliano was a stark contrast to Gregg . Sipe immediately flourished under Rutigliano , racking up 21 touchdowns and 2 @,@ 906 passing yards during the 1978 season , when the NFL moved to a 16 @-@ game schedule . His prime targets were Reggie Rucker , a veteran receiver the Browns signed in 1975 , and Ozzie Newsome , a rookie tight end out of Alabama who the Browns drafted with a pick acquired in the Phipps trade . Cleveland won its first three games , but poor defense dashed the team 's playoff chances and the Browns finished with an 8 – 8 record .
= = = Kardiac Kids = = =
Rutigliano was a gambler : he tinkered with offenses , took chances on trick plays and was not afraid to break with the play @-@ calling conventions of his time . The coach , who earned the nickname " Riverboat Sam " for his risk @-@ taking approach , once said that security was " for cowards " . " I believe in gambling , " he said . " No successful man ever got anywhere without gambling . " This seat @-@ of @-@ your @-@ pants philosophy began to manifest itself on the field in 1979 . The campaign started with a nail @-@ biter against the New York Jets that the Browns won in overtime on a Cockroft field goal as time expired . " If we continue to play ' em that way all year , I 'll be gone before the 10th game because my heart just won 't take it , " Rutigliano said after the game . In the second week , Cleveland beat the Kansas City Chiefs 27 – 24 on a Sipe touchdown to Rucker with 52 seconds left . The third game was an equally improbable 13 – 10 win against the Baltimore Colts . Cleveland Plain Dealer sports editor Hal Lebovitz wrote after the game that these " Kardiac Kids " were lucky to have pulled off the win after Colts kicker Toni Linhart missed three field goals .
After a string of four wins and three losses , the late @-@ game heroics returned in an overtime victory on November 18 against the Miami Dolphins . " You should never pipe Browns games into an intensive care unit , expose them to anyone weak of pulse , " wrote Toledo Blade columnist Jim Taylor . " They 're one of those teams that stands 8 – 4 , and could easily be 1 – 11 . " While the Browns ' 9 – 7 record did not get the team into the playoffs – the defense struggled all year , forcing Sipe and the offense to compensate with late @-@ game comebacks – a sense of optimism and excitement took hold .
The Kardiac Kids magic returned in the third game of the next season against the Chiefs , when the Browns scored a touchdown in the fourth quarter to win 20 – 13 . More down @-@ to @-@ the @-@ wire games followed , including one against Green Bay on October 19 in which the team won on a touchdown to receiver Dave Logan on the last play of the game . After a close win over the Steelers and a victory over the Bears in which Sipe broke Otto Graham 's club record for career passing yards , the Browns met the Colts and eked out a 28 – 27 win . The team ended with an 11 – 5 record .
= = = Red Right 88 = = =
That was good for first place in the AFC Central and a trip to the postseason for the first time since 1972 . The Browns began their playoff run against the Oakland Raiders on January 4 , 1981 in a bitterly cold Cleveland Municipal Stadium . The game started slowly : each team scored only a touchdown in the first half , although Cockroft missed Cleveland 's extra point because of a bad snap . In the third quarter , Cleveland went ahead 12 – 7 on a pair of Cockroft field goals , but the Raiders came back in the final period , driving 80 yards down the field for a touchdown . That put Oakland ahead 14 – 12 . The ball changed hands five times with no scoring from either side , and with 2 : 22 on the clock , Cleveland had a final shot to win the game . Sipe and the offense took over at the Browns ' 15 @-@ yard line . In eight plays , Cleveland drove down to Oakland 's 14 , leaving 56 seconds on the clock .
After a one @-@ yard Mike Pruitt run , Rutigliano called a timeout . A short field goal would have been the safe bet — that was all Cleveland needed to win . Rutigliano , ever the risk @-@ taker , decided to go for a touchdown . The coach was reluctant to stake the game 's outcome on the usually sure @-@ footed Cockroft , who had missed two field goals and an extra point earlier in the game . The play he called was Red Right 88 , a passing formation in which a slanting Logan would be Sipe 's primary target , while Newsome was insurance . If everyone was covered , Rutigliano told Sipe on the sidelines , " if you feel you have to force the ball , throw it into Lake Erie , throw it into some blonde 's lap in the bleachers . " Sipe took the snap , dropped back and threw to Newsome as he crossed to the left . But Oakland safety Mike Davis leaped in front and intercepted the ball , cementing the Oakland win . The Raiders went on to win Super Bowl XV , while Red Right 88 became an enduring symbol of Cleveland 's postseason stumbles .
Despite 1980 's playoff defeat , the Browns were widely expected to be even better the following year . But 1981 came with none of the comebacks or late @-@ game magic the Kardiac Kids were known for . Several games were close , but most were losses . Sipe threw only 17 touchdowns and was intercepted 25 times . The team finished 5 – 11 . The 1982 NFL strike , which began in September and lasted until mid @-@ November , shortened the regular season the following year to nine games . Coming off a poor year , Sipe split starts with his backup , Paul McDonald , and neither was able to bring back the old Kardiac Kids spark . The team ended with a 4 – 5 record , which qualified for an expanded Super Bowl playoff tournament created to accommodate the shorter season . The Browns faced the Raiders in a rematch of 1980 's playoff thriller . This time , though , McDonald was the starter and the ending was far from tense . The Raiders won 27 – 10 .
The following two years brought the Sipe era and the short @-@ lived success of the Kardiac Kids to an end . Sipe returned to form in 1983 , and the team narrowly missed a spot in the playoffs after a loss to the Houston Oilers in the second @-@ to @-@ last game of the regular season . Sipe signed before the end of the season to play for the New Jersey Generals , a team owned by real estate mogul Donald Trump in the upstart United States Football League .
In training camp before the 1984 season , cornerback Hanford Dixon tried to motivate the team 's defensive linemen by barking at them between plays in practice and calling them " the Dogs " . " You need guys who play like dogs up front , like dogs chasing a cat , " Dixon said . The media picked up on the name , which gained traction in part because of the improvement of the Browns ' defense during the regular season . Fans put on face paint and dog masks , and the phenomenon coalesced in rowdy fans in Cleveland Stadium 's cheap bleachers section close to the field . The Dawg Pound , as the section was eventually nicknamed , is a continuing symbol of Cleveland 's dedicated fan base .
Despite the defensive improvement , Sipe 's departure left Cleveland 's offense in disarray in 1984 . Browns began the season 1 – 7 with McDonald at quarterback , and fans ' frustration with the team and Rutigliano boiled over . The breaking point came in an October 7 game against the New England Patriots that bore an eerie resemblance to Cleveland 's 1980 playoff loss to the Raiders . The Browns were down 17 – 16 in the fourth quarter , and lost on an interception in New England 's end zone as time expired . Chants of " Goodbye Sam " rung out from the stands after the New England game . Modell called the play @-@ calling " inexcusable " and fired Rutigliano two weeks later . Defensive coordinator Marty Schottenheimer took over , and the Browns ended with a 5 – 11 record .
= = Bernie Kosar years , The Drive and The Fumble ( 1985 – 1990 ) = =
The selection of University of Miami quarterback Bernie Kosar in 1985 's supplemental draft ushered in a new , largely successful era for Cleveland . With Schottenheimer , Kosar and a cast of talented players on offense and defense , the team reached greater heights than Rutigliano and Sipe ever did . Though they became consistent playoff contenders in this era , the Browns did not reach the Super Bowl , falling one win short three times in the late 1980s .
Kosar , who wanted to play for Cleveland because his family lived in a suburb of nearby Youngstown , Ohio , signed a five @-@ year contract worth nearly $ 6 million in 1985 and was immediately embraced by the Browns organization and the team 's fans . " It 's not an everyday occurrence that somebody wants to play in Cleveland , " Modell said . " This has lent such an aura to Bernie . " Kosar saw his first action in the fifth week of the 1985 season against the New England Patriots , when he substituted before halftime for Gary Danielson , a 34 @-@ year @-@ old veteran who the Browns had acquired in the offseason from the Lions . Kosar fumbled his first @-@ ever NFL snap , but rebounded and led the team to a 24 – 20 win . A mix of success and failure followed , but Kosar progressed a bit more each Sunday and led the team to an 8 – 8 record . Two young running backs , Earnest Byner and Kevin Mack , complemented Kosar 's aerial attack with more than 1 @,@ 000 yards rushing each .
While not stellar , the Browns ' record won first place in a weak AFC Central , and the team looked poised to shock the heavily favored Miami Dolphins in a divisional playoff game on January 4 , 1986 . Cleveland surged to a 21 – 3 halftime lead , and it took a spirited second @-@ half comeback by Dan Marino and the Dolphins to win it 24 – 21 and end the Browns ' season . Despite the loss , many people expected Cleveland to be back the following year . " The Browns ' days , the good days , are here and ahead of us , " radio personality Pete Franklin said .
Prior to the 1986 season the Browns lost standout safety and former defensive rookie of the year Don Rogers . Rogers died of a cocaine overdose leaving the team without one of its best defenders in the secondary for the 1986 season . Despite the tumultuous off season , 1986 marked Cleveland 's entry into the ranks of the NFL 's elite as Kosar 's play improved and the defensive unit came together . Kosar threw for 3 @,@ 854 yards to a corps of receivers that included Brian Brennan , Newsome and rookie Webster Slaughter . On defense , cornerbacks Frank Minnifield and Hanford Dixon emerged as one of the NFL 's premiere pass @-@ defending duos . After a slow start , the Browns rose to the top of the divisional standings , twice beating the Pittsburgh Steelers and ending a 16 @-@ game losing streak at Three Rivers Stadium . A 12 – 4 record earned Cleveland home @-@ field advantage throughout the playoffs .
The Browns ' first opponents in the 1986 playoffs were the New York Jets . The Jets were ahead for most of the game and held a 20 – 10 lead as time wound down in the final quarter . But Cleveland took over and began a march down the field , ending with a Kevin Mack touchdown . The defense forced the Jets to punt after the ensuing kickoff , leaving the offense with less than a minute to get within field goal range and even the score at 20 – 20 . A pass interference penalty and a completion to Slaughter put the ball at the Jets ' five @-@ yard line , and kicker Mark Moseley booted through the tying score with 11 seconds left . In an initial 15 @-@ minute overtime period , Moseley missed a short field goal and neither team scored , sending the game into double overtime . This time , Moseley made a field goal and won the game for the Browns 23 – 20 . It was the team 's first playoff victory in 17 years .
= = = The Drive = = =
The following week , the Browns matched up against the Denver Broncos in the AFC Championship game in Cleveland . Denver got out to an early lead , but Cleveland tied the game and then went ahead 20 – 13 in the fourth quarter . After the ensuing kickoff , the Broncos were pinned at their own 2 @-@ yard line with 5 : 32 remaining . Denver quarterback John Elway then engineered a 98 @-@ yard drive for a touchdown with the cold , whipping wind in his face . " The Drive " , as the series came to be known , tied the score and sent the game into overtime . Cleveland received the ball first in the sudden @-@ death period but was stopped by the Denver defense . On Denver 's first possession , Elway again led the Broncos on a long drive ending with a Rich Karlis field goal that sailed just inside the left upright and won the game . The drive that tied the game has since come to be seen as one of the best in playoff history , and is remembered by Cleveland fans as an historic meltdown . Denver went on to lose Super Bowl XXI to the New York Giants .
The drive , one of the finest ever engineered in a championship game , had been performed directly in the Browns ' faces . There was no sneakiness about it ; John Elway had simply shown what a man with all the tools could do . It was what everybody who had watched him enter the league as perhaps the most heralded quarterback since Joe Namath knew he could do . One was left with the distinct feeling that Elway would have marched his team down a 200 @-@ yard @-@ or 300 @-@ yard @-@ or five @-@ mile @-@ long field to pay dirt .
Although downtrodden by 1986 's playoff defeat , Cleveland continued to win the following season . Minnifield and Dixon excelled defending the pass , while Matthews and defensive tackle Bob Golic kept runners in check . The Browns finished with a 10 – 5 record in 1987 and won the AFC Central for the third year in a row . In the divisional playoff round , the Browns faced the Indianapolis Colts and won 38 – 21 .
= = = The Fumble = = =
The win set up a rematch with the Broncos in the AFC Championship in Denver . The Broncos held a 21 – 3 lead at halftime , but a pair of rushing touchdowns and another by receiver Reggie Langhorne brought Cleveland to within seven points . Cleveland scored again in the fourth quarter , but the Broncos went ahead again by seven points on a touchdown with four minutes left . After Denver 's kickoff , Kosar and the offense reached the Brocos ' eight @-@ yard line with 1 : 12 remaining . Kosar handed the ball to Earnest Byner on a second down . Byner ran left and broke inside with a clear path to the end zone , but was stripped by Denver 's Jeremiah Castille just before crossing the goal line . The Broncos ran down the clock before intentionally taking a safety and winning 38 – 33 . " The Fumble " quickly entered the lexicon of the Browns ' modern @-@ era disappointment , just as The Drive had a year before .
The 1988 season was marred by injuries to the Browns ' quarterbacks . Kosar was injured in the opener against Kansas City Chiefs and two backups were subsequently injured , leaving Don Strock , who the Browns signed as an emergency fill @-@ in , to start before Kosar 's return . Kosar came back but was hurt again at the end of the regular season . Despite the rotating cast of quarterbacks , Cleveland managed to finish with a 10 – 6 record and made the playoffs as a wild @-@ card team . Cleveland met the Houston Oilers in the wild @-@ card playoff round at home , but lost the game 24 – 23 . Four days after the Oilers loss , Schottenheimer and Modell announced that the coach would leave the team by mutual consent . Modell felt hiring an offensive coordinator was necessary to keep pace with the Oilers and the Bengals , a pair of divisional opponents then on the rise , but Schottenheimer said it " became evident that some of the differences we had , we weren 't going to be able to resolve . " Modell named Bud Carson as his replacement .
Carson , an architect of Pittsburgh 's 1970s " Steel Curtain " defenses , made several changes to Cleveland 's lineup . Byner was traded to the Washington Redskins in April , while the Browns moved up in the draft to acquire Eric Metcalf . Kevin Mack , meanwhile , was suspended for the first four games of the 1989 season after pleading guilty to cocaine possession . Despite these changes , Kosar led Cleveland to a division @-@ winning 9 – 6 – 1 record in 1989 , including a season @-@ opening 51 – 0 shutout of the rival Pittsburgh Steelers and the team 's first victory over the Denver Broncos in 15 years . Cleveland narrowly survived a scare from the Buffalo Bills in the first playoff game , staving off a comeback thanks to an interception in the Browns ' end zone by Clay Matthews with 14 seconds on the clock . The victory set up the third AFC championship matchup in four years between the Browns and Broncos . The Broncos led from start to finish , and a long Elway touchdown pass to Sammy Winder put the game way in the fourth quarter . Denver won 37 – 21 .
The defeat in Mile High Stadium proved to be the last of Cleveland 's streak of playoff appearances in the mid- to late @-@ 1980s . Kosar played through numerous injuries in 1989 , including bruising on his right arm and a bad knee . Strong defense had carried the Browns to the playoffs even when the offense faltered , but that all crumbled in 1990 . Kosar threw more interceptions than touchdowns for the first time in his career , and the defense allowed more points than any other in the league . The Browns ' 2 – 7 start cost Carson his job . Jim Shofner was named interim head coach , and the team finished 3 – 13 . After the season Bill Belichick , the defensive coordinator of the then @-@ Super Bowl champion New York Giants , was named head coach .
= = Bill Belichick and Modell 's move ( 1991 – 1995 ) = =
= = = Belichick era = = =
Belichick , who came to the Browns after 12 years mostly with the Giants under Bill Parcells , quickly made his mark by restricting media access to the team . He acted gruff or bored at press conferences , shrugging , rolling his eyes and often giving short answers to long questions . This bred the perception that the new coach was not a good communicator and lacked a vision for the team . Behind the scenes , however , he was trying to remake the Browns . He reformed Cleveland 's scouting methods and , in conjunction with player personnel director Mike Lombardi , tried to form a coherent identity : a big and strong cold @-@ weather team . Belichick 's new way forward , however , did not immediately translate to on @-@ field success . Cleveland 's record only improved slightly in 1991 to 6 – 10 as the offense struggled to produce scoring drives and the defense was plagued by injuries . Kosar was a rare bright spot , passing for almost 3 @,@ 500 yards and 18 touchdowns . Bridging the end of the 1990 season and the beginning of 1991 , the quarterback threw a then @-@ record 307 straight passes without an interception . Kosar broke his ankle twice and sat out for most of the 1992 season , leaving quarterback Mike Tomczak under center . The team finished with a 7 – 9 record and did not make the playoffs .
By the end of 1992 , Kosar 's physical decline had long been apparent to Belichick , which left the coach with a difficult choice . Kosar was Cleveland 's most popular athlete , a hometown boy who had forgone big money and a bigger profile to lead a struggling team back to the top . While he recognized it would be an unpopular decision , Belichick wanted to bench Kosar , and in 1992 the team picked up a potential replacement in Vinny Testaverde from the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Belichick named Kosar the starter before the 1993 season , but in the third game against the Raiders , Belichick pulled Kosar after he threw his third interception of the night . Taking over with Los Angeles ahead 13 – 0 , Testaverde led two touchdown drives to win the game . Two weeks later , Belichick named Testaverde the starter . On the verge of tears after a loss to the Dolphins , Kosar said he was disappointed with the decision and felt he had done what he could with what was at his disposal .
Kosar returned after Testaverde suffered a separated right shoulder in a win against the Steelers on October 24 , but it was only temporary . The day after a loss against the Broncos the following week , the team cut him . Belichick cited his declining skills , while Modell said it was the right move and asked fans to " bear with us . " Fans brought out grills and set fire to their season tickets . A 20 @-@ year @-@ old student at Baldwin @-@ Wallace College picketed outside the team 's training facilities with a sign that read , " Cut Belichick , Not Bernie . " Cleveland won only two of the eight games after Kosar 's release , finishing with a 7 – 9 record for the second year in a row .
Cleveland managed to right the ship in 1994 . While the quarterback situation had not stabilized , the defense led the league in fewest points allowed . The Browns finished 11 – 5 , making the playoffs for the first time in five years . The Browns beat the Patriots in a wild @-@ card game , but arch @-@ rival Pittsburgh won a 29 – 9 victory in the divisional playoff , ending the Browns ' season .
= = = Modell 's Move to Baltimore = = =
As the Browns recaptured a hint of past success in 1994 , all was not well behind the scenes . Modell was in financial trouble . The origins of Modell 's woes dated to 1973 , when he worked out a deal to lease Cleveland Municipal Stadium from the city for a pittance : only enough to service the facility 's debt and pay property taxes . Cleveland Browns Stadium Corporation , or Stadium Corp. , a company Modell and a business associate created and owned , held the 25 @-@ year lease . Stadium Corp. then subleased the stadium to the Browns and the Cleveland Indians , and rented it out for concerts and other events . While the deal worked fine for the city and Modell early on , the owner was later dogged by excessive borrowing and lawsuits .
When the stadium was profitable , Modell had used Stadium Corp. to buy land in Strongsville that he had previously acquired as the potential site for a future new stadium . Modell originally paid $ 625 @,@ 000 for the land , but sold it to his own Stadium Corp. for more than $ 3 million . Then , when the stadium was taking losses in 1981 , he sold Stadium Corp. itself to the Browns for $ 6 million . This led to a fight the following year with Bob Gries , whose family had been part of the Browns ' ownership group since its founding and had 43 % of the team to Modell 's 53 % . Gries 's complaint was that Modell treated the Browns and Stadium Corp. as his own fiefdom , rarely consulting him about the team 's business . The sale of Stadium Corp. to the Browns , he argued , enriched Modell at the team 's expense . Gries 's case went to the Ohio Supreme Court , where he won . In 1986 , Modell had to reverse the Browns ' purchase of Stadium Corp. and pay $ 1 million in Gries 's legal fees . This left Modell in need of financial help , and it came in the form of Al Lerner , a banking and real estate executive who bought half of Stadium Corp. and 5 % of the Browns in 1986 .
His reputation damaged by the lawsuits , Modell was eager to get out of Cleveland . He met with Baltimore officials about selling the Browns to Lerner and buying an expansion team to replace the Colts , who had left for Indianapolis in 1984 . He also discussed moving the Browns . Proposals were made to spend $ 175 million on a stadium renovation after the Indians and Cleveland Cavaliers got new facilities in downtown Cleveland , but it was not enough . As the Browns started the 1995 season with a 4 – 4 record , word leaked that Modell was moving the team . Beset by rising player salaries and political indifference to the team 's financial plight , he said he was forced to move . The day after Modell formally announced the move , Cleveland voters overwhelmingly approved the $ 175 million of stadium renovations . Modell ruled out a reversal of his decision , saying his relationship with Cleveland had been irrevocably severed . " The bridge is down , burned , disappeared , " he said . " There 's not even a canoe there for me . "
The city immediately sued to prevent the move , on the basis that the lease of the stadium was active until 1998 . Fans were in an uproar , staging protests , signing petitions , filing lawsuits and appealing to other NFL owners to block the relocation . Advertisers pulled out of the stadium , fearing fans ' ire . Talks between the city , Modell and the NFL continued as the Browns finished the season with a 5 – 11 record . At the team 's final home game against the Bengals , unruly fans in the Dawg Pound bleachers section rained debris , beer bottles and entire sections of seats onto the field , forcing officials to move play to the opposite end to ensure players ' safety . Cleveland won the game , its only victory after the announcement of the move .
The following February , the warring parties reached a compromise . Under its terms , Modell would be allowed to take his personnel to Baltimore , but would leave Cleveland the Browns ' colors , logos and heritage for a reactivated Browns franchise that would take the field no later than 1999 . The $ 175 million earmarked for stadium improvements was to be used instead build a new stadium , with up to $ 48 million of additional financial assistance from the NFL . Further , Modell was ordered to pay Cleveland $ 9 @.@ 3 million to compensate for lost revenues and taxes during the Browns ' three years of inactivity , plus up to $ 2 @.@ 25 million of the city 's legal fees . As a result of the deal Modell 's team was technically an expansion franchise , called the Baltimore Ravens .
= = Inactivity ( 1996 – 1998 ) = =
Preparations for a reactivated franchise began shortly after Modell , the city and the NFL struck their compromise . The NFL established the Cleveland Browns Trust to direct the Browns ' return in early 1996 , and in June appointed Bill Futterer as its president . Futterer , who had helped bring the Carolina Panthers and Charlotte Hornets expansion teams to North Carolina , was charged with marketing the team , selling season tickets and representing the NFL 's interests in the construction of a new stadium . The trust also leased suites , sold personal seat licenses in the new stadium and reorganized Browns Backers fan clubs . By September 1996 , architects were finalizing the design of a new stadium to be built following the destruction of Cleveland Municipal Stadium . Demolition work began on the old stadium in November , and the ground @-@ breaking for the new stadium took place the following May .
As the stadium 's construction got underway , the NFL began to search for an owner for the team , which the league decided would be an expansion franchise . A litany of potential owners lined up , including Kosar and a group backed partly by HBO founder Charles Dolan , comedian Bill Cosby and former Miami coach Don Shula . The ultimate winner was Al Lerner , the Baltimore man who had helped Modell in 1986 by buying a small stake in the Browns . A seven @-@ member NFL expansion committee awarded the team to Lerner for $ 530 million in September 1998 . Lerner , then 65 years old , had a majority share , while Carmen Policy , who helped build the 49ers dynasty of the 1980s , owned 10 % of the team and was to run football operations .
As the Browns geared up to reactivate , the Browns Trust set up a countdown clock for the team 's return and used Hall of Famers such as Lou Groza and Jim Brown extensively to promote the team , alongside celebrity fans including Drew Carey . Lerner and Policy hired Dwight Clark , a former 49ers wide receiver , as the team 's operations director in December 1998 . The owners then signed Jacksonville Jaguars offensive coordinator Chris Palmer in January 1999 as the reactivated team 's first head coach . The NFL then conducted an expansion draft the following month to stock the new Browns team with players . The team added to its roster through free agency , and was also given the first pick in the draft in April 1999 , which it used to draft quarterback Tim Couch .
Construction on the new stadium finished on time in August 1999 , paving the way for Cleveland to host a football game for the first time in more than three years . During the years after Modell 's move and the Browns ' suspension , a dozen new stadiums were built for NFL teams . Citing the precedent set by the Browns ' relocation , NFL owners used the threat of a move to convince their cities to build new stadiums with public funds .
= = Rejoining the NFL ( 1999 – 2004 ) = =
Cleveland fans ' hopes were high upon the arrival of the new team . Having made poor choices in both the expansion draft and the regular NFL draft , however , the Browns floundered . The Steelers shut out the Browns 43 – 0 in the season opener at Cleveland Browns Stadium on September 12 , 1999 , the first of seven straight losses . A 2 – 14 season in 1999 was followed by a 3 – 13 record in 2000 after Couch suffered a season @-@ ending thumb injury . Early in 2001 , Policy and Lerner fired Palmer . The coach and the team , Policy said , were not headed in the right direction .
Mike McCarthy , New Orleans ' offensive coordinator , Herman Edwards , a Tampa Bay assistant coach , and Marvin Lewis , Baltimore 's defensive coordinator , were mentioned as possible replacements for Palmer . Policy also met with Butch Davis , the head coach of the University of Miami 's football team . After rejecting an initial offer in December , Davis accepted the job the following month . Davis had turned around Miami 's football program and put the team back in championship contention ; Policy and Lerner hoped he could do the same in Cleveland .
= = = Butch Davis era : 2001 @-@ 2004 = = =
The Browns improved under Davis , and contended for a spot in the 2001 playoffs until a loss in the 15th week against Jacksonville that featured one of the most controversial calls in team history . As time expired in the fourth quarter with the Jaguars ahead 15 – 10 , Couch led a drive into Jacksonville territory . On a fourth @-@ down play that the team needed to convert to stay in the game , Couch threw to receiver Quincy Morgan over the middle . Morgan appeared to bobble the ball before grasping it firmly as he hit the ground . After the pass was ruled complete and Couch spiked the ball to stop the clock , officials reversed Morgan 's catch on a Jacksonville challenge . As Davis pleaded his case that the play could not be reviewed because another play had been run , frustrated fans began throwing plastic beer bottles onto the field . Amid the bedlam , later named " bottlegate " , officials ended the game with 48 seconds on the clock and left the field as objects rained down on them from the stands . After most of the fans had left , NFL commissioner Paul Tagliabue called and ordered the game to be completed . Jacksonville ran down the clock for the win , and the Browns finished the season at 7 – 9 .
Cleveland improved again in 2002 , but Lerner did not live to see his team make the playoffs . He died in October 2002 at 69 of brain cancer . Browns players wore a patch with the initials " AL " for the remainder of the season . Ownership of the team , meanwhile , passed to his son Randy . Cleveland finished the season with a 9 – 7 record , earning a spot in the playoffs as a wild @-@ card team . Couch suffered a broken leg in the final game of the season , however , and backup Kelly Holcomb started in the Browns ' first playoff game versus the Steelers . Cleveland held the lead for most of the game as Holcomb passed for 429 yards . But a defensive collapse helped Pittsburgh come charging back in the fourth quarter and win 36 – 33 to end the Browns ' season . To date , this is the only postseason appearance for the Browns since resuming operations in 1999 .
The team 's progress under Davis screeched to a halt in 2003 . The Browns finished 5 – 11 , and Randy Lerner embarked upon a major front @-@ office reshuffling . Policy resigned unexpectedly as president and chief executive of the Browns in April 2004 , saying things had changed after Al Lerner 's death . " I opened the door and it was like someone sucked the air and the life out of Berea , " he said . " He was a major presence for the organization . I 'm talking about the aura , and the inner power of the man . " John Collins was named as his replacement . Several other front @-@ office executives also stepped down , including chief contract negotiator Lal Heneghan and lead spokesman Todd Stewart .
The 2004 season was little better , and Davis resigned in November with the team at 3 – 8 . Lerner had given him a contract extension through 2007 that January , but Davis said " intense pressure and scrutiny " made the move necessary . Offensive coordinator Terry Robiskie was named head coach for the remainder of the season , which the Browns finished 4 – 12 .
= = Struggles and Change ( 2005 – present ) = =
= = = Romeo Crennel years : 2005 @-@ 2008 = = =
On January 6 , 2005 , while the Browns were still searching for a new head coach , the team announced Phil Savage 's appointment as general manager . Savage , who was director of player personnel for the Baltimore Ravens for two years , had a hand in drafting Ed Reed , Jamal Lewis , Ray Lewis and other stars for the Ravens .
A month later , Cleveland brought in Romeo Crennel as the head coach , signing him to a five @-@ year deal worth $ 11 million . Crennel was the defensive coordinator for the New England Patriots , who had just won the Super Bowl . His style was described as " quiet , reserved and gentlemanly , " but he said he wanted to stock the team with tough , physical players . Before the start of training camp , the Browns acquired veteran quarterback Trent Dilfer from the Seattle Seahawks . In the draft that year the Browns took wide receiver Braylon Edwards with the third pick in the first round .
Dilfer was the starting quarterback to begin the 2005 season . The team started 2 – 2 , but had two three @-@ game losing streaks later in the season and finished with a 6 – 10 record . In the team 's final five games , rookie Charlie Frye took over as the starting quarterback , winning two of those contests . Before the Browns ' final regular @-@ season game , the front office was embroiled in a controversy that threatened to send the team into rebuilding mode . Citing sources , ESPN reported that president John Collins was going to fire general manager Phil Savage over " philosophical differences " in managing the salary cap . The resulting uproar from fans and local media was so strong that it was Collins who resigned
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serpins is Serpin B9 , which inhibits the cytotoxic granule protease granzyme B. In doing so , Serpin B9 may protect against inadvertent release of granzyme B and premature or unwanted activation of cell death pathways .
Some viruses use serpins to disrupt protease functions in their host . The cowpox viral serpin CrmA ( cytokine response modifier A ) is used in order to avoid inflammatory and apoptotic responses of infected host cells . CrmA increases infectivity by suppressing its host 's inflammatory response through inhibition of IL @-@ 1 and L @-@ 18 processing by the cysteine protease caspase @-@ 1 . In eukaryotes , a plant serpin inhibits both metacaspases and a papain @-@ like cysteine protease .
= = = Non @-@ inhibitory roles = = =
Non @-@ inhibitory extracellular serpins also perform a wide array of important roles . Thyroxine @-@ binding globulin and transcortin transport the hormones thyroxine and cortisol , respectively . The non @-@ inhibitory serpin ovalbumin is the most abundant protein in egg white . Its exact function is unknown , but it is thought to be a storage protein for the developing foetus . Heat shock serpin 47 is a chaperone , essential for proper folding of collagen . It acts by stabilising collagen 's triple helix whilst it is being processed in the endoplasmic reticulum .
Some serpins are both protease inhibitors and perform additional roles . For example , the nuclear cysteine protease inhibitor MENT , in birds also acts as a chromatin remodelling molecule in a bird 's red blood cells .
= = Structure = =
All serpins share a common structure ( or fold ) , despite their varied functions . All typically have three β @-@ sheets ( named A , B and C ) and eight or nine α @-@ helices ( named hA – hI ) . The most significant regions to serpin function are the A @-@ sheet and the reactive centre loop ( RCL ) . The A @-@ sheet includes two β @-@ strands that are in a parallel orientation with a region between them called the ' shutter ' , and upper region called the ' breach ' . The RCL forms the initial interaction with the target protease in inhibitory molecules . Structures have been solved showing the RCL either fully exposed or partially inserted into the A @-@ sheet , and serpins are thought to be in dynamic equilibrium between these two states . The RCL also only makes temporary interactions with the rest of the structure , and is therefore highly flexible and exposed to the solvent .
The serpin structures that have been determined cover several different conformations , which has been necessary for the understanding of their multiple @-@ step mechanism of action . Structural biology has therefore played a central role in the understanding of serpin function and biology .
= = Conformational change and inhibitory mechanism = =
Inhibitory serpins do not inhibit their target proteases by the typical competitive ( lock @-@ and @-@ key ) mechanism used by most small protease inhibitors ( e.g. Kunitz @-@ type inhibitors ) . Instead , serpins use an unusual conformational change , which disrupts the structure of the protease and prevents it from completing catalysis . The conformational change involves the RCL moving to the opposite end of the protein and inserting into β @-@ sheet A , forming an extra antiparallel β @-@ strand . This converts the serpin from a stressed state , to a lower @-@ energy relaxed state ( S to R transition ) .
Serine and cysteine proteases catalyse peptide bond cleavage by a two @-@ step process . Initially , the catalytic residue of the active site triad performs a nucleophilic attack on the peptide bond of the substrate . This releases the new N @-@ terminus and forms a covalent ester @-@ bond between the enzyme and the substrate . This covalent complex between enzyme and substrate is called an acyl @-@ enzyme intermediate . For standard substrates , the ester bond is hydrolysed and the new C @-@ terminus is released to complete catalysis . However , when a serpin is cleaved by a protease , it rapidly undergoes the S to R transition before the acyl @-@ enzyme intermediate is hydrolysed . The efficiency of inhibition depends on fact that the relative kinetic rate of the conformational change is several orders of magnitude faster than hydrolysis by the protease .
Since the RCL is still covalently attached to the protease via the ester bond , the S to R transition pulls protease from the top to the bottom of the serpin and distorts the catalytic triad . The distorted protease can only hydrolyse the acyl enzyme intermediate extremely slowly and so the protease remains covalently attached for days to weeks . Serpins are classed as irreversible inhibitors and as suicide inhibitors since each serpin protein permanently inactivates a single protease , and can only function once .
= = = Allosteric activation = = =
The conformational mobility of serpins provides a key advantage over static lock @-@ and @-@ key protease inhibitors . In particular , the function of inhibitory serpins can be regulated by allosteric interactions with specific cofactors . The X @-@ ray crystal structures of antithrombin , heparin cofactor II , MENT and murine antichymotrypsin reveal that these serpins adopt a conformation wherein the first two amino acids of the RCL are inserted into the top of the A β @-@ sheet . The partially inserted conformation is important because co @-@ factors are able to conformationally switch certain partially inserted serpins into a fully expelled form . This conformational rearrangement makes the serpin a more effective inhibitor .
The archetypal example of this situation is antithrombin , which circulates in plasma in a partially inserted relatively inactive state . The primary specificity determining residue ( the P1 arginine ) points toward the body of the serpin and is unavailable to the protease . Upon binding a high @-@ affinity pentasaccharide sequence within long @-@ chain heparin , antithrombin undergoes a conformational change , RCL expulsion , and exposure of the P1 arginine . The heparin pentasaccharide @-@ bound form of antithrombin is , thus , a more effective inhibitor of thrombin and factor Xa . Furthermore , both of these coagulation proteases also contain binding sites ( called exosites ) for heparin . Heparin , therefore , also acts as a template for binding of both protease and serpin , further dramatically accelerating the interaction between the two parties . After the initial interaction , the final serpin complex is formed and the heparin moiety is released . This interaction is physiologically important . For example , after injury to the blood vessel wall , heparin is exposed , and antithrombin is activated to control the clotting response . Understanding of the molecular basis of this interaction enabled the development of Fondaparinux , a synthetic form of Heparin pentasaccharide used as an anti @-@ clotting drug .
= = = Latent conformation = = =
Certain serpins spontaneously undergo the S to R transition without having been cleaved by a protease , to form a conformation termed the latent state . Latent serpins are unable to interact with proteases and so are no longer protease inhibitors . The conformational change to latency is not exactly the same as the S to R transition of a cleaved serpin . Since the RCL is still intact , the first strand of the C @-@ sheet has to peel off to allow full RCL insertion .
Regulation of the latency transition can act as a control mechanism in some serpins , such as PAI @-@ 1 . Although PAI @-@ 1 is produced in the inhibitory S conformation , it " auto @-@ inactivates " by changing to the latent state unless it is bound to the cofactor vitronectin . Similarly , antithrombin can also spontaneously convert to the latent state , as an additional modulation mechanism to its allosteric activation by heparin . Finally , the N @-@ terminus of tengpin , a serpin from Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis , is required to lock the molecule in the native inhibitory state . Disruption of interactions made by the N @-@ terminal region results in spontaneous conformational change of this serpin to the latent conformation .
= = = Conformational change in non @-@ inhibitory functions = = =
Certain non @-@ inhibitory serpins also use the serpin conformational change as part of their function . For example , the native ( S ) form of thyroxine @-@ binding globulin has high affinity for thyroxine , whereas the cleaved ( R ) form has low affinity . Similarly , transcortin has higher affinity for cortisol when in its native ( S ) state , than its cleaved ( R ) state . Thus , in these serpins , RCL cleavage and the S to R transition has been commandeered to allow for ligand release , rather than protease inhibition .
In some serpins , the S to R transition can activate cell signalling events . In these cases , a serpin that has formed a complex with its target protease , is then recognised by a receptor . The binding event then leads to downstream signalling by the receptor . The S to R transition is therefore used to alert cells to the presence of protease activity . This differs from the usual mechanism whereby serpins affect signalling simply by inhibiting proteases involved in a signalling cascade .
= = Degradation = =
When a serpin inhibits a target protease , it forms a permanent complex , which needs to be disposed of . For extracellular serpins , the final serpin @-@ enzyme complexes are rapidly cleared from circulation . One mechanism by which this occurs in mammals is via the low @-@ density lipoprotein receptor @-@ related protein ( LRP ) , which binds to inhibitory complexes made by antithrombin , PA1 @-@ 1 , and neuroserpin , causing cellular uptake . Similarly , the Drosophila serpin , necrotic , is degraded in the lysosome after being trafficked into the cell by the Lipophorin Receptor @-@ 1 ( homologous to the mammalian LDL receptor family ) .
= = Disease and serpinopathies = =
Serpins are involved in a wide array of physiological functions , and so mutations in genes encoding them can cause a range of diseases . Mutations that change the activity , specificity or aggregation properties of serpins all affect how they function . The majority of serpin @-@ related diseases are the result of serpin polymerisation into aggregates , though several other types of disease @-@ linked mutations also occur . The disorder α @-@ Antitrypsin deficiency is one of the most common hereditary diseases .
= = = Inactivity or absence = = =
Since the stressed serpin fold is high @-@ energy , mutations can cause them to incorrectly change into their lower @-@ energy conformations ( e.g. relaxed or latent ) before they have correctly performed their inhibitory role .
Mutations that affect the rate or the extent of RCL insertion into the A @-@ sheet can cause the serpin to undergo its S to R conformational change before having engaged a protease . Since a serpin can only make this conformational change once , the resulting misfired serpin is inactive and unable to properly control its target protease . Similarly , mutations that promote inappropriate transition to the monomeric latent state cause disease by reducing the amount of active inhibitory serpin . For example , the disease @-@ linked antithrombin variants wibble and wobble , both promote formation of the latent state .
The structure of the disease @-@ linked mutant of antichymotrypsin ( L55P ) revealed another , inactive " δ @-@ conformation " . In the δ @-@ conformation , four residues of the RCL are inserted into the top of β @-@ sheet A. The bottom half of the sheet is filled as a result of one of the α @-@ helices ( the F @-@ helix ) partially switching to a β @-@ strand conformation , completing the β @-@ sheet hydrogen bonding . It is unclear whether other serpins can adopt this conformer , and whether this conformation has a functional role , but it is speculated that the δ @-@ conformation may be adopted by Thyroxine @-@ binding globulin during thyroxine release . The non @-@ inhibitory proteins related to serpins can also cause diseases when mutated . For example , mutations in SERPINF1 cause osteogenesis imperfecta type VI in humans .
In the absence of a required serpin , the protease that it normally would regulate is over @-@ active , leading to pathologies . Consequently , simple deficiency of a serpin ( e.g. a null mutation ) can result in disease . Gene knockouts , particularly in mice , are used experimentally to determine the normal functions of serpins by the effect of their absence .
= = = Specificity change = = =
In some rare cases , a single amino acid change in a serpin 's RCL alters its specificity to target the wrong protease . For example , the Antitrypsin @-@ Pittsburgh mutation ( M358R ) causes the α1 @-@ antitrypsin serpin to inhibit thrombin , causing a bleeding disorder .
= = = Polymerisation and aggregation = = =
The majority of serpin diseases are due to protein aggregation and are termed " serpinopathies " . Serpins are vulnerable to disease @-@ causing mutations that promote formation of misfolded polymers due to their inherently unstable structures . Well @-@ characterised serpinopathies include α1 @-@ antitrypsin deficiency ( alpha @-@ 1 ) , which may cause familial emphysema and sometimes liver cirrhosis , certain familial forms of thrombosis related to antithrombin deficiency , types 1 and 2 hereditary angioedema ( HAE ) related to deficiency of C1 @-@ inhibitor , and familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies ( FENIB ; a rare type of dementia caused by neuroserpin polymerisation ) .
Each monomer of the serpin aggregate exists in the inactive , relaxed conformation ( with the RCL inserted into the A @-@ sheet ) . The polymers are therefore hyperstable to temperature and unable to inhibit proteases . Serpinopathies therefore cause pathologies similarly to other proteopathies ( e.g. prion diseases ) via two main mechanisms . First , the lack of active serpin results in uncontrolled protease activity and tissue destruction . Second , the hyperstable polymers themselves clog up the endoplasmic reticulum of cells that synthesize serpins , eventually resulting in cell death and tissue damage . In the case of antitrypsin deficiency , antitrypsin polymers cause the death of liver cells , sometimes resulting in liver damage and cirrhosis . Within the cell , serpin polymers are slowly removed via degradation in the endoplasmic reticulum . However , the details of how serpin polymers cause cell death remains to be fully understood .
Physiological serpin polymers are thought to form via domain swapping events , where a segment of one serpin protein inserts into another . Domain @-@ swaps occur when mutations or environmental factors interfere with the final stages of serpin folding to the native state , causing high @-@ energy intermediates to misfold . Both dimer and trimer domain @-@ swap structures have been solved . In the dimer ( of antithrombin ) , the RCL and part of the A @-@ sheet incorporates into the A @-@ sheet of another serpin molecule . The domain @-@ swapped trimer ( of antitrypsin ) forms via the exchange of an entirely different region of the structure , the B @-@ sheet ( with each molecule 's RCL inserted into its own A @-@ sheet ) . It has also been proposed that serpins may form domain @-@ swaps by inserting the RCL of one protein into the A @-@ sheet of another ( A @-@ sheet polymerisation ) . These domain @-@ swapped dimer and trimer structures are though to be the building blocks of the disease @-@ causing polymer aggregates , but the exact mechanism is still unclear .
= = = = Therapeutic strategies = = = =
Several therapeutic approaches are in use or under investigation to treat the most common serpinopathy : antitrypsin deficiency . Antitrypsin augmentation therapy is approved for severe antitrypsin deficiency @-@ related pulmonary emphysema . In this therapy , antitrypsin is purified from the plasma of blood donors and administered intravenously ( first marketed as Prolastin ) . To treat severe antitrypsin deficiency @-@ related disease , lung and liver transplantation has proven effective . In animal models , gene targeting in induced pluripotent stem cells has been successfully used to correct an antitrypsin polymerisation defect and to restore the ability of the mammalian liver to secrete active antitrypsin . Small molecules have also been developed that block antitrypsin polymerisation in vitro .
= = Evolution = =
Serpins are the most widely distributed and largest superfamily of protease inhibitors . They were initially believed to be restricted to eukaryote organisms , but have since been found in bacteria , archaea and some viruses . It remains unclear whether prokaryote genes are the descendants of an ancestral prokaryotic serpin or the product of horizontal gene transfer from eukaryotes . Most intracellular serpins belong to a single phylogenetic clade , whether they come from plants or animals , indicating that the intracellular and extracellular serpins may have diverged before the plants and animals . Exceptions include the intracellular heat shock serpin HSP47 , which is a chaperone essential for proper folding of collagen , and cycles between the cis @-@ Golgi and the endoplasmic reticulum .
Protease @-@ inhibition is thought to be the ancestral function , with non @-@ inhibitory members the results of evolutionary neofunctionalisation of the structure . The S to R conformational change has also been adapted by some binding serpins to regulate affinity for their targets .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Animal = = =
= = = = Human = = = =
The human genome encodes 16 serpin clades , termed serpinA through serpinP , including 29 inhibitory and 7 non @-@ inhibitory serpin proteins . The human serpin naming system is based upon a phylogenetic analysis of approximately 500 serpins from 2001 , with proteins named serpinXY , where X is the clade of the protein and Y the number of the protein within that clade . The functions of human serpins have been determined by a combination of biochemical studies , human genetic disorders , and knockout mouse models .
= = = = Specialised mammalian serpins = = = =
Many mammalian serpins have been identified that share no obvious orthology with a human serpin counterpart . Examples include numerous rodent serpins ( particularly some of the murine intracellular serpins ) as well as the uterine serpins . The term uterine serpin refers to members of the serpin A clade that are encoded by the SERPINA14 gene . Uterine serpins are produced by the endometrium of a restricted group of mammals in the Laurasiatheria clade under the influence of progesterone or estrogen . They are probably not functional proteinase inhibitors and may function during pregnancy to inhibit maternal immune responses against the conceptus or to participate in transplacental transport .
= = = Insect = = =
The Drosophila melanogaster genome contains 29 serpin encoding genes . Amino acid sequence analysis has placed 14 of these serpins in serpin clade Q and three in serpin clade K with the remaining twelve classified as orphan serpins not belonging to any clade . The clade classification system is difficult to use for Drosophila serpins and instead a nomenclature system has been adopted that is based on the position of serpin genes on the Drosophila chromosomes . Thirteen of the Drosophila serpins occur as isolated genes in the genome ( including Serpin @-@ 27A , see below ) , with the remaining 16 organised into five gene clusters that occur at chromosome positions 28D ( 2 serpins ) , 42D ( 5 serpins ) , 43A ( 4 serpins ) , 77B ( 3 serpins ) and 88E ( 2 serpins ) .
Studies on Drosophila serpins reveal that Serpin @-@ 27A inhibits the Easter protease ( the final protease in the Nudel , Gastrulation Defective , Snake and Easter proteolytic cascade ) and thus controls dorsoventral patterning . Easter functions to cleave Spätzle ( a chemokine @-@ type ligand ) , which results in toll @-@ mediated signaling . As well as its central role in embryonic patterning , toll signaling is also important for the innate immune response in insects . Accordingly , serpin @-@ 27A also functions to control the insect immune response . In Tenebrio molitor ( a large beetle ) , a protein ( SPN93 ) comprising two discrete tandem serpin domains functions to regulate the toll proteolytic cascade .
= = = Nematode = = =
The genome of the nematode worm C. elegans contains 9 serpins , all of which lack signal sequences and so are likely intracellular . However , only 5 of these serpins appear to function as protease inhibitors . One , SRP @-@ 6 , performs a protective function and guards against stress @-@ induced calpain @-@ associated lysosomal disruption . Further , SRP @-@ 6 inhibits lysosomal cysteine proteases released after lysosomal rupture . Accordingly , worms lacking SRP @-@ 6 are sensitive to stress . Most notably , SRP @-@ 6 knockout worms die when placed in water ( the hypo @-@ osmotic stress lethal phenotype or Osl ) . It has therefore been suggested that lysosomes play a general and controllable role in determining cell fate .
= = = Plant = = =
Plant serpins were amongst the first members of the superfamily that were identified . The serpin barley protein Z is highly abundant in barley grain , and one of the major protein components in beer . The genome of the model plant , Arabidopsis thaliana contain 18 serpin @-@ like genes , although only 8 of these are full @-@ length serpin sequences .
Plant serpins are potent inhibitors of mammalian chymotrypsin @-@ like serine proteases in vitro , the best @-@ studied example being barley serpin Zx ( BSZx ) , which is able to inhibit trypsin and chymotrypsin as well as several blood coagulation factors . However , close relatives of chymotrypsin @-@ like serine proteases are absent in plants . The RCL of several serpins from wheat grain and rye contain poly @-@ Q repeat sequences similar to those present in the prolamin storage proteins of the endosperm . It has therefore been suggested that plant serpins may function to inhibit proteases from insects or microbes that would otherwise digest grain storage proteins . In support of this hypothesis , specific plant serpins have been identified in the phloem sap of pumpkin ( CmPS @-@ 1 ) and cucumber plants . Although an inverse correlation between up @-@ regulation of CmPS @-@ 1 expression and aphid survival was observed , in vitro feeding experiments revealed that recombinant CmPS @-@ 1 did not appear to affect insect survival .
Alternative roles and protease targets for plant serpins have been proposed . The Arabidopsis serpin , AtSerpin1 ( At1g47710 ; 3LE2 ) , mediates set @-@ point control over programmed cell death by targeting the ' Responsive to Desiccation @-@ 21 ' ( RD21 ) papain @-@ like cysteine protease . AtSerpin1 also inhibits metacaspase @-@ like proteases in vitro . Two other Arabidopsis serpins , AtSRP2 ( At2g14540 ) and AtSRP3 ( At1g64030 ) appear to be involved in responses to DNA damage .
= = = Fungal = = =
A single fungal serpin has been characterized to date : celpin from Piromyces spp. strain E2 . Piromyces is a genus of anaerobic fungi found in the gut of ruminants and is important for digesting plant material . Celpin is predicted to be inhibitory and contains two N @-@ terminal dockerin domains in addition to its serpin domain . Dockerins are commonly found in proteins that localise to the fungal cellulosome , a large extracellular multiprotein complex that breaks down cellulose . It is therefore suggested that celpin may protect the cellulosome against plant proteases . Certain bacterial serpins similarly localize to the cellulosome .
= = = Prokaryotic = = =
Predicted serpin genes are sporadically distributed in prokaryotes . In vitro studies on some of these molecules have revealed that they are able to inhibit proteases , and it is suggested that they function as inhibitors in vivo . Several prokaryote serpins are found in extremophiles . Accordingly , and in contrast to mammalian serpins , these molecules possess elevated resistance to heat denaturation . The precise role of most bacterial serpins remains obscure , although Clostridium thermocellum serpin localises to the cellulosome . It is suggested that the role of cellulosome @-@ associated serpins may be to prevent unwanted protease activity against the cellulosome .
= = = Viral = = =
Serpins are also expressed by viruses as a way to evade the host 's immune defense . In particular , serpins expressed by pox viruses , including cow pox ( vaccinia ) and rabbit pox ( myxoma ) , are of interest because of their potential use as novel therapeutics for immune and inflammatory disorders as well as transplant therapy . Serp1 suppresses the TLR @-@ mediated innate immune response and allows indefinite cardiac allograft survival in rats . Crma and Serp2 are both cross @-@ class inhibitors and target both serine ( granzyme B ; albeit weakly ) and cysteine proteases ( caspase 1 and caspase 8 ) . In comparison to their mammalian counterparts , viral serpins contain significant deletions of elements of secondary structure . Specifically , crmA lacks the D @-@ helix as well as significant portions of the A- and E @-@ helices .
= Otho Holland Williams =
Otho Holland Williams ( March 1 , 1749 – July 15 , 1794 ) was a Continental Army officer from Maryland in the American Revolutionary War . He participated in many battles throughout the war in the New York , New Jersey and Southern theaters , eventually ending his career as a Brigadier General .
Born in rural Prince George 's County , Maryland , Williams spent his childhood on Springfield Farm near present @-@ day Williamsport . He was orphaned at age thirteen and was put in the care of his father 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Mr. Ross . Williams took an apprenticeship under Mr. Ross and studied his profession in the Clerk 's office of Frederick , eventually taking charge of the office . At age eighteen , Williams moved to Baltimore and undertook a similar trade . Williams returned to Frederick in 1774 and entered into a commercial life .
In response to Congress 's call for soldiers at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in the spring of 1775 , Williams joined a Continental Army rifle unit as a commissioned officer . Soon thereafter , he and his unit marched off to the Siege of Boston . Seeing his first significant combat action in late 1776 at the Battle of Fort Washington , Williams was captured by the British and imprisoned in New York . He was released in early 1778 and returned to the Continental Army as colonel of the 6th Maryland Regiment , a position he had acquired during his captivity . From thereafter , Williams led his regiment through much of the southern campaign , most notably in the battles of Camden , Guilford Court House , and Eutaw Springs . Near the end of the War , Williams was sent by his commanding officer General Greene with documents to Congress and was promoted to brigadier general in 1782 .
After the war , Williams later served as an associate justice for Baltimore County , and as the first commissioner of the Port of Baltimore . He returned to Springfield Farm in 1787 , bought the house and the surrounding land , and began laying out the town of Williamsport . In 1792 , Washington offered Williams to be Brigadier General of the Army , though he declined due to his failing health . Williams died two years later in 1794 while travelling to Sweet Springs , Virginia .
= = Early life = =
Otho Holland Williams was born on March 1 , 1749 , the third generation of his family born on the North American Continent , his ancestors having emigrated from Wales . For the first year of his life , he lived with his parents Joseph and Prudence Williams in Prince George 's County until the family settled at the mouth of the Conecocheague near present @-@ day Williamsport . His family home was Springfield Farm , listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974 . Shortly before Joseph Williams death , he placed his thirteen @-@ year @-@ old son into the care of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Mr.Ross who worked in the Clerk 's office in Frederick County . After studying the duties of the office , Williams took charge of the office himself before moving to Baltimore for similar employment at the age of eighteen . In the spring of 1774 , Williams returned to Frederick and entered into commercial life .
= = Early War = =
On June 14 , 1775 , upon the call for soldiers by the Continental Congress , Williams joined Capt. Thomas Price 's Independent Rifle Company of Maryland as first lieutenant . The company then marched to the Siege of Boston . Soon after the company 's arrival in Boston , Williams was promoted to the command of the company . By order of the Continental Congress on June 27 , 1776 , the rifle company was integrated into the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment , with Hugh Stephenson as colonel , Moses Rawlings as lieutenant colonel and Williams as major .
The regiment did not see much action until the Battle of Fort Washington , where Williams was taken prisoner by the British . He was taken to New York , where due to his rank he was permitted to go at large on his parole . During this time in New York , it was common for British officers to amuse themselves by insulting American prisoners with pointed questions such as " What Trade were you of before you entered the service ? " When a high ranking British officer asked this question of Williams he replied :
" That he was in a profession which taught him to resist tyranny and punish insolence , and that proofs of his profession would follow a reputation towards him . "
It is suggested that the officer offended by this retort informed William Phillips — then in command of the New York garrison — that Williams was sending military information to George Washington contrary to the terms of his parole . Williams was promptly arrested and confined to a sixteen square foot ( 1 @.@ 5 square meter ) room without ventilation in the city 's provost jail which he shared with Ethan Allen . Due to possible maltreatment by his captors and malnourishment , his health was affected to the point where he never fully recovered from his imprisonment .
After the surrender of General John Burgoyne after the Battles of Saratoga , Williams was exchanged on January 16 , 1778 . During his imprisonment , Williams had been promoted to colonel and given command of the 6th Maryland Regiment of the Maryland Line . Shortly after his release , he stated in a letter to the governor of Maryland that the regiment contained " ... not above a hundred effective men ... and that those are very indifferently clothed . " He further stated : " I heartily desire to join the army as soon as possible but certainly it had better be reinforced by a regiment without a colonel than by a colonel without a regiment . " After joining Washington 's army shortly before the Battle of Monmouth he learned that the regiment was noted for a looseness of discipline and was unable to stand with others in the line during battle . Soon after he took effective command , the 6th Maryland Regiment became known as the equal , if not superior , to any in the whole army .
= = Southern campaign = =
After the unsuccessful attempt to capture Savannah , Georgia , under the command of General Benjamin Lincoln , the Southern Department of the Continental Army retreated to Charleston , South Carolina . General Sir Henry Clinton moved his forces , surrounded the city where Lincoln 's army was located and cut off any chance of relief for the Continental Army . Prior to his surrender , Lincoln had been able to get messages to General Washington and Congress requesting aid . At the end of April 1780 , Washington dispatched General Johann de Kalb with 1 @,@ 400 Maryland and Delaware troops . The Maryland Line made up a large portion of this force , with Williams serving in the post of Adjutant general to General De Kalb .
General de Kalb 's forces took almost a month to descend the Chesapeake Bay and did not arrive in Petersburg , Virginia until the middle of June , almost a month after Lincoln had surrendered his army . The Continental Congress appointed Horatio Gates to command the Southern Department . He assumed command on July 25 , 1780 and immediately marched into South Carolina with the intent of engaging the British Army , now under the command of Charles Cornwallis . Williams served as Deputy Adjutant @-@ General under Gates .
= = = Battle of Camden = = =
After brief aggressive maneuvering which threatened the British position in the Carolinas , Cornwallis moved his forces to engage the American forces . The two armies met in the Battle of Camden on August 16 , 1780 , six miles ( 9 @.@ 5 km ) north of Camden , South Carolina . Due to several tactical errors on the part of General Gates , Cornwallis achieved a decisive victory . Deserted by their commander and facing opposition on all sides , the Continental Army was forced to retreat . During this engagement , Williams had been stationed to the rear of the army and was unable to contribute until the end and General de Kalb was mortally wounded . Prior to his death three days later , de Kalb paid a glowing tribute to the Maryland Troop under his command .
= = = Battle of Guilford Court House = = =
After the successful retreat across the Dan River , during which Williams led his men during many highly successful rear guard actions checking the enemy 's advance and baffling every British attempt to bring the American army into a general engagement , General Nathanael Greene chose to offer battle to General Cornwallis 's forces on March 15 , 1781 on ground of his own choosing at Guilford Court House , inside the city limits of present @-@ day Greensboro , North Carolina .
After the British forces had broken Greene 's first line made up of North Carolina Militia and the second line made up of Virginia Militia they threatened the third line made up by the 1st Maryland Regiment , under the command of Colonel John Gunby , and the 2nd Maryland Regiment . The Brigade of Guards , under the command of a Colonel Stewart , broke through the 2nd Maryland Regiment , captured two field pieces and threatened the rear of the 1st Maryland forces whom were already engaged with sizable force under the command of a Colonel Webster .
The 1st Maryland Regiment charged and swept Webster 's forces from the field . They then turned to face the oncoming guards unit . After a brief exchange of musket fire , in which 1st Maryland 's commander 's horse was shot from under him , the 1st Maryland Regiment charged the Guards unit who were quickly routed .
Greene , not able to see this part of the battle from his vantage point , had already ordered a retreat . Thus , unsupported , the Maryland troops were soon forced to withdraw . During this retreat the 6th Maryland Regiment under Williams again acted as the rear guard of the army and is credited with holding off the British forces allowing Greene to move his forces to safety . In recognition of Williams ' gallantry , Greene appointed him to the post of Adjutant general of the Army .
= = = Battle of Eutaw Springs = = =
The Battle of Eutaw Springs can be divided into two distinct engagements . During the first action , Greene had given the following order to Williams :
" Let Williams advance and sweep the field with his bayonets . "
The 6th Maryland Regiment advanced and broke the British line forcing them to fall back several miles and allowing the Continental Army to gain control of the British Camp . The Americans then began to pillage the camp which allowed time for the British to form a new line anchored by a stone house that the Continental Army was unable to move later in the day .
Near the close of the War , he was sent by General Greene with dispatches to congress and on May 9 , 1782 promoted to Brigadier General .
= = Later life = =
After the War , Williams returned to Maryland and settled in Baltimore . He was soon appointed Commissioner of the Port by the Governor of Maryland , an appointment that was renewed when George Washington assumed the Presidency of the United States . He was also an original member of the Maryland Society of the Cincinnati and was elected Treasurer of the National Society on November 21 , 1783 .
In 1786 he married his wife , Mary , the second daughter of William Smith with whom he had four sons . In the year following his marriage , Williams bought his father 's house near the Potomac River and dedicated himself to improving the farm and laying out the town of Williamsport , Maryland , which was named in his honor . Williams wanted the capital of the United States to be located in Williamsport and wrote a letter to Washington to that effect on November 1 , 1790 enclosing a map of the town .
Washington thought so highly of Williams that that in 1792 , when Daniel Morgan refused the rank of Brigadier General of the American Army , the president had Henry Knox , the United States Secretary of War , write Williams asking him to accept the position . The position would have made Williams the second in command of the American Army , but citing poor health and no ambition for the position , Williams declined the appointment . However , on December 21 , 1792 , Williams accepted the Maryland State Legislature 's invitation for him to serve as an Associate Justice for Baltimore County .
His health deteriorating , Williams was induced to try the " sea airs " and in 1793 journeyed to Barbados which afforded him some benefits . In 1794 upon reaching Woodstock on his way to Sweet Springs , Virginia Williams became too ill to travel . On Tuesday , July 15 , 1794 , at the age of 46 , Otho Holland Williams died . His remains were interred under a simple monument on the summit of a hill on his Williamsport homestead . His wife died one year later leaving their children orphaned and under the care of her father .
= Red Ensign of Singapore =
The Red Ensign of Singapore is a civil ensign used by privately owned , non @-@ military ships that are registered in Singapore . The overall design of the ensign is a modification of the national flag , with the ratio of the width to the length extended to 1 : 2 . The ensign was created by law in 1966 . The use of this ensign is regulated by the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore ( MPA ) . According to the MPA , the Red Ensign is the only ensign to be used on Singaporean civilian ships , and the national flag is not an acceptable substitute . The ensign must be hoisted on all Singaporean ships on entering or leaving port .
= = History = =
In 1966 , a year after Singapore 's independence from Malaysia , a document entitled Singapore Merchant Marine Ensign and numbered Misc . 5 of 1966 , was laid before Parliament on 6 September 1966 by the Deputy Prime Minister . The document created a civil ensign that was to be used on ships registered in Singapore . The Red Ensign has been in use since then .
= = Design = =
According to the Parliamentary paper Misc . 5 of 1966 , the background of the ensign is red with the ratio of its width to its length being one by two . In contrast , the ratio of the national flag of Singapore is two by three . In the centre of the ensign is a white ring , which surrounds a crescent and five stars also coloured white . The five stars are arranged such that they form a pentagon in the middle . The crescent and stars are taken from the national flag , although in the ensign the crescent appears underneath rather than to the left of the stars . According to a 1999 circular National Colours for Singapore Ships issued by the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore ( MPA ) , the red colour of the civil ensign is the same as that of the national flag . The shade of red has been defined by the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts as Pantone 032 .
= = = Construction sheet = = =
The MPA 's 1999 circular includes a construction sheet with detailed dimensions for the manufacture of the flag . The sheet is in inches and centimetres . The overall dimensions of the flag are 36 inches ( 91 @.@ 44 cm ) by 72 inches ( 182 @.@ 88 cm ) . The space between the top of the ensign to the top of the ring , and the bottom of the ring to the bottom of the ensign , is 9 @.@ 7 inches ( 24 @.@ 64 cm ) . The outer diameter of the ring is 16 @.@ 6 inches ( 42 @.@ 16 cm ) , and the ring itself is 0 @.@ 95 inches ( 2 @.@ 41 cm ) in thickness . The outer curve of the crescent has a radius of 5 @.@ 45 inches ( 13 @.@ 84 cm ) . Each star fits within a circle with a diameter of 3 @.@ 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 13 cm ) , and the centres of the five stars are positioned 72 ° from each other along the circumference of an imaginary circle with a radius of 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 8 @.@ 26 cm ) . The centre of the imaginary circle is 6 @.@ 4 inches ( 16 @.@ 26 cm ) from the lowest point of the inner curve of the crescent .
= = Regulations = =
Section 36 ( 1 ) of the Merchant Shipping Act of 1995 empowers the relevant Minister to prescribe an ensign for Singaporean ships , which shall then be the " proper colours for a Singapore ship . " Section 36 ( 2 ) goes on to state that the master of a ship , the ship 's owner if he is on board , and any other person hoisting colours may be fined up to S $ 1 @,@ 000 if , instead of the Red Ensign , any other " distinctive national colours " are hoisted on board any Singapore ship without the Minister 's consent . Under section 37 of the Act , if a Singapore ship fails to hoist the Red Ensign on entering or leaving any port , the ship master may be fined up to $ 1 @,@ 000 .
The MPA 's 1999 circular calls the attention of owners , masters and officers of Singapore ships to sections 36 and 37 of the Merchant Shipping Act . In particular , paragraph 3 of the circular points out that " the Singapore national flag does not [ substitute ] the Red Ensign " .
= Hurricane Fernanda ( 1993 ) =
Hurricane Fernanda in 1993 was the first significant hurricane threat to Hawaii since Hurricane Iniki struck in September 1992 . The seventh named storm and fourth major hurricane of the 1993 Pacific hurricane season , Fernanda developed on August 9 off the coast of Mexico from a tropical wave . Throughout its life , it was a large system , and the hurricane reached peak winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . After weakening slightly , Fernanda restrengthened and was expected to move across the Hawaiian Islands . Instead , the hurricane slowed its forward motion and turned away from the state , although it still produced high waves along the eastern shore of the islands . Several homes were damaged , and the surf damaged coastal roads . The storm also contributed to rainfall across the state , and minor flooding occurred in Kauai . Fernanda became extratropical on August 19 , and after turning to the northeast became absorbed by a cold front .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Fernanda origins were as a tropical wave that was first observed in the deep Atlantic Ocean on July 28 . It moved across the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea , and developed an area of thunderstorms to the south of Panama on August 4 . The system gradually organized as it continued westward , and on August 9 , it developed into Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E about 400 miles south of Manzanillo , Colima . Upon being classified , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) described the depression as " a large monsoon @-@ like system " , with abundant convection and well @-@ defined upper @-@ level outflow . With a ridge to its north , the depression tracked steadily west @-@ northwestward , and gradual strengthening was expected .
Within 12 hours of forming , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Fernanda . Banding features increased , and outflow became well @-@ established throughout the storm . Fernanda intensified further and attained hurricane status late on August 10 . Soon after , a large eye became evident on satellite imagery , which became more distinct and organized . The hurricane subsequently underwent rapid intensification , and by August 12 , Fernanda reached peak winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) ; at that time , it was a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and was located about 1070 miles ( 1725 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . The peak winds were based on estimates from the Dvorak technique . After maintaining peak winds for about 18 hours , the hurricane began a slow weakening trend . By August 14 , the eye had become less distinct as the storm moved over cooler waters , while winds decreased to below major hurricane status , or Category 3 intensity . At that time , the NHC forecast Fernanda to decelerate and turn to the northwest , although the possibility of a more westward track toward Hawaii was noted .
On August 14 , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) took over issuing warnings on the hurricane , as Fernanda crossed 140 ° W into their area of responsibility . After maintaining a west @-@ northwest track for much of its duration , the hurricane turned more toward the west . By August 15 , the storm was expected to pass between Maui and the Big Island of Hawaii ; however , the CPHC noted uncertainty due to an approaching upper @-@ level trough , which would produce a more northerly tack . Its winds weakened to about 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , although late on August 15 the hurricane re @-@ intensified to winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . By that time , it had redeveloped a large eye of 50 miles in diameter ; wind gusted to 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , while tropical storm force winds extended 200 miles ( 640 km ) from the center . Hurricane Hunters flew into the hurricane to provide observational data while it was near Hawaii .
Early on August 16 , Hurricane Fernanda was expected to continue westward and bring hurricane @-@ force winds to the Big Island of Hawaii . By later in the day , however , it slowed significantly due to the approaching trough to its north . Hurricane Fernanda made its closest approach to Hawaii early on August 17 , when it was 305 miles ( 490 km ) east @-@ northeast of the island of Hawaii . It began its definitive motion toward the northwest and began weakening due to increasing wind shear . Later on August 17 , Fernanda weakened to tropical storm strength , by which time convection was largely removed from the circulation . On August 19 , the storm transitioned into an extratropical storm , and advisories were discontinued . The remnants of Fernanda turned to the northeast , and on August 21 an approaching cold front absorbed the circulation off the coast of Washington .
= = Impact = =
Early on August 15 , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) issued a tropical storm watch for the Big Island of Hawaii , meaning gale force winds were possible within 36 hours ; concurrently , a high surf advisory was put into effect for all eastward facing shorelines . By late on August 15 , the CPHC issued a hurricane watch for the entire state of Hawaii . Early the next day , the CPHC upgraded the watch to a hurricane warning for the Big Island of Hawaii , as Fernanda was expected to continue its westward track . When the hurricane slowed , its movement was uncertain , although all watches and warnings were canceled by August 17 , when Fernanda began its northwest track . Officials opened nine shelters on the Big Island , and about 200 people stayed in them until the hurricane watches were canceled . One shelter near Hilo held 80 people due to concern of the high waves . Officials on the Big Island closed and evacuated all of the beach parks on August 15 . On Molokai , 40 hikers were evacuated from a valley prone to flooding . Residents bought emergency supplies on Kauai , which had been struck by powerful Hurricane Iniki 11 months prior .
While moving slowly for a few days , Hurricane Fernanda produced high surf along the eastern shores of the Hawaiian Islands . The rough waves prompted the closure of several beaches in Maui and the Big Island . Wave heights reached 10 to 15 feet ( 3 to 4 @.@ 5 m ) in most places , while portions of Maui experienced up to 20 foot ( 6 m ) waves . The surf damaged coastal roads along most of the islands , and some homes were flooded . One home in Maui was moved several feet off of its foundation due to the waves . In the harbor at Hilo , one boat was damaged and another was destroyed , and in the Puna district , 12 homes were damaged . Although the hurricane remained away from the islands , moisture from Fernanda combined with an upper @-@ level trough to produce rainfall across the state . Precipitation was heaviest in Kauai , where some minor flooding was reported . After Fernanda became extratropical in the shipping lanes of the north Pacific , several vessels reported gale force winds .
= New Jersey Route 66 =
Route 66 is a state highway located in Monmouth County , New Jersey , United States . It runs 3 @.@ 62 mi ( 5 @.@ 83 km ) between Route 33 in Tinton Falls and Route 35 at County Route 16 on the border of Ocean Township and Neptune Township , just to the west of Asbury Park . The route serves as an important connector between the Garden State Parkway to the west and Route 18 and Asbury Park to the east . It runs concurrent with County Route 16 from Bowne / Wayside Roads to the eastern terminus at Route 35 . Route 66 , which varies from a two @-@ lane undivided road to a four @-@ lane divided highway , passes through commercial areas for most of its length with some wooded areas . The route was created in 1953 , replacing what had been Route 33 @-@ 35 Link . There is currently a proposal to widen the two @-@ lane portion between Jumping Brook Road and Wayside Road in order to better handle the traffic that uses this road .
= = Route description = =
Route 66 begins at an intersection with Route 33 in Tinton Falls , heading to the northeast as a two @-@ lane road . A short distance past Route 33 , it comes to an interchange with the Garden State Parkway , where the road becomes a three lane undivided road with one eastbound lane and two westbound lanes . Past this interchange , the route heads into commercial areas , where it widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway that passes south of the Jersey Shore Premium Outlets , with an interchange serving the outlet mall at Premium Outlets Boulevard / Hovchild Boulevard . Following this , the road heads into Neptune Township . After the intersection with Jumping Brook Road , the divided highway ends and Route 66 becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road . The route heads through a patch of woods before passing more businesses and coming to an intersection with County Route 16 ( Asbury Avenue ) . Here , the road becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway again and heads east along the border of Ocean Township to the north and Neptune Township to the south , concurrent with County Route 16 . It passes through woodland before coming to a cloverleaf interchange with Route 18 . Past Route 18 , the road heads into commercial areas again , with the Seaview Square Shopping Center located to the north of the route . Route 66 ends at the Asbury Park Circle with Route 35 , where County Route 16 continues east toward Asbury Park on Asbury Avenue .
= = History = =
Route 66 was legislated in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering to replace what had been Route 33 @-@ 35 Link . There is a proposal to widen the two @-@ lane portions of Route 66 between Jumping Brook Road and Wayside Road . The need for this widening is due to the need to handle traffic going to Asbury Park in the summer months as well as an evacuation route for the coastal regions of Monmouth County , and the poor design of the current roadway , which lacks turning lanes and facilities for bicycles and pedestrians . In addition , a proposed outlet mall called the Jersey Shore Premium Outlets was planned along the route in Tinton Falls , with improvements planned to the route in the vicinity of the project including an overpass to the outlet mall . In 2006 , Neptune Township refused to cooperate with these plans because the original agreement for the outlet mall project in 2001 was no longer up to date with the current traffic demands . Despite this opposition , the plans were approved by the borough of Tinton Falls in 2007 and the Jersey Shore Premium Outlets opened in November 2008 . As for the widening of Route 66 , a meeting was held in August 2009 between members of the 11th state Legislative district and the Commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Transportation .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Monmouth County .
= Tropical Storm Bonnie ( 2004 ) =
Tropical Storm Bonnie was a small tropical storm that made landfall on Florida in August 2004 . The second storm of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season , Bonnie developed from a tropical wave on August 3 to the east of the Lesser Antilles . After moving through the islands , its fast forward motion caused it to dissipate . However , it later regenerated into a tropical storm near the Yucatán Peninsula . Bonnie attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) over the Gulf of Mexico , turned to the northeast , and hit Florida as a 45 mph ( 75 km ) tropical storm . The storm accelerated to the northeast and became an extratropical cyclone to the east of New Jersey . Bonnie was the first of five tropical systems to make landfall on Florida in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season , and the second of a record eight disturbances to reach tropical storm strength during the month of August .
Bonnie 's impact was minimal . Throughout the Caribbean Sea , the storm 's effects consisted primarily of light rainfall , and in Florida , the precipitation caused flooding and minor damage . The tropical storm caused a tornado outbreak across the Southeastern United States which killed three people and inflicted over $ 1 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage . Bonnie made landfall in Florida the day before Hurricane Charley struck .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Bonnie were in a tropical wave that emerged from the coast of Africa on July 29 and entered the Atlantic Ocean . It moved westward , attaining convection and a mid @-@ level circulation . Convection steadily increased , and , upon the development of a low @-@ level circulation center , the system organized into Tropical Depression Two on August 3 while 415 miles ( 670 km ) east of Barbados . It moved rapidly westward at speeds of up to 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) ; after crossing through the Lesser Antilles on August 4 , it degenerated back into a tropical wave .
The tropical wave continued to move rapidly to the west @-@ northwest , until it reached the western Caribbean Sea . While south of Cuba and through the Cayman Islands , the system slowed down to regenerate convection , and it re @-@ developed into a tropical depression on August 8 . Operationally , the system was classified a tropical wave until a day later . The depression moved through the Yucatán Channel , and intensified into Tropical Storm Bonnie on August 9 while 70 miles ( 115 km ) north of the Yucatán Peninsula .
Bonnie continued to the west @-@ northwest ; late on August 9 , the storm presented a 9 @-@ mile ( 15 @-@ km ) wide eyewall , a very unusual occurrence in a small and weak tropical storm . Bonnie quickly strengthened while turning to the north , a directional shift caused by a break in the mid @-@ level ridge . The storm briefly weakened late on August 10 ; it re @-@ strengthened again the following day to attain a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Soon after , strong southwesterly wind shear disrupted the storm , causing Bonnie to weaken again . On August 12 , Bonnie made landfall just south of Apalachicola as a 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) tropical storm . It quickly weakened to a tropical depression , and accelerated northeastward through the southeastern United States . After paralleling the Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina coastlines , Bonnie lost its tropical characteristics on August 14 to the east of New Jersey . Its remnant low continued northeastward , making landfall in Massachusetts and Maine and continuing into Atlantic Canada .
= = Preparations = =
About 16 hours before the storm moved through the Lesser Antilles , the government of Saint Lucia declared a tropical storm warning . Guadeloupe , Martinique , Dominica , St. Maarten , Saba , St. Eustatius , Puerto Rico and the U.S Virgin Islands issued tropical storm watches .
Combined with the threat of Hurricane Charley , Bonnie forced the evacuation of 154 oil platforms and 32 oil rigs . The cease in production was equivalent to over 1 @.@ 2 million barrels of loss in crude oil , or 0 @.@ 2 % of the annual oil production in the Gulf of Mexico . Natural gas reserves were also limited . The lack of gas production due to the storms was equivalent to 7 @.@ 4 % of the total daily production in the Gulf of Mexico .
Early forecasts suggested that Bonnie would attain 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) winds , or Category 1 status . In response to the threat , 15 shelters in 7 northwestern Florida counties were put on standby . In the hours prior to landfall , 2 shelters were opened , 4 were put on standby , and health and cleanup teams were deployed to the area . Parts of Gadsden , Wakulla , and Levy Counties issued voluntary evacuations , and numerous schools were closed . In anticipation of the storm , Florida Governor Jeb Bush issued a state of emergency .
= = Impact = =
Bonnie was a weak storm through most of its path , dropping only light rainfall and causing minimal damage . South Carolina and North Carolina experienced the worst of the storm , where a tornado outbreak killed three people and caused moderate damage .
= = = Caribbean Sea = = =
As a tropical depression , the storm moved rapidly through the Lesser Antilles ; consequently , most islands only experienced minor effects . For example , Saint Lucia received light and sporadic rain showers , accompanied by sustained winds of 20 – 25 mph ( 32 – 40 km / h ) and gusts to 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , however , the depression dropped up to 9 @.@ 2 inches ( 235 mm ) of rain in 24 hours . The rainfall blocked storm drains , including those near the airport , which was forced to shut down . The rainfall caused debris to collect on roads throughout the island . Although the storm passed just 70 miles ( 110 km ) north of the Yucatán Peninsula , the storm dropped only 0 @.@ 6 inches ( 15 mm ) of rain due to its small size .
= = = North America = = =
In Florida , Bonnie produced up to 4 @.@ 1 inches ( 104 mm ) of rainfall in Pace , with peak wind gusts of 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) . Bonnie was accompanied by a 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) storm surge ; moderate wave action caused slight beach erosion . Rainfall and storm surge flooded roads , forcing the evacuation of 2 @,@ 000 residents in Taylor County . The winds downed trees and caused scattered power outages . A tornado in Jacksonville damaged several businesses and houses .
Bonnie triggered a tornado outbreak throughout portions of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states . One tornado in Pender County , North Carolina destroyed 17 homes and damaged 59 houses , causing three deaths and $ 1 @.@ 27 million in damage ( 2004 USD ) . In Stella , Bonnie generated a waterspout that struck a campground , damaged nine trailers , and wrecked small boats . A tornado in Richlands damaged several houses as well . In South Carolina , tornadoes across the state damaged nine homes . A suspected tornado in Danville , Virginia destroyed the roofs of several businesses . In South Carolina , rainfall peaking at 6 @.@ 07 inches ( 154 mm ) in Loris caused flooding across the state . The flooding , including a one @-@ foot depth along U.S. Route 501 , washed away a road and a bridge in Greenville County . In addition , 600 people across the state were left without electricity .
In Pennsylvania , the remnants of the storm dropped up to 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rain in Tannersville . The rainfall caused the Schuylkill River to reach a crest peak of 12 @.@ 89 ft ( 4 m ) at Berne . The flooding blocked several roads across eastern Pennsylvania . In addition , Bonnie produced gusty winds , leaving thousands without power . In Delaware , the storm dropped up to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of rain , forcing 100 to evacuate from the floodwaters . The flooding closed part of U.S. Route 13 , and an overflown creek in New Castle County caused moderate flooding damage to stores . In Maine , moisture from the remnants of Bonnie produced heavy rainfall , with localized totals of up to 10 inches ( 250 mm ) . The rainfall flooded or washed out roads across the eastern portion of the state . In Aroostook County , near the town of St. Francis , the rainfall caused a mudslide which narrowed a county road to one lane .
As an extratropical low combined with a frontal system , Bonnie continued to produce moderate rainfall in Canada , peaking at 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 90 mm ) in Edmundston , New Brunswick . The rainfall caused basement flooding and road washouts ; slick roads caused a traffic fatality in Edmundston .
= = Aftermath and records = =
Twenty @-@ two hours after Bonnie struck Florida , Hurricane Charley passed over the Dry Tortugas . This was the first time in recorded history that two tropical storms struck Florida within 1 day . Previously , Hurricane Gordon and Tropical Storm Helene struck the state within five days of each other in September 2000 . Originally , it was thought that two storms in the 1906 season hit the state within 12 hours ; however , the suspected tropical storm was determined to be a tropical depression in a more recent analysis . Bonnie was the first of five tropical systems to make landfall in Florida during the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season , and the second of a record eight disturbances to reach tropical storm strength during the month of August .
Because Bonnie hit Florida immediately before Charley , damage between the two storms was often difficult to differentiate . President George W. Bush responded to the storm by declaring much of Florida a Federal Disaster Area on August 13 , 2004 .
= Mariah Carey =
Mariah Carey ( born March 27 , 1969 or 1970 ) is an American singer , songwriter , record producer , and actress . In 1990 , she rose to fame with the release of " Vision of Love " from her eponymous debut album . The album produced four chart @-@ topping singles in the US and began what would become a string of commercially successful albums which solidified the singer as Columbia 's highest selling act . Carey and Boyz II Men spent a record sixteen weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100 in 1995 @-@ 96 with " One Sweet Day " , which remains the longest @-@ running number @-@ one song in US chart history . Following a contentious divorce from Sony Music head Tommy Mottola , Carey adopted a new image and traversed towards hip hop with the release of Butterfly ( 1997 ) . In 1998 , she was honored as the world 's best @-@ selling recording artist of the 1990s at the World Music Awards and subsequently named the best @-@ selling female artist of the millennium in 2000 .
Carey parted with Columbia in 2000 , and signed a record @-@ breaking $ 100 million recording contract with Virgin Records America . In the weeks prior to the release of her film Glitter and its accompanying soundtrack in 2001 , she suffered a physical and emotional breakdown and was hospitalized for severe exhaustion . The project was poorly received and led to a general decline in the singer 's career . Carey 's recording contract was bought out for $ 50 million by Virgin and she signed a multi @-@ million dollar deal with Island Records the following year . After a relatively unsuccessful period , she returned to the top of music charts with The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . The album became the best @-@ selling album in the US and the second best @-@ seller worldwide in 2005 and produced " We Belong Together " , which became her most successful single of the 2000s , and was later named " Song of the Decade " by Billboard . Carey once again ventured into film with a well @-@ received supporting role in Precious ( 2009 ) , and was awarded the " Breakthrough Performance Award " at the Palm Springs International Film Festival .
Throughout her career , Carey has sold more than 200 million records worldwide , making her one of the best @-@ selling music artists of all time . According to the RIAA , she is the third @-@ best @-@ selling female artist in the United States , with 63 @.@ 5 million certified albums . With the release of " Touch My Body " ( 2008 ) , Carey gained her 18th number @-@ one single in the United States , more than any other solo artist . In 2012 , the singer was ranked second on VH1 's list of the " 100 Greatest Women in Music " . Aside from her commercial accomplishments , Carey has won 5 Grammy Awards , 19 World Music Awards , 11 American Music Awards , and 14 Billboard Music Awards and has been consistently credited with inspiring a generation of singers . Referred to as the " songbird supreme " by the Guinness World Records , she is famed for her five @-@ octave vocal range , power , melismatic style and signature use of the whistle register .
= = Early life = =
Mariah Carey was born in Huntington , New York . Her father , Alfred Roy Carey , was of African American and Afro @-@ Venezuelan descent , while her mother , Patricia ( née Hickey ) , is of Irish descent . The last name Carey was adopted by her Venezuelan grandfather , Francisco Núñez , after immigrating to New York . Patricia was an occasional opera singer and vocal coach before she met Alfred in 1960 . As he began earning a living as an aeronautical engineer , the couple wed later that year , and moved into a small suburb in New York . After their elopement , Patricia 's family disowned her due to her marrying a black man . Carey later explained that growing up , she felt a notion of neglect from her maternal family , a mark that affected her greatly . During the years between the births of Carey 's older sister Alison and herself , the Carey family struggled within the community due to their ethnicity . Carey 's name was derived from the song " They Call the Wind Maria " , originally from the 1951 Broadway musical Paint Your Wagon . When Carey was three , her parents divorced .
After their separation , Alison moved in with her father , while the other two children , Mariah and brother Morgan , remained with their mother . Carey would grow apart from her father , and would later stop seeing him altogether . By the age of four , Carey recalled that she had begun to sneak the radio under her covers at night , and just sing and try to find peace within the music . During elementary school , she excelled in subjects that she enjoyed , such as music , art , and literature , but did not find interest in others . After several years of financial struggles , Patricia earned enough money to move her family into a stable and more affluent sector in New York . Carey had begun writing poems and adding melodies to them , thus starting as a singer @-@ songwriter while attending Harborfields High School in Greenlawn , New York , where she graduated in 1987 . Carey excelled in her music , and demonstrated usage of the whistle register , though only beginning to master and control it through her training with her mother . Though introducing her daughter to classical opera , Patricia never pressured her to pursue a career in it , as she never seemed interested . Carey recalled that she kept her singer @-@ songwriter works a secret and noted that Patricia had " never been a pushy mom . She never said , ' Give it more of an operatic feel ' . I respect opera like crazy , but it didn 't influence me . "
While in high school , Carey began writing songs with Gavin Christopher . They needed an assistant who could play the keyboard : " We called someone and he couldn 't come , so by accident we stumbled upon Ben [ Margulies ] . Ben came to the studio , and he really couldn 't play the keyboards very well — he was really more of a drummer — but after that day , we kept in touch , and we sort of clicked as writers . " Carey and Christopher began writing and composing songs in the basement of his father 's store during Carey 's senior year . After composing their first song together , " Here We Go Round Again " , which Carey described as having a Motown vibe , they continued writing material for a full @-@ length demo . She began living in a one @-@ bedroom apartment in Manhattan , which she shared with four other female students . Carey worked as a waitress for various restaurants , usually getting fired after two weeks . While requiring work to pay for her rent , Carey still had musical ambitions , as she continued working late into the night with Margulies in hopes of completing a demo . After completing her four song demo tape , Carey attempted to pass it to music labels , but failed each time . Shortly thereafter , she was introduced to rising pop singer Brenda K. Starr .
= = Career = =
= = = 1988 – 92 : Mariah Carey and Emotions = = =
As Starr 's friendship with Carey grew , so did her interest in helping Carey succeed in the industry . In December 1988 , Carey accompanied Starr to a record executives ' gala , where she handed her demo tape to the head of Columbia Records , Tommy Mottola , who listened to it on his way back home . After the first two songs , he was interested in her ; later , after searching for Carey for two weeks , he immediately signed her and began mapping out her commercial debut . While she maintained that she wanted to continue working with Margulies , Mottola enlisted top producers of the time , including Ric Wake , Narada Michael Walden and Rhett Lawrence . Mottola and the staff at Columbia had planned to market Carey as their main female pop artist , competing with Whitney Houston and Madonna ( signed to Arista and Sire Records respectively ) . After the completion of her debut album , Mariah Carey , Columbia spent more than $ 1 million promoting it . Despite a weak start , the album eventually reached the top of the Billboard 200 , after Carey 's exposure at the 33rd Annual Grammy Awards . Mariah Carey stayed atop the charts for eleven consecutive weeks , and she won the Best New Artist , and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance awards for her single " Vision of Love " . In addition to " Vision of Love " , the album yielded the Billboard Hot 100 number one singles " Love Takes Time " , " Someday " , and " I Don 't Wanna Cry " . Carey became the first artist since The Jackson 5 to have its first four singles reach number one . Mariah Carey finished as the best @-@ selling album in the United States in 1991 , while totaling sales of over 15 million copies .
Carey began recording her second studio album , Emotions , in 1991 . She described it as a homage to Motown soul music , as she felt the need to pay tribute to the type of music that had influenced her as a child . For the project , Carey worked with Walter Afanasieff , who only had a small role on her debut , as well as Robert Clivillés and David Cole , from the dance group C + C Music Factory . Carey 's relationship with Margulies deteriorated over a personal contract Carey had signed with him before signing the record deal with Columbia , agreeing to split not only the songwriting royalties from the songs , but half of her earnings as well . However , when the time came to write music for Emotions , Sony officials made it clear he would only be paid the fair amount given to co @-@ writers on an album . Margulies later filed a lawsuit against Sony which ultimately led to their parting of ways . Emotions was released on September 17 , 1991 , and was accepted by critics as a more mature album than its predecessor . While praised for Carey 's improved songwriting , production , and new sound , the album was criticized for its material , thought weaker than that of her debut . Though the album managed sales of over eight million copies globally , Emotions failed to reach the commercial and critical heights of its predecessor .
As after the release of her debut , critics again questioned whether Carey would embark on a world tour to promote her material . Although Carey explained that stage fright and the style of her songs made a tour very daunting , speculation grew that Carey was a " studio worm " , and that she was incapable of producing the perfect pitch and 5 @-@ octave vocal range for which she was known . In hopes of putting to rest any claims of her being a manufactured artist , Carey and Walter Afanasieff decided to book an appearance on MTV Unplugged , a television program aired by MTV . The show presented name artists " unplugged " or stripped of studio equipment . While Carey favored her more soulful and powerful songs , it was decided that her most popular content would be included . Days before the show 's taping , Carey and Afanasieff thought of adding a cover version of an older song , in order to provide something different and unexpected . They chose " I 'll Be There " , a song made popular by The Jackson 5 in 1970 . On March 16 , 1992 , Carey recorded a seven @-@ piece set @-@ list at Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens , New York . The revue was met with critical acclaim , leading to it being aired more than three times as often as an average episode would . The success tempted Sony officials to market it . Sony decided to release it as an EP , priced low because it was short . The EP proved to be a success , contrary to critics and speculations that Carey was just a studio artist , and was given a triple @-@ Platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and managed Gold and Platinum certifications in several European markets .
= = = 1993 – 96 : Music Box and Daydream = = =
During early 1993 , Carey began working on her third studio album , Music Box . After Emotions failed to achieve the commercial heights of her debut album , Carey and Columbia came to the agreement that the next album would contain a more pop influenced sound , in order to appeal to a wider audience . During Carey 's writing sessions , she began working mostly with Afanasieff , with whom she co @-@ wrote and produced most of Music Box . On August 31 , Music Box was released around the world , debuting at number @-@ one on the Billboard 200 . The album was met with mixed reception from music critics ; while many praised the album 's pop influence and strong content , others felt that Carey made less usage of her acclaimed vocal range . Ron Wynn from AllMusic described Carey 's different form of singing on the album : " It was wise for Carey to display other elements of her approach , but sometimes excessive spirit is preferable to an absence of passion . " The album 's second single , " Hero " , would eventually come to be one of Carey 's most popular and inspirational songs of her career . The song became Carey 's eighth chart topper in the United States , and began expanding Carey 's popularity throughout Europe . With the release of the album 's third single , Carey achieved several career milestones . Her cover of Badfinger 's " Without You " became her first number one single in Germany , Sweden , and the United Kingdom .
Music Box spent prolonged periods at number one on the album charts of several countries , and eventually became one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time , with worldwide sales of over 32 million copies . After declining to tour for her past two albums , Carey agreed to embark on a short stateside string of concerts , titled the Music Box Tour . Spanning only six dates across North America , the short but successful tour was a large step for Carey , who dreaded the hassle of touring . Following Music Box , Carey took a relatively large period of time away from the public eye , and began working on an unknown project throughout 1994 . In October 1994 , Billboard announced that Carey would release a holiday album later that year . That 1994 , Carey recorded a duet with Luther Vandross ; a cover of Lionel Richie and Diana Ross 's " Endless Love " . Carey 's album Merry Christmas was released on November 1 , 1994 , on the same day that the album 's first single , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " , was released . The album eventually became the best @-@ selling Christmas album of all time , with global sales reaching over 15 million copies . Additionally , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " was critically lauded , and is considered " one of the few worthy modern additions to the holiday canon . " Rolling Stone described it as a " holiday standard " , and ranked it fourth on its Greatest Rock and Roll Christmas Songs list . Commercially , it became the best @-@ selling holiday ringtone of all time , and the best @-@ selling single by a non @-@ Asian artist in Japan , selling over 2 @.@ 1 million units ( both ringtone and digital download ) . By the end of the holiday season of 1994 , Carey and Afanasieff had already begun writing material for her next studio album , which would be released late the following year .
Released on October 3 , 1995 , Daydream combined the pop sensibilities of Music Box with downbeat R & B and hip hop influences . The album 's second single , " One Sweet Day " was inspired by the death of David Cole . The song remained atop the Hot 100 for a record @-@ holding 16 weeks , and became the longest @-@ running number @-@ one song in history . Daydream became her biggest @-@ selling album in the United States , and became her second album to be certified Diamond by the RIAA , following Music Box . The album again was the best @-@ seller by an international artist in Japan , shipping over 2 @.@ 2 million copies , and eventually reaching global sales of over 25 million units . Critically , the album was heralded as Carey 's best to date ; The New York Times named it one of 1995 's best albums , and wrote , " best cuts bring R & B candy @-@ making to a new peak of textural refinement [ ... ] Carey 's songwriting has taken a leap forward and become more relaxed , sexier and less reliant on thudding clichés . " Carey once again opted to embark on a short world tour titled Daydream World Tour . It had seven dates , three in Japan and four throughout Europe . When tickets went on sale , Carey set records when all 150 @,@ 000 tickets for her three shows at Japan 's largest stadium , Tokyo Dome , sold out in under three hours , breaking the previous record held by The Rolling Stones . Due to the album 's success , Carey won two awards at the American Music Awards for her solo efforts : Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . Daydream and its singles were respectively nominated in six categories at the 38th Grammy Awards . Carey , along with Boyz II Men , opened the event with a performance of " One Sweet Day " . However , Carey did not receive any award , prompting her to comment " What can you do ? I will never be disappointed again . After I sat through the whole show and didn 't win once , I can handle anything . " In 1995 , due to Daydream 's enormous Japanese sales , Billboard declared Carey the " Overseas Artist of the Year " in Japan .
= = = 1997 – 2000 : New image and independence , Butterfly , and Rainbow = = =
With her following albums , Carey began to take more initiative and control with her music , and started infusing more genres into her work . For Butterfly , she sought to work with other producers and writers other than Afanasieff , such as Sean Combs , Kamaal Fareed , Missy Elliott and Jean Claude Oliver and Samuel Barnes from Trackmasters . During the album 's recording , Carey and Mottola separated , with Carey citing it as her way of achieving freedom , and a new lease on life . Aside from the album 's different approach , critics took notice of Carey 's altered style of singing , which she described as breathy vocals . Her new @-@ found style of singing was met with mixed reception ; some critics felt this was a sign of maturity , that she did not feel the need to always show off her upper range , while others felt it was a sign of her weakening and waning voice . The album 's lead single , " Honey " , and its accompanying music video , introduced a more overtly sexual image than Carey had ever demonstrated , and furthered reports of her freedom from Mottola . Carey believed that her image was not " that much of a departure from what I 've done in the past [ ... ] It 's not like I went psycho and thought I would be a rapper . Personally , this album is about doing whatever the hell I wanted to do . " Reviews for Butterfly were generally positive : Rolling Stone wrote , " It 's not as if Carey has totally dispensed with her old saccharine , Houston @-@ style balladry [ ... ] but the predominant mood of ' Butterfly ' is one of coolly erotic reverie . " AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine described Carey 's vocals as " sultrier and more controlled than ever " , and heralded Butterfly as one of her " best records and illustrates that Carey continues to improve and refine her music , which makes her a rarity among her ' 90s peers . ' " The album was a commercial success , although not to the degree of her previous albums Mariah Carey , Music Box and Daydream .
Carey began developing other projects during the late 1990s . On April 14 , 1998 , Carey partook in the VH1 Divas benefit concert , where she sang alongside Aretha Franklin , Celine Dion , Shania Twain , Gloria Estefan , and Carole King . Carey had begun developing a film project All That Glitters , later re @-@ titled to simply Glitter , and wrote songs for other projects , such as Men in Black ( 1997 ) and How the Grinch Stole Christmas ( 2000 ) . After Glitter fell into developmental hell , Carey postponed the project , and began writing material for a new album . Sony Music executives wanted her to prepare a greatest hits collection in time for the holiday season . They wanted to release an album that featured her number one singles in the United States , and her international chart toppers on the European versions , without any new material , while Carey felt that a compilation album should reflect on her most personal songs , not just her most commercial . The album , titled # 1 's ( 1998 ) , featured a duet with Whitney Houston , " When You Believe " , which was included on the soundtrack for The Prince of Egypt ( 1998 ) . # 1 's became a phenomenon in Japan , selling over one million copies in its opening week , making Carey as the only international artist to accomplish this feat . It sold over 3 @.@ 25 million copies in Japan after only the first three months , and holds the record as the best @-@ selling album by a non @-@ Asian artist .
During the spring of 1999 , Carey began working on the final album per her record contract with Sony . But due to the pressure and the awkward relationship Carey had developed with Sony , she completed the album in a period of three months in the summer of 1999 , quicker than any of her other albums . Titled Rainbow ( 1999 ) , the album found Carey once again working with a new array of music producers and songwriters , such as Jay @-@ Z and DJ Clue ? . Carey also wrote two ballads with David Foster and Diane Warren , whom she used to replace Afanasieff . Rainbow was released on November 2 , 1999 , to the highest first week sales of her career at the time , however debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 . In the meantime Carey 's troubled relationship with Columbia grew , as they halted promotion after the album 's first two singles . They felt Rainbow didn 't have any strong single to be released , whereas Carey wanted to release a ballad . This led to a very public feud , as Carey began posting messages on her website , telling fans inside information on the dispute , as well as instructing them to request " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " on radio stations . The song was ultimately released but Carey found out that the song had only been given a very limited and low @-@ promotion release , which made it commercially non @-@ viable . Critical reception of Rainbow was generally enthusiastic , with the Sunday Herald saying that the album " sees her impressively tottering between soul ballads and collaborations with R & B heavyweights like Snoop Doggy Dogg and Usher [ ... ] It 's a polished collection of pop @-@ soul . " Though a commercial success , Rainbow became Carey 's lowest selling album to that point in her career .
= = = 2001 – 04 : Personal and professional struggles , Glitter and Charmbracelet = = =
After she received Billboard 's Artist of the Decade Award and the World Music Award for Best @-@ Selling Female Artist of the Millennium , Carey parted from Columbia and signed a $ 100 million five @-@ album recording contract with Virgin Records America ( EMI Records ) in April 2001 . Carey was given full conceptual and creative control over the project . She opted to record an album partly mixed with 1980s influenced disco and other similar genres , in order to go hand @-@ in @-@ hand with the film 's setting . She often stated that Columbia had regarded her as a commodity , with her separation from Mottola exacerbating her relations with label executives . Just a few months later , in July 2001 , it was widely reported that Carey had suffered a physical and emotional breakdown . She had left messages on her website that complained of being overworked , and her three @-@ year relationship with the singer Luis Miguel ended . In an interview the following year , she said , " I was with people who didn 't really know me and I had no personal assistant . I 'd do interviews all day long and get two hours of sleep a night , if that . " Due to the pressure from the media , her heavy work schedule and the split from Miguel , Carey began posting a series of disturbing messages on her official website , and displayed erratic behavior on several live promotional outings . On July 19 , 2001 , Carey made a surprise appearance on the MTV program Total Request Live ( TRL ) . As the show 's host Carson Daly began taping following a commercial break , Carey came out pushing an ice cream cart while wearing a large men 's shirt , and began a striptease , in which she shed her shirt to reveal a tight yellow and green ensemble . While she later revealed that Daly was aware of her presence in the building prior to her appearance , Carey 's appearance on TRL garnered strong media attention . Only days later , Carey began posting irregular voice notes and messages on her official website : " I 'm trying to understand things in life right now and so I really don 't feel that I should be doing music right now . What I 'd like to do is just a take a little break or at least get one night of sleep without someone popping up about a video . All I really want is [ to ] just be me and that 's what I should have done in the first place ... I don 't say this much but guess what , I don 't take care of myself . " Following the quick removal of the messages , Berger commented that Carey had been " obviously exhausted and not thinking clearly " when she posted the letters .
On July 26 , she was suddenly hospitalized , citing " extreme exhaustion " and a " physical and emotional breakdown " . Carey was inducted at an un @-@ disclosed hospital in Connecticut , and remained hospitalized and under doctor 's care for two weeks , followed by an extended absence from the public . Following the heavy media coverage surrounding Carey 's publicized breakdown and hospitalization , Virgin Records America and 20th Century Fox delayed the release of both Glitter , as well as its soundtrack of the same name . When discussing the project 's weak commercial reaction , Carey blamed both her frame of mind during the time of its release , its postponement , as well as the soundtrack having been released on September 11 . Critics panned Glitter , as well as its accompanying soundtrack ; both were unsuccessful commercially . The accompanying soundtrack album , Glitter , became Carey 's lowest @-@ selling album to that point . The St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch dismissed it as " an absolute mess that 'll go down as an annoying blemish on a career that , while not always critically heralded , was at least nearly consistently successful . " Following the negative cloud that was enveloping Carey 's personal life at the time , as well as the project 's poor reception , her $ 100 million five @-@ album record deal with Virgin Records America ( EMI Records ) was bought out for $ 50 million . Soon after , Carey flew to Capri , Italy for a period of five months , in which she began writing material for her new album , stemming from all the personal experiences she had endured throughout the past year . Carey later said that her time at Virgin was " a complete and total stress @-@ fest [ ... ] I made a total snap decision which was based on money and I never make decisions based on money . I learned a big lesson from that . " Later that year , she signed a contract with Island Records , valued at more than $ 24 million , and launched the record label MonarC . To add further to Carey 's emotional burdens , her father , with whom she had little contact since childhood , died of cancer that year .
In 2002 , Carey was cast in the independent film , WiseGirls , alongside Mira Sorvino and Melora Walters , who co @-@ starred as waitresses at a mobster @-@ operated restaurant . It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , and received generally negative critical response , though Carey 's portrayal of the character was praised ; Roger Friedman of Fox News referred to her as " a Thelma Ritter for the new millennium " , and wrote , " Her line delivery is sharp and she manages to get the right laughs " . Later that year , Carey performed the American national anthem to rave reviews at the Super Bowl XXXVI at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans , Louisiana . Towards the end of 2002 , Carey released her next studio album Charmbracelet , which she said marked " a new lease on life " for her . Though released in the wake of Glitter and Carey 's return to the music scene , sales of Charmbracelet were moderate and the quality of Carey 's vocals came under criticism . Joan Anderson from The Boston Globe declared the album " the worst of her career , and revealed a voice [ that is ] no longer capable of either gravity @-@ defying gymnastics or soft coos " , while AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine expressed similar sentiments and wrote , " What is a greater problem is that Mariah 's voice is shot , sounding in tatters throughout the record . She can no longer coo or softly croon nor can she perform her trademark gravity @-@ defying vocal runs . "
In April 2003 , Carey announced she would be touring later in the year . The Charmbracelet World Tour : An Intimate Evening with Mariah Carey , spanned North America and East Asia over three months , generally playing in smaller venues rather than arenas . Throughout the United States , the shows were done in theaters , and something more Broadway @-@ influenced , " It 's much more intimate so you 'll feel like you had an experience . You experience a night with me . " However , while smaller productions were booked throughout the tour 's stateside leg , Carey performed at stadiums in Asia and Europe , performing for a crowd of over 35 @,@ 000 in Manila , 50 @,@ 000 in Malaysia , and to over 70 @,@ 000 people in China . In the United Kingdom , it became Carey 's first tour to feature shows outside London , booking arena stops in Glasgow , Birmingham and Manchester . Charmbracelet World Tour : An Intimate Evening with Mariah Carey garnered generally positive reviews from music critics and concert goers , with many complimenting the quality of Carey 's live vocals , as well as the production as a whole .
= = = 2005 – 07 : Resurgence with The Emancipation of Mimi = = =
Throughout 2004 , Carey focused on composing material for her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . The album found Carey working predominantly with Jermaine Dupri , as well as Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , Manuel Seal , The Neptunes and Kanye West . The album debuted atop the charts in several countries , and was warmly accepted by critics . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian defined it as " cool , focused and urban [ ... some of ] the first Mariah Carey tunes in years which I wouldn 't have to be paid to listen to again " , while USA Today 's Elysa Gardner wrote , " The ballads and midtempo numbers that truly reflect the renewed confidence of a songbird who has taken her shots and kept on flying . " The album 's second single , " We Belong Together " , became a " career re @-@ defining " song for Carey , at a point when many critics had considered her career over . Music critics heralded the song as her " return to form " , as well as the " return of The Voice " , while many felt it would revive " faith " in Carey 's potential as a balladeer . " We Belong Together " broke several records in the United States and became Carey 's sixteenth chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100 . After staying at number one for fourteen non @-@ consecutive weeks , the song became the second longest running number one song in US chart history , behind Carey 's 1996 collaboration with Boyz II Men , " One Sweet Day " . Billboard listed it as the " song of the decade " and the ninth most popular song of all time . Besides its chart success , the song broke several airplay records , and according to Nielsen BDS , gathered both the largest one @-@ day and one @-@ week audiences in history .
During the week of September 25 , 2005 , Carey set another record , becoming the first female to occupy the first two spots atop the Hot 100 , as " We Belong Together " remained at number one , and her next single , " Shake It Off " moved into the number two spot ( Ashanti had topped the chart in 2002 while being a " featured " singer on the number two single ) . On the Billboard Hot 100 Year @-@ end Chart of 2005 , the song was declared the number one song , a career first for Carey . Billboard listed " We Belong Together " ninth on The Billboard Hot 100 All @-@ Time Top Songs and was declared the most popular song of the 2000s decade by Billboard . The album earned ten Grammy Award nominations in 2006 – 07 : eight in 2006 for the original release ( the most received by Carey in a single year ) , and two in 2007 for the Ultra Platinum Edition ( from which " Don 't Forget About Us " became her seventeenth number @-@ one hit ) . In 2006 Carey won Best Contemporary R & B Album for The Emancipation of Mimi , as well as Best Female R & B Vocal Performance and Best R & B Song for " We Belong Together " . The Emancipation of Mimi was the best @-@ selling album in the United States in 2005 , with nearly five million units sold . It was the first album by a solo female artist to become the year 's best @-@ selling album since Alanis Morissette 's Jagged Little Pill in 1996 . At the end of 2005 , the IFPI reported that The Emancipation of Mimi had sold more than 7 @.@ 7 million copies globally , and was the second @-@ best @-@ selling album of the year after Coldplay 's X & Y. It was the best @-@ selling album worldwide by a solo and female artist . To date , The Emancipation of Mimi has sold over 12 million copies worldwide . At the 48th Grammy Awards , Carey performed a medley of " We Belong Together " and " Fly Like a Bird " .
In support of the album , Carey embarked on her first headlining tour in three years , named The Adventures of Mimi : The Voice , The Hits , The Tour after a " Carey @-@ centric fan 's " music diary . The tour spanned forty stops , with thirty @-@ two in the United States and Canada , two in Africa , and six in Japan . It received warm reaction from music critics and concert goers , many of which celebrated the quality of Carey 's live vocals , as well as the show as a whole . Carey played to about 60 @,@ 000 fans in the two shows in Tunis . The Adventures of Mimi DVD was released in November 2007 internationally and December 2007 in the US .
= = = 2008 – 09 : E = MC ² , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , and Precious = = =
By spring 2007 , Carey had begun to work on her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² , in a private villa in Anguilla . Although E = MC ² was well received by most critics , some of them criticized it for being very similar to the formula used on The Emancipation of Mimi . Two weeks before the album 's release , " Touch My Body " , the record 's lead single , reached the top position on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Carey 's eighteenth number one and making her the solo artist with the most number one singles in United States history , pushing her past Elvis Presley into second place according to the magazine 's revised methodology . Carey is second only to The Beatles , who have twenty number @-@ one singles . Additionally , it gave Carey her 79th week atop the Hot 100 , tying her with Presley as the artist with the most weeks at number one in the Billboard chart history . "
E = MC ² debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with 463 @,@ 000 copies sold , the biggest opening week sales of her career . In 2008 , Carey also played an aspiring singer named Krystal in Tennessee and had a cameo appearance in Adam Sandler 's film You Don 't Mess with the Zohan , playing herself . Since the album 's release , Carey had planned to embark on an extensive tour in support of E = MC ² . However the tour was suddenly cancelled in early December 2008 . Carey later stated that she had been pregnant during that time period , and suffered a miscarriage , hence she cancelled the tour . On January 20 , 2009 , Carey performed " Hero " at the Neighborhood Inaugural Ball after Barack Obama was sworn as the first African @-@ American president of the United States . On July 7 , 2009 , Carey – alongside Trey Lorenz – performed her version of The Jackson 5 song " I 'll Be There " at the memorial service for Michael Jackson .
In 2009 , she appeared as a social worker in Precious , the movie adaptation of the 1996 novel Push by Sapphire . The film garnered mostly positive reviews from critics , also for Carey 's performance . Variety described her acting as " pitch @-@ perfect " . In January 2010 , Carey won the Breakthrough Actress Performance Award for her role in Precious at the Palm Springs International Film Festival . On September 25 , 2009 , Carey 's twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , was released . Reception for the album was mostly mixed ; Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it " her most interesting album in a decade " , while Jon Caramanica from The New York Times criticized Carey 's vocal performances , decrying her overuse of her softer vocal registers at the expense of her more powerful lower and upper registers . Commercially , the album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , and became the lowest @-@ selling studio album of her career . The album 's lead single , " Obsessed " , debuted at number eleven and peaked at number seven on the chart , and became Carey 's 27th US top @-@ ten hit , tying her with Elton John and Janet Jackson as the fifth most top @-@ ten hits . The album 's follow @-@ up single , a cover of Foreigner 's " I Want to Know What Love Is " , managed to break airplay records in Brazil . The song spent 27 weeks atop the Brasil Hot 100 Airplay , making it the longest running song in the chart 's history .
On December 31 , 2009 , Carey embarked her seventh concert tour , Angels Advocate Tour , which visited the United States and Canada and ended on September 26 , 2010 . A planned remix
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; Sugar was down to the last minute , and as such , she argued that her emotionally exhausted state informed her songwriting . The song was inspired by an incident that Sugar had experienced with a former roommate . Although the two often fought , Sugar desperately wanted them to be friends despite not particularly liking her . Sugar transferred this situation onto Marceline , writing the song so that Marceline — while having issues with Princess Bubblegum — wanted to become her friend . " My Best Friends in the World " was written by Sugar as a celebration of the friendship she shared with her coworkers , especially her storyboarding partner , Muto . Ward later admitted on the commentary track for " What Was Missing " that , while he was editing the animatic for the episode , he started to cry because the songs featured in the episode were so full of emotion . Adventure Time composer , Tim Kiefer , played the instruments featured in the episode himself . To complement the tones of the bass and viola , he created percussion sounds with Game Boy loops , and then used an autochord for " Princess Bubblegum 's melodies " to make " pretty , melodic swoops to accompany BMO 's rigid , robotic patterns , loops , and structures . "
= = Reception = =
" What Was Missing " first aired on Cartoon Network on September 26 , 2011 . The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 185 million viewers and scored a 0 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . This means it was seen by 0 @.@ 4 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episodes ' airing .
Tyler Foster of DVD Talk called the episode a " highlight " of the Fionna & Cake DVD . Specifically , he praised the song " I 'm Just Your Problem " , calling it both a " fan favorite " and " significant as the moment I decided I was a fan " . Dana Piccoli of AfterEllen.com enjoyed the way the episode " alluded to perhaps , more than platonic feelings between " Princess Bubblegum and Marceline , as well as the fact that " What Was Missing " was underlined by potential lesbian " subtext " . The A.V. Club named the episode one of the ten additional installments of the series that illustrates that " emotional complexity " lies " beneath Adventure Time 's weirdness " .
= = = Controversy = = =
" What Was Missing " became controversial because of an allegedly implied past relationship between Marceline and Princess Bubblegum . The controversy largely began after an accompanying " Mathematical " recap — a behind the scenes video series produced by Frederator Studios that implied that there were lesbian relations between Princess Bubblegum and Marceline and that the writing staff actively seeks input from fans . This incident was addressed by Fred Seibert , the show 's executive producer , who said that " in trying to get the show ’ s audience involved we got wrapped up by both fan conjecture and spicy fanart and went a little too far . " Soon after , the video recap and the entire channel was pulled off of YouTube , although " What Was Missing " still airs during reruns . Seibert 's decision to remove the video also proved controversial ; Bitch magazine later wrote an article about how the episode " handled female desire — female queer desire at that — in a subtle but complex way " , but that the removal of the recap and the studio 's perceived treatment of the controversy was detrimental towards the acceptance of queer romance in children 's television . Ward later addressed the issue and gave a more neutral view , saying that , because there were " so many extreme positions taken on it all over the Internet " , he did not " really want to comment on it [ because ] it was a big hullaballoo . "
In August 2014 , Marceline 's voice actress Olivia Olson told a crowd of fans gathered at a Barnes & Noble book signing from The Adventure Time Encyclopedia , that , according to Ward , Marceline and Princess Bubblegum had dated in the past , but that because the series airs in some areas where homosexual relationships are illegal , the show has not been able to officially make clear the relationship in the series itself . August 8 , the day the panel footage was uploaded to YouTube , Olson Tweeted she liked to make things up at panels and told her followers they all take her stories too seriously .
= = Media release = =
The episode was first physically released as part of the 2013 Fionna & Cake DVD , which included 16 episodes from the series ' second , third , and fourth seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete third season DVD in February 2014 . In addition , the 2014 limited edition 12 " vinyl record release Marceline the Vampire Queen – Rock the Nightosphere included " I 'm Just Your Problem " alongside other songs sung by Marceline .
= The Injury =
" The Injury " is the twelfth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's eighteenth episode overall . The episode was written by Mindy Kaling , who also acts in the show as Kelly Kapoor , and directed by Bryan Gordon . " The Injury " episode first aired in the United States on January 12 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest starred Marcus York as Billy Merchant .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) accidentally burns his foot on his George Foreman Grill , but insists on coming to work anyway . When none of his employees , except for Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) , help him , Michael feels under @-@ appreciated . Meanwhile , Dwight starts acting strangely nice to everyone , especially Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) .
" The Injury " was originally conceived by Greg Daniels to be a humorous follow @-@ up to the previous episode , " Booze Cruise " . According to B. J. Novak the idea for the episode started out as an idea in the writing room that just " spun out of control " . The episode was originally going to be called " My Grilled Foot " , but it was later changed when the writers decided the name was " too weird " . " The Injury " received widespread acclaim from critics , now regarded by both critics and fans as one of the show 's greatest episodes . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 1 in the 18 – 49 demographic and was viewed by 10 @.@ 3 million viewers , making it , at the time , the highest @-@ rated episode of the series .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) accidentally burns his foot while grilling bacon on his George Foreman Grill , which he keeps next to his bed . After he makes a distress call to the office , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) comes to " rescue " him , but crashes his car into a pole and suffers a concussion . The injury makes Dwight more likable and much nicer to his co @-@ workers , particularly Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) .
Michael becomes upset with the staff 's lack of compassion towards his " disability " , and brings in Billy Merchant ( Marcus A. York ) , the building 's property manager who uses a wheelchair , to discuss what it is like to be disabled . Billy soon leaves after Michael makes several offensive remarks , but not before pointing out to Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) that Dwight has suffered a concussion .
Jim and Michael take Dwight to the hospital where Michael insists that his burned foot is a more serious injury than Dwight 's blunt force trauma . Before they go , Pam bids " goodbye " to the concussed Dwight , aware that she will probably never see the good @-@ natured version of Dwight Schrute ever again .
= = Production = =
This episode was the second episode of the series directed by Bryan Gordon . Gordon had previously directed the first season episode " The Alliance " . " The Injury " was written by Mindy Kaling , who also acts for the show as customer service representative Kelly Kapoor . After the character development that had occurred in the previous episode , " Booze Cruise " , Greg Daniels decided to create a more inane episode that involved " Michael 's grilled foot . " Writer and actor B. J. Novak said the idea for " Injury " started out as an idea in the writing room that just " spun out of control " . The original plan was for Michael to have fallen asleep in the sun , while having sunblock all over him , except for his foot . According to BJ Novak , the episode was originally going to be called " My Grilled Foot " , but writer Mindy Kaling thought it was " too weird for people to tune in and watch that " . Novak has described " The Injury " as one of his favorite episodes , and said of it , " I don 't think any other TV show would have made an episode from that starting point , and yet it was one of the funniest and most relatable episodes as it went on that we 've ever had . "
The episode guest starred Marcus York , as the " no @-@ nonsense " building manager for the Scranton business park . York described his character as " just trying to do his job " . York recalls being nervous during filming , and " drawing a blank " on his lines during the first ' run @-@ through ' , because of his anxiousness around the cast members , but soon Marcus " smoothed @-@ out " . John Krasinski said that the van scene was his favorite to shoot , and that it " will go down in history as one of the most fun moments I ’ ve ever been a part of " . After his portrayal of the character , York received several positive fan letters , who praised his performance as the straight man in a hectic work environment .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael reveals that he burned his foot on a George Foreman Grill , a product promoted by George Foreman , a former champion boxer . The " Prism DuroSport " that Pam received from Roy as a Christmas present serves as a knock off of the popular music device , the iPod . When Michael asks the office what his foot looks like , Stanley replies , " Mail Boxes Etc . " , a reference to the name of a company absorbed by UPS in 2001 .
During Michael 's seminar on famous handicapped people , two pictures on the wall are of Tom Hanks : one from the 1994 film Forrest Gump , and one from the 1988 film Big , which Michael confuses for the 1993 film Philadelphia . During the scene , Kelly also name @-@ drops Robert Loggia . In an attempt to get Dwight into Meredith 's van , Jim tells him that they are going to Chuck E. Cheese , to which Michael replies that he is " so sick of " the restaurant .
= = Reception = =
" The Injury " originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 22 , 2005 . The episode received a 5 @.@ 1 rating / 12 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 5 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 12 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode ranked as the third half @-@ hour comedy during the week of January 16 , and the series ranked as the number fifteenth highest @-@ rated series out of 113 others , in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode was viewed by 10 @.@ 3 million viewers , making it the highest rated episode of The Office at the time , beating the series ' pilot , which received a Nielsen rating of only 5 @.@ 0 .
An encore presentation of the episode , on July 5 , 2006 , received a 1 @.@ 8 / 6 rating and was viewed by over 3 @.@ 9 million viewers : an increase by 29 percent of its lead @-@ in audience . Another encore presentation on August 22 , 2006 received a 2 @.@ 0 / 6 rating , was viewed by 5 @.@ 3 million viewers , retained 100 percent of its lead @-@ in " My Name is Earl " audience , and ranked as the most @-@ watched episode of The Office during the summer of 2006 .
Since its airing , " The Injury " has received critical acclaim from television critics . The scene featuring Dwight crashing his car received specific attention . IGN ranked the scene with Dwight getting in a car accident as its seventh best moment in the first two seasons , noting that " [ t ] he fact that this show can get such inspired and unusual comedy from what is essentially a puke joke is a testament to how clever The Office is . " Rolling Stone named the same scene as the twentieth funniest in The Office 's first three seasons . TV Squad 's Michael Sciannamea said that " The Injury " was " another solid episode " and that the " show gets better with each and every week . " M. Giant of Television Without Pity graded the episode with an " A – " . Francis Rizzo III from DVD Talk wrote positively of the episode and praised the performance of Rainn Wilson as Dwight and wrote that " nothing he does compares " to his performance in " The Injury " . He called Wilson 's performance as Dwight " flat @-@ out strange " and noted that the episode , along with several others , " wouldn 't be nearly as entertaining " without his character . Mindy Kaling later stated in an interview that it was her favorite episode of the show that she had written . She later expanded that the entry 's " full @-@ on loopy " quality made it humorous . She noted that the episode was " so funny to me , because what happened to [ Michael ] is so stupid . "
= Call of Cthulhu : Dark Corners of the Earth =
Call of Cthulhu : Dark Corners of the Earth is a survival horror video game developed by Headfirst Productions and published by Bethesda Softworks with 2K Games and Ubisoft for the PC and Xbox systems . The game was published first for the Xbox in 2005 and the PC version followed in 2006 . Call of Cthulhu : Dark Corners of the Earth combines an action @-@ adventure game with a relatively realistic first @-@ person shooter and elements of a stealth game .
The game is based on the works of H. P. Lovecraft , author of " The Call of Cthulhu " and progenitor of the Cthulhu Mythos . It is a reimagining of Lovecraft 's 1936 novella The Shadow over Innsmouth . Set mostly in the year 1922 , the story follows Jack Walters , a mentally unstable private detective hired to investigate in Innsmouth , a strange and mysterious town that has cut itself from the rest of the United States .
In development since 1999 , the project was repeatedly delayed , going through several revisions and having some of its most ambitious and immersive features abandoned and the initially planned PlayStation 2 version cancelled . Although well received by most critics and regarded by some as one of the best horror video games of all time , Dark Corners of the Earth was a commercial failure . At least two additional Cthulhu Mythos games were planned by Headfirst Productions , including a direct sequel titled Call of Cthulhu : Destiny 's End , but both were never completed due to Headfirst 's bankruptcy .
= = Gameplay = =
Initial gameplay of Call of Cthulhu : Dark Corners of the Earth comprises unarmed escape and evasion together with investigative exploration , although first @-@ person shooter ( FPS ) style combat is introduced later on . As with most survival horror video games , ammunition is limited and must be conserved carefully for situations when it will really be indispensable , occasionally requiring the player to avoid combat even when armed . The game as a whole is heavily scripted and very linear , with only one path through the chapters from start to finish , in contrast with some earlier survival horror games such as the original Alone in the Dark ( which itself was inspired by the Mythos ) .
The game features no heads @-@ up display . Instead , condition of the player character is relayed through the sound cues of his heartbeat and breathing , which become more pronounced when wounded , and color draining from the screen with loss of blood and strength . Specific injuries are also indicated visually and aurally : for example , a broken leg causes the character to limp while making appropriate noises , while a broken arm makes aiming more difficult . The health system was designed as a more realistic take on character injury than other games of its genre in that different wounds , including poisoning and bleeding , require different remedies , such as a splint for a broken leg . The inventory screen shows the character 's injuries ( displayed on his character model ) and all carried items .
The player 's character gradually loses sanity when he looks directly at upsetting aspects of the game world . The character 's mental degradation can lead him to hearing hallucinations and visions , which manifest as graphical anomalies and sound distortion , and changes in control sensitivity . If the character becomes too unsettled , results may include his permanent insanity or suicide , and a game over . The sanity can be restored through finding areas of sanctuary or defeating enemies . The areas marked with the Elder Signs serve as sanctuaries against the enemies and as save points . To enhance its replayability value , the game features a system whereby players can gain Mythos Points , supposed to reflect a level of gained knowledge . Such points can be used to unlock in @-@ game bonuses , such as additional information and items .
Most of the ranged weapons are based on real firearms with the exception of a Yithian directed @-@ energy weapon introduced at the end of the game . The player character can also perform a melee attack with a crowbar or with a gun if all ammunition for it has been used up . The game features a realistic combat system : due to lack of HUD , the player has to count shots manually to know when the gun goes empty . There is also no artificial on @-@ screen targeting reticle ; instead , the player must aim through the iron sights on the weapons themselves , but sustained aiming tires the character and drops accuracy . The shooting system is unique in that fired rounds go exactly where the gun 's barrel is pointing . For example , if the player character readies a reloaded weapon and the player pulls the trigger before the character animation has finished , the round will be discharged in the direction the gun was pointing when the shot was fired .
= = Plot = =
Following the introduction sequence set in Arkham Asylum psychiatric hospital , the game begins on September 6 , 1915 , as police detective Jack Walters ( voiced by Milton Lawrence ) is summoned to the siege of a decrepit manor house in Boston . The manor is inhabited by a bizarre cult called the Fellowship of the Yith , led by one Victor Holt who has asked specifically for Walters to come and talk to him . Taking cover from an ensuing firefight , Walters finds himself separated from the police and trapped inside the mansion , with no option but to investigate . When the rest of the police finally break in , they find the cultists dead by mass suicide and Walters apparently insane . He is committed to Arkham sanatorium , where he stays for six years .
Walters is released and becomes a private investigator . On February 6 , 1922 , he takes up a missing person case at Innsmouth , a xenophobic coastal town , and the site of the recent disappearance of Brian Burnham , a clerk that had been sent there to establish a local store for the First National Grocery chain . Arriving in the isolated town , which appears to be depopulated and in a state of collapse , Jack unsuccessfully asks around for Brian . He stays the night at a hotel , where he barely escapes an assassination attempt and then flees from a chase by an armed mob . From that point forward , Jack is forced to sneak through the alleys , buildings and sewers of Innsmouth , avoiding murderous patrols of the town 's corrupt police and the cultists looking for him . He acquires weapons to defend himself and meets undercover agent Lucas Mackey , who tells him that the town is under federal investigation . Jack eventually finds Burnham and his girlfriend Ruth , but their car crashes when they escape from Innsmouth , killing Brian and injuring Jack ( it is left unknown whether Ruth was killed or not ) . Jack recovers from the incident and , following a brutal interrogation , he is taken in by the FBI squad led by J. Edgar Hoover . On February 8 , Jack helps Hoover and the FBI raid the Marsh Gold Refinery , where he is attacked by an ancient creature known as a Shoggoth and uncovers a Cthulhu shrine before the building is demolished .
After the refinery raid , the U.S. military begins a combined land @-@ and @-@ sea assault on Innsmouth on February 9 . The only part of the town that proves resistant to the attack is the headquarters of the Esoteric Order of Dagon , a cult devoted to two undersea demigods and Cthulhu that holds the whole town under its grip . The building proves unbreachable for the Coast Guard and the Marines , but Jack finds a way in through an old smuggling entrance that is guarded by a star @-@ spawn of Cthulhu . Inside , Jack frees Agent Mackey , who has been kidnapped for a ritual sacrifice , and brings down the magical shield protecting the building . After discovering a secret chamber , he falls through the floor of a tunnel which leads into the sea . Jack is rescued by the USS Urania , a Coast Guard vessel which is part of a group heading to Devil 's Reef on February 10 , following up on a lead provided by the FBI . On the way there , wizards on the reef summon powerful tidal waves to destroy the flotilla but Jack kills them . The humanoid fish @-@ men known as Deep Ones launch a massed attack on the Urania and eventually the Father Dagon emerges too . Jack manages to defeat the gigantic demigod , but Urania sinks . Jack survives and finds himself on Devil 's Reef , where he discovers old smuggling tunnels beneath the seabed , leading him to the underwater city of Y 'ha @-@ nthlei . The city is found to be located below Devil 's Reef and is the home of the Deep Ones and members of the Order . U.S. Navy submarines attempt to torpedo Y 'ha @-@ nthlei , but are stopped by a magical barrier protecting the city . The Temple of Dagon is the source of the barrier , but the entrance is sealed off to prevent any interference . Jack finds another way in through ancient tunnels feared by the Deep Ones at the bottom of the city 's foundations . Apparently , this passage , which leads to the temple , is an ancient prison for flying polyps , the enemy of the Great Race of Yith . Jack manages to defeat them with the help of a Yithian energy weapon . Jack then enters the Temple of Dagon and kills Mother Hydra , whose song is generating the barrier , by deafening some of the Deep Ones to her song , allowing him to take control of them . With the barrier down , the submarines attack the city , while Jack escapes through a portal leading back to the Order 's headquarters and collapses in front of Hoover and Mackey .
In the end , it is revealed that a Yithian swapped minds with Jack Walters ' father during the moment of Jack 's conception . In flesh , Jack Walters is human , but he inherited Yithian psychic powers , which was the reason for the cultists ' interest in him , and explains why he has visions of coming danger and of the Yithian library @-@ city of Pnakotus , as well as his ability to control Deep Ones in the Temple of Dagon . Returning to the introductory scene , confined in Arkham Asylum once more , Jack hangs himself on February 16 , 1922 , unable to handle the reality of himself and what he has witnessed . The game is supposed to be " based on the writings in Jack 's journal , which were discovered in 1924 . "
= = Development = =
The game was in development by Headfirst Productions for at least six years , and the development can be traced back to August 1999 and a discussion on the Usenet group alt.horror.cthulhu in which the Mythos fans contributed ideas for the game to Headfirst 's Andrew Brazier . This and other feedback was later used to create the game , which Brazier termed " FPHAS - a First Person Horror Adventure Shooter " . The game 's protagonist Jack Walters has been repeatedly redesigned before his final look was created by Tim Appleton . Headfirst initially used the game engine NDL NetImmerse for rendering graphics combined with the Havok physics engine but later developed its own engine .
The first screenshots were shown in December 1999 , and the game , originally planned for the PC and PlayStation 2 , was scheduled for release in the third quarter of 2001 . In 2000 , Headfirst secured rights from Chaosium , publisher of Call of Cthulhu role @-@ playing game . Before E3 2001 the game was stated to be " 70 percent complete " , but was then repeatedly delayed . In late 2002 , the game 's original publisher Fishtank Interactive was taken over by JoWood , which had no interest in the title . The developers then signed a deal with Bethesda to release the game for the PC and Xbox , and the development of the PlayStation 2 version was aborted .
Headfirst Productions originally intended for a much larger , nonlinear RPG @-@ type storyline to be fitted within the game , including more characters and locations , as well as a cooperative gameplay system for up to four players . The latter would have enabled the players to pick one of four characters and either carry out their own investigation independently or team up with the others ( in case of single @-@ player gameplay , the other three investigators would be under AI control ) . A multiplayer version of the game would have allowed for online deathmatch battles in specifically designed levels . Several other ambitious features , such as a deeper sanity system and a high degree of environment interactivity , were also scrapped due to budget and time constraints and problems with the level design . The game was always supposed to use first @-@ person view , but the screenshots from 2001 showed some third @-@ person view and stealth gameplay elements . Much of a promised " wide array of weapons " at the player 's disposal was conceived but ultimately removed from the game , including a wooden club , a Mauser C96 pistol , and a pump @-@ action shotgun . Various weapon models and concept arts from the game were released by a former Headfirst artist Niel Venter via DeviantArt .
Although the game 's story diverges in several places and features a completely different protagonist , several levels mirror passages from Lovecraft 's novella The Shadow over Innsmouth . It also contains elements of the Call of Cthulhu role @-@ playing game 's campaign Escape from Innsmouth , such as the Marsh Refinery raid . A major sub @-@ plot of the game is inspired by Lovecraft 's novella The Shadow Out of Time .
= = Release = =
Call of Cthulhu : Dark Corners of the Earth was released on October 24 , 2005 for the Xbox , and on March 27 , 2006 for the PC . The game contains a number of software bugs , which have never been officially patched ; these bugs are generally intermittent , and restoring from an earlier saved game can be enough to get past them . There is also an unofficial patch available that fixes some glitches and lowers the game 's overall difficulty level . The Xbox version is officially compatible with the Xbox 360 in certain regions .
= = Reception = =
Call of Cthulhu : Dark Corners of the Earth received generally favorable reviews , but was also often criticized for being buggy and inaccessible for many players because of its high difficulty . GameSpy ranked it as the tenth best game of E3 2004 while GameSpot nominated it for their " Most Surprisingly Good Game of 2005 " award , with a comment that " after a development cycle that was nearing infinity , it 's hard to imagine a world where this H.P. Lovecraft @-@ based horror game turned out all right . Luckily for us , we don 't have to imagine it . " According to IGN , the game " succeeds brilliantly in some areas , " making " great use of the source material " and forcing players " to accept some realistic responsibility for their character " due to the sanity system and HUD @-@ less display , but can make the players " cringe at the difficult nature of the game . " Greg Kasavin of GameSpot opined " a thick , unsettling atmosphere fills this ambitious first @-@ person action @-@ adventure , which makes up for some frustrating moments and dated graphics with plenty of chills , variety , and originality . " Cheat Code Central 's Cole Smith called it " one of the greatest book to game translations ever " and a game " that is full of twists , turns and incredibly wonderful scary surprises . It 's got a great atmosphere which is sustained by dark and grainy graphics , chilling sound effects and an incredibly improbable storyline that is treated properly as to suspend reality from creeping in and ruining your experience . " GameSpy 's Allen Rausch wrote " this disturbing slice of Lovecraft 's America is well worth the time to visit , " as " despite the occasional missteps , Call of Cthulhu : Dark Corners of the Earth is a more than fitting tribute to its literary inspiration . " Similarly , Kyle Williams of Gaming Target called it " a labor of love " that " defies convention in favor of creating a videogame experience that is a worthy heir to the Lovecraft name . " Team Xbox 's Matthew Fisher wrote that , despite some of the game 's various shortcomings regarding the graphics and some of the detective aspects , " this is an immersive experience that is a new and unique title for the Xbox , which is more than a welcome change . Was it worth the wait ? Absolutely . " Despite the mostly positive reviews , the game was a commercial failure .
The game was also acclaimed in several retrospective articles by various publications . A.V. Club 's Drew Toal called it " a weird and difficult game , in the best sense , " while Davide Tomei from Adventure Classic Gaming described it as " a very unique game [ that ] brilliantly mixes in elements of action , adventure , and puzzle solving to offer up an exceptional survival horror experience . " Marshall Lemon from The Escapist acclaimed it as an example of a horror game that features firearms @-@ based combat while still being scary and opined " the end result plays like something Lovecraft would have created if he wrote games instead of books and lived beyond the 1930s . " The game 's townsfolk of Innsmouth placed ninth on GamesRadar 's 2008 list of the gaming 's " scariest villains ever " and 1UP.com featured it on their 2009 list of top five game worlds " where insanity is the entire point " . In 2011 , The Daily Telegraph listed it among the scariest games " you 've never played " as second only to Amnesia : The Dark Descent , adding that this " flawed classic " was " too buggy , too tough , and criminally ignored upon release . " TechRaptor 's Kyle Lawrence recommended it as an " action game within a very well written Lovecraftian tale that uses the mythos to its fullest . Anyone who has an interest in Lovecraft should brave the horrendous difficulty and glitches of the game . " PC Gamer UK put it at 87th place on their 2011 list of best PC games of all time for its frantic hotel escape sequence and " other great , scary set @-@ pieces , " calling it , " behind the bugs and clunkiness , a genuine and admirable attempt . " That same year , GamePro ranked it as the 11th best horror game of all time .
= = Cancelled sequels = =
More Call of Cthulhu franchise games were announced by Headfirst Productions . Due to the very long development cycle of Dark Corners of the Earth , the other titles were being developed alongside it .
Call of Cthulhu : Destiny 's End was a third @-@ person perspective survival horror title for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox , which was originally announced in November 2002 as a PlayStation 2 @-@ exclusive Call of Cthulhu : Tainted Legacy for a planned release in the fourth quarter of 2004 . It was to be a direct sequel to Dark Corners of the Earth , set in the ruins of Innsmouth and in locations along the coast of New England in modern times , nearly 80 years after the events of the original game . It was to feature a cooperative multiplayer mode for two players , each controlling one of the two characters : the gun @-@ wielding Jacob and the magic @-@ using Emily ( in its early version , Tainted Legacy , they were Joshua and Jack Walters ' granddaughter Madeline ) . Its gameplay was publicly presented during the E3 2005 .
Call of Cthulhu : Beyond the Mountains of Madness too was announced in November 2002 and has been scheduled for the Xbox and PC release in the fourth quarter of 2004 . It would be a sequel to Lovecraft 's novella At the Mountains of Madness , inspired by the Call of Cthulhu RPG campaign of the same title . The game was to be a survival horror and first @-@ person shooter set in the 1930s and taking place in varied locations including Germany and Antarctica , and its protagonist would be a Miskatonic University archaeologist Robert Naples attempting to stop the Nazi occultist search for the ruins of the Elder Things ' city .
Both games were cancelled when the company failed to find a new publisher for them in 2006 , resulting in the bankruptcy and liquidation of Headfirst . UGO.com 's Marissa Meli included Destiny 's End on her 2011 list of 25 cancelled video games that " could have been some of the greatest games of all time " and Bloody Disgusting 's Adam Dodd put both follow @-@ up titles on their 2013 list of six cancelled horror video games " that could 've been amazing " .
= Rangs Group =
Rangs Group is one of the largest Bangladeshi industrial conglomerates . The industries under this conglomerate include automobile , electronics , real estate , shipping etc .
It started founded by a group of pioneer industrialists of Bangladesh .
Small , medium and large family owned businesses dominate over Bangladesh 's $ 100 billion ( $ 288 billion in PPP GDP ) economy , which has been growing at over 5 percent a year since 1995 .
= New York State Route 275 =
New York State Route 275 ( NY 275 ) is a north – south state highway in Allegany County , New York , in the United States . It runs for 11 @.@ 47 miles ( 18 @.@ 46 km ) , connecting the village of Bolivar and NY 417 at its southern end with the hamlet of Friendship to the north , where it intersects the Southern Tier Expressway ( NY 17 and Interstate 86 or I @-@ 86 ) by way of an interchange . The road continues north past the interchange to NY 19 in Belfast as County Route 17 ( CR 17 ) . NY 275 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to the portion of its routing south of Friendship . It was extended slightly northward in the mid @-@ 1970s to connect to the Southern Tier Expressway .
= = Route description = =
NY 275 begins at the intersection of Wellsville and Main streets in the village of Bolivar . At this point , NY 417 switches from South Main Street to Wellsville Street while NY 275 proceeds northeastward on the two @-@ lane Main Street . The route initially passes by commercial buildings in the village 's business district ; however , they quickly give way to more residential areas after just two blocks . As the highway heads away from the village center , the homes become scattered ahead of intersections with the eastern terminus of County Route 5A ( CR 5A , named Salt Rising Road ) and the south end of CR 40 ( Deans Flat Road ) . The rural trend soon reverses as NY 275 enters the adjacent village of Richburg . Here , NY 275 is also known as Main Street as it serves Richburg 's business district and the surrounding residential neighborhoods .
Past Richburg , NY 275 continues on a northeasterly track through the rural town of Wirt , running along the base of a narrow , largely undeveloped valley surrounding Little Genesee Creek as East Notch Road . The highway slowly increases in elevation for about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) , intersecting with the western terminus of CR 8 ( Inavale Road ) and passing a handful of farms on its way toward East Notch , a gap between two large hills that serves as Little Genesee Creek 's source . It eventually turns north to traverse the pass before winding its way down the opposite side . A short distance later , NY 275 intersects with the northern terminus of CR 8 as it curves to take a northwesterly track into the town of Friendship .
Just north of the town line , NY 275 enters the hamlet of Nile , where it becomes a two @-@ lane residential street named Pennsylvania Avenue . In the center of the community , the route meets the east end of CR 1 ( Fifth Avenue ) . From here , NY 275 bends back to the north , crossing through rural sections of the town of Friendship mostly populated by farms . The rural surroundings end ahead of the hamlet of Friendship , where NY 275 heads through the residential western portion of the community . Near the center of Friendship , the highway intersects CR 20 ( West Main Street ) , the primary east – west street through the hamlet . NY 275 continues on , crossing over the Norfolk Southern Railway 's Southern Tier Line ( formerly the Erie Railroad 's Main Line ) to reach exit 29 of the Southern Tier Expressway ( I @-@ 86 and NY 17 ) . NY 275 ends at the exit ramp leading away from the westbound direction of the freeway ; however , NY 275 's right @-@ of @-@ way continues north to NY 19 in Belfast as CR 17 .
= = History = =
NY 275 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to the portion of its modern alignment between the village of Bolivar and the hamlet of Friendship . At the time , NY 275 's northern terminus was at its intersection with West Main Street ( now CR 20 ) in Friendship , then part of NY 63 and later NY 408 . In the early 1970s , the portion of the Southern Tier Expressway near Friendship was completed and opened to traffic . However , NY 275 continued to end at NY 408 in Friendship until the mid @-@ 1970s when NY 408 was truncated to Nunda . As a result , NY 275 was extended a short distance northward to meet the Southern Tier Expressway at exit 29 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Allegany County .
= Sergio Pellissier =
Sergio Pellissier ( born 12 April 1979 ) is an Italian footballer who plays as a striker and captains Chievo Verona .
He started his career playing for Torino 's youth team , having been called up once as part of Torino 's senior team . After two years at Torino , Pellissier moved to A.S. Varese 1910 in 1998 , and subsequently to Chievo in 2000 . He was promptly loaned for two seasons to SPAL 1907 . Upon his return to Chievo , Pellissier established himself as a first team player . He helped Chievo to reach the UEFA Europa League and the UEFA Champions League , and played for the team in those competitions . He remained at the club after Chievo were relegated to Serie B in the 2006 – 07 season and became the squad 's captain in the following one . Pellissier has achieved historical records for the club and became an idol for Chievo . Pellissier has played five times for Italy 's national youth squad and appeared in a single match for the senior team .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Pellissier was born in Aosta , and started playing football in the region of Aosta Valley . He was 12 when he scored three goals against Torino F.C. on a tournament in Nus and Fénis for the local team Fenusma , and Torino showed interest on him . He then moved alone to Turin but after some time he wanted to return to his home ; when Pellissier was 14 he returned definitively to Torino . He made his senior debut and played one match in Serie B during the 1996 – 97 season against Salernitana . In 1998 , Pellissier was on the team that won the under @-@ 21 tournament Torneo di Viareggio , and also appeared in a Coppa Italia match . He moved on loan to the Serie C1 side Varese , where he made 53 appearances and scored nine goals between September 1998 and 2000 . He was then signed by Chievo Verona , but was loaned in his first year to Ferrara @-@ based club SPAL , for which he scored 17 goals in 44 appearances during one and a half seasons .
= = = Chievo = = =
= = = = 2002 – 2008 = = = =
Pellissier returned to Chievo for the 2002 – 03 season , making his Serie A debut on 22 September 2002 , when he played for 46 minutes in a 2 – 1 loss against Brescia Calcio . On 3 November , Pellissier played as a 63rd @-@ minute substitute for Luigi Beghetto and scored his first goal — the only in that match — against Parma F.C. During that season , he played 25 matches in the league and scored five goals — two of which were scored in consecutive matches against Piacenza Calcio and Como Calcio . Outside the Italian League , Pellissier appeared four times in the Coppa Italia , and once in the 2002 – 03 UEFA Cup as a 79th minute for Massimo Marazzina in the second match against Red Star Belgrade .
The following season , Pellissier made 27 league appearances , scored three goals — two of which were scored against Robur Siena in a 2 – 1 victory . During the 2004 – 05 season , he scored seven times in 34 appearances . He scored twice in a 3 @-@ 1 victory against Brescia . 2005 – 06 was Pellissier 's breakout season ; he made a significant contribution to Chievo 's campaign , scoring 13 league goals of Chievo 's 54 . Among them , Pellissier scored in four consecutive matches and twice in the matches against U.S. Lecce and Reggina Calcio . The season was an important one ; the 2006 Italian football scandal ensured that Chievo finished in fourth place because of various points deductions to other sides , qualifying Chievo for the 2006 – 07 UEFA Champions League .
In the Champions League , Chievo were eliminated by Levski Sofia after losing two matches 2 – 0 and 2 – 2 ; Pellissier played these matches and did not score in either . Chievo were also knocked out of the UEFA Cup by Sporting Braga in two matches , in which Pellissier was not on the team 's lineup . For Pellissier it was a good season ; he was voted Chievo 's best player by its supporters , winning the " Cangrande del Bentegodi " . He scored 9 league goals in 36 appearances , but on the final day , Chievo were relegated to Serie B for the first time . Pellissier chose to stay with Chievo despite their relegation and was made captain in the 2007 – 08 season . He was a key player of their return to Serie A , scoring a career best 22 goals for the year and winning the Cangrande award again . His total of 22 surpassed Raffaele Cerbone 's record of 20 goals in a single season for Chievo .
= = = = 2008 – present = = = =
In 2008 – 09 , Pellissier played all of Chievo 's 38 Serie A matches and scored 13 goals , including two on 15 March 2009 in a 3 – 0 victory over Lazio at the Stadio Olimpico . Three weeks later , on 5 April , he scored the first hat @-@ trick of his career in a 3 – 3 draw against Juventus in Turin ; this was followed on 19 April by a brace in a match against Siena . Pellissier 's 2008 – 09 performance won him the Cangrande award for the third consecutive season . He played 35 matches and scored 11 goals in the 2009 – 10 season , with consecutive scores in the third and fourth round , in the 21st and 22nd , and in the 34th and 35th . In 2010 – 11 , Pellissier made the same numbers of appearances and scored the same number of goals as in the previous season . He scored two braces in the season — the first in a 3 – 1 win against Napoli and the other in a 3 – 0 win against Brescia . He made his 100th appearance for Chievo on 6 February 2011 in a 2 – 1 loss against Lazio .
In a 2 – 1 victory against Novara Calcio on 2 February 2012 , Pellissier scored his 100th goal for Chievo . On 18 February , he was accused of being involved on the 2011 – 12 Italian football scandal , which affected his performance . Nevertheless , he also scored in consecutive matches against Fiorentina and Catania Calcio , and a brace in a 4 – 4 draw against Palermo . He scored a 8 league goals in 35 appearances in the 2011 – 12 season , when he won his fourth Cangrande award . On 26 August 2012 , in his 300th Serie A match for the gialloblù , he scored his first goal of five in his 24 appearances of the 2012 – 13 season .
In July 2013 , Pellissier renewed his contract with Chievo for two years . Starting the 2013 – 2014 season as a first @-@ team man , he eventually became a substitute under the coach Eugenio Corini . He made 22 appearances in the season and scored his only goal in a 2 – 1 victory over Udinese Calcio on 21 September 2013 . On 22 August 2014 in a 1 – 0 defeat by Pescara Calcio during the Coppa Italia , Pellissier reached 400 appearances for Chievo . During the 2014 – 15 season , he played 27 matches and score seven goals in Serie A ; among them , on 9 November 2014 , Pellissier came as 46th @-@ minute substitute and scored two goals on a 2 – 1 victory against Cesena after more than a year of his last goal .
= = International career = =
Pellissier made five appearances for Italy national under @-@ 17 football team between April and May 1997 ; he scored no goals . In May 2009 , Pellissier received his first call up to the Italian national team by coach Marcello Lippi to play in a friendly against the Northern Ireland . In the match , he entered as a substitute for Giampaolo Pazzini in the 62nd minute and scored a goal 11 minutes later . About reaching the national squad , he declared , " It 's a dream that came true . L 'azzurra is the cherry on the cake of an extraordinary season . But the merit is not mine , but all of Chievo . "
= = = International goal = = =
Scores and results list Italy 's goal tally first .
= = Personal life = =
In 2001 , during the time Pellissier was playing for SPAL in Ferrara , he met Gian Micaela Viadana in a restaurant she worked . After some time exchanging e @-@ mails with Micaela , they started a relationship . Since 19 June 2004 he is married to Micaela , and he is the father of a son , Matteo , and a daughter , Sofia .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Statistics updated up to 9 April 2016 .
= = = International = = =
= Graduation ( album ) =
Graduation is the third studio album by American hip hop recording artist and record producer Kanye West . It was released on September 11 , 2007 , by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records . Recording sessions for the album took place during 2005 to 2007 at Chung King Studios and Sony Music Studios in New York City and at Chalice Studios and The Record Plant in Los Angeles . It was primarily produced by West himself , with significant contributions from DJ Toomp , as well as Mike Dean , Nottz , Brian " All Day " Miller , Eric Hudson , Warryn Campbell , Gee Roberson , Plain Pat and Jon Brion . It features guest contributions from artists , including Mos Def , Dwele , T @-@ Pain , Lil Wayne , DJ Premier and Chris Martin of Coldplay . The album 's cover artwork was designed by Japanese contemporary artist Takashi Murakami .
Inspired by indie rock and Chicago house , Graduation marked a movement away from the ornate , soul @-@ based sound of West 's previous releases toward a more anthemic style that would function well while he was performing in large arenas . Toward this end , West incorporated synthesizer sounds into his production and dabbled with electronic music , while sampling from a wider spectrum of sources . Lyrically , the album is more introspective in comparison to its predecessors , as West dedicated much of the album towards analyzing himself and exploring his ambivalent outlook on his newfound fame . It continues the education theme of West 's previous two studio albums , The College Dropout ( 2004 ) and Late Registration ( 2005 ) .
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , selling 957 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It produced five singles , including the international hits " Can 't Tell Me Nothing " , " Stronger " , and " Good Life " . The coinciding release dates between Graduation and a fellow rapper 50 Cent 's Curtis generated much publicity over the idea of a sales competition , resulting in record @-@ breaking sales performances by both albums . The outcome of the competition marks a turning point in hip @-@ hop culture , when the dominance of gangsta rap in mainstream hip @-@ hop was brought to an end . Graduation received positive reviews from most critics and earned West several accolades , including his third Grammy Award for Best Rap Album . The album has sold 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 copies in the US and has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
= = Background = =
Graduation is the third installment of Kanye West 's planned tetralogy of education @-@ themed studio albums , which West subsequently later deviated from due to the events surrounding the conception of his fourth studio album , 808s & Heartbreak . The album demonstrates yet another distinctive progression in West 's musical style and approach to production . After spending the previous year touring the world with Irish rock band U2 on their Vertigo Tour , West became inspired by watching Bono open the stadium tours every night to incredible ovations and sought out to compose anthemic rap songs that could operate more efficiently in large stadiums and arenas . In West 's attempt to accomplish this " stadium @-@ status " endeavor , West incorporated layered electronic synthesizers into his hip @-@ hop production , which also finds him utilizing slower tempos , being influenced by the music of the 1980s , and experimenting with electronic music . Kanye West was particularly influenced by house music , a subgenre of electronic dance music that first originated in his hometown of Chicago , Illinois in the early 1980s . West has stated that growing up , he would listen to hip @-@ hop music at home or in his car , but when he felt like dancing , he would attend a house club . While he rarely listened to house at home , he still felt it was an important part of his culture and background .
West further broadened his musical palette on Graduation by not limiting himself to his customary use of samples and interpolation from classic soul records and instead drew influences from a far more eclectic range of music genres . Along with house music , Graduation contains samples and music elements of euro @-@ disco , hard rock , electronica , lounge , progressive rock , synth @-@ pop , electro , krautrock , dub , reggae , and dancehall . Also , for much of the third studio album , Kanye West modified his style of rapping and adopted a dilatory , exuberant flow in emulation of Bono 's operatic vocal stylings . West altered his vocabulary , he utilized less of the percussive , rhythmic consonants in favor of the more smoother , melodic vowel sounds . In addition to U2 , West drew inspiration from other arena rock bands such as The Rolling Stones and Led Zeppelin for the melodies and chord progressions of his songs . In terms of lyricism , he simplifies some of his rhymes after touring with The Rolling Stones on their A Bigger Bang concert tour and discovering he could not captivate the audiences as well with his most complex lyrical themes .
West made a conscious decision to abstain from the widespread recording practice of excessive rap albums saturated with skits and filler and instead comprised Graduation with significantly fewer tracks . He also chose to scale back on the guest appearances , limiting himself to just one single guest rap verse on the entire studio album . The stylistic divergence and desire for a leaner , more economical studio album was a creative reaction that was brought on by the alternative rock and indie @-@ rock that West had been listening to around the time of the recording of his third studio album . West cites the rock bands The Killers , Keane , Modest Mouse , and indie @-@ pop singer @-@ songwriter Feist , whom he also looked towards for songwriting inspiration , for being among his favorite musicians and having considerably profound influence on the sound of Graduation . Largely due to all this and the inclusion of the layered electronic synthesizers , West believed that his record took hip @-@ hop in a different direction . But he also acknowledged the fact that the differences did not right away and without a doubt make Graduation a good album . However , he felt it was a representation of the music he was listening to at that time .
= = Recording = =
Kanye West began working on Graduation immediately after releasing his second studio album Late Registration . By late September 2005 , West had already completed three songs for the album , which he intended to contain a total of twelve tracks . Around the time of the recording of the third studio album , West would often listen to songs written by folk and country singer @-@ songwriters Bob Dylan and Johnny Cash in hopes of developing methods to augment his word play and storytelling abilities . The former musician had been recommended to West by multiple of his friends , including English disc jockey Samantha Ronson , all of whom claimed his music and the way he dealt with the press reminded them of Dylan . Kanye also listened to his most favorite alternative rock bands , including The Killers , Radiohead , Modest Mouse , and Keane , in order to gain new ideas on how to make his hip @-@ hop production style more stadium @-@ friendly . Additionally , West would often test his new songs on his iPod , in his office , in dance clubs and just about anywhere people might listen to his music . He would then make adjustments to the tracks based on feedback he received , repeating the process as many times as necessary .
In comparison to previous albums , Graduation features fewer guest appearances from other recording artists . West elaborated that it was a fully conscious decision to keep his guest vocalists at a minimum , saying that , " When I hear the records of my favorite bands – The Killers or Coldplay – you only hear one voice from start to finish . " R & B singers T @-@ Pain and Dwele , New York rappers Mos Def and ALBe . Back , and famed hip @-@ hop record producer DJ Premier are featured in individual tracks primarily to deliver hooks and refrains . However , though he originally intended for Graduation to be completely devoid of guest rap verses , West decided to invite New Orleans rapper Lil Wayne on the track " Barry Bonds " . At the time , the two MCs had been working together , with West contributing to the production of Lil Wayne 's sixth studio album Tha Carter III . As for the absence of skits , West explained , " There 's just serious songs , hooks , chords , and ideas . No special effects or antics ... and no fake Bernie Mac ! " West instead decided to record two earthy musical interludes in place of the hip @-@ hop skits . He incorporated African sounds and polyrhythmic percussion into both . However , for unknown reasons , the two musical interludes were omitted from the studio album .
Many songs on Graduation contain background vocals provided by Connie Mitchell of the Australian dance music group Sneaky Sound System . The collaboration came about when West met her bandmates Angus McDonald and Daimon Downey at a diner in Sydney while touring the country with U2 around November 2006 . Seeking musical inspiration , West asked McDonald for ideas , who in turn suggested that he be introduced to Mitchell . Upon meeting Mitchell after she arrived at Studios 301 where he was recording music during the tour , West had her sing over a vocal track and quickly took a liking to her voice . U2 singer Bono and guitarist The Edge also complimented Mitchell 's singing while visiting the studio . Some time later , Mitchell received a call from West who asked if she could travel to The Record Plant in Los Angeles to begin recording tracks for his third studio album . Mitchell later admitted that while she previously didn 't know who Kanye West was and never really cared for hip @-@ hop music , the collaboration has changed her views .
During an interview with Billboard , West revealed that he had worked with Chris Martin , the lead singer of the British alternative rock band Coldplay , on a song entitled " Homecoming " , and that it just might possibly be released as the lead single for Graduation . The collaboration occurred the year before when Kanye West and Chris Martin met one another during an impromptu jam session at the Abbey Road Studios in London , England . West had just finished performing at a show that had been held at Abbey Road and the band just so happened to be recording their music in the recording studio at exactly the same time . The song in itself is actually a re @-@ vamping for " Home ( Windy ) " , a track that originated from a demo tape dating back to the year 2001 . It was made available two years later under the new title " Home " on West 's 2003 mixtape Get Well Soon ... and also on the advance copy of West 's debut studio album The College Dropout , which due to a leak was never released . This original version possesses Kanye West 's once trademark classic soul vocal sample production style , with singer John Legend on the chorus , which contains lyrics that are different than Martin 's . This is due to the fact that Chris Martin asked Kanye West to change the song 's lyrical content .
Widely considered by music critics and listeners alike to be the most radio @-@ friendly track on Graduation , West defines the studio album 's third single " Good Life " as the song with the most " blatant hit @-@ recordness " . The track features vocals from R & B singer T @-@ Pain , who utilizes the voice audio processor technology of Auto @-@ Tune . West had previously experimented with the technology on his debut album The College Dropout for the background vocals on the songs " Jesus Walks " and " Never Let Me Down " . During his brief stay in Sweden , West sent through sixteen different mixes of " Good Life " over to their recording studio for the audio mastering process . West admitted that he actually did not really care for the single , but he was pressured into releasing it by his record label Def Jam Recordings . However , West has since clarified that he doesn 't retain any lingering animosity whatsoever towards his record label in regards to this .
Graduation started taking definite form around the time of the filming of the music video for its second single " Stronger " , whereas prior West had been " aimlessly making songs . " The music video was directed by famed music video director , film director , and screenwriter Hype Williams . The sci @-@ fi imagery of music video inspired West to take his album in a more futuristic direction . After the filming of the music video , which began before West had even written the song 's second verse , he returned to the studio to redo parts of " Stronger " and various other tracks he recorded for the album , watching films such as Total Recall for more ideas . West mixed the track seventy @-@ five times , as he could not seem to get the kick drum to sound precisely the way that he wanted it to , amongst other issues . He worked on " Stronger " with eight different audio engineers and eleven different mix engineers around the globe and recorded over fifty versions of the track . Still feeling dissatisfied after hearing the number @-@ one hit single inside a club compared alongside Timbaland 's 2007 single " The Way I Are " , which was his favorite hip @-@ hop beat at the time , West enlisted the record producer to assist him in redoing the drum programming .
The third studio album also sees the return of composer and multi @-@ instrumentalist Jon Brion — who had played an integral role as the co @-@ executive producer on West 's previous studio album Late Registration — for the track " Drunk and Hot Girls . " Kanye claimed that one day , while listening to " Sing Swan Song " by the German experimental @-@ rock band Can , he heard the words " drunk and hot girls " rather than the actual " drunky hot bowls " lyrics . Rather than rap , West instead slowly sings along to the sinister song 's dreary original melody with warbled vocals . Kanye features vocal harmony during the chorus with guest artist Mos Def , who just after his voice experiences a four @-@ second audio delay , also delivers the song 's reverb @-@ filled bridge . In comparison to other tracks on the album , " Drunk and Hot Girls " was taken much less seriously during the time of its recording sessions . Mos Def can even be heard laughing in the background after a quite playful West abruptly makes a ridiculous , unhinged one @-@ liner joke that intentionally doesn 't even actually rhyme with what he said before .
More than any other song on the entire studio album , the epic stadium @-@ rap power ballad " I Wonder " was the most influenced by U2 . Kanye West cites it as one of this top three most favorite songs from Graduation . Kanye imparted that he had sought out to make the hip @-@ hop variation of the rock band 's " City of Blinding Lights " . West reportedly heard the snare drum which was used for the track while shopping for furniture at Moss and spent many weeks working on it . Kanye has also said that he wrote the song while thinking of performing it onstage in front of an audience of over 50 @,@ 000 people . With this in mind , he placed a significant amount of concentration on speaking at high volumes with fewer wording and initially delivers his defiant lyrics in an intense staccato vocal style . West raps the song 's three verses using single and double @-@ time rhyme schemes . He stresses each syllable in each word in the minimalist first verse . West then transitions to a faster , more fluid flow for the more intricate second and third verses . West considered the release of " I Wonder " as the album 's fourth single . But he instead chose " Flashing Lights " , which he refers to as the " coolest " track from the studio album .
The hip @-@ hop beat for " The Glory " was originally made for West 's GOOD Music associate , close friend , and fellow Chicago hip @-@ hop artist Common , whose seventh album Finding Forever was being produced and recorded by West simultaneously with Graduation . As was the case with both their previous albums , certain tracks that West originally crafted for Finding Forever that Common declined eventually ended up on his own studio album . " Everything I Am " was yet another song intended for Common but was passed on , a fact which West addresses within the opening lines . The record features turntable scratches contributed by famed hip @-@ hop record producer DJ Premier . After West had played the demo for " Everything I Am " over the phone for DJ Premier and asked him what he thought of it , DJ Premier then replied that he enjoyed the lyrics and the innovative beat and offered to scratch over it . When working on the track , and while following the numerous instructions that were supplied by West , DJ Premier took seven different styles of scratches , including drum breaks , then cut all of them up into different rhythms , and scattered them all throughout the track , providing West with many different ideas to choose from .
While written by West , who envisioned its concept and chorus while riding an elevator , the soul @-@ baring Jay @-@ Z dedication " Big Brother " stands as the only song on Graduation that he didn 't produce . The production of the track was instead handled solely by Atlanta record producer DJ Toomp . According to West 's cousin , soul singer Tony Williams , Jay @-@ Z became quite emotional after West played a part of " Big Brother " for him in the studio for the very first time . During an interview with Rolling Stone , Kanye West himself recalled that it was " a very serious moment . " When asked for his opinion , Jay @-@ Z replied that he considered " Big Brother " a fair portrayal from a little brother 's perspective . Jay @-@ Z went on to say that he also thought that the song was " brilliantly written " and believed that it was West 's best song since " Jesus Walks " as far as structure and emotion .
Although " Bittersweet Poetry " appears as a Japanese bonus track on Graduation , it was actually one of the very first songs crafted for Late Registration . After seeing the 2004 biographical film Ray together , Kanye West and blues @-@ rock musician John Mayer decided to collaborate on a record and immediately went back to a recording studio to compose the song " Bittersweet . " This wasn 't the first time West and Mayer collaborated with one another . The two previously worked together to make " Go ! " , the third single from Common 's sixth studio album Be , which came about when Mayer went to visit West at The Record Plant in Los Angeles . In the end , because Kanye West felt that their song did not coincide well into the overall soundscape of his second studio album , it was subsequently unincluded .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music and style = = =
With Graduation , Kanye West made a departure from the warm soul samples of The College Dropout and the lush baroque @-@ pop orchestration of Late Registration . Motivated by stadium impulses , West ventured towards a more atomspheric soundscape imbued with arena rock elements that explores electronic music . The musical progression arose from West touring the world in 2006 with the rock bands U2 and The Roling Stones . The change also came about from listening to music that encompass genres such as alternative rock , indie @-@ rock , and especially house music . House music is a subgenre of electronic dance music whose origins can be traced back to Kanye West 's hometown of Chicago , Illinois . The productions of the tracks on Graduation are also unique in that they brandish European musical influences . According to Jayson Green of Stylus Magazine , West had developed a fascination with Euro @-@ disco , a European form of electronic dance music that branched off from American disco in the 1970s . Going further , a columnist for Slant Magazine claims that the album 's hip @-@ hop beats would be " European @-@ club @-@ worthy " were they stripped of the vocals . Most importantly , Green perceives that Kanye West had developed an affinity with electronic synthesizers . Chicago Tribune music critic Greg Kot comments on the incorporation of synthesizer sounds . From a musical standpoint , he views Graduation as " an album steeped in keyboard tones , in all their richness and variety . " Mark Pytlik of Pitchfork Media surmises that the album is exhibits a new production style , one replete with corrosive rave stabs , acerbic synth patches , and modulated electronic noises . By contrast , AllMusic 's Andy Kellman argues , " Though the synthesizer use marks a clear , conscious diversion from Kanye 's past productions , highlights ... are deeply rooted in the Kanye of old , using nostalgia @-@ inducing samples , elegant pianos and strings , and gospel choirs . "
West retracted much of the rich live instrumentation that had characterized his previous studio album Late Registration . He had them replaced with heavy , layered electronic synthesizers with Gothic tendencies at loud volumes throughout Graduation . West injected distorted synth @-@ chords , rave stabs , house beats , electro @-@ disco rhythms , and a wide array of audio @-@ effects into his articulate hip @-@ hop production . All the while , West buried his signature kicks and snares deep beneath the decomposing layers of synths into the bottom of the mix . Graduation contains an eclectic variety of vaguely familiar samples that were artfully manipulated by West . Though he continues to use vocal samples , West now gleans them before also pushing them underneath the synths , causing them to " sound like voices trapped in a huge machine , not like organic , subliminal connections to a mythical black @-@ music past . " As always is the case with his productions , West neither relies nor settles simply on samples alone . Instead , there lies a discernible sense of multi @-@ layered grandeur evident within each track . Even in new , unfamiliar musical surroundings , West retains both his self @-@ assurance as well as his close attention to sonic detail . Hence , the album contains a plethora of random , semi @-@ audible sounds that are challenging to notice during the first few listens . The sounds range from keyboard arpeggios to crowd cheers to hard rock guitars and act as a supplement for the atypical samples and the layered electronic synths . West filled the corners of Graduation with enough subtle instrumental flourishes and studio embellishments to warrant a repeated , close , and careful listening experience . According to Ann Powers from the Los Angeles Times , the album 's subtly dark tone was a byproduct of the inevitable toll placed on West as an artist , " an innovator in a genre that he must at least partially destroy to renew " , torn between his devotion to hip @-@ hop tradition and his " restless artistic drive " :
Graduation 's intricate musical environments take a while to comprehend , and at times they seem at odds with West 's confrontational lyrics . But this contradictory music makes sense when heard as an attempt to express an internal struggle – between the Kanye West hip @-@ hop made and the West who can 't be contained by it or any other genre . It 's hard to stop running with the crowd , even for a trendsetter . But West is on the verge , and moving forward .
Despite the predominant synthetic attributes and the overall electronic aesthetic , the emphasis placed on organic string arrangements that had accentuated Late Registration remained a significant factor on Graduation . Similar to its predecessor , Graduation wasn 't restricted to the confines of conventional looping techniques typical of traditional hip @-@ hop production . Instead , West continues to implement sudden musical shifts within the multi @-@ layered song structures and express meticulously composed introductions , bridges , and codas . For his third album , West produced songs that combine hip @-@ hop beats with anthemic refrains and continues to employ his skill in layering keys , strings , and vocals to coax the melodies out of samples . According to Sean Comer of 411Mania , Graduation is an ambitious album that demonstrates West 's attentive ear to the blending of structure , melody , timing , evocative arrangement and their potential to exist comfortably alongside effective samples . Through acting as his own producer , West manages to maintain quality control over the album 's music to ensure that " his productions build momentum even when they revolve around a handful of repeated samples [ and ] nearly every song on Graduation is memorable for both its hooks and its overall sound . " And as the album progresses , its textures and the glossy sheen of its polished , synthesizer @-@ driven productions become harder and denser with every track . Under the belief that his sophomore effort had been far too indulgent , poorly arranged , and oversaturated with unnecessary sonic accoutrements , West took measures to streamline his third release . West fashioned Graduation to contain less ornate production , made the studio album completely devoid of hip @-@ hop skits , and sequenced the record in such a way that it produced a tighter , more cohesive package .
= = = Production = = =
Graduation opens on a sparse note with " Good Morning " , beginning with an echoed , metronomic cowbell beat and a thumping bassline melded with a simple , arpeggiating synthesizer drone . The drone is drowned by the music that arrives at the chorus , which is a conflation of ambient synths and an astral backing choir crafted from a non @-@ verbal vocal sample of " Someone Saved My Life Tonight " by Elton John . " Good Morning " eventually concludes with the voice of Jay @-@ Z reiterating lyrics from " The Ruler 's Back " , the rapper 's own opening track of his sixth studio album The Blueprint . The production for " Champion " features intermittent drops and 808 @-@ handclaps and expresses a slight jazz @-@ rock influence , eschewing guitars and trumpets in favor of breezy synths . During the verses , West raps over a constant loop of the words " their eyes " while the chopped @-@ up hook is formed from the question , " Did you realize , that you were a champion ? " Both phrases are recontextualized from a line lifted from " Kid Charlemagne " by Steely Dan . The song also sports a reggae @-@ inspired bridge delivered by Connie Mitchell in a distinct toasting vocal style . The soul @-@ fired track " I Wonder " starts off with its piano @-@ based refrain , which contains samples of " My Song " by British poet Labi Siffre . It then proceeds to morph into a myriad of interlaced synths that are impacted by distorted snare drum strokes and ethereal electronic keyboards . During the bridge , the chord progression changes and the song adopts a heavy string section that emulates the melody of its synths . The composition then enters an instrumental passage and finishes off with a sweeping string arrangement .
" Good Life " utilizes multi @-@ tracked , interlocking vocals that harmonize with guest singer T @-@ Pain 's Auto @-@ Tuned voice . The song 's melody is based on sampled keyboards from P.Y.T. by Michael Jackson , with the tempo slightly decreased and the pitch raised to the point its sound resembles squealing shrieks . " Barry Bonds " is built on a moaning bass line and Gothic organ , while punctuated by wailing sampled from " Long Red " by Mountain . " Drunk and Hot Girls " exhibits a sluggish waltz pitched with the rhythm of an Eastern European drinking song . It contains a mix of dark orchestration and detuned electronics with elements of " Sing Swan Song " by German progressive rock band Can . West claimed that while listening to their song , he heard the words " drunk and hot girls " rather than the actual " drunky hot bowls " lyrics . Rather than rap , West and guest artist Mos Def sing along to the song 's melody . Opening with a gradual , rising crescendo of symphonic strings , " Flashing Lights " emits synth twinklings before transforming into a moderately @-@ paced , synth @-@ driven beat . After the introduction , in which Mitchell 's processed vocals repeat the titular hook four times , West raps the two verses , each one followed by the chorus sung by Dwele coupled with the hook . Following a break , the song enters a passage where its heavily manipulated hook echoes in and out before the coda draws the composition to a close . " Stronger " is built around a sample of " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " by Daft Punk .
By being composed using nothing more than a Rhodes piano , a vocal sample , and turntable scratches , " Everything I Am " stands as the third studio album 's most minimalistic production . West marries a down @-@ tempo beat to gentle piano chords which are accentuated by soulful cooing sampled from " If We Can 't Be Lovers " by Prince Phillip Mitchell . The low @-@ key track has a scratched hook by DJ Premier formed with the vocal sample , which contains the line , " Here we go again " , that is lifted from " Bring the Noise " by Public Enemy . With its thick , heavy bass @-@ line pattern , " The Glory " is an up @-@ tempo number which revisits the " chipmunk @-@ soul " that once defined Kanye 's early production style . It displays a sped @-@ up and high @-@ pitched vocal sample of " Save The Country " by Laura Nyro accompanied by uplifting strings , keys , and an all @-@ male gospel choir . Coldplay frontman Chris Martin sings the chorus and supplies a gospel @-@ style piano motif while West raps over heavy yet buoyant drums on " Homecoming . " The chatter of a noisy , cheering crowd can inexplicably be heard lurking in the background throughout the track . The Jay @-@ Z ode " Big Brother " begins with West uttering the words , " Stadium status ... , " backed by a string orchestra , pounding drums , a distorted guitar riff and plinking piano keys . Around mid @-@ verse , the track adopts synths that mimic the melodies of the string section . Before the second verse , additional instrumentation enters ; including a heavy bass @-@ line , metallic percussion , and 808 @-@ handclaps . The studio album 's final track " Good Night " exhibits the production characteristics of West 's next musical evolution . West juxtaposes the glitchy , mechanical sound of an 8 @-@ Bit beat with the more elegant , traditional sound of a classical piano .
= = = Lyrical content = = =
In comparison to previous albums , which were largely driven by observational commentary on matters pertaining to social welfare , Graduation is more introspective in nature and addresses personal themes . West stated that he wanted to make inspirational music and placed more focus on individual perspective and experience that listeners could connect with in an attempt to create " people 's theme songs " . Dismayed that the messages behind his complex lyricism were frequently lost on listeners and didn 't carry well during live performances , West made an attempt to simplify his lyrics and use more skeletal rhyme schemes for more straightforward verses while concentrating on speaking volumes with sparser wording on Graduation . Having committed a significant amount of time towards elevating his storytelling abilities by listening to folk musicians , West manages to form a lyrical narrative within nearly every song on the album . West dedicated a majority of the album towards conducting an analysis himself and conveying his ambivalent outlook on his newfound wealth and fame . As such , West 's subversive songwriting fluctuates between playful self @-@ aggrandizement and critical self @-@ doubt . While confident , extroverted and celebratory at face value , many songs contained on Graduation were thematically distanced and retained melancholic subtext . Some music critics remarked that compounded with West 's urgent , emotive rapping style , the record sounded as if he were experiencing an existential crisis .
The free @-@ associative " Champion " is primarily composed of motivational lyrics , but West also briefly touches on the strained relationship he had with his father – who divorced from his mother when he was just three @-@ years @-@ old – eventually reaching the conclusion that even with their ups and downs , in the end , his father was a champion in his eyes . West described " Stronger " as an " emancipation " , as he uses the song to vent his frustration over mistakes he has made in the past . " I Wonder " carries an introspective tone , retaining a chorus about finding one 's dreams , while West uses the verses to describe the struggle a person experiences in determining the meaning behind their life and achieving those dreams . Inspired by watching Bono open stadium tours , West concentrated on speaking volumes without using too many words on the song and delivers his raps in an exuberant , staccato manner . Using the same vocal stylings , " Flashing Lights " tells the operatic narrative of man contemplating the complexities of a tragic relationship . " Can 't Tell Me Nothing " serves as West 's reflection on his fame and is characterized by bitter remorse and defiant self @-@ awareness . West begins the song by expounding his conflicted feelings regarding wealth and desire , describing a compulsion to spend that overwhelms any and all other objectives in life . He ties this into his perceived overall inability to keep himself together even as he grows into an increasingly prominent figure in the public eye .
West regains his lyrical dexterity on " Barry Bonds " , a competitive , though friendly battle with Lil Wayne in which the two MCs exchange braggadocios rhymes . The song uses Major League Baseball player Barry Bonds as a metaphor for West 's ability to create music hits . " Drunk and Hot Girls " is a first @-@ person narrative that illustrates a man courting an attractive intoxicated woman in a club but gets more than what he bargained for . " Everything I Am " is a song of self @-@ examination , in which West attempts to confront his fallacies by surveying the consequences of his outspokeness ruminating over various ways people expect him to conduct himself . In the track , West addresses his indifference towards constructing a gangster persona , his refusal to dress and act like every other rapper , his inclination towards social commentary , and his lack of self @-@ restraint . West comes to the conclusion that while he will never be able to live up to people 's expectations and will always be disadvantageously flawed ; it 's all these imperfections and more that serve to make up who he is . When writing the song , West thought of a young girl in high school dealing with people coming down on her .
" Homecoming " serves as a heartfelt tribute to West 's hometown of Chicago , Illinois . Using an extended metaphor that personifies the city as a childhood sweetheart named Wendy , West rhymes about his love for Chicago and his guilt over leaving " her " to pursue his musical dream . The song 's opening lines lyrically paraphrase " I Used to Love H.E.R. " , a similarly metaphoric hip @-@ hop song made by West 's close friend and labelmate Common , who later appeared in the single 's music video . West dedicated " Big Brother " to Jay @-@ Z , whom he feels so close to that he sees him as a brother . Within the song , West dually details his love and admiration as well as his envy and antagonism towards Jay @-@ Z , metaphorically equating their relationship to that of a sibling rivalry . West also uses the song 's chorus as a subsidiary dedication to his mentor No I.D. , who first taught him how to produce music . Similar to its musicality , the songwriting characteristics of the album @-@ closing track , " Good Night " alludes to West 's next musical progression . The majority of song is composed of repetitive recitations of its choruses and bridges by Mos Def and Al Be Back . West melodically raps only one single verse in which he nostalgically reminisces over taking trips to the museum with his grandparents . As his verse draws to a close , West chastises that a person can 't dwell on the past , and charges himself with living his life like he has no tomorrow . In retrospect , with the death of his mother Donda West less than two months after the album was released in addition to the dissolution of his engagement with fiancée Alexis Phifer , the trace amounts of melancholy found scattered throughout Graduation would all but envelop West 's next studio album , 808s & Heartbreak .
= = Artwork = =
West collaborated with Japanese contemporary artist Takashi Murakami to oversee the art direction of Graduation as well as design the cover art for the album 's accompanying singles . Often called " the Warhol of Japan " , Murakami 's surrealistic visual art is characterized by cartoonish creatures that appear friendly and cheerful at first glance , but possess dark , twisted undertones . The collaboration between the two came about when West visited Murakami 's Kaikai Kiki studio in Roppongi Hills during a brief trip to Tokyo , Japan in the midst of touring the year before . The album 's artwork expresses colorful , pastel imagery influenced by Murakami 's affiliation with superflat , a post @-@ modern art movement influenced by manga and anime . Its production process took place over the course of several weeks , with West constantly visualizing new images and emailing the ideas to Murakami and his team . Bringing the educational theme expressed by West 's previous albums to a close , the visual plotline of the images contained within the liner notes lead up to a graduation ceremony that takes places within a fictional college institution situated within a futuristic metropolis called Universe City . Murakami explained the metaphor behind the artwork saying :
The cover is based on Kanye 's theme of student life . School . It 's a place of dreams , of righteousness , a place to have fun . It 's also occasionally a place where you experience the rigid dogma of the human race . Kanye 's music scrapes sentimentality and aggressiveness together like sandpaper , and he uses his grooves to unleash this tornado that spins with the zeitgeist of the times . I too wanted to be swept up and spun around in that tornado .
The artwork 's storyline centers around " Dropout Bear " , West 's anthropomorphic teddy bear mascot . The illustrations chronicle Dropout Bear overcoming various obstacles in an effort to reach his college campus in time for his graduation ceremony . The story begins on a rainy day with Dropout being awoken by his alarm clock and running out of his apartment to his car , modeled after a DeLorean . When the car 's engine dies , he is forced to find an alternative means of transportation . Dropout attempts to hail a cab but it speeds right past him , soaking him with puddle water . He then tries to get onto a metro rail but just misses it as it pulls away . Left with no other options , Dropout is reduced to pursuing his goal on foot . As he races down sidewalks , populated by multi @-@ eyed , living mushrooms , Dropout is pursued by a monstrous rain cloud that attempts to swallow him whole . Eventually , Dropout Bear arrives at the university and makes it to his ceremony just in time to stand before his colleagues , a wide variety of anthropomorphic creatures like himself . The visual story concludes with Dropout Bear being shot out of a cannon from the university into the sky into another stratosphere on the back cover . The cover art for Graduation was cited as the fifth best album cover of the year by Rolling Stone . The designs of the album artwork were later brought to life by Takashi Murakami through the use of cel @-@ shaded animation within a three @-@ minute animated music video for " Good Morning " .
= = Release = =
While hosting a listening session for his second studio album Late Registration on August 3 , 2005 at Sony Music Studios , Kanye West revealed that he wanted to schedule the release of Graduation sometime around October 2006 . Several months later , on March 28 , 2007 , West appeared on the Los Angeles radio station Power 106 . He said that he was working on his third album and Common 's seventh album Finding Forever and rapped a few lyrics from one of his songs in a cappella . On May 11 , it was announced that the release date for Graduation was September 18 . West debuted the album 's lead single " Can 't Tell Me Nothing " on the New York radio station Hot 97 on May 15 . He then released a free mixtape under the same name onto the Internet on May 27 . The mixtape features preview clips of songs that would appear on Graduation and showcases various artists signed onto West 's record label GOOD Music as well as collaborations with other unaffiliated musicians . It also contains " Us Placers " , the debut song of Child Rebel Soldier , a supergroup West formed with Lupe Fiasco and Pharrell .
At the end of May , Island Def Jam pushed forward the release date for Graduation up from September to an unspecified late August date , a decision that West first announced on the introductory track of his Can 't Tell Me Nothing mixtape . On July 19 , the album 's release date was changed once more and moved to September 11 , 2007 , the same US release date as rapper 50 Cent 's third studio album Curtis . When first presented with the proposal of his label moving the release date of his album yet again as well as the idea of a sales competition between him and 50 Cent , West initially expressed his indifference towards the thought , saying , " When I heard that thing about the debate , I thought that was the stupidest thing . When my album drops and 50 's album drops , everybody wins because you 're gonna get a lot of good music at the same time . " However , then Def Jam president and CEO Jay @-@ Z welcomed competition , feeling that it would be prosperous for hip @-@ hop and the date became permanent .
The album 's release generated much publicity over a sales competition with 50 Cent 's Curtis . Three months that were prior to the September 11 release date , West extended his gratitude towards 50 Cent for the enthusiasm and excitement the friendly competition had produced . Though confident that he would emerge victorious , West said that he would be perfectly fine with losing to 50 Cent , saying that he 'd rather , " be # 2 on that day rather than come out and be # 1 on a day nobody cares about . " In an interview for USA Today , 50 Cent expressed his view on the idea of a sales competition , stating " It 's great marketing — for Kanye West . But I sell way more records than Kanye West , and I generate way more interest than Kanye West . They think they can match us up , but they 'll find out when that week goes by and the sales come back . This is no rivalry . " On August 10 , 50 Cent confirmed during an interview with SOHH that he would end his career as a solo recording artist if Graduation were to sell more copies than Curtis in the United States . However , 50 Cent later retracted his statement within an MTV interview due to his contract agreements with Aftermath Entertainment and Interscope Records .
= = Promotion = =
West spent a significant amount of time promoting Graduation during his trip to the United Kingdom . On August 17 , West guest starred on the British comedy @-@ variety show The Friday Night Project . He played preview versions of the songs " Big Brother " and " Champion " from his forthcoming third album while making
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be their sum as real numbers modulo 2π . This amounts to an addition operation on the circle , which in turn generalizes to addition operations on many @-@ dimensional tori .
= = = = General addition = = = =
The general theory of abstract algebra allows an " addition " operation to be any associative and commutative operation on a set . Basic algebraic structures with such an addition operation include commutative monoids and abelian groups .
= = = Addition in set theory and category theory = = =
A far @-@ reaching generalization of addition of natural numbers is the addition of ordinal numbers and cardinal numbers in set theory . These give two different generalizations of addition of natural numbers to the transfinite . Unlike most addition operations , addition of ordinal numbers is not commutative . Addition of cardinal numbers , however , is a commutative operation closely related to the disjoint union operation .
In category theory , disjoint union is seen as a particular case of the coproduct operation , and general coproducts are perhaps the most abstract of all the generalizations of addition . Some coproducts , such as Direct sum and Wedge sum , are named to evoke their connection with addition .
= = Related operations = =
Addition , along with subtraction , multiplication and division , is considered one of the basic operations and is used in elementary arithmetic .
= = = Arithmetic = = =
Subtraction can be thought of as a kind of addition — that is , the addition of an additive inverse . Subtraction is itself a sort of inverse to addition , in that adding x and subtracting x are inverse functions .
Given a set with an addition operation , one cannot always define a corresponding subtraction operation on that set ; the set of natural numbers is a simple example . On the other hand , a subtraction operation uniquely determines an addition operation , an additive inverse operation , and an additive identity ; for this reason , an additive group can be described as a set that is closed under subtraction .
Multiplication can be thought of as repeated addition . If a single term x appears in a sum n times , then the sum is the product of n and x . If n is not a natural number , the product may still make sense ; for example , multiplication by − 1 yields the additive inverse of a number .
In the real and complex numbers , addition and multiplication can be interchanged by the exponential function :
ea + b
= ea eb .
This identity allows multiplication to be carried out by consulting a table of logarithms and computing addition by hand ; it also enables multiplication on a slide rule . The formula is still a good first @-@ order approximation in the broad context of Lie groups , where it relates multiplication of infinitesimal group elements with addition of vectors in the associated Lie algebra .
There are even more generalizations of multiplication than addition . In general , multiplication operations always distribute over addition ; this requirement is formalized in the definition of a ring . In some contexts , such as the integers , distributivity over addition and the existence of a multiplicative identity is enough to uniquely determine the multiplication operation . The distributive property also provides information about addition ; by expanding the product ( 1 + 1 ) ( a + b ) in both ways , one concludes that addition is forced to be commutative . For this reason , ring addition is commutative in general .
Division is an arithmetic operation remotely related to addition . Since a / b =
a ( b − 1 ) , division is right distributive over addition : ( a + b ) / c = a / c + b / c . However , division is not left distributive over addition ; 1 / ( 2 + 2 ) is not the same as 1 / 2 + 1 / 2 .
= = = Ordering = = =
The maximum operation " max ( a , b ) " is a binary operation similar to addition . In fact , if two nonnegative numbers a and b are of different orders of magnitude , then their sum is approximately equal to their maximum . This approximation is extremely useful in the applications of mathematics , for example in truncating Taylor series . However , it presents a perpetual difficulty in numerical analysis , essentially since " max " is not invertible . If b is much greater than a , then a straightforward calculation of ( a + b ) − b can accumulate an unacceptable round @-@ off error , perhaps even returning zero . See also Loss of significance .
The approximation becomes exact in a kind of infinite limit ; if either a or b is an infinite cardinal number , their cardinal sum is exactly equal to the greater of the two . Accordingly , there is no subtraction operation for infinite cardinals .
Maximization is commutative and associative , like addition . Furthermore , since addition preserves the ordering of real numbers , addition distributes over " max " in the same way that multiplication distributes over addition :
a + max ( b , c ) = max ( a + b , a + c ) .
For these reasons , in tropical geometry one replaces multiplication with addition and addition with maximization . In this context , addition is called " tropical multiplication " , maximization is called " tropical addition " , and the tropical " additive identity " is negative infinity . Some authors prefer to replace addition with minimization ; then the additive identity is positive infinity .
Tying these observations together , tropical addition is approximately related to regular addition through the logarithm :
log ( a + b ) ≈ max ( log a , log b ) ,
which becomes more accurate as the base of the logarithm increases . The approximation can be made exact by extracting a constant h , named by analogy with Planck 's constant from quantum mechanics , and taking the " classical limit " as h tends to zero :
<formula>
In this sense , the maximum operation is a dequantized version of addition .
= = = Other ways to add = = =
Incrementation , also known as the successor operation , is the addition of 1 to a number .
Summation describes the addition of arbitrarily many numbers , usually more than just two . It includes the idea of the sum of a single number , which is itself , and the empty sum , which is zero . An infinite summation is a delicate procedure known as a series .
Counting a finite set is equivalent to summing 1 over the set .
Integration is a kind of " summation " over a continuum , or more precisely and generally , over a differentiable manifold . Integration over a zero @-@ dimensional manifold reduces to summation .
Linear combinations combine multiplication and summation ; they are sums in which each term has a multiplier , usually a real or complex number . Linear combinations are especially useful in contexts where straightforward addition would violate some normalization rule , such as mixing of strategies in game theory or superposition of states in quantum mechanics .
Convolution is used to add two independent random variables defined by distribution functions . Its usual definition combines integration , subtraction , and multiplication . In general , convolution is useful as a kind of domain @-@ side addition ; by contrast , vector addition is a kind of range @-@ side addition .
= Tennessee Walking Horse National Celebration =
The Tennessee Walking Horse National Celebration ( TWHNC ) , sometimes known as the Celebration , is the largest horse show for the Tennessee Walking Horse breed , and has been held annually in or near Shelbyville , Tennessee since its inception in 1939 . The Celebration was conceived by Henry Davis , a horse trainer who along with several other horsemen , felt the Shelbyville area should have a festival or annual event . Although the Celebration was originally held in Wartrace , Tennessee , it moved to Shelbyville , the county seat , a few years later . The Celebration spans 11 days and nights in late August and early September annually , and finishes with the crowning of the World Grand Champion Tennessee Walker on the Saturday night before Labor Day . The TWHNC draws an estimated 2 @,@ 000 horses and 250 @,@ 000 spectators to Shelbyville each year .
= = History = =
The Tennessee Walking Horse National Celebration was founded in 1939 . A Wartrace resident , Henry Davis , went to Winchester , Tennessee to buy hay and while there observed the Crimson Clover Festival being held . He felt that Wartrace should have a similar festival , and proposed the idea to a group of fellow horsemen , who accepted it . The first Celebration was held in 1939 . It began with a parade and elaborate pageant that depicted the evolution of the Tennessee Walking Horse breed from its original use as a plow and utility horse , to its present use as a show horse . The first Celebration attracted over 40 @,@ 000 people . The Celebration later moved to Shelbyville , which is located about 60 miles southeast of Nashville , due to space issues , as small Wartrace was unable to cope with the volume of visitors and horses the show attracted . Shelbyville is now known as the Walking Horse Capital of the World .
The modern Celebration spans 11 days in late August and early September prior to Labor Day every year , and finishes with the crowning of the World Grand Champion Tennessee Walking Horse on the Saturday night before Labor Day . The TWHNC draws an estimated 2 @,@ 000 horses , 250 @,@ 000 spectators and US $ 41 million in revenue to Shelbyville every year .
= = = Notable winners = = =
The first horse to be named World Grand Champion was Strolling Jim in 1939 . Strolling Jim was a former plow horse retrained for show by Floyd Carothers , and was only three years old at the time of his win . Although Strolling Jim was a gelding , many World Grand Champions were stallions who became notable sires . Midnight Sun , winner in 1945 and 1946 , sired over 2 @,@ 600 foals , of which five became World Grand Champions . The World Grand Champion in 1947 and 1948 , Merry Go Boy , was known for producing the most desirable Tennessee Walker conformation type in his offspring . The stake is traditionally a stallions ' class , and has not been won by a mare or gelding since 1954 , when the gray mare Garnier 's White Star , owned by W.V. Garnier and ridden by Percy Moss , was crowned as the World Grand Champion . Incidentally , 23 @-@ year @-@ old Moss was also the youngest rider to win the stake . The first female rider to win the World Grand Championship was Betty Sain on Shaker 's Shocker in 1966 , and the oldest rider to win was 81 @-@ year @-@ old Bud Dunn on RPM in 1999 . Although there have been six horses who won the stake two years consecutively , there have been only two three @-@ time winners in the history of the Celebration : The Talk of the Town in 1951 , 1952 and 1953 , and I Am Jose in 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 .
= = = Controversies = = =
The Celebration has often been criticized with allegations of soring of horses at the event , an abusive practice designed to make horses step higher and illegal under federal law by the Horse Protection Act of 1970 . The sponsors of the Celebration have consistently denied the allegations . Every horse entered in the Celebration must undergo an inspection designed to detect sored horses conducted by an APHIS @-@ employed inspector before the horse is allowed to show . Inspectors may use hoof testers ( plier @-@ like tools which direct pressure on an area of the foot to find any source of pain ) , leg swabs and other tools such as thermography to detect signs of horses being sored . In 2006 , the concerns escalated between trainers and inspectors from APHIS . Initially , trainers refused to submit their horses for inspection , creating a stand @-@ off that required law enforcement intervention . Then , prior to the World Grand Championship finals , inspectors disqualified all but three of the finalists . A group of approximately 150 people gathered , demanding that the disqualified horses be allowed to show . However , citing safety concerns , the show management cancelled the class altogether and no World Grand Champion was crowned that year .
= = Venue and classes = =
The Tennessee Walking Horse National Celebration is held in Shelbyville at the 105 @-@ acre Celebration Grounds , which encompasses Calsonic Arena . The facility contains 60 barns and two arenas , with warm @-@ up areas . The outdoor arena has seating for 30 @,@ 000 , including box seats , and is the one used for most classes . The indoor arena has seating for 4 @,@ 500 and is used for small classes , or in case of rain .
The TWHNC features a wide variety of classes in both in @-@ hand and performance , including divisions for youth , amateurs , and professionals . Horses may shod with keg shoes or performance stacks ; flat @-@ shod classes are particularly popular among amateur owners who train their own horses . Leadline classes , for children under six , are a crowd favorite . All horses entered must be registered with the Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders ' and Exhibitors ' Association , although some may be registered with the Spotted Saddle Horse and Racking Horse associations as well . Double registration does not affect a horse 's ability to enter the Celebration . The only exception to this rule are ponies competing in lead line classes . Over 20 World Championships are awarded in different classes throughout the course of the Celebration . The most anticipated class , however , is the World Grand Championship , the largest honor in the Tennessee Walking Horse breed . Competition at the Celebration is traditionally opened each night by a white or gray Tennessee Walking Horse and rider carrying the American flag , during the singing of the American national anthem . Over the course of the Celebration , over $ 650 @,@ 000 in prizes is given out . The Celebration also includes attractions such as a dog show , barbecue cookout , and barn decorating contest .
= = = World Grand Championship = = =
The World Grand Championship , also known as the " Big Stake " or " Rider 's Cup , Canter " is the final class of the Celebration . It is held late on the Saturday night before Labor Day , or more often , very early Sunday morning . To compete in the stake , horses must qualify by showing in a class on the first Saturday night of the show . Previous World Grand Champions are automatically eligible to compete again . The competing horses enter the arena to the song " Flat Walk Boogie " which was composed and is played by official TWHNC organist Larry Bright . Horses are required to perform the flat walk , running walk and canter twice each in two separate workouts . Between workouts , riders dismount and unsaddle their horses so the judges can evaluate their conformation . The winner is announced by a spotlight sweeping back and forth along the line @-@ up of horses and then settling on the World Grand Champion . The winner is awarded $ 15 @,@ 000 in prize money .
= May Revolution =
The May Revolution ( Spanish : Revolución de Mayo ) was a week @-@ long series of events that took place from May 18 to 25 , 1810 , in Buenos Aires , capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . This Spanish colony included roughly the territories of present @-@ day Argentina , Bolivia , Paraguay and Uruguay . The result was the removal of Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and the establishment of a local government , the Primera Junta ( First Junta ) , on May 25 . It was the first successful revolution in South American Independence process .
The May Revolution was a direct reaction to Spain 's Peninsular War . In 1808 , King Ferdinand VII of Spain abdicated in favor of Napoleon , who granted the throne to his brother , Joseph Bonaparte . A Supreme Central Junta led resistance to Joseph 's government and the French occupation of Spain , but eventually suffered a series of reversals that resulted in the Spanish loss of the northern half of the country . On February 1 , 1810 , French troops took Seville and gained control of most of Andalusia . The Supreme Junta retreated to Cadiz and dissolved itself , and the Council of Regency of Spain and the Indies replaced it . News of these events arrived in Buenos Aires on May 18 , brought by British ships .
Viceroy Cisneros tried to maintain the political status quo , but a group of criollo lawyers and military officials organized an open cabildo ( a special meeting of notables of the city ) on May 22 to decide the future of the Viceroyalty . Delegates denied recognition to the Council of Regency in Spain and established a junta to govern in place of Cisneros , since the government that had appointed him Viceroy no longer existed . To maintain a sense of continuity , Cisneros was initially appointed president of the Junta . However , this caused much popular unrest , so he resigned under pressure on May 25 . The newly formed government , the Primera Junta , included only representatives from Buenos Aires and invited other cities of the Viceroyalty to send delegates to join them . This resulted in the outbreak of war between the regions that accepted the outcome of the events at Buenos Aires and those that did not .
The May Revolution began the Argentine War of Independence , although no formal declaration of independence was issued at the time and the Primera Junta continued to govern in the name of the deposed king , Ferdinand VII . As similar events occurred in many other cities of the continent , the May Revolution is also considered one of the early events of the Spanish American wars of independence . Historians today debate whether the revolutionaries were truly loyal to the Spanish crown or whether the declaration of fidelity to the king was a necessary ruse to conceal the true objective — to achieve independence — from a population that was not yet ready to accept such a radical change . A formal declaration of independence was finally issued at the Congress of Tucumán on July 9 , 1816 .
= = Causes = =
= = = International causes = = =
The United States ' declaration of independence from Great Britain in 1776 led criollos ( Spanish peoples born in the Americas ) to believe that revolution and independence from Spain were feasible . Between 1775 and 1783 , the American patriots of the Thirteen Colonies waged the American Revolutionary War against both the local loyalists and the Kingdom of Great Britain , eventually establishing a popular government in the place of the British monarchy . The fact that Spain aided the colonies in their struggle against Britain weakened the idea that it would be a crime to end one 's allegiance to the parent state .
The ideals of the French Revolution of 1789 spread across Europe and the Americas as well . The overthrow and execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette ended centuries of monarchy and removed the privileges of the nobility . Liberal ideals in the political and economic fields developed and spread through the Atlantic Revolutions across most of the Western world . The concept of the divine right of kings was questioned by the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , by the oft @-@ quoted statement that " all men are created equal " in the United States Declaration of Independence and even by the Spanish church .
However , the spread of such ideas was forbidden in the Spanish territories , as was the sale of related books or their unauthorized possession . Spain instituted those bans when it declared war on France after the execution of Louis XVI and retained them after the peace treaty of 1796 . News of the events of 1789 and copies of the publications of the French Revolution spread around Spain despite efforts to keep them at bay . Many enlightened criollos came into contact with liberal authors and their works during their university studies , either in Europe or at the University of Chuquisaca ( modern Sucre ) . Books from the United States found their way into the Spanish colonies through Caracas , owing to the proximity of Venezuela to the United States and the West Indies .
The Industrial Revolution started in Britain , with the use of plateways , canals and steam power . This led to dramatic increases in the productive capabilities of Britain , and created a need for new markets to sell its products . The Napoleonic Wars with France made this a difficult task , after Napoleon imposed the Continental System , which forbade his allies and conquests to trade with Britain . Thus Britain needed to be able to trade with the Spanish colonies , but could not do so because the colonies were restricted to trade only with their parent state . To achieve their economic objectives , Britain initially tried to invade Rio de la Plata and conquer key cities in Spanish America . When that failed , they chose to promote the Spanish @-@ American aspirations of emancipation from Spain .
The mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808 led King Charles IV of Spain to abdicate in favor of his son , Ferdinand VII . Charles IV requested that Napoleon restore him to the throne ; instead , Napoleon crowned his own brother , Joseph Bonaparte , as the new Spanish King . These events are known as the Abdications of Bayonne . Joseph 's coronation was met with severe resistance in Spain , which started the Peninsular War , and the Supreme Central Junta took power in the name of the absent king . This also led to Spain switching allegiances from France to Britain . France eventually invaded Sevilla , and a Council of Regency based in Cadiz replaced the disbanded Supreme Central Junta .
= = = National causes = = =
Spain forbade its American colonies to trade with other nations or foreign colonies , and imposed itself as the only buyer and vendor for their international trade . This situation damaged the viceroyalty , as Spain 's economy was not powerful enough to produce the huge supply of goods that the numerous colonies would need . This caused economic shortages and recession . The Spanish trade routes favored the ports of Mexico and Lima , to the detriment of Buenos Aires . As a result , Buenos Aires smuggled those products that could not be obtained legitimately . Most local authorities allowed this smuggling as a lesser evil , even though it was illegal , and it occasionally equalled in volume the legal commerce with Spain . Two antagonistic factions emerged : the landowners wanted free trade so they could sell their products abroad , while the merchants , who benefited from the high prices of smuggled imports , opposed free trade because prices would come down .
The Spanish monarchy appointed their own candidates to most of the political offices in the viceroyalty , usually favoring Spaniards from Europe . In most cases , the appointees had little knowledge of or interest in local issues . Consequently , there was a growing rivalry between criollos and peninsulars ( those born in Spain ) . Most criollos thought that peninsulars had undeserved advantages and received preferential treatment in politics and society . The lower clergy had a similar sentiment about the higher echelons of the religious hierarchy . Events developed at a slower pace than in the United States independence movement . This was in part because the clergy controlled the entire educational system in Spanish America , which led the population to hold the same conservative ideas and follow the same customs as in Spain .
Buenos Aires and Montevideo successfully resisted two British invasions . In 1806 , a small British army led by William Carr Beresford seized Buenos Aires for a brief time ; a Montevidean army led by Santiago de Liniers liberated the city . The following year , a larger army seized Montevideo , but was overwhelmed by the forces of Buenos Aires ; the invaders capitulated and returned Montevideo to the viceroyalty . There was no aid from Spain during either invasion . Liniers organized criollo militias during the preparations for the second invasion , in spite of the prohibition against them . The Patricios Regiment , led by Cornelio Saavedra , was the biggest criollo army . These events gave criollos military power and political influence that they did not have before and , since the victory was achieved without any help from Spain , it boosted criollo confidence in their independent capabilities .
The Portuguese royal family left Europe and settled in colonial Brazil in 1808 , after their escape from the Napoleonic invasion of Portugal . Carlota Joaquina , sister of Ferdinand VII , was the wife of the Portuguese prince regent , but had her own political projects . As she avoided the later capture of the Spanish royal family , she attempted to take charge of the viceroyalty as regent . This political project , known as Carlotism , sought to prevent a French invasion of the Americas . A small secret society of criollos , composed of politicians such as Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli , and military leaders such as Antonio Beruti and Hipólito Vieytes , supported this project . They considered it an opportunity to get a local government instead of a European one , or a step towards a potential declaration of independence . The project was resisted by Viceroy Liniers , most peninsulars , and some criollos , including Cornelio Saavedra and the lawyers Mariano Moreno and Juan José Paso . They suspected that it concealed Portuguese expansionist ambitions over the region . The supporters of Carlota Joaquina intended her to head a constitutional monarchy , whereas she wanted to govern an absolute monarchy ; these conflicting goals undermined the project and led to its failure . Britain , which had a strong influence in the politics of the Portuguese Empire , opposed the project as well : they did not want Spain split into several kingdoms , and considered Carlota Joaquina unable to prevent this .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Liniers government = = =
After the British invasion of 1806 , Santiago de Liniers successfully reconquered Buenos Aires . The population did not allow Rafael de Sobremonte to continue as Viceroy . He had escaped to Cordoba with the public treasury while the battle was still in progress . A law enacted in 1778 required the treasury to be moved to a safe location in the case of a foreign attack , but Sobremonte was still seen as a coward by the population . The Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires did not allow his return to Buenos Aires and elected Liniers , acclaimed as a popular hero , as an interim Viceroy . This was an unprecedented action , the first time that a Spanish viceroy was deposed by local government institutions , and not by the King of Spain himself ; King Charles IV ratified the appointment at a later time . Liniers armed the entire population of Buenos Aires , including criollos and slaves , and defeated a second British invasion attempt in 1807 .
The Liniers administration was popular among criollos , but not among peninsulars such as the merchant Martín de Álzaga and the Governor of Montevideo , Francisco Javier de Elío . They requested the Spanish authorities appoint a new viceroy . In the wake of the outbreak of the Peninsular War , de Elío created the Junta of Montevideo , which would scrutinise all the orders from Buenos Aires and reserve the right to ignore them , but did not openly deny the authority of the Viceroy or declare Montevideo independent .
Martín de Álzaga began a mutiny to remove Liniers . On January 1 , 1809 , an open cabildo ( an extraordinary meeting of vecinos , prominent people of the city ) chaired by Álzaga demanded the resignation of Liniers and the appointment of a local junta . The Spanish militia and a group of people summoned by the meeting gathered to support the rebellion . A small number of criollos , notably Mariano Moreno , supported the mutiny , but most of them did not . They felt that Álzaga wanted to remove the Viceroy to avoid his political authority while keeping the social differences between criollos and peninsulars unchanged . The riot was quickly routed when criollo militias led by Cornelio Saavedra surrounded the plaza and dispersed the insurgents . As a result of the failed mutiny , the rebel militias were disarmed . This included all peninsular militias , and the power of the criollos increased as a result . The leaders of the plot , with the exception of Moreno , were exiled to Carmen de Patagones . Javier de Elío freed them and gave them political asylum at Montevideo .
= = = Cisneros government = = =
The Supreme Central Junta replaced Liniers with the naval officer Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros , a veteran of the Battle of Trafalgar , to end the political turmoil in the Río de la Plata . He arrived in Montevideo in June 1809 for the handover . Manuel Belgrano proposed that Liniers should resist on the grounds that he had been confirmed as Viceroy by a King of Spain , whereas Cisneros lacked such legitimacy . The criollo militias shared Belgrano 's proposal , but Liniers handed over the government to Cisneros without resistance . Javier de Elío accepted the authority of the new Viceroy , and dissolved the Junta of Montevideo . Cisneros rearmed the disbanded peninsular militias , and pardoned those responsible for the mutiny . Álzaga was not freed , but his sentence was commuted to house arrest .
There was concern about events in Spain and about the legitimacy of local governors in Upper Peru as well . On May 25 , 1809 , the Chuquisaca Revolution deposed Ramón García de León y Pizarro as Governor of Chuquisaca and replaced him with Juan Antonio Alvarez de Arenales . On July 16 , the La Paz revolution , led by Colonel Pedro Domingo Murillo , deposed the Governor of La Paz and elected a new junta . A swift reaction from the Spanish authorities defeated those rebellions . An army of 1 @,@ 000 men sent from Buenos Aires found no resistance at Chuquisaca , took control of the city and overthrew the Junta . Murillo tried to defend La Paz , but his 800 militiamen were completely outnumbered by the more than 5 @,@ 000 soldiers sent from Lima . He and the other leaders were later beheaded , and their heads were exhibited as a deterrent . These measures contrasted sharply with the pardon that Martín de Álzaga and others had received after a short time in prison , and the resentment of criollos against the peninsulars deepened . Juan José Castelli was present at the deliberations of the University of Chuquisaca , where Bernardo Monteagudo developed the Syllogism of Chuquisaca , a legal explanation to justify self @-@ governance . This influenced his ideas during the " May Week " .
On November 25 , 1809 , Cisneros created the Political Surveillance Court to persecute afrancesados ( supporters of Joseph Bonaparte ) and independentists . However , he rejected economist José María Romero 's proposal to banish a number of people considered dangerous to the Spanish regime , such as Saavedra , Paso , Vieytes , Castelli and Moreno , among others . Romero warned Cisneros against spreading news that might be considered subversive . Criollos felt that soon any pretext would be enough to lead to the outbreak of revolution . In April 1810 , Cornelio Saavedra advised to his friends : " it 's not time yet , let the figs ripen and then we 'll eat them " . He meant that he would not support rushed actions against the Viceroy , but would do so at a strategically favorable moment , such as when Napoleon 's forces gained a decisive advantage in their war against Spain .
= = May Week = =
The May Week was the period of time in Buenos Aires which began with the confirmation of the fall of the Supreme Central Junta and ended with the dismissal of Cisneros and the establishment of the Primera Junta .
On May 14 , 1810 , the British war schooner HMS Mistletoe arrived at Buenos Aires with European newspapers that reported the dissolution of the Supreme Central Junta the previous January . The city of Seville had been invaded by French armies , which were already dominating most of the Iberian Peninsula . The newspapers reported that some of the former members of the Junta had taken refuge on the Isla de León in Cadiz . This was confirmed in Buenos Aires on May 17 , when the British frigate HMS John Paris arrived in Montevideo ; the most recent newspapers reported that members of the Supreme Central Junta had been dismissed . The Council of Regency of Cadiz was not seen as a successor of the Spanish resistance but as an attempt to restore absolutism in Spain . The Supreme Central Junta was seen as sympathetic to the new ideas . South American patriots feared both a complete French victory in the peninsula and an absolutist restoration . Cisneros monitored the British warships and seized their newspapers , to conceal the news , but a newspaper came into the hands of Belgrano and Castelli . They spread the news among other patriots and challenged the legitimacy of the Viceroy , who had been appointed by the fallen junta . When Cornelio Saavedra , head of the regiment of Patricians , was informed of this news , he decided that it was finally the ideal time to take action against Cisneros . Martín Rodríguez proposed to overthrow the Viceroy by force , but Castelli and Saavedra rejected this idea and proposed the convening of an open cabildo .
= = = Friday , May 18 and Saturday , May 19 = = =
Although Viceroy Cisneros attempted to conceal the news of the Spanish defeat , the rumor had already spread throughout Buenos Aires . Most of the population was uneasy ; there was high activity at the barracks and in the Plaza , and most shops were closed . The " Café de Catalanes " and the " Fonda de las Naciones " , frequent criollo meeting places , became venues for political discussions and radical proclamations ; Francisco José Planes shouted that Cisneros should be hanged in the Plaza as retribution for the execution of the leaders of the ill @-@ fated La Paz revolution . People who sympathized with the absolutist government were harassed , but the fights were of little consequence because nobody was allowed to take muskets or swords out of the barracks .
The Viceroy , trying to calm the criollos , gave his own version of events in a proclamation . He asked for allegiance to King Ferdinand VII , but popular unrest continued to intensify . He was aware of the news , but only said that the situation on the Iberian Peninsula was delicate ; he did not confirm the fall of the Junta . His proposal was to make a government body that would rule on behalf of Ferdinand VII , together with Viceroy of Peru José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa , Governor of Potosí Francisco de Paula Sanz and President of the Royal Audiencia of Charcas Vicente Nieto .
Not fooled by the Viceroy 's communiqué , some criollos met at the houses of Nicolás Rodríguez Peña and Martín Rodríguez . During these secret meetings , they appointed a representative commission composed of Juan José Castelli and Martín Rodríguez to request that Cisneros convene an open cabildo to decide the future of the Viceroyalty .
During the night of May 19 there were further discussions at Rodríguez Peña 's house . Saavedra , called by Viamonte , joined the meeting , which involved military and civilian leaders . They arranged that Belgrano and Saavedra would meet with Juan José de Lezica , the senior alcalde ( municipal magistrate ) , while Castelli would meet with the procurator Julián de Leiva , to ask for their support . They asked the Viceroy to allow an open cabildo , and said that if it was not freely granted the people and the criollo troops would march to the Plaza , force the Viceroy to resign by any means necessary , and replace him with a patriot government . Saavedra commented to Lezica that he was suspected of betrayal because of his constant requests for cautious and measured steps . This comment was designed to pressure Lezica into speeding up the legal system to allow the people to express themselves , or otherwise risk a major rebellion . Lezica asked for patience and time to persuade the Viceroy , and leave a massive demonstration as a last resort . He argued that if the Viceroy was deposed in that way , it would constitute a rebellion , which would turn the revolutionaries into outlaws . Manuel Belgrano gave the following Monday as the deadline to confirm the open cabildo before taking direct action . Leiva would later act as a mediator , being both a confidante of Cisneros and a trusted negotiator for the more moderate revolutionaries .
= = = Sunday , May 20 = = =
Lezica informed Cisneros of the request for an open cabildo and the Viceroy consulted Leiva , who spoke in favor of it . The Viceroy summoned military commanders to come to the fort at 7 pm , to demand military support . There were rumors that it could be a trap to capture them and take control of the barracks . To prevent this , they took command of the grenadiers that guarded the Fort and seized the keys of all entrances while meeting with the Viceroy . Colonel Cornelio Saavedra , head of the Regiment of Patricios , responded on behalf of all the criollo regiments . He compared the current international situation with that prevailing at the time of the mutiny of Álzaga over a year earlier , pointed out that Spain was now almost entirely under Napoleonic control and that the undefeated Spanish provinces were very small in comparison with the Americas . He rejected the claim of sovereignty of Cadiz over the Americas , and concluded that the local armies wanted to look after themselves , rather than following the fate of Spain . Finally , he pointed out that the Supreme Central Junta that appointed Cisneros as Viceroy no longer existed , so he rejected Cisneros ' legitimacy as Viceroy and denied him the protection of the troops under his command .
Castelli and Martín Rodríguez moved to the Fort for an interview with Cisneros . Juan Florencio Terrada , commander of the Infantry Grenadiers , joined them , because their barracks were located under Cisneros ' window , and his presence would not allow the Viceroy to request military aid to take Castelli and Martín Rodríguez prisoners . The guards let them pass unannounced , and they found Cisneros playing cards with Brigadier Quintana , prosecutor Caspe and aide Coicolea . Castelli and Rodríguez demanded once again the convening of an open cabildo , and Cisneros reacted angrily , considering their request an outrage . Rodríguez interrupted him and forced him to give a definitive answer . After a short private discussion with Caspe , Cisneros reluctantly gave his consent .
That night , many of the revolutionaries attended a theatre production on the theme of tyranny , called Rome Saved . The lead actor was Morante , playing Cicero . The police chief requested Morante to feign illness and not appear , so that the play could be replaced with Misanthropy and Repentance by the German novelist and playwright August von Kotzebue . Rumors of police censorship spread quickly ; Morante ignored the request and performed the play as planned . In the fourth act , Morante made a patriotic speech , about the Gaul threat to Rome ( the Gauls are ancestors of the French people ) and the need for strong leadership to resist the danger . This scene lifted the revolutionaries ' spirits and led to frenzied applause . Juan José Paso stood up and cried out for the freedom of Buenos Aires , and a small fight ensued .
After the play , the revolutionaries returned to Peña 's house . They learned the result of the meeting with Cisneros , but were unsure as to whether Cisneros intended to keep his word . They organized a demonstration for the following day to ensure that the open cabildo would be held as decided .
= = = Monday , May 21 = = =
At 3 pm , the Cabildo began its routine work , but was interrupted by 600 armed men named the Infernal Legion , who occupied the Plaza de la Victoria and loudly demanded the convening of an open cabildo and the resignation of Viceroy Cisneros . They carried a portrait of Ferdinand VII and the lapels of their jackets bore a white ribbon that symbolized criollo – Spanish unity . Domingo French , the mail carrier of the city , and Antonio Beruti , an employee of the treasury , led the rioters . It was rumored that Cisneros had been killed , and that Saavedra would take control of the government . Saavedra was at the barracks at that moment , concerned about the demonstration . He thought the violence should be stopped and that radical measures such as the assassination of Cisneros should be prevented , but he also thought that the troops would mutiny if the demonstrations were suppressed . The people in the Plaza did not believe that Cisneros would allow the open cabildo the next day . Leiva left the Cabildo , and Belgrano , who was representing the crowd , requested a definitive commitment . Leiva explained that everything would go ahead as planned , but the Cabildo needed time to prepare . He asked Belgrano to help the Cabildo with the work , as his intervention would be seen by the crowd as a guarantee that their demands would not be ignored . The crowd left the main hall but stayed in the Plaza . Belgrano protested about the guest list , which consisted of the wealthiest citizens , and thought that if the poor people were left outside there would be further unrest . The members of the Cabildo tried to convince him to give his support , but he left .
Belgrano 's departure enraged the crowd , as he did not explain what had happened , and the people feared a betrayal . Demands for Cisneros ' immediate resignation replaced those for an open cabildo . The people finally settled down and dispersed when Saavedra intervened to say that the claims of the Infernal Legion were supported by the military .
The invitations were distributed among 450 leading citizens and officials in the capital . The Cabildo compiled the guest list , and tried to guarantee the result , inviting people that would be likely to support the Viceroy . The revolutionaries countered this move with a similar one , so that most people would be against Cisneros instead . The printer Agustín Donado , supporting the revolutionaries , printed nearly 600 invitations instead of the 450 requested , and distributed the surplus among the criollos . During the night , Castelli , Rodríguez , French and Beruti visited all the barracks to harangue the troops and prepare them for the following day .
= = = Tuesday , May 22 = = =
According to the minutes , only about 251 out of the 450 officially invited guests attended the open cabildo . French and Beruti , in command of 600 men armed with knives , shotguns and rifles , controlled access to the square to ensure that the open cabildo had a majority of criollos . All noteworthy religious and civilian people were present , as well as militia commanders and many prominent residents . The only notable absence was that of Martín de Álzaga , who was still under house arrest .
A merchant , José Ignacio Rezábal , attended the open cabildo but , in a letter to the priest Julián S. de Agüero , said that he had some doubts which were shared by other people close to him . He feared that , no matter which party prevailed in the open cabildo , it would take revenge against the other , the Mutiny of Álzaga being a recent precedent . He felt that the open cabildo would lack legitimacy if too many criollos were allowed to take part in it as a result of the aforementioned manipulation of the guest list .
The meeting lasted from morning to midnight , including the reading of the proclamation , the debate and the vote . There was no secret ballot ; votes were heard one at a time and recorded in the minutes . The main themes of the debate were the legitimacy of the government and the authority of the Viceroy . The principle of retroversion of the sovereignty to the people stated that , in the absence of the legitimate monarch , power returned to the people ; they were entitled to form a new government . This principle was commonplace in Spanish scholasticism and rationalist philosophy , but had never been applied in case law . Its validity divided the assembly into two main groups : one group rejected it and argued that the situation should remain unchanged ; this group supported Cisneros as Viceroy . The other group supported change , and considered that they should establish a junta , like the ones established in Spain to replace the Viceroy . There was also a third position , taking the middle ground . The promoters of change did not recognize the authority of the Council of Regency , and argued that the colonies in America were not consulted in its formation . The debate tangentially discussed the rivalry between criollos and peninsulars ; the Viceroy supporters felt that the will of peninsulars should prevail over that of criollos .
One of the speakers for the first position was the bishop of Buenos Aires , Benito Lue y Riega , leader of the local church , who said :
Not only is there no reason to get rid of the Viceroy , but even if no part of Spain remained unsubdued , the Spaniards in America ought to take it back and resume command over it . America should only be ruled by the natives when there is no longer a Spaniard there . If even a single member of the Central Junta of Seville were to land on our shores , we should receive him as the Sovereign .
Juan José Castelli was the main speaker for the revolutionaries . He based his speech on two key ideas : the government 's lapsed legitimacy — he stated that the Supreme Central Junta was dissolved and had no rights to designate a Regency — and the principle of retroversion of sovereignty . He spoke after Riega , and replied that the American people should assume control of their government until Ferdinand VII could return to the throne .
Nobody could call the whole nation a criminal , nor the individuals that have aired their political views . If the right of conquest belongs by right to the conquering country , it would be fair for Spain to quit resisting the French and submit to them , by the same principles for which it is expected that the Americans submit themselves to the peoples of Pontevedra . The reason and the rule must be equal for everybody . Here there are no conquerors or conquered ; here there are only Spaniards . The Spaniards of Spain have lost their land . The Spaniards of America are trying to save theirs . Let the ones from Spain deal with themselves as they can ; do not worry , we American Spaniards know what we want and where we go . So I suggest we vote : that we replace the Viceroy with a new authority that will be subject to the parent state if it is saved from the French , and independent if Spain is finally subjugated .
Pascual Ruiz Huidobro stated that , since the authority that appointed Cisneros had expired , Cisneros should no longer have a place in the government . Huidobro felt that the Cabildo should be in government , as it was the representative of the people . Melchor Fernández , Juan León Ferragut and Joaquín Grigera supported his vote , among others .
Attorney Manuel Genaro Villota , representative of the conservative Spanish , said that the city of Buenos Aires had no right to make unilateral decisions about the legitimacy of the Viceroy or the Council of Regency without the participation of other cities of the Viceroyalty . He argued that such an action would break the unity of the country and establish as many sovereignties as there were cities . His intention was to keep Cisneros in power by delaying any possible action . Juan José Paso accepted his first point , but argued that the situation in Europe and the possibility that Napoleon 's forces could conquer the American colonies demanded an urgent resolution . He then expounded the " argument of the elder sister " , reasoning that Buenos Aires should take the initiative and make the changes deemed necessary and appropriate , on the express condition that the other cities would be invited to comment as soon as possible . The rhetorical device of the " elder sister " , comparable to negotiorum gestio , makes an analogy between the relationship of Buenos Aires and other cities of the viceroyalty with a sibling relationship .
The priest Juan Nepomuceno Solá then proposed that the Cabildo should receive the provisional command , until the formation of a governing junta made up of representatives from all populations of the Viceroyalty . Manuel Alberti , Miguel de Azcuénaga ( who would be members of the Primera Junta some days later ) , Escalada and Argerich ( or Aguirre ) supported his vote , among others .
Cornelio Saavedra suggested that the Cabildo should receive the provisional command until the formation of a governing junta in the manner and form that the Cabildo would deem as appropriate . He said " ... there shall be no doubt that it is the people that create authority or command . " At the time of the vote , Castelli 's position coincided with that of Saavedra .
Manuel Belgrano stood near a window and , in the event of a problematic development , he would give a signal by waiving a white cloth , upon which the people gathered in the Plaza would force their way into the Cabildo . However , there were no problems and this emergency plan was not implemented . The historian Vicente Fidel López revealed that his father , Vicente López y Planes , who was present at the event , saw that Mariano Moreno was worried near the end in spite of the majority achieved . Moreno told Planes that the Cabildo was about to betray them .
= = = Wednesday , May 23 = = =
The debate took all day , and the votes were counted very late that night . After the presentations , people voted for the continuation of the Viceroy , alone or at the head of a junta , or his dismissal . The ideas explained were divided into a small number of proposals , designated with the names of their main supporters , and the people then voted for one of those proposals . The voting lasted for a long time , and the result was to dismiss the Viceroy by a large majority : 155 votes to 69 .
Manuel José Reyes stated that he found no reason to depose the Viceroy , and that it would be enough to appoint a junta headed by Cisneros . His proposal had nearly 30 votes . Another 30 votes supported Cisneros , with no change to the political system . A small group supported the proposal of Martín José de Choteco , who also supported Cisneros .
There were also many different proposals involving the removal of Cisneros . Many of them required the new authorities to be elected by the Cabildo . Pascual Ruiz Huidobro proposed that the Cabildo should rule in the interim and appoint a new government , but this proposal made no reference to popular sovereignty or the creation of a junta . This proposal received 35 votes , and sought simply to replace Cisneros with Huidobro : Huidobro was the most senior military officer , and thus the natural candidate under current laws to replace the viceroy in the lack of a new appointment from Spain . Juan Nepomuceno Solá proposed a junta composed of delegates from all the provinces of the viceroyalty , while the Cabildo should govern in the interim ; this proposal received nearly 20 votes . Cornelio Saavedra , whose aformentioned proposal was that the Cabildo should appoint a Junta and rule in the interim , got the largest number of votes . A number of other proposals received only a few votes each .
At dawn on May 23 , the Cabildo informed the population that the Viceroy would end his mandate . The highest authority would be transferred temporarily to the Cabildo until the appointment of a governing junta . Notices were placed at various points throughout the city , which announced the imminent creation of a junta and the summoning of representatives from the provinces . The notices also called for the public to refrain from actions contrary to public policy .
= = = Thursday , May 24 = = =
The Cabildo interpreted the decision of the open cabildo in its own way . When it formed the new Junta to govern until the arrival of representatives from other cities , Leiva arranged for former viceroy Cisneros to be appointed president of the Junta and commander of the armed forces . There are many interpretations of his motives for departing from the decision of the open cabildo in this way . Four other members were appointed to the Junta : criollos Cornelio Saavedra and Juan José Castelli , and peninsulars Juan Nepomuceno Solá and José Santos Inchaurregui .
Leiva wrote a constitutional code to regulate the actions of the Junta . It stipulated that the Junta could not exercise judicial power , which was reserved for the Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires ; that Cisneros could not act without the support of the other members of the Junta ; that the Cabildo could dismiss anyone who neglected his duty ; that the Cabildo 's consent would be required to create new taxes ; that the Junta would sanction a general amnesty for those who had aired opinions at the open cabildo ; and that the Junta would invite the other cities to send delegates . The commanders of the armed forces , including Saavedra and Pedro Andrés García , agreed to this code . The Junta swore the oath of office that afternoon .
These developments shocked the revolutionaries . Unsure of what to do next , they feared that they would be punished , like the revolutionaries of Chuquisaca and La Paz . Moreno abjured relations with the others and shut himself in his home . There was a meeting at Rodríguez Peña 's house . They felt that the Cabildo would not pursue such a plot without the blessing of Saavedra and that Castelli should resign from the Junta . Tagle took a different view : he thought that Saavedra may have accepted out of weakness or naivety and that Castelli should stay in the Junta to counter the others ' influence on him . Meanwhile , a mob led by Domingo French and Antonio Beruti filled the Plaza . The stability of Cisneros in power , albeit in an office other than Viceroy , was seen as an insult to the will of the open cabildo . Colonel Martín Rodriguez warned that , if the army were to commit support to a government that kept Cisneros , they would soon have to fire on the people , and that they would revolt . He said that " everyone without exception " demanded the removal of Cisneros .
That night , Castelli and Saavedra informed Cisneros of their resignation from the newly formed Junta . They explained that the population was on the verge of violent revolution and would remove Cisneros by force if he did not resign as well . They warned that they did not have the power to stop that : neither Castelli to stop his friends , nor Saavedra to prevent the Regiment of Patricians from mutiny . Cisneros wanted to wait for the following day , but they said that there was no time for further delays , so he finally agreed to resign . He sent a resignation letter to the Cabildo for consideration on the following day . Chiclana felt encouraged when Saavedra resigned , and started to request signatures for a manifesto about the will of the people . Moreno refused any further involvement , but Castelli and Peña trusted that he would eventually join them if events unfolded as they expected .
= = = Friday , May 25 = = =
On the morning of May 25 , in spite of bad weather , a crowd gathered in the Plaza de la Victoria , as did the militia led by Domingo French and Antonio Beruti . They demanded the recall of the Junta elected the previous day , the final resignation of Cisneros , and the appointment of a new junta that did not include him . Historian Bartolomé Mitre stated that French and Beruti distributed blue and white ribbons , similar to the modern cockade of Argentina , among those present . Later historians doubt it , but consider it possible that the revolutionaries used distinctive marks of some kind for identification . It was rumored that the Cabildo might reject Cisneros ' resignation . Because of delays in issuing an official resolution , the crowd became agitated , clamoring that " the people want to know what is going on ! " .
The Cabildo met at 9 am and rejected Cisneros ' resignation . They considered that the crowd had no legitimate right to influence something that the Cabildo had already decided and implemented . They considered that , as the Junta was in command , the demonstration should be suppressed by force , and made the members responsible for any changes to the resolution of the previous day . To enforce those orders , they summoned the chief commanders , but these did not obey . Many of them , including Saavedra , did not appear . Those that did stated that they could not support the government order , and that the commanders would be disobeyed if they ordered the troops to repress the demonstrators .
The crowd 's agitation increased , and they overran the chapter house . Leiva and Lezica requested that someone who could act as spokesman for the people should join them inside the hall and explain the people 's desires . Beruti , Chiclana , French and Grela were allowed to pass . Leiva attempted to discourage the rioter Pancho Planes , but he entered the hall as well . The Cabildo argued that Buenos Aires had no right to break the political system of the viceroyalty without discussing it with the other provinces ; French and Chiclana replied that the call for a Congress had already been considered . The Cabildo called the commanders to deliberate with them . As had happened several times in the last few days , Romero explained that the soldiers would mutiny if forced to fight against the rioters on behalf of Cisneros . The Cabildo still refused to give up , until the noise of the demonstration was heard in the hall . They feared that the demonstrators could overrun the building and reach them . Martín Rodríguez pointed out that the only way to calm the demonstrators was to accept Cisneros ' resignation . Leiva agreed , convinced the other members , and the people returned to the Plaza . Rodríguez headed to Azcuenaga 's house to meet the other revolutionaries to plan the final stages of the revolution . The demonstration overran the Cabildo again , and reached the hall of deliberations . Beruti spoke on behalf of the people , and said that the new Junta should be elected by the people and not by the Cabildo . He said that , besides the nearly 400 people already gathered , the barracks were full of people who supported them , and he threatened that they would take control , by force if necessary . The Cabildo replied by requesting their demands in writing .
After a long interval , a document containing 411 signatures was delivered to the Cabildo . This paper proposed a new composition for the governing Junta , and a 500 @-@ man expedition to assist the provinces . The document — still preserved — listed most army commanders and many well @-@ known residents , and contained many illegible signatures . French and Beruti signed the document , stating " for me and for six hundred more " . However , there is no unanimous view among historians about the authorship of the document . Meanwhile , the weather improved and the sun broke through the clouds . The people in the plaza saw it as a favorable omen for the revolution . The Sun of May was created a few years later with reference to this event .
The Cabildo accepted the document and moved to the balcony to submit it directly to the people for ratification . But , because of the late hour and the weather , the number of people in the plaza had declined . Leiva ridiculed the claim of the remaining representatives to speak on behalf of the people . This wore the patience of the few who were still in the plaza in the rain . Beruti did not accept any further delays , and threatened to call people to arms . Facing the prospect of further violence , the popular request was read aloud and immediately ratified by those present .
The Primera Junta was finally established . It was composed by president Cornelio Saavedra , members Manuel Alberti , Miguel de Azcuénaga , Manuel Belgrano , Juan José Castelli , Domingo Matheu and Juan Larrea , and secretaries Juan José Paso and Mariano Moreno . The rules governing it were roughly the same as those issued the day before , with the additional provisions that the Cabildo would watch over the members of the Junta and that the Junta itself would appoint replacements in case of vacancies . Saavedra spoke to the crowd , and then moved on to the Fort , among salvos of artillery and the ringing of bells . Meanwhile , Cisneros dispatched a post rider to Córdoba , Argentina , to warn Santiago de Liniers about what had happened in Buenos Aires and to request military action against the Junta .
= = Aftermath = =
Buenos Aires endured the whole Spanish American Wars of independence without being reconquered by royalist armies or successful royalist counter @-@ revolutions . However , it faced several internal conflicts . The May Revolution lacked a clear leader as other regions of Latin America ; the secretary Mariano Moreno led the initial phase of the government , but he was removed shortly afterwards .
The Council of Regency , the Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires and the peninsulars opposed the new situation . The Royal Audiencia secretly swore allegiance to the Council of Regency a month later and sent communiqués to the other cities of the Viceroyalty , to request them to deny recognition to the new government . To put an end to these activities , the Junta assembled Cisneros and all the members of the Royal Audiencia on the pretext that their lives were in danger , and sent them into exile aboard the British ship Dart . Captain Mark Brigut Larrea was instructed to avoid American ports and deliver all of them directly to the Canary Islands . The Junta then appointed a new Audiencia composed entirely of criollos loyal to the revolution .
Every city in the territory of modern Argentina other than Córdoba endorsed the Primera Junta . The cities of the Upper Peru , however , did not take a position , owing to the recent outcomes of the Chuquisaca and La Paz Revolutions . Asunción del Paraguay rejected the Junta and swore loyalty to the Council of Regency . The Banda Oriental , under Francisco Javier de Elío , remained a royalist stronghold .
Former Viceroy Santiago de Liniers organized a counter @-@ revolution in Córdoba , and this became the first military campaign of the independent government . Despite the importance of Liniers himself , and his prestige as a popular hero for his role when the British invaded , the population of Córdoba preferred to support the revolution . This reduced the power of the counter @-@ revolutionary army by means of desertions and sabotage . Liniers 's troops were quickly defeated by the forces led by Francisco Ortiz de Ocampo . Ocampo refused to shoot the captive Liniers ; hence the execution ordered by the Junta was carried out by Juan José Castelli . After the victory , the Primera Junta sent military expeditions to many other cities , to demand support and the election of representatives to it .
Montevideo , which had a historical rivalry with Buenos Aires , opposed the Primera Junta and the Council of Regency declared it the new capital of the Viceroyalty , along with Francisco Javier de Elío as the new Viceroy . The city was well defended , so it could easily resist an invasion . Peripheral cities in the Banda Oriental acted contrary to Montevideo 's will and supported the Buenos Aires Junta . José Gervasio Artigas led them , and kept Montevideo under siege . The final defeat of the Montevidean royalists was carried out by Carlos María de Alvear and William Brown .
The Captaincy General of Chile followed a process analogous to that of the May Revolution , and elected a Government Junta that inaugurated the brief period known as Patria Vieja . The Junta was defeated in 1814 at the Battle of Rancagua , and the subsequent Reconquista of Chile would make it a royalist stronghold once more . The Andes provided an effective natural barrier between the Argentine revolutionaries and Chile , so there was no military confrontation between them until the Crossing of the Andes , led by José de San Martín in 1817 , a campaign that resulted in the defeat of the Chilean royalists .
The Primera Junta increased in size when it incorporated the representatives sent by the provinces . From then on , the Junta was renamed the Junta Grande . It was dissolved shortly after the June 1811 defeat of the Argentine troops at the Battle of Huaqui , and two successive triumvirates exercised executive power over the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata . In 1814 , the second triumvirate was replaced by the authority of the Supreme Director . Meanwhile , Martín Miguel de Güemes contained the royalist armies sent from the Viceroyalty of Peru at Salta , while San Martín advanced towards the royalist stronghold of Lima by sea , on a Chilean – Argentine campaign . The war for independence gradually shifted towards northern South America . From 1814 , Argentina descended into civil war .
= = = Consequences = = =
According to historian Félix Luna 's Breve historia de los Argentinos ( Spanish : Brief history of the Argentines ) , one of the most important societal consequences of the May Revolution was the shift in the way the people and its rulers related . Until then , the conception of the common good prevailed : while royal authority was fully respected , if an instruction from the crown of Spain was considered detrimental to the common good of the local population , it was half @-@ met or simply ignored . With the revolution , the concept of common good gave way to that of popular sovereignty , as theorized by Moreno , Castelli and Monteagudo , among others . This idea held that , in the absence of a legitimate authority , the people had the right to appoint their own leaders . Over time , popular sovereignty would give way to the idea of majority rule . This maturation of ideas was gradual , taking many decades to crystallize into stable electoral and political systems , but it was what ultimately led to the adoption of the republican system as the form of government for Argentina . Domingo Faustino Sarmiento stated similar views in his Facundo , and noted that cities were more receptive to republican ideas , while rural areas were more resistant to them , which led to the surge of caudillos .
Another consequence , also according to Luna , was the dissolution of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata into several different units . Most of the cities and provinces had distinctive populations , economies , attitudes , contexts , and interests . Until the revolution , all of these peoples were held together by the authority of the Spanish government , but with its disappearance , people from Montevideo , Paraguay and the Upper Peru began to distance themselves from Buenos Aires . The brief existence of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata , which had lasted barely 38 years , impeded the consolidation of a patriotic feeling and failed to bring a sense of community to all of the population . The new country of Argentina lacked an established concept of national identity capable to unite the population under a common idea of statehood . Juan Bautista Alberdi sees the May Revolution as one of the early manifestations of the power struggles between the city of Buenos Aires and the provinces — one of the axial conflicts at play in the Argentine civil wars . Alberdi wrote in his book " Escritos póstumos " :
The revolution of May 1810 in Buenos Aires , intended to win the independence of Argentina from Spain , also had the consequence of emancipating the province of Buenos Aires from Argentina or , rather , of imposing the authority of this province upon the whole nation emancipated from Spain . That day , Spanish power over the Argentine provinces ended and that of Buenos Aires was established .
= = Historical perspectives = =
Historiographical studies of the May Revolution do not face many doubts or unknown details . Most of the information was properly recorded at the time and was made available to the public by the Primera Junta as patriotic propaganda . Because of this , historical views on the topic differ in their interpretations of the meanings , causes and consequences of the events , rather than in the accuracy of their depiction of the events themselves . The modern version of events does not differ significantly from the contemporary one .
The first people to write about the May Revolution were participants who wrote memoirs , biographies and diaries . However , their works were motivated by purposes other than historiographic ones , such as to explain the reasons for their actions , clean their public images , or express their support or rejection of the public figures and ideas of the time . For example , Manuel Moreno wrote the biography of his brother Mariano as propaganda for the revolutions in Europe , and Cornelio Saavedra wrote his autobiography at a moment when his image was highly questioned , to justify himself to his sons .
The first remarkable historiographical school of interpretation of the history of Argentina was founded by members of the 1837 generation , including Bartolomé Mitre . Mitre regarded the May Revolution as an iconic expression of political egalitarianism : a conflict between modern freedoms and oppression represented by the Spanish monarchy , and an attempt to establish a national organization on constitutional principles as opposed to the charismatic authority of the caudillos . These authors ' views were treated as canonical until the end of the 19th century , when the proximity of the centennial encouraged authors to seek new perspectives . The newer authors would differ about the relative weight of the causes of the May Revolution and about whose intervention in the events was more decisive , but the main views expressed by Mitre were kept , such as to consider the revolution to be the birth of modern Argentina and an unavoidable event . These authors introduced the idea of popular intervention as another key element . By the time of the World Wars , liberal authors attempted to impose an ultimate and unquestionable historical perspective ; Ricardo Levene and the Academia Nacional de la Historia were exponents of this tendency , which still kept most perspectives of Mitre . Left @-@ wing authors took a revisionist view based on nationalism and anti @-@ imperialism ; they minimized the dispute between criollos and peninsulars and portrayed events as a dispute between enlightenment and absolutism . However , most of their work was focused on other historical periods .
The May Revolution was not the product of the actions of a single political party with a clear and defined agenda , but a convergence of sectors with varying interests . Thus , there are a number of conflicting perspectives about it , because different authors highlight different aspects . Mitre , for example , referred to The Representation of the Landowners ( an 1809 economic report by Mariano Moreno ) and the role of the merchants to support the view that the May Revolution intended to obtain free trade and economic integration with Europe ; right @-@ wing revisionists center around Saavedra and the social customs of the time to describe the revolution under conservative principles ; and left @-@ wing revisionists use the example of Moreno , Castelli and the rioters led by French and Beruti to describe it as a radical revolution .
= = = Revolutionary purposes = = =
The government created on May 25 pronounced itself loyal to the deposed King of Spain Ferdinand VII , but historians disagree on whether this was sincere or not . Since Mitre , many historians think that this professed loyalty was merely a political deception to gain autonomy . The Primera Junta did not pledge allegiance to the Council of Regency , which was still in operation , and in 1810 it still seemed unlikely that Napoleon would be defeated and Ferdinand returned to the throne ( which finally happened on December 11 , 1813 , with the Treaty of Valençay ) . The purpose of such a deception would have been to gain time to strengthen the position of the patriotic cause and avoid reactions that may have led to a counter @-@ revolution , by making it appear that monarchical authority was still respected and that no revolution had taken place . The ruse is known as the " Mask of Ferdinand VII " . It was upheld by the Primera Junta , the Junta Grande and the First Triumvirate . The Assembly of Year XIII was intended to declare independence , but failed to do so because of other political conflicts between its members . However , it suppressed mention of Ferdinand VII in official documents . Before the declaration of independence of 1816 , the supreme directors considered other options , such as to negotiate with Spain or become a British protectorate .
The change was potentially favorable for Britain , as trade with the cities of the area was facilitated , without the monopoly that Spain had maintained over their colonies for centuries . However , Britain 's first priority was the war against France in Europe , and they could not appear to support American independence movements or allow the military attention of Spain to be divided onto two different fronts . Consequently , they pushed to avoid explicit independence demonstrations . This pressure was exerted by Lord Strangford , the British ambassador at the court of Rio de Janeiro ; he expressed support for the Junta , but under the condition that " ... the behavior is consistent , and that [ the ] Capital [ is ] retained on behalf of Mr. Dn . Ferdinand VII and his legitimate successors " . Later conflicts between Buenos Aires , Montevideo and Artigas led to internal conflicts on the British front , between Strangford and the Portuguese regent John VI of Portugal .
Juan Bautista Alberdi and later historians such as Norberto Galasso , Luis Romero and José Carlos Chiaramonte doubted Mitre 's interpretation and put forward different ones . Alberdi thought that " the Argentine revolution is a chapter of the Hispanoamerican revolution , as also of the Spanish one , as also of the French and European one " . They did not consider it a dispute between independentism and colonialism , but instead a dispute between new libertarian ideas and absolutism . The intention was not to cut ties with Spain , but to reformulate the relationship ; similarly , the American Revolution was not separatist at its initial steps either . Thus , it would have the characteristics of a civil war instead . Some points that would justify the idea would be the inclusion of Larrea , Matheu , and Belgrano in the Junta and the later appearance of José de San Martín : Larrea and Matheu were Spanish , Belgrano studied for many years in Spain , and San Martín had spent most of his adult life waging war in Spain against the French . When San Martín talked about enemies , he called them " royalists " or " Goths " , but never " Spanish " .
According to those historians , the Spanish revolution against absolutism got mixed up with the Peninsular War . When Ferdinand VII stood against his father Charles IV , who was seen as an absolutist king , many Spaniards got the mistaken impression that he sympathized with the new enlightened ideas . Thus , the revolutions made in the Americas in the name of Ferdinand VII ( such as the May Revolution , the Chuquisaca Revolution , or the one in Chile ) would have sought to replace absolutist power with power formulated under the new ideas . Even if Spain was at war with France , the ideals of the French Revolution ( liberty , equality and fraternity ) were still respected . Those revolutions pronounced themselves enemies of Napoleon , but did not face any active French military attack ; they promoted instead fights between Spanish armies for keeping either the old or new order . This situation would change with the final defeat of Napoleon and the return of Ferdinand VII to the throne , as he began the Absolutist Restoration and persecuted the supporters of the new libertarian ideas within Spain . For people in South America , to stay as a part of the Spanish Empire , but with a new relationship with the mother country , was no longer a feasible option : the only remaining options at this point were to return to absolutism or to adopt independentism .
= = Legacy = =
May 25 is a national day in Argentina , known as First Patriotic Government , with the character of a public holiday . The public holiday is set by law 21 @.@ 329 and is always celebrated on May 25 , regardless of the day of the week . The Argentina Centennial and the Argentina Bicentennial were celebrated in 1910 and 2010 .
May 25 was designated as a patriotic date in 1813 , but the Argentine Declaration of Independence suggests July 9 as an alternative national day . At first this added to the conflicts between Buenos Aires and the provinces during the Argentine Civil War , because the date in May related to Buenos Aires and the date of July 9 related to the whole country . Thus the unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia canceled the celebration of July 9 , and the federalist Juan Manuel de Rosas allowed it again , but maintained the May celebrations . By 1880 , the federalization of Buenos Aires removed the local connotations and the May Revolution was considered the birth of the nation .
The date , as well as a generic image of the Buenos Aires Cabildo , are used in different variants to honor the May Revolution . Two of the most notable are the Avenida de Mayo and the Plaza de Mayo in Buenos Aires , near the location of the Cabildo . The May Pyramid was erected in the Plaza a year after the revolution , and was rebuilt in its present form in 1856 . Veinticinco de Mayo ( " May 25 " ) is the name of several administrative divisions , cities , public spaces and landforms of Argentina . There are departments of this name in the provinces of Chaco , Misiones , San Juan , Rio Negro and Buenos Aires , the latter holding the town of Veinticinco de Mayo . The cities of Rosario ( Santa Fe ) , Junín ( Buenos Aires ) and Resistencia ( Chaco ) have eponymous squares . King George Island , which is claimed by Argentina , Britain and Chile , as part of the Argentine Antarctica , the British Antarctic Territory and the Chilean Antarctic Territory respectively , is referred to as Isla 25 de Mayo in Argentina .
A representation of a cabildo is used on Argentine 25 @-@ cent coins , and an image of the Sun of May appears on the 5 @-@ cent coin . An image of the Cabildo during the Revolution appeared on the back of the 5 @-@ peso banknote of the former peso moneda nacional .
= Cortinarius vanduzerensis =
Cortinarius vanduzerensis is a species of mushroom in the family Cortinariaceae . Described as new to science in 1972 , it is known only from the Pacific Northwest region of North America , where it grows under conifers such as spruce , hemlock , and Douglas @-@ fir . The fruit bodies of the fungus , or mushrooms , have a slimy dark chestnut @-@ brown cap that becomes deeply radially grooved or corrugated in maturity , and reaches diameters of up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . The gills on the underside of the cap are initially pinkish @-@ buff before becoming pale brown when the spores mature . The stem is lavender , measuring 10 – 18 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long and 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The mushroom produces a rusty @-@ brown spore print , with individual spores measuring 12 – 14 by 7 – 8 micrometers . The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined , and it has been described as " much too slippery to be of value " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was described in 1972 by mycologists Alexander H. Smith and James M. Trappe , based on specimens they found in Cascade Head in Tillamook County , Oregon , in October and November 1970 . The species had also been called Cortinarius elatior , but that name refers to a European species . Within the genus Cortinarius , C. vanduzerensis is classified in the subgenus Myxacium . This subgenus includes species in which both the cap and stem are sticky as a result of a glutinous universal veil . Based on the nucleic acid sequence similarity in the internal transcribed spacer region , C. vanduzerensis is closely related to the European and North American C. mucifluus and the Costa Rican species C. costaricensis .
A common name for the species is the " pointed Cortinarius " , while the specific epithet vanduzerensis refers to the H.B. van Duzer Forest where the species was originally collected .
= = Description = =
Young fruit bodies of C. vanduzerensis are covered with a slimy universal veil ; the slime layer persists on the cap of young mushrooms , or in moist weather . The shape of the cap is oval to conical with the margin initially appressed , expanding to broadly conic or somewhat flattened in maturity , eventually reaching diameters of 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) . The cap color is initially chestnut @-@ brown to black , but becomes paler brown as it matures . The surface is radially wrinkled or corrugated , especially near the margin . The flesh is pallid but soon pale cinnamon @-@ buff . The odor and taste are not distinctive . A drop of FeSO4 solution ( a reagent commonly used in mushroom identification ) applied to the surface of the cap will turn olive @-@ green .
The gills are pinkish @-@ buff when young ( in unopened caps ) , dull cinnamon @-@ brown at maturity when the spores mature . They are packed close together , and are adnate or adnexed . The stem is 10 – 18 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , narrowed slightly to the base . It is pallid within but slowly cinnamon buff at least near the base . The stem surface has a thick slime @-@ veil , and is lavender to light purple on the upper portion , but darker on the lower portion . Sometimes the universal veil breaks up into concentric zones over the lower third of the stem .
The edibility of the mushroom is not known . David Arora notes that it is " much too slippery to be of value " .
The spore print is a rusty @-@ brown color . In face view , the spores are broadly elliptic to ovate ( egg @-@ shaped ) , while in profile they appear broadly inequilateral ; they have dimensions of 12 – 14 by 7 – 8 μm . The spore surface is roughened with warts , and they lack an apical pore . The spores contain two nuclei . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are four @-@ spored , broadly club @-@ shaped , and have contents that are often in the form of yellow masses or granules when stained in Melzer 's reagent . The cheilocystida ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are club @-@ shaped , sometimes with an abruptly tapering point , and measure 17 – 26 by 9 – 15 μm . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) . The
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90s , computer @-@ generated imagery was becoming more commonly used . Singer visited the sets of Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace and Titanic to understand practical and digital effects . Filming had started without a special effects company hired . Digital Domain , Cinesite , Kleiser @-@ Walczak Construction Co . , Hammerhead Production , Matte World Digital , CORE and POP were all hired in December 1999 . Visual effects supervisor Mike Fink admitted to have been dissatisfied with his work on X @-@ Men in 2003 , despite nearly being nominated for an Academy Award .
Digital Domain 's technical director Sean C. Cunningham and lead compositor Claas Henke morphed Bruce Davison into a liquid figure for Kelly 's mutation scene . Cunningham said , " There were many digital layers : water without refraction , water with murkiness , skin with and without highlights , skin with goo in it . When rendered together , it took 39 hours per frame . " They considered showing Kelly 's internal organs during the transformation , " but that seemed too gruesome " , according to Cunningham .
= = Music = =
Singer approached John Williams to compose the film score , but Williams turned down the offer because of scheduling conflicts . Then Singer set on his usual composer , John Ottman . However , once Fox pushed X @-@ Men from December to July , Ottman 's commitment to direct Urban Legends : Final Cut made him unable to work with Singer . Michael Kamen was eventually hired . Given the film was only completed shortly before its premiere , Kamen wrote the score to the finished scenes , which were sent to him just as work was done on them . Singer asked him not to use any songs in the soundtrack as he " didn 't want to date the movie " . Due to Kamen 's unfamiliarity with the comics , he only tried to " represent Bryan Singer 's filmic tone that he 's made , for a comic book , a quite serious movie , which is about the capacity of humanity to categorize people by race , religion or type , and prejudice people against them based on their innate characteristics " . Character @-@ specific themes were written to " identify these characters , as you go through the film , because they 're not always clear . " For instance , Mystique 's motif , focused on the cello as Kamen found it " a very erotic @-@ sounding instrument " , played in the soundtrack as she was disguised as Wolverine . Due to time restrictions , the producers scrapped their original plan to record the score in London and did it in Los Angeles .
= = Release = =
X @-@ Men had its premiere at Ellis Island on July 12 , 2000 , two days before a wide opening in 3 @,@ 025 theaters in North America . It would also debut in Australia that weekend to take advantage of the school holidays , while most other territories would get the film in August . Marvel Studios was depending on X @-@ Men 's success to ignite other franchise properties ( Spider @-@ Man , Fantastic Four , Hulk , and Daredevil ) .
= = = Marketing = = =
On June 1 , 2000 , Marvel published a comic book prequel to X @-@ Men , entitled X @-@ Men : Beginnings , revealing the backstories of Magneto , Rogue and Wolverine . There was also a comic book adaptation based on the film . A console video game , X @-@ Men : Mutant Academy , was released on July 6 , 2000 to take advantage of the film 's release , featuring costumes and other materials from the film .
= = = Box office = = =
On its opening weekend in North America , X @-@ Men earned $ 54 @,@ 471 @,@ 475 in its opening weekend , a record for comic book films that far . The film eventually grossed $ 157 @,@ 299 @,@ 717 and made $ 139 @,@ 039 @,@ 810 in other countries , coming to a worldwide total of $ 296 @,@ 339 @,@ 527 . X @-@ Men was the ninth highest @-@ grossing film of 2000 . It is the lowest @-@ grossing film in the series . The success of X @-@ Men ( alongside Blade ) started a reemergence for the comic book and superhero film genre .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received positive reviews . Based on 166 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 81 % were positive . The site 's critical consensus reads : " Faithful to the comics and filled with action , X @-@ Men brings a crowded slate of classic Marvel characters to the screen with a talented ensemble cast and surprisingly sharp narrative focus . " Metacritic collected an average score of 64 / 100 from 33 reviews indicating generally favorable reviews .
Kenneth Turan found " so much is happening you feel the immediate need of a sequel just as a reward for absorbing it all . While X @-@ Men doesn 't take your breath away wire @-@ to @-@ wire the way The Matrix did , it 's an accomplished piece of work with considerable pulp watchability to it . " ReelReviews.net 's James Berardinelli , an X @-@ Men comic book fan , believed , " the film is effectively paced with a good balance of exposition , character development , and special effects @-@ enhanced action . Neither the plot nor the character relationships are difficult to follow , and the movie avoids the trap of spending too much time explaining things that don 't need to be explained . X @-@ Men fandom is likely to be divided over whether the picture is a success or a failure " . Desson Thomson of The Washington Post commented , " [ T ] he movie 's enjoyable on the surface , but I suspect many people , even die @-@ hards , will be less enthusiastic about what lies , or doesn 't , underneath " .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said he " started out liking this movie , while waiting for something really interesting to happen . When nothing did , I still didn 't dislike it ; I assume the X @-@ Men will further develop their personalities if there is a sequel , and maybe find time to get involved in a story . No doubt fans of the comics will understand subtle allusions and fine points of behavior ; they should linger in the lobby after each screening to answer questions . " He also gave it a " thumbs down " on Ebert & Roeper . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone noted , " Since it 's Wolverine 's movie , any X @-@ Men or Women who don 't hinge directly on his story get short shrift . As Storm , Halle Berry can do neat tricks with weather , but her role is gone with the wind . It sucks that Stewart and McKellen , two superb actors , are underused . "
= = = Awards = = =
The film was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , but lost to Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon . X @-@ Men was successful at the Saturn Awards . It won categories for Best Science Fiction Film , direction ( Singer ) , writing ( David Hayter ) , costume design , Best Actor ( Hugh Jackman ) and Supporting Actress ( Rebecca Romijn ) . Nominations included Performance by a Younger Actor ( Anna Paquin ) , Supporting Actor ( Patrick Stewart ) , Special Effects and Make @-@ up . Empire readers voted Singer Best Director .
= = = Home media = = =
X @-@ Men was originally released on VHS and DVD in November 2000 , to take advantage of Thanksgiving in the United States . In its initial home video weekend , the film earned $ 60 million in rentals and direct sales , making it earn more than all films in theaters outside from leader How the Grinch Stole Christmas . X @-@ Men finished 2000 as the seventh highest @-@ grossing home release of the year with $ 141 million , with 78 % being earned through sales . A new two @-@ disc DVD version was issued in 2003 in anticipation to the theatrical release of sequel X2 , titled X @-@ Men 1 @.@ 5 . The DVD includes the theatrical version of the film along with the option to add deleted scenes , and several new additional features .
X @-@ Men was released on Blu @-@ ray in April 2009 , with bonus features reproduced from the X @-@ Men 1 @.@ 5 DVD release . Unlike the US edition , the UK release of the Blu @-@ ray includes a picture @-@ in @-@ picture mode called " BonusView " , and an in @-@ feature photo gallery .
= = = Sequel = = =
After the film 's critical and financial success , a series of films followed starting with , X2 in 2003 .
= Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII =
Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII ( Japanese : ビフォア クライシス -ファイナルファンタジーVII- , Hepburn : Bifoa Kuraishisu -Fainaru Fantajī Sebun- ) is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by Square Enix and originally released for the FOMA mobile service on September 24 , 2004 . It was later released for SoftBank Mobile and EZweb in 2007 . Before Crisis is a prequel to the 1997 video game Final Fantasy VII and forms part of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , a metaseries expanding on and continuing the story established in Final Fantasy VII . It takes place six years prior to the events of Final Fantasy VII and focuses on the adventures of the Turks , a group of covert operatives working for the Shinra Electric Power Company , and their fights against both rebel group AVALANCHE and their corrupt employers .
As the first major Final Fantasy game for mobile devices , Before Crisis was designed as a gameplay and multiplayer experience unique to the platform . It is the first major project directed by Hajime Tabata , who created the initial concept at the request of Tetsuya Nomura for a game that had the Turks as protagonists . The music was composed by Takeharu Ishimoto , originally a sound arranger at Square Enix . It was highly successful upon release , registering 200 @,@ 000 users and being accessed over one million times . Western critics have generally praised the title , but due to issues involving the capacity of mobile devices in the west , it has not been released outside Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
Before Crisis is a real @-@ time action role @-@ playing game featuring 2D graphics as the player moves along in a side @-@ scrolling manner . The player begins the game by selecting their character , which can be a man or a woman , along with their name . Gameplay is divided up between several modes of play . " Episode Mode " involves the player playing through the game 's main storyline , completing various objectives in order to continue on in the game . " Free Mode " allows players to roam towns and speak with the population . Players can also play extra missions to gain Experience points and items , some of which are exclusive to " Free Mode " . Characters have hit points and magic points , and can level up upon acquisition of experience , at which point they can equip new weapons and armor . Players can choose to manually attack an enemy during combat or press the action key to automatically attack the nearest enemy .
The " Materia Generation System " allows players to acquire Materia , objects tied to the game 's magic system , by taking a picture with their camera phone . The game synthesizes the picture down to its base color . Depending upon the dominant color , lighting , and other factors , the game produces a Materia of a certain type . For example , a dark green picture results in a Bio Materia , while a blue picture results in a Cure Materia . Once acquired , Materia can be leveled up as in Final Fantasy VII . Under certain circumstances , assistance in the form of summoned monsters , recurring figures in the Final Fantasy series , can be called in via the Materia system to deal damage to multiple enemies . Rank Points are awarded during the completion of objectives in all three modes of play . After a certain amount of Rank Points have been acquired , special bonuses are unlocked , such as stronger armor and weapons , and extra Materia slots . The player is also given a rank , based upon how long they have been playing the game . The higher their rank , the better the bonuses the player gets .
The game uses an ad @-@ hoc online multiplayer feature that enables various actions between players , including trading Materia via email . Players can summon a friend to cast magic by filling the " Materia aid " meter . Up to three players can team up at any one time . " Rescue Mode " is activated if the player is defeated during " Episode Mode " , at which point they have the option to restart and lose points , or allow themselves to be imprisoned and wait for other players to rescue them . The player can be rescued while their phone is powered down .
Additions were made after the initial release . In 2006 , a fighting arena dubbed " Battle Square " was added . In the " Battle Square " , players can either fight other players or AI @-@ controlled enemy units . Victory is determined by which side defeated the other and damage taken during combat . In " Battle Tournament " mode , players can choose to use a handicap : the handicap is determined randomly by a materia slot . Two extra difficulty settings were also added , with players able to switch between these and the normal difficulty in the game menu . " Easy Mode " was released in 2006 and allows the player to auto @-@ evade incoming attacks and reduce damage taken , while " Hard Mode " , released in 2007 and meant for advanced users , increases the damage dealt by enemy attacks .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Before Crisis is set six years prior to the events of Final Fantasy VII . The world on which Before Crisis is set , called " the Planet " in @-@ game and " Gaia " by game staff , is divided into multiple regions run by a megacorporation called the Shinra Electric Power Company . Shinra uses the energy of the Planet , known as the Lifestream , to power the world , and as such is endangering the Planet and its people . The events of Before Crisis frequently overlap with those of Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII . The exact setting is shortly after the end of a war between Shinra and the people of Wutai . With Wutai defeated , and the people of the world now dependent on Shinra 's energy , the company becomes the dominant economic , military and political power in the world . Rising against them is AVALANCHE , a rebel group who rightly believe that Shinra 's energy extraction is slowly killing the planet .
The playable characters and main protagonists are the Turks , a group of covert operatives working for Shinra . The playable characters in @-@ game are eleven new Turks : ten of them are designated by their weapon or fighting style and their gender , while the eleventh is known as Legend ( Male ) . Their true name can be selected by the player . One of the characters , Shuriken ( Female ) , later turns up in Crisis Core under the name " Cissnei " . The Turks are led by Veld , a veteran of the group , and later Tseng , a character who plays an important role in other VII stories . Their primary antagonists all belong to AVALANCHE . The three important AVALANCHE characters are Elfé , the leader of AVALANCHE and Veld 's daughter ; Fuhito , a scientist who acts as the planner for the group ; and Shears , AVALANCHE 's second @-@ in @-@ command . Multiple characters from VII make appearances either as cameos or supporting characters , such as protagonists Cloud Strife , Tifa Lockhart , Aerith Gainsborough , and Zack Fair ; and originals antagonists Rufus Shinra , son of the company president ; and Sephiroth , a SOLDIER who would go rogue .
= = = Plot = = =
Before Crisis opens with the trainee Turks on a mission in the city of Midgar to investigate AVALANCHE activities . With help from Reno , AVALANCHE retreat . However , the attack proves to be a diversion for a greater strike at the town of Junon , where President Shinra is set to give a speech . President Shinra is shot , but survives , and calls in Sephiroth . However , it transpires that even the attack on the President was a diversion , and AVALANCHE 's real target was a weapon called the Mako Cannon , which they planned to fire at Midgar , destroying the city . Elfé and Sephiroth do battle at the cannon , but the fight ends inconclusively , and AVALANCHE withdraw . AVALANCHE next target Rayleigh a professor carrying data on the SOLDIER members and their creation . The Turks are sent to protect Rayleigh , accompanied by several Shinra guards , including Cloud . Fuhito , a scientist working for AVALANCHE , is able to corrupt Rayleigh 's data when the Turks disobey orders and save Rayleigh instead of protecting the information . Using the SOLDIER data , Fuhito develops an elite unit known as the Ravens , using them to capture two SOLDIERs , Essai and Sebastian . The Turks succeed in rescuing the pair , and are then sent to destroy AVALANCHE , accompanied by Zack . Essai and Sebastian , however , are captured once again , and turned into Ravens . Even though Zack is able to bring them back to their senses , he is unable to save them .
Meanwhile , President Shinra becomes suspicious of the Turks activities , believing that someone within the organization is leaking sensitive information . He concludes that it must be Veld , and removes him from command , instead placing the company 's security leader Heidegger in charge . In his first operation however , Heidegger nearly destroys Junon , and the President reinstates Veld . In his first mission back in command , Veld plans to defeat AVALANCHE . An assault is launched at a Mako Reactor , during which Rufus Shinra is revealed to be the traitor supporting AVALANCHE . He is captured by the Turks and placed under house arrest . At the same time , Shears defects to the Turks in an effort to save the gravely ill Elfé . Veld discovers that Elfé is his daughter Felicia , whom he thought dead in a botched Shinra operation , and resigns from the Turks . With Elfé continuing to weaken , Fuhito takes over the command of AVALANCHE . It is revealed that a Materia owned by Elfé is Zirconiade , an ancient and powerful summoned monster that Fuhito intends to use to destroy humanity and stop them harming the planet . However , the Materia is broken , and is slowly draining Elfé 's life energy . To save her , the four Support Materia must be found . Fuhito holds one , and the Turks and Shears hold another .
Meanwhile , not wanting Rufus ' betrayal become known , the President orders the Turks ' destruction . Despite this imminent threat , the Turks manage to find two more Support Materia . Under Fuhito 's control , the remainder of AVALANCHE is turned into a vicious army of uncontrollable Ravens , and he manages to steal all the materia needed . In the final battle , Fuhito summons Zirconiade , fusing the summon with his own body , and Shears sacrifices himself to save Elfé . Fuhito transforms into a monster , but he is defeated by the Turks . After the battle , Tseng falsely claims that both Veld and Elfé are dead , so as to protect them from being hunted by Shinra . The Turks are then reorganized , with Tseng reinstated as their immediate leader , but they are now sworn to loyalty to Shinra as part of the bargain for their survival . The original Turks find new lives for themselves in hiding , and are later seen helping in the evacuation of Midgar during the events of VII .
= = Development = =
Before Crisis was created as part of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , a multimedia series based in and on the world and characters of VII . While the film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children was originally to be the only product of the Compilation , the production team agreed that one title was not enough to explore the world of Final Fantasy VII in full , so more titles were decided upon , including Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII and Crisis Core . Before Crisis was originally conceived by Tetsuya Nomura , one of the creative minds behind Final Fantasy VII and the Compilation . His initial idea was simply for a mobile action role @-@ playing game using the mobile network . During pre @-@ production , it was decided to set it within the world of Final Fantasy VII . Hajime Tabata joined at this point . He approached Tabata , who had only recently joined the company 's mobile games division , and asked if the division could create a mobile game focused on the Turks . Nomura would end of designing the game 's characters . Production began in 2002 . It was worked on by a core team of 18 people . Staff from the original game took supervisory roles . The game 's title was thought up by Tabata , and would go on to establish a system of letter @-@ based abbreviations used by staff for titles in the Compilation . To help solidify their goal , the staff created a timeline for the world of Final Fantasy VII . Since there was little definite information concerning events prior to Final Fantasy VII , they had a relative amount of creative freedom , including creating an early , more violent incarnation of rebel group AVALANCHE . Although Before Crisis is the second title created for the series , it was the first to be released because Advent Children was delayed during post @-@ production .
Before Crisis was the first original video game developed by Square Enix exclusively for mobile phones , originally released on NTT DoCoMo 's FOMA mobile devices , and the first action role @-@ playing game exclusive to the platform . The company 's first major mobile title , also in collaboration with NTT DoCoMo , was a remake of the original Final Fantasy . Using lessons learned from the development of the Final Fantasy port , the team worked hard to make Before Crisis a uniquely mobile experience , with gameplay features built to exploit mobile functions such as the camera and network capacity . The camera function used to generate Materia was based on a simple image recognition that specifies the Materia generated based on the picture 's general color . One of the challenges during development was to keep the framerate smooth during moments of high action , especially as no two mobiles would have identical components . In addition to these problems were issues with integrating the multiplayer functions , balancing the gameplay for different playstyles , creating a comfortable button layout , and adjusting the amount of content they could include for mobiles while maintaining the desired product quality .
To promote the game , Madhouse created a promotional animation featuring some of the main characters . The original version 's beta test started in August 2004 . It was released on September 24 . Following an announcement at the Tokyo Game Show in 2006 , the game was released for two additional Japanese mobile carriers . It was respectively released for SoftBank Mobile and EZweb on January 30 and April 5 , 2007 . New logos were created for each release . In 2010 , Tabata voiced an interest in fully remaking Before Crisis for the Nintendo 3DS , revamping the narrative delivery and incorporating the ability for a substantial number of players to enter missions . This suggestion was positively received by Nomura and Yoshinori Kitase , but at the time Tabata was busy developing Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 ( then Agito XIII ) and The 3rd Birthday . Deployment for the SoftBank version ended in June 2015 .
= = = Music = = =
The composer for Before Crisis was Takeharu Ishimoto , who would go on to compose music for Crisis Core . Originally joining the company as a music arranger , he was one of many staff who participated in a competition set up by the game developers to find a composer for Before Crisis . His task was to create a piece of music that was related to the world of Final Fantasy VII , but still distinctive . It was one of Ishimoto 's first jobs as the main composer for a title . The music of Before Crisis was commercially released along with the music from the original video animation Last Order : Final Fantasy VII in an album titled Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII & Last Order : Final Fantasy VII Original Soundtrack . The majority of the tracks of the album were composed by Ishimoto , apart from a few reorchestrated themes from VII , the music of which was written by regular Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu .
= = = Localization = = =
The game 's release in the west was announced at the 2006 Electronic Entertainment Expo , two years after its release in Japan . At the announcement , the localization was said to be " coming along nicely . " The stated reason for the delay between the original and projected western release was that mobile phones in the west were not yet advanced enough for the game . One of the things planned for the western release was to bring the entire experience over as quickly as possible , with plans for one to three chapters released each month , and fine @-@ tuning to be done using the planned two @-@ year gap between the original and western releases . It formed part of a push by the company into the western mobile game market . Despite these announcements , no further progress has been made and Before Crisis was never released in the west . The official reason for this , as stated by head of mobile operations Keiji Fujita , was that mobile phones in the west were too low @-@ spec for Before Crisis , which could only run on high @-@ end phones in Japan , making a port impossible . Another possible reason suggested by Fujita was Ito 's move from Square Enix to Capcom in 2008 , leaving no @-@ one to manage any future localization and porting efforts .
= = Reception = =
Japanese website ITmedia reviewed the beta version in September 2004 . The reviewer enjoyed the experience overall and found communication with other players easy , but found a few faults with the game that they hoped would be resolved later , and generally found the female characters less effective in battle . During its first day of operation , the game registered 200 @,@ 000 users , making it the best @-@ selling mobile game up until that time , and was accessed 1 @.@ 6 million times . According to Ito , by 2006 , the game was still highly popular in Japan .
Previews and features concerning the game have generally been positive . AnimeFringe commented that the visuals seemed " remarkable good " and praised the game for choosing to " reverse the good and bad guy roles , " by making the Turks protagonists , and AVALANCHE antagonists . Cara Lee Haslam of RPGamer previewed the game at E3 2006 and stated that the " graphics are really great , especially for a cell phone game , " although she also noted that the animation " isn 't the best . " GameSpot 's Bethany Massimilla also previewed the game at E3 , calling it " perfectly digestible in delivery , " with its use of episodic storytelling that comes in " small bursts in between action periods . " She also stated that the game had " well @-@ defined and detailed character portraits and lean , lanky character models running around the city and mako reactor , which had a simple layout but still looked nice . " Massimilla praised the smooth animations , and felt that " the controls were easy to learn and were responsive . " Additionally , she thought the demo phone 's vibrating function , set off when the player receives a call from Tseng , was a subtle detail . Levi Buchanan of IGN was generally positive , praising the dark art style , and finding the short mission @-@ based structure ideal for mobile gameplay . 1UP.com listed the game as one of five classic Japanese mobile games unlikely to come to North America .
Outside its immediate reception , Before Crisis had an effect on other projects within the Final Fantasy series . After the positive reception of Madhouse 's animated commercial , they were chosen by Square Enix to animate Last Order . The high popularity of Before Crisis in Japan led indirectly to the creation of Type @-@ 0 , part of the Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy subseries and then a title for mobiles .
= Typhoon Judy ( 1982 ) =
Typhoon Judy , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Susang , was the third tropical cyclone to affect Japan during the 1982 Pacific typhoon season . Forming east of the Philippines in tandem with another system on September 4 , the disturbance continued to intensify , and was upgraded into a tropical storm early on September 6 and a typhoon on September 8 while tracking northwestward . On September 9 , Judy attained its peak intensity , with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . Thereafter , increased wind shear took a toll on the typhoon , as it turned northward on September 11 in the general direction of Japan under the influence of a mid @-@ latitude cyclone . Judy passed over southeastern Japan on September 12 ; by this time , the typhoon had weakened considerably . Judy became an extratropical cyclone almost immediately thereafter .
Across Japan , a total of 26 people were killed , eight others were rendered as missing , and 86 were injured . A total of 61 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . Three boats sank and highways were cut in 956 locations . It is estimated that 1 @,@ 100 landslides occurred during the passage of the cyclone . Downtown Tokyo sustained the worst of the damage , where 8 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . Approximately 200 @,@ 000 travelers were stuck after 25 train lines were flooded , including 17 @,@ 000 individuals who were stranded on 40 stalled trains .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Judy can be traced back from a highly active monsoon trough along the low @-@ latitudes of the Western Pacific basin in the first week of September . Two tropical disturbances soon developed , the first of which later spawned Typhoon Irving . By September 4 , the systems developed a surface circulation . Later that day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) on the second system . This system rapidly became better organized , and on September 5 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) starting watching the second system . Following an increase in organized thunderstorm activity near the center , the JTWC started issuing warnings on Tropical Depression 19 at 1600 UTC that day . At 2200 UTC on September 6 , Hurricane Hunters reported winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) and a pressure of 994 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . Based on this , both the JTWC and the JMA upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Judy early the next day .
Tropical Storm Judy was initially expected by the JTWC to move west @-@ northwest because a subtropical ridge was expected to build north of the system . However , the ridge did not build , which enabled Judy to track northeastward under the influence of a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) located to north of the cyclone . Meanwhile , the storm held its intensity of about 36 hours , but on September 7 , the JMA upgraded the low into a severe tropical storm . Due to the lack of wind shear , Judy continued to intensify . Meanwhile , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also briefly monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Sausang . At 0600 UTC on September 8 , the JMA upgraded the system to typhoon status . The storm intensified slightly thereafter , and early the next day , the JMA estimated that Judy attained peak intensity of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) and a pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) . Later on September 9 , the JTWC reported that Judy reached peak intensity of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , equivalent to a mid @-@ level Category 2 hurricane on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale .
Shortly after its peak , cool air began to take a toll on the system as it ingested the remnants of the TUTT . By late on September 9 , virtually all deep convection associated with Judy was removed from the center . Based on this , the JMA lowered the intensity of the system to 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Moving slower than expected due the strong northwesterly flow over the Sea of Japan , the system became better organized due to a brief decrease in wind shear . However , Typhoon Judy failed to intensify further . On September 11 , Judy began to accelerate in the general direction of Japan as interaction with the TUTT ceased . The next day , wind shear once again increased significantly ; consequently , thunderstorm activity decreased along the southwest portion of Judy . Despite this , no change in intensity occurred . At 0800 UTC on September 12 , Judy moved onshore at Omezaki Point on Honshu , despite still producing hurricane @-@ force winds . Four hours later , however , the JMA demoted Judy to a severe tropical storm . Midday on September 12 , the JTWC downgraded Judy to a tropical storm . Several hours later , the agency noted that Judy had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , with the JMA following suit the next day . On September 15 , the JMA ceased monitoring the system .
= = Impact = =
Upon making landfall in Japan , 730 mm ( 29 in ) of rain fell in Oshima , including 713 mm ( 28 @.@ 1 in ) of precipitation within 24 hours . Additionally , Kikugawamakinohara sustained a peak total of 91 mm ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) in an hour . Furthermore , a wind gust of 115 km / h ( 71 mph ) was measured in Tsukubasan . A total of 34 people were killed and 86 were hurt . A total of 61 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . Three boats sank . Downtown Tokyo sustained the worst of the damage . Nearby , the Kanda River overflowed their banks , flooding 8 @,@ 000 dwellings , including 2 @,@ 000 in the Shinjuku entertainment district . Throughout Tokyo , 590 @,@ 100 homes lost power ; however , power service was quickly restored to all but 20 @,@ 000 . In Shizuoka and Kanagawa , eight people perished because of mudslides . Offshore , one person died due to 3 to 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) waves . One person died and three others were lost when a boat with 10 anglers was capsized due to rough seas off the coast of Kobe . Throughout Tokyo , 12 people perished and three were reportedly missing . Elsewhere , in Iiyama , a river overflowed their banks , flooding 631 residencies . Approximately 300 km ( 185 mi ) north of Tokyo , in Sendai , a three @-@ story apart complex was turned upside @-@ down . All the residents living in the complex were rescued .
About 50 @,@ 000 police men and soldiers were mobilized to help with rescue work . A total of 105 homes were destroyed . In addition , 1 @,@ 100 landslides were reported while river banks broke in 20 places . According to officials , highways were cut in 956 spots and bridges were damaged in 43 locations . Around 200 @,@ 000 passengers were stranded after railroad lines near Tokyo were inundated in 25 places . Moreover , around 17 @,@ 000 persons on 40 stalled trains were stranded for the night . Air travel in Tokyo and Handa were halted due to strong winds .
Typhoon Judy was the second storm to affect Japan within a month , as well as the third to system affect the nation during the 1982 Pacific typhoon season . From all three systems combined , the death toll exceeded 100 . A few weeks later , Typhoon Ken became the fourth storm of the year to rake the islands of Japan .
= Crossair Flight 498 =
Crossair Flight 498 was a commuter flight from Zurich , Switzerland , to Dresden , Germany , that crashed two minutes after takeoff in the Swiss municipality of Niederhasli on 10 January 2000 . The seven passengers and three crew members aboard the two @-@ turboprop engine Saab 340B aircraft all died on impact . It was the first fatal crash for the Swiss regional airline Crossair in its 25 @-@ year history .
The official report into the disaster found that the crash was due to a loss of control resulting from multiple human failures .
= = Background = =
The 33 @-@ seat Saab 340B airplane used for Crossair Flight LX498 had been leased to Crossair from Moldavian Airlines since 1 October 1999 . The plane was scheduled to depart from Zurich Airport on Monday , 10 January 2000 , at around 6 : 00 p.m. and arrive at Dresden Airport a few hours later . The cold , drizzly weather was normal for the area , there were no indications that anything was wrong with the aircraft , and , although this particular aircraft had 24 @,@ 000 flying hours since its November 1990 delivery , this type of airplane had a very good safety record . Captain Pavel Gruzin , 41 , had 8 @,@ 100 hours of flying time , with 1 @,@ 900 in the Saab 340 type . Co @-@ pilot Rastislav Kolesar , 35 , had about 1 @,@ 800 total hours , with 1 @,@ 100 hours in the Saab 340 type . The plane was carrying no unusual payload such as freight or mail and the plane was not due for its next regular maintenance check for another 21 days , on 31 January 2000 .
= = Event = =
After the seven passengers and three crew members boarded , the plane was cleared for takeoff on time at 5 : 54 p.m. ( 16 : 54 UTC ) . The aircraft departed Runway 28 heading west . From takeoff , the plane climbed normally . But after 7 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 5 mi ) the plane suddenly started to lose altitude and turn to the right instead of following the approved flight path to the left . When air traffic controllers asked the pilot if he meant to turn right , they were answered with " Stand by , " followed by a loss of radio contact .
At 5 : 56 p.m. ( 16 : 56 UTC ) , one minute and 56 seconds into the flight , the plane disappeared from radar screens . Officials later determined that the plane went into a diving right turn before vanishing from radar screens . Burning wreckage was scattered for 200 to 300 metres near houses in Niederhasli , some 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) northwest of the runway at Zurich 's Kloten airport . The flight data and cockpit voice recorders were recovered from the accident scene , both heavily damaged .
= = Parties involved = =
Four of the passengers were Germans , the other three passengers were French , Swiss and Spanish . The three @-@ person crew included Moldovan pilot Pavel Gruzin , Slovak copilot Rastislav Kolesar , and a French flight attendant . There were no survivors .
At the time of the crash , Crossair was a majority owned subsidiary of SAirGroup . The crash of Crossair Flight LX498 was the first time in Crossair 's 25 @-@ year history that the regional airline had lost an aircraft , and was the deadliest accident to hit the SAirGroup since the crash of Swissair Flight 111 , an MD @-@ 11 flying from New York to Geneva that crashed into the Atlantic Ocean off Nova Scotia on 2 September 1998 , killing all 229 aboard .
At the time , Crossair operated 17 Saab @-@ 340 type planes , but eventually phased them out with Embraer ERJ @-@ 145 regional jets . The crash came about in the midst of a bitter labor @-@ management dispute between Crossair and its pilots over a possible pay raise and work rules changes . The pilots ' union had just canceled pay agreements with Crossair in December 1999 , with a termination effective in summer 2000 . In addition , and prior to the accident , two Crossair pilots told Swiss media that some foreign pilots employed by Crossair posed a safety risk because of an insufficient knowledge of English . These two pilots were fired by Crossair , but were then elected to head the pilots ' union , " Crossair Cockpit Personnel ( CCP ) " . An investigation of the accident later revealed that the pilot Gruzin and copilot Kolesar were only able to communicate with each other in English , but Gruzin 's ability to speak English was too limited to hold more than a basic conversation .
After the crash , both Crossair and CCP , including the pilots who had previously spoken to the media and been fired , publicly stated that the coincidence between the accident and the dispute was very unfortunate and that reports about pilot error being involved in the crash were speculation , although this conclusion was later established to be the probable cause of the accident .
= = Investigation = =
= = = Background = = =
The Saab 340 is widely used in the United States , Australia , and elsewhere as a commuter plane . Before the hull loss of Crossair Flight LX498 , there had been only four crashes worldwide of the 400 Saab @-@ 340 plane types since 1984 and only two of those were hull losses . The two hull losses were a 1994 KLM Cityhopper crash that killed three in the Netherlands and a 1998 Formosa Airlines crash that killed 13 in Taiwan .
An examination of pilot Pavel Gruzin 's body revealed traces of the drug Phenazepam ( A benzodiazepine @-@ class sedative ) in his muscle tissue . Investigators also found an open packet of the Russian @-@ made drug in baggage belonging to Gruzin .
= = = Causes = = =
According to the Investigation Report of the Swiss Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau , the accident was attributable to the flight crew losing control of the aircraft for the following reasons :
The flight crew reacted inappropriately when departure clearance was ordered by ATC .
The co @-@ pilot made an entry without being instructed to do so by the commander , which related to the change to the SID ZUE 1 standard instrument departure . In doing so , he omitted to select a turn direction .
The commander dispensed with use of the autopilot under instrument flight conditions and during the work @-@ intensive climb phase of the flight .
The commander took the aircraft into a spiral dive to the right because , with a probability bordering on certainty , he had lost spatial orientation .
The first officer took only inadequate measures to prevent or recover from the spiral dive .
According to this same Investigation Report , the following factors may have contributed to the accident :
The commander remained unilaterally firm in perceptions which suggested a left turn direction to him .
When interpreting the attitude display instruments under stress , the commander resorted to a reaction pattern ( heuristics ) which he had learned earlier .
The commander 's capacity for analysis and critical assessment of the situation were possibly limited as a result of the effects of the benzodiazepine drug Phenazepam found in his muscle tissue .
After the change to standard instrument departure SID ZUE 1Y the crew set inappropriate priorities for their tasks and their concentration remained one @-@ sided .
The commander was not systematically acquainted by Crossair with the specific features of western systems and cockpit procedures .
The investigation did look at the possibility of electromagnetic interference and tested a similar aircraft using mobile phones . It concluded that there were " no indications that aircraft systems were negatively affected by electromagnetic interference ( EMI ) " .
= Obernewtyn ( novel ) =
Obernewtyn is the first novel in the Obernewtyn Chronicles series by Australian author Isobelle Carmody . Carmody began writing it at the age of fourteen , and reworked the novel through high school and university . Much of the inspiration for the protagonist , Elspeth Gordie , comes from her own life experiences . It was published by Penguin Books in Australia in 1988 and shortlisted for the Book of the Year for Older Readers in the Children 's Book Council of Australia Awards .
A science fiction @-@ fantasy novel set in a post @-@ apocalyptic world , the story follows Elspeth Gordie , an orphan with special mental abilities , who lives a life of fear and danger . When her abilities are brought to the attention of the ruling , totalitarian Council , she is banished to the remote mountain institution of Obernewtyn , where all " Misfits " are sent . The leaders of Obernewtyn are secretly searching for the old weapons that had sent the world to the brink of despair , and Elspeth finds herself embroiled in a plot that risks more than just her personal safety .
The book has been published in Australia , the United Kingdom , the United States of America , Germany and Portugal . The Library Journal stated it was a " thought @-@ provoking tale of courage and sacrifice " ; other reviews found it one @-@ dimensional and difficult to follow . Adapted as a stage play by Caroline Heske , it was performed in Darwin , Australia in 2004 by the Corrugated Iron Youth Arts Theatre .
= = Composition = =
Isobelle Carmody began writing the book when she was fourteen , in 1972 . She rewrote and developed it throughout high school and university . After briefly working as a journalist , she left to write full @-@ time . Penguin Books agreed to publish the book when Carmody submitted the manuscript in her early twenties and it was published in 1987 . Carmody has said that the character and life experiences of Elspeth reflect her own :
As a girl , I felt myself to be a Misfit . I was the eldest of eight children and I grew up in this tough neighbourhood where there were kids that beat up odd kids like me who read and wrote stories . I longed not to fit in and be like the other kids , but to find people who were like me . And of course like probably every kid , though I did not know that then , I longed to have something important to do . I longed to be special . I think this is the natural result of the powerlessness of children in a world of adults that don ’ t always seem to be looking after the world all that well .
The author named The Chronicles of Narnia , The Lord of the Rings , Doctor Dolittle and books about Pippi Longstocking as sources of influence .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Context = = =
Obernewtyn is set in a world recently ravaged by a nuclear holocaust , known to the survivors as " the Great White " , later said by the Herders ( leaders of the new religious order ) to have been sent by Lud ( God ) to punish humanity . The surviving remote communities attempted to rebuild society , which over time developed into a totalitarian Council , and a religious order , the Herder Faction . Mutations of the mind also began to appear in some of the surviving generations ; those discovered are either burnt alive along with the rebels or labelled as " Misfits " and outcasts . The resulting large group of children are placed in orphan homes and used for manual labour .
= = = Voice and setting = = =
The story is told in the first @-@ person through the protagonist , Elspeth Gordie , a teenage girl who has secret mental powers such as telepathy and the ability to communicate with animals . The story begins at Kindraide orphan home , where she and her brother Jes live , before moving briefly through Sutrium , the capital , and the countryside . However the majority of the narrative is set at Obernewtyn , which lies in the northern mountains of the Land , the fictional nation in which the Obernewtyn Chronicles is set .
= = = Plot = = =
Elspeth learns from her premonitions , and her cat Maruman 's prophecies , that a keeper from Obernewtyn , a feared institution where Misfits are sent to work , will come to take her there . Soon , when delivering tea to visiting Head Keeper of Obernewtyn , Madam Vega , Elspeth accidentally reveals she is a Misfit , though not to what extent , and is soon dispatched to Obernewtyn . Her first few weeks at Obernewtyn are spent in the kitchen , where she is worked to the bone . The cook ’ s daughter delights in tormenting her . The favoured Misfit , Ariel , and farm overseer , Rushton , immediately dislike her . Later reassigned to the farm , an encounter with a pair of Misfits named Matthew and Dameon reveals she is not alone in her particular abilities . She also befriends Cameo , a delicate , pretty Misfit of whom Matthew is very fond . Elspeth , plagued by nightmares , begins to feel there is a dark secret underneath their everyday tasks . While working , Elspeth decides to test the range of her telepathic ability , " farseeking " , but beyond the boundaries of Obernewtyn , a strange machine , the Zebkrahn , traps her mind . She is only freed by combining her mental strength with another anonymous mind who offers assistance . Asked by Vega to look out for " special " Misfits , her interview reveals the Doctor is a defective simpleton ; his " assistant " , Alexi , has no interest in Elspeth in his quest to find the " right one " who will lead him to what he desires . Elspeth and Matthew later deduce that tortuous experiments on their kind are occurring , and they resolve to escape . Cameo begins disappearing from her bed at nighttime , and Elspeth fearfully suspects that Cameo is the subject of some of these experiments .
That night , Elspeth sneaks into the Doctor ’ s office to retrieve a map and compass , but on finding forbidden books and maps from before the Great White , the " Beforetime " , she realises they must be searching for something from long ago . She leaves empty @-@ handed . Rosamunde , a fellow orphan from the Kinraide orphan home , arrives at Obernewtyn and coldly informs Elspeth that her brother Jes had discovered he also had mental abilities , but was killed by guards in an escape attempt . Rushton comforts the distraught Elspeth , and asks her why she plagues him . Fearful that someone will soon be after her as well , her group ’ s escape plans begin in earnest . Elspeth returns a second time to the Doctor ’ s office , but when Vega , Alexi and Ariel enter , she learns Ariel is part of the Obernewtyn family , and that they are searching for a Misfit to help them find the location of Beforetime weapons . Pre @-@ warned that two Councilmen are coming to fetch her for questioning by the Herders , at nightfall she makes to escape but Rushton stops her . He reveals a secret network of drains which gets her safely to the farms . Once she is safely through the drains after a close shave with Ariel 's pack of mad , wild wolves , she finds that the path to the farms has been obscured by a blizzard and gets lost . She nearly dies , but a Misfit named Domick finds her and locks her in the farmhouse to return later to Obernewtyn . Overhearing a conversation between her captors , she discovers they are Rushton 's accomplices and were to secretly meet with a rebel group , but Rushton has gone missing . Convincing them that her powers can help find him , she makes her way on foot through the blizzard to the far mountains , with Maruman as her guide .
Inside the cave network she finds a dying Cameo , who tells her the Beforetime weapons Alexi and Vega are searching for caused the Great White , but they do not know this . She also reveals it is Elspeth ’ s destiny , as the Seeker , to destroy them . After mourning her death , Elspeth overhears that Rushton , imprisoned in the next cavern , is the true heir of Obernewtyn . Suddenly , she is captured by Ariel , who ties her to a table next to the Zebkrahn machine . Elspeth is forced to hold the diaries of Marisa Seraphim , the wife of the founder of Obernewtyn and Alexi 's stepmother , and use her abilities to discover what Marisa was thinking when she wrote them to determine the weapons ’ location . Still withstanding the torture , Elspeth mentally enters Rushton ’ s mind and recognises the voice of her earlier rescuer from the Zebkrahn . Rushton gives his mental strength to her to endure the pain inflicted on her by the machine . In her despair at their threats to kill him , her resistance breaks and Marissa ’ s thoughts reveal the map to be carved into the front doors of Obernewtyn . At this point , the Zebkrahn overheats and bursts into flames . Something in Elspeth ’ s mind cracks and she uses this new power to kill Vega , who she saw standing over Rushton with a knife . She falls unconscious as Domick and Rushton ’ s other friends rush in . Alexi is killed , but Ariel flees into the night and is believed to have died in the blizzard . Now known to be the legal master of Obernewtyn , Rushton plans to build it into a secret refuge for Misfits .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
On the whole , Obernewtyn has been positively received . A reviewer for Publishers Weekly called it " a promising new series " and stated that Carmody evades stereotyping by imbuing her characters with conflicting interests . The Library Journal stated that it is a " thought @-@ provoking tale of courage and sacrifice " .
Lloyd Alexander , an American fantasy author , commented that it is a fantastically imaginative novel . He cited intricate detail , in @-@ depth character development , and skilled use of language as some of the strengths of the work . American Young Adult fantasy writer Tamora Pierce expressed that the novel is " a dream date for [ her ] " , given the novel involves a courageous girl of many talents and animals with " minds of their own " .
However some reviewers have criticised aspects of the book . A reviewer writing for Kirkus Reviews said that the novel is " pedestrian and one @-@ dimensional " . Victoria Strauss , of SF Site , felt the emotional detachment of Elspeth , despite her loss and grief , robs the novel of some of its impact . John Foster felt Obernewtyn is hard to follow due to the complexities of the language and plot .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Obernewtyn won the Marcus Clark Literary Award for Best Unpublished Manuscript , which subsequently saw Carmody receive an Australia Council of the Arts Writer 's Grant .
In 1988 , Obernewtyn was shortlisted for Book of the Year for Older Readers in the Children 's Book Council of Australia Awards .
= = Publication history = =
Single Book Publications :
Combined Volumes :
= = = Foreign language publications = = =
= = = Audiobooks = = =
= = Adaptations = =
The Corrugated Iron Youth Arts Theatre in Darwin , Australia , produced Caroline Heske 's stage play adaptation of Obernewtyn , directed by Jeremy Rice , at the Brown 's Mart Theatre from 3 to 7 November 2004 . Rice stated that the original novel has " that imaginative streak that suits theatre " .
= Darian Durant =
Darian Bernard Durant ( born August 19 , 1982 ) is a professional Canadian football quarterback for the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) . He played college football at the University of North Carolina . After his college career , he held school records for completion percentage , touchdowns , passing yards , total offense and completions . Durant was signed as a free agent by the Roughriders in 2006 , and became the club 's full @-@ time starting quarterback in 2009 . He was named a CFL West Division All @-@ Star in 2009 and 2013 . His brother Justin plays in the National Football League as a linebacker . Durant was the starting quarterback when the Saskatchewan Roughriders won the 101st Grey Cup in 2013 on their home field .
= = Early life = =
Durant was born on August 19 , 1982 , in Florence , South Carolina to Betty and Israel Durant . He has three brothers and a sister . His younger brother , Justin , plays for the NFL 's Dallas Cowboys , and his older brother , Keyshawn , was a quarterback at South Carolina State .
= = Amateur football = =
= = = High school = = =
Durant attended high school at Wilson High School in Florence , South Carolina . During his senior year of high school , he led the team to South Carolina 's 4 @-@ A state semi @-@ finals . Durant set a school record with 2 @,@ 446 passing yards and tied his own record with 25 touchdown passes , which was set during his sophomore season . He was named a Super Prep All @-@ America , Honorable Mention All @-@ America by USA Today and Prep Star All @-@ Region selection . He also played in the South Carolina All @-@ Star game , where he completed 9 of his 11 passing attempts for 215 yards .
= = = College = = =
Durant signed a letter of intent to play college football at the University of North Carolina in 2000 . In 2001 , during his first NCAA season , Durant established school freshman records with 17 touchdown passes , 142 completions , 1843 passing yards and 1971 yards of total offense . His freshman records for passing yards and completions were broken in 2007 by T.J. Yates . During his freshman season , Durant was named Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) Rookie of the Week five times . He finished second overall in ACC Rookie of the Year voting to Florida State quarterback Chris Rix . As a freshman , Durant split time with Ronald Curry , helping the team to a victory in the 2001 Peach Bowl . He was awarded the Jeffrey Cowell Memorial Award as the team 's top freshman .
After his college career , Durant was one of the most accomplished athletes in the school 's history . He held 51 offensive records at the school . During his sophomore season , Durant set the school 's single game record for passing yards with 417 during a victory against Arizona State . In his junior year , he set single season records with 389 passing attempts , 234 completions and 2 @,@ 551 passing yards . Durant had set UNC records with 1 @,@ 159 passing attempts , 701 completions , 68 passing touchdowns , 8 @,@ 755 passing yards and 9 @,@ 630 yards of total offense . While playing football at the University of North Carolina , Durant completed a degree in African American studies .
= = Professional football = =
= = = Baltimore Ravens = = =
Durant was undrafted in the 2005 National Football League ( NFL ) Draft , but signed a free agent contract with the Baltimore Ravens and attended their training camp . Durant was briefly on the team 's practice roster , but was cut during the 2005 season because of concerns about his size .
= = = Saskatchewan Roughriders = = =
Durant was placed on the Ottawa Renegades negotiation list in 2003 , by future Saskatchewan Roughriders general manager Eric Tillman . After the Renegades folded , his rights were obtained by the Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats and later dealt to the Roughriders in a trade that included Corey Holmes . Durant signed with the team on May 11 , 2006 . During the 2006 season , he served as the team 's backup quarterback for eight games , completing a single pass for 14 yards and recording a single rushing attempt for 20 yards in a game against Hamilton . Durant was on the team 's practice roster for the remaining ten games .
During the 2007 season , Durant spent the entire season on the active roster , and was available for all of the Roughrider regular season and playoff games , but did not see any game action while serving as the team 's third string quarterback . Durant was on the sidelines as starting quarterback Kerry Joseph led Roughriders to a victory over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers in the Grey Cup .
Joseph was traded to the Toronto Argonauts prior to the 2008 season , leaving the club without an incumbent quarterback . During the season , the Roughriders tried four different starting quarterbacks including Durant , Steven Jyles , Michael Bishop and Marcus Crandell . Durant started four games for the Riders during the season , and played in four others . He had seven passing touchdowns , and one rushing touchdown during the season . Crandell was released during the season and Bishop was also released shortly after the Roughriders season was finished . In January 2009 , Durant signed a new contract with the Roughriders rather than becoming a free agent .
Durant entered the 2009 season as the club 's starting quarterback , but head coach Ken Miller gave backup Jyles significant playing time as well . Durant made the most of his opportunity , becoming the first Roughrider quarterback to start all 18 games since Kent Austin , who last played for the club in 1993 . Durant 's consistency on the field was one of the reasons he earned the Roughriders ' starting quarterback position , along with his ability to run for yards when his pass protection breaks down . Durant was named the Roughriders nominee for CFL Most Outstanding Player , and was selected a West Division All @-@ Star at quarterback . He was also named the Roughriders ' Wireless Age Most Popular Player . Durant led the Roughriders to the Grey Cup , where they were defeated by the Montreal Alouettes on a last second field goal . He finished the 2009 season with 4 @,@ 348 passing yards and 501 rushing yards . Durant threw 24 touchdown passes during the season and also had 21 interceptions , leading the CFL . Heading into the 2010 season , Durant wanted to cut down on his interceptions , although he tried to be optimistic , " I throw 21 picks last year and I guarantee every guy with better stats than me wishes they were in the Grey Cup . "
In a Grey Cup rematch to kick off the 2010 CFL season , Durant and the Roughriders staged a second half comeback to defeat the Alouettes in overtime . Durant threw five touchdown passes and picked up 478 passing yards during the game . For his efforts , he was named the CFL 's Offensive Player of the Week . At the halfway point of the season , Durant had thrown 11 touchdown passes and 14 interceptions , while rushing for another five touchdowns . The CFL named Durant Offensive Player of the Month for September after a month where he passed for 1387 yards and five touchdowns . After Game 17 versus the BC Lions , Durant became only the second Roughrider quarterback to throw for over 5000 yards in a season , with the first being former head coach Kent Austin . Durant was selected as the Roughriders ' nominee for the CFL Most Outstanding Player Award .
The 2011 campaign was a let down year not only for Durant but also for the Roughriders as a whole . The Riders stumbled out of the gate losing seven of their first eight games . Durant 's production fell significantly through the course of the season . Near the end of the season Durant was playing with a broken bone in his foot , which ultimately lead to him missing the last two games of the regular season . The Riders would finish the year with only 5 wins and 13 loses , placing them in last place in the league . Despite the reduced production in 2011 on April 27 , 2012 the Riders extended his contract through the 2014 CFL season .
The 2013 season was arguably the best season of Durant 's career . He set career highs in touchdowns , with 31 , while limiting his interceptions to only 12 . He began the year having attempted 212 consecutive pass attempts without being intercepted joining Dave Dickenson and later Ricky Ray as the only quarterback in CFL history to start 7 consecutive games without throwing an interception . He also set a career high for passer rating with 95 @.@ 7 ( excluding his 2006 season in which he only completed one pass ) . He led the Riders to an 11 @-@ 7 record and home @-@ field in the Western Semi @-@ Finals against the BC Lions where several of his rushing plays won the game for the Riders . After beating Calgary in the Western Final , Durant led the Riders to their fourth Grey Cup championship on their home turf at Mosaic Stadium .
Durant was forced out of the 2015 season due to injury when he suffered a ruptured Achilles tendon in the Riders ' first week game against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers . After rehabbing his Achilles tendon all off @-@ season Durant returned as the Roughriders leading quarterback for the 2016 season . Early in the second quarter of the fourth week Durant left the game after BC defensive linemen Mic ’ hael Brooks fell into his leg on a passing play . He was taken into the Riders locker room and later appeared on the sidelines using crutches . Following the game the X @-@ Rays revealed no structural damage , and Durant was considered day @-@ to @-@ day with an ankle sprain .
= = Personal life = =
Durant has a tattoo on his left biceps reading " Against all odds – I 'm gonna shine " , which Durant believes explains his life . Durant 's teammates and coaches describe him as a fierce competitor , who battles through injuries and illnesses . In conjunction with a local Ford dealer , and to commemorate the Roughriders ' 100th anniversary , Durant lent his name to a limited edition Ford F @-@ 150 truck that was sold in Regina . The Durant limited edition featured a Durant license plate , his DD4 logo , Roughriders mud flaps and embossed head rests . There are only four of the trucks available , and $ 500 from the sale of each truck goes to support Durant 's charity of choice , KidSport .
= = Statistics = =
= Fat Freddy 's Drop =
Fat Freddy ’ s Drop are a New Zealand seven @-@ piece band from Wellington , whose musical style has been characterised as any combination of dub , reggae , soul , jazz , rhythm and blues , and techno . Originally a jam band formed in the late 1990s by musicians from other bands in Wellington , Fat Freddy ’ s Drop gradually became its members ' sole focus . Band members continued playing with their other respective groups — The Black Seeds , TrinityRoots , Bongmaster , and others — for much of their 13 @-@ year career . Fat Freddy ’ s Drop are known for their improvised live performances ; songs on their studio albums are versions refined over years of playing them live in New Zealand , and on tour abroad .
The group gained international recognition in 2003 after their single " Midnight Marauders " was re @-@ distributed by record labels and DJs in Germany . The group has toured Europe nearly every year since then . The first studio album by Fat Freddy ’ s Drop , Based on a True Story , was the first independently distributed album to reach first place in New Zealand record sales directly after release in 2005 , and is the highest @-@ selling album by a national artist in the country 's history . Based on a True Story won Best Album at the New Zealand Music Awards the same year , and remained on the top 40 New Zealand sales chart for over two years , establishing them as one of the most successful contemporary bands in the island nation .
= = History = =
= = = Formation : 1999 – 2001 = = =
The band Fat Freddy ’ s Drop gradually took shape from members of other bands in Wellington , New Zealand 's music scene in the late 1990s . The group 's founder , Chris " Mu " Faiumu , had performed with other bands for most of that decade under the name DJ Fitchie . He and two friends , trumpeter Toby Laing and vocalist Dallas Tamaira , occasionally played improvised jam sessions at his seaside home . Faiumu provided percussion and bass for these on an Akai Music Production Center ( MPC ) . All three were involved with other bands . Faiumu and Tamaira were members of the 15 @-@ piece dub band Bongmaster ; Laing was a member of The Black Seeds . In 1999 , they began performing together at local clubs and festivals , and released several vinyl singles distributed locally .
That same year , Faiumu founded the independent music label The Drop with the help of his partner Nicole , and money from private investors . According to Faiumu , the venture was a learning experience in the business of making and releasing records . The Drop 's first release was Dallas Tamaira 's solo project , the five @-@ track EP Better Than Change , followed by a single performed by the group named " Hope " . " Hope " was written and recorded over two days under the influence of LSD , according to interviews . Each blotter — individual dose — of that type of LSD , popular in Wellington at that time , had the image of Fat Freddy 's Cat ( from Gilbert Shelton 's comic strip The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers ) printed on it . Dropping — common slang for taking LSD — Fat Freddys became the inspiration for the band 's name .
The group organised several informal jam sessions in 2000 , inviting local musicians to play with them at Faiumu 's home . These sessions led to four new members joining Fat Freddy ’ s Drop : Warren Maxwell on tenor and alto saxophone , Tehimana Kerr on guitar , Iain Gordon on keyboards , and Joe Lindsay on trombone . Like the original three , the new members played with other groups in and around Wellington , and continued to for most of Fat Freddy ’ s Drop 's career . Iain Gordon was a fellow Bongmaster member with Faiumu and Tamaira . Gordon was also a member of the band Ebb which in 2001 performed an audiovisual concert and released an EP titled Plush Bomb , with Fat Freddy 's Drop playing in support . Maxwell was in the reggaemusic group TrinityRoots . Maxwell and Joe Lindsay , who make up the horn section of Fat Freddy ’ s Drop , were students at the Conservatorium of Music in Wellington in the mid @-@ 1990s . Faiumu was the " central point [ and ] the reason for the band getting together , " according to a 2009 interview .
= = = Live at the Matterhorn and singles : 2001 – 2004 = = =
The now seven @-@ member Fat Freddy ’ s Drop , sometimes calling themselves the " seven headed soul monster " , continued to play live at clubs and festivals . The band 's first full @-@ length album , Live at the Matterhorn , was released in 2001 by The Drop . The live album is a recording of their show at the Matterhorn club in Wellington that year . Very little mastering was done to the album , which is divided into four tracks averaging 18 minutes each . It was not formally promoted , but sold 9 @,@ 000 copies in its first few months via word @-@ of @-@ mouth , according to The Sydney Morning Herald .
In 2000 , the New Zealand government began a campaign to increase the profitability of the country 's music industry , and of music exports abroad , by funding artists and events . The percentage of music sold by nationals went from 5 @.@ 45 % in 2000 to 10 % in 2004 , and a 2004 government survey indicated one @-@ quarter of New Zealanders attended a live music event in the year previous . Fat Freddy ’ s Drop were not one of the bands funded , but the elevated live music scene , and the relative success of Live at The Matterhorn , gave them more opportunities to establish themselves as one of the area 's best live acts . Several of their early singles , like " Hope " and " Runnin " , were featured on compilation albums published by local labels and radio stations . An established group from Kaikoura named Salmonella Dub — who one member described as the " forerunner for Fat Freddys " — provided the band opportunities to play in front of larger crowds in New Zealand and neighbouring Australia .
The third single , released by The Drop in 2002 , " Midnight Marauders " became their first step towards international recognition when a copy was taken to German record label Sonar Kollektiv by a producer . That year , Sonar and affiliated label Best Seven re @-@ released the single in Germany , and European DJ group Jazzanova used the track in several mixes . A second single , " Hope / This Room " , was re @-@ released by Sonar and Best the next year . After the singles ' success , Sonar invited the band to play a string of European shows in 2003 . Sonar label manager Matthias Bohmbach said he was surprised when one @-@ thousand copies of " Midnight Marauders " sold at a show in Germany . Not wanting a single label to control their work in Europe , the band also partnered with London @-@ based label Kartel in 2003 to handle distribution and promotion in England . From 2003 to 2009 , distribution of the band 's work was handled by The Drop in New Zealand and Australia , by Sonar Kollektiv and Best Seven in most of Europe , and by Kartel in England .
Fat Freddy ’ s Drop 's European profile slowly increased between 2003 and the release of their first studio album in 2005 . The BBC 's Gilles Peterson called " Hope " one of the top tracks of 2003 . The band was invited to play at the Cannes Film Festival in 2004 . International DJ Magazine listed Fat Freddy ’ s Drop as one of the " top 20 bands to look out for " in 2004 . In what became an almost annual trip , they returned to touring New Zealand and Australia in 2004 , and — partnering with Sonar Kollektiv — returned to Europe for an official " Hope for a Generation " tour .
= = = Based on a True Story : 2005 – 2008 = = =
Fat Freddy ’ s Drop 's first studio album in 2005 , Based on a True Story , showcased polished versions of songs the band had developed gradually at live shows over the years — in some cases going back to 1999 ; the album 's title is a reference to that process . Many Fat Freddy ’ s Drop members still played with other Wellington bands while recording Based on a True Story , and scheduling conflicts forced them to record their individual parts at different times to be mixed later . In a later interview , they said it is " healthy for members to be able to do other things , " but they hoped to record the tracks together in the same room on their next album . Replacing Faiumu 's MPC sampler on the album — and in some live shows afterwards — were drummer Riki Gooch and bassist Rio Hemopo , who together with Fat Freddy ’ s Drop saxophonist Warren Maxwell make up the band TrinityRoots . Also contributing were vocalists Hollie Smith , Ladi 6 , and P Digsss , and Bongmaster guitarist Aaron Tokona . After mixing Based on a True Story for 18 months at his home studio in @-@ between tours , Faiumu took the album to San Francisco @-@ based Fantasy Studios to be mastered .
Based on a True Story became the first independently distributed album to reach first place in New Zealand record sales directly after release , and is the highest @-@ selling album by a national artist in the country 's history . The Recording Industry Association of New Zealand 's ( RIANZ ) sales chart listed Based on a True Story as one of the top 40 selling albums for more than two years after its release , and has since been certified nine @-@ times platinum , denoting shipments of 135 @,@ 000 copies . The album 's only single , " Wandering Eye " , spent more than four months on the top 40 selling singles chart . Like Live at the Matterhorn , the album was given no formal promotion or marketing ; its popularity largely due to the band 's reputation in New Zealand . At the 2005 New Zealand Music Awards , Fat Freddy ’ s Drop won awards in every category they were nominated : Best Group , Best Album , Best New Zealand Roots Group . They also won the People 's Choice Award in both 2005 and 2006 . Based on a True Story had sold 120 @,@ 000 copies in New Zealand as of April 2009 . The album sold 30 @,@ 000 copies in Europe .
The band continued touring for the next four years while planning and developing a second studio album . They returned to Germany , England , and Italy in 2005 ; returned in 2006 for their European World Cup Tour , and again for a set of shows in 2007 . They also toured the east coast of Australia in 2006 and 2007 . Many band members were fathers by then , a factor increasingly affecting their " touring stamina " . Warren Maxwell left the band in 2007 for family reasons , and was replaced in live performances with Scott Towers . Towers attended the Conservatorium of Music with Maxwell , and was trombonist Joe Lindsay 's tutor there .
= = = Dr Boondigga and the Big BW : 2009 @-@ 2012 = = =
Fat Freddy ’ s Drop released their second studio album , Dr Boondigga and the Big BW , in 2009 . The title refers to " the Big Brain @-@ Wash and Dr. Boondigga [ who ] is some evil creature who ’ s trying to sign us to a major label , " according to Faiumu . The band is still independently distributed by The Drop label , and as of 2009 , have handled distribution themselves in Europe . Like Based on a True Story , the album 's songs are polished versions of songs they developed over four years at live shows ; mixed from 2007 to 2009 in @-@ between tours . Unlike their last album , most of it was recorded live in @-@ studio with all band members present . There were some exceptions ; Alice Russell 's duet with Tamaira on the album 's first single " The Camel " was recorded in 2006 when she was in Wellington with The Bamboos .
Dr Boondigga and the Big BW was the highest selling album in New Zealand for five weeks after its release , and the highest selling album there in 2009 . It was listed on the RIANZ top 40 sales chart 38 weeks in total . The album received more international promotion than its predecessor , reaching number 45 in the Australian album chart , and 97th in France . The BBC 's John Lusk called Fat Freddy ’ s Drop " New Zealand 's most critically acclaimed band since The Clean " , and lead singer Tamaira , " one of the most soulful singers of his generation . " At the 2009 New Zealand Music Awards the album won the awards Best Producer , and Best Aotearoa Roots Album Dr Boondigga and the Big BW had sold 30 @,@ 000 copies in New Zealand as of December 2009 .
Fat Freddy ’ s Drop returned to touring New Zealand , Australia and Europe to promote the new album in 2009 . Three shows on the west coast of the United States , and a show in Canada , were also included in the tour . The only previous time the band had played in the United States was a single performance at a Detroit music festival in 2004 . Before 2009 , the cost of touring in the US , difficulty obtaining visas , and the band 's low profile in North America prevented them from including tour dates there . Band members say they now consider playing together as Fat Freddy ’ s Drop their first musical priority , and spend less time playing with other bands .
= = = Blackbird : 2013 = = =
In early 2013 , the band revealed a new album was in the works , and eventually the first single , Silver and Gold was released as a vinyl and free online download . The single received significant radio airplay following its release . The album , Blackbird was released on the 21st of June in Ireland and in most regions , and on the 24th in others . The album debuted in the number 1 position on the New Zealand album chart and remained in that position for 4 weeks . The band went on a national tour of Australia in late August / early September where they appeared at the Splendour in the Grass festival , and will head to Europe for a string of dates immediately after .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Improvisation , live and in the studio , has been the basis for Fat Freddy ’ s Drop 's music since the beginning of their career . " Live performance is the most natural state for music , " according to trumpeter Toby Laing . Most songs begin as a rhythm on Faiumu 's MPC , and more sections are progressively added during jam sessions . Songs featured on the band 's albums and singles are versions that have been refined over years of playing them in the studio , live in Wellington , and on tour abroad . Faiumu said that , on their first studio album , it was challenging to fit the long songs the band is used to playing into shorter album @-@ length tracks .
Describing the band , National Public Radio host Guy Raz said , " Take the swagger of Jamaican dub , throw in
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a little Memphis soul and send it halfway down the globe , and what comes back ? The band Fat Freddy ’ s Drop . " The band has been categorised under many genres , and members say many of those genres helped shape their musical style : delta blues , jazz , dub , soul , techno , and contemporary rhythm and blues . Musical styles heard while on tour have also shaped their sound ; Dr Boondigga and the Big BW was influenced by contemporary German , Portuguese , and Bhangra music while touring in the years before its release .
Faiumu and other band members say their biggest influence is their home country of New Zealand , and their peers in Wellington 's " small @-@ but @-@ solid " music scene — Wellington 's population was less than 180 @,@ 000 in 2007 . They feel their music " belong [ s ] here in New Zealand , you can tell it came from this country . " Fat Freddy 's Drop 's music has been categorised as Aotearoa roots music — meaning contemporary music inspired by Māori and Pacific Islander culture , even though they are a mixed @-@ race group . Faiumu is a first @-@ generation Samoan @-@ New Zealander , Tamaira , Gordon and Kerr are native Māori , and the remaining members are descended from European immigrants .
= = Band members = =
Dallas Tamaira ( " Joe Dukie " ) – vocals , guitar ( 1999 – present )
Chris Faiumu ( " DJ Fitchie " ) – percussion , production ( 1999 – present )
Toby Laing ( " Tony Chang " ) – trumpet ( 1999 – present )
Tehimana Kerr ( " Jetlag Johnson " ) – guitar ( 2000 – present )
Iain Gordon ( " Dobie Blaze " ) – keyboards ( 2000 – present )
Joe Lindsay ( " Hopepa " ) – trombone , tuba ( 2000 – present )
Scott Towers ( " Chopper Reedz " ) – saxophone ( 2007 – present )
MC Slave - raps ( live on stage )
Former members
Warren Maxwell ( " Fulla Flash " ) – saxophone ( 2000 – 2007 )
Tom Bilkey ( " Muppet Shorts " ) - guitar ( 1999 – 2000 )
Baxter Perry ( " Master Lazy " ) - bass ( 2002 @-@ 2003 )
= = Discography = =
Fat Freddy ’ s Drop have released four studio albums , two live albums , and several singles . Their songs have appeared on compilation albums both in New Zealand and internationally . In 2007 , they released a DVD , Fantastic Voyages Vol . 1 , with live footage from their 2006 World Cup Tour , music videos , and behind the scenes footage .
2001 : Live at the Matterhorn
2005 : Based on a True Story
2009 : Dr Boondigga and the Big BW
2010 : Live at Roundhouse
2013 : Blackbird
2014 : Live in Munich
2015 : Bays
= = Awards = =
= Seymour Goes to Hollywood =
Seymour Goes to Hollywood , also known as Seymour at the Movies , is a platform and adventure game developed by Big Red Software and originally published in Europe by Codemasters in 1991 . Players control Seymour , a small potato @-@ like creature who wishes to be a film star . The film 's script has been locked in a safe , meaning Seymour must solve puzzles by collecting and using objects scattered throughout the game in order to progress , ultimately retrieving the script and allowing filming to start .
The game was originally designed as part of the Dizzy series , with a working title of Movieland Dizzy , but the creators of Dizzy disagreed with the real @-@ world direction the game had taken , despite it being 90 % complete . The developers , Big Red Software , were given 12 weeks to create a new game with a different character . Seymour was adapted from Dizzy , with a new shape and fingers to differentiate the two .
Seymour Goes to Hollywood received both positive and average ratings from the video game press at the time , and was compared to Dizzy video games both positively and negatively . The character also received both praise and criticism for his shape .
= = Gameplay = =
Players guide Seymour through the game 's locations , solving puzzles by collecting up to three objects at once and using them in pre @-@ set locations . Movement from one screen to the next is enabled through flip @-@ screen , when Seymour touches the outer edge of one screen he is transported to the next . The film studio where the game takes place features several rooms such as an office and eight film sets accessed from a maze of backlots , where each screen is only slightly different from the last . The doors to film sets are locked and Seymour must first locate the relevant key to gain access . The sets ' themes include films such as The Wizard of Oz and King Kong , as well sets based on generic genres such as horror films and science fiction films .
Characters throughout the film studios and movie sets will help Seymour on his quest with new objects and advice , but only if he helps them first . Seymour 's observations when collecting objects and sarcastic exchanges with other characters are communicated through speech bubbles . One example of a puzzle is the Frankenstein 's monster which must be created by combining body parts in a specific location on the horror film set . Once the monster is completed it smashes through one of the set 's walls , allowing Seymour to access the set next door .
= = Plot = =
Seymour has been given the starring role in a Hollywood film and duly arrives at the film studio to begin work . It transpires that the studio 's boss , Dirk E. Findlemeyer the second , has taken a vacation to Miami . Findlemeyer has taken the key to his safe with him , which prevents filming from commencing because the safe contains the film scripts . Seymour must blow the safe with dynamite to access the scripts and then collect 16 Academy Awards from around the game and award one to each of the actors . Only then can filming commence .
= = Development = =
Beginning with Magicland Dizzy , Codemasters sub @-@ contracted Big Red Software , headed by Paul Ranson , to assist in the production of future Dizzy games in the series . The success of Dizzy Prince of the Yolkfolk prompted Big Red Software to take the series in a new direction . The publisher decided that the titular egg character 's next adventure should be set in a world based on real @-@ life .
Big Red Software started work and had 90 % completed the project , which had the working title Movieland Dizzy , before the team was told to replace Dizzy with a new character . This was because the creators of Dizzy , the Oliver Twins , disagreed with the direction that Movieland Dizzy was taking the character , after discussions Codemasters agreed . Pete Ranson , Paul 's brother , was one of Big Red Software 's graphic designers and was given the job of creating a new character . This character began as a misshapen egg , was given fingers , and was given jump animations that lacked Dizzy 's bounce . A friend of the Ranson 's , having seen the character graphics , stated that " he looked like a Seymour " . The name " stuck " and the new character was completed .
After making the decision to use a new character rather than Dizzy , Codemasters allowed Big Red Software free rein to develop the new game , only stipulating that it must be ready for release within 12 weeks . By this point Big Red Software was already familiar with platform adventure games . The game retained the Dizzy graphic adventure title engine . Pete Ranson had previously designed graphics for every Dizzy game bar the first , graphics were shared between Dizzy games and some were also recycled for Seymour Goes to Hollywood .
After the Hollywood theme was decided on , the design team drew up a map and assigned objects and puzzles to different areas . The game was originally designed for the ZX Spectrum and then ported to the Amstrad CPC , due to the systems ' similar architecture . However , the team struggled to port the game to the Commodore 64 due to it being a different machine altogether . The finished game is significantly changed from the incomplete Movieland Dizzy , which featured only film sets as locations , the surrounding film studio and backlots were not present . The real @-@ world studio elements were added after Dizzy was disassociated from the game .
= = Reception = =
Both the Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum versions received high review scores , one exception being the review in Sinclair User which was less positive . The Commodore 64 version received a comparatively low score from Zzap ! 64 . The magazine 's reviewer stated that despite the game featuring " brilliant humour and some of the best puzzles and animation seen in an arcade adventure " , it remained a " cruel parody " of the Spectrum version that " plays with all the style and grace of a drunken elephant ! " The Amiga version received both positive and average scores . Seymour himself received a mixed response due to his appearance . Comments ranged from Seymour having " snatched Dizzy 's crown " to him being called " a peeled potato on legs " , an " albino mutant lardball " and " a sort of slug @-@ type thing " . David Crookes of Retro Gamer called Seymour a popular element and Big Red 's most " infamous " character . He , however , commented that Seymour did not match up to Dizzy .
Seymour Goes to Hollywood was praised for its comparatively large size and for having more logical puzzles than Dizzy games , due to it being set in the real world . Some players were critical of the size of the game and the time required to complete it . The puzzles themselves were widely praised as " some of the best puzzles ... ... ever seen in an arcade adventure " , and similar to Dizzy but with enough variation to " keep you scratching your head for hours " . Crash magazine 's reviewer stated that the puzzles may be too simple for players experienced with Dizzy games . The game was compared to the Dizzy series by most reviewers , in both positive and negative lights . For instance , one reviewer stated that the game was indistinguishable from Dizzy games and succeeded for the same reasons , another reviewer called it average fare and asked " why didn 't Codemasters just stuff it out as another Dizzy game ? " Crookes commented that though Seymour Goes to Hollywood borrows heavily from the Dizzy series it was a fulfilling game .
= My Love ( Justin Timberlake song ) =
" My Love " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his second studio album , FutureSex / LoveSounds ( 2006 ) . It was released on October 24 , 2006 , by Jive Records as the second single from the album . The song features American rapper T.I. and was co @-@ written by Timberlake , Timbaland , Nate " Danja " Hills , and T.I. , and produced by Timberlake , Timbaland , and Danja .
Timberlake revealed that the song 's creating process took time to image and execute . He also stated that " My Love " was less about marriage and a more humble approach to love . The song features synthesizer chords with a slow beat and includes a beatboxing , percussion , and staccato sounds . Timberlake described the track as " a rock @-@ techno ballad " . " My Love " was well received by music critics , although some criticized Timberlake for some of the lyrics and sounds .
The track entered the top ten on most charts , topping several of Billboard magazine 's component charts , including the Billboard Hot 100 , Pop 100 , Hot Dance Airplay , and Hot Digital Songs charts . " My Love " also became Timberlake 's second consecutive number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , the single peaked in the number two position , becoming Timberlake 's fourth single to reach number two . In New Zealand , the track peaked at number one for five non @-@ consecutive weeks , to become Timberlake 's second number one single .
Pitchfork Media named " My Love " as their number one song of 2006 . Many have cited that the song is similar to Timberlake 's 2002 song " Cry Me a River " . The track won Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 2007 Grammy Awards . " My Love " also won Timberlake the Male Artist of the Year and Best Choreography in a Video at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Background = =
In December 2005 , Timberlake began working on his second album , FutureSex / LoveSounds , the follow @-@ up to Justified ( 2002 ) . Within three weeks , " My Love " was one of several songs that were recorded . In September 2006 , Timberlake told Rolling Stone that the song was " a hip @-@ hop ballad " and that the process of creating " took two hours to imagine and execute " . While promoting the album in an interview with MTV News , Timberlake revealed that the second half of the album ( including " My Love " ) focuses on anthems of love . In another interview , he revealed that " My Love " was a " contradiction of sounds . You 've got this operatic thing going on . If you take all the staccato sounds out , the essence of the song is it 's a ballad , but the way the beat is inlaid underneath the vocals , it becomes a percussive ballad . "
In discussion of T.I. ' s participation in the track , Timberlake said : " The second hook finished and I said , ' Oh , a rapper would sound good on this ' . " Timbaland , who co @-@ wrote and produced the song , agreed to the idea and suggested T.I. Timberlake agreed to the idea , although he doubted that T.I. would say yes , and said that he was thankful that T.I. agreed to take part .
Timberlake revealed in 2013 that he originally asked rapper Jay @-@ Z ( Whom he would collaborate with extensively in his later career ) to appear on the track before T.I. " I wanted to do a record with him on FutureSex / LoveSounds ... " he explained " ... and he at that time had done a record with Beyoncé , it was ' Déjà Vu . ' And he said — respectfully , I can 't knock him for saying like I have this one feature , I think he was working on his own music as well so he didn 't want to be on too many things . And I said , ' I totally respect that . I 'm obviously not gonna get into any domestic anything . That 's your wife . ' But the record was ' My Love . ' And it ended up being an interesting blessing in disguise because I think Tip for that record — I mean his verse is phenomenal . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
" My Love " is a R & B and hip hop ballad . The song is composed in the key of E minor , with a chord progression of E @-@ minor @-@ B @-@ minor @-@ A @-@ minor . It is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 121 beats per minute . The music begins with a stuttering sounding trance @-@ style synthesizer , right after one stanza is sung in the chorus , " Ain 't another woman the can take your spot my love " . The word " love " is cut from the start . The song also includes Timbaland beatboxing and adding " toy sounds " , as well as Timberlake 's falsetto . The track features a rap verse from rapper T.I. It also carries a slower beat , with an electro @-@ Southern hip hop sound . The Guardian described the song as a " languid love ballad , prickling with dark emotion " , while MTV News described the beat as " slow and saucy " . Ben Williams of New York magazine wrote that it has " stabbing techno riff , crunched @-@ together mouth @-@ popping noises , and wailing opera singer " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian said that the single is " a twitching mass of rave synthesizers and [ agonizingly ] slow beats " . Jacqui Swift of The Sun wrote that the song " begins with a tinny percussion sound before launching into a frantic repetitive chorus " .
In July 2006 , The Observer Music Monthly interviewed Timberlake and stated that the track " is arguably the album 's ' Cry Me a River ' . " In response , Timberlake said , " It is similar . You go back to Aaliyah 's biggest record , ' Are You That Somebody ' – it 's similar to that too because it 's that percussive ballad . " When asked about the lyrics , " There 's just one thing I need from you : say I do " , being autobiographical , he said no , adding that the line before that , " this ring here represents my heart " , is about marriage and love . Timberlake stated , " It 's not specifically about marriage , but about a humble approach to love . None of it is autobiographical , though obviously I have experience to draw from . "
Williams stated that the song is " an obvious sequel " to Timberlake 's 2002 song " Cry Me a River " . The Georgia Straight 's Martin Turenne interprets the song 's background as Timberlake lowering himself on bended knee , proposing long walks on the beach and asking , " Would you date me on the regular ? " . Dagny Salas of North by Northwestern considered it a more romantic song , about Timberlake professing his love to a woman . Others have opined that " My Love " is a marriage proposal .
= = Critical reception = =
In The New York Times review of the album , critic Kelefa Sanneh wrote : " ... ' My Love ' , a sumptuous collaboration with the rapper T.I. It starts with a 90 @-@ second ' prelude ' , a clattering rhythm track with a bit of rapping and snippets of melody . Then the real thing hits : sleek synthesizer chords punctuated by tiny bursts of silence . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that the track " mixes Timberlake 's proud beatboxing talent with colossal , futuristic synth swirls and a cartoonish , maniacal giggle that 's looped ad infinitum a la the crying baby from Aaliyah 's ' Are You That Somebody ? ' " . Matthew Gasteier of Prefix magazine noted that the song " is probably the standout triumph here , with stuttering synths and a fade @-@ in @-@ fade @-@ out shimmering beat that may be the best ever from Timbaland " . Lauren Murphy of entertainment.ie stated that the single is " undeniably fluid and features some of the niftiest slo @-@ mo effects around " . Jonah Weiner of Blender magazine cited the song as the " standout " song from the album and wrote that the single " ... straddles the album 's up @-@ tempo FutureSex and balladeering LoveSounds halves — one coos about puppy love over the other 's stroboscopic , salivating beat , and both trade devotionals on the chorus " .
" My Love " was criticized for some of the lyrics and sounds that were featured . Sanneh reported that Timberlake " exhales his clumsy pickup lines " with the lyrics " If I told you you were beautiful / Would you date me on the regular ? " . Murphy contemplated that the song is " ultimately ruined " by a " bizarre Crazy Frog @-@ meets @-@ Laughing @-@ Policeman underlay " . Emily Vaughan of North by Northwestern commented that Timberlake claims to have gone around the world twice in " My Love " and " Damn Girl " and that he is also " running out of creative ways to say he would like you to go to bed with him " . Vaughan , however , was positive towards " My Love " , stating that the song , along with " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " , sounded considerably different from the rest of the album .
= = = Accolades = = =
The song was picked by Pitchfork Media as their number one song of 2006 , also ranking the song at 26 on " The Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s . " " At the 49th Grammy Awards , " My Love " won a Grammy Award in the category of Best Rap / Sung Collaboration . The song was covered by Irish band The Coronas , and by British group Klaxons on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge and was included in the B @-@ side of their song " It 's Not Over Yet " , which was released in June 2007 . The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll voted " My Love " as the fourth best single of 2006 ; Timberlake 's " SexyBack " and T.I. ' s " What You Know " were voted on the same poll at numbers seven and two , respectively .
Additionally , the song won ASCAP Pop Music Awards in the category Most Performed Songs in 2007 and 2008 , an ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Award in 2008 , a BMI Urban Award in 2007 , and a BMI Pop Award in 2008 .
= = Chart performance = =
" My Love " was commercially successful in the United States . The single debuted at number 89 on September 23 , 2006 , on the Billboard Hot 100 , prior to its physical release . From number five on November 11 , 2006 , it propelled to number one the following week . " My Love " became Timberlake 's second consecutive number one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 from his Futuresex / Lovesounds album , becoming the first male artist since Usher in 2004 to have three or more consecutive number one hits from one album . The single peaked at number one on the Hot 100 for three consecutive weeks . In addition to the Hot 100 , " My Love " also reached number one on the following Billboard charts : Pop 100 , Hot Dance Airplay and Top 40 mainstream charts , and has peaked at number three on the Rhythmic Top 40 . Also , on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , " My Love " peaked at number two to become Timberlake 's most successful single on this chart . The song also charted on the Hot Dance Club Play and Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks charts , peaking at number 15 and number 29 , respectively . " My Love " was certified Platinum by the RIAA on February 26 , 2007 , and has sold 2 @,@ 208 @,@ 000 copies as of April 2013 .
In the United Kingdom , " My Love " debuted at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart on November 12 , 2006 ( for the week ending date November 18 , 2006 ) , one week prior to its physical release , and ascended to its peak the following week at number 2 ( having been beaten to the summit by Akon and Eminem 's " Smack That " ) , to become Timberlake 's fourth single to reach the runner up position on the British charts . The digital download sales helped propel the single to number two on November 20 , 2006 . The song spent nineteen weeks within the top 75 , retiring on March 24 , 2007 , spending four of those within the top ten . The single entered the top five in Germany , Switzerland , Sweden , and Finland , and entered the top ten in France and Austria . In Australia , " My Love " debuted and peaked at number four on the Australian ARIA singles chart on November 26 , 2006 , gaining the Highest Debut certification . It spent a total of twenty @-@ four weeks on the chart . " My Love " was certified Gold by Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In New Zealand , the single debuted at number 25 and eventually peaked at number one for five non @-@ consecutive weeks , to become Timberlake 's second number one single .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " My Love " was directed by Paul Hunter and premiered on October 23 , 2006 . The video includes the prelude to the song ( " Let Me Talk to You " ) , which includes the song 's producer , Timbaland and features T.I. The video incorporates a black @-@ and @-@ white background and dancing , choreographed as the steps are in synch with the beat of the song .
The video starts with " Let Me Talk to You " as the background is surrounded by faulty fluorescent lighting , turning on and off in a programmed pattern . It also begins with Timberlake and Timbaland chanting " hey " to one another . The video proceeds with Timberlake dancing to the beat of the song . Timbaland then begins singing the first verse of the song , which then is proceeded by Timberlake . This is immediately followed with " My Love " playing ; the first verse of the song , " Ain 't another woman that could take your spot my " , plays . Timberlake comes floating toward the camera , down the faulty fluorescent tube . Once Timberlake stops floating , he begins singing the main verse of the song , which violins begin to float swirling gently around him , for " If I wrote you a symphony / Just to say how much you mean to me " . The scene then changes with Timberlake and various dancers dancing accordingly in a choreographed style . When Timberlake begins the second verse , " Now if I wrote you a love note / And made you smile at every word I wrote " , pens and paper begin to float . This later exceeds with Timberlake singing " This ring here represents my heart " with a ring swirling into the camera . T.I. is then seen in the shot . T.I. begins rapping his lines in the song . After T.I. finishes his verse , Timberlake is then seen dancing with a female back @-@ up dancer . Though , as they continue dancing , the female then leaves the shot , leaving Timberlake to dance to the end of the song . In the closing moments , the camera swirls around him , proving , conclusively , from every angle , that everyone has gone .
At the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , Timberlake won Male Artist of the Year for " Let Me Talk To You / My Love " , " SexyBack " , and " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " . He , alongside choreographers Blake Anthony and Marty Kudelka , won Best Choreography in a Video for " My Love " .
= = Live performances = =
Timberlake performed " My Love " and " SexyBack " as a medley for the opening of the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards , and again for the MTV Europe Music Awards 2006 , which he also hosted . He also performed the song on Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) . Timberlake , alongside Robyn Troup and T.I. , performed the song live at the 49th Grammy Awards . In addition , he performed the song at the Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show . The song was part of the set list of his second worldwide tour FutureSex / LoveShow .
" My Love " was performed by Timberlake at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards on August 25 as part of a medley . The song is featured on Timberlake 's 2013 / 14 The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour .
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Scleractinia =
Scleractinia , also called stony corals or hard corals , are marine animals in the phylum Cnidaria that live on the seabed and build themselves a hard skeleton . The individual animals are known as polyps and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc with a mouth and a fringe of tentacles . Although some species are solitary , most are colonial . The founding polyp settles on the seabed and starts to secrete calcium carbonate to protect its soft body . Solitary corals can be as much as 25 cm ( 10 in ) across but in colonial species the polyps are usually only a few millimetres in diameter . These polyps reproduce by budding but remain attached to each other , forming a multi @-@ polyp colony with a common skeleton , which may be up to several metres in diameter or height according to species .
The shape and appearance of each coral colony depends not only on the species , but also on its location , depth , the amount of water movement and other factors . Many shallow @-@ water corals contain symbiont unicellular organisms known as zooxanthellae within their tissues . These give their colour to the coral which thus may vary in hue depending on what species of symbiont it contains . Stony corals are closely related to sea anemones , and like them are armed with stinging cells known as cnidocytes . Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually . Most species release gametes into the sea where fertilisation takes place , and the planula larvae drift as part of the plankton , but a few species brood their eggs . Asexual reproduction is mostly by fragmentation , when part of a colony becomes detached and reattaches elsewhere .
Stony corals occur in all the world 's oceans . Hermatypic corals are mostly colonial and form part of reef structures ; most of these are zooxanthellate and are found in the shallow waters into which sunlight penetrates . Other corals may be solitary or colonial and do not form reefs ; some of these occur at abyssal depths where no light reaches . Stony corals first appeared in the Middle Triassic , but their relationship to the tabulate and rugose corals of the Paleozoic is currently unresolved . Much of the framework of modern coral reefs is formed by scleractinians . Stony corals numbers are expected to decline due to the effects of global warming and ocean acidification .
= = Anatomy = =
Scleractinian corals may be solitary or colonial . Colonies can reach considerable size , consisting of a large number of individual polyps .
= = = Soft parts = = =
Stony corals are members of the class Anthozoa and like other members of the group , do not have a medusa stage in their life cycle . The individual animals are known as polyps and have a cylindrical body crowned by an oral disc surrounded by a ring of tentacles . The base of the polyp secretes the stony material from which the coral skeleton is formed . The body wall of the polyp consists of mesoglea sandwiched between two layers of epidermis . The mouth is at the centre of the oral disc and leads into a tubular pharynx which descends for some distance into the body before opening into the gastrovascular cavity that fills the interior of the body and tentacles . Unlike other cnidarians however , the cavity is subdivided by a number of radiating partitions , thin sheets of living tissue , known as mesenteries . The gonads are also located within the cavity walls . The polyp is retractable into the corallite , the stony cup in which it sits , being pulled back by sheet @-@ like retractor muscles .
The polyps are connected by horizontal sheets of tissue known as coenosarc extending over the outer surface of the skeleton and completely covering it . These sheets are continuous with the body wall of the polyps , and include extensions of the gastrovascular cavity , so that food and water can circulate between all the different members of the colony . In colonial species , the repeated asexual division of the polyps causes the corallites to be interconnected , thus forming the colonies . Also , cases exist in which the adjacent colonies of the same species form a single colony by fusing . Most colonial species have very small polyps , ranging from 1 to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 to 0 @.@ 12 in ) in diameter , although some solitary species may be as large as 25 cm ( 10 in ) .
= = = Skeleton = = =
The skeleton of an individual scleractinian polyp is known as a corallite . It is secreted by the epidermis of the lower part of the body , and initially forms a cup surrounding this part of the polyp . The interior of the cup contains radially aligned plates , or septa , projecting upwards from the base . Each of these plates is flanked by a pair of mesenteries .
The septa are secreted by the mesenteries , and are therefore added in the same order as the mesenteries are . As a result , septa of different ages are adjacent to one another , and the symmetry of the scleractinian skeleton is radial or biradial . This pattern of septal insertion is termed " cyclic " by paleontologists . By contrast , in some fossil corals , adjacent septa lie in order of increasing age , a pattern termed serial and produces a bilateral symmetry . Scleractinians secrete a stony exoskeleton in which the septa are inserted between the mesenteries in multiples of six .
All modern scleractinian skeletons are composed of calcium carbonate in the form of crystals of aragonite , however , a prehistoric scleractinian ( Coelosimilia ) had a non @-@ aragonite skeletal structure which was composed of calcite . The structure of both simple and compound scleractinians is light and porous , rather than solid as is the case in the prehistoric order Rugosa . Scleractinians are also distinguished from rugosans by their pattern of septal insertion .
= = = Growth = = =
In colonial corals , growth results from the budding of new polyps . There are two types of budding , intratentacular and extratentacular . In intratentacular budding , a new polyp develops on the oral disc , inside the ring of tentacles . This can form individual , separate polyps or a row of partially separated polyps sharing an elongate oral disc with a series of mouths . Tentacles grow around the margin of this elongated oral disc and not around the individual mouths . This is surrounded by a single corallite wall , as is the case in the meandroid corallites of brain corals .
Extratentacular budding always results in separate polyps , each with its own corallite wall . In the case of bushy corals such as Acropora , lateral budding from axial polyps form the basis of the trunk and branches . The rate at which a stony coral colony lays down calcium carbonate depends on the species , but some of the branching species can increase in height or length by around 10 cm ( 4 in ) a year ( about the same rate as human hair grows ) . Other corals , like the dome and plate species , are more bulky and may only grow 0 @.@ 3 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) per year . The rate of aragonite deposition varies diurnally and seasonally . Examination of cross sections of coral can show bands of deposition indicating annual growth . Like tree rings , these can be used to estimate the age of the coral .
Solitary corals do not bud . They gradually increase in size as they deposit more calcium carbonate and produce new whorls of septa . A large Ctenactis echinata for example normally has a single mouth , may be about 25 cm ( 10 in ) long and have more than a thousand septa .
= = Distribution = =
Stony corals occur in all the world 's oceans . There are two main ecological groups . Hermatypic corals are mostly colonial corals which tend to live in clear , oligotrophic , shallow tropical waters ; they are the world 's primary reef @-@ builders . Ahermatypic corals are either colonial or solitary and are found in all regions of the ocean and do not build reefs . Some live in tropical waters but some inhabit temperate seas , polar waters , or live at great depths , from the photic zone down to about 6 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) .
= = Ecology = =
Scleractinians fall into one of two main categories :
Reef @-@ forming or hermatypic corals , which mostly contain zooxanthellae ;
Non @-@ reef @-@ forming or ahermatypic corals , which mostly do not contain zooxanthellae
In reef @-@ forming corals , the endodermal cells are usually replete with symbiotic unicelular dinoflagellates known as zooxanthellae . There are sometimes as many as five million cells of these per 1 square centimetre ( 0 @.@ 16 sq in ) of coral tissue . The symbionts benefit the corals because up to 50 % of the organic compounds they produce are used as food by the polyps . The oxygen byproduct of photosynthesis and the additional energy derived from sugars produced by zooxanthallae enable these corals to grow at a rate up to three times faster than similar species without symbionts . These corals typically grow in shallow , well @-@ lit , warm water with moderate to brisk turbulence and abundant oxygen , and prefer firm , non @-@ muddy surfaces on which to settle .
Most stony corals extend their tentacles to feed on zooplankton , but those with larger polyps take correspondingly larger prey , including various invertebrates and even small fish . In addition to capturing prey in this way , many stony corals also produce mucus films they can move over their bodies using cilia ; these trap small organic particles which are then pulled towards and into the mouth . In a few stony corals , this is the primary method of feeding , and the tentacles are reduced or absent , an example being Acropora acuminata . Caribbean stony corals are generally nocturnal , with the polyps retracting into their skeletons during the day , thus maximising the exposure of the zooxanthallae to the light , but in the Indo @-@ Pacific region , many species feed by day and night .
Non @-@ zooxanthellate corals are usually not reef @-@ formers ; they can be found most abundantly beneath about 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) of water . They thrive at much colder temperatures and can live in total darkness , deriving their energy from the capture of plankton and suspended organic particles . The growth rates of most species of non @-@ zooxanthellate corals are significantly slower than those of their counterparts , and the typical structure for these corals is less calcified and more susceptible to mechanical damage than that of zooxanthellate corals .
= = Life cycle = =
Stony corals have a great range of reproductive strategies and can reproduce both sexually and asexually . Many species have separate sexes , the whole colony being either male or female , but others are hermaphroditic , with individual polyps having both male and female gonads . Some species brood their eggs but in most species , sexual reproduction results in the production of a free @-@ swimming planula larva that eventually settles on the seabed to undergo metamorphosis into a polyp . In colonial species , this initial polyp then repeatedly divides asexually , to give rise to the entire colony .
= = = Asexual reproduction = = =
The most common means of asexual reproduction in colonial stony corals is by fragmentation . Pieces of branching corals may get detached during storms , by strong water movement or by mechanical means , and fragments fall to the sea bed . In suitable conditions , these are capable of adhering to the substrate and starting new colonies . Even such massive corals as Montastraea annularis have been shown to be capable of forming new colonies after fragmentation . This process is used in the reef aquarium hobby to increase stock without the necessity to harvest corals from the wild .
Under adverse conditions , certain species of coral resort to another type of asexual reproduction in the form of " polyp bail @-@ out " , which may allow polyps to survive even though the parent colony dies . It involves the growth of the coenosarc to seal off the polyps , detachment of the polyps and their settlement on the seabed to initiate new colonies . In other species , small balls of tissue detach themselves from the coenosarc , differentiate into polyps and start secreting calcium carbonate to form new colonies , and in Pocillopora damicornis , unfertilised eggs can develop into viable larvae .
= = = Sexual reproduction = = =
The overwhelming majority of scleractinian taxa are hermaphroditic in their adult colonies . In temperate regions , the usual pattern is synchronized release of eggs and sperm into the water during brief spawning events , often related to the phases of the moon . In tropical regions , reproduction may occur throughout the year . In many cases , as in the genus Acropora , the eggs and sperm are released in buoyant bundles which rise to the surface . This increases the concentration of sperm and eggs and thus the likelihood of fertilization , and reduces the risk of self @-@ fertilization . Immediately after spawning , the eggs are delayed in their capability for fertilization until after the release of polar bodies . This delay , and possibly some degree of self @-@ incompatibility , likely increases the chance of cross @-@ fertilization . A study of four species of Scleractinia found that cross @-@ fertilization was actually the dominant mating pattern , although three of the species were also capable of self @-@ fertilization to varying extents .
= = Evolutionary history = =
There is little evidence on which to base a hypothesis about the origin of the scleractinians ; plenty is known about modern species but very little about fossil specimens , which first appeared in the record in the Middle Triassic ( 240 million years ago ) . It was not until 25 million years later that they became important reef builders , their success perhaps a result of teaming up with symbotic algae . Nine of the sub @-@ orders were in existence by the end of the Triassic and three more had appeared by the Jurassic ( 200 million years ago ) , with a further suborder appearing in the Middle Cretaceous ( 100 million years ago ) . Some may have developed from a common ancestor , either an anemone @-@ like coral without a skeleton , or a rugose coral . A rugose coral seems an unlikely common ancestor because these corals had calcite rather than aragonite skeletons , and the septa were arranged serially rather than cyclically . However , it may be that similarities of scleractinians to rugosans are due to a common non @-@ skeletalized ancestor in the early Paleozoic . Alternatively , scleractinians may have developed from a Corallimorpharia @-@ like ancestor . It seems that skeletogenesis may have been associated with the development of symbiosis and reef formation , and may have occurred on more than one occasion . DNA sequencing appears to indicate that scleractinian corals are a monophyletic group .
The earliest scleractinians were not reef builders , but were small , phaceloid or solitary individuals . Scleractinian corals were probably at their greatest diversity in the Jurassic and all but disappeared in the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , about 18 out of 67 genera surviving . Recently discovered Paleozoic corals with aragonitic skeletons and cyclic septal insertion – two features that characterize Scleractinia – have strengthened the hypothesis for an independent origin of the Scleractinia . Whether the early scleractinian corals were zooxanthellate is an open question . The phenomenon seems to have evolved independently on numerous occasions during the Tertiary , and the genera Astrangia , Madracis , Cladocora and Oculina , all in different families , each have both zooxanthellate and non @-@ zooxanthellate members .
= = Classification = =
The taxonomy of Scleractinia is particularly challenging . Many species were described before the advent of scuba diving , with little realisation by the authors that coral species could have varying morphologies in different habitats . Collectors were mostly limited to observing corals on reef flats , and were unable to observe the changes in morphology that occurred in more turbid , deeper @-@ water conditions . More than 2 @,@ 000 nominal species were described in this era , and by the rules of nomenclature , the name given to the first described species has precedence over the rest , even when that description is poor , and the environment and even sometimes the country of the type specimen is unknown .
Even the concept of " the species " is suspect , with regard to corals which have large geographical ranges with a number of sub @-@ populations ; their geographic boundaries merge with those of other species ; their morphological boundaries merge with those of other species ; and there are no definite distinctions between species and subspecies .
The evolutionary relationships among stony corals were first examined in the 19th and early 20th centuries . The two most advanced 19th century classifications both used complex skeletal characters ; The 1857 classification of the French zoologists Henri Milne @-@ Edwards and Jules Haime ’ s was based on macroscopic skeletal characters , while Francis Grant Ogilvie 's 1897 scheme was developed using observations of skeletal microstructures , with particular attention to the structure and pattern of the septal trabeculae . In 1943 , the American zoologists Thomas Wayland Vaughan and John West Wells , and Wells again in 1956 , used the patterns of the septal trabeculae to divide the group into five suborders . In addition , they considered polypoid features such as the growth of the tentacles . They also distinguished families by wall type and type of budding .
The 1952 classification by French zoologist J. Alloiteau was built on these earlier systems but included more microstructural observations and did not involve the anatomical characters of the polyp . Alloiteau recognized eight suborders . In 1942 , W.H. Bryan and D. Hill stressed the importance of microstructural observations by proposing that stony corals begin skeletal growth by configuring calcification centers , which are genetically derived . Therefore , diverse patterns of calcification centers are vital to classification . Alloiteau later showed that established morphological classifications were unbalanced and that there were many examples of convergent evolution between fossils and recent taxa .
The rise of molecular techniques at the end of the 20th century prompted new evolutionary hypotheses that were different from ones founded on skeletal data . Results of molecular studies explained a variety of aspects of the evolutionary biology of the Scleractinia , including connections between and within extant taxa , and supplied support for hypotheses about extant corals that are founded on the fossil record . The 1996 analysis of mitochondrial RNA undertaken by American zoologists Sandra Romano and Stephen Palumbiof found that molecular data supported the assembling of species into the existing families , but not into the traditional suborders . For example , some genera affiliated with different suborders were now located on the same branch of a phylogenetic tree . In addition , there is no distinguishing morphological character that separates clades , only molecular differences .
The Australian zoologist John Veron and his co @-@ workers analyzed ribosomal RNA in 1996 to obtain similar results to Romano and Palumbi , again concluding that the traditional families were plausible but that the suborders were incorrect . They also established that stony corals are monophyletic , including all the descendants of a common ancestor , but that they are divided into two groups , the robust and complex clades . Veron suggested that both morphological and molecular systems be used in future classification schemes .
= = Families = =
The World Register of Marine Species lists the following families as being included in the order Scleractinia :
= The X @-@ Files ( film ) =
The X @-@ Files ( also known as The X @-@ Files : Fight the Future ) is a 1998 American science fiction thriller film directed by Rob Bowman . Chris Carter wrote the screenplay . The story is by Carter and Frank Spotnitz . It is the first feature film based on Carter 's television series The X @-@ Files that revolves around fictional unsolved cases called the X @-@ Files and the characters solving them . Five main characters from the television series appear in the film : David Duchovny , Gillian Anderson , Mitch Pileggi , John Neville , and William B. Davis reprise their respective roles as FBI agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , FBI Assistant Director Walter Skinner , Well @-@ Manicured Man , and the Cigarette @-@ Smoking Man . The film was promoted with the tagline Fight the Future .
The film takes place between seasons five ( episode " The End " ) and six ( episode " The Beginning " ) of the television series , and is based upon the series ' extraterrestrial mythology . The story follows agents Mulder and Scully , removed from their usual jobs on the X @-@ Files , and investigating the bombing of a building and the destruction of criminal evidence . They uncover what appears to be a government conspiracy attempting to hide the truth about an alien colonization of Earth .
Carter decided to make a feature film to explore the show 's mythology on a wider scale , as well as appealing to non @-@ fans . He wrote the story with Frank Spotnitz at the end of 1996 and , with a budget from 20th Century Fox , filming began in 1997 , following the end of the show 's fourth season . Carter assembled cast and crew from the show , as well as some other , well @-@ known actors such as Blythe Danner and Martin Landau , to begin production on what they termed " Project Blackwood " . The film was produced by Carter and Daniel Sackheim . Mark Snow continued his role as X @-@ Files composer to create the film 's score .
The film premiered on June 19 , 1998 in the United States , and received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Although some enjoyed the style and effects of the film , others found the plot confusing and viewed it as little more than an extended episode of the series . A sequel , entitled I Want to Believe , was released ten years later .
= = Plot = =
The film opens in what will become North Texas , 35 @,@ 000 BC . Entering a cave , two cavemen hunters stumble upon a large extraterrestrial life form . One is killed by the creature while the other one fights and wins , stabbing the creature to death , but he is also infected by a black oil @-@ like substance which crawls into his skin . In 1998 , in the same area , when a group of boys are digging a deep hole , a young boy named Stevie falls down the hole and finds a human skull . As he holds it , black oil seeps into his body until it reaches his head , causing his eyes to turn black . Later , four firefighters descend into the hole to rescue him , but do not come out . A team of biohazard @-@ suited men arrives on the scene .
Meanwhile , FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully have been assigned to other projects since the closure of the X @-@ Files . They are helping investigate a bomb threat against a federal building in Dallas . Mulder inspects a building across the street from the supposed target and discovers the bomb in a vending machine . Special Agent in Charge Darius Michaud stays behind to disarm the bomb as Mulder and Scully evacuate the building . Unknown to the agents , Michaud makes no effort to disarm the bomb , which detonates .
Returning to Washington , D.C. , Mulder and Scully are chastised because , in addition to Michaud , five people were apparently still in the building during the bombing . There are scheduled separate hearings at which their job performances will be evaluated . That evening , Mulder encounters a paranoid doctor , Alvin Kurtzweil , who explains that the victims were the firefighters and boy , that they were already dead , and that the bomb was allowed to detonate in order to destroy evidence of how they died . At the hospital morgue , Scully is able to examine one of the victims , finding evidence of an alien virus .
Meanwhile , Mulder and Scully 's enemy , the Cigarette Smoking Man , meets with Dr. Ben Bronschweig in Texas , which they locate one of the firefighters who contains the same alien virus , but with an alien organism residing inside the body ; the Cigarette Smoking Man orders to administer a vaccine to it , but should it fail , have the body burned . Later , the alien organism gestates and kills Bronschweig .
Mulder and Scully travel to the crime scene in Texas . They come across a strange train hauling tanker trucks and they follow it to a large cornfield surrounding two glowing domes . They enter the domes , only to find them empty . Suddenly , grates leading to an underground area open in the floor and a swarm of bees chases the agents out into the cornfield . Black helicopters appear and begin to chase them , but they escape and head back to Washington .
After returning , Mulder unsuccessfully tries to get help from Kurtzweil , while Scully attends her performance hearing and learns that she is being transferred to Salt Lake City , Utah . Mulder is devastated to lose Scully as a partner . The two are about to share a kiss when Scully is stung by a bee which had lodged itself under her shirt collar . The sting causes Scully to quickly lose consciousness . Mulder calls for the paramedics but when an ambulance arrives , the driver shoots Mulder in the head and whisks Scully away . Waking up in hospital , Mulder is told the bullet only grazed his temple and leaves with the help of The Lone Gunmen and FBI Assistant Director Walter Skinner . Mulder then meets a former adversary , the Well @-@ Manicured Man , who gives him Scully 's location in Antarctica , along with a vaccine to combat the virus that has infected her . The Well @-@ Manicured Man then kills himself in a car bomb , before his betrayal of The Syndicate is discovered .
Mulder travels to Antarctica to save Scully , and discovers a secret underground laboratory run by the Cigarette Smoking Man . Mulder uses the vaccine to revive Scully , disrupting the stable environment of the lab and reviving the cocooned aliens . The lab is destroyed just after Mulder and Scully escape to the surface . It turns out to be part of a huge alien vessel lying dormant beneath the snow ; the vessel pushes up through tons of ice and snow and travels straight up into the sky . Mulder watches the ship fly directly overhead and disappear into the distance , as Scully regains consciousness .
Some time later , Scully attends a hearing , where her testimony is ignored and the evidence covered up . The only remaining proof of their ordeal is the bee that stung Scully , collected by the Lone Gunmen . She hands it over , noting that the FBI does not currently have an investigative unit qualified to pursue the evidence at hand . Outside , Mulder is reading an article that has covered up the domes and crop field in Texas ; Scully informs Mulder that she is willing to continue working with him .
At another crop outpost in Tunisia , the Cigarette Smoking Man warns Strughold that Mulder remains a threat , as he explains what Mulder has found out about the virus . He then hands him a telegram revealing that the X @-@ files unit has been re @-@ opened .
= = Cast = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully
Martin Landau as Alvin Kurtzweil
Blythe Danner as Jana Cassidy
Armin Mueller @-@ Stahl as Conrad Strughold
Mitch Pileggi as Assistant Director Walter Skinner
William B. Davis as Cigarette @-@ Smoking Man
John Neville as Well @-@ Manicured Man
Dean Haglund as Richard " Ringo " Langly
Bruce Harwood as John Fitzgerald Byers
Tom Braidwood as Melvin Frohike
Jeffrey DeMunn as Ben Bronschweig
Michael Shamus Wiles as Black @-@ Haired Man
Terry O 'Quinn as Special Agent in Charge Darius Michaud
Lucas Black as Stevie
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and pre @-@ production = = =
After five successful seasons , Chris Carter wanted to tell the story of the series on a wider scale , which ultimately meant creating a feature film . He later explained that the main problem was to create a story for which the viewer would not need to be familiar with the show 's setting and the various story arcs .
Carter and Frank Spotnitz wrote major parts of the script in Hawaii over Christmas 1996 . They used the same method that they had used when writing episodes and sketching out scenes for the series on 3x5 index cards . By the time the Christmas break had ended , the whole narrative for the film had been written . Upon his return from Hawaii , Carter looked for spare time to write the script . He returned to Hawaii and in ten days wrote about half of the 124 @-@ page screenplay for the film .
Carter gave 90 pages of the screenplay to Fox who received it well . While not officially greenlighted , he got a budget from Fox and began to make plans as to when and where it would be filmed . Carter then enlisted Daniel Sackheim as a producer on the film . Sackheim had previously produced the pilot episode of The X @-@ Files and directed several episodes in the first two seasons . The X @-@ Files marked his first contribution as producer to a feature film . Carter 's choice for director was Rob Bowman , who had been the series ' executive producer and a director before the production base was moved from Vancouver to Los Angeles .
During production , the filmmakers went to great lengths to preserve secrecy , including printing the script on red paper to prevent photocopying , and leaking disinformation to the media and giving the film the codename " Project Blackwood " . The code was cracked by fans who speculated on the meaning behind it . According to Spotnitz , " Blackwood " held no particular significance .
At the beginning of the pre @-@ production phase , Carter and Bowman were busy with the television series , leaving Sackheim to work alone . Sackheim hired executive producer Lata Ryan , who had previously collaborated with Steven Spielberg for his 1993 film , Jurassic Park . Once hired , Ryan was allowed to read the script in front of the Ten Thirteen Productions staff members — but not to take it away . At this time , most of the staff members had not read the script for themselves . After Ryan accepted the offer of becoming executive producer , Chris Nowak was hired as production designer , Ward Russell as director of photography and Bill Liams as construction coordinator . According to Ryan , they had secured all key personnel six weeks before principal filming began .
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Both Carter and Spotnitz wanted to make the film " bigger " than the series , so they decided to start and end the film at an " extreme place " and explain aspects of the story arc that the show had not . While gathering research materials , they learned that the Earth was once covered with ice and decided to open the film in Texas in 35 @,@ 000 BC with human " Primitives " as the first characters to appear .
The film included known actors from the show such as David Duchovny as Fox Mulder , Gillian Anderson as Dana Scully , Mitch Pileggi as Walter Skinner and William B. Davis as the Cigarette Smoking Man , as well as new actors and characters to the franchise . These included Martin Landau and Blythe Danner . The signing of these actors broke with what had become tradition for The X @-@ Files . Carter had purposely cast virtually unknown actors for the television series , to make it more believable ; " As soon as you put in an actor whose face is very recognizable , you 've got a situation that works against the reality of the show . " He saw creating the film as a chance to break this rule . He offered Glenne Headly the small role of a bartender . A fan of the show , she accepted enthusiastically .
= = = Set design = = =
Chris Nowak was hired as production designer for the film by Daniel Sackheim . Nowak was a former architect who had worked as a professional theater set designer for eight years , before moving towards the film business as an art director . Nowak had previously worked with Sackheim on a television production , which led to Sackheim contacting him to do an interview for the selection of a production designer . According to Sackheim , Nowak was hired because he was the only one able to create a " focused vision " for the film .
Nowak wanted to start the design process after talking through the story with the filmmakers so that he could formulate " a sense of the atmosphere " which they wanted to create for the film . He wanted to create a " dark , scary and oppressive environment " for the characters , especially Mulder . While familiar with the television series , Nowak decided not to review any episodes as preparation for his role in the production . Explaining this decision , he said , " I wanted the movie to be as fresh and new as possible in its design . Of course , there were some elements from the show that had to be retained . "
The design department found all their locations and designed sets in eight weeks , guided by input from the filmmakers . Nowak started by creating artwork for all the major sets and locations , working with the two concept artists Tim Flattery and Jim Martin . Nowak created drafts and sent them to Flattery and Martin who continued to develop them until they were complete . The complete artwork was then presented to Chris Carter , Rob Bowman , Lata Ryan and Sackheim for approval . While considering the time schedule , they made no notable changes to the artwork .
Once the set concepts were approved by Carter , Bowman , Sackheim and Ryan , they were sent to the blueprint stage so that construction of the sets could begin under the supervision of construction coordinator Bill Liams . All the major sets were constructed " simultaneously " because of the schedule . However , this proved to be a challenge for the production team , because it meant they had to pay the rent on all the stages at the same time . The set construction started seven weeks before filming .
= = = Filming = = =
Carter and Bowman wanted to film in as many different locations as possible to give the film a " grander " feel than had usually been achievable for the television episodes . The tighter schedule , with only eight weeks of pre @-@ production and 45 days of principal photography , still caused the production to have less location shooting than planned . Los Angeles ended up standing in for Dallas and London ( though a shot was done in London with a double ) , and the ice scenes , initially envisaged for an ice field in Alaska , were moved to Whistler , British Columbia , nearby the show 's regular locations in Vancouver . Principal photography for the film started on June 16 , 1997 .
The X @-@ Files was filmed in the hiatus between the show 's fourth and fifth seasons and re @-@ shoots were conducted during the filming of the show 's fifth season . Due to the demands of the film shoot on the actors ' schedules , some episodes of the fifth season did not revolve around both Mulder and Scully but just one of the two lead stars .
= = = Music = = =
Two soundtracks , The X @-@ Files : Original Motion Picture Score and The X @-@ Files : The Album were both released to home markets in 1998 . The X @-@ Files : The Album included a take on the original theme song by the American duo The Dust Brothers , and included a hidden track on which Chris Carter details a summary of The X @-@ Files mythology . Mark Snow , who had worked on the television series as a composer , was hired to score the film . Chris Carter wanted a " very minimal approach " to the music . He did not want much " melody " and wanted to replace it with plain " ambient atmosphere " and " sound design " . Snow mixed electronic music with an 85 @-@ member orchestra to give the film a " great sense of scope and grandeur . "
When creating the music for the film , Snow had a couple of months to write and produce the music , composing the television series simultaneously . The film marked the first time in the history of the franchise that music was composed and recorded with the help of an orchestra , although , according to Snow , there was no significant change in the recording and writing process during the production of the film . The most substantial difference was that Snow used MIDI files to save his musical scores and pieces , which would afterward be sent to a copyist who would take it through one of their programs and eventually give it to the orchestrators .
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical run = = =
The film premiered theatrically in the United States ( as well as Canada ) on June 19 , 1998 , distributed by 20th Century Fox . It closed after 14 weeks , with its widest release having been 2 @,@ 650 theaters .
= = = Home media = = =
The same year as the international theatrical release , the film was released on VHS in an Extended Cut edition . The film made its first appearance on DVD on January 24 , 2000 in Region 2 and in early 2001 in Region 1 . In 2008 , producer Frank Spotnitz announced plans to release a new special edition DVD and Blu @-@ ray edition of the movie . " We are working on packing the [ re @-@ issued ] DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases with as many extras as they will fit , including video and audio commentaries , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , bloopers , trailers , a new documentary , and several other cool surprises . " The Blu @-@ ray version was released on December 2 , 2008 . In addition , a novelization of the film was written by Elizabeth Hand and released on June 19 , 1998 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film grossed $ 83 @,@ 898 @,@ 313 in the U.S. and $ 105 @,@ 278 @,@ 110 abroad , giving a total worldwide gross of $ 189 @,@ 176 @,@ 423 . In its opening weekend , showing at 2 @,@ 629 theaters , it earned $ 30 @,@ 138 @,@ 758 which was 35 @.@ 9 % of its total gross . According to Box Office Mojo , it ranked at No. 23 for all films released in the U.S. in 1998 and No. 10 for PG @-@ 13 rated films released that year .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received generally positive reviews . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 64 % of 69 listed film critics gave the film a positive review , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 1 out of 10 .
Roger Ebert gave a positive review of the film with three out of four stars , saying , " As pure movie , The X @-@ Files more or less works . As a story , it needs a sequel , a prequel , and Cliff Notes . " Joyce Millman of Salon was more equivocal , writing , " ... You really can 't treat The X @-@ Files as a movie because it isn 't one . It 's a two @-@ hour episode of the show , " and said it was far from the " most satisfying " of X @-@ Files releases . San Francisco Chronicle reviewer Bob Graham was positive towards the film , calling " David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson [ ... ] enormously sympathetic heroes . " Michael O 'Sullivan , a reviewer from The Washington Post called the film , " stylish , scary , sardonically funny and at times just plain gross . "
Los Angeles Times reviewer Kenneth Turan felt that it was difficult to make sense of the film , saying that it relied too heavily on the series ' mythology . Lisa Alspector wrote that " Only two scenes in this spin @-@ off are worth the time of followers of the TV series . " Variety reviewer Todd McCarthy remarked , " As it is , the pic serves up set @-@ pieces and a measure of scope that are beyond TV size but remain rather underwhelming by feature standards . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times responded negatively towards the film , complaining that it was uneventful and scorning the " hush @-@ hush atmosphere " surrounding the production .
= = Sequel = =
The X @-@ Files has spawned one sequel , a 2008 film entitled The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe released six years after the series ended . The film performed modestly at the box office and received a less positive response than the first film . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Chris Carter announced that if I Want to Believe proved successful , he would propose that a third movie go back to the television series ' mythology and focus on the alien invasion foretold within the series , due to occur in December 2012 . No third movie appeared ; instead the TV series was revived in 2016 .
= The Fat Guy Strangler =
" The Fat Guy Strangler " is the 17th episode of the fourth season of the animated television series Family Guy . It originally aired on the Fox network on November 27 , 2005 . In the episode , Lois discovers she has a long @-@ lost brother , Patrick , who was institutionalized after seeing his mother being seduced . Lois gets him released , but after a childhood flashback induced by Peter , Patrick becomes traumatized and starts murdering overweight people . The episode was written by Chris Sheridan and directed by Sarah Frost , whilst guest stars were Bob Barker , Dave Boat , Max Burkholder , Barclay DeVeau , Robert Downey Jr . , Margaret Easley , Kim Parks , Will Sasso , Anne @-@ Michelle Seiler and Tara Strong .
= = Plot = =
Instead of going to his physical , Peter goes out with Brian , Quagmire , Cleveland , and Joe . When Lois finds out , she takes him to the doctor herself . The doctor pronounces him healthy , but fat . Peter takes this badly , even smashing a picture of Lois ' family . Trying to salvage it , Lois discovers another child in the picture : a boy . She telephones her father Carter , who tells her she doesn 't have a brother and quickly terminates the call , but she persists : she breaks into her parents ' house . She finally learns that her brother Patrick has been shut away in a mental hospital for decades , ever since he suffered a nervous breakdown as a young child , upon walking in on his mother having an affair with Jackie Gleason .
Meanwhile , Peter announces to the family that he is fat and decides to create the " National Association for The Advancement of Fat People " ( NAAFP ) . Peter hosts the first meeting of the association , but it is unsuccessful due to those attending munching junk food the entire way through .
Believing Patrick to be sane , Lois authorizes his release , and arranges for Patrick to stay with the family . Patrick soon announces he has a wife , Marion , although she is imaginary and nobody else other than him can see her . This leads Brian and Stewie to believe he is crazy . Lois attempts to overlook the evidence , and instead tries to persuade Peter not to encourage people to be fat . Peter unintentionally traumatizes Patrick later by dressing up like Ralph Kramden and repeatedly using one of Kramden 's catchphrases " Pow , right in the kisser ! " which brings back memories of Gleason telling him to get out . This triggers Patrick to start killing fat people .
Lois ' father , Carter , calls her and tells her how dangerous Patrick is , but she assures him Patrick is safe , although she becomes worried after seeing on the news that a fat man has been murdered . Lois remains in denial as more murders are committed , even though Brian tries to convince her that Patrick is the killer .
Peter brings the fat men back to his home to protect them , but after learning from Brian that Patrick is the killer , a chase between the fat men and Patrick ensues . Brian , still at the house , shows Patrick 's room to Lois , where several of his victims are either deceased or had been left for dead , and photographic evidence of Patrick killing them . Lois continues to make crazy excuses , still wanting to believe her brother is a sane person , but ultimately she snaps out of her denial and realizes that Patrick is dangerous . Lois and Brian pursue Patrick and Peter into the woods , where Patrick is strangling Peter . Patrick quickly releases Peter after Lois threatens to stab Marion , his imaginary wife . Patrick apologizes , telling Lois that he never meant to hurt her , and the two agree he should be sent back to the mental hospital , where Lois and the family plan to visit him once a month .
= = Cultural references = =
Patrick was traumatized as a child by Jackie Gleason after seeing him seduce his mother , Barbara , in front of him . While at the mental hospital , Stewie makes a reference to the movie Sling Blade . Brian makes a reference to season @-@ three Family Guy episode " To Love and Die in Dixie " . Lois is shown watching the game show The Price Is Right . The cavemen who " invented singing " perform an a cappella version of Billy Joel 's " The Longest Time . "
= = Production = =
The origins of the episode and the character of Patrick began when Robert Downey , Jr. telephoned the show production staff and asked if he could produce or assist in an episode creation , as his son is a fan of the show , so the producers came up with the character of Patrick for Downey . Show producer Seth MacFarlane believes Downey " did a great job , " and brought a " very kind of half crazy , and maybe just eccentric personality to that character that really worked out great . " When Patrick makes his second appearance in season 10 's " Killer Queen " , he is not voiced by Downey . Instead , he is voiced by Family Guy writer , and recurring guest voice actor , Danny Smith . Bob Barker voiced himself presenting The Price Is Right ; but the actual sequence took years to make . Barker has provided his voice for the show twice , although MacFarlane has never met him . John Veiner voiced Bobby McFerrin falling down a flight of stairs . The ball @-@ in @-@ a @-@ cup scene is commented upon by MacFarlane , where he states that " the voice @-@ overs work , the drawings work " and that Walter Murphy " did a great job of creating a piece of deliberately annoying music . " Several jokes had been pitched for Peter 's words after killing an evil dragon , but all were dropped , as they weren 't deemed funny enough by production staff .
MacFarlane notes that he was surprised they were allowed to do the pickle gag , which consisted of Stewie placing a cucumber on the sofa where Patrick 's imaginary wife is sitting , but inserting it into her imaginary vagina ( to see if it would turn into a pickle ) , but suggests that maybe broadcasting standards did not fully understand the scene . The music song by the overweight people at a funeral for a murdered obese man was only shown on the DVD version and not televised , for timing purposes , and for potential boredom to viewers . The musical composition was recorded at Fox studios on the Gary Numan stage . George W. Bush is portrayed hiding in a tree house and Brian informing by Brian of Hurricane Katrina . Bush was offered the opportunity to voice himself , but declined .
A deleted scene had been made which showed the family traveling on board an airplane on which Peter , rather than using the airplane toilet as " he is too fat to get out of his seat , " urinates in his seat , but unknowingly urinates on Brian in the process , as he is in a dog cage below Peter 's seat . If this scene had been used in the episode , it was intended for Brian , after throwing a rock aimed at Peter 's head , to say " that 's for pissing on me ! "
= = Reception = =
In a review of the episode , TV Squad commented positively about the storyline , noting that " Unlike The Simpsons tonight , Family Guy actually did work their two storylines together . Their first big one , was about Peter 's ever increasing weight problem . He skips out on going to his physical , so that he and Brian can go meet the guys at an all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat steak restaurant . " In a review of Family Guy , Volume 4 , Nancy Basile regards " The Fat Guy Strangler " as one of her favorite episodes , as well as " PTV . " Basile moves on to comment that " Being prejudiced against fat people just isn 't talked about , but this episode sheds a harsh light on that problem . At times the episode tries to show people who are fat as being victims of unfair bias , but other times just out and out makes fun of them . "
= Malagasy hippopotamus =
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and supports anything he says no matter how ridiculous it is and often goes as far to mimic his body language and his speech , although she often does not really know what she is saying . Although the pair are very idiotic , Isaac is not completely stupid and there are occasions that shows that he displays his inner intelligence . He is able to recognize a pair of plainclothes officers because he claims that he is familiar with their speech style . Isaac and Miria may have been born into wealthy families because they state that their parents ' homes and the Genoard mansion have similar exteriors .
In the Rolling Bootlegs , set in 1930 , Isaac and Miria decide to visit Manhattan . When attempting to buy several disguises , they briefly meet Camorristi Firo Prochainezo and Maiza Avaro and befriend the homunculus Ennis , instilling her with confidence and hope . They decide to rob the very small Martillo and Gandor families . The pair sneak into the Martillo 's speakeasy , the Alveare , to scout the area , and while they are in the storage room , Isaac is nearly killed by a ceremonial gunshot from Firo 's caporegime inauguration downstairs . Firo and Maiza respond to Miria 's scream for help , and the couple are invited to the celebration as an apology . Shortly afterward , they leave to investigate the Gandor headquarters . Believing it contains money , they steal a box . However , they find a bottle of immortality elixir inside , which they mistake for alcohol . Disappointed there is no money , they give the bottle to the Martillo thank them for their kindness . This prompts the immortal Szilard Quates , who owns the elixir and created Ennis , to attack the Alveare to retrieve the elixir . He orders Ennis to kill Isaac and Miria , but she attacks Szilard instead . When he is about to kill her , Isaac and Miria defend her , buying enough time for another immortal to devour Szilard , the only way to kill an immortal . It is later discovered that the immortality elixir was not in the bottle the duo stole . Firo , not realizing what it was , had stolen it earlier and distributed it at the celebration , bestowing immortality and eternal youth on all the guests , including Isaac and Miria . In the anime series , the bottle the pair stole is truly the immortality elixir and they inadvertently distribute it at the party as a gesture of thanks toward the Martillo . Afterward , the two travel to California and search for gold .
In the two Grand Punk Railroad novels , set during late 1931 , the pair receive a letter from Ennis and decide to visit her in Manhattan . To buy her a gift , they create a plan to rob a train , but instead steal money from the Russo family and make their escape aboard the Flying Pussyfoot express train . There , they befriend gangsters Jacuzzi Splot and Nice Holystone and the immortal boy Czeslaw Meyer . They tell the legend of the Rail Tracer , a monster that eats train passengers , causing Jacuzzi to leave in a panic . Shortly after , the train is hijacked and they escape in the confusion . Later , the duo discover the conductors ' mutilated bodies . Believing that the story of the Rail Tracer has come true , they assume Jacuzzi has also been eaten , only to discover otherwise . Isaac and Miria make up their minds to ask the Rail Tracer to leave , oblivious to the seriousness of the situation and how dangerous the Rail Tracer is . They find Czeslaw 's body underneath the train in their search for the monster . When trying to rescue him , Isaac cuts himself , revealing their immortality to Czeslaw . Believing they are trying to devour him , the boy decides to devour them first , but changes his mind after they rescue him and promise to be his family . After the train arrives in Manhattan , they realize they never bought Ennis a present and tell her their gift is Czeslaw , who will be her younger brother .
Afterward , they stay with the Martillo and spend their time in the Alveare restaurant setting up and knocking down dominoes . In The Slash , Firo 's purposely knocks over their dominoes , enraging Isaac and Miria . The pair decide to spend the night at the Genoard mansion with Jacuzzi . When Tim and the Larvae arrive at the mansion , they believe that the display of Dallas ' immortality is a magic trick and the fights are dances . Isaac inadvertently reveals his own immortality when he receives a cut trying to praise the " dancers . " After everyone departs the mansion , the duo decide to " steal " Ronnie Sukiart and Ennis , two people precious to Firo , in an attempt to make him apologize . However , Firo wrongly assumes that Dallas kidnapped Ronnie and Ennis . Isaac and Miria are confronted by plainclothes officers in 1934 in Imprisoned Chapter Alice in Jails . Isaac knows they are in fact police @-@ in @-@ disguise and realizes that Miria is unaware of this and sends her away . He is arrested for multiple thefts and imprisoned on Alcatraz Island . Isaac is released later in the year and reunites with Miria in Chicago , as told in Conclusion Chapter Peter Pan In Chains . In Children of Bottle , set in 2001 , they finally understand they are immortal after realizing they have not aged at all .
= = = In other media = = =
Isaac and Miria appear in the series ' two drama CDs ; they survive the Flying Pussyfoot incident in 1931 Local Chapter ・ Express Chapter The Grand Punk Railroad and hope to meet true revolutionaries in a small Mexican village in Firo Prochainezo witnesses the 53rd death of Pietro Gonzalez . The pair are also playable characters in the Baccano ! video game and are characters in the two @-@ volume manga ; like the first drama CD , the video game and manga adaptations recount the events aboard the Pussyfoot . The pair have also made a brief appearance in an episode of the Durarara ! ! anime series , voiced by Sam Riegel and Jennie Kwan in the English dub , during which they are in modern @-@ day Ikebukuro , Tokyo and attend the first meeting of the Dollars , an anonymous online gang .
= = Reception = =
Isaac and Miria have been named one of two of 2009 's " Duo of the Year " by Theron Martin of Anime News Network ( ANN ) . He felt that the pair were " flawlessly in synch " and were " comedic gold " . He believed that they are " endlessly entertaining " because of their " kooky natures , dimwittedness , and talents for both disrupting the intended flow of any situation and succeeding despite themselves " . Martin also stated that the series would only be " half as great without them " , despite the fact that they are members of such a large cast . Martin praised the performances of J. Michael Tatum and Caitlin Glass , citing the actors ' ability to " steal the show in every appearance " and " sell [ the pair ] as thoroughly as any voice actors could possibly do , giving them every ounce of verve and idiotic enthusiasm that their characters ' action say they should have . " Hartel comments that the voice actors " deserve special recognition for some flat out , insane voice work . " Although Surat and Tool were not opposed to the English dubbing , they felt that Isaac 's accent sounded weird and " might get on someone 's nerves . "
In his review of the series , Martin called them as the " most entertaining characters " of the series and " one of anime 's liveliest and most entertaining couples " . He described their constant glee as infectious and their " bizarre logic " as priceless . He felt that their presence " elevates the series from merely a very good one to a truly exceptional one . " He believes that they always " make the most of their screen time " , noting how every one of their actions " give an entirely new twist to the events otherwise playing out normally . " Carl Kimlinger , also from ANN , adds that " the things those two can do to a well @-@ laid plan are simply appalling . " Davey Jones of Active Anime felt the pair was the " highlight of the story " and should have their own series . Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment described the two as " very off center in a colorful and fun way " and believed they stood out from the large cast because they were " far more outgoing . " He felt that the connections they make with the rest of the cast " are fun to watch and there 's only a kind of elegance to it " . Beveridge commented that " when this pair comes on the screen , [ he ] can ’ t help but smile " and that he " enjoy [ s ] all of the scenes that involve [ them ] because they bring such a lighthearted aspect to the show that ’ s definitely needed to break up the more intense scenes . " DVD Talk 's Todd Douglass felt that Isaac and Miria are " the uplifting and energetic component of [ the ] show , " feeling that it is entertaining to see how they influenced the events . Nick Hartel , also from DVD Talk , believed that it would be cruel not to mention them . He described them to be filled with " a maniac energy , often brought to a screeching halt by melodramatic breakdowns over trivial occurrences or bold assumptions . " Although he admit they seem to have to place in the series at first , he notes that their interactions with other characters " causes a drastic shift in tone . " He comments that as the plot progresses , the pair " become a bright spot as storylines take dark turns and serve as a reminder of the goodness that makes up the vast majority of the world . " Daryl Surat of the Anime World Order Podcast and quest Mike Toole believed that out of every other character in the ensemble cast , the pair are the " default protagonists " simply because they meet every other character . They also felt that if ignorance is bliss , they are the happiest people " in the world " because they are " that stupid " . The two characters were compared to Bonnie and Clyde , but the reviewers felt that were more like Blue Falcon and Dynomutt , characters from the animated series Dynomutt , Dog Wonder . Even if the events become grim , the reviewers could not help but smile as Isaac and Miria appear . ANN columnist Erin Finnegan described Isaac and Miria as " a couple of completely loveable weirdoes " . She agreed that the subplot revolving around them " takes some of the edge off the dark moments . " Amanda Tarbet of SequentialTart.com drew parallels between the duo and the trickster god archetype . She compared them to the kitsune of Japanese folklore , which are portrayed " as tricksters , but also as nurturing characters such as guardians and friends " . She felt that Isaac and Miria " represent this duality perfectly . " Tarbet also described them as part Bonnie and Clyde and part Rodgers and Hammerstein .
= Knowle West =
Knowle West is a neighbourhood situated on a low plateau in the south of Bristol , England , about 2 miles ( 3 km ) from the centre of the city . Historically in Somerset , most of the area is coterminous with the Filwood ward of Bristol City Council , although a small part of the estate lies within Knowle ward to the east . To the west are Bishopsworth and Hartcliffe . To the north are Bedminster and Windmill Hill and to the south Whitchurch Park and Hengrove . The population as of 2008 was estimated as 11 @,@ 787 . The area is approximately 1 @.@ 26 square miles ( 3 @.@ 3 km2 ) in extent .
There is evidence of late Iron Age and Roman settlements in the area . At the time of the Domesday Book , Knowle was a rural area assessed at a taxable value of two geld units . Knowle West remained rural in character until the 1930s , when a council housing estate was developed to provide homes for people displaced by slum clearance in the centre of the city .
Famous former residents include the musician Tricky , the boxer Dixie Brown and late 1950s rock and roll band the Eagles . There are five schools and four churches in Knowle West , as well as a number of open spaces , community centres , youth clubs and shopping facilities . Community organisations include the Knowle West Media Centre , the Residents ' Planning Group and the Knowle West Health Association . There are no major employers in Knowle West but there are many small local enterprises and larger businesses on nearby trading estates . The closure of the Imperial Tobacco factory at nearby Hartcliffe in 1990 caused a large number of job losses . Just under a third of the residents are classed as economically inactive and the area is one of the most economically deprived in Bristol . Knowle West has relatively high indices of crime and drug use , but community efforts to combat this have had some success .
= = History = =
There is evidence of late Iron Age and Roman settlement at Inns Court and Filwood Park , which lie within Knowle West . In 1086 , the area that is now Knowle West was assessed by the Domesday survey as part of Knowle in the hundred of Hartcliffe . The survey shows Knowle as being under the lordship of Eadnoth the Constable who had 30 holdings in Devon , Dorset , Somerset and Wiltshire before the Norman conquest . After the conquest , Knowle became part of the holdings of Osbern Giffard , who was lord , or tenant in chief , of holdings throughout Gloucestershire , Hampshire , Wiltshire and Somerset . The Domesday Book shows Knowle as having eleven households , three ploughlands , one cob ( small horse ) , eight cattle , twenty five pigs , a meadow of 16 acres ( 6 @.@ 5 ha ) , pasture of 20 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) and a woodland area of 2 @.@ 5 furlongs ( 500 m ) by 1 @.@ 5 furlongs ( 300 m ) . For taxation purposes , the whole was assessed at two geld units . Filwood Park , in the southern part of the area was part of the parish of Whitchurch until incorporated into Bristol in 1930 . In Anglo @-@ Saxon times Filwood Chase was part of the royal hunting estate known as Kingswood Forest , which encompassed a large area around Bristol .
Inns Court and Filwood farms have medieval origins . The surviving parts of Inns Court , originally Inyn 's Court , are now part of the former Holy Cross Inns Court Vicarage and the staircase turret is now a Grade II * listed building . The building is in a state of bad repair and is on the " at risk " register . An isolation hospital was built at Nover 's Hill in 1892 , eventually superseded by a new hospital at Ham Green , near Pill , which opened in 1927 . The site is now occupied by the Knowle DGE ( DGE standing for Discovery , Guidance and Enjoyment ) Special School . In the 1920s , the area was still rural in nature , mostly agricultural and allotment land , including Filwood Farm , Inns Court Farm and Hengrove House . The old field boundaries influenced the subsequent development .
Knowle West was built in the 1930s as a council housing estate . It was constructed on garden city principles , with large gardens and " an abundance of fresh air and daylight . " The aim of the development was to provide new homes for those who needed to be relocated as a result of clearance of inner @-@ city slums in Bristol and " to provide healthier living conditions for large families on low incomes .
A new wave of development commenced in the 1960s at Inns Court , occasioned by the need for more homes following the further clearance of inner city areas which had been devastated by the Bristol Blitz . Prefabricated homes , which had been erected since World War II at Filwood Park were demolished in the 1960s . Subsequently , new homes were built on the Radburn principles . " Common features were grouped houses arranged around a cul @-@ de sac street layout thus the street layout broke away from the conventional street grid pattern " , but this style of development is now considered to be a failure , due to the lack of " a safe and well @-@ overlooked environment . " The layout of housing built around short cul @-@ de @-@ sacs " has resulted in a physical environment that contributes to isolation rather than facilitating community interaction " , according to a 2009 city council report on the area . By 2008 , around 45 per cent of the 4 @,@ 475 homes were owner occupied . Plans were announced in 2010 for demolition of 1 @,@ 000 homes in Inns Court . Local residents were opposed to this , and following their campaign , the council withdrew the plans and met with residents to discuss plans for redeveloping Filwood Broadway with new shops and a supermarket .
= = Location = =
Modern Knowle West has an area of approximately 1 @.@ 26 square miles ( 3 @.@ 3 km2 ) , located on a plateau about 215 feet ( 66 m ) above sea level , south of the centre of Bristol , between the districts of Knowle on the east , Whitchurch Park and Hengrove to the south , Hartcliffe and Bishopsworth to the west and Bedminster and Windmill Hill to the north . There is steeply sloping land to the north and west , which together with Pigeonhouse Brook , a tributary of the River Malago , creates a natural barrier to adjacent areas . The underlying bedrock is of the Lias Group , a mixture of mudstones , marine limestones , sandstones and clays . The Bedminster Great coal seam lies some 2 @,@ 952 feet ( 900 m ) below the area , but it is considered unlikely that coal was mined underneath Knowle West .
The local council Filwood ward is roughly coterminous with Knowle West , but two small areas of the estate lie in the neighbouring Knowle ward . Definitions of the area of Knowle West vary , with some residents in the eastern fringes preferring to identify with Knowle .
= = Notable residents = =
The musician Tricky was a member of the Wild Bunch sound system and a contributor to Massive Attack 's first two albums . Born in 1968 , Tricky grew up in Knowle West in the 1970s and 1980s and was educated at Merrywood School . He named his 2008 album Knowle West Boy in tribute to the area 's influence on him and his music . Boxer Dixie Brown lived in Knowle West from the 1930s until the 1950s and was a regular at the Venture Inn , a public house in Melvin Square . He was frequently visited by black American troops during World War II . The Eagles were a rock and roll band who formed in the late 1950s at the Eagle House youth club and featured in the 1962 film Some People .
= = Amenities = =
= = = Education = = =
There are three primary schools in Knowle West ; Greenfield Primary School , Oasis Academy Connaught , and the School of Christ the King . In addition there is Knowle DGE Special School ( formerly the Florence Brown Community Special School ) , which serves pupils of all ages who have learning difficulties or social and emotional behaviour difficulties . There is also a nursery , Knowle West Children 's Centre . · Secondary school students are educated in adjacent areas , following the closure of Merrywood School in 2000 , after a critical report by Ofsted in 1997 . The nearest secondary schools are Oasis Academy John Williams in Hengrove , St Bernadette Catholic Secondary School in Brislington , Bridge Learning Campus in Hartcliffe and Bedminster Down Secondary School . Ongoing adult education is provided at the Park Centre and nearby Bedminster and Marksbury Road libraries .
= = = Health = = =
There is a National Health Service walk @-@ in centre for treating minor injuries on the Knowle West Health Park site . Doctors may be consulted at the adjacent GP walk @-@ in centre and there are general practitioner ( GP ) led health centres nearby in Knowle , Bedminster and Hartcliffe . Dentistry is provided at practices in Bishopsworth , Knowle and Bedminster . The nearest hospital is Bristol Royal Infirmary in Bristol city centre . South Bristol Community Hospital in nearby Hengrove is expected to be open in 2012 .
= = Community activities = =
There are a number of community activities , including a community website , knowlewest.co.uk , showing the latest events and news in the area . A community newsletter called The Knowledge is produced by Community In Partnership ( CIP ) , facilitated by the Knowle West Media Centre . The Knowle West Future planning forum was established in 2013 to work on a regeneration plan , based on the positive attributes of the estate .
The Knowle West Media Centre won a Queen 's Award for Services in the Community in 2006 and the Knowle West Health Association won a Queen 's Award for Voluntary Service in 2010 .
Community enterprises include Re : work , who run construction , gardening , and furniture renovation projects , including their store on Filwood Broadway . They work with volunteers and support young people in skills development . Knowle West Health Park includes a GP service , a healthy living centre ( which includes a studio with activities such as keep fit and dance activities ) , children 's park , outdoor sports facilities , and a one @-@ mile walk . Nearby nature walks include the Northern Slopes , including Novers Common , Glyn Vale / Kingswear and Wedmore Vale .
Local amenities include The Park Opportunity Centre , which offers a number of courses and programmes . The area has local shopping facilities , cafés and community centres and youth clubs such as Filwood Community Centre , Eagle House , Broadplain House , Novers Park , The Mede and KWMC ( Knowle West Media Centre ) .
= = = Churches = = =
Churches include Christ the King ( Roman Catholic ) , built in 1952 ; Destiny Knowles Pentecostal Church ( Pentecostal ) ; St Barnabas ( Church of England ) , built in 1938 ; Holy Cross ( Church of God of Prophecy ) ; and the Salvation Army .
= = Transport = =
Knowle West is served by four council supported bus services , which connect the area to Totterdown , Broadmead , Hotwells , Bedminster and Brislington . In addition First Bristol run two services , which connect with Withywood , the city centre and Hengrove . The nearest railway station is at Parson Street in Bedminster .
Journey times from Knowle West to the city centre have been identified as hampering employment opportunities for residents and proposals for a Greater Bristol Bus Network and a rapid transit scheme have noted the need to provide better connectivity for the area . A journey from Filwood Park to the city centre takes around 50 minutes and from Inns Court to Broadmead takes over 30 minutes . Proposed extensions to the A4174 ring road , which would pass along the southern part of Knowle West , have been claimed to reduce delays across the Greater Bristol area by 6 % , and lead to a 9 % increase in public transport use . The plans were approved by the Department for Transport in December 2011 .
= = Demographics = =
The population estimate for Filwood ward , as of 2008 , was 11 @,@ 787 . There were 3 @,@ 007 under 15 years old and 1 @,@ 651 were of pensionable age . 7 @,@ 316 were Christian , 2 @,@ 925 had no religion and there were small numbers of Muslim , Buddhist , Hindu and Sikh residents . 96 @.@ 2 per cent were described as white and 3 @.@ 8 per cent as being of black minority ethnicity .
Even in 2011 , the Filwood ward was still an area with a relatively small amount of ethnic minorities , with 85 @.@ 8 per cent of the 12 @,@ 267 residents being White British .
= = = Employment = = =
There are a number of small community enterprises in the area , but most of those in work need to drive to other parts of Bristol . The Bristol City Council Baseline Briefing notes that employment opportunities for those without a car are limited There is a retail park on the former Imperial Tobacco factory site in Hartcliffe , which has plans for further development . In addition , South Bristol Business Park was built on the former Filwood playing fields in the early 21st century . It was reported that 2 @,@ 300 residents had local employment in 2008 and 3 @,@ 264 were classed as economically inactive ; that is to say they were not employed and not actively seeking employment . 71 per cent of jobs were in service industries . 213 residents were claiming unemployment benefits .
= = = Deprivation = = =
Six out of eight areas in Knowle West are ranked as being economically deprived . The closure of the Imperial Tobacco factory at nearby Hartcliffe in 1990 meant the loss of 5 @,@ 000 jobs and an estimated further 20 @,@ 000 jobs in service and supporting industries throughout South Bristol . A House of Commons report noted that this had a seriously negative effect on the area as many people in Knowle West and neighbouring areas lost the opportunity for " manual and semi @-@ skilled employment " . The Independent in 1995 noted high drug use and associated crime and reported on the establishment of Knowle West Against Drugs , led by local parents concerned about these problems . In 2006 , BBC News said " Knowle West has more than its share of social problems . The highest number of kids in care of any council ward in Bristol . The lowest number of young people with any qualifications ( under half ) . A major petty crime problem , drug addiction , and add to that people are fed up with bad housing . " Shawnie , a 2006 novel by social worker Ed Trewavas , written from the point of view of a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl living in Knowle West , documents some of the deprivation he encountered in his work . One of the novel 's characters " describes Knowle West ... as a ' shit hole ' populated by ' yokels , cider @-@ heads , junkies , dole @-@ scammers , slappers and failed wide boys , all interbreeding and nicking their cruddy possessions off of each other in some giant , dismal rota . ' "
The Guardian in 2007 reported " Fed up with the media 's view of their community as a hub for drug use , crime and antisocial behaviour , the residents of one of Britain 's most notorious housing estates decided to fight back . " The article noted that projects such as Knowle West Media were having a positive impact , " Those kids coming out of the media centre aren 't the criminals and layabouts everyone expects from Knowle West ; they 're film @-@ makers , photographers and designers . " According to police statistics the levels of crime and anti @-@ social behaviour ( ASB ) in Knowle West are above average for England and Wales , with 241 crimes and ASB incidents reported in June 2011 . A 2007 report for the Community Foundation Network , looking at the work of voluntary sector groups , found that three quarters of the super output areas in Filwood ward are amongst the 10 % most deprived in England . The report also found a strong sense of community within the area with " a history of community activity " .
= = Politics = =
Since 2007 , the two Bristol City councillors for Filwood ward have been Labour Party members . The MP for the Bristol South constituency , since 2015 , is Karin Smyth , of the Labour Party . Prior to that , the constituency was represented from 1987 by Dawn Primarolo , now the Right Honourable the Baroness Primarolo . Filwood is represented in the European Parliament by the six MEPs of the South West England constituency .
= = Environment = =
Open spaces include Glyn Vale Open Space , part of the Northern Slopes ; Filwood Playing Fields and Filwood Park ; Airport Road Open Space ; Inns Court Open Space , which all are proposed Sites of Nature Conservation Interest ( SNCI ) , with areas of grassland , scrub and broad @-@ leaved woodland . There are also three children 's playgrounds and a few small open spaces , mostly grassed areas between buildings or at road junctions . There are 42 acres ( 17 ha ) of natural open space and 69 acres ( 28 ha ) of what is described by the city council as " informal open space " , such as wide road verges , roundabouts and playing fields , in Knowle West . The average number of bird species per garden is two and 41 per cent of residents reported frogs in gardens or allotments . Proposals for development of open spaces were made in 2009 by Bristol City Council and opposed by residents . On the Northern Slopes , tree species recorded include hazel , blackthorn , alder , and hawthorn ; bird life includes robins , blackbirds , chiffchaffs , house sparrows , starlings , and thrushes ; wildflowers include cowslips , primroses , agrinomy , and knapweed ; and mammals include rabbits and foxes as well as pipistrelle and noctule bats .
= Ýdalir =
In Norse mythology , Ýdalir ( " yew @-@ dales " ) is a location containing a dwelling owned by the god Ullr . Ýdalir is solely attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources . Scholarly theories have been proposed about the implications of the location .
= = Attestations = =
Ýdalir is solely attested in stanza 5 of the poem Grímnismál ( collected in the Poetic Edda ) , where Odin ( disguised as Grímnir ) tells the young Agnar that Ullr owns a dwelling in Ýdalir . The stanza reads ( Ýdalir is here translated as Ydalir ) :
Ydalir it is called , where Ullr
has himself a dwelling made .
Alfheim the gods Frey gave
in days of yore for a tooth @-@ gift .
= = Theories = =
Discussing Ýdalir , Henry Adams Bellows comments that " the wood of the yew @-@ tree was used for bows in the North just as it was long afterwards for England . " Rudolf Simek says that " this connexion of the god with the yew @-@ tree , of whose wood bows were made ( cf . ON ýbogi ' yew bow ' ) , has led to Ullr being seen as a bow @-@ god . " Andy Orchard comments that Ýdalir is an " aptly named dwelling @-@ place [ for the ] archer @-@ god , Ull . " According to Hilda Ellis Davidson , while Valhalla " is well known because it plays so large a part in images of warfare and death , " the significance of other halls in Norse mythology such as Ýdalir , and the goddess Freyja 's afterlife location Fólkvangr has been lost .
Udale , located in Cromarty , Scotland , is first recorded in 1578 , and is thought to derive from Old Norse y @-@ dalr . Robert Bevan @-@ Jones proposes a connection between veneration of Ullr and Ýdalir among the settling pagan Norse in Scotland and their bestowment of the name ydalr to the location .
= Effects of Hurricane Isabel in Maryland and Washington , D.C. =
The effects of Hurricane Isabel in Maryland and Washington , D.C. , were among the most damaging from a tropical cyclone in the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area , United States . Hurricane Isabel formed from a tropical wave on September 6 , 2003 , in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It moved northwestward , and within an environment of light wind shear and warm waters , it steadily strengthened to reach peak winds of 165 mph ( 265 km / h ) on September 11 . After fluctuating in intensity for four days , Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on September 18 . It quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over western Pennsylvania the next day .
On September 19 , Tropical Storm Isabel passed through extreme western Maryland , though its large circulation produced tropical storm force winds throughout the state . About 1 @.@ 24 million people lost power throughout the state . The worst of its effects came from its storm surge , which inundated areas along the coast and resulted in severe beach erosion . On the Eastern Shore , hundreds of buildings were damaged or destroyed , primarily in Queen Anne 's County from tidal flooding . Thousands of houses were affected in Central Maryland , with severe storm surge flooding reported in Baltimore and Annapolis . Washington , D.C. , sustained moderate damage , primarily from the winds . Throughout Maryland and Washington , damage totaled about $ 945 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 1 @.@ 22 billion 2016 USD ) , with only one fatality due to flooding .
= = Preparations = =
While Isabel was still over the western Atlantic Ocean as a Category 5 hurricane , forecasters predicted the storm would move northwestward and within five days be at a position 130 miles ( 210 km ) east @-@ southeast of Ocean City , Maryland as a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) major hurricane . By four days before Isabel made landfall , most computer models predicted Isabel to make landfall between North Carolina and New Jersey . On September 16 , about two days before the hurricane struck land , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch for the southern region of the Maryland coastline on the Chesapeake Bay . Later that day , a tropical storm watch was issued for the eastern Maryland coastline , which was upgraded to a tropical storm warning by about 24 hours before landfall .
Officials recommended the citizens on Smith Island to evacuate on the day prior to the hurricane making landfall , the only evacuations for the Eastern shore of Maryland . Mandatory evacuations were ordered for low @-@ lying and other specific areas in Calvert , St. Mary 's , and Charles counties , and the residents in six homes were asked to leave in Howard County . Officials recommended residents in flood areas of Baltimore County to evacuate , and some in the city of Baltimore left spontaneously due to flooding . Evacuation rates were low throughout the Maryland coastline , with the highest rate being in the southernmost counties on the western shore . The primary reason for people staying was due to the track of the hurricane . Between 20 % and 33 % of those who participated in an evacuation survey said they had concerns about being caught on roadways while trying to evacuate as the storm arrived , with similar numbers expressing concern about being able to return to their homes if they evacuated . Of those who left , most went to the house of a friend or family member , with two @-@ thirds to three @-@ fourths going to destinations in their own neighborhood or county . Most did not evacuate until the day before or the day of landfall . In most areas , the public response to the evacuation orders was normal to fast , with traffic during the evacuation described as light to normal . The most significant problems experienced during the evacuation were downed trees , inadequate signage , flooded roads , or stalled cars . In all , 3 @,@ 080 people evacuated their homes in preparation for Hurricane Isabel . Boats , trucks , and school buses helped more than 1 @,@ 000 people evacuate the Inner Harbor of Baltimore , as well .
Washington , D.C. , mayor , Anthony Williams , declared a state of emergency for the district . In Washington , preparations began several days prior to the arrival of the hurricane , including placing sandbags in flood @-@ prone areas . Many people , including non @-@ emergency government personnel , were told to stay home . Most people in the district took shelter by the time the hurricane passed through the area , and the streets across the city were largely empty . President George W. Bush along with Abdullah II of Jordan were evacuated from the city to the presidential retreat at Camp David . Most United States Congress representatives and members of the Department of Defense also left the city . Many buildings , including some federal , were shut down . All three airports in the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area were closed , with flights into the capital cancelled or diverted . Many train routes were canceled or delayed , and the Washington Metro and Metrobus systems were closed entirely . Workers at the National Zoo prepared by moving animals inside and lowering water levels .
= = Impact = =
= = = Eastern Shore = = =
On the Eastern Shore of Maryland , Hurricane Isabel produced a storm surge peaking at 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) on the Chesapeake Bay in Hoopers Island and 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 m ) on the Atlantic coast in Ocean City . The track of the hurricane to the west funneled into the bay and was so strong it negated the normal tide cycle in the bay . Tolchester Beach recorded a record @-@ breaking high tide of 7 @.@ 91 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above mean low water . Rainfall in the Maryland portion of the Delmarva Peninsula reached 3 @.@ 2 inches ( 81 mm ) in Steeles Neck . The large circulation of the hurricane produced strong winds across the area , including maximum sustained winds of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) and a gust of 66 mph ( 106 km / h ) in Cambridge .
Tidal flooding from the storm surge forced residents to evacuate near the bay . Tidal flooding was reported in and around Rock Hall , Chestertown , Skinners Neck , Piney Neck , and Cliffs City , and was carried along the Chester River slightly inland . The flooding destroyed or damaged over 100 homes , vehicles , and boats , and also destroyed the Romancoke pier , one of the pre @-@ Bay Bridge ferry landings which was still in use as a fishing pier at the time . The flooding also severely damaged eleven marinas , three restaurants , four hotels , one boat @-@ building business , and one marine railway . In Queen Anne 's County , the hurricane destroyed 37 homes , greatly damaged 151 , and moderately damaged 192 , with damage totaling $ 37 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 47 @.@ 6 million 2016 USD ) . The damage was mainly due to the tidal flooding , though four homes were destroyed due to falling trees . Moderate wind gusts knocked down numerous trees , tree limbs , and power lines , leaving about 65 @,@ 750 homes and businesses without power , half of which occurred in Cecil County . The resulting power outage was described as one of the worst in the history of Conectiv Energy . Damage in the Eastern Shore of Maryland totaled about $ 50 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 64 @.@ 3 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Central Maryland = = =
Wind gusts in central Maryland peaked at 83 mph ( 134 km / h ) in Silver Spring , with a location along the Patuxent River recording sustained winds of 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) . Unofficially , rainfall reached 7 inches ( 178 mm ) in portions of Maryland , though the highest precipitation amount totaled 3 @.@ 21 inches ( 82 mm ) at the Baltimore @-@ Washington International Airport . Swells from the hurricane produced high storm surges along the Western Shore which peaked at 8 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) in Baltimore . Annapolis also reported a surge of 7 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) . In many locations , the storm surge was higher than the previous record set by the 1933 Chesapeake Potomac Hurricane . Throughout central Maryland , 472 buildings and homes were destroyed , with 3 @,@ 260 greatly damaged and another 3 @,@ 600 affected in general . Strong storm surge from the hurricane washed 43 @,@ 000 tons ( 39 @,@ 000 t ) of salt , millions of pounds of nitrogen and phosphorus , and millions of gallons of raw sewage into the Chesapeake Bay . One person died as a result of a traffic death in the state . Property damage totaled $ 530 @.@ 5 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 682 million 2016 USD ) , with an additional $ 190 @,@ 000 ( 2003 USD , ( $ 244 thousand 2016 USD ) in crop damage . The crop damage was primarily limited to minor damage to livestock buildings and sheds , though the winds destroyed a hay barn and a dairy barn at one farm in Frederick County . The United States Department of Agriculture estimated the winds of the hurricane destroyed 15 – 30 % of the field corn and 10 – 15 % of the soybean crop . Excess amounts of water led to the closure of many crab processing plants and crab house restaurants , and officials restricted harvest on shellfish for eleven days due to unsafe impurities in the water .
Most coastal areas under 10 feet ( 3 m ) above sea level experienced severe wave damage . The Maryland Geological Survey estimates the waves removed 20 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) of sand along the coastline , based on an estimate of losses in Baltimore County . The 20 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 m2 ) of lost in single day represent about 15 % of the total beach loss in an average year . The average location lost about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of beach , and throughout the Chesapeake Bay the erosion deposited about 81 @,@ 000 tons ( 73 @,@ 500 t ) of sediment into the bay . The erosion was irregular , however ; some locations were unaffected , while others experienced greater losses , despite that the two locations were similar . The erosion and storm surge damaged many bulkheads , and after the storm surge retreated into the bay it washed away freestanding structures . The passage of Isabel resulted in an unusual increase in phytoplankton in the middle portion of the Chesapeake Bay , followed by an abrupt return to normal conditions by early October .
= = = = Effects by county = = = =
Six foot ( 2 m ) waves along the coastline of Saint Mary 's County , with Point Lookout State Park suffering $ 3 million in damages ( 2003 USD , ( $ 4 @.@ 24 million 2016 USD ) . In the county , 2 @,@ 500 wharves and piers were destroyed , with another 1 @,@ 000 moderately damaged , resulting in $ 10 @.@ 25 million in monetary damage ( 2003 USD , ( $ 13 @.@ 2 million 2016 USD ) . The storm surge destroyed the bridge to Saint George Island by a few hours after the hurricane made landfall , and the flooding covered much of the island for a week . There , 20 homes were destroyed . Shore revetments experienced $ 53 @.@ 4 million in damage ( 2003 USD , ( $ 80 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) . Throughout Saint Mary 's County , residential damage amounted to about $ 17 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 239 million 2016 USD ) with about $ 1 @.@ 5 million to commercial buildings ( 2003 USD , ( $ 1 @.@ 93 million 2016 USD ) . The damage was caused primarily by the storm surge , though the winds produced minor to moderate damage , the worst effects in the state from winds . In the county , the winds blew off the roof of a home and downed 70 trees , leaving 27 @,@ 092 without power .
In Charles County , the hurricane resulted in about $ 2 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 2 @.@ 57 million 2016 USD ) in damage to roads . Two homes were destroyed with several others damaged on Cobb Island . Elsewhere in the county , Chigger City , Port Tobacco , Woodland Point , Swan Point , and Morgantown also reported damage from Hurricane Isabel , with 52 houses damaged and eight homes destroyed or severely damaged . Seven businesses were also destroyed or greatly damaged . Many piers along the shore were damaged or lost , and two private community wells were contaminated . The winds downed several trees and power lines , leaving about 32 @,@ 000 people without power . Residential damage totaled $ 1 @.@ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 2 million 2006 USD ) , with another $ 600 @,@ 000 ( 2003 USD , ( $ 772 thousand 2016 USD ) to commercial buildings .
Four to five foot ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) waves hit the eastern portion of Calvert County , causing a home to be knocked off its foundation in North Beach . The storm surge destroyed the pier and greatly damaged buildings along the shoreline at Solomons Island . Power was lost to 22 @,@ 400 residents as a result of the passage of the hurricane .
The storm surge produced higher than usual tides in along the Patuxent , Potomac , and Anacostia River coastlines . Much of the shoreline of Prince George 's County possessed adequate rise of terrain to prevent significant flooding , though the high waters closed three roads where the shoreline was not high enough . The passage of the hurricane created about 5 @,@ 000 tons ( 4 @,@ 500 t ) of debris to be removed . Fifteen buildings sustained major damage , with another 53 buildings affected to some degree . Nearly 200 @,@ 000 residents in the county lost power . When two of the largest sewage treatment plants in the state lost power , 96 million US gallons ( 360 @,@ 000 m3 ) of hazardous sewage overflowed to mix with storm water into two waterways in the county . The wastewater combined with rainwater , making it less threatening . No humans or animals were known to have become sick due to the overflows .
In Annapolis in Anne Arundel County , the storm surge surrounded many of the buildings at the United States Naval Academy , resulting in about $ 116 million in damage ( 2003 USD , ( $ 149 million 2016 USD ) The Annapolis Maritime Museum suffered severe damage as well , though volunteers moved artifacts to a safer location . There , the storm surge flooded the building in 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water , causing great damage to the floor , drywall , and electricity . About 93 % of the 211 @,@ 000 power customers in the county were left without electricity after the storm . FEMA estimated a damage total of up to $ 500 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 643 million 2016 USD ) in the county .
Moderate wave action produced severe beach erosion along the shore of Baltimore County at a loss of $ 3 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 3 @.@ 86 million 2016 USD ) ) . Residential areas of Millers Island , Edgemere , North Point , Bowleys Quarters and Turners Station suffered severe damage from the hurricane , with over 400 people needing to be rescued . Over 300 buildings were destroyed . The storm surge flooding killed a man in Dundalk , and either destroyed or greatly damaged most marinas . Strong winds downed 118 trees on school grounds and hundreds of others elsewhere , some of which fell on power lines which resulted in leaving 220 @,@ 000 customers without power . The passage of Hurricane Isabel left 3 @,@ 189 tons ( 2 @,@ 893 t ) of debris across the county .
The storm surge flooded Fells Point and the Inner Harbor of Baltimore , causing millions of dollars of damage to waterfront properties . As the Inner Harbor began to flood , boat owners helped evacuate 35 people in flooded homes . Winds from Isabel destroyed at least three buildings in the city . The Baltimore Museum of Industry alone suffered $ 1 @.@ 5 million in damage ( 2003 USD , ( $ 1 @.@ 93 million 2016 USD ) . 70 @,@ 000 were left without power in the city .
In Harford County , high waves and the storm surge caused moderate flooding in areas , forcing 55 to evacuate along the Bush River and 12 to evacuate along the waterfront to Havre de Grace . The promenade boardwalk in Havre de Grace was destroyed . Moderate winds left 51 @,@ 600 residents in the county without power . Damage in the county totaled at least $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 16 @.@ 1 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Western Maryland = = =
The center of Tropical Storm Isabel passed over Garrett County on September 19 , with its unusually large and powerful wind field producing 50 to 60 mph ( 80 to 95 km / h ) wind gusts across western Maryland . Some rainbands produced up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) gusts ( 113 km / h ) , and in some areas isolated streaks of damage were described as being caused by tornadoes . Rainfall varied between 2 and 4 inches ( 50 to 100 mm ) across the area , resulting in the Potomac River overflowing its banks . At Point of Rocks , the river crested at 23 @.@ 12 feet ( 7 m ) , 7 @.@ 12 feet ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) above flood stage . Moderate flooding occurred there , and minor flooding occurred in Paw Paw , West Virginia where the river crested at 2 @.@ 91 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) . The flooding closed a portion of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal .
The gusty winds from the passage of the hurricane resulted in widespread and extensive tree damage . Due to previous rainfall , moist grounds easily allowed for trees to be uprooted . Wind damage to structures was minor , however , with one house in Carroll County being damaged when a tree fell on it . Trees fell onto cars , roads , homes , and power lines , leaving 358 @,@ 000 without power after the storm . 600 traffic signals were without power in Montgomery County , and about 70 roads were closed due to fallen trees . Isabel destroyed 94 buildings and damaged 87 , including 33 homes , six of which were severely impacted with one losing a portion of its roof . Fallen trees injured two in Frederick County . In western Maryland , damage totaled $ 2 @.@ 07 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 2 @.@ 66 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Washington , D.C. = = =
In Washington , D.C. , sustained winds remained below tropical storm force , though gusts reached 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) as recorded by the National Academy of Science . Hurricane @-@ force winds existed several hundred feet in the air , with wind sensors on the top of tall buildings recording winds of 70 to 85 mph ( 115 to 135 km / h ) . Rainfall was minimal , amounting to around two inches across the district . A gauge on Wisconsin Avenue recorded a storm surge of 11 @.@ 3 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) , and a gauge on a pier in the southwest portion of the district recorded a storm surge of 10 @.@ 25 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 m ) . Both observations were records , surpassing the previous observation set by the 1933 Chesapeake Potomac Hurricane .
Moderate winds blew down about 1 @,@ 600 trees in the district , 23 of which fell onto houses . The United States National Arboretum lost many mature trees and azaleas on the bank of the Anacostia River . The winds also downed many power lines , leaving 129 @,@ 000 customers without power . Many streets were blocked by the fallen trees and power lines . At the White House , the winds downed one tree in the front garden , though there was no damage to the building itself . The storm surge resulted in flooding at the Washington Navy Yard . There , the marina was damaged , and some buildings and cars in low area garages were flooded . Five people were rescued from cars in flood waters during the storm , and several roads were closed due to the flooding . Throughout the district , the passage of Isabel created approximately 30 @,@ 000 pounds ( 13 @,@ 600 kg ) of debris . Damage in Washington , D.C. , totaled $ 125 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 161 million 2016 USD ) .
= = Aftermath = =
Power crews restored 75 % of the power outages in the Eastern Shore of Maryland by two days after the hurricane struck , and by one week after the hurricane the power was restored completely to the Eastern Shore . Buildings in Washington , D.C. , remained closed for two days after the hurricane . After the hurricane , several people in central and western Maryland were injured with three killed from carbon monoxide due to improperly running generators in their houses . Additionally , others were injured due to chain saws and cleaning up debris . In the days after the hurricane , the Calvert County Hospital reported an extra 130 patients per day .
The strong winds and storm surge of the hurricane dislodged and damaged a large number of home heating oil tanks , releasing thousands of gallons of oil onto yards and into the environment . The Maryland Department of the Environment and the United States Environmental Protection Agency worked together to recover more than 50 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 190 @,@ 000 L ) of oil from the tanks . Five hundred properties were contaminated by the oil , causing the Federal Emergency Management Agency to provide 75 % of the funding for cleaning the properties , with the government of Maryland providing for the remainder of the cost .
On September 19 , 2003 , President George W. Bush declared the entire state of Maryland as a disaster area , which allowed residents affected by the hurricane to apply for federal aid . FEMA officials urged residents and business owners with significant damage to call as soon as possible , while those with minimal damage were asked to wait for a few days . All residents in the state who received damage from the storm had sixty days to apply for assistance . Federal and state officials opened disaster recovery centers in Annapolis , Baltimore , Essex , and Prince Frederick five days after the hurricane passed through the area , with the centers designed to provide more information to those who applied for federal assistance . About six days after Isabel made landfall , additional disaster recovery centers opened in Rock Hall in Kent County , California in Saint Mary 's County , Silver Spring in Montgomery County , Chester in Queen Anne 's County , Crisfield in Somerset County , Cambridge in Dorchester County , and Easton in Talbot County . Around a month after the hurricane , officials placed some residents unable to live in their damaged homes into travel trailers because they had no options for alternate housing , such as staying with a relative or friend .
On September 26 , the affected residents began receiving housing assistance grants , totaling $ 4 @.@ 3 million in aid . By a month after the hurricane passed through the area , disaster aid amounted to just over $ 30 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 38 @.@ 6 million 2016 USD ) . Ultimately , aid in the state totalled just under $ 100 million ( $ 129 million 2016 USD ) . Business owners applied for 14 @,@ 595 loans and received $ 53 @.@ 4 million ( $ 68 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) in low interest loans from the Small Business Administration . The state also received more than $ 16 @.@ 9 million in funds ( 2003 USD , ( $ 21 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) to rebuild infrastructure damaged by Isabel . 17 @,@ 855 residents applied to receive more than $ 20 @.@ 8 million ( $ 26 @.@ 8 million 2016 USD ) in housing assistance , and $ 8 million ( 2003 USD , ( $ 10 @.@ 3 million 2016 USD ) in assistance for other needs such as personal property , transportation and medical expenses .
President Bush also declared Washington , D.C. , as a disaster area two days after Isabel passed through the area . The United States Department of Agriculture approved a request for an emergency food stamp program for two weeks for the city to ensure those who lost food as a result of the hurricane would not go hungry . By eight days after the hurricane , the Department of Employment Services created disaster unemployment benefits for those who lost their work as a direct result of Isabel . By 11 days after Isabel , the government approved $ 5 @.@ 21 million in disaster assistance ( 2003 USD , $ 6 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) . The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers delivered nearly 800 @,@ 000 pounds ( 363 @,@ 000 kg ) of dry ice to four distribution sites for use with cold food storage to areas in the District suffering from power outages . Various groups joined to provide more than 15 @,@ 000 meals for residents who lost stored food due to spoilage resulting from the power outages . Volunteers assisted in distributing 515 tons ( 467 t ) of ice , along with 21 @,@ 000 sandbags throughout the district . Officials opened two disaster recovery centers which moved through the neighborhoods of the district . Ultimately , nearly 1 @,@ 500 residents in the district applied for federal assistance , with FEMA providing the residents more than $ 600 @,@ 000 in aid ( 2003 USD , ( $ 772 thousand 2016 USD ) .
= February 1969 nor 'easter =
The February 1969 nor 'easter was a severe winter storm that affected the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England regions of the United States between February 8 and February 10 . The nor 'easter developed on February 8 , and as it moved towards the northeast , intensifying to become a powerful storm . The system dropped paralyzing snowfall , often exceeding 20 in ( 51 cm ) . New York City bore the brunt of the storm , suffering extensive disruption . Thousands of travelers became stranded on roads and in airports . Overall , at least 94 people lost their lives to the storm . Following the event , the mayor of New York , John Lindsay , was criticized for failing to respond to the snowstorm adequately . Some areas of the city remained uncleared for over a week after the storm , and city schools were closed for several days .
= = Synoptic history = =
An area of low pressure moved generally eastward from Oklahoma and produced heavy rains from Missouri to Ohio on February 8 . By February 9 , it had reached Kentucky . A new , secondary low pressure system formed over Georgia along the warm front associated with the primary low . As the secondary low matured along the U.S. East Coast , the initial center weakened rapidly , and heavy rainfall developed over the Carolinas in association with the new low . Mixed precipitation soon spread across the Mid @-@ Atlantic States , and heavy snow began to fall from New Jersey northward by 1200 UTC on February 9 .
The primary low dissipated , and the secondary low continued to intensify as it moved northeastward from the North Carolina coast to Long Island . Its forward motion slowed substantially , leading to increased precipitation totals over land . By 0000 UTC on February 10 , the storm deepened to 970 millibars , having strengthened 32 millibars in an 18 @-@ hour period . At 1200 UTC , it was situated off Cape Cod , still an intense cyclone . On February 11 , the storm moved out of the region .
= = Impact = =
The storm produced paralyzing snowfall from New Jersey through most of New England . Forecasts severely underestimated the duration of the storm , often predicting just a chance of snow . The highest totals — often exceeding 42 in ( 110 cm ) — were reported in the Bangor , Maine area with Lewiston , Maine topping 32 in ( 81 cm ) . Lesser accumulations up to 20 in ( 51 cm ) — occurred in areas south to western Connecticut , Massachusetts , southern Vermont , northern Rhode Island , and eastern New Hampshire . Lighter snowfall extended as far south as central Virginia , and as far west as Indiana . The snow was accompanied by high winds , in some areas reaching 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . Heavy snow and gale warnings were declared across the region . Tides along the coast ran 2 to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal during the storm .
New York City was struck particularly hard by the storm . It is estimated that 42 people perished , and several hundred more people were injured . The storm disrupted the city for days , and forced schools to close . Streets throughout Queens became impassable ; mail service , buses , taxis , delivery vehicles , and trash collection were all disrupted . Thousands of motorists became trapped on the New York State Thruway . A snow emergency was issued in the city , and the Long Island Rail Road suspended all service at the time . The snowstorm left approximately 6 @,@ 000 travelers stranded at Kennedy Airport . They slept on chairs and floors . Over 1 @,@ 000 vehicles were stalled or abandoned on the Tappan Zee Bridge ; most of these were removed within a day .
Overall , at least 94 deaths were attributed to the storm . Throughout the region , the lack of delivery trucks also led to a shortage of food staples such as milk and bread .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , then @-@ mayor John Lindsay was criticized for not dealing with the snow adequately . Portions of the city remained unplowed a week after the nor 'easter , leading the mayor into " political misfortune " . Lindsay 's visit to Queens was poorly received , and his limousine had trouble driving through the streets of Rego Park . The mayor was booed by residents of Kew Gardens Hills . The storm became known as the " Lindsay Snowstorm " , and created a political crisis ; as a result , Lindsay lost the Republican primary for the next mayoral election . Lindsay was able to win the mayoral election by running on a third @-@ party ticket , but he was politically weakened by the crisis .
The storm also had an economic impact . The New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) and American Stock Exchange ( AMEX ) closed as a result of the storm . It was the first time in history that the NYSE closed for a full day due to the weather , and the first time since 1918 that AMEX had done so . All commodity exchanges in New York City and the National Association of Securities Dealers also closed .
= Voalavo gymnocaudus =
Voalavo gymnocaudus , also known as the northern voalavo , naked @-@ tailed voalavo , or just voalavo , is a rodent in the family Nesomyidae found in the highlands of northern Madagascar . Discovered in 1994 and formally described in 1998 , it is the type species of genus Voalavo ; its closest relative is Voalavo antsahabensis of the Central Highlands . DNA sequence data suggests it may be more closely related to Eliurus grandidieri than to other species of the closely related genus Eliurus . V. gymnocaudus is found at 1 @,@ 250 to 1 @,@ 950 m ( 4 @,@ 100 to 6 @,@ 400 ft ) above sea level in montane wet and dry forest in the Marojejy and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud massifs . Nocturnal and solitary , it lives mainly on the ground , but can climb , and probably eats plant matter . Despite a small range , it is classified as " Least Concern " because it lacks obvious threats and much of its range is within protected areas .
Voalavo gymnocaudus is a small , mouse @-@ like rodent with soft , gray fur which is only slightly darker above than below . The ears are short and rounded . The long tail appears mostly naked and lacks a distinct tuft , which is present in Eliurus . It differs from V. antsahabensis mainly in the values of some measurements . The skull is delicate , with a long , narrow rostrum ( front part ) , narrow interorbital region ( between the eyes ) , and no development of ridges on the braincase . The molars are relatively high @-@ crowned ( hypsodont ) . Body mass is 17 to 25 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 60 to 0 @.@ 90 oz ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The rodent fauna of the Northern Highlands of Madagascar remained almost totally unstudied until the 1990s . A 1994 survey of the Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Reserve partially filled this gap and led to the discovery of two new species : Eliurus grandidieri ( genus Eliurus ) and Voalavo gymnocaudus , the first known and type species of the genus Voalavo . Both species were formally described in 1998 by Michael Carleton and Steven Goodman . The generic name , Voalavo , is a general Malagasy word for rodent , and the specific name , gymnocaudus , refers to the naked tail , which distinguishes V. gymnocaudus from the related tufted @-@ tailed rats ( Eliurus ) . In 2000 , the species was also recorded from the nearby Marojejy National Park .
Meanwhile , in 1999 , Sharon Jansa and colleagues published a molecular phylogenetic study of the Nesomyinae , the native Malagasy rodents , using the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b . Their results suggested that the current definitions of Eliurus and Voalavo may not be correct , because they found that V. gymnocaudus and E. grandidieri are more closely related to each other than to the remaining species of Eliurus . However , the DNA of Eliurus petteri , a possible close relative of E. grandidieri , could not be sampled , so Jansa and colleagues recommended further evaluation of the problem . According to a 2003 report , data from nuclear genes also support the relationship between V. gymnocaudus and E. grandidieri , but E. petteri remains genetically unstudied and the taxonomic issue has not been resolved .
A second species of Voalavo , Voalavo antsahabensis , was named in 2005 from central Madagascar . Morphological differences between the two are subtle but consistent , and the cytochrome b sequences of the two species differ by about 10 % . In mammals , closely related species regularly differ by less than 5 % in their cytochrome b sequences , and a divergence of more than 5 % within a single species suggests the presence of cryptic species .
= = Description = =
= = = External morphology = = =
Voalavo gymnocaudus is a small , mouse @-@ like rodent . It differs from the very similar V. antsahabensis mainly in some measurements , such as a greater tail length . It also resembles small species of Eliurus , but the fur is darker and there is no tail tuft . The fur is soft , short , and thick , and appears dark gray on most of the upperparts , but more brownish on the sides . On the back , the cover hairs , which form the main part of the fur , are three @-@ colored : most of the hair is gray , followed by a narrow light buff band and a black tip . The longer guard hairs are black . The fur of the underparts is not different in overall color , but the individual hairs are gray for about three quarters of their length and white at the tips , except for those at the chin , which are white throughout .
The mystacial vibrissae ( whiskers on the upper lips ) reach the tips of the ears when pressed against the head . The short , rounded ears themselves are naked on the inside , but covered with short brown hairs on the outer surface . Females have three pairs of mammae . The digits and metapodials are mostly covered by white hairs . Short ungual tufts of hairs surrounding the bases of the claws are present . There are five pads on the forefeet and six on the hindfeet . On the hindfeet , the fifth digit is nearly as long as the middle three and the first ( the hallux ) is much shorter . The tail is longer than the head and body and appears naked for most of its length , but fine hairs are visible near the tip . Although the lower side is slightly lighter , there is no clear difference in coloration between the upper and lower sides . The skin of the tail is gray , and it is covered lightly by fine hairs that are dark brown over most of the length of the tail , but white near the tip .
= = = Skeleton = = =
The skull is delicate and lightly built . The rostrum , the front part of the skull , is narrow and fairly long ; it is shorter in V. antsahabensis . The narrow zygomatic plate ( a plate on the side of the skull ) extends back to about the front of the first upper molar ( M1 ) . The zygomatic notch , a notch in the upper part of the zygomatic plate , is small . The zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are narrow , but as usual in nesomyines contain a relatively long jugal bone . The interorbital region ( between the eyes ) is narrow and short and lacks accessory shelves and ridges . The braincase also lacks such ridges .
The incisive foramina ( openings in the front part of the palate ) are medium in length , and do not reach the first molars . Their back margin is angular , not rounded as in V. antsahabensis . The diastema ( the gap between the upper incisors and molars ) is shorter than in V. antsahabensis . The bony palate is broad and lacks notable ridges and other features , except for a pair of foramina ( openings ) near the place where the first and second molars ( M1 and M2 ) meet . The back border of the palate is at the level of the middle of the third molars ( M3 ) . In the bony roof of the mesopterygoid fossa , the opening behind the palate , wide sphenopalatine vacuities ( openings ) are present . A thin alisphenoid strut ( a piece of bone on the lower side of the skull separating two foramina ) is present in specimens from Marojejy , but not in those from Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud . The tegmen tympani , the roof of the tympanic cavity , is reduced .
The root of the lower incisor is visible at the back of the mandible ( lower jaw ) as a slight protrusion ; a true capsular process is absent . There are 13 thoracic ( chest ) , 7 lumbar , 4 sacral , and 38 or 39 caudal ( tail ) vertebrae . The humerus ( upper arm bone ) lacks an entepicondylar foramen .
= = = Dentition = = =
The upper incisors are orthodont ( with their cutting edge perpendicular to the plane formed by the molars ) and have yellow to light orange enamel . On the lower incisor , the enamel contains series of fine ridges . The toothrows are longer than in V. antsahabensis . As in Eliurus , the molars are incipiently hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) and the individual cusps have lost their identities , having merged into transverse laminae that are not connected longitudinally . There are three laminae on each first and second molar , two on the third lower molar , and the laminae cannot be differentiated on the third upper molar . Although the first and second molars are similar to each other in size , the third ( upper and lower ) molars are conspicuously smaller . There are three roots below each upper and two below each lower molar .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Voalavo gymnocaudus has been found only in two massifs of the Northern Highlands , Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud and Marojejy , but may range more widely . At Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud , the species has been found in wet mountain forest at 1 @,@ 950 m ( 6 @,@ 400 ft ) , where it occurred with the indigenous rodents Eliurus majori and Nesomys rufus as well as the introduced black rat ( Rattus rattus ) , and in drier forest at about 1 @,@ 300 m ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) , where it may live alongside other species of Eliurus and Gymnuromys roberti . The Marojejy records come from similar habitats at 1 @,@ 250 to 1 @,@ 875 m ( 4 @,@ 101 to 6 @,@ 152 ft ) above sea level . V. gymnocaudus probably largely lives on the ground , but is able to climb in vegetation . It likes areas with dense networks of roots , among which it moves using runways and natural tunnels . The species is nocturnal ( active during the night ) , is solitary , probably eats fruits and seeds , and bears up to three young per litter . A variety of parasitic arthropods have been recorded on V. gymnocaudus : mites from the families Laelapidae and Trombiculidae ( both Marojejy and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud ) , the demodicid mite Demodex ( Marojejy only ) , the atopomelid mite Listrophoroides ( both Marojejy and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud ) , and unidentified sucking lice ( Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud only ) . In 2007 , a laelapid mite found on V. gymnocaudus in Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud was described as a new species , Andreacarus voalavo . The apicomplexan parasite Eimeria has also been recorded in Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud V. gymnocaudus .
= = Conservation status = =
Although Voalavo gymnocaudus has a small range and is uncommon even within that range , no major threats are known and virtually all of its distribution is within protected areas . The species is therefore classified as " Least Concern " on the IUCN Red List .
= Candy Shop =
" Candy Shop " is the second single by rapper 50 Cent from his second commercial album , The Massacre ( 2005 ) . It features Olivia , and was written by 50 Cent .
" Candy Shop " peaked at # 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming 50 Cent 's third number one single and fifth top @-@ ten single . It received mixed reviews from critics , with some calling it a retread of 50 Cent 's collaboration with Lil ' Kim on " Magic Stick " ( 2003 ) . At the 2006 Grammy Awards , it was nominated for Best Rap Song , and at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , the music video was nominated for Best Male Video .
= = Background = =
In an interview with XXL magazine , rapper Fat Joe claimed that he helped produce the track while working with producer Scott Storch . He stated : " I 'm pretty sure the world don 't know we actually produced Candy Shop together . I produced it with him ( Storch ) ... Scott called me like 50 times , 100 times : ' Yo , you sure you don 't want to use it ? 50 Cent called me . 50 Cent want it . ' I never had a problem with this dude . I was like , ' Go ahead . ' " When writing the song , 50 Cent stated : " I attempted to be as sexual as possible , from a male perspective , without being vulgar or obscene " .
= = Composition = =
" Candy Shop " is a mid @-@ tempo dancefloor track . The song was produced by Scott Storch , who took influence from Middle Eastern music . The track samples The Salsoul Orchestra 's " Love Break " . The production was described by IGN as having a " Middle Eastern tinge " with synthesized strings that " unleash a darkly atonal whirl that sounds too much like something either Timbaland or The Neptunes or Mannie Fresh have concocted " . The Guardian wrote that the production contains " wan @-@ sounding imitations of the Neptunes ' sparse , breathy funk " . PopMatters described the bridge as being " relaxed yet faintly ominous " with 50 Cent and Olivia crooning : " Girl what we do ( what we do ) / And where we do ( and where we do ) / The things we do ( things we do ) / Are just between me and you ( oh yeah ) . " Rolling Stone noted the chorus for 50 Cent 's " amateur @-@ sounding tenor croon " .
= = Reception = =
The song received mixed reviews from critics . PopMatters described it as " dripping with sexual energy and cool " and is " sexy as hell , but contains a pretty unmistakable edge of hostility , macho swagger , and thunderous chest thumping . " Entertainment Weekly wrote that it was an " appealing throwaway single " and lyrics such as " after you work up a sweat , you can play with the stick " are not seductions ; " they 're orders " . MusicOMH wrote that the chemistry between 50 Cent and Olivia " is almost as explicit as the lyrics ... the bass line is made for grinding to " . Author Ethan Brown , in a review of The Massacre , called the track " uninspiring " and " nearly identical " to his previous collaboration with Lil ' Kim on " Magic Stick " . He stated that 50 Cent seemed too content with his " hypersexual image " among other things and " not inspired enough to work beyond the same old attention @-@ getting schemes . " Pitchfork Media listed " Candy Shop " as a reprise of " Magic Stick " both " in beats and in timbre " , and Stylus magazine said it was " more of the same " as his previous collaboration . Billboard wrote that 50 Cent " shows little growth lyrically " with the song being " typical playa @-@ friendly fodder " . The song was nominated at the 2006 Grammy Awards for Best Rap Song , but lost to Kanye West 's " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Candy Shop " performed well in the United States , becoming 50 Cent 's third number one single , fifth solo top @-@ ten single , and seventh overall top @-@ ten single . The song debuted at # 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 . In its second week on the chart , the song jumped to # 30 . " Candy Shop " then jumped to # 8 in its third week . In its fourth week , the song charted at # 2 . It peaked at # 1 in its fifth week , where it remained for nine straight weeks . It remained on the chart for 23 weeks . The track reached number one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , Hot Rap Tracks , and Rhythmic Top 40 charts . The song also did well on pop @-@ oriented charts , reaching # 2 on the Pop 100 and # 5 on the Top 40 Mainstream . " Candy Shop " was helped on the Hot 100 and Pop 100 by its strong digital downloads , peaking at # 1 on the Hot Digital Songs . The RIAA certified the track Platinum in 2006 . Across Europe , the song reached number one in Austria , Belgium , Germany , and Switzerland , and the top five in Ireland , Norway , the Netherlands , and the United Kingdom . In Australia , the track peaked at number three , was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , and on the 2005 year @-@ end chart , it was listed at # 24 . It reached number two in New Zealand .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Jessy Terrero on January 11 – 12 , 2005 , and filmed in Hollywood , California . Due to rapper Trick Daddy 's music video for " Sugar ( Gimme Some ) " already having candy references , 50 Cent said , " we tried to do something a little different " and not follow the same route . The video features Olivia as the lead dancer and several models including Chessika Cartwright ( as a dominatrix ) , " Lyric " ( as a nurse ) , It features cameo appearances from Lil Scrappy , former WWE Diva and TNA Knockout Kristal Marshall , former Deal Or No Deal model Leyla Milani , G @-@ Unit member Lloyd Banks , and Young Buck . It was nominated for Best Male Video at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Kanye West 's " Jesus Walks " . On February 2 , 2005 , the video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live at number nine and remained on the chart for 46 days . It also reached number one on the MuchMusic video charts .
= = Track listing = =
UK CD single # 1
" Candy Shop " - 3 : 31
" Disco Inferno " - 3 : 34
UK CD single # 2
" Candy Shop " - 3 : 34
" Candy Shop " ( Instrumental ) - 3 : 34
" Candy Shop " ( Ringtone ) - 0 : 38
" Candy Shop " ( Music Video ) - 3 : 34
= = Cover versions = =
Dan Finnerty and The Dan Band famously covered the song in the record @-@ breaking box @-@ office smash The Hangover in 2009 .
In 2011 , German group The Baseballs released a rockabilly version of " Candy Shop " , which reached number 69 on the Austrian singles chart . " Weird Al " Yankovic included the song in his polka medley " Polkarama ! " from his 2006 album Straight Outta Lynwood . On the film Little Man Percy P made his own mixtape over it . Legendary folk artist Suzanne Vega sampled " Candy Shop " for her forthcoming 2014 release , " Tales from the Realm of the Queen of Pentacles " .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Whitby =
Whitby is a seaside town , port and civil parish in the Borough of Scarborough and English county of North Yorkshire . It is located within the historic boundaries of the North Riding of Yorkshire . Situated on the east coast of Yorkshire at the mouth of the River Esk , Whitby has an established maritime , mineral and tourist heritage . Its East Cliff is home to the ruins of Whitby Abbey , where Cædmon , the earliest recognised English poet , lived . The fishing port developed during the Middle Ages , supporting important herring and whaling fleets , and was ( along with the nearby fishing village of Staithes ) where Captain Cook learned seamanship .
Tourism started in Whitby during the Georgian period and developed further on the arrival of the railway in 1839 . Its attraction as a tourist destination is enhanced by its proximity to the high ground of the North York Moors National Park , its Heritage Coastline and by its association with the horror novel Dracula . Jet and alum were mined locally . Whitby Jet , which was mined by the Romans and Victorians , became fashionable during the 19th century .
The earliest record of a permanent settlement is in 656 , when as Streanœhealh it was the place where Oswy , the Christian king of Northumbria , founded the first abbey , under the abbess Hilda . The Synod of Whitby was held there in 664 . In 867 , the monastery was destroyed by Viking raiders . Another monastery was founded in 1078 . It was in this period that the town gained its current name , Whitby ( from " white settlement " in Old Norse ) . In the following centuries Whitby functioned as a fishing settlement until , in the 18th century , it developed as a port and centre for shipbuilding and whaling , the trade in locally mined alum , and the manufacture of Whitby jet jewellery .
The abbey ruin at the top of the East Cliff is the town 's oldest and most prominent landmark . Other significant features include the swing bridge , which crosses the River Esk and the harbour , which is sheltered by the grade II listed East and West piers . The town 's maritime heritage is commemorated by statues of Captain Cook and William Scoresby , as well as the whalebone arch that sits at the top of the West Cliff . The town also has a strong literary tradition and has featured in literary works , television and cinema , most famously in Bram Stoker 's novel Dracula .
While Whitby 's cultural and historical heritage contribute to the local economy , the town does suffer from the economic constraints of its remote location , ongoing changes in the fishing industry , relatively underdeveloped transport infrastructure , and limitations on available land and property . As a result , tourism and some forms of fishing remain the mainstay of its economy . It is the closest port to a proposed wind farm development in the North Sea , 47 miles ( 76 km ) from York and 22 miles ( 35 km ) from Middlesbrough . There are transport links to the rest of North Yorkshire and North East England , primarily through national rail links to Middlesbrough and road links to Teesside , via both the A171 and A174 , and Scarborough by the former .
According to the 2011 UK census , the town had a population of 13 @,@ 213 , a decrease on the 2001 UK census figure of 13 @,@ 594 .
= = History = =
Whitby was called Streanæshalc , Streneshalc , Streoneshalch , Streoneshalh , and Streunes @-@ Alae in Lindissi in records of the 7th and 8th centuries . Prestebi , meaning the " habitation of priests " in Old Norse , is an 11th century name . Its name was recorded as Hwitebi and Witebi , meaning the " white settlement " in Old Norse , in the 12th century , Whitebi in the 13th century and Qwiteby in the 14th century .
= = = Abbey = = =
A monastery was founded at Streanœhealh in AD 657 by King Oswiu or Oswy of Northumbria , as an act of thanksgiving , after defeating Penda , the pagan king of Mercia . At its foundation , the abbey was an Anglo @-@ Saxon ' double monastery ' for men and women . Its first abbess , the royal princess Hild , was later venerated as a saint . The abbey became a centre of learning and here Cædmon the cowherd was " miraculously " transformed into an inspired poet whose poetry is an example of Anglo @-@ Saxon literature . The abbey became the leading royal nunnery of the kingdom of Deira , and the burial @-@ place of its royal family . The Synod of Whitby , in 664 , established the Roman date of Easter in Northumbria at the expense of the Celtic one .
The monastery was destroyed between 867 and 870 in a series of raids by Vikings from Denmark under their leaders Ingwar and Ubba . Its site remained desolate for more than 200 years until after the Norman Conquest of 1066 . After the Conquest , the area was granted to William de Percy who , in 1078 donated land to found a Benedictine monastery dedicated to St Peter and St Hilda . William de Percy 's gift included land for the monastery , the town and port of Whitby and St Mary 's Church and dependent chapels at Fyling , Hawsker , Sneaton , Ugglebarnby , Dunsley , and Aislaby , five mills including Ruswarp , Hackness with two mills and two churches . In about 1128 Henry I granted the abbey burgage in Whitby and permission to hold a fair at the feast of St Hilda on 25 August . A second fair was held close to St. Hilda 's winter feast at Martinmas . Market rights were granted to the abbey
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and descended with the liberty . Whitby Abbey surrendered in December 1539 when Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries .
= = = Town = = =
In 1540 the town had between 20 and 30 houses and a population of about 200 . The burgesses , who had little independence under the abbey , tried to obtain self @-@ government after the dissolution of the monasteries . The king ordered Letters Patent to be drawn up granting their requests , but it was not implemented . In 1550 the Liberty of Whitby Strand , except for Hackness , was granted to the Earl of Warwick who in 1551 conveyed it to Sir John York and his wife Anne who sold the lease to the Cholmleys . In the reign of Elizabeth I , Whitby was a small fishing port . In 1635 the owners of the liberty governed the port and town where 24 burgesses had the privilege of buying and selling goods brought in by sea . Burgage tenure continued until 1837 , when by an Act of Parliament , government of the town was entrusted to a board of Improvement Commissioners , elected by the ratepayers .
At the end of the 16th century Thomas Chaloner visited alum works in the Papal States where he observed that the rock being processed was similar to that under his Guisborough estate . At that time alum was important for medicinal uses , in curing leather and for fixing dyed cloths and the Papal States and Spain maintained monopolies on its production and sale . Chaloner secretly brought workmen to develop the industry in Yorkshire , and alum was produced near Sandsend Ness 3 miles ( 5 km ) from Whitby in the reign of James I. Once the industry was established , imports were banned and although the methods in its production were laborious , England became self @-@ sufficient . Whitby grew significantly as a port as a result of the alum trade and by importing coal from the Durham coalfield to process it .
Whitby grew in size and wealth , extending its activities to include shipbuilding using local oak timber . In 1790 – 91 Whitby built 11 @,@ 754 tons of shipping , making it the third largest shipbuilder in England , after London and Newcastle . Taxes on imports entering the port raised money to improve and extend the town 's twin piers , improving the harbour and permitting further increases in trade . In 1753 the first whaling ship set sail to Greenland and by 1795 Whitby had become a major whaling port . The most successful year was 1814 when eight ships caught 172 whales , and the whaler , the Resolution 's catch produced 230 tons of oil . The carcases yielded 42 tons of whale bone used for ' stays ' which were used in the corsetry trade until changes in fashion made them redundant . Blubber was boiled to produce oil for use in lamps in four oil houses on the harbourside . Oil was used for street lighting until the spread of gas lighting reduced demand and the Whitby Whale Oil and Gas Company changed into the Whitby Coal and Gas Company . As the market for whale products fell , catches became too small to be economic and by 1831 only one whaling ship , the Phoenix , remained .
Whitby benefited from trade between the Newcastle coalfield and London , both by shipbuilding and supplying transport . In his youth the explorer James Cook learned his trade on colliers , shipping coal from the port . HMS Endeavour , the ship commanded by Cook on his voyage to Australia and New Zealand , was built in Whitby in 1764 by Tomas Fishburn as a coal carrier named Earl of Pembroke . She was bought by the Royal Navy 1768 , refitted and renamed .
Whitby developed as a spa town in Georgian times when three chalybeate springs were in demand for their medicinal and tonic qualities . Visitors were attracted to the town leading to the building of " lodging @-@ houses " and hotels particularly on the West Cliff . Then , in 1839 , the Whitby and Pickering Railway connecting Whitby to Pickering and eventually to York was built , and played a part in the town 's development as a tourism destination . George Hudson , who promoted the link to York , was responsible for the development of the Royal Crescent which was partly completed . For 12 years from 1847 , Robert Stephenson , son of George Stephenson , engineer to the Whitby and Pickering Railway , was the Conservative MP for the town promoted by Hudson as a fellow protectionist .
The black mineraloid jet , the compressed remains of ancestors of the monkey @-@ puzzle tree , is found in the cliffs and on the moors and has been used since the Bronze Age to make beads . The Romans are known to have mined it in the area . In Victorian times jet was brought to Whitby by pack pony to be made into decorative items . It was at the peak of its popularity in the mid @-@ 19th century when it was favoured for mourning jewellery by Queen Victoria after the death of Prince Albert .
The advent of iron ships in the late 19th century and the development of port facilities on the River Tees led to the decline of smaller Yorkshire harbours . The Monks @-@ haven launched in 1871 was the last wooden ship built Whitby and a year later the harbour was silted up .
On 30 October 1914 , the hospital ship Rohilla was sunk , hitting the rocks within sight of shore just off Whitby at Saltwick Bay . Of the 229 people on board , 85 lost their lives in the disaster ; most are buried in the churchyard at Whitby . In a raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby in December 1914 , the town was shelled by the German battlecruisers Von der Tann and Derfflinger . In the final assault on the Yorkshire coast the ships aimed their guns at the signal post on the end of the headland . Whitby Abbey sustained considerable damage in the attack which lasted ten minutes . The German squadron responsible for the strike escaped despite attempts made by the Royal Navy .
During the early 20th century the fishing fleet kept the harbour busy and few cargo boats used the port . It was revitalised as a result of a strike at Hull docks in 1955 when six ships were diverted and unloaded their cargoes on the fish quay . Endeavour Wharf , near the railway station , was opened in 1964 by the local council . The number of vessels using the port in 1972 was 291 , increased from 64 in 1964 . Timber , paper and chemicals are imported while exports include steel , furnace @-@ bricks and doors . The port is owned and managed by Scarborough Borough Council since the Harbour Commissioners relinquished responsibility in 1905 .
A marina was started in 1979 by dredging the upper harbour and laying pontoons . Light industry and car parks occupy the adjacent land . More pontoons were completed in 1991 and 1995 . The Whitby Marina Facilities Centre was opened in June 2010 .
= = Governance = =
By an Act of 1837 government of the town was entrusted to a board of Improvement Commissioners , elected by the ratepayers . A Local Board was formed in 1872 , and lasted until Whitby Urban District Council was formed under the Local Government Act 1894 . The townships of Whitby , Ruswarp and Hawsker @-@ cum @-@ Stainsacre were formed into a Parliamentary borough under the Reform Act of 1832 returning one member until the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 .
Since 1974 Whitby has been administered by Scarborough Borough Council , one of the seven district councils in North Yorkshire . For borough council purposes the town comprises three wards , Mayfield , Streonshalh and Whitby West Cliff . The borough council is a non @-@ metropolitan district , responsible for housing , planning , leisure and recreation , waste collection , environmental health and revenue collection . North Yorkshire County Council is a non @-@ metropolitan county providing education , transport , highways , fire , waste disposal , social and library services . At the lowest level of governance Whitby has a town council which , for election and administrative purposes , is divided into six electoral wards represented by 19 councillors responsible for burial grounds , allotments , play areas and street lighting . Elections to the town council are held every four years .
In the UK parliament the town is represented by a Conservative , Robert Goodwill , who was elected member for the Scarborough and Whitby constituency in 2010 . Whitby lies within the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency of the European Parliament , which in the May 2014 European Election elected three UKIP , two Labour and one Conservative MEPs .
= = Geography and geology = =
Whitby is situated on the east coast of Yorkshire facing the North Sea in a deep valley at the mouth of the River Esk . It has been a bridging point since at least medieval times and several bridges have spanned the river . The current bridge , built in 1908 , is a swing bridge with a 75 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) span that separates the upper and lower harbours which have a total area of around 80 @.@ 1 acres ( 32 @.@ 40 ha ) . The houses are built of brick or stone , often with red pantiled roofs , in narrow , steep streets , on both sides of the river .
The town is surrounded on its landward sides by the moorland of the North York Moors National Park and the North Sea abuts it on the seaward side . The coastal areas are designated part of the North Yorkshire and Cleveland Heritage Coast . This stretch of coast , known as the ' Dinosaur Coast ' , the ' Fossil Coast ' or the ' Jurassic Coast ' , is around 35 miles ( 56 km ) long , stretching from Staithes in the north , to Flamborough in the East Riding of Yorkshire . At Whitby dinosaur footprints are visible on the beach . The rock strata contain fossils and organic remains including jet . Fossils include the petrified bones of an almost complete crocodile and a specimen of plesiosaurus measuring 15 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 72 m ) in length , and 8 feet 5 inches ( 2 @.@ 57 m ) in breadth was discovered in 1841 . Smaller fossils include ammonite , or " snake stones " from the alum shales and at Whitby Scar and nautilites in the lower beds of the lias strata . The Hildoceras genus of ammonite is named in honour of St. Hilda of Whitby . The Rotunda Museum in Scarborough has a comprehensive collection of fossils from the area .
The harbour and the mouth of the River Esk are on a geological fault . On the east side the cliff is tall , 187 feet ( 57 m ) , and consists of alternating layers of shale , sandstone and clay . On the west side the cliff is much lower and has a deep capping of boulder clay over a sandstone base making it less stable and liable to slippage . Both cliffs are being eroded quite rapidly .
= = Climate = =
The area generally has warm summers and relatively mild winters . Weather conditions vary from day to day as well as from season to season . Its latitude means that it is influenced by predominantly westerly winds with depressions and their associated fronts , bringing unsettled and windy weather particularly in winter . Between depressions there are often small mobile anticyclones that bring periods of fine weather . In winter anticyclones bring cold dry weather . In summer the anticyclones tend to bring dry settled conditions which can lead to drought . The two dominant influences on the climate of the Whitby area are shelter against the worst of the moist westerly winds provided by the North York Moors and the proximity of the North Sea . Late , chilly springs and warm summers are a feature of the area but there are often spells of fine autumn weather . Onshore winds in spring and early summer bring mists or low stratus clouds ( known locally as sea frets ) to the coast and moors .
On 5 January 2016 the town became " virtually cut off " after flash floods . North Yorkshire Police warned on the night of 4 January that the town was only accessible through one route by 4x4 vehicles . It urged motorists to use " extreme caution " and avoid the area unless " absolutely necessary " .
= = Demography = =
According to the 2011 UK census , Whitby parish had a population of 13 @,@ 213 living in 6 @,@ 097 households . In the 2001 UK census of the total number of 5 @,@ 973 homes 2 @,@ 034 were rented and 3 @,@ 939 were owner occupied . Of the 5 @,@ 506 economically active persons aged between 16 and 74 , 420 were unemployed . The number of people working in the service industry was 4 @,@ 113 . Approximately 2 @,@ 500 people were aged under 16 , 8 @,@ 400 were aged 16 – 64 , and 2 @,@ 700 aged 65 and over . The mean age of the population was 41 @.@ 78 years . The number of people who travel to work by motorised transport is 3 @,@ 134 but 2 @,@ 190 households have no cars or vans .
= = = Population change = = =
Note : Between 1801 and 1925 Whitby comprised Whitby , Ruswarp and part of Hawsker civil parishes and ( between 1894 and 1925 ) Helredale civil parish , all of which were merged on 1 April 1925 into the current Whitby area .
= = = Religion = = =
In the three wards that make up the Whitby district of North Yorkshire , out of a population of 13 @,@ 596 there are 10 @,@ 286 who stated that their religion was Christian in the 2001 UK census . There were 19 Muslims , 17 Buddhists , 12 Jews , 3 Sikhs and 499 people had no religious affiliations .
St Mary 's Church is an ancient foundation , St Ninian 's opened in Baxtergate in 1778 and St John 's , also on Baxtergate , was consecrated in 1850 . St Michael 's was opened in 1856 and St Hilda 's on the West Cliff was built in 1885 . The Roman Catholic Church dedicated to St Hilda was built in 1867 on Baxtergate . There are places of worship for nonconformists including a United Reformed Church ; two Methodist chapels are no longer used . The Mission to Seafarers maintains a Christian ministry and has a chapel , reading room and recreational facilities .
The Bishop of Whitby is a suffragan bishop of the Church of England Diocese of York , in the Province of York . The town lies within the Central Vicariate of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough .
= = Economy = =
Tourism supported by fishing is the mainstay of Whitby 's economy in an isolated community with poor transport infrastructure and restricted by building constraints in the surrounding North York Moors National Park . The economy is governed by the changing fortunes of fishing , tourism and to some extent , manufacturing . Structural changes have led to concentrations of deprivation , unemployment and benefit dependence . A narrowing employment base and dependence on low wage and low skill sectors has resulted in younger age groups leaving the area . There are few business start @-@ ups and small and medium @-@ sized enterprises . Older people who make increasing demands on the area 's health and social care capacity have moved into the area . Demographic changes , Whitby 's relative isolation from the region 's main growth areas and decline in traditional employment sectors pose an economic challenge .
The town has a variety of self @-@ catering accommodation , holiday cottages , caravans and campsites , and guest houses , inns , bed & breakfast establishments and hotels . The jet industry declined at the end of the nineteenth century but eight shops sell jet jewellery , mainly as souvenirs to tourists . In 1996 , Whitby West Cliff qualified for a ' Tidy Britain Group Seaside Award ' . The town was awarded " Best Seaside Resort 2006 " , by Which ? Holiday magazine .
The harbour has a total area of about 80 acres ( 32 ha ) and is used by commercial , fishing and pleasure craft . Inshore fishing , particularly for crustaceans and line fish , takes place along the coast . Lobsters , brown and velvet crabs are important to the local fishery . From May to August , salmon is found in the Esk and small open boats are licensed to net these off the harbour entrance . There are around 40 licensed angling party boats . The commercial catch is no longer herring but has been replaced by cod , haddock , and other fish caught within 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the coast . A fish market on the quayside operates as need arises . The ready supply of fresh fish has resulted in an abundance of " chippies " in the town , including the Magpie Cafe which Rick Stein has described as the best fish and chip shop in Britain .
The Whitby Marina project , jointly funded by Scarborough Borough Council , Yorkshire Forward and the European Regional Development Fund , was developed to diversify the local economy . The remaining shipbuilding firm , Parkol Marine , is a family @-@ run business on the east side of the river . Founded in 1988 , the boatyard has two berths for new build and a dry dock for repairs . St Hilda 's Business Centre provides office space for a range of businesses . Whitby Business Park is a 49 @-@ acre ( 20 ha ) site located by the A171 road , 2 miles ( 3 km ) from the harbour on the southern outskirts of the town . Companies on the park include Supreme Plastics , Whitby Seafoods and Botham 's of Whitby alongside major retailers , Homebase and Sainsbury 's .
The east coast has limited conventional energy generation capacity , but Whitby is the closest port to a proposed development on Dogger Bank , ideally placed to provide the offshore wind power industry with support vessel operations and logistics . The Dogger Bank wind farm could include up to 2 @,@ 600 giant 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) turbines covering more than 3 @,@ 300 square miles ( 850 @,@ 000 ha ) .
= = Transport = =
Whitby is situated on the A171 road from Scarborough to Guisborough which originally passed over the swing bridge . A high level bridge over the Esk Valley was built in 1980 to avoid the bridge and ease congestion in the town centre . The A174 accesses coastal towns to the north and the A169 crosses the moors to Pickering . Whitby is served by the Yorkshire Coastliner bus line , operating from Leeds , Tadcaster , York , Scarborough , Bridlington , Pickering and Malton with connections beyond Yorkshire . Arriva runs bus services connecting Whitby to Scarborough and Middlesbrough . The nearest airport , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) from Whitby , is Durham Tees Valley Airport , which has a regular service from Amsterdam , Schiphol airport .
The town is served by Whitby railway station which is the terminus of the Esk Valley Line from Middlesbrough operated by Northern Rail . It was formerly the northern terminus of the Whitby , Pickering and York Line , and in 2007 the North Yorkshire Moors Railway began a summer service between Pickering and Whitby operated by steam locomotives . The Scarborough and Whitby Railway following a scenic route along the coast was built in 1885 requiring construction of the red brick Larpool Viaduct across the Esk Valley into Whitby . The line closed as a result of the Beeching axe in 1965 and the trackbed is used as a footpath , bridleway and by cyclists . The Whitby , Redcar and Middlesbrough Union Railway had a station at Whitby West Cliff and ran close to the cliffs to the north of the town . It opened in 1883 and closed in 1958 .
The coastal section of the 110 @-@ mile ( 180 km ) Cleveland Way National Trail passes through Whitby .
The Port of Whitby is strategically placed for shipping to Europe , especially Scandinavia , and is capable of handling cargoes of grain , steel products , timber and potash . Vessels of up to 3 @,@ 000 tonnes deadweight tonnage are received at the wharf , which can load or unload two ships simultaneously . As of 2004 54 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 000 m2 ) of dock space is used to store all @-@ weather cargo and there is a 17 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 600 m2 ) warehouse for weather @-@ critical cargoes .
= = Public services = =
A wide range of health care services is provided by Whitby Community Hospital , run by the Scarborough and North East Yorkshire Health Care NHS Trust . There are five general practitioners and five dentists in the area . Yorkshire Ambulance Service provides hospital transport throughout Yorkshire .
Whitby fire station , run by North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service , is crewed between 8 am and 6 pm . The town 's two police stations are provided by the North Yorkshire Police Authority . The lifeboat station built in 2007 , on the east bank , is operated by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution . The crew members are unpaid volunteers and the station has two lifeboats , an inshore D class lifeboat the OEM Stone III and an all @-@ weather Trent class lifeboat , the George and Mary Webb .
North Yorkshire County Council waste management services provide a household waste recycling centre at Whitby Industrial Estate , and operates an alternate weekly collection of household waste , whereby the type of waste collected alternates between recyclables and landfill waste . The water supply , predominantly from the River Esk , is treated at Ruswarp Water Treatment Works and distributed from there by Yorkshire Water who also deal with the town 's sewerage . CE Electric UK is responsible for delivering electricity and Northern Gas Networks supply piped gas .
= = Education = =
Whitby has a three tier school system , primary , middle ( 11 – 14 ) and Caedmon College ( 11 – 19 ) , which was formed in 2014 from the merger of Caedmon School ( 11 – 14 ) and Whitby Community College ( 14 – 19 ) . Eskdale School continues to operate as a middle school , but is currently consulting on raising its age range to 16 .
The primary schools are St Hilda 's Roman Catholic Primary School , Stakesby Community Primary School , West Cliff Primary School , Airy Hill Community Primary School and East Whitby Community Primary School . North Yorkshire County Council provides education services .
The Whitby and District Fishing Industry Training School offers training for new entrants to the fishing industry and experienced fishermen .
= = Landmarks = =
The swing bridge spanning the Esk divides the upper and lower harbours and joins the east and west sides of the town . Whitby developed as an important bridging point of the River Esk and in 1351 permission was granted for tolls to be taken on the bridge for its maintenance . In 1609 a survey for a new bridge was commissioned while in 1628 it was described as a drawbridge where men raised planks to let vessels pass and tolls were collected . The bridge posts were rebuilt in stone at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 000 in 1766 . This structure was replaced by a four @-@ arched bridge between 1833 and 1835 , one arch made of cast iron swivelled to allow vessels to pass . This bridge was replaced between 1908 and 1909 by the current electric swing bridge .
The bridge allowed the town to spread onto the west bank , whilst the east bank , the Haggerlythe , is dominated by St Mary 's Church and the ruins of Whitby Abbey which is owned by English Heritage . St Mary 's Church is a grade I listed building on the site of a Saxon church . The church 's ancient foundation dates from the 12th century . Over time it has been extensively altered and enlarged but retains several features including box pews . The East Cliff is quite a distance by road from the church , the alternative is to climb the 199 steps of the " Church Stairs " or use the footpath called " Caedmon 's Trod " . The stone stairs , which replaced the original wooden steps , were built about 200 years old ago and renovated between 2005 and 2006 . There are landings to assist coffin bearers on their journey to the graveyard on the cliff top .
The harbour is sheltered by the grade II listed east and west piers each with a lighthouse and beacon . The west lighthouse , of 1831 , is the taller at 84 feet ( 25 @.@ 5 m ) and the east lighthouse , built in 1855 , is 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) high . On the west pier extension is a foghorn that sounds a blast every 30 seconds during fog . New lights were fitted to both the lighthouse towers and the beacons in 2011 . Whitby Lighthouse , operated by Trinity House , is located outside the town , to the south east , on Ling Hill .
On the West Cliff is a statue of Captain James Cook who served his apprenticeship in the town , and a whalebone arch , commemorates the whaling industry . It is the second such arch , the original is preserved in Whitby Archives Heritage Centre . By the inner harbour is a statue commemorating William Scoresby , designer of the crow 's nest .
On the outskirts of town to the west is the 19th @-@ century Sneaton Castle built by James Wilson who sold his sugar plantation where he had over 200 slaves and moved to Whitby . Alongside it is St Hilda 's Priory , the mother house of the Order of the Holy Paraclete . The castle was used as a school and is now a conference centre and hotel in association with the priory .
= = Culture , media and sport = =
Frank Meadow Sutcliffe left a photographic record of the town , harbour , fishing and residents in late @-@ Victorian times . His most famous photograph entitled " Water Rats " was taken in 1886 . He became famous internationally as a great exponent of pictorial photography . He exhibited his work in Tokyo , Vienna , France , the USA and Great Britain winning over 60 gold , silver and bronze medals . He retired in 1922 and became curator of Whitby Museum . The Royal Photographic Society made him an honorary member in 1935 . A gallery of his work is located on Flowergate .
Pannett Park was built on land purchased by a local philanthropist and politician Alderman Robert Pannett in 1902 . After his death in 1928 , the trust he set up created a public park and art gallery . In 1931 Whitby Museum was built behind the gallery by the Whitby Literary and Philosophical Society . It holds a collection of the archaeological and social history of jet and has on display a " Hand of Glory " . The Friends of Pannett Park , formed in 2005 , successfully bid for a Heritage Lottery Fund grant to refurbish the park . There has been a lifeboat in Whitby since 1802 and the old boathouse , built in 1895 and used until 1957 , is a museum displaying the Robert and Ellen Robson lifeboat , built in 1919 .
The ancient Penny Hedge ceremony is performed on the eve of Ascension Day commemorating a penance imposed by the abbot on miscreant hunters in the Middle Ages . The hunters using a knife costing a penny had to cut wood in Eskdaleside and take it to Whitby harbour where it was made into a hedge that would survive three tides . This tradition is carried out annually on the east side of the upper harbour .
The Whitby Gazette was founded in 1854 by Ralph Horne , a local printer . The first issues were records of visitors and lodgings rather than a newspaper . The publication became a weekly newspaper in 1858 , with a short spell of being published twice weekly between 2000 and 2012 . Local radio stations are BBC Tees and Yorkshire Coast Radio .
The Pavilion Theatre built in the 1870s in West Cliff hosts a range of events during the summer months . For over four decades the town has hosted the Whitby Folk Week , and since 1993 the bi @-@ annual Whitby Goth Weekend for members of the Goth subculture . " Whitby Now " is an annual live music event featuring local bands in the Pavilion which has taken place since 1991 . Since 2008 , the Bram Stoker Film Festival has taken place in October .
Wind surfing , sailing and surfing take place off the beaches between Whitby and Sandsend and the area is visited by divers . Whitby has various sports facilities including the town cricket and football pitches and tennis courts . The Cleveland Way Long Distance Footpath follows the coast between Saltburn and Filey running along the developed frontage of Whitby .
The Whitby Regatta takes place annually over three days in August . The competition between three rowing clubs – Whitby Friendship ARC , Whitby Fishermen 's ARC and Scarborough ARC – forms the backbone of the weekend . The event has expanded to include a fair on the pier , demonstrations , fireworks and military displays – including the spectacle of the Red Arrows aerobatics display team of the Royal Air Force .
Whitby Town F.C. , formed in 1892 , is a semi @-@ professional football club which plays in the Northern Premier League at the 3 @,@ 200 capacity Turnbull Ground on Upgang Lane . Golfing facilities range from " pitch and putt " to Whitby Golf Club whose 18 @-@ hole golf course is situated on the cliff tops to the north west of the town .
= = = Literature = = =
The town has a strong literary tradition and can even be said that the earliest English literature comes from Whitby as Cædmon , the first known Anglo Saxon poet was a monk at the order that used Whitby Abbey during the abbacy of St. Hilda ( 657 – 680 ) . Part of Bram Stoker 's novel Dracula was set in Whitby , incorporating pieces of local folklore , including the beaching of the Russian ship Dmitri . Stoker discovered the name " Dracula " at the old public library . One scholar has suggested that Stoker chose Whitby as the site of Dracula 's first appearance in England because of the Synod of Whitby , given the novel 's preoccupation with timekeeping and calendar disputes . Elizabeth Gaskell set her novel Sylvia 's Lovers partly in the town which she visited in 1859 and Lewis Carroll stayed at 5 , East Terrace between July and September 1854 : his first publications may have been published in the Whitby Gazette .
Charles Dickens is known to have visited Whitby and in a letter of 1861 to his friend Wilkie Collins , who was at the time in Whitby , Dickens says :
In my time that curious railroad by the Whitby Moor was so much the more curious , that you were balanced against a counter @-@ weight of water , and that you did it like Blondin . But in these remote days the one inn of Whitby was up a back @-@ yard , and oyster @-@ shell grottoes were the only view from the best private room .
Wilkie Collins stayed in Whitby to work on his novel , No Name . He was accompanied by Caroline Graves , the inspiration for The Woman in White . Mary Linskill was born in a small house at Blackburn 's Yard in 1840 . She reached a wide readership when her second novel , Between the Heather and the Northern Sea , was published in 1884 . Her last novel For Pity 's Sake , was published posthumously in 1891 . James Russell Lowell , the American writer , visited Whitby while ambassador in London 1880 – 85 , staying at 3 Wellington Terrace , West Cliff . On his last visit in 1889 , he wrote :
This is my ninth year at Whitby and the place loses none of its charm for me .
G. P. Taylor , a former Church of England curate in Whitby , is now a celebrated author . His best @-@ selling book Shadowmancer was set in Whitby .
The novel Possession : A Romance by A. S. Byatt set in the town was adapted into a 2002 feature film called Possession starring Gwyneth Paltrow .
A crime novel series by James Whitworth is set in Whitby . The first two novels are Death 's Disciple and The Eve of Murder .
A trilogy of young adult novels , The Whitby Witches , makes much of the town 's setting and history , embellishing local traditions whilst incorporating them into the narrative . The author , Robin Jarvis , recalls " The first time I visited Whitby , I stepped off the train and knew I was somewhere very special . It was a grey , drizzling day but that only added to the haunting beauty and lonely atmosphere of the place . Listening to Carmina Burana on my headphones , I explored the ruined abbey on the clifftop . The place was a fantastic inspiration . In the Whitby Witches I have interwoven many of the existing local legends , such as the frightening Barguest , whilst inventing a few of my own , most notably the aufwaders . "
Other literary works referencing Whitby include :
Caedmon 's Song by Peter Robinson
The Hundred and Ninety Nine Steps by Michel Faber
The Resurrectionists by Kim Wilkins
Never the Bride , Something Borrowed , Conjugal Rites , Hell 's Belles by Paul Magrs
= = Twin cities = =
Whitby is twinned with a number of towns across the globe . Most were either visited by Captain Cook in ships that were built in Whitby – and one was named after Whitby by settlers from England .
Anchorage , Alaska , United States
Porirua , New Zealand
Stanley , Falkland Islands
Whitby , Canada
Nukuʻalofa , Tonga
Kauai County , Hawaii , United States
Osterode , Germany
= Ike Davis =
Isaac Benjamin " Ike " Davis ( born March 22 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball first baseman in the New York Yankees organization . From 2010 through 2015 , he played in MLB for the New York Mets , Pittsburgh Pirates and Oakland Athletics .
Davis led his high school team to three straight Arizona state championships as a pitcher / first baseman . As a hitter he batted .447 , while as a pitcher he recorded a 23 – 0 win – loss record , a 1 @.@ 85 earned run average ( ERA ) , and 14 saves . He also pitched for the gold medal @-@ winning U.S.A. Youth National Team in the 2003 World Youth Championships , and was the most valuable player of the 2004 AFLAC All @-@ American High School Baseball Classic . Ranked second in the nation as a freshman for Arizona State University by both Baseball America and Collegiate Baseball , he was named Pac @-@ 10 Conference Freshman of the Year , as he became the first freshman ever to lead the conference in runs batted in ( RBIs ) . He hit .353 with a .605 slugging percentage in college , threw a fastball that reached 94 miles per hour , and was a two @-@ time All @-@ American and a three @-@ time All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 selection .
Davis was drafted 18th overall in the first round of the 2008 MLB Draft . In the minor leagues , he batted .288 with a .371 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , and a .467 slugging percentage , and was the Mets 2009 Organizational Player of the Year .
The Mets called him up to the majors in April 2010 . His 11 home runs prior to the All @-@ Star break that season tied him for the second @-@ most ever by a Mets rookie . He set the Mets rookie record for total bases ( 230 ) , and tied the Mets rookie records for bases on balls ( 72 ) and extra @-@ base hits ( 53 ) . He was named the first baseman on Baseball America 's 2010 All @-@ Rookie Team . During a 2011 season shortened by an ankle injury , Davis batted .302 . In 2012 he batted .227 , but his 32 home runs were 5th @-@ best in the National League . In 2013 , he split his time between the Mets and AAA Las Vegas . He was traded to the Pirates in April 2014 , and traded to the Athletics after the season .
= = Early years = =
Davis was born in Edina , Minnesota , to Millie ( née Gollinger ) Davis and former major league pitcher Ron Davis , who pitched in 481 games in the majors in his 11 @-@ year career . His father was a power relief pitcher , and an American League All @-@ Star in 1981 . He pitched from 1978 to 1988 , starting with the New York Yankees ( 1978 – 81 , going 27 – 10 with 22 saves , primarily as the setup man for Rich Gossage ) . He then pitched for the Minnesota Twins , Chicago Cubs , Los Angeles Dodgers , and San Francisco Giants . His father retired when he was 32 , however , so he mostly remembers old @-@ timers ' games , such as the one in which he met Derek Jeter when he was 12 . He and his father are the 197th father @-@ son combination to have both played in the major leagues .
Ike went to Cocopah Middle School and has a field there named after him . He took the baseball team to two straight state championships . He set a school record with 18 home runs in one season and 3 in one game .
Davis is Jewish . His mother , the youngest daughter of Bernard and Harriet Gollinger , is Jewish , and his father is Baptist . Davis embraces both sides of his family ’ s history . His mother 's family was from Lithuania , and a significant portion of it was murdered in The Holocaust .
His great aunt on his mother ’ s side was a Holocaust survivor , and Davis said : " She was the one who knew everything that happened . She was able to come to the United States , and she brought the story with her . " Davis ' grandfather on his father ’ s side was a paratrooper in the United States Army who landed in France on D @-@ Day in 1944 , and later helped liberate one of the Nazi concentration camps .
Davis ' given names are Isaac and Benjamin ( after his mother 's two grandfathers ) . Although Davis does not practice Judaism and is non @-@ religious , he stated : " I am really proud of my Jewish heritage " and describes himself as " culturally Jewish . " He reflected : " It 's funny about Judaism ; It doesn ’ t matter if you 're ultra @-@ religious or not , as long as you know that it 's in you or you 're a part of it , everyone accepts you . " He often uses the Jewish greeting " shalom " . Davis states : " I 'm glad Jewish kids get to see they can grow up to be professional baseball players . " Davis followed four other players of Jewish heritage on the Mets : Art Shamsky , Shawn Green , Scott Schoeneweis , and Josh Satin .
As a youth , he attended a five @-@ day baseball fundamentals camp that his father runs for children ages 5 – 14 . His father was also his little league coach until he was 14 . His father said :
People would say Ike was good because his dad was a player . But it 's not that easy .... I can tell Ike how to swing , I can teach him to pitch , [ teach ] the game of baseball , but he 's the only one to make it to the big leagues . You can 't teach heart and soul . That 's what it takes to play in the game .
= = High school = =
Davis attended Chaparral High School in Scottsdale , Arizona , where he won three state titles ( 2003 – 05 ) . His father would throw him batting practice . He hit .559 as a sophomore , the school record , ahead of Paul Konerko 's .558 in 1994 . He also hit a school @-@ record 23 doubles , breaking Konerko 's record of 18 . He followed that up by batting .425 as a junior ( when he was also Arizona 4A Pitcher of the Year ) , and .450 as a senior . As a senior , he had a 92 – 93 mph fastball , to complement his changeup and slider . He was ranked 12th in the country by Baseball America , and was a high school All @-@ American .
In 2003 , he also pitched for the U.S.A. Youth National Team ( 16 @-@ under ) in international play . They won the gold medal in the International Baseball Federation XI " AA " World Youth Championships in Taiwan . In 2004 , he played on the U.S.A. Junior National Team ( 18 @-@ under ) . In his two seasons playing for Team U.S.A. , he batted .404 .
In 2004 , he was one of 40 players from across the country chosen to play in the AFLAC All @-@ American High School Baseball Classic . He won the MVP Award for the game , hitting the go @-@ ahead home run for his team . The following year , he was MVP in the all star 2005 High School American Game .
By November 2004 , the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Davis was already 6 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) and 194 pounds . In 2005 , despite his having indicated he was going to go to college , he was drafted in the 19th round by the Tampa Bay Devil Rays . He elected not to sign .
Davis graduated from high school with a .447 batting average in 320 at bats , with 48 doubles ( a school record , ahead of Konerko 's 44 ) , 12 home runs , and 106 runs batted in ( RBIs ) ( third in school history ) . As a pitcher he was a perfect 23 – 0 , with a 1 @.@ 85 ERA , 14 saves , and 213 strikeouts ( a school record ) in 174 innings . His teams were 95 – 8 over his sophomore , junior , and senior years .
= = College baseball career = =
= = = Freshman year ( 2006 ) = = =
Davis chose to attend Arizona State University ( ASU ) . In October 2005 , he was ranked the # 2 freshman in the nation by both Baseball America and Collegiate Baseball . He pitched ( as the team 's Friday night starter ; the role given the " ace " of a college rotation ) , was the designated hitter , and played first base and corner outfield . In March 2006 , he was named a Louisville Slugger National Player of the Week , Pac @-@ 10 Conference Player of the Week , and College Baseball Foundation National Honor Roll Player of the Week for a week in which he batted .588 and drove in 13 runs , in four games .
In 2006 , with 65 RBIs in 227 at bats he became the first freshman ever to lead the Pac @-@ 10 in runs batted in during the regular season , and set the ASU freshman RBI record . Batting clean @-@ up , he hit .329 with 79 hits ( third all @-@ time , for an ASU freshman ) , 23 doubles ( tied for the Pac @-@ 10 lead , and tying the ASU record for doubles by a freshman ) , and a .542 slugging percentage in 58 games . His 9 home runs tied him with Bob Horner ( 1976 ) for third all @-@ time by a Sun Devil freshman , 2 behind Barry Bonds ( 11 , in 1983 ) . He was also the team 's opening day starter , and pitched a team @-@ high 12 starts . He was named a Collegiate Baseball Louisville Slugger Freshman All @-@ American , Rivals.com First @-@ Team Freshman All @-@ American , Baseball America Second @-@ Team Freshman All @-@ American , Jewish Sports Review First @-@ Team All @-@ American , American Baseball Coaches Association ( ABCA ) First @-@ Team All @-@ West Region , Pac @-@ 10 Freshman of the Year , and a member of the First @-@ Team All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 .
Davis spent the first part of the summer of 2006 with Team USA . He then played in 22 games for the Anchorage Bucs of the Alaska Baseball League , and was named the # 10 prospect in the league by Baseball America .
= = = Sophomore year ( 2007 ) = = =
Davis demonstrated his versatility in an April 2007 game . He came to the mound with his team trailing 5 – 4 , ended the inning by striking out a batter , and in the next half @-@ inning stole home as the lead runner in a triple steal . For his sophomore season , he primarily played right field ( batting .349 with 23 doubles — tied for the conference lead — and 61 RBIs , in 62 games ) and pitched as a middle reliever ( sporting a 1 @.@ 35 ERA ) . He again received First @-@ Team All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 honors , and was named a Collegiate Baseball Louisville Slugger Third Team All @-@ American , a National Collegiate Baseball Writers Association ( NCBWA ) Third @-@ Team All @-@ American , and again a Jewish Sports Review First @-@ Team All @-@ American .
In the summer of 2007 , he played for the Wareham Gatemen in the Cape Cod League . A bone spur in his left wrist required surgery over the summer .
= = = Junior year ( 2008 ) = = =
He was named a pre @-@ season 2008 All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 outfielder by Rivals.com , and a pre @-@ season Third @-@ Team All @-@ American by both the NCBWA and Collegiate Baseball . In consecutive weeks in March 2008 he was named both the Louisville Slugger National Player of the Week and the Pac @-@ 10 Conference Player of the Week . In the first week he hit .450 and struck out all four batters he faced . In the second week he batted .529 with a 1 @.@ 412 slugging percentage , and recorded five outs from the mound , four by strikeout , without giving up a hit . He was the first Sun Devil to win the Pac @-@ 10 @-@ award in consecutive weeks since Travis Buck in 2004 . The College Baseball Foundation named him to its National All @-@ Star Lineup .
For his junior season , Davis hit .385 , with a .457 on @-@ base percentage and a .742 slugging percentage . He hit 23 doubles ( tied for the Pac @-@ 10 lead ) , 16 home runs , and 76 RBIs in 213 at bats over 52 games , while missing 10 games with a rib oblique muscle strain . He was 4 – 1 as a pitcher , with a 2 @.@ 25 ERA , 4 saves , 20 strikeouts in 24 innings against 4 walks , and hit 94 miles per hour on the radar gun . He also threw out four runners from right field . He was named ASU On Deck Circle Most Valuable Player ; prior winners included Dustin Pedroia , Willie Bloomquist , Paul Lo Duca , and Barry Bonds . He received First @-@ Team All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 honors for the third straight year . He was also named a First Team All @-@ American by Baseball America , Collegiate Baseball , the NCBWA , Rivals.com , and the ABCA . Four of his Sun Devils teammates that season went on to play in the major leagues : Brett Wallace , Jake Elmore , Jason Kipnis , and Mike Leake .
He hit .353 in his college career , with a .605 slugging percentage ( 10th @-@ best in ASU history ) . He totaled 159 runs ( 8th @-@ best ) , 244 hits , 33 homers ( 5th ) , 69 doubles ( 2nd , behind Dustin Pedroia ) , and 202 RBIs ( 3rd ) . On the mound , he ended his college career as the Sun Devils closer , and totaled a 7 – 5 mark with 4 saves and 78 strikeouts in his career . Davis was also a part of two Pac @-@ 10 Championship teams , and went to the College World Series in 2007 . He was named to the ASU All @-@ Decade team .
Scouts felt he was at his best as a batter when he used the whole field . They noted that his bat speed allowed him to wait on pitches and drive them the other way , and that he was quick enough to catch up to good fastballs . Mark Schlereth of ESPN observed : " The bigger the game , the better he plays . "
= = Minor leagues ( 2008 – 10 , 2013 ) = =
Davis was the 18th player taken in the first round of the 2008 Major League Baseball Draft , chosen by the New York Mets in his junior year as compensation for the Mets ' loss of Tom Glavine to the Atlanta Braves in free agency . He was drafted for his power bat . Baseball America ranked him the third @-@ best college power hitter in the draft , and The New York Times indicated that he projects to hit 25 – 30 home runs . He signed for $ 1 @.@ 575 million .
Davis said , " It was a huge thrill . I was excited to be picked by New York . " He received fatherly advice from his dad , and recalled :
He just said they 've got the best fans , and it 's a blast because every game is live or die for them . It 's a great environment to grow up playing baseball , and learning how to play under pressure in front of all those people . He loved it , and I 'm looking forward to it , too .
Davis was assigned to the Single @-@ A Brooklyn Cyclones . On defense he excelled , as he committed only one error in 492 total chances at first base , for a league @-@ leading .998 fielding percentage . Uncharacteristically , he struggled on offense , batting only .256 , without a home run in 58 games . Asked the following year to name his most embarrassing professional moment , he replied : " Not hitting one home run in my first professional season . " He noted :
It was first time I ever swung wood full time . I was learning how to play pro ball . I had never played every day in my life . That 's totally different .... You have to learn to conserve your energy . In college , you just left it all out on the field every game . In pro ball , you do that and you 'll wear out , because you play every single day .
In 2009 , Davis started the year with the St. Lucie Mets . He began to turn it around , hitting .289 with 7 home runs in 59 games . He was then promoted to the Double @-@ A Binghamton Mets , where he came into his own , hitting .309 with 13 home runs , 41 RBIs , and a .565 slugging percentage in half a season . Mako Oliveras , the B @-@ Mets manager , described him by saying : " Very live bat ; the ball jumps off his bat when he makes contact . And as for defense , he 's like a vacuum cleaner . " For 2009 , Davis was named the Mets Organizational Player of the Year .
After the season the Mets assigned him to the Surprise Rafters of the Arizona Fall League , where he hit .391 . He was named to the Arizona Fall League 's all star Rising Stars Game . In September 2009 , he played for the gold @-@ medal @-@ winning U.S.A. World Cup team . In the off @-@ season , Baseball America rated him the Mets ’ No. 4 prospect .
Promoted to the Buffalo Bisons , the Mets ' Triple @-@ A affiliate , to start the 2010 season , he hit .364 with a .500 on @-@ base percentage in 10 games .
For the week ending June 24 , 2013 , Davis was the Pacific Coast League 's Player of the Week . In 2013 , in 10 games with the AAA Las Vegas 51s , he batted .364 with a .500 on @-@ base percentage and a .636 slugging percentage .
In his minor league career , he batted .289 , with a .376 OBP and a .487 slugging percentage in 752 at bats .
= = Major leagues ( 2010 – present ) = =
= = = New York Mets = = =
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Davis played in spring training with the Mets in 2010 , and led the team with a .480 average as he hit 3 homers . He also sparkled on defense , prompting José Reyes to observe : " People talk about his hitting , but he is one of the best defensive first basemen you will ever see for a player his age . " Many Mets players were rooting for Davis to break camp with the team , but he was sent down to the minors at the end of spring training . On April 19 , however , the Mets purchased Davis 's minor league contract . At that point Davis had played only 65 games in his life above the Single @-@ A level .
Davis made his debut at Citi Field on April 19 against the Chicago Cubs . He singled in his first at bat , and had two singles in four at bats in a Mets win . " This is awesome , " he gushed . In a sign of acceptance and welcome , after the victory Mets veteran Jeff Francoeur slapped a shaving @-@ cream pie in his face . Davis had two multi @-@ hit games in his first four games . In his fifth game , on April 23 , he hit his first home run . It traveled 450 feet ( 140 m ) , onto Shea Bridge at Citi Field , and was the longest home run of any Met at Citi Field . He had his first multi @-@ home @-@ run game on May 7 .
A gifted , slick @-@ fielding defensive first baseman , in 3 of his first 21 games he made spectacular catches of foul pop @-@ ups , bracing himself against the railing in front of the first base dugout , and then flipping over the railing as he caught the ball . The 6 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) Davis said : " I 'm going to try to catch any ball I can . I 've got long arms , I guess . I 'd rather end the game , than worry about getting a bruise . "
The Met fans began to treat him like a folk hero . The New York Post described him as a " cult hero . " Within a month of his debut , he had become a fan favorite . " I Like Ike " banners began appearing at Citi Field , a phrase once used in the decades @-@ prior presidential campaigns of Dwight D. Eisenhower . Weeks later , he recalled :
I had such nerves the first few days . I didn 't even have an approach . It was just see the ball , hit the ball . Only now am I settling in , getting the chance to think about how a pitcher is going to approach me .
While the Mets had appeared uncertain whether Davis could handle the pressure of the major leagues as spring training ended , by mid @-@ May — just a month after calling him up to the majors — they moved him to the cleanup spot in the batting order . Manager Jerry Manuel said : " I think we 're going to try to leave him there for a while . I think he 's ready to handle that . "
On June 8 , Davis hit his first career walk off home run , against the Padres ' Edward Mujica . His 11 home runs prior to the All Star break tied with Benny Agbayani ( 1999 ) for the second @-@ most by a Mets rookie , behind Ron Swoboda ( 15 , in 1965 ) .
By September 26 , as advanced defense metrics reflected a " UZR / 150 " ( ultimate zone rating ) of 12 @.@ 5 , putting him second in baseball behind Oakland 's Daric Barton , sportswriter Mike Silva mused as to whether he could win a Gold Glove . Using the advanced metric Defensive Runs Saved , sportswriter John Dewan indicated that Davis was best in the NL and second @-@ best in baseball , having saved 14 runs , again behind only Barton in the majors . He showed good range , and saved a number of throws with his soft hands on scoops .
For the season , he was second among all NL rookies in runs ( 73 ) , doubles ( 33 ) , walks ( 72 ) , extra @-@ base hits ( 53 ) , on @-@ base percentage ( .351 ) , and OPS ( .791 ) . He was also third in RBIs ( 71 ) and slugging percentage ( .440 ) , and tied for third in home runs ( 19 ) .
He set the Mets rookie record for total bases ( 230 ) . He also tied Lee Mazzilli 's 1977 Mets rookie record in walks ( 72 ) and Ty Wigginton 's 2003 Mets rookie record in extra @-@ base hits ( 53 ) . He was second among rookies in Mets history with 33 doubles ( behind Wigginton ) , his 19 home runs tied for second @-@ most with Ron Swoboda ( 1965 ) , behind Darryl Strawberry ( 1983 ) , his 71 RBIs tied for second with Wigginton , behind Strawberry , and his 138 hits were 4th on the Mets all @-@ time list ( behind Jay Payton — 2000 , Ron Hunt — 1963 , and Wigginton ) .
Davis was named the first baseman on Baseball America 's 2010 All @-@ Rookie Team . He came in 7th in the voting for 2010 NL Rookie of the Year , receiving two third @-@ place votes .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Davis started the 2011 season by establishing a Mets record , with at least one RBI in 9 of his first 10 games . On May 10 , he sustained a left ankle sprain and bone bruise in a collision with third baseman David Wright . The injury occurred on a routine popup near the pitcher 's mound , with Davis rolling his ankle in an injury that didn 't appear very serious at the time . On June 22 , he was told that the injury might require season @-@ ending surgery . On September 6 , ESPN reported that Davis was rehabbing his ankle and would not need surgery .
During his injury @-@ shortened 2011 season , Davis batted .302 with a .925 OPS , in 139 at bats in 36 games . He hit 7 home runs , and had 25 RBIs .
In 2011 , Davis also appeared on an episode of the fourth season of MTV 's game show Silent Library .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
In early March 2012 , Davis was diagnosed with valley fever , a rare dust @-@ borne fungal infection endemic in the American southwest .
Davis started the season slowly , but then began hitting , getting one homer in each of three games of a four @-@ game span in mid @-@ April . On May 24 , he had the second @-@ lowest batting average ( .159 ) of all qualified major leaguers . As of June 15 , he had raised his batting average to .188 . On June 18 , Davis hit his first career grand slam against Jake Arrieta of the Orioles . The grand slam also extended his hitting streak to 9 games , and Davis hit .462 ( 12 @-@ for @-@ 26 ) during the span . After the hot streak Davis cooled and again struggled . Davis was ejected from a Major League game for the first time in his career on June 26 , when he argued with umpire Manny Gonzalez after Steve Clevenger was ruled safe at first on a pickoff attempt . In June , he had 10 consecutive extra @-@ base hits ( five home runs and five doubles ) , the second @-@ longest such streak in Mets history .
On July 28 , Davis hit home runs in his first three at bats ( all solo home runs ) against the Arizona Diamondbacks ' Ian Kennedy , eventually going 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 ( adding a single in his final at bat ) . Davis became only the 9th Met in history to hit 3 home runs in one game . The 3 homers in one game were also a career high for Davis ; with them he also reached 20 home runs for the season , breaking his prior year high of 19 home runs .
He ended the 2012 season with a .227 batting average , 32 home runs ( 5th in the National League ) , and 90 RBIs , as his home @-@ run @-@ every @-@ 16 @.@ 2 @-@ at @-@ bats was 3rd in the NL behind Giancarlo Stanton and Ryan Braun . He became the 16th Met to surpass 30 home runs in a season . On defense , his fielding percentage of .994 at first base was 5th @-@ best in the league .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Davis struggled early in 2013 and became a subject of criticism for many Mets fans and sports analysts . In June , Davis was sent down to Triple @-@ A Las Vegas for 10 games , in which he batted .364 . He was recalled in early July . He tied a team record set by John Olerud in 1998 , by reaching base at least twice in 12 straight starts from July 29 – August 13 . He recovered to hit .286 in the second half , with a .449 on @-@ base percentage . For the season , he batted .205 with 9 home runs and 33 RBIs for the Mets , in 103 games .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
Davis was the 2014 Opening Day starting first baseman for the Mets . Early in the season he was platooned with Lucas Duda and Josh Satin . On April 4 , Mets ' manager Terry Collins announced that Duda would get the bulk of the playing time at first base . On April 5 , Davis hit a walk @-@ off grand slam coming off the bench against the Cincinnati Reds .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates = = =
On April 18 , 2014 , the Mets traded Davis to the Pittsburgh Pirates in exchange for Zack Thornton and a player to be named later , Blake Taylor . Davis hit another grand slam against the Reds on April 21 , becoming the third player in MLB history to switch teams midseason and hit a grand slam against the same opponent ( following Ray Boone in 1953 , and Mike Piazza in 1998 ) , and the first player to hit grand slams for different teams in the same April . Overall , in Pittsburgh he hit .235 with 10 home runs and 46 RBIs in 336 at @-@ bats , splitting time with Gaby Sanchez at first .
For the season , on defense he had the best Range Factor / 9 Innings of all major league first basemen , at 10 @.@ 59 . With the bases loaded , he tied for second in the National League in grand slams ( 2 ) , and tied for fourth in RBIs ( 17 ) . As a pinch hitter , he tied for second in the NL in home runs ( 3 ) and RBIs ( 12 ) .
Davis was designated for assignment by the Pirates on November 20 , 2014 .
= = = Oakland Athletics = = =
On November 23 , the Pirates traded Davis to the Oakland Athletics in exchange for bonus slots for use in signing international free agents .
On April 21 , 2015 , Davis pitched a perfect eighth inning in a blowout against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , retiring all 3 batters he faced , all on ground balls , using only 9 pitches . Davis in high school was 23 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 85 ERA and was the Arizona High School Pitcher of the Year , and in college he had a 2 @.@ 25 ERA as a pitcher . Against the Angels he threw his fastball as high as 88 miles per hour , threw a slider in the high 70s , and threw a cutter . It was the first time the A ’ s had a position player pitch since Frank Menechino in 2000 .
On August 21 , 2015 it was announced Davis would undergo surgery to repair a torn hip labrum , ending his season .
= = = Texas Rangers = = =
On February 15 , 2016 , Davis signed a minor league contract with the Texas Rangers . Hampered by injuries throughout spring training , Davis was assigned to the Triple @-@ A Round Rock Express to begin the season . On June 12 , Davis was released from his contract in order to pursue a major league opportunity elsewhere . In 39 games with the Express , Davis hit .268 / .350 / .437 with 4 HR , 25 RBI , and 37 strikeouts .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
On June 12 , 2016 , Davis agreed to a major league contract with the New York Yankees . The Yankees depth at first base was very thin , with four first baseman on the disabled list , and middle infielder Rob Refsnyder manning the position at the major league level at the time of his signing . He was designated for assignment by the Yankees on June 25 . Two days later , he was outrighted from the 40 @-@ man roster to the Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre RailRiders of the Triple @-@ A International League .
= = Awards = =
= Mega Man X2 =
Mega Man X2 , known as Rockman X2 ( ロックマンX2 ) in Japan , is a video game developed by Capcom for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . The game was released in Japan on December 16 , 1994 and in North America and PAL regions in 1995 . It is the direct sequel to Mega Man X , released one year prior . Mega Man X2 takes place in the near future in which humans try to peacefully coexist with intelligent robots called " Reploids " , with some of the Reploids going " Maverick " and threatening daily life . The plot follows the android protagonist X , a " Maverick Hunter " who has saved humanity from the evil Sigma six months earlier . A trio of Mavericks calling themselves the " X @-@ Hunters " has arisen , intent on destroying X by luring him with bodyparts of his comrade Zero , who died in the conflict with Sigma .
Mega Man X2 features much of the same action @-@ platforming elements as the first installment of the series , following the traditional gameplay of the original Mega Man series . The player is tasked with completing a series of stages by destroying enemies , gaining various power @-@ ups , and winning the special weapon of each stage 's boss . Like the first Mega Man X , this game lets the player dash , scale walls , and obtain access to special abilities via optional pieces of armor . Mega Man X2 is graphically similar to its predecessor as well , but Capcom included the Cx4 in @-@ cartridge enhancement chip to allow for some 3D wireframe effects . The development team was instructed to utilize this technology as much as possible when working on the game .
The presentation and gameplay of Mega Man X2 have earned the game a mostly positive critical reception . However , reviewers were dismayed by the lack of changes from the original Mega Man X. Mega Man X2 was included in the Mega Man X Collection for the Nintendo GameCube and PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) in North America in 2006 . The game was also released on Japanese mobile phones in 2008 and 2009 and worldwide on the Virtual Console in 2011 and 2012 for the Wii and in 2013 / 2014 for the Wii U.
= = Plot = =
Mega Man X2 is set in an ambiguous year during the 22nd century ( " 21XX " ) in which the world is populated both by humans and mechanical beings known as " Reploids " ( replicant androids ) . The mass @-@ produced Reploids are based on a complex , humanoid robot dubbed Mega Man X ( or simply " X " ) who was discovered by the archaeologist Dr. Cain in laboratory ruins many months earlier . Created with human @-@ level intelligence and free will , some Reploids have a tendency towards destructive , criminal activity and are subsequently dubbed " Mavericks " by the government . A military force called the " Maverick Hunters " is formed to halt or prevent such activity . The events of the first Mega Man X game entail the hunter X 's fight to stop Sigma , a Maverick overlord bent on the destruction of humanity . X prevails in his mission , but at the cost of his partner Zero 's life .
Six months following the incident , X assumes the head of the Maverick Hunters . X tracks a " manufactured Maverick " bearing Sigma 's emblem to a Reploid factory , where he launches a full assault . However , despite Sigma 's apparent death and X 's recent efforts , the Maverick rebellion continues . Three powerful Mavericks — Serges , Agile , and Violen — form a group called the " X @-@ Hunters " and gain control of the North Pole . In the time between Sigma 's demise and the trio 's sudden uprising , Serges has collected the deceased Zero 's bodyparts . After the factory mission , X is assigned to seek and exterminate eight Maverick leaders on a large continent directly south of the North Pole . The X @-@ Hunters contact the Maverick Hunters shortly thereafter and taunt them with Zero 's body . The X @-@ Hunters drift among the eight Maverick locations and attempt to lure X out , each one promising the protagonist a piece of Zero if he can defeat them .
The story deviates slightly depending on whether or not the player collects all three of Zero 's parts before heading to the X @-@ Hunter fortification in the North Pole . If the player gathers all the parts , Dr. Cain states he will attempt to reassemble and reactivate Zero using his original control chip . If the player does not succeed , X is informed by Dr. Cain that the X @-@ Hunters have attacked Maverick Hunter headquarters and stolen any collected parts and the control chip . Just as X annihilates the last of the X @-@ Hunters , Sigma reveals himself to have been behind the plot . X leaves the exploding compound and tracks Sigma to the Central Computer , one of the eight locations he visited earlier . If the player fails to collect all of Zero 's parts , X finds both Sigma and the newly rebuilt Zero waiting for him halfway through the stage . X must then beat Zero in combat . If the player does manage to collect all of the parts , a gray @-@ armored clone of Zero accompanies Sigma instead ; the real Zero will then appear at X 's side and destroys the clone . The outcome of either event has Sigma retreating and Zero creating a passageway in the floor to allow X pursuit . When the villain is defeated , X evacuates the facility to rendezvous with Zero outside , and the two watch as the facility self @-@ destructs .
= = Gameplay = =
Mega Man X2 is an action @-@ platform game in the same fashion as the first Mega Man X and the original Mega Man series . The player takes on the role of the titular character X , who must traverse and clear a series of eight , side @-@ scrolling stages in the order of the player 's choosing . The protagonist 's initial abilities include running , jumping , scaling walls , dashing along the ground , and firing his chargeable " X @-@ Buster " arm cannon . The player must contend with countless robotic enemies and several platforming hazards such as bottomless pits , deadly spikes , and rising lava . Along the way , the player can pick up extra lives and items that restore health and weapon power . Each stage contains one main boss at the end ; defeating the stage 's boss will earn the player a special weapon that can be quickly switched to and used in any remaining levels . Every boss is weak to another 's weapon , so the player may strategize the order in which the stages are completed .
Mega Man X2 features a number of extra gameplay elements . At certain times , the player can pilot vehicles including an attack mech in Wheel Gator 's stage and an attack hovercycle in Overdrive Ostrich 's stage . Each of the eight stages contains an optional entrance for a battle with one of the three X @-@ Hunters , should the player select that stage when one of them is present . Defeating an X @-@ Hunter will earn the player a piece of Zero , which may affect the storyline late in the game . Like the first Mega Man X , players can locate and acquire numerous hidden power @-@ ups . " Heart Tanks " extend the player 's maximum life bar , " Sub @-@ Tanks " store life energy for later use , and armor upgrade capsules grant a set of new abilities . For example , the leg part will allow the player to perform a dash in mid @-@ air , while the X @-@ Buster part will allow for two charged blasts in succession . When specific conditions are met a special capsule is unlocked in one of the game 's final stages , allowing X to perform a one @-@ shot kill attack ( the " Shoryuken " ) used by characters from Capcom 's Street Fighter series .
= = Development = =
Mega Man X2 was developed by a team at Capcom , which included artists and designers Keiji Inafune , Sho Tsuge , and Yoshihisa Tsuda . A majority of the people who worked on Mega Man X2 had either been heavily involved with the development of the first Mega Man X or were completely new to the franchise . Though he was largely responsible for designing characters for the original Mega Man series as well as Mega Man X , Inafune was " hands @-@ off " with the art design in Mega Man X2 . He instead began focusing more on directing , producing , and story writing for the newer series beginning with this title . According to Tsuda , it was Inafune 's decision to bring Zero back to life in Mega Man X2 simply because he thought it would be " a shame " to keep him dead . Inafune felt particularly attached to Zero , a character whom he had originally intended to be the main protagonist of the X series . Even though Inafune had mostly relinquished his character design duties in Mega Man X2 , he refused to allow any drastic changes to the illustration of Zero .
The game 's antagonists , the X @-@ Hunters , were present as several illustrations within Inafune 's sketchbook prior to the completion of the first Mega Man X. Their aesthetic features were combined to create the basis for Sigma 's design in Mega Man X ; the three designs were then fleshed out as three separate characters for the sequel . The team had planned to include a fourth , female X @-@ Hunter and were going to denote them as the " Four Guardians " . However , both this character and Violen 's second form were cut from the final version of the game due to a lack of resources . In creating the eight , ancillary Maverick bosses , the development team considered holding public , fan submissions as they had done with several games in the original Mega Man series . They ultimately decided against the idea as they wanted to further establish a contrast between the two series . Tsuge elaborated , " With Mega Man , we wanted the players to feel a certain familiarity with the characters , but it was our intention that the X series would have a world with a more hardcore feel to it . We didn 't want the bosses in this world to be cute products of kids ' imaginations , we needed them to be solid characters refined by professionals . "
Mega Man X2 has an in @-@ cartridge enhancement by Capcom called the Cx4 chip , a digital signal processor which allows for limited 3D graphical effects like rotation , enlarging , and shrinking of wireframe objects . The company held weekly meetings devoted to utilizing the chip to its maximum potential in Mega Man X2 . Tsuge commented that the Cx4 was their " greatest adversary to date " as they were instructed to use it in as many ways as possible . The musical score for Mega Man X2 was chiefly composed by Yuki Iwai . Others , such as Ippo Yamada , were involved in some of the game 's sound production . Tsuge wanted the Flame Stag stage theme cut from the game , but the song was kept due to its popularity among the development staff . Additionally , the game 's ending theme was originally its final boss track . As the team felt it was more appropriate for the ending music , it was slightly altered and made as such . The Mega Man X2 soundtrack , featuring the original SNES instrumentals , was included as part of the Capcom Music Generation : Rockman X1 ~ X6 compilation released by Suleputer in 2003 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Reception for Mega Man X2 has been primarily positive by virtue of its graphics , sound , and a persistently enjoyable gameplay model which critics and fans of the Mega Man series had come to expect . Comparing the game to the first Mega Man X , GamePro 's Chris Nicolella called Mega Man X2 " improved in almost every way " . Nicolella summarized , " The new C4 chip energizes the already great graphics , the extremely responsive controls are perfect and the levels contain more enemies and hidden locations than any MM cart yet . " Dave Halverson of GameFan likewise enjoyed the level designs and judged the new armor abilities and the music to be better than the original Mega Man X. GameSpot editors Christian Nutt and Justin Speer were appreciative of Capcom 's attempt at expanding Mega Man X2 over its predecessor in all aspects , especially the story , which they called " involving ... with engaging characters " . IGN named Mega Man X2 as the 31st @-@ best game in its list of the top 100 SNES games of all time . " Following up the explosive debut of the Mega Man X series was no small task , " the website abstracted , " but Mega Man X2 accomplished the job admirably . "
In spite of the general praise given to Mega Man X2 , some sources complained of its lack of deviation from Mega Man X and earlier games in the series . Both Jeremy Parish and Nadia Oxford of 1UP.com found the game a forgettable entry in the franchise . Parish stated that although it carried the plot of the first Mega Man X forward , the game itself was simply " more of the same ... but not as good " . Oxford commented , " In light of Mega Man 2 's vast improvement over the original Mega Man , Mega Man X2 's feeble innovations are disappointing . " Aside from thinking it was uninspired , Super Play columnists Zy Nicholson and Wil Overton felt that Mega Man X2 did not use Capcom 's Cx4 chip to its maximum potential . The writers were unimpressed by the 3D graphics of the sparse in @-@ game instances where the Cx4 is used , particularly when compared to late @-@ 1994 SNES releases like Donkey Kong Country and Street Racer , neither of which use added cartridge technology .
In 2006 , Mega Man X2 was included as part of the North American Mega Man X Collection for the GameCube and PS2 . A version for i @-@ mode and EZweb @-@ compatible mobile phones was made available in Japan between 2008 and 2009 . Mega Man X2 was released on the Wii Virtual Console service in Japan on December 27 , 2011 , in PAL regions on May 31 , 2012 , and in North America on June 14 , 2012 .
= Bob Willis =
Robert George Dylan Willis MBE ( born Robert George Willis on 30 May 1949 ) , known as Bob Willis , is an English former cricketer who played for Surrey , Warwickshire , Northern Transvaal and England . A right @-@ handed and aggressive fast bowler with a notably long run @-@ up , Willis spearheaded several England bowling attacks between 1971 and 1984 , across 90 Test matches in which he took 325 wickets at 25 @.@ 20 runs per wicket , at the time second only to Dennis Lillee . He is currently England 's fourth leading wicket taker , behind James Anderson , Ian Botham , and Stuart Broad . Willis took 899 first @-@ class wickets overall , although from 1975 onwards he bowled with constant pain , having had surgery on both knees . He nevertheless continued to find success , taking a Test career best eight wickets for 43 runs in the 1981 Ashes series against Australia , one of the all @-@ time best Test bowling performances . He was Wisden Cricketer of the Year for 1978 .
In addition to the Test arena , Willis played 64 One Day International matches for his country , taking 80 wickets , and was a prolific List @-@ A ( one day ) cricketer with 421 wickets overall at 20 @.@ 18 . With the bat , Willis made little impression as a tail @-@ ender with a best Test score of 28 not @-@ out ( * ) ; however , he managed two half @-@ centuries at first @-@ class level and for a time held a record number of Test not @-@ outs . Willis captained the England team in 18 Tests and 28 ODI matches between June 1982 and March 1984 . Under Willis ' captaincy England won seven , lost five and drew six Tests , and won 16 of the ODIs . Botham recalled Willis as " a tremendous trier .. a great team @-@ man and an inspiration " , as well as the " only world @-@ class fast bowler in my time as an England player . " The editor of Wisden wrote of him in similar terms : " His indomitable service to England is handsomely reflected in his great collection of Test wickets . Although often beset with aches and pains , he never spared himself when bowling for his country . "
Retiring in 1984 during a Test series against the West Indies , Willis found later work as a commentator with Sky Sports . He formed a noted commentary partnership with Botham ; however , Willis ' relatively low @-@ key style , in contrast to Botham 's ebullience , meant that from 2006 onwards Willis tended to be used as a second string commentator . He remains an often @-@ heard broadcaster , a published writer and an occasional critic of the modern game .
= = Early life = =
Willis was born in Sunderland , County Durham , and grew up in the Surrey village of Stoke d 'Abernon near Cobham , having moved there at the age of six . His father was an employee of the BBC , and Willis had an elder brother named David with whom he played cricket in the garden , and an elder sister . In 1965 , Willis added his third name " Dylan " by deed poll in honour of American musician Bob Dylan , of whom he is a fan . Willis was educated at the Royal Grammar School , Guildford , playing his early cricket for Stoke d 'Abernon Cricket Club , where he later became Vice President and Life Member , and two seasons for the Cobham Avorians . He was also an avid schoolboy footballer , but was not a natural athlete and loathed rugby , which was the school 's dominant sport . Willis recalled in 2009 that during his school years " in the winter when the muscled brethren were playing , I used to play football with the school old boys . This taught me how to drink cider and vomit it up on Surbiton station , and other life @-@ altering lessons . " Willis ' bowling potential was rewarded with selection for Surrey Schools and Surrey Colts , under the directorship of Watcyn Evans , who would become a close friend .
= = Playing career = =
= = = County debut = = =
In 1968 , Willis accepted an invitation to join Middlesex and Surrey Young Cricketers on tour in Pakistan , and used this opportunity to further hone his skills . Upon his return he made early appearances for Surrey 's Second XI , his first being on 26 August against Worcestershire 's Seconds . Willis , 19 years of age , took one wicket for 48 runs in the first innings , and bowled four wicketless overs in the second . He was not called on to bat at all . Two days later , he faced Glamorgan and took three wickets . He played several further Second XI matches through May and June 1969 , before his first @-@ class debut on 6 August . Scotland was touring England that season and had already beaten Warwickshire . Willis took three wickets for 13 runs from 13 overs in his first innings , and two for 37 in his second , to help Surrey to victory by an innings and 97 runs . Willis went on to take 22 first @-@ class wickets that season at 17 @.@ 22 from six matches , placing him 15th in the national averages for that season 's County Championship . Surrey came third in the competition that year . Willis also played two List @-@ A games , but took only one wicket at 52 @.@ 00 .
Willis had thus earned a second season at Surrey , and in 1970 played 14 Championship matches , taking 40 first @-@ class wickets at 28 @.@ 37 , and 31 one day wickets at 14 @.@ 65 . Surrey came fifth in the Championship that year . He achieved a noteworthy performance in the Gillette Cup quarter @-@ final against Middlesex . In a high @-@ scoring match , Surrey made 280 for the loss of five wickets . Middlesex appeared to be coasting to victory when they reached 240 – 3 , but Willis turned the game , and they collapsed and finished on 272 – 9 . Willis took 6 – 49 in his 12 overs and won the Man of the Match award . Despite this , Surrey 's preference for Geoff Arnold and Robin Jackman kept Willis out of the side on occasions . He prepared to spend the winter employed at the Crystal Palace Recreation Centre while playing as a goalkeeper for local football club Cobham . However , Ray Illingworth and Colin Cowdrey , captain and vice captain of England 's Test side , contacted him via telephone to ask him to travel to Australia and join the current England tour there . Willis , who knew that Illingworth and Cowdrey had little knowledge of his bowling , later credited his call up to the influence of senior member of the touring party John Edrich , Willis ' long @-@ term friend , mentor and Surrey team @-@ mate .
= = = International beginnings = = =
Willis joined England 's 1970 – 71 tour of Australia as a replacement for the injured Alan Ward , and played several warm @-@ up matches for the MCC in December . Wisden records that his " infectious enthusiasm and team spirit played no small part in Australia 's downfall " as England won the Ashes in the subsequent Test series . Willis ' first Test , on 9 January 1971 – the fourth Test of the series , played when the series stood level after two draws and an abandonment – saw him score 15 not out as England batted first and reached 332 . In the Australian first innings he bowled an economical nine overs for 26 runs , while Derek Underwood took four wickets to reduce Australia to 236 . Subsequently , an unbeaten 142 * from Geoffrey Boycott set Australia 416 to win . With John Snow routing Australia with 7 / 40 , Willis was only given three overs to bowl on a pitch " without pace " , but he managed to take his first Test wicket – Ashley Mallett , caught by Alan Knott for six .
Willis remained in the team for the fifth Test at Melbourne , and rewarded the selectors with 3 / 73 in the first innings and 1 / 42 in the second as the match was drawn . Of the final two matches , Willis took three wickets in the drawn Adelaide Test , and four more in the final match of the series , a victory at Sydney Cricket Ground which gave England a 2 : 0 series victory . Willis finished his first Test series with 12 wickets at 27 @.@ 41 , and had also taken several " crucial catches " . He was retained for the second match of the two @-@ Test series against New Zealand in Auckland in March , where he took two wickets .
= = = Surrey to Warwickshire = = =
Willis returned in early 1971 to help Surrey win the 1971 County Championship title . However , friction was developing between the club and himself . During that season Willis took 31 Championship wickets at 28 @.@ 83 , but found himself unable to accept the contract offered to him by the club . Though the county was reluctant to lose him , Willis sought another club . He took two wickets in his final match for Surrey against Hampshire on 11 September 1971 . After turning down Leicestershire and Lancashire he signed for Warwickshire , for whom he had immediate success , with 25 wickets at 29 @.@ 28 , including one five @-@ wicket haul ( taking five wickets in one innings ) . Willis , who under rules then applying was banned from playing for his new county before July , helped Warwickshire win the 1972 Championship , thus achieving the unusual feat of winning the Championship in consecutive years with two different counties . In his final match of the season , he took 8 / 44 to dismantle Derbyshire . His new team won nine of their 20 matches , drew 11 and lost none . He was not selected for the 1972 Ashes series in England , and travelled to South Africa as part of Derrick Robins ' invitation XI in January . On the tour Willis took 13 wickets from the six matches .
Willis spent part of the 1973 season injured with one of what would become several recurring complaints . He nevertheless managed 43 wickets in the Championship at 18 @.@ 95 , though his injury barred him from all but one Test against the West Indies cricket team . The West Indies amassed 652 / 8 declared . Willis took four wickets for 118 runs – career @-@ best Test figures thus far – and was the last batsman standing as Vanburn Holder and Keith Boyce routed England for 233 and 193 . He then make his ODI debut with two games against the touring side in September , taking 2 / 29 and scoring five not out as England took a one @-@ wicket victory in the West Indies ' first ever ODI match . Willis went wicketless and at conceded 5 @.@ 5 runs an over in the second , which the West Indies won by eight wickets .
= = = West Indies , Indian subcontinent and Australia = = =
Willis then travelled to the Caribbean as part of England 's winter tour , in what Wisden described as an " automatic selection " however he was to struggle against the top Test side . In the first Test , on 2 February 1974 , he took only one wicket , followed by three in the second , and one for a hundred runs in the final match . He was to struggle against the West Indies throughout his career . His bowling average against them ended at 36 @.@ 34 , whereas against no other team was it above 26 @.@ 14 .
Willis then returned to England , to face India and Pakistan , playing in one Test against each . Against India he took 4 / 64 – a career best against that team – and made a Test best 24 with the bat . Pakistan toured in early August , and Willis featured in one Test . He took one wicket for 133 runs . He also played one ODI where he took one wicket caught and bowled as Pakistan achieved a seven wicket victory . At this point , Willis was suffering from a recurring back injury . He played 13 Championship games for Warwickshire during the 1974 season , taking 44 wickets at 21 @.@ 56 including one five @-@ wicket haul . In November , Willis touring Australia during the 1974 / 75 Ashes series , playing in five Test matches . He took 17 Test wickets at 30 @.@ 70 , including a best of 5 / 42 , out of 26 first @-@ class wickets at 31 @.@ 19 overall . He was , however , playing with growing injury concerns which required several painkilling injections .
= = = Injury and operation = = =
Willis returned to England in January 1975 with a recurring knee injury which had caused him to collapse at a county game early that season , and underwent several operations to correct it . He had surgery on both knees , and suffered a post @-@ operative blood clot . He was forced to use crutches for most of the season , and reflected in 1978 that it was " similar to a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ mile service . " His recovery was particularly tortuous , requiring daily runs around the cricket field and an intensive gym program under the supervision of Dr. Arthur Jackson , an advocate of slow running therapy to build stamina . He played no part in the international arena in 1975 , and managed only four first @-@ class appearances , though these returned a healthy 18 wickets at 18 @.@ 77 . He was not to return to the Test game until 1976 , where he faced the West Indies in two matches in July and August .
That year , he had made a comfortable return to the county game from injury – taking 16 Championship wickets at 26 @.@ 12 . He had also scored a career best 43 with the bat . After coming fit from injury , Willis was brought into the squad for the fourth Test against the West Indies on 22 July as part of wholesale bowling changes that saw Brian Close , Edrich , Mike Hendrick , Mike Selvey and Pat Pocock replaced with John Snow , Ward , Bob Woolmer , David Steele and Willis . He took three wickets for 71 runs and then a five @-@ wicket haul in the second innings . This both gave him career best figures and took him past 50 Test wickets . His last four wickets fell in 24 balls at the cost of three runs , described by Wisden as a " fine piece of fast bowling " . Tony Greig 's England , however , struggled to make any impression on the West Indies through the series , Viv Richards dominating with 829 runs across the series . Willis could only take one further wicket in the fifth and final Test , which the tourists won easily . By this time Willis , whose injury troubles were continuing , turned down a coaching opportunity in South Africa in order to not risk his fitness , and went on the dole .
= = = Revival in India and the 1977 Ashes = = =
Over the winter of 1976 / 77 , England toured India in a five Test series through December to February , and it proved to be a revival for Willis . Wisden recorded the India tour to be the time when he " put to flight any who doubted his right to be acclaimed as one of the world 's foremost fast bowlers . " Willis took 32 wickets for 15 @.@ 09 across the entire tour , 20 of those in the Test matches for 16 @.@ 75 . He took five for 27 in the second Test , and then six for 53 in the fourth – earning him career best Test figures thus far , and taking him past 400 first @-@ class wickets . Four of his wickets came in four overs with the second new ball , " although he received no help from the pitch " . Wisden record that " His 20 wickets in the series stamped Willis as a bowler of genuine pace and in @-@ disputable class . "
The 1977 Ashes took place across five Tests between June and August that year , in all of which Willis featured . Preceding them were three ODI fixtures , across which Willis took a total of five wickets at 15 @.@ 80 . The first Test took place on 16 June , at Lord 's . Australia , batting second and looking to take a lead over England 's 216 all out , were dismantled by Willis who returned a career @-@ best 7 / 78 . After a century from Woolmer , Australia fell to 114 / 6 with two more wickets to Willis before the match ended as a draw . Willis ' " hostile speed " gained praise in giving " Australia a real fright . " Wills took four more wickets in the second Test to aid Underwood in restricting Australia 's totals and giving England a nine wicket victory , and was " fast and accurate " for his third Test five @-@ wicket haul , the match in which Botham made his debut . Willis went wicketless in England 's innings victory in the fourth Test , however he took another five @-@ for in the final match , including both Australian openers . His 27 wickets across the series was a record for an England fast bowled facing Australia in England , and his final wicket of the series was his 100th . Around these Test matches , Willis also made 10 County Championship appearances , netting 29 wickets at 19 @.@ 41 . This included a haul of 8 / 32 against Gloucestershire on 20 August , which would remain his best first @-@ class figures for his career .
The year ended with Willis on winter tour to Pakistan and New Zealand . Willis took dismissed seven Pakistani batsmen for 27 @.@ 14 runs each , though did not appear in any of the ODI matches . In New Zealand he took a further 14 wickets at 18 @.@ 21 , including 5 / 32 in the first Test .
= = = Wisden Cricketer of the Year – 1978 = = =
Willis made 10 Championship appearances in the 1978 season , taking 37 wickets at 18 @.@ 27 . He was also third in the national averages for the Benson and Hedges Cup that year , with 16 wickets at 6 @.@ 75 , including four wickets for four runs in one innings . That year also saw Pakistan and New Zealand return to tour England between June and August . Though Botham took Man of the Series for his 13 wickets , Willis also netted 13 Pakistani batsmen for 17 @.@ 92 , including a five @-@ wicket haul in the second Test . He also earned a Man of the Match award for his 4 / 15 in the first ODI . Against New Zealand , Willis took 12 Test wickets at 19 @.@ 08 , and passed 150 career Test wickets with his 4 / 16 in the third Test .
Wisden noted Willis ' achievements against Australia in 1977 , stating that " the new @-@ ball fire power of Bob Willis , which yielded 27 wickets , was of special significance in England 's high summer of success . No England bowler of authentic speed can boast a comparable record in a home series against Australia " . In continued : " It was singularly appropriate that team and personal triumph should go hand in hand , for few players have given such loyal and unstinted service to England as the wholehearted Willis ... Happily determination is one virtue Willis does not lack , and his re @-@ emergence as a top ranking fast bowler was well and truly deserved . " Across all first @-@ class matches that year , Willis had taken 65 wickets at 18 @.@ 41 , the most of any season of his career . His 35 List @-@ A wickets was also the second highest he would achieve for a season behind the 45 of 1983 . Wisden also praised him for refusing to partake in Kerry Packer 's World Series cricket , and proclaimed him a Wisden Cricketer of the Year along with Botham , Hendrick , Alan Jones and Ken McEwan .
= = = 1978 – 79 Ashes = = =
In the winter of 1978 / 79 , Willis travelled to Australia for that season 's Ashes series , which England won 5 – 1 against an Australian team depleted by the rebel Packer tour . The tour commenced with four first @-@ class fixtures against South Australia , Victoria , New South Wales and Queensland . Willis then bowled 1 @,@ 123 deliveries during the Test series , taking 20 wickets at 23 @.@ 05 . In the first Test on 1 December 1978 , he took 4 / 44 and 3 / 69 in a seven @-@ wicket England win . He then took 5 / 44 in the second match on 15 December , as England secured a 2 : 0 lead with a 166 run victory , and following an abandoned ODI match on Boxing Day failed to take a wicket as Australia won the third Test to bring the series to 2 : 1 .
The fourth Test followed on 6 January , and England took a 93 @-@ run victory with two wickets to Willis , before a repeat of the first ODI was attempted and again abandoned after 7 @.@ 2 overs . England then played three first @-@ class matches before a second ODI on 24 January . Australia , batting first , were routed for 101 all out by Hendrick and Botham , Willis bowling a wicketless but economic spell of eight overs for 15 runs and four maidens . England reached the target with seven wickets to spare . In the fifth Test that followed , Willis picked up 3 / 41 in Australia 's second innings , however with the bat he made 24 from 20 balls , with three fours and a six . With this cameo knock , he both surpassed his previous best Test score , and passed 1 @,@ 500 first @-@ class runs .
In the sixth and final Test , England took a nine wicket victory to seal the series convincingly 5 : 1 . Graham Yallop , the Australian captain , had opened the Australian bowling attack with an old ball and two spinners , Bruce Yardley and Jim Higgs , in an effort to disrupt the English openers . Willis took 1 / 48 and managed to hit 10 runs with the bat . Willis " struck early and decisive blows " through the tournament , although struggled for rhythm between the second and fifth Tests , whereupon he " suddenly regained his fire and rhythm . " In all first @-@ class fixtures of the tour , Willis had taken 34 wickets at 20 @.@ 47 , though this was the third highest average of the England bowlers . His tail @-@ end batting had netted him 115 runs at 12 @.@ 77 .
= = = 1979 World Cup = = =
In 1979 , England hosted the Cricket World Cup . The host nation played a 13 @-@ man squad : captain Mike Brearley , Botham , Geoffrey Boycott , Phil Edmonds , Graham Gooch , David Gower , Hendrick , Wayne Larkins , Geoff Miller , Chris Old , Derek Randall , Bob Taylor ( cricketer ) ( wk ) and Willis . England , who had no warm @-@ up games , played their first match against Australia on 9 June at Lord 's , who the " breezed " past . Willis took one wicket for 20 runs from his 11 overs , surpassed by Boycott – who would be an unlikely bowling hero during the tournament – who took 2 / 15 . Reduced to chasing 159 , England proceeded slowly , with Brearley 's 44 coming from 147 balls , and they reached the target at 47 @.@ 1 overs . Their next game , against Canada , saw the visiting team routed for 45 with Willis taking 4 / 11 and Man of the Match Old taking 4 / 8 . Boycott and Gooch finished the game within 13 @.@ 5 overs . England 's final Group A match on 16 June saw them defeat Pakistan by 14 runs . Willis hit three fours in his 24 from 37 balls to help England to 165 / 9 , and his one wicket for 37 runs , along with Boycott 's 2 / 14 , helped England keep Pakistan from the target .
England thus qualified for the semi @-@ finals against New Zealand . Willis managed to chip one run from his two balls as England reached 221 / 8 , and then took a single wicket to keep New Zealand to 212 . During the match , however , Willis fell to injury . He had left the field before the end of the match with a recurrence of his knee injury and was ruled out of the final . With Pakistan defeated in the other semi @-@ final England were left to face the West Indies in the final at Lord 's on 23 June . England , winning the toss and choosing to bowl first , conceded 286 runs from the 60 @-@ over innings thanks largely to Viv Richard 's 138 * , which Botham recalls as one of his " greatest innings " . Though both Brearley and Boycott reached half @-@ centuries , the hosts were dismissed by Joel Garner 's five @-@ wicket haul , falling to 194 all out , and the West Indies secured the title . Though he missed the final , Willis took seven wickets across the whole competition at 15 @.@ 57 runs each – placing him fifth in bowling average across all the teams , and his economy rate of 2 @.@ 44 runs an over was the fourth best .
Willis followed his recuperation from injury by playing the first , third and fourth Test matches against India , taking 10 wickets at 29 @.@ 80 . Between his international appearances , he struggled with nine Championship wickets at 42 @.@ 00 , as Warwickshire came fifteenth in the country .
= = = 1980 , Australia and the West Indies = = =
The winter of 1979 / 80 and the followed summer saw difficult tours for Willis : the Benson and Hedges World Series Cup and a Test tour in Australia followed by a home series against the West Indies . Willis partook in all seven of England 's matches for the World Series Cup , however he struggled with six wickets at 41 @.@ 00 . England did secure the highest number of points however they were beaten in both finals by the West Indies . In the midst of these matches , England and Australia played three Test matches in which Willis took only 3 wickets at 74 @.@ 66 , going wicketless in third Test . In the county front , however , his position at Warwickshire was reaffirmed as he was appointed county captain .
Two ODI matches back in England commenced the West Indies tour , with Willis being included only in the team for the second match , here he took two wickets and two catches in a three @-@ wicket England victory . Wills then faced the West Indies Test team across four matches , the first on 5 June . He took four wickets for 82 runs in the first innings , and five in the second – passing 650 first @-@ class wickets in the process though the Man of the Match award was given to Andy Roberts ' 5 / 72 and 3 / 57 , the West Indies winning by two wickets . The second Test was a draw , though Willis collected three wickets . He only managed 1 / 99 in the third match , however , and equalled his Test best score of 24 with the bat in the fourth Test , passing 500 Test runs in the process . The West Indies secured a 1 : 0 series victory . Willis had marked his improved form with 14 wickets at 29 @.@ 07 , and had fared better in the County Championship that year , taking 27 wickets at 31 @.@ 70 . He had also taken 23 one day wickets that season at 25 @.@ 95 .
= = = 1981 Ashes = = =
Australia arrived in England for the 51st Ashes series in 1981 . Willis , who was selected to play in all six Test matches , came into the series on a run of good county form . He had played four county matches , commencing with 5 / 61 against Yorkshire on 6 May , and 3 / 58 against Lancashire on 10 June . The first Test took place at Trent Bridge , Nottingham , on 18 June . England , batting first , were cut down for 185 all out thanks to four wickets for Terry Alderman and three a @-@ piece for Dennis Lillee and Rodney Hogg . Only Mike Gatting passed fifty , and Willis was dismissed for a first @-@ ball duck . Willis , however , combined with Dilley , Hendrick and Botham to reduce Australia to 179 all out , with three wickets for Willis . England could not take advantage , however , as Lillee and Alderman shared the host nation 's ten wickets equally between them to leave Australia only 132 to win . Dilley took four wickets and Willis snatched Graeme Wood for eight to reach 200 Test wickets , however the tourists won the match with four wickets to spare .
Between the first and second Tests , Willis went back to Warwickshire to face Gloucestershire in a County Championship match , grabbing three wickets . He returned to face Australia on 2 July for the second Test , and England batting first . Thanks to 82 from Peter Willey , and a second half @-@ century from Gatting , together with five runs from Willis , England reached 311 – though Geoff Lawson took seven wickets . Australia surpassed this and were dismissed for 345 , with three wickets for Willis and three for Dilley . The England bowlers suffered from no balls , Willis alone bowling 28 . England declared late in the game on 265 / 8 , and Willis picked up another wicket as Australia reached 90 / 4 at the close of play . Botham , who had captained the side until then , was sacked and replaced by Brearley . Willis , who was struggling for fitness and had a chest infection , was dropped from the side . He sat out a Warwickshire county match and after speaking to Alec Bedser was given back his place in the team on the condition that he played in a 40 @-@ over match , played a Second XI game , and bowled 12 overs in the nets . He succeeded in these tasks , and was tentatively let back into the squad over a spinner .
The third Test – Willis ' 60th – came on 16 July , and England were able to level the series 1 : 1 thanks to Botham 's Man of the Match performance ( seven wickets , century and half century ) and Willis 's hostile bowling in the second innings . Willis bowled 30 wicketless overs in Australia 's first innings , and made one one and two with the bat , before returning to bowl with Australia requiring 130 runs . At this point , England had been quoted at 500 – 1 to win the match . Willis began an " inspired " bowling performance , having requested to bowl downhill from the Kirkstall Lane end once Australia were 56 / 1 . Trevor Chappell , Kim Hughes and Graham Yallop were caught by close fielders , while Rod Marsh and John Dyson were caught at fine leg and behind the wicket respectively trying to play the hook shot . Dennis Lillee was caught from the only ball Willis pitched up . Then when Willis uprooted Ray Bright 's middle stump Australia were bowled out for 111 , losing by 18 runs . Willis took 8 / 43 , his career best Test figures . Two of his victims had been out for zero , and three others for single figure scores . John Dyson had top @-@ scored with 34 before Willis removed him . Willey recalled it as an " amazing spell " while Wisden called it " the most staggering bowling of his life when his place again seemed threatened . "
England then moved into the fourth Test 1 : 1 in the series . Again batting first , Alderman 's five @-@ for took England to 189 all out , with Willis making 13 runs . He then bowled a wicketless but " stormy " 19 overs " as if the devil were at his heels " and , after England had set Australia a final target of 151 runs , took two wickets which along with Botham 's five @-@ wicket haul dismissed the Australians for 121 and handed England a 29 @-@ run victory and a series lead . Willis played for his county against Middlesex between the fourth and fifth Tests , taking one wicket . He then rejoined his team for the fifth Test at Old Trafford . England reached 231 thanks to partly to a " priceless " 56 @-@ run late partnership between Paul Allott ( 52 ) and Willis ( 11 ) before Willis then led the bowling attack with four wickets to restrict Australia to 130 all out . Another century from Botham took England to 404 , setting the tourists 506 runs to win . Yallop and Allan Border both scored centuries , however three wickets for Willis and two for Paul Allott , Botham and John Emburey dismissed them for 402 , 103 runs short of victory .
Willis continued to enjoy some form with the bat with 33 * against Nottinghamshire in the interval between the fifth and final Tests , though he went wicketless . On 27 August , Australia and England met for the sixth Test at the Oval . The tourists reached 352 thanks to a century from Border , while Willis took four wickets and Botham six . A century from Boycott then defied Lillee 's seven wicket haul to take England to 314 , and in reply Hendrick and Botham took four wickets each to set their team a target of 383 runs to win while Willis went without a wicket in the second innings . With half @-@ centuries from Gatting and Brearley , England reached 261 before the match ended as a draw . England were victorious in the series 3 : 1 , and Botham 's efforts led to it being unofficially referred to as ' Botham 's Ashes ' .
Willis meanwhile , travelled to India with England in November 1981 for a six Test series against India and one against Sri Lanka . He took 12 wickets at 31 @.@ 75 against India , and three more Test and two wickets ODI against Sri Lanka . Between these international fixtures , Willis had secured 13 County Championship wickets at 28 @.@ 55 , though Warwickshire came bottom of the table .
= = = England captaincy = = =
Willis began the 1982 county season with five County Championship fixtures , featuring his first half @-@ century with the bat , a career @-@ best 72 , while leading Warwickshire against the touring Indian side on 9 May . He also took two wickets . He also reached his 750th first @-@ class wickets with his 2 / 71 against Yorkshire on 19 May . India were scheduled to play three Tests and two ODI matches that tour ; however , before the matches began , the England selectors dropped Fletcher , the captain . Willis , though seen as an unlikely candidate and ambivalent towards the role , was awarded the captaincy . On 2 June , the new captain faced India as part of the England ODI squad , taking two wickets and effecting a run @-@ out with the help of Botham , who also took four wickets . England restricted India to 193 and achieved victory by nine wickets . The second ODI match followed two days later , and England also won – this time by 114 runs with Willis taking 1 / 10 from seven overs .
With two victories under his belt , Willis led his team to the first Test on 10 June . Batting first , he hit a career @-@ best 28 runs in a last @-@ wicket partnership with Allott ( 41 ) worth 70 – an England record against India – which took the hosts to 433 all out . Willis then set about taking apart the Indian batting line @-@ up with 3 / 41 and 6 / 101 to leave England 65 runs to chase , which they reached for the loss of three wickets . Wisden described Willis as " bowling near his fastest " and he took his 250th Test wicket during the match . Willis took two further wickets in the second Test ; however , centuries from Botham and Sandeep Patil , who hit Willis for 24 runs in an over , ensured large innings scores that pushed the match to a draw . Botham followed with his career @-@ best 208 in the third match to take England to 594 all out , and Willis then took 3 / 78 to keep India to 410 . He then declared England 's second innings at 191 to leave India 376 to win , and collected the wicket of Ravi Shastri before India closed out the final day with 111 / 3 . Willis thus completed his first Test series in victorious fashion , with 15 Test wickets of his own at 22 @.@ 00 . Willis was available for only three more first @-@ class games that season , and finished it with a total of 24 wickets at 35 @.@ 08 . He promptly travelled to Australia to lead England in the 1982 @-@ 83 Ashes .
Over the winter of 1982 / 83 , England 's winning Ashes team travelled to Australia under Willis ' captaincy . Willis took two three @-@ wicket hauls in two warm @-@ up first @-@ class matches ; however , he was absent from two others and Botham took over the captaincy . By now , continuing injury problems were beginning to plague the ageing bowler 's body . He took 3 / 95 in the first Test as Australia reached 424 in reply to England 's first innings 411 , of which Willis had made 26 . Derek Randall 's century in England 's second innings took them to 358 , and Australia reached 73 at the close of play on the final day for the loss of two wickets , both of which were taken by Willis , leaving the match drawn . Willis picked up 5 / 66 in the second Test ; however , Australia easily reached a low fourth innings target to go 1 @-@ 0 up . The third Test followed a similar pattern , with England replying with two low scores in the face of Australia 's first innings 438 , and Australia taking an eight @-@ wicket win to take a 2 @-@ 0 lead in the series , despite Willis ' three wickets . England achieved what was then the narrowest Ashes victory margin of three runs in the fourth Test at Melbourne , with Willis taking three wickets . Wills commentated on the game that " You never give up and you never think it has gone . " The fifth match ended in a draw , so Australia won the series 2 @-@ 1 . Across the entire tour , Willis took 28 first @-@ class wickets . In the following World Series Cup between England , Australia and New Zealand , England were knocked out despite 14 wickets for Willis at 21 @.@ 14 .
Willis returned to Warwickshire for the 1983 season , struggling in the county season with 21 wickets at 36 @.@ 76 in the County Championship , though finding more success in the one day arena with a career @-@ best 45 wickets at 16 @.@ 24 . He also led England in a four Test series against New Zealand , finding greater success with 20 wickets at 13 @.@ 65 including a five @-@ wicket haul . This , coming in the second Test , took Willis past 850 first @-@ class wickets and 300 Test wickets . England won the series convincingly 3 : 1 , and returned to New Zealand over the winter . In the drawn first Test , Willis overtook Fred Trueman 's record England tally of 307 Test wickets when he dismissed Lance Cairns in the first innings . England lost the second Test by an innings despite 4 / 51 from Willis . With the third Test ending as a draw , England lost the series . Willis , with increasing physical and mental weariness and now using hypnotherapy to reduce stress and focus his game , took three wickets in the following ODI series , in which England beat New Zealand 2 : 1 .
England played a three Test series against Pakistan in early 1984 , however Willis was unable to contribute more than two wickets in the first match due to injury . He made only five County Championship appearances , taking only nine wickets at 42 @.@ 22 . Willis , with pressure mounting due to injury and poor performances by the England team , was sacked as captain before the upcoming Test series against the West Indies , and replaced by Gower .
As a captain , Willis has subsequently received mixed assessment . Botham retained fond memories of Willis the player , but remarked that Willis found it difficult to captain him because the men were of similar age . Willis , often noted for his enthusiasm , became an " effective motivator " as a captain ; however , he was " no outstanding tactical genius " and " towards the end his feelings bordered on disgust at the conviction that some of England 's cricketers accepted failure too readily . Nor was he able to close himself off against media comment . " He was also characterised as a loner in the game , and a reluctant captain grateful to be placed back within the ranks after repeated defeats while he was at the reins . His 18 Tests as England captain saw 7 victories , 5 defeats , and 6 draws , while he led England in 29 ODI matches , winning 16 and losing 13 .
Willis played in the next Test series against the West Indies , taking two wickets in the first two matches. and before the last match played against Derbyshire for his county , taking three wickets . Willis took to the field on 12 July for the third Test and took only two wickets for 123 runs as the West Indies , particularly Michael Holding , " hammered " his bowling – Holding hit 59 from 55 deliveries . Willis conceded 40 more runs from eight overs in the second innings , which Wisden referred to as " the death throes " of his career . He announced his retirement from all cricket immediately after England 's defeat .
He finished his career with 325 Test wickets , at the time second only to Dennis Lillee , and 899 wickets in all first @-@ class matches . Only James Anderson , Ian Botham , and Stuart Broad have since surpassed his number of Test wickets for England . Willis also retains the world record for most Test wickets without a single 10 @-@ wicket haul in a match .
= = Commentary = =
After retiring from playing cricket , Willis established himself as a television commentator on Sky . He began in 1985 , and was initially in partnership with Botham in the commentary box , " his laconic style did not suit all " and he was dropped from the " front @-@ line commentary duties " . Willis appeared on BBC TV Cricket between 1989 and 1990 as a summariser before joining Sky Sports in 1991 . He also appeared on David Tomlinson 's This is Your Life in 1991 , A Question of Sport in 2004 and 20 to 1 in 2005 .
Willis has continued to work for Sky Sports , largely commentating in the county game , where he has been vocal on the need for changes in English cricket , particularly through a group of former players known as the Cricket Reform Group . He was critical of Mike Atherton during the England tour of Zimbabwe in 1997 . In 2006 he criticised the then England coach Duncan Fletcher 's practices , England 's performance in the 2006 @-@ 07 Ashes , and was vocal in calling for the retirement of out @-@ of @-@ form national captain Michael Vaughan in 2008 .
Willis has attracted detractors due to his somewhat melancholic style . The Independent commentated on the 1995 Texaco Trophy that Willis had " trenchant content , dismal delivery . As a player Willis had trouble getting to sleep . As a commentator he struggles to stay awake . His voice remains on one note – the drone of your neighbour 's mower . " Andrew Smith wrote in 1999 that " On Sky TV , Willis is often discourteous and unfair to players . Didn 't he ever make a mistake ? " though the Daily Mail , for whom Willis had begun writing , defended his commentary style . CricInfo 's launching of two polls on cricket commentary both returned negative views of Willis ' " hyper @-@ critical " commentary . Willis received only 15 % of the vote , above only Dermot Reeve and Allott .
= = Personal life = =
Willis married his wife Juliet in 1980 . They have a daughter , Katie , born in 1984 . In 2005 it was reported that Willis ' relationship with his wife had ended . Willis had previously admitted an extra @-@ marital affair between 1991 and 1995 , when it became public after he was seen leaving the address of secretary Lauren Clark .
= Algonquin Round Table =
The Algonquin Round Table was a celebrated group of New York City writers , critics , actors and wits . Gathering initially as part of a practical joke , members of " The Vicious Circle " , as they dubbed themselves , met for lunch each day at the Algonquin Hotel from 1919 until roughly 1929 . At these luncheons they engaged in wisecracks , wordplay and witticisms that , through the newspaper columns of Round Table members , were disseminated across the country .
Daily association with each other , both at the luncheons and outside of them , inspired members of the Circle to collaborate creatively . The entire group worked together successfully only once , however , to create a revue called No Sirree ! which helped launch a Hollywood career for Round Tabler Robert Benchley .
In its ten years of association , the Round Table and a number of its members acquired national reputations , both for their contributions to literature and for their sparkling wit . Although some of their contemporaries , and later in life even some of its members , disparaged the group , its reputation has endured long after its dissolution .
= = Origin = =
The group that would become the Round Table began meeting in June 1919 as the result of a practical joke carried out by theatrical press agent John Peter Toohey . Toohey , annoyed at New York Times drama critic Alexander Woollcott for refusing to plug one of Toohey 's clients ( Eugene O 'Neill ) in his column , organized a luncheon supposedly to welcome Woollcott back from World War I , where he had been a correspondent for Stars and Stripes . Instead Toohey used the occasion to poke fun at Woollcott on a number of fronts . Woollcott 's enjoyment of the joke and the success of the event prompted Toohey to suggest that the group in attendance meet at the Algonquin each day for lunch .
The group first gathered in the Algonquin 's Pergola Room ( later called the Oak Room ) at a long rectangular table . As they increased in number , Algonquin manager Frank Case moved them to the Rose Room and a round table . Initially the group called itself " The Board " and the luncheons " Board meetings " . After being assigned a waiter named Luigi , the group re @-@ christened itself " Luigi Board " . Finally they became " The Vicious Circle " although " The Round Table " gained wide currency after cartoonist Edmund Duffy of the Brooklyn Eagle caricatured the group sitting at a round table and wearing armor .
= = Membership = =
Charter members of the Round Table included :
Franklin Pierce Adams , columnist
Robert Benchley , humorist and actor
Heywood Broun , columnist and sportswriter ( married to Ruth Hale )
Marc Connelly , playwright
Ruth Hale , freelance writer who worked for women 's rights
George S. Kaufman , playwright and director
Dorothy Parker , critic , poet , short @-@ story writer , and screenwriter
Brock Pemberton , Broadway producer
Harold Ross , The New Yorker editor
Robert E. Sherwood , author and playwright
John Peter Toohey , Broadway publicist
Alexander Woollcott , critic and journalist
Membership was not official or fixed for so many others who moved in and out of the Circle . Some of these included :
Tallulah Bankhead , actress
Noël Coward , playwright
Blyth Daly , actress
Edna Ferber , author and playwright
Eva Le Gallienne , actress
Margalo Gillmore , actress
Jane Grant , journalist and feminist ( married to Ross )
Beatrice Kaufman , editor and playwright ( married to George S. Kaufman )
Margaret Leech , writer and historian
Neysa McMein , magazine illustrator
Harpo Marx , comedian and film star
Alice Duer Miller , writer
Donald Ogden Stewart , playwright and screenwriter
Frank Sullivan , journalist and humorist
Deems Taylor , composer
Estelle Winwood , actress and comedian
Peggy Wood , actress
= = Activities = =
In addition to the daily luncheons , members of the Round Table worked and associated with each other almost constantly . The group was devoted to games , including cribbage and poker . The group had its own poker club , the Thanatopsis Literary and Inside Straight Club , which met at the hotel on Saturday nights . Regulars at the game included Kaufman , Adams , Broun , Ross and Woollcott , with non @-@ Round Tablers Herbert Bayard Swope , silk merchant Paul Hyde Bonner , baking heir Raoul Fleischmann , actor Harpo Marx , and writer Ring Lardner sometimes sitting in . The group also played charades ( which they called simply " The Game " ) and the " I can give you a sentence " game , which spawned Dorothy Parker 's memorable sentence using the word horticulture : " You can lead a horticulture but you can 't make her think . "
Members often visited Neshobe Island , a private island co @-@ owned by several " Algonks " — but governed by Aleck Woollcott as a " benevolent tyrant " , as his biographer Samuel Hopkins Adams charitably put it — located on several acres in the middle of Lake Bomoseen in Vermont . There they would engage in their usual array of games including Wink murder , which they called simply " Murder " , plus croquet .
A number of Round Tablers were inveterate practical jokers , constantly pulling pranks on one another . As time went on the jokes became ever more elaborate . Harold Ross and Jane Grant once spent weeks playing a particularly memorable joke on Woollcott involving a prized portrait of himself . They had several copies made , each slightly more askew than the last , and would periodically secretly swap them out and then later comment to Woollcott " What on earth is wrong with your portrait ? " until Woollcott was beside himself . Eventually they returned the original portrait .
= = No Sirree ! = =
Given the literary and theatrical activities of the Round Table members , it was perhaps inevitable that they would write and stage their own revue . No Sirree ! , staged for one night only in April 1922 , was a take @-@ off of a then @-@ popular European touring revue called La Chauve @-@ Souris , directed by Nikita Balieff .
No Sirree ! had its genesis at the studio of Neysa McMein , which served as something of a salon for Round Tablers away from the Algonquin . Acts included : " Opening Chorus " featuring Woollcott , Toohey , Kaufman , Connelly , Adams and Benchley with violinist Jascha Heifetz providing offstage , off @-@ key accompaniment ; " He Who Gets Flapped " , a musical number featuring the song " The Everlastin ' Ingenue Blues " written by Dorothy Parker and performed by Robert Sherwood accompanied by " chorus girls " including Tallulah Bankhead , Helen Hayes , Ruth Gillmore , Lenore Ulric and Mary Brandon ; " Zowie , or the Curse of an Akins Heart " ; " The Greasy Hag , an O 'Neill Play in One Act " with Kaufman , Connelly and Woollcott ; and " Mr. Whim Passes By — An A. A. Milne Play " .
The only item of note to emerge from No Sirree ! was Robert Benchley 's contribution , The Treasurer 's Report . Benchley 's disjointed parody so delighted those in attendance that Irving Berlin hired Benchley in 1923 to deliver the Report as part of Berlin 's Music Box Revue for $ 500 a week . In 1928 , Report was later made into a short sound film in the Fox Movietone sound @-@ on @-@ film system by Fox Film Corporation . The film kicked off a second career for Benchley in Hollywood .
With the success of No Sirree ! the Round Tablers hoped to duplicate it with an " official " Vicious Circle production open to the public with material performed by professional actors . Kaufman and Connelly funded the revue , named The Forty @-@ niners . The revue opened in November 1922 and was a failure , running for just 15 performances .
= = Decline of the Round Table = =
As members of the Round Table moved into ventures outside New York City , inevitably the group drifted apart . By the early 1930s the Vicious Circle was broken . Edna Ferber said she realized it when she arrived at the Rose Room for lunch one day in 1932 and found the group 's table occupied by a family from Kansas . Frank Case was asked what happened to the group . He shrugged and replied , " What became of the reservoir at Fifth Avenue and Forty @-@ Second Street ? These things do not last forever . " Some members of the group remained friends after its dissolution . Parker and Benchley in particular remained close up until his death in 1945 , although her political leanings did strain their relationship . Others , as the group itself would come to understand when it gathered following Woollcott 's death in 1943 , simply realized that they had nothing to say to one another .
= = Public response and legacy = =
Because a number of the members of the Round Table had regular newspaper columns , the activities and quips of various Round Table members were reported in the national press . This brought Round Tablers widely into the public consciousness as renowned wits .
Not all of their contemporaries were fans of the group . Their critics accused them of logrolling , or exchanging favorable plugs of one another 's works , and of rehearsing their witticisms in advance . James Thurber was a detractor of the group , accusing them of being too consumed by their elaborate practical jokes . H. L. Mencken , who was much admired by many in the Circle , was also a critic , commenting to fellow writer Anita Loos that " their ideals were those of a vaudeville actor , one who is extremely ' in the know ' and inordinately trashy " .
The group showed up in the 1923 best @-@ seller Black Oxen by Gertrude Atherton . She sarcastically described a group she called " the Sophisticates " :
Groucho Marx , brother of Round Table associate Harpo , was never comfortable amidst the viciousness of the Vicious Circle . " The price of admission is a serpent 's tongue and a half @-@ concealed stiletto . " Even some members of the Round Table disparaged it later in life . Dorothy Parker in particular criticized the group .
Despite Parker 's bleak assessment and while it is true that some members of the Round Table are perhaps now " famous for being famous " instead of for their literary output , Round Table members and associates contributed to the literary landscape , including Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning work by Circle members Kaufman , Connelly and Sherwood ( who won four ) and by associate Ferber and the legacy of Ross 's New Yorker . Others made lasting contributions to the realms of stage and screen — Tallulah Bankhead and Eva Le Gallienne became Broadway greats and the films of Harpo and Benchley remain popular ; and Parker has remained renowned for her short stories and literary reviews .
The Algonquin Round Table , as well as the number of other literary and theatrical greats who lodged there , helped earn the Algonquin Hotel its status as a New York City Historic Landmark . The hotel was so designated in 1987 . In 1996 the hotel was designated a national literary landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA based on the contributions of " The Round Table Wits " . The organization 's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel . Although the Rose Room was removed from the Algonquin in a 1998 remodel , the hotel paid tribute to the group by commissioning and hanging the painting A Vicious Circle by Natalie Ascencios , depicting the Round Table and also created a replica of the original table . The hotel occasionally stages an original musical production , The Talk of the Town , in the Oak Room . Its latest production started September 11 , 2007 and ran through the end of the year .
A film about the members , The Ten @-@ Year Lunch ( 1987 ) , won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature . The dramatic film Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle ( 1994 ) recounted the Round Table from the perspective of Dorothy Parker .
Portions of the 1981 film Rich and Famous were set in the Algonquin and one of the film 's characters , Liz Hamilton ( played by Jacqueline Bisset ) refers to the Round Table during the film .
In 1993 , The Algonquin Round Table was featured in The Young Indiana Jones and the Scandal of 1920 where the titular character meet the group and attend at least two lunches . Wonderful Nonsense - The Algonquin Round Table is a documentary produced for the DVD release of that film in 2008 .
In 2009 , Robert Benchley 's grandson , Nat Benchley , and co @-@ editor Kevin C. Fitzpatrick published The Lost Algonquin Round Table , a collection of the early writings of the group .
In the 2015 Hollywood movie " The Martian " , the NASA JPL engineer Tim Grimes refers to the Algonquin Round Table when describing the crude communication JPL had established with stranded astronaut Mark Whatney : " Thirty @-@ two minute round trip communications time , all he can do is ask yes / no questions , and all we can do is point the camera . This won 't exactly be an Algonquin Round Table of snappy repartee . "
= Iso Rae =
Isobel ( known as Iso ) Rae ( 18 August 1860 – 16 March 1940 ) was an Australian impressionist painter . After training at Melbourne 's National Gallery of Victoria Art School , where she studied alongside Frederick McCubbin and Jane Sutherland , Rae travelled to France in 1887 with her family , and spent most of the rest of her life there . A longstanding member of the Étaples art colony , Rae lived in or near the village of Étaples from the 1890s until the 1930s . During that period , Rae exhibited her paintings at the Royal Society of British Artists , the Society of Oil Painters , and the Paris Salon . During World War I , she was a member of the Voluntary Aid Detachment and worked throughout the war in Étaples Army Base Camp . She and Jessie Traill were the only Australian women to live and paint in France during the war , however they were not included in their country 's first
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group of official war artists . Following Hitler 's rise to power , Rae moved to south @-@ eastern England , where she died in 1940 .
= = Early life and training = =
Rae was born on 18 August 1860 in Melbourne , youngest daughter of Scottish emigrants Thomas Rae , a manufacturer , and his wife Janet Love . Rae studied at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School from 1877 to 1887 , where fellow students included Rupert Bunny and John Longstaff . Her teachers included George Folingsby and Oswald Rose Campbell . Rae had some academic success in student exhibitions , receiving prizes and recognition from the judging panel on several occasions , alongside fellow students such as Longstaff , Frederick McCubbin , Jane Sutherland and May Vale . Rae joined , and exhibited with , the Victorian Academy of Arts between 1881 and 1883 .
In 1887 , Rae travelled to France and settled in Paris with her mother Janet and sister Alison . They lived there for three years , before the family moved to the artists ' colony at the fishing village of Étaples , in northern coastal France . During this initial part of her career , Rae exhibited works in Australia and New Zealand , though she remained in Europe . Exhibitions in which she was hung included the 1889 New Zealand and South Seas Exhibition in Dunedin , and the 1896 Victorian Artists ' Society , at which several of her landscapes were shown .
= = Career = =
Rae became a long @-@ term resident at the Étaples colony . There she worked alongside a number of other Australian artists including Hilda Rix Nicholas , Rupert Bunny , James Peter Quinn , Edward Officer , and others who took an interest in the Australians ' work , such as Frenchman Jules Adler . In the late 1890s Rae exhibited regularly at the Royal Society of British Artists and the then Society of Oil Painters . Her works were sometimes of everday scenes : she won third prize in her graduating year with a painting " of a Chinese hawker displaying his wares to two girls standing at a kitchen door " , while two decades later exhibited in Australia a picture of a working @-@ class girl carting water at dusk .
While living in Étaples , Rae exhibited regularly at the Paris Salon , with her success reported in the Australian press . She had works hung on many occasions , always in what was referred to as the New Salon , including 1908 , 1909 , 1910 , 1911 , 1912 , 1913 , and 1914 . On some of the later occasions , her sister Alison 's works were also included .
When World War I broke out some Australians , such as Rix Nicholas , fled to England , however Rae stayed and became , along with Jessie Traill , one of only two Australian women artists to portray the war while living in France . When in 1918 Australia first appointed official war artists , sixteen men were chosen ; Rae , despite having lived in France for the duration of the conflict , was not included . She nevertheless documented prolifically the experience of the war in her adopted home town , creating over two hundred drawings . Most of these portrayed the Étaples Army Base Camp , " the largest of its kind ever established overseas by the British " , which at its zenith housed 100 @,@ 000 , including hospital services for up to 22 @,@ 000 patients . Most of the drawings are of nocturnal scenes , possibly because during the war Rae and her sister both worked in the Voluntary Aid Detachment , and would have had little spare time during the days . Few of these works were acquired by public galleries , with art historian Sasha Grishin arguing that they were " generally regarded as too intimate , too personal and too feminine to be included " .
Museum curator Betty Snowden reviewed the collection of World War I drawings . She observed the influence of the post @-@ impressionist movement to which Rae was exposed when first she came to France , and her attention to the regimentation and tensions of camp life . Snowden wrote :
In her drawings she uses black outlines filled with flat areas of colour , a post @-@ impressionist technique reminiscent of some of the French poster artists of the late nineteenth century ... The regular patterning of men , tents and buildings in many of the works suggests the control that was imposed by the vast machine of men and modern war . In many drawings there is a strong sense of waiting : waiting to move into battle , waiting for the war to end , waiting to be sent home .
The Australian War Memorial holds eleven of Rae 's works , including Cinema Queue , which Snowden described as a " dramatic elevated night scene , with her use of strong glowing light against the deep black of the night , and gouache over pastel used to highlight the glow of lights in the dark . The long line of men waiting reflects a general mood of waiting prevalent in the camp – and suggests that here even entertainment is dark and regimented . "
Rae 's mother died in France during the war . The sisters remained there until the 1930s , when Hitler 's rise to power prompted them to relocate to England , where they settled in St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea , in Sussex . Rae died on 16 March 1940 at Brighton Mental Hospital in Brighton .
= = Legacy = =
Reviewers ' assessment of Rae 's work varied . She was criticised for allowing her impressionist style to become extreme and visually distracting from her subjects , but that same approach was seen by another critic as charming , and exhibiting " harmonious colour and vigorous effects " .
Rae is not included in Max Germaine 's Dictionary of Women Artists in Australia , Caroline Ambrus 's The Ladies ' Picture Show , or Helen Topliss 's Modernism and Feminism : Australian Women Artists 1900 – 1940 . Nevertheless , the secondary market for Rae 's works has been relatively strong , with one work selling in 2012 for 10 @,@ 000 Euros , as against a pre @-@ auction estimate of two @-@ thirds that sum . Works by Rae are held in the collections of the National Gallery of Australia , National Gallery of Victoria , and the Australian War Memorial . Outside Australia , her work is represented in the Musée du Touquet , just outside Étaples township .
= Ian Smith ( Scottish rugby player born 1903 ) =
Ian Scott Smith ( 31 October 1903 – 18 September 1972 ) was a rugby union wing who played 32 Tests for Scotland and two Tests for the British Isles . Born in Melbourne , Australia , and brought up in New Zealand , Smith moved to England and was educated at Winchester College , before studying at Oxford University and later Edinburgh University . At Oxford he took up rugby and was eventually selected for Scotland , for whom he was eligible because of his Scottish parents . He toured with the British Isles ( now known as the British and Irish Lions ) to South Africa in 1924 , and played all four matches in Scotland 's first ever Five Nations Grand Slam in 1925 . He represented Scotland until 1933 when he captained them in their Triple Crown winning season . His 24 international tries , all scored in the Five Nations or Home Nations , was an international record until 1987 and a record for the Five / Six Nations until 2011 . Smith holds joint possession of the Scottish record to this day .
Rugby author Richard Bath wrote of him :
A member of the famous Oxford quartet of Wallace , Aitken , Macpherson and Smith , the lithe Australian @-@ born wing made his mark as an integral member of the outstanding sides of the 1920s , which won the Grand Slam in 1925 , the year when he scored an astounding eight tries in the first two internationals of the season against France and Wales .
= = Biography = =
Smith was born in Melbourne in Australia in 1903 , but was brought up in New Zealand . He was educated at Winchester College , where they did not play rugby , and then went to Oxford University . It was at Oxford that he was persuaded to play rugby by GPS Macpherson . Up until then he had only played association football . Macpherson captained Oxford when Smith played in the Varsity Match against Cambridge in 1923 – Smith scored two tries in Oxford 's victory .
Smith had Scottish parents and ancestors from the Borders region , and so was eligible to play for Scotland . He was first capped for Scotland when he faced Wales on 2 February 1924 , and he scored three tries on Test debut ; a 35 – 10 victory . He played in Scotland 's remaining 1924 Five Nations matches – against Ireland and a Calcutta Cup match against England – although he was unable to score again . In 1924 he was invited to play for the Barbarians for their annual encounter with East Midlands for the Mobbs Memorial Match . Smith scored one of five tries for the Barbarians during the game to win 15 – 3 . He played in a total of six matches for the Barbarians , including five games during the club 's 1923 and 1924 Easter tours .
In the second half of 1924 he was selected to tour South Africa with the British Isles . It was on this tour that the British Isles were first given the " Lions " nickname . Smith played in the first two Tests of the tour , both of them lost . He also played four non @-@ Test matches during the tour , including one against Rhodesia where he scored two tries . Rowe Harding , an opponent with Wales and a team @-@ mate with the 1924 Lions , reckoned Smith to be the " greatest wing of all time " .
In 1925 Smith played in all four of Scotland 's Five Nations matches . The first was against France at Inverleith , where Smith scored four tries , and helped them to win 25 – 4 . He then played against Wales at Swansea and scored another four tries ; Scotland again won , this time 24 – 14 . Their third game of the Championship was against Ireland at Lansdowne Road , and although Smith was unable to score this time , Scotland still won 14 – 8 . Scotland 's last match of the Championship was against England at Murrayfield Stadium . This was the first match ever played at Murrayfield , and was watched by over 70 @,@ 000 spectators . Although Smith did not score himself , he was involved in a crucial Scottish try : the ball was passed through several hands before Smith passed to Johnnie Wallace who scored in the right @-@ hand corner . English supporters claimed Smith had put his foot into touch , but the Welsh referee disagreed and awarded the try . Eventually Scotland triumphed 14 – 11 to go undefeated and claim their first ever Five Nations Grand Slam . Smith 's eight tries for a single Championship equalled the record set by Cyril Lowe in 1914 and remains an individual record as of 2014 .
He continued to play for Scotland throughout the 1920s . He played all four Scotland matches in the 1926 Five Nations , and scored two tries against England at Twickenham ; his only tries of the Championship . He played three matches in 1927 , this times scoring four tries , two against France and two against England . In both 1926 and 1927 Scotland shared the Five Nations Championship with Ireland . Smith did not play in 1928 , but returned in 1929 , when Scotland won the Five Nations again . He played all four matches , and scored three tries , two against England .
In 1930 he played three Five Nations ' matches , missing the England game , and did not score any tries . He did play all four matches in 1931 , and scored his only tries of the Championship in the game against England . This was the fourth time he scored two tries in a match against England . In January 1932 Smith played for Scotland against South Africa , which was won 6 – 3 by South Africa . By 1932 France had been ejected from the Championship due to allegations of professionalism , and the four Home Nations returned to only playing one another for the International Championship . Smith played all three matches in 1932 , but scored only once , against England .
In 1933 , Smith captained Scotland for the Home Nations Championship . Because of his background of playing association football , team mate James Henderson said of Smith :
He was great , of course , ' The Flying Scotsman ' , but when he was our captain in the 1933 Triple Crown success , we never had team talks before the game . He would just tell us to get on with it ; no great plans or anything , because he didn 't know much about the game . "
Smith played in all three matches during the Championship , and scored one try when they played Wales in February . They played Ireland last after the planned match had been cancelled because of a blizzard . They won the match 8 – 6 and secured the Championship and the Triple Crown . It was Smith 's last match for Scotland .
He studied accounting at the University of Edinburgh , and served in the Royal Army Ordnance Corps during the Second World War . Following the war he practised law , before retiring to Kelso in the Scottish Borders . In 2013 Smith was included in the second group of inductees into the Scottish Rugby Hall of Fame .
= = Statistics and character = =
Smith played a total of 32 Tests for Scotland , and scored 24 tries , which still gives him a share of the Scottish record with Tony Stanger . Smith 's record for international tries was not beaten until 1987 when it was overtaken by Australian David Campese . Remarkably , Smith 's first 17 tries were scored in only 14 Test matches . His 24 career tries in the Five Nations – now Six Nations – remained a record until first equalled and then surpassed by Ireland 's Brian O 'Driscoll in 2011 . Smith spent much of his playing career playing in the backline with GPS Macpherson ; 21 of Smith 's 24 Scotland tries were scored outside the three @-@ quarter Macpherson . When Smith scored four tries against France in 1925 , Macpherson contributed to all those scores .
Author Richard Bath wrote :
An exuberant young man , who once famously drove his car down an Edinburgh pavement after a post @-@ international drinking binge , Smith held the record for tries scored ( 24 ) , until he was overtaken by Australia 's David Campese , 55 years after Smith retired to concentrate on his career as a solicitor .
= Roma @-@ class ironclad =
The Roma class was a pair of ironclad warships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1860s and 1870s . The class comprised two ships , Roma and Venezia . Roma was a broadside ironclad armed with five 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) and twelve 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns , while Venezia was converted into a central battery ship during construction , armed with a much more powerful battery of eighteen 10 @-@ inch guns . Neither ship had an eventful career , due in large part to their rapid shift to obsolescence . Venezia and Roma were withdrawn from service for auxiliary duties in 1880 and 1890 , respectively . Both were stricken from the naval register in 1895 and broken up for scrap the following year , Roma having been badly damaged in a fire in 1895 .
= = Design = =
The Roma class was designed by Insp. Eng . Giuseppe De Luca , who initially planned to build both ships as broadside ironclads . By this time , however , other navies had begun to build central battery ships , which concentrated a smaller number of guns in an armored casemate that had limited capability for end @-@ on fire . This change allowed the ship to be shorter , which in turn required less armor and made the ship more maneuverable . As a result , De Luca re @-@ designed the second ship of the class , Venezia , into a central battery ironclad while she was under construction .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Roma class had wooden hulls , though they did incorporate some iron in their construction . The two ships varied slightly in their dimensions , a result of Venezia having been converted into a central battery ship during construction . Roma was 79 @.@ 67 meters ( 261 @.@ 4 ft ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 17 @.@ 33 m ( 56 @.@ 9 ft ) and an average draft of 7 @.@ 57 m ( 24 @.@ 8 ft ) . Venezia was 79 @.@ 65 m ( 261 @.@ 3 ft ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 17 @.@ 48 m ( 57 @.@ 3 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 6 m ( 25 ft ) . Roma displaced 5 @,@ 698 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 608 long tons ; 6 @,@ 281 short tons ) normally , while Venezia displaced 5 @,@ 722 t ( 5 @,@ 632 long tons ; 6 @,@ 307 short tons ) . Both ships displaced 6 @,@ 151 t ( 6 @,@ 054 long tons ; 6 @,@ 780 short tons ) at full load . The ships had a crew of 549 – 551 officers and men .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . The boilers were trunked into a single funnel amidships . The engines produced a top speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) from 3 @,@ 670 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 740 kW ) . They could steam for 1 @,@ 940 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 590 km ; 2 @,@ 230 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ships were fitted with a three @-@ masted barque rig to supplement the steam engine for long distance cruising . Each ship had 31 @,@ 833 square feet ( 2 @,@ 957 @.@ 4 m2 ) of sail area .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Roma was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of five 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns and twelve 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns . Venezia was completed as a central battery ship , with a battery of eighteen 10 in guns placed in an armored casemate . Both ships had their armament revised throughout their careers . In 1874 – 75 , the ships ' batteries were replaced with eleven 10 in guns for Roma and eight 10 in and one 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) for Venezia . From 1886 , Roma carried eleven 220 mm guns ; four years later her armament was reduced to five 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns . Venezia was converted into a training ship in 1881 , and was equipped with four 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns and four 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns .
Both ships were protected by wrought iron belt armor that was 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull at the waterline . Venezia 's casemate had 4 @.@ 75 in ( 121 mm ) of wrought iron protecting the guns .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
The two ships , completed too late to see action in the Third Italian War of Independence , had uneventful careers . Roma was obsolescent by the time she entered service , having been superseded by more advanced central battery ships . Venezia was modified during construction into a central battery ship , but the changes necessitated lengthy delays . Ironically , by the time she was completed , the Italian navy had moved on to yet further advanced turret ships like the Caio Duilio class . Roma was mobilized during the Franco @-@ Prussian War , during which Italy took advantage of the French defeat to seize Rome . Roma and the rest of the fleet was to attack the port of Civitavecchia , but the fleet was unable to assemble sufficient forces for the operation .
In 1880 , Roma took part in a naval demonstration off Ragusa in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . The following year , she was involved in a collision with the ironclad Principe Amedeo , though neither ship was damaged . That year , Venezia was converted into a torpedo training ship , while Roma remained in service until 1890 , when she became a guard ship at La Spezia . In 1895 , both ships were stricken from the naval register . Venezia was broken up for scrap the following year , but Roma was converted into a depot ship in La Spezia . On 28 July 1896 , she was set on fire by a lightning strike and badly burned . The damage proved to be beyond economical repair , and so she was broken up for scrap .
= Initiation ( The Office ) =
" Initiation " is the fifth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office — the show 's 33rd overall . Written by B. J. Novak , who also acts in the show as Ryan Howard , and directed by Randall Einhorn , the episode first aired in the United States on October 19 , 2006 on NBC .
In the episode Ryan is taken by Dwight on what he believes is a sales call , but instead is brought to Dwight 's beet farm for an " initiation . " Pam is supposed to keep track of Michael 's productivity , but Michael spends his day waiting in line for a pretzel . Jim steals Karen 's chair and foils her attempts to get it back .
= = Synopsis = =
In the cold open , Dwight tries to test Ryan with riddles found on a website , but is angered when Ryan knows all the answers before he even finishes talking .
Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) plans to go to his first sales call with Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) . Dwight surprises Ryan by taking him to Dwight 's beet farm to both teach and haze . When Ryan accuses him of trying to college frat the situation , Dwight snaps at him , saying the reason Ryan has yet to make a sale is because he thinks he knows everything , and must think otherwise to sell . After Dwight tries to force Ryan to wrestle his cousin Mose ( Michael Schur ) , Ryan gets angry and walks out . Dwight apologizes to Ryan and begins to give Ryan serious sales advice as Ryan takes notes . The two then go on a sales call which ultimately doesn 't work out for Ryan . Irritated , Ryan throws eggs at the building housing the company that refused his sale . Dwight and Ryan then go to a bar and return to the office , where it appears they formed a new bond .
Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) instructs receptionist Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) to keep a log of Michael Scott 's ( Steve Carell ) activity , and throughout the day , she dryly notes Michael 's antics , including a Bill Cosby impression for a potential customer and waiting in line with Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) for a free soft pretzel , while hinting to Michael that he should focus on being productive . Michael enjoys Gary Glitter 's " Rock and Roll " in his office at a high volume . After consuming his sugary pretzel , Michael emerges from his office and launches into a hyperactive , sugar @-@ fueled speech before falling asleep at his desk . At the end of the day , Pam realizes that Michael 's antics secured a large sale .
At Dunder Mifflin 's Stamford branch , Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) discovers that Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) swapped his chair for hers , but Jim foils her efforts to switch them back . The two flirt for a while before Karen steals Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) chair . Later that night , Jim , who was trying to call Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) , ends up talking to Pam on the phone for the first time since the two kissed . The two have a lengthy conversation and begin to reconnect . Jim misinterprets Pam 's parting phrase to Ryan as being directed at him , and the two end their conversation , much to their sadness . The episode ends with a brief talking head of Stanley , counting down the days left in the year until the next Pretzel day .
= = Production = =
This episode was the first full episode of the series directed by Randall Einhorn . Einhorn had previously directed all ten webisodes of the spin @-@ off mini @-@ series " The Accountants " . " Initiation " was written by B. J. Novak , who also acts for the show as Ryan Howard .
The episode was filmed before " Grief Counseling " , but it aired after it . There were rumors that " Initiation " was supposed to air before " Grief Counseling " , but it turned out the location of the beet farm was only available that week . Although the idea for writer Michael Schur to be Dwight 's cousin Mose had been a joke among the writers since the first season , B. J. Novak pitched the idea when writing " Initiation " . Schur had to grow out his beard for three months and wear wool clothes on a hot day as part of his character . Mose was based on an actual participant in the UPN reality show Amish in the City . In this episode , Jim was seen singing Lovefool by The Cardigans . The song playing in Dwight 's car when he and Ryan are driving to the beet farm is River Runs Red by Life of Agony . In the basket that Mose makes for Ryan is " something he whittled " which strongly resembles a Venus figurine .
The third season DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from the episode , including Jan asking Michael to record his day on a schedule , Ryan being hugged by Michael before leaving for his first sales call , Dwight and Ryan leaving the office , Michael reading his schedule in a talking head scene , Pam encouraging Michael to " focus " for the day , Ryan reflecting on his life path , and Dwight showing Ryan his family cemetery and making a reference to his Nazi grandfather by calling him " a good man ... who did some VERY bad things " .
= = Reception = =
This episode was generally well received by critics . Abby West of Entertainment Weekly stated that " one of the many things I love about the show is how current it is . I love the pop @-@ culture references , like Lost 's Dharma Initiative , Deal or No Deal , and that soon @-@ to @-@ be classic SNL / Chronicles of Narnia sketch . IGN 's Brian Zoromski said that although the episode had " a few hit and miss moments " , it " was a very well done episode that carried through on three main storylines " and " began and ended beautifully " . Aaron from eTV Review said that even if it " wasn ’ t as good as last week ’ s episode " , it was still " another great one " . In a poll done by OfficeTally.com , " Initiation " was ranked by viewers as the thirteenth funniest of the twenty @-@ three episodes of the third season .
= Lee Sweatt =
Walter Lee Sweatt ( born August 13 , 1985 ) is an American former professional ice hockey player . Sweatt played four years of professional hockey in Europe and North America . Sweatt played three games in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in 2011 , before retiring to work in the financial industry . His younger brother , Bill , was drafted by the Chicago Blackhawks in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft .
After a one @-@ year stint with the Junior A Chicago Steel of the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) , Sweatt played four seasons in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association ( WCHA ) with the Colorado College Tigers . During his senior year with Colorado , he served as team captain and received All @-@ WCHA Third Team honors . Graduating with a degree in mathematical economics , he was named the WCHA Student @-@ Athlete of the Year in 2007 .
Undrafted by an NHL team , Sweatt played in Europe for four seasons with TPS of the Finnish SM @-@ liiga , Dinamo Riga of the Kontinental Hockey League and EC Red Bull Salzburg of the Austrian Hockey League . After winning the Pekka Rautakallio trophy as the SM @-@ liiga 's best defenseman and the Kanada @-@ malja as league champions with TPS in 2010 , he returned to North America , signing with the Vancouver Canucks . He played the subsequent season with the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , while also debuting in the NHL with the Canucks . In July 2011 , he signed with the Senators .
Sweatt has also played inline hockey at the international level , competing for the United States ' national team at seven consecutive IIHF InLine Hockey World Championships from 2002 to 2009 . At the 2008 tournament , he earned the Best Defenseman award . He has also played for the United States national select team on two occasions , once in 2007 and another at the 2009 Deutschland Cup .
= = Playing career = =
Sweatt played junior in the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) for the Chicago Steel before joining the college ranks for the Colorado College Tigers . He recorded 16 points over 37 games as a freshman in 2003 – 04 . The following season , he improved to a college career @-@ high 27 points while helping Colorado to a MacNaughton Cup as the Western Collegiate Hockey Association ( WCHA ) regular season champions ( shared with the Denver Pioneers ) . Serving as team captain in his senior year , he scored a career @-@ high 9 goals , while adding 15 assists for 24 points . In addition to being his team 's leading defenseman in scoring , Sweatt was named to the All @-@ WCHA Third Team .
He joined the American Hockey League ( AHL ) immediately after completing his senior season with Colorado , signing an amateur tryout contract with the San Antonio Rampage on March 22 , 2007 . Appearing in 11 games for the remainder of the 2006 @-@ 07 AHL season , he registered 1 assist . Also in 2007 , Sweatt debuted with the United States ' national select team in international competition .
Undrafted and unsigned by an NHL team , Sweatt joined Finnish club TPS of the SM @-@ liiga for the 2007 – 08 season . Competing in his first full professional season , he recorded 15 goals and 33 points over 56 games , second in team scoring to Teemu Laine . Spending the 2008 – 09 season with EC Red Bull Salzburg in the Austrian Hockey League , Sweatt scored 36 points over 52 games , second among team defensemen to Mario Scalzo .
In the off @-@ season , he signed as a free agent to a one @-@ year contract with Latvian club Dinamo Riga of the Kontinental Hockey League on July 13 , 2009 . He took a break from club play in November 2009 , making his second appearance with the United States ' national select team for the Deutschland Cup . Returning to Dinamo , Sweatt was released from his KHL contract after a slow start to the 2009 – 10 season , recording 7 points in 37 games . Sweatt returned to TPS on January 18 , 2010 , and completed the regular season with 16 points in 21 SM @-@ liiga games . In the playoffs , he added 13 points over 15 games , helping TPS win the Kanada @-@ malja as league champions . For his efforts , he was named to the SM @-@ liiga All @-@ Star Team and also won the Pekka Rautakallio trophy as the league 's best defenseman .
Returning to North America , Sweatt signed a one @-@ year contract with the Vancouver Canucks on May 31 , 2010 . Nearly three months later , the Canucks also signed Sweatt 's brother , Bill , from Colorado College . Following the pre @-@ season , the Canucks assigned both Sweatt brothers to their AHL affiliate , the Manitoba Moose . Joining the Moose , Lee and Bill became the first pair of brothers in the team 's history to play for the club at the same time . After recording 14 points in 41 AHL games , the Canucks recalled him on January 23 , 2011 . Filling in for injured defenseman Alex Edler , he made his NHL debut three days later against the Nashville Predators . He scored his first NHL goal that night , a game @-@ winner in the third period against goaltender Pekka Rinne ; the Canucks won the game 2 – 1 . The following shift , he blocked a shot from Predators defenseman Shea Weber with his foot ; a post @-@ game X @-@ ray diagnosed him with severe bruising . After resting the foot over the All @-@ Star break , he played in two more games for the Canucks , before being reassigned to the Moose . On the morning of his scheduled flight back to Manitoba , he blocked another shot during a Canucks practice , breaking his foot . Sweatt was consequently retained on the NHL team 's roster and placed on the long @-@ term injured reserve list ( injured players are not eligible to be sent down to the minors ) . Unable to skate on his injured foot until mid @-@ June , Sweatt was sidelined for the remainder of the season .
Set to become a restricted free agent in the off @-@ season , Sweatt did not receive a qualifying offer from the Canucks , making him an unrestricted free agent on July 1 , 2011 . Ten days into his free agency , he signed a two @-@ year , two @-@ way contract with the Ottawa Senators . However , on August 12 , 2011 Sweatt retired prior to playing for the Senators organization .
= = = Inline hockey = = =
Sweatt began playing inline hockey at the age of eight in order to improve his skating for ice hockey . He began competing in the IIHF InLine Hockey World Championships with the United States national team in 2002 . Playing seven straight years in the annual tournament , Sweatt won two gold ( 2004 , 2006 ) , one silver ( 2009 ) and two bronze medals ( 2003 , 2005 ) . At the 2008 IIHF InLine World Championships in Slovakia , Sweatt was named the tournament 's Best Defenseman . He registered four goals and four assists in six games , ranking ninth among tournament defensemen in scoring , as the United States finished fourth in the competition , losing to Germany in the bronze medal game .
= = Playing style = =
Sweatt is known as an offensive defenseman , possessing a good shot and a tendency to join plays deep in the opposing zone . He has played the role of powerplay " quarterback " on teams throughout his career – controlling the play by either passing or shooting the puck . Defensively , he is known to play aggressively , hitting opposing players . Due to his offensive capabilities at a comparatively small size for a defenseman at 5 feet and 9 inches , he has been compared to former NHL player Brian Rafalski .
= = Personal life = =
Sweatt was born in Elburn , Illinois , a village west of Chicago . He played minor hockey with his younger brother Bill Sweatt , in Highland Park , Illinois . In addition to hockey , Sweatt played football as a child , following after his father .
While enrolled at the Colorado College , Sweatt maintained a grade point average ( GPA ) of at least 3 @.@ 0 while majoring in mathematical economics , qualifying for the WCHA All @-@ Academic Team as a sophomore , junior and senior hockey player ( freshmen are not eligible for the distinction ) . In his junior year , he was honored as a co @-@ recipient of the Paul Markovich Award as the Colorado College Tigers ' top student @-@ athlete . He also received WCHA Student @-@ Athlete of the Year honors after graduating with a 3 @.@ 8 GPA in 2007 .
In an interview with CBC Sports , Sweatt explained the reason for his retirement . Sweatt intends to work as a financial advisor and expects to make more money than if he were playing in the AHL . " I didn 't need to prove myself all over again . I didn 't want to be a bubble guy again . I didn 't want to be the guy in the still living the dream at age 30 and sacrificing my goals outside the game . "
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International ( InLine ) = = =
= = Awards = =
= Sri Aurobindo =
Sri Aurobindo ( Bengali : [ Sri Ôrobindo ] ) ( born Aurobindo Ghose ; 15 August 1872 – 5 December 1950 ) was an Indian nationalist , hindu philosopher , yogi , guru and poet . He joined the Indian movement for independence from British rule , for a while was one of its influential leaders and then became a spiritual reformer , introducing his visions on human progress and spiritual evolution .
Aurobindo studied for the Indian Civil Service at King 's College , Cambridge , England . After returning to India he took up various civil service works under the maharaja of the princely state of Baroda and began to involve himself in politics . He was imprisoned by the British for writing articles against British rule in India . He was released when no evidence was provided . During his stay in the jail he had mystical and spiritual experiences , after which he moved to Pondicherry , leaving politics for spiritual work .
During his stay in Pondicherry , Aurobindo developed a method of spiritual practice he called Integral Yoga . The central theme of his vision was the evolution of human life into a life divine . He believed in a spiritual realisation that not only liberated man but transformed his nature , enabling a divine life on earth . In 1926 , with the help of his spiritual collaborator , Mirra Alfassa ( referred to as " The Mother " ) , he founded the Sri Aurobindo Ashram . He died on 5 December 1950 in Pondicherry .
His main literary works are The Life Divine , which deals with theoretical aspects of Integral Yoga ; Synthesis of Yoga , which deals with practical guidance to Integral Yoga ; and Savitri : A Legend and a Symbol , an epic poem . His works also include philosophy , poetry , translations and commentaries on the Vedas , Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita . He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1943 and for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1950 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Aurobindo Ghose was born in Calcutta ( now Kolkata ) , Bengal Presidency , India on 15 August 1872 . His father , Krishna Dhun Ghose , was then Assistant Surgeon of Rangapur in Bengal , and a former member of the Brahmo Samaj religious reform movement who had become enamoured with the then @-@ new idea of evolution while pursuing medical studies in Britain . His mother was Swarnalotta Devi , whose father was Shri Rajnarayan Bose , a leading figure in the Samaj . She had been sent to the more salubrious surroundings of Calcutta for Aurobindo 's birth . Aurobindo had two elder siblings , Benoybhusan and Manmohan , and both a younger sister , Sarojini , and a younger brother , Barindrakumar ( also referred to as Barin , born Emmanuel Matthew ) .
Young Aurobindo was brought up speaking English but used Hindustani to communicate with servants . Although his family were Bengali , his father believed British culture to be superior to that of his countrymen . He and his two elder siblings were sent to the English @-@ speaking Loreto House boarding school in Darjeeling , in part to improve their language skills and in part to distance them from their mother , who had developed a mental illness soon after the birth of her first child . Darjeeling was a centre of British life in India and the school was run by Irish nuns , through which the boys would have been exposed to Christian religious teachings and symbolism .
= = = England ( 1879 – 1893 ) = = =
Krishna Dhun Ghose wanted his sons to enter the Indian Civil Service ( ICS ) , an elite organisation comprising around 1000 people . To achieve this it was necessary that they study in England and so it was there that the entire family moved in 1879 . The three brothers were placed in the care of the Reverend W. H. Drewett in Manchester . Drewett was a minister of the Congregational Church whom Krishna Dhun Ghose knew through his British friends at Rangapur .
The boys were taught Latin by Drewett and his wife . This was a prerequisite for admission to good English schools and , after two years , in 1881 , the elder two siblings were enrolled at Manchester Grammar School . Aurobindo was considered too young for enrolment and he continued his studies with the Drewetts , learning history , Latin , French , geography and arithmetic . Although the Drewetts were told not to teach religion , the boys inevitably were exposed to Christian teachings and events , which generally bored Aurobindo and sometimes repulsed him . There was little contact with his father , who wrote only a few letters to his sons while they were in England , but what communication there was indicated that he was becoming less endeared to the British in India than he had been , on one occasion describing the British Raj as a " heartless government " .
Drewett emigrated to Australia in 1884 , causing the boys to be uprooted as they went to live with Drewett 's mother in London . In September of that year , Aurobindo and Manmohan joined St Paul 's School there . He learned Greek and spent the last three years reading literature and English poetry . He also acquired some familiarity with the German and Italian languages and , exposed to the evangelical strictures of Drewett 's mother , a distaste for religion . He considered himself at one point to be an atheist but later determined that he was agnostic . A blue plaque unveiled in 2007 commemorates Aurobindo 's residence at 49 St Stephen 's Avenue in Shepherd 's Bush , London , from 1884 to 1887 . The three brothers began living in spartan circumstances at the Liberal Club in South Kensington during 1887 , their father having experienced some financial difficulties . The Club 's secretary was James Cotton , brother of their father 's friend in the Bengal ICS , Henry Cotton .
By 1889 , Manmohan had determined to pursue a literary career and Benoybhusan had proved himself unequal to the standards necessary for ICS entrance . This meant that only Aurobindo might fulfil his father 's aspirations but to do so when his father lacked money required that he studied hard for a scholarship . To become an ICS official , students were required to pass the competitive examination , as well as to study at an English university for two years under probation . Aurobindo secured a scholarship at King 's College , Cambridge , under recommendation of Oscar Browning . He passed the written ICS examination after a few months , being ranked 11th out of 250 competitors . He spent the next two years at King 's College . Sri Aurobindo had no interest in the ICS and came late to the horse @-@ riding practical exam purposefully to get himself disqualified for the service .
At this time , the Maharaja of Baroda , Sayajirao Gaekwad III , was travelling in England . Cotton secured for him a place in Baroda State Service and arranged for him to meet the prince . He left England for India , arriving there in February 1893 . In India , Krishna Dhun Ghose , who was waiting to receive his son , was misinformed by his agents from Bombay ( now Mumbai ) that the ship on which Aurobindo had been travelling had sunk off the coast of Portugal . His father died upon hearing this news .
= = = Baroda and Calcutta ( 1893 – 1910 ) = = =
In Baroda , Aurobindo joined the state service in 1893 , working first in the Survey and Settlements department , later moving to the Department of Revenue and then to the Secretariat , and much miscellaneous work like teaching grammar and assisting in writing speeches for the Maharaja of Gaekwad until 1897 . In 1897 during his work in Baroda he started working as a part @-@ time French teacher at Baroda College ( now Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda ) . He was later promoted to the post of vice @-@ principal . At Baroda , Sri Aurobindo self @-@ studied Sanskrit and Bengali .
During his stay at Baroda he contributed to many articles to Indu Prakash and spoke as a chairman of the Baroda college board . He started taking an active interest in the politics of India 's independence struggle against British rule , working behind the scenes as his position in the Baroda state administration barred him from overt political activity . He linked up with resistance groups in Bengal and Madhya Pradesh , while traveling to these states . He established contact with Lokmanya Tilak and Sister Nivedita . He arranged the military training of Jatindra Nath Banerjee ( Niralamba Swami ) in the Baroda army and then dispatched him to organise the resistance groups in Bengal .
Aurobindo often traveled between Baroda and Bengal , at first in a bid to re @-@ establish links with his parent 's families and other Bengali relatives , including his cousin Sarojini and brother Barin , and later increasingly to establish resistance groups across the Presidency . He formally moved to Calcutta in 1906 after the announcement of the Partition of Bengal . Age 28 , he had married 14 @-@ year @-@ old Mrinalini , daughter of Bhupal Chandra Bose , a senior official in government service , when he visited Calcutta in 1901 . Mrinalini died in December 1918 during the influenza pandemic .
Aurobindo was influenced by studies on rebellion and revolutions against England in medieval France and the revolts in America and Italy . In his public activities he favoured non @-@ co @-@ operation and passive resistance ; in private he took up secret revolutionary activity as a preparation for open revolt , in case that the passive revolt failed .
In Bengal , with Barin 's help , he established contacts with revolutionaries , inspiring radicals such as Bagha Jatin , Jatin Banerjee and Surendranath Tagore . He helped establish a series of youth clubs , including the Anushilan Samiti of Calcutta in 1902 .
Aurobindo attended the 1906 Congress meeting headed by Dadabhai Naoroji and participated as a councillor in forming the fourfold objectives of " Swaraj , Swadesh , Boycott and national education " . In 1907 at the Surat session of Congress where moderates and extremists had a major showdown , he led with extremists along with Bal Gangadhar Tilak . The Congress split after this session . In 1907 – 1908 Aurobindo traveled extensively to Pune , Bombay and Baroda to firm up support for the nationalist cause , giving speeches and meeting with groups . He was arrested again in May 1908 in connection with the Alipore Bomb Case . He was acquitted in the ensuing trial and released after a year of isolated incarceration .
Once out of the prison he started two new publications , Karmayogin in English and Dharma in Bengali . He also delivered the Uttarpara Speech hinting at the transformation of his focus to spiritual matters . The British persecution continued because of his writings in his new journals and in April 1910 Aurobindo moved to Pondicherry , where Britain 's secret police monitored his activities .
= = = Conversion from politics to spirituality = = =
In July 1905 then Viceroy of India , Lord Curzon , partitioned Bengal . This sparked an outburst of public anger against the British , leading to civil unrest and a nationalist campaign by groups of revolutionaries , who included Aurobindo . In 1908 , Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to kill Magistrate Kingsford , a judge known for handing down particularly severe sentences against nationalists . However , the bomb thrown at his horse carriage missed its target and instead landed in another carriage and killed two British women , the wife and daughter of barrister Pringle Kennedy . Aurobindo was also arrested on charges of planning and overseeing the attack and imprisoned in solitary confinement in Alipore Jail . The trial of the Alipore Bomb Case lasted for a year , but eventually he was acquitted on May 6 , 1909 . His defence counsel was Chittaranjan Das .
During this period in the Jail , his view of life was radically changed due to spiritual experiences and realizations . Consequently , his aim went far beyond the service and liberation of the country .
Aurobindo said he was " visited " by Vivekananda in the Alipore Jail : " It is a fact that I was hearing constantly the voice of Vivekananda speaking to me for a fortnight in the jail in my solitary meditation and felt his presence . "
In his autobiographical notes , Aurobindo said he felt a vast sense of calmness when he first came back to India . He could not explain this and continued to have various such experiences from time to time . He knew nothing of yoga at that time and started his practise of it without a teacher , except for some rules that he learned from Ganganath , a friend who was a disciple of Brahmananda . In 1907 , Barin introduced Aurobindo to Vishnu Bhaskar Lele , a Maharashtrian yogi . Aurobindo was influenced by the guidance he got from the yogi , who had instructed Aurobindo to depend on an inner guide and any kind of external guru or guidance would not be required .
In 1910 Aurobindo withdrew himself from all political activities and went into hiding at Chandannagar while the British were trying to prosecute him for sedition on the basis of a signed article titled ' To My Countrymen ' , published in Karmayogin . As Aurobindo disappeared from view , the warrant was held back and the prosecution postponed . Aurobindo manoeuvred the police into open action and a warrant was issued on 4 April 1910 , but the warrant could not be executed because on that date he had reached Pondicherry , then a French colony . The warrant against Aurobindo was withdrawn .
= = = Pondicherry ( 1910 – 1950 ) = = =
In Pondicherry , Aurobindo dedicated himself to his spiritual and philosophical pursuits . In 1914 , after four years of secluded yoga , he started a monthly philosophical magazine called Arya . This ceased publication in 1921 . Many years later , he revised some of these works before they were published in book form . Some of the book series derived out of this publication were The Life Divine , The Synthesis of Yoga , Essays on The Gita , The Secret of The Veda , Hymns to the Mystic Fire , The Upanishads , The Renaissance in India , War and Self @-@ determination , The Human Cycle , The Ideal of Human Unity and The Future Poetry were published in this magazine .
At the beginning of his stay at Pondicherry , there were few followers , but with time their numbers grew , resulting in the formation of the Sri Aurobindo Ashram in 1926 . From 1926 he started to sign himself as Sri Aurobindo , Sri ( meaning holy in Sanskrit ) being commonly used as an honorific .
For some time afterwards , his main literary output was his voluminous correspondence with his disciples . His letters , most of which were written in the 1930s , numbered in the several thousands . Many were brief comments made in the margins of his disciple 's notebooks in answer to their questions and reports of their spiritual practice — others extended to several pages of carefully composed explanations of practical aspects of his teachings . These were later collected and published in book form in three volumes of Letters on Yoga . In the late 1930s , he resumed work on a poem he had started earlier — he continued to expand and revise this poem for the rest of his life . It became perhaps his greatest literary achievement , Savitri , an epic spiritual poem in blank verse of approximately 24 @,@ 000 lines .
Aurobindo died on 5 December 1950 . Around 60 @,@ 000 people attended his funeral . Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru , and President Rajendra Prasad praised him for his contribution to Yogic philosophy and the independence struggle . National and international newspapers commemorated his death .
= = = Mirra Richard and the development of the Ashram = = =
Aurobindo 's close spiritual collaborator , Mirra Richard ( b . Alfassa ) , came to be known as The Mother . She was a French national , born in Paris on 21 February 1878 . In her 20s she studied occultism with Max Theon . Along with her husband , Paul Richard , she went to Pondicherry on 29 March 1914 , and finally settled there in 1920 . Aurobindo considered her his spiritual equal and collaborator . After 24 November 1926 , when Aurobindo retired into seclusion , he left it to her to plan , build and run the ashram , the community of disciples which had gathered around them . Some time later , when families with children joined the ashram , she established and supervised the Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education with its experiments in the field of education . When he died in 1950 , she continued their spiritual work , directed the ashram , and guided their disciples .
= = Philosophy and spiritual vision = =
Aurobindo 's concept of the Integral Yoga system is described in his books , The Synthesis of Yoga and The Life Divine . The Life Divine is a compilation of essays published serially in Arya .
Aurobindo argues that divine Brahman manifests as empirical reality through līlā , or divine play . Instead of positing that the world we experience is an illusion ( māyā ) , Aurobindo argues that life itself is Divine .
Aurobindo believed that Darwinism merely describes a phenomenon of the evolution of matter into life , but does not explain the reason behind it , while he finds life to be already present in matter , because all of existence is a manifestation of Brahman . He argues that nature ( which he interpreted as divine ) has evolved life out of matter and then mind out of life . All of existence , he argues , is attempting to manifest to the level of the supermind - that evolution had a purpose . He stated that he found the task of understanding the nature of reality arduous and difficult to justify by immediate tangible results .
= = Legacy = =
Aurobindo was an Indian nationalist but is best known for his philosophy on human evolution and Integral Yoga .
= = = Influence = = =
His influence has been wide @-@ ranging . In India , S. K. Maitra , Anilbaran Roy and D. P. Chattopadhyaya commented on Aurobindo 's work . Writers on esotericism and traditional wisdom , such as Mircea Eliade , Paul Brunton , and Rene Guenon , all saw him as an authentic representative of the Indian spiritual tradition .
Haridas Chaudhuri and Frederic Spiegelberg were among those who were inspired by Aurobindo , who worked on the newly formed American Academy of Asian Studies in San Francisco . Soon after , Chaudhuri and his wife Bina established the Cultural Integration Fellowship , from which later emerged the California Institute of Integral Studies .
Karlheinz Stockhausen was heavily inspired by Satprem 's writings about Aurobindo during a week in May 1968 , a time at which the composer was undergoing a personal crisis and had found Aurobindo 's philosophies were relevant to his feelings . After this experience , Stockhausen 's music took a completely different turn , focusing on mysticism , that was to continue until the end of his career .
William Irwin Thompson traveled to Auroville in 1972 , where he met " The Mother " . Thompson has called Aurobindo 's teaching on spirituality a " radical anarchism " and a " post @-@ religious approach " and regards their work as having " ... reached back into the Goddess culture of prehistory , and , in Marshall McLuhan ’ s terms , ' culturally retrieved ' the archetypes of the shaman and la sage femme ... " Thompson also writes that he experienced Shakti , or psychic power coming from The Mother on the night of her death in 1973 .
Aurobindo 's ideas about the further evolution of human capabilities influenced the thinking of Michael Murphy – and indirectly , the human potential movement , through Murphy 's writings .
The American philosopher Ken Wilber has called Aurobindo " India 's greatest modern philosopher sage " and has integrated some of his ideas into his philosophical vision . Wilber 's interpretation of Aurobindo has been criticised by Rod Hemsell . New Age writer Andrew Harvey also looks to Aurobindo as a major inspiration .
= = = Followers = = =
The following authors , disciples and organisations trace their intellectual heritage back to , or have in some measure been influenced by , Aurobindo and The Mother .
Margaret Woodrow Wilson ( Nistha ) ( 1886 @-@ 1944 ) , daughter of US President Woodrow Wilson , she came to the ashram in 1940 and stayed there until her death .
Nolini Kanta Gupta ( 1889 – 1983 ) was one of Aurobindo 's senior disciples , and wrote extensively on philosophy , mysticism , and spiritual evolution based on the teaching of Aurobindo and " The Mother " .
Pavitra ( 1894 – 1969 ) was one of their early disciples . Born as Philippe Barbier Saint @-@ Hilaire in Paris . Pavitra left some very interesting memoirs of his conversations with them in 1925 and 1926 , which were published as Conversations avec Pavitra .
Indra Sen ( 1903 – 1994 ) was another disciple of Aurobindo who , although little @-@ known in the West , was the first to articulate integral psychology and integral philosophy , in the 1940s and 1950s . A compilation of his papers came out under the title , Integral Psychology in 1986 .
Nirodbaran ( 1903 – 2006 ) . A doctor who obtained his medical degree from Edinburgh , his long and voluminous correspondence with Aurobindo elaborate on many aspects of Integral Yoga and fastidious record of conversations bring out Aurobindo 's thought on numerous subjects .
M. P. Pandit ( 1918 – 1993 ) . Secretary to " The Mother " and the ashram , his copious writings and lectures cover Yoga , the Vedas , Tantra , Aubindo 's epic " Savitri " and others .
Chinmoy ( 1931 – 2007 ) joined the ashram in 1944 . Later , he wrote the play about Aurobindo 's life – Sri Aurobindo : Descent of the Blue – and a book , Infinite : Sri Aurobindo . An author , composer , artist and athlete , he was perhaps best known for holding public events on the theme of inner peace and world harmony ( such as concerts , meditations , and races ) .
Satprem ( 1923 – 2007 ) was a French author and an important disciple of " The Mother " who published Mother 's Agenda ( 1982 ) , Sri Aurobindo or the Adventure of Consciousness ( 2000 ) , On the Way to Supermanhood ( 2002 ) and more .
= = = Critics = = =
N. R. Malkani finds Aurobindo 's theory of creation to be false , as the theory talks about experiences and visions which are beyond normal human experiences . He says the theory is an intellectual response to a difficult problem and that Aurobindo uses the trait of unpredictability in theorising and discussing things not based upon truth of existence . Malkani says that awareness is already a reality and suggests there would be no need to examine the creative activity subjected to awareness .
Wilber 's interpretation of Aurobindo 's philosophy rejects the notion of dividing reality as a different level of matter , life , mind , overmind , supermind proposed by Aurobindo in The Life Divine , and terms them as higher- or lower @-@ nested holons and states that there is only a fourfold reality ( a system of reality created by himself ) .
Adi Da finds that Aurobindo 's contributions were merely literary and cultural and had extended his political motivation into spirituality and human evolution
Rajneesh ( Osho ) says that Aurobindo was a great scholar but was never realised ; that his personal ego had made him indirectly claim that he went beyond Buddha ; and that he is said to have believed himself to be enlightened due to increasing number of followers .
= = Literary works = =
= Dynamic Science Fiction =
Dynamic Science Fiction was a pulp magazine which published six issues from December 1952 to January 1954 . It was a companion to Future Science Fiction , and like that magazine was edited by Robert W. Lowndes and published by Louis Silberkleit . It published stories by some well @-@ known authors , including " The Duplicated Man " by Lowndes and James Blish , and " The Possessed " by Arthur C. Clarke . It was launched at the end of the pulp era , and when Silberkleit decided to convert Future to a digest format in 1954 , he decided not to do the same with Dynamic , simply cancelling the magazine .
= = Publishing history and contents = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was booming . Between early 1939 and mid @-@ 1940 publisher Louis Silberkleit launched three sf pulp magazines : Science Fiction , Future Fiction , and Science Fiction Quarterly . All three had ceased publication by the end of World War II , killed by a combination of falling sales and wartime paper shortages . In 1950 and 1951 Silberkleit revived Future Fiction , and Science Fiction Quarterly , and the following year he launched Dynamic Science Fiction , with the first issue dated November 1952 . All three of the magazines were edited by Robert W. Lowndes , who had also edited most of the earlier issues for Silberkleit . In mid @-@ 1953 Silberkleit cut rates and slowed down payment to contributors as a result of falling circulation . By this time Silberkleit was experimenting with the digest format for Science Fiction Stories , and he soon cancelled Dynamic Science Fiction , leaving only Science Fiction Quarterly in pulp format .
Silberkleit initially paid reasonably good rates , and Lowndes was able to obtain some good quality material . Some of the better @-@ known stories include Arthur C. Clarke 's " The Possessed " ( March 1953 ) ; Lester del Rey 's " I Am Tomorrow " ( December 1952 ) , and James Blish and Lowndes ' novel The Duplicated Man ( August 1953 , with Lowndes ' name concealed by a pseudonym , " Michael Sherman " ) . Lowndes also published some good quality nonfiction , including two long critical essays by James E. Gunn , " The Philosophy of Science Fiction " ( serialized in the March and June 1953 issues ) , and " The Plot Forms of Science Fiction " ( serialized in the October 1953 and January 1954 issues ) . These four articles formed Gunn 's Master of Arts thesis ; Gunn subsequently became a prominent sf critic .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Robert W. Lowndes was the editor of all six issues of Dynamic Science Fiction , which remained in pulp format throughout its run . It was priced at 25 cents throughout , and was 128 pages for the first four issues , and 96 pages for the last two .
Three issues were reprinted in the U.K. by Thorpe & Porter , of Leicester . These were dated January , June and November 1954 , and were pulp format . They were priced at 1 / - and were 96 pages . They correspond to the U.S. issues from June 1953 , December 1952 , and January 1954 respectively .
There are no anthologies of stories drawn solely from Dynamic Science Fiction , but in the 1960s Ivan Howard edited several anthologies for Silberkleit 's publishing imprint , Belmont Books , with contents drawn solely from Silberkleit 's magazines . These included :
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1963 ) . Way Out . New York : Belmont Books . Six of the seven stories are from Dynamic Science Fiction , mostly from the first issue .
Howard , Ivan , ed . ( 1963 ) . Novelets of Science Fiction . New York : Belmont Books . Four of the eight stories are from Dynamic Science Fiction .
= Power Hungry ( Fringe ) =
" Power Hungry " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode was written by playwright Julia Cho and consulting producer Jason Cahill , and was directed by Christopher Misiano . The episode focuses on Fringe Division 's efforts in finding a man with the uncontrolled ability to affect electrical energy , thanks to the work of a wanted rogue scientist . Meanwhile , Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) sees visions of her deceased lover , John Scott ( Mark Valley ) .
The episode 's premise began with the idea of a computer virus being able to spread to humans , which then evolved into the story of a man who comes into his unique abilities . Series consultant Glen Whitman noted the premise was based on the " very very weak magnetic field " of electrical energy surrounding humans that an EEG detects , and the writers simply amplified this . The special effects crew undertook much preparation to simulate a chase sequence involving an exploding transformer , leading guest actor Ebon Moss @-@ Bachrach to note how scary the effect was to film .
It first aired in the United States on October 14 , 2008 on the Fox network , and was seen by an estimated 9 @.@ 157 million American viewers , the network 's second highest rated show for the week . Critical reactions of the episode ranged from mixed to positive , as many believed the series was finally finding its footing . Others however critiqued the episode for seeming too ordinary for a science fiction series .
= = Plot = =
Joseph Meegar ( Ebon Moss @-@ Bachrach ) , a shy delivery boy who lives with his mother ( Marylouise Burke ) , arrives late for work and delivers a package to an office building where he comes across Bethany ( Diane Davis ) , a receptionist who he is infatuated with . Afterwards in an elevator , Bethany notices Meegar has pictures of her on his cell phone . Meegar 's angst then apparently causes the elevator to fall to the underground parking lot levels , killing all but Meegar , who walks away unhurt but startled as all the car alarms go off around him .
Olivia reveals to Charlie Francis ( Kirk Acevedo ) about her encounter with deceased lover John Scott in the previous episode . She , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) and Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) later arrive at the scene , where they determine that the deceased have been electrocuted before the impact , and that the elevator did not fall , but drove down . Furthermore Walter detects electromagnetic energy in the area . Meegar meanwhile , inadvertently causes a packaging machine to malfunction , severely injuring his boss after Meegar is fired . He later reveals to his mother that some time ago he answered a magazine advertisement promising to " unlock [ his ] hidden potential " , and although has no knowledge of what has been done to him , believes that what he has done was a result of being experimented on . A further panicked Meegar then causes his mother 's pacemaker to fail , and she dies .
The team becomes aware that a human has the uncontrolled ability to affect electrical energy , made this way by Jacob Fischer ( Max Baker ) . Fischer is a rogue scientist wanted by Interpol , who experimented on humans by luring his victims through bogus advertisements . Olivia continues to encounter John Scott , who promises her that he does love her , and will prove it . Through him , Olivia realizes that someone survived the elevator impact . Now aware of Meegar 's identity , they attempt to track him . Meegar however , is captured by Fischer who wishes to perform further tests on him . Walter finds Meegar 's Walkman and uses its cassette tape to find a unique electromagnetic signature , then has some homing pigeons guide Olivia , Peter and Charlie to his location . Alerted by the FBI 's arrival , Fischer attempts to leave with Meegar , who escapes . After Fischer is apprehended , Meegar attempts to flee from Olivia , only to be stopped by Peter .
After Meegar is sent to a hospital to be examined upon , Walter realizes Olivia is seeing Scott , and reveals she is not hallucinating ; he theorizes that when both minds were linked during Scott 's coma in " Pilot " , a part of Scott 's consciousness has imbedded itself into hers . Later , while driving home , she spots Scott again , who leads her to a basement where Scott has been running his own Pattern @-@ related investigations . Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) hands Olivia Scott 's personal effects . Among them she finds an engagement ring , proving Scott 's claim to have loved her .
= = Production = =
" Power Hungry " was written by consulting producer Jason Cahill and playwright Julia Cho , each of which would go on to write other first season episodes . Christopher Misiano directed the installment . According to Fringe co @-@ creator Roberto Orci , series writers often approached episodes ' fringe cases by coming up with an idea and then asking science consultants to " justify it scientifically . " For " Power Hungry " , Cho and others brainstormed the concept of a computer virus being able to spread to humans . She explained , " And through kneading that idea over and over again , we came up with the idea of a character , Joseph , who would start waking up to this power of his to be able to actually control electronic- or computer @-@ driven devices . " New Media consultant and scientist Glen Whitman , who later co @-@ wrote some Fringe episodes , noted that the science depicted in the episode was not totally impossible . " It is true that human beings as a result of the electrical activity in our brains , we do all have a very very weak magnetic field around our heads , " he said . " And that 's in part what is sensed by an EEG . So the notion was , ' how can you amplify that ' " ?
The chase scene involving Joseph and Olivia required much preparation , as the crew had to simulate an exploding transformer . Special effects coordinator Conrad Brink used a " mechanical trip " to support an electrical cable , which he then strung to the other side of the adjacent road using a pole . The crew filled the fuse box with " sparking devices " , meant to give the appearance of an exploding transformer and power lines . Demonstrating this , Brink noted , " What happens is the panel cover will blow off , sparks will come out , the cable will go up , sparking down to the ground . " Misiano said of the sequence , " This young man runs by an electrical box and it blows up . It really blew ! " The director added that guest actor Ebon Moss @-@ Bachrach later told him , " that was actually really scary " to film . After he filmed his character hitting Joseph with a crow bar , actor Joshua Jackson joked , " Finally I 'm going to get a little respect on this set . "
Mark Valley returns as John Scott . The actor stated that despite the character 's death in the pilot ; " I 'm going to be showing up in the first season . And , for a guy who died in the pilot , I consider myself pretty fortunate . " Actors who guest star in the episode include Ebon Moss @-@ Bachrach as Joseph Meegar , Max Baker as Jacob Fischer , and Marylouise Burke as Flora Meegar . The first season DVD contains a deleted scene of Olivia and Peter picking up the homing pigeons from a friend of his named Tony . Tony quietly mentions to Peter that his sister could use Peter 's help , but when asked , Peter refuses to tell Olivia more of the story .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Power Hungry " first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on October 14 , 2008 . It was watched by 9 @.@ 157 million viewers , Fox 's second highest rated show for the week . It also earned a 4 @.@ 2 / 10 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . With time shifted ratings taken into account , viewership rose to 11 @.@ 05 million seven days after original broadcast .
= = = Reviews = = =
Critical reactions of the episode ranged from mixed to positive . Travis Fickett of IGN rated the episode 6 @.@ 8 / 10 , stating that although it was " perfectly serviceable , professionally produced television , " it was " much like the last week with a little bit of been @-@ there @-@ done @-@ that conspiracy stuff thrown on top of it , " and that the plot was " almost boilerplate for this genre . " By this point in the series , the reviewer believed that " the thing about Fringe that is holding it back is that you 're always ahead of it . The show needs to change things up . " Bryant L. Griffin of Airlock Alpha , opined ; " Though not the show 's best hour to date , ' Power Hungry ' is still a solid entry . Good directing , writing , and outstanding production values are maintained as the series ' norm . " In addition Griffin enjoyed Fischer 's " casual surrender " , as " in the past , those associated with ' the pattern ' exhibited a fevered desire to avoid capture , going as far as committing suicide . What 's this guy 's deal ? He obviously has a plan . " However the reviewer was skeptical as to why Astrid was comfortable working with Walter again , considering he subdued her in the previous episode .
Los Angeles Times reviewer Patrick Kevin Day stated that at this point in the series , he " initially fretted that Fringe would never grow beyond a run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill " X @-@ Files " knock @-@ off , " but now saw the creators ' intentions . Sarah Stegall of SFScope called the episode an homage to X @-@ Files episode " D.P.O. " , whose featured character has a similar premise to Meegar . Stegall admitted that " this show is growing on me , " with the same atmosphere as The X @-@ Files " coupled with a slightly better grounding in actual science . " Erin Dougherty of Cinema Blend reacted positively towards the episode , commending it as it " bounced back so quickly from that lame silver cylinder episode or they would 've lost me forever . " Dougherty also felt that the three protagonists , Olivia , Walter and Peter , " are becoming much more believable characters . " Noel Murray of the A.V. Club rated the episode a B − , opining that the cold open was the series ' best since the pilot , but added that " despite the added [ Freak of the Week ] sympathy , ' Power Hungry ' promptly peters out , because the level of oddity required for Walter and the Pattern Team to track the Freak down isn 't especially high . " Murray added that the return of Scott and his scenes with Olivia " serves to string along the home viewer , inviting us to question whether Olivia 's playing for the right team in this whole Pattern game . " Television Without Pity meanwhile , graded the episode with an A − .
= Ace Attorney Investigations 2 =
Gyakuten Kenji 2 ( Japanese : 逆転検事2 , " Turnabout Prosecutor 2 " ) , unofficially referred to as Ace Attorney Investigations 2 , is an adventure video game developed by Capcom for the handheld video game console Nintendo DS . It was released on February 3 , 2011 in Japan ; Capcom does not plan to release the game outside Japan , but an English fan translation has been released . The game is the sixth entry in the Ace Attorney series , and a sequel to Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth ( 2009 ) .
The game follows prosecutor Miles Edgeworth , detective Dick Gumshoe and the teenage thief Kay Faraday , who investigate five cases ; they face off against judge Hakari Mikagami , a rival character who is part of a " prosecutor purge " that removes weaker prosecutors from duty . The gameplay is divided into two types of phases : investigations , where the player searches the crime scene for evidence and talks to witnesses , and rebuttals , where they aim to find contradictions in witnesses ' testimonies using the evidence found during the investigations .
The development team , which included director Takeshi Yamazaki , producer Motohide Eshiro and character designer Tatsuro Iwamoto , created the game for the series ' tenth anniversary , and finalized its direction during a five @-@ day stay in the Capcom Manor in 2010 . The game took shorter than usual to create , as the developers had the original Ace Attorney Investigations to use as a base , leading to an increased focus on the game 's story . Reviewers were positive to the game , citing its story and the new " logic chess " gameplay mechanic as highlights . Several Western journalists commented on the lack of a localization and included it on lists of games they wanted to see localized .
= = Gameplay = =
Ace Attorney Investigations 2 is an adventure game in which players control prosecutor Miles Edgeworth , who investigates five cases ; in one of the cases , the player also controls Edgeworth 's father Gregory . The gameplay is mostly the same as in the previous game , Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth , and is divided into two types of phases : investigations and rebuttals .
During the investigations , the player controls Edgeworth directly ; they search the crime scene for evidence , and talk to witnesses to learn new information . As the player investigates , observed information is saved as Edgeworth 's thoughts ; by combining these , the player can obtain further information that would otherwise remain hidden . At some points , the player can use a device called " Little Thief " to generate hologram reproductions of the crime scene using known information about it ; the player can walk around in the recreations and point out inconsistencies with the evidence , and update the recreation accordingly . Sometimes the player is able to switch back and forth between recreations of the crime scene at two different times .
A new gameplay mechanic , " logic chess " , is used during investigations when a character refuses to testify . The player interrogates them , which is visualized as a game of chess , with the player aiming to destroy the other character 's chess pieces . To do this , they need to build up their advantage in the discussion by alternating between speaking and listening ; when the player believes they have the advantage , they can choose to go on the offensive . The logic chess sections are timed , with the player having to make decisions before the timer bar has decreased all the way . The player takes damage if they make wrong choices , and the logic chess opponents get more difficult throughout the game .
After obtaining sufficient information and evidence from the investigation , the player confronts other characters and reads through their testimonies of the events in the case . The player can choose to press the character for more information on their statements , aiming to discover contradictions between the testimony and the evidence ; if they find one , they can choose to present collected evidence from the investigations to point out the contradiction .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Characters and setting = = =
Ace Attorney Investigations 2 takes place eight days after Ace Attorney Investigations , and features the same three main characters : prosecutor Miles Edgeworth ; detective Dick Gumshoe ; and Kay Faraday , a teenage girl who is also an avid thief . A new judge , Hakari Mikagami , serves as Edgeworth 's rival ; she is part of a " prosecutor purge " , following the actions of weaker prosecutors to justify removing them from duty .
= = = Plot = = =
The first episode opens with an assassination attempt on president Teikun Ō of Zheng Fa ; he survives , but his head bodyguard , Gai Tojiro , dies . It is revealed that Tojiro 's second @-@ in @-@ command Manosuke Naitō had killed Tojiro to replace him as head bodyguard , and that the assassination attempt was staged by the president to reverse his declining popularity . In the second episode , Naitō is found dead in prison . Sōta Sarushiro , a friend of Naitō , is suspected of the murder , but Edgeworth 's attempt to investigate is stymied when judge Mikagami assigns prosecutor Yumihiko Ichiyanagi to the case in Edgeworth 's place . To investigate , Edgeworth teams up with Tateyuki Shigaraki , a defense attorney and former protégé of Edgeworth 's father Gregory . They suspect several inmates , including the assassin Ryōken Hōinbō , but it turns out that prison warden Marī Miwa killed Naitō , believing that Hōinbō had sent him to kill her . Sarushiro is freed , but Mikagami warns Edgeworth that he could lose his prosecutor 's badge if he keeps investigating cases he is not assigned to .
The third episode takes up events eighteen years prior to the present , where Gregory and Shigaraki are called to defend Issei Tenkai from the charge of murdering fellow chef Isaku Hyōdō . Because the body has disappeared , Gregory and prosecutor Manfred von Karma cannot make much progress , but von Karma coerces Tenkai into falsely confessing to being an accomplice . In the present , the chef Yutaka Kazami is almost killed in an art gallery run by Tenkai 's daughter Tsukasa Oyashiki . Yumihiko is assigned to prosecute under Mikagami 's direction , but Edgeworth still investigates . He concludes that Oyashiki killed Hyōdō and attempted to kill Kazami ; Oyashiki admits to the latter crime , but accuses Kazami of being Hyōdō 's murderer . Kazami admits to murdering Hyōdō , who he had conspired with to cheat in a cooking contest , but had then been betrayed by . Kazami and Oyashiki are jailed , and Tenkai is freed .
In the fourth episode , an amnesic Kay is accused of murdering defense attorney Tsubasa Kagome . Edgeworth is brought up before the Prosecutorial Investigation Committee , which threatens to take his badge if he becomes involved with Kay 's case ; Edgeworth voluntarily gives up his badge and continues to investigate as an aide to prosecutor Franziska von Karma . He discovers that someone has been auctioning off evidence from legal cases , and finds a recording indicating that Kagome 's murderer had a burn mark on their chin . When Edgeworth is called to defend himself against the committee , Mikagami reveals Bansai Ichiyanagi , the head of the investigation committee and Yumihiko 's father , as the auctioneer and the one responsible for legal corruption in his former position as chief prosecutor . Edgeworth tricks him into revealing his burn mark , identifying him as Kagome 's murderer . Kay then remembers that someone had attacked her .
In the fifth episode , president Teikun Ō is found dead , and Edgeworth gets involved with Miwa 's trial : Yumihiko was due to prosecute , but did not show up , and Mikagami admits that Bansai has abducted her son Shimon to coerce her into acquitting Miwa . Edgeworth goes to rescue Shimon , but finds that Bansai 's henchmen mistakenly had abducted Yumihiko instead . Yumihiko helps recover incriminating evidence that his father attempted to destroy . Miwa is convicted , and it is revealed that Teikun Ō has been dead for twelve years : the person previously thought to be the president was a body double , who had hired Hōinbō to kill the president to take his place , and was helped by Miwa and Bansai to cover up the crime . Edgeworth learns that the person who kidnapped Shimon and assaulted Kay was Sarushiro . It is revealed that Sarushiro is Kazami 's long lost son ; Sarushiro was abducted by Hyōdō to prevent Kazami from winning the cooking contest . Hyōdō forced his own son , Naito , to dispose of Sarushiro , hence why Sarushiro had Naito killed . Hōinbō had found Sarushiro and brought him to an orphanage ; Sarushiro later saw Hōinbō kill Teikun Ō on behalf of the body double , Miwa and Bansai . They betrayed Hōinbō , but Sarushiro
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them to become part of the project . Alexa Ray Corriea at Polygon described this approach as uncommon , with most fan translation projects letting anyone help if they want , but said that it made the project more professional . A patch translating the game 's first two episodes was released in 2013 , and a complete patch for the game was released in 2014 . A final patch was later released in 2015 .
= = Reception = =
On its initial release week , Ace Attorney Investigations 2 was the top @-@ selling game in Japan across all platforms , selling more than 132 @,@ 000 units . This was lower than the first Ace Attorney Investigations , which sold 172 @,@ 000 copies during its opening week . The Japanese sales tracker Media Create theorized that this was due to Ace Attorney Investigations 2 having less TV commercials than the first game , and a lower level of consumer recognition according to weekly recognition surveys . They also noted that marketing had been targeting women more than men , leading to an increased interest among women , but decreased interest both among men and overall . During the game 's second week , it dropped to fourth place in the Japanese game sales charts , selling an additional 30 @,@ 910 copies .
Reviewers at Famitsu liked the game 's story , saying that the " turnabouts " that come from tense situations are exciting . They also liked the sense of urgency brought about with the logic chess , and called the game 's use of sound effects excellent . AsbelGrants at Jeuxvideo.com called Ace Attorney Investigations 2 the best entry in the series , saying that the plot and characters were the game 's highlights , keeping the player in suspense until the end . They found the first episode to be surprisingly strong , as it was a " long and exciting case " , while other Ace Attorney games ' first episodes were more of tutorials . They noted how the gameplay was mostly the same as in Ace Attorney Investigations , but did not consider this a problem as they thought it had the best type of investigations in the series , and they enjoyed the implementation of the logic chess feature . They enjoyed the music , calling it memorable .
In 2011 , Game Informer ranked the game as 8th on a list of the best video games that had not been released in North America ; in 2015 , they included it on a list of twelve video games they wanted to see localized , saying that it could possibly be released via the Nintendo eShop . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked it as 7th on a list of the top seven games that " absolutely need to be localized for the west " . Rebecca Rudeen at NF Magazine called the lack of a localization unfortunate , saying that the game was a crucial part of Edgeworth 's story . Tim Sheehy at Destructoid called the game promising , based on a demo available at Tokyo Game Show , saying that the demo left him wanting more . He wished that the voice acting from the game 's trailer had been present within the game itself , but also said that the lack of voice acting would not keep him from wanting to play the game .
= Tetsuji Takechi =
Tetsuji Takechi ( 武智 鉄二 , Takechi Tetsuji , 10 December 1912 – 26 July 1988 ) was a Japanese theatrical and film director , critic , and author . First coming to prominence for his theatrical criticism , in the 1940s and 1950s he produced influential and popular experimental kabuki plays . Beginning in the mid @-@ 1950s , he continued his innovative theatrical work in noh , kyōgen and modern theater . In late 1956 and early 1957 he hosted a popular TV program , The Tetsuji Takechi Hour , which featured his reinterpretations of Japanese stage classics .
In the 1960s , Takechi entered the film industry by producing controversial soft @-@ core theatrical pornography . His 1964 film Daydream was the first big @-@ budget , mainstream pink film released in Japan . After the release of his 1965 film Black Snow , the government arrested him on indecency charges . The trial became a public battle over censorship between Japan 's intellectuals and the government . Takechi won the lawsuit , enabling the wave of softcore pink films which dominated Japan 's domestic cinema during the 1960s and 1970s . In the later 1960s , Takechi produced three more pink films .
Takechi did not work in film during most of the 1970s . In the 1980s , he remade Daydream twice , starring actress Kyōko Aizome in both films . The first Daydream remake ( 1981 ) is considered the first theatrical hardcore pornographic film in Japan . Though Takechi is largely unknown in Japan today , he was influential in both the cinema and the theater during his lifetime , and his innovations in kabuki were felt for decades . He also helped shape the future of the pink film in Japan through his battles against governmental censorship , earning him the titles , " The Father of Pink " and " The Father of Japanese Porn . "
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Tetsuji Takechi was born Tetsuji Kawaguchi in Osaka on 10 December 1912 to a family headed by a wealthy industrialist . He studied economics at Kyoto National University and graduated in 1936 . Takechi first became known for his criticism and theoretical writings on the theater . In 1939 he began publishing a journal , Stage Review in which he printed his writings on the theater . In the early 1940s , he began publishing collections of these writings in book form . When World War II came to an end , Takechi used his inheritance from his father to establish a theatrical troupe . Under his direction , the Takechi Kabuki , as the group was known , put Takechi 's theatrical ideas into practise by giving innovative and popular performances of kabuki classics in Osaka from 1945 to 1955 .
= = = Takechi Kabuki = = =
The immediate post @-@ World War II era was a difficult time for kabuki . Besides the devastation caused to major Japanese cities as a result of the war , the popular trend was to reject the styles and thoughts of the past , kabuki among them . Also , during the early years of the Allied Occupation of Japan , the occupying authorities banned kabuki as feudalistic and detrimental to the public morals , though by 1947 this ban was lifted . Other traditional forms of theater , such as noh and bunraku , seen as less flamboyant and violent than kabuki , received less attention from Occupation censors . Kabuki scholars credit Takechi 's innovative productions of the kabuki classics with bringing about a rebirth of interest in the kabuki in the Kansai region after this low point in kabuki history . Takechi revitalized kabuki by reaching out to the other theatrical forms — noh , kyōgen , and the modern theater and dance — for new ideas and collaboration . He broke through long @-@ established barriers which existed between these theatrical forms , and even between kabuki schools , to create an energetic new form of kabuki . Despite his maverick nature , Takechi gave great attention to the classic kabuki texts , and emphasized to his actors the need to inhabit the roles they played . His approach to a new interpretation of the old texts was to " psychologize " them . By bringing out the psychology already present in the classic texts , Takechi felt that actors could interpret their roles with vitality and energy which he felt was lacking in contemporary performances . Of the many popular young stars of the kabuki who performed under Takechi , Nakamura Ganjiro III ( born 1931 ) was the leading figure . At first known as Nakamura Senjaku , this period in Osaka kabuki became known as the " Age of Senjaku " in his honor .
= = = Theater work after Takechi Kabuki = = =
Takechi 's innovations in kabuki brought him to the attention of the Shigeyama family , a longtime major force in comic kyōgen plays . With the Shigeyamas , Takechi created and directed the kyōgen , Susugigawa ( The Washing River ) , in 1953 . Based on a medieval French farce , this play became the first new kyōgen to enter the traditional repertoire in a century . Takechi saw in kyōgen a more direct link to a native Japanese folk theatrical tradition , and through the kyōgen wanted to link these folk traditions with the modern theater . As a Western analogy of his intentions , Takechi pointed to the works of Ibsen and Tennessee Williams which had their roots in the classical theater of Racine , Molière and Shakespeare .
In 1954 , Takechi followed Susugigawa with a noh @-@ kyōgen version of Junji Kinoshita 's Yūzuru . Yūzuru is one of the most successful Japanese post @-@ World War II plays , having received over a thousand performances at schools and theaters both within Japan and internationally since its debut in 1949 . Composer Ikuma Dan wrote an opera version of the play in 1952 . Since its premiere , Dan 's opera has been performed more than 550 times , making it possibly the most popular opera written in Japanese . Dan was recruited to write the original music for Takechi 's production of the play . Dan combined the noh @-@ style solo vocal lines with a Western orchestra and chorus . On the same program as Yūzuru was another Takechi @-@ directed kyōgen , Higashi wa Higashi ( East is East ) , a parody of the kyōgen style . Among the innovations Takechi made in this play was the inclusion of a former Takarazuka actress in the usually all @-@ male kyōgen cast . In the ultra @-@ conservative noh and kyōgen communities , simply appearing in a rival school 's production could result in an actor 's excommunication from the profession . Because of the public attention drawn through Takechi 's relentless publicity work and communication with the media , punitive actions against actors who worked with Takechi were avoided .
Besides his work as a theatrical theorist and director , Takechi occasionally appeared in acting roles on the stage and screen . In his series of essays , Chronicles of My Life in the 20th Century , American author and translator of Japanese literature , Donald Keene mentions his own study of kyōgen at this time . In 1956 , Keene appeared in a performance of the kyōgen play Chidori with Takechi in the role of the sake shop owner , before an audience including such prominent authors as Tanizaki , Yasunari Kawabata and Yukio Mishima .
Writing that " every form of art " should be popular with the public , Takechi next sought to rejuvenate noh in a similar manner with which he had kabuki and kyōgen . He worked with the avant @-@ garde group Jikken Kōbō ( Experimental Workshop ) , which had been founded by composers Tōru Takemitsu , Jōji Yuasa and other artists in 1951 . One of Takechi 's more notable productions with the group was a 1955 noh version of Schoenberg 's Pierrot Lunaire ( 1912 ) .
In October 1955 he directed Mishima 's modern noh play , The Damask Drum in a theater @-@ in @-@ the @-@ round production at Osaka 's Sankei Hall . Mishima , dubious of Takechi 's experimental approach to classical theater , later commented that he felt like a father allowing a disreputable plastic surgeon to operate on his child . Also at Sankei Hall , Takechi directed Mishima 's Sotoba Komachi , set as an opera by composer Mareo Ishiketa , in 1956 .
The controversy created by Takechi 's experiments with noh made international headlines in 1956 . The International News Service reported that Takechi had introduced elements of burlesque and striptease into the slow , stylised artform . Confirming that Takechi 's methods did make the artform popular , his " Burlesque Noh " productions at Tokyo 's Nichigeki Music Hall played to a consistently full house . Again , however , the leaders of the conservative Noh Society of Tokyo threatened any performer who participated in Takechi 's productions with excommunication .
From 4 December 1956 to 26 February 1957 , Takechi served as the host of the Nippon Television program , The Tetsuji Takechi Hour . The show featured the Takechi Kabuki 's interpretations of such Japanese stage classics as Chūshingura , and was also known for pushing the limits of the coverage of sexual subjects on television for its time . Takechi directed two more kabuki performances for the Nissei Theater in Tokyo , not long after it was opened in 1963 . Though these would be his last kabuki productions , Takechi 's influence on the art form continued to be felt for decades after his departure for the cinema .
= = = Entrance into the cinema = = =
In the early 1960s , Takechi turned from the stage to the cinema . Though the mainstream film industry considered Takechi an amateur and an outsider , he would continue to produce ground @-@ breaking films sporadically for the rest of his life . Some of the innovations and trends in Japanese erotic cinema which Takechi 's films pioneered include big @-@ budgets and releases , literary and artistic aspirations , fogging , political themes , and theatrical hardcore .
Takechi ran afoul of the government throughout his film career . The Weissers , in their Japanese Cinema Encyclopedia : The Sex Films , even characterize Takechi 's entire film career as " a personal war with Eirin " ( the Japanese film @-@ rating board ) . Turning from the Edo period art form of kabuki to another popular Edo period form of expression , pornography , Takechi decided to enter the film industry through the new genre of low @-@ budget , independent softcore sex @-@ films that were becoming popular in Japan . These films were called eroductions at this time , but are now more commonly referred to as pink films .
Takechi 's first film was A Night In Japan : Woman , Woman , Woman Story ( Nihon no yoru : Onna onna onna monogatari , 1963 ) , a sex @-@ documentary in the mondo style popular at the time . The film focused on the women of Japan 's night life and included scenes of a nude noh performance , strippers , and geisha . Produced independently , Shochiku studios distributed the film , allowing it an international audience . It was released in West Germany on 6 March 1964 as Frauen unter nackter Sonne ( alle Frauen Japans ) . In the U.S. , it opened in Los Angeles under the title Women ... Oh , Women ! on 18 September 1964 . Later that year , Takechi appeared in an acting role in director Kaneto Shindō 's Mother ( 1963 ) .
= = = Daydream ( 1964 ) = = =
The first Japanese mainstream film with nudity was Seijun Suzuki 's Gate of Flesh , ( 1964 ) , and Takechi made the first big @-@ budget , mainstream pink film , Daydream ( 白日夢 ) , the same year . Like Women ... Oh , Women ! , Daydream was produced independently but Shochiku studios distributed the film . This time , the studio gave Takechi 's film a major publicity campaign . Based on a 1926 short story by Jun 'ichirō Tanizaki , the film was a black comedy involving a series of sex scenes imagined by an artist under anesthesia in a dentist 's office . After being drugged , the artist watches helplessly from the other side of a window as the dentist tortures and performs a series of sexual acts on a female patient .
Though modest in comparison with pink films which would come soon after , Daydream did contain female nudity . The government refused to allow one controversial shot , which gave a brief glimpse of pubic hair . Takechi fought the government 's censorship of this shot , but lost . When the censors obscured the offending hair with a fuzzy white dot , Daydream became the first film in Japanese cinema to undergo " fogging " , a common element in Japanese erotic cinema for decades to come .
Despite the governmental tampering , Daydream became a major success in Japan , and was screened at the Venice Film Festival in September 1964 . The film was released in the U.S. later the same year , and in 1966 Joseph Green , director of the cult film The Brain that Wouldn 't Die ( 1962 ) re @-@ released Daydream in the U.S. with new American footage .
Takechi 's third film , The Dream of the Red Chamber or Crimson Dream ( Kokeimu （ 紅閨夢 ） , 1964 ) , was released less than two months after Daydream . Based on two short stories " Kasanka Mangansui no Yume " and " Yanagiyu no Jiken " by Jun 'ichirō Tanizaki , the film depicts the lurid and violently erotic dreams of a writer , his wife and his sister , after having spent a night out drinking and visiting sex shows . The Dream of the Red Chamber underwent extensive censorship before the government would allow it to be released . About 20 % of the film 's original content was cut by Eirin , rendering the film virtually incoherent , and this footage is now considered lost .
= = = Black Snow ( 1965 ) = = =
Takechi 's Daydream had been considered a national embarrassment by the Japanese government because of its highly publicized release while the world was focused on the country for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics . Takechi 's third film had suffered heavily from the governmental censorship , yet no legal action had been taken . Takechi 's fourth film , the Nikkatsu @-@ produced Black Snow ( 1965 ) , was even more controversial than his previous work . David Desser credits Black Snow with bringing a political theme to the pink film . Politics would be featured in many later films in the pink genre , most notably those of Kōji Wakamatsu .
The story of Black Snow concerns a young man whose mother serves the U.S. military at Yokota Air Base as a prostitute . Impotent unless making love with a loaded gun , the young man shoots an American G.I. , and is then shot down by U.S. soldiers . The film contained multiple scenes of sexual intercourse , and a lengthy scene of a nude woman running outside Yokota Air Base . However , more than the sex and nudity , it was the political nature of the film which attracted governmental action . Released at a time of widespread demonstration against the renewal of the U.S. Security Treaty , Black Snow had a clear anti @-@ American theme . Film critic Tadao Sato says that the film uses sex to make a political statement . " In Black Snow ... the powerless position of Japan vis @-@ a @-@ vis America , and of the Japanese populace in relation to its rulers is represented by the outraged Japanese women and the G.I. rapists . "
Other critics accused the film of racism and ultra @-@ nationalism . Jasper Sharp writes that though Takechi 's films did criticize Japanese society , a theme they share with pink films , Takechi identified the problem as coming from foreign influences , rather than from within . This marks him as a reactionary rather than a revolutionary , as were many pink film directors . Takechi himself claimed to be a minzoku shugisha , or " ethnic nationalist " , throughout his life . Buruma points out that this ideological affiliation contains a strong racial aspect , and notes that the G.I. the main character murders in Black Snow is African American . Buruma comments further , " This , incidentally , has become a standard cliche : whenever G.I.s are shown in Japanese porno films , invariably in the act of outrageously raping Japanese maidens , they are very often blacks to make the outrage seem even worse . "
Though the government had accused earlier films of obscenity , Black Snow became the first film after World War II to be prosecuted by the government on obscenity charges . All copies of the film were confiscated from Nikkatsu and from Takechi 's own home , and Takechi was arrested . The controversy gained international attention with The New York Times reporting that even the two censors who had passed the film were considered for prosecution , and that the government had announced plans to strictly censor the pink film movement . Japan 's intellectual and artistic community came to Takechi 's defense . Film directors Nagisa Oshima and Seijun Suzuki and authors Yukio Mishima and Kōbō Abe testified in Takechi 's defense at the trial . Takechi took advantage of every opportunity to publicly speak out against censorship , and one Eirin official later admitted to being " terrified by the man . " .
Explicitly linking his interests in kabuki and pornography as forms of expression , in the July 1965 issue of the film journal Eiga Geijutsu , Takechi wrote :
By shutting down Black Snow and prosecuting Takechi , Eirin had intended to suppress the new pink film genre , but the trial had the exact opposite outcome . The publicity surrounding the trial brought the pink film genre to the attention of the general public , and helped inspire the wave of pink films which dominated Japan 's domestic cinema for the next two decades .
= = = After Black Snow = = =
During the legal battles of the trial , Takechi filmed a pink film re @-@ telling of The Tale of Genji , which , like Tanizaki 's work , contains eroticism in the original , though not of a sexually @-@ explicit nature . On 17 September 1967 , Takechi won the Black Snow case . He also successfully countersued the government claiming that the accusation of indecency was politically motivated , due to the film 's anti @-@ American and anti @-@ capitalist themes .
Takechi 's next film after the trial was Ukiyo @-@ e Cruel Story ( 1968 ) , starring the current " Queen " of Pink films , Noriko Tatsumi . The Weissers call this film , about a painter of erotic pictures who is persecuted by the government , " Takechi 's personal message to Eirin . " Though still containing significant erotic content , this is one of Takechi 's few films to pass the censor relatively un @-@ edited , perhaps because Eirin saw the obvious anti @-@ governmental censorship message in the film , and did not wish to be provoked into another embarrassing public confrontation with the outspoken director .
Though he had won his court case , Takechi had become known as a risky and dangerous entity in the film world . Newspapers refused to advertise his films , and Takechi spent the next decade concentrating on writing projects . After his friend , the writer Yukio Mishima , committed hara @-@ kiri in 1970 , Takechi wrote The Head Of Yukio Mishima , a best @-@ selling , fictionalized version of the incident . In 1972 , he again appeared in an acting role for director Kaneto Shindō in his Art Theatre Guild film based on a Tanizaki novel , Sanka .
= = = Return to film = = =
In 1981 , the then 68 @-@ year @-@ old Takechi decided to return to film with a series of theatrical hardcore films , beginning with a remake of his 1964 Daydream , also titled Daydream . Noticing actress Kyōko Aizome in one of her nude photo magazine appearances , Takechi chose her to star in the film . Japan 's first theatrically released film featuring hardcore sex , Aizome added to the controversy surrounding the film by admitting to having performed actual sexual intercourse on camera . Though , as Japanese law required , sexual organs and pubic hair were fogged on screen , the Asahi Shimbun called it a breakthrough film , and Japan 's first hardcore pornographic movie . Takechi took a novel , yet traditional approach to the fogging by covering the forbidden areas with floating images of topless female shamisen players . Unlike Takechi 's earlier Dream of the Red Chamber , the full , uncensored version of Daydream 1981 did survive , and circulated underground in Japan . This uncensored version of the film was released on video at one time in the Netherlands .
Takechi 's next film , Courtesan ( Oiran , 1983 ) , like his Daydream films , was based on a Tanizaki novel . Three studios were involved in the production : Fujii Movies , Ogawa Productions , and Takechi Film . The film is set at the end of the 19th century , and tells the story of a Yokohama prostitute who services American sailors . The woman is possessed by the spirit of her dead lover , who , in erotic scenes echoing The Exorcist ( 1973 ) , makes his presence known whenever she is sexually aroused . Because of the large budget involved in the production , the distributing studio submitted Courtesan to Eirin repeatedly , and agreed to every cut the reviewing board recommended . The heavy cutting the film received reduced it from near @-@ hardcore to a very softcore historical drama . Takechi again took advantage of the situation to fight Eirin , and complained publicly about the censorship . When he noticed that the censors had painted over a penis with colors , he ridiculed them by promoting his film with the line , " See the first multicolored penis in Japanese Cinema ! "
After this bout with the censors , Takechi vowed to produce a true , hardcore film for Japanese audiences . The result was Sacred Koya ( Koya Hijiri ) , based on a work by Kyōka Izumi . He refused to allow the film to be censored in any way , either through cutting or fogging . Refusing to release the film in Japan , he did not submit it for Eirin 's approval . Instead , he released it in Guam , where it played primarily to Japanese tourist audiences for several years under the U.S. ' s more liberal pornography laws . Takechi 's last film was another remake of Daydream in 1987 , again starring Kyōko Aizome . Though it was a low @-@ budget , independent production which again underwent censorship in Japan , it became very popular in its uncensored form in France .
Takechi 's come @-@ back films of the 1980s were all in a theatrical hardcore style . Released during the dawn of the AV , or adult video , and the height of Nikkatsu 's softcore Roman porno films , his films fit into neither style . Jasper Sharp writes , " His big @-@ budget pornos came from a different world to that of the pink and Roman Porno films . There was nothing else like them at the time , and consequently they had little influence on domestically @-@ produced sex films . Takechi died of pancreatic cancer the following year , on 26 July 1988 . Without a major studio 's backing or interest from the general pink film community , Takechi 's name and films faded into obscurity in Japan . In 2006 his career was the subject of a full retrospective showing in Tokyo 's Image Forum in 2006 .
= = Legacy = =
Jasper Sharp points out that the Japanese and western views of Takechi 's legacy are quite different . While western sources assess him as a major figure in the early development of the pink film , many current Japanese sources on the subject ignore his work . Sharp notes , however , that during his lifetime , he was covered prominently in Japanese sources . He speculates that his legacy has been largely forgotten in his homeland partly because of his status as an outsider in the Japanese film communities — both mainstream and pink . Since his films were self @-@ produced and distributed by major film companies rather than through the eroduction circuit , they are not technically pink films . Also , his right @-@ wing political background conflicts with the generally revolutionary stance more often associated with the pink film . Since his death in 1988 , the lack of a studio or other publicist , or coverage by writers on the pink film has kept his work out of the public 's eye in Japan . In the west , however , some of Takechi 's films , such as Daydream were shown during their first runs , reviewed by major publications such as Variety , and have been preserved and remained available to genre audiences on home video releases .
During his lifetime , Takechi 's innovations and contributions to Japanese theater in general and to kabuki specifically were influential for decades . His theoretical work , as well as his mentoring of several important stars , helped bring about a rebirth in kabuki after World War II . His contributions to cinema were much more controversial . Considered a dilettante outsider by much of the film industry , and suspected of racism and nationalism by others , his work was nevertheless defended by the younger generation of filmmakers such as Seijun Suzuki and Nagisa Oshima . Though his films are today unknown to most Japanese filmgoers , through his career @-@ long fight against censorship , the taboos which his films helped break , and the creative freedom which he helped enable , he remains an important figure in Japanese cinema .
= = Filmography = =
= = Selected writings = =
= Berge Meere und Giganten =
Berge Meere und Giganten ( Mountains Seas and Giants ) is a 1924 science fiction novel by German author Alfred Döblin . Stylistically and structurally experimental , the novel follows the development of human society into the 27th century and depicts global @-@ scale conflicts between future polities , technologies , and natural forces , culminating in the catastrophic harvesting of Iceland 's volcanic energy in order to melt Greenland 's ice cap . Among critics , Berge Meere und Giganten has the reputation of being a difficult and polarizing novel , and has not received nearly as much attention as Döblin 's following novel , Berlin Alexanderplatz ( 1929 ) .
Inspired by the mundane sight of pebbles rolling in the Baltic Sea surf in the summer of 1921 , Döblin began writing Berge Meere und Giganten that fall , conducting extensive research into various natural and human sciences in the process . Although he had originally conceived of it as a hymn to the city and technology , over the course of writing the novel it evolved into a tribute to the power of nature . He finished the manuscript in the summer of 1923 , and it was published by Fischer Verlag the following year .
= = Plot = =
= = = First Book : The Western Continents = = =
The novel begins by recounting the time that has passed since the First World War : generations have come and gone , and technology continues to advance and spread from Europe and America over the rest of the world . Overpopulation has become a problem , and the leaders of industry have seized state power . Pacified by the improvement in material conditions , the masses of the cities raise no objection . At the same time that it sees radical technological innovations , Europe suffers declining birth rates and experiences waves of mass migration from Africa . In an effort to maintain their rule , the ruling Senates of Europe agree to restrict the public 's access to science and technology . London is the leading power in the west , and " India @-@ Japan @-@ China " is the other world power .
= = = Second Book : The Ural War = = =
After years of state repression and surveillance , the masses have become soft and restless . A spirit of resistance against the machines arises , and the new generation of rulers shifts course . After the end of the twenty @-@ fourth century , access to science and technology is opened up again and nationalism reemerges , alongside a quasi @-@ religious devotion to the machines . Later , researchers led by a scientist named Meki invent synthetic food production , which leads to the abandonment of farms and the countryside , a new wave of urbanization , and the solidification of the Senates ' political control . By the twenty @-@ seventh century , freed from the need to support themselves the masses have again become fat , idle , and restless ; it becomes increasingly difficult to even find enough people to run the synthetic food factories . A group of leaders incite nationalism and war to combat this tendency ; the result is a catastrophic world war between Europe and Asia — the " Ural War " — involving advanced weapons that are able to channel the elements and that turn much of Russia into a wall of fire , and then into a flooded plain . After the war the states of Europe grow increasingly isolated from each other , and " every cityscape fought for its existence . "
= = = Third Book : Marduk = = =
The postwar climate sees a period of austerity and mistrust towards the machines . Returning from the horrors of the war , Marke becomes the Consul of Berlin and instates a reign of isolation and deurbanization . Advanced weapons are destroyed , people are driven out into the countryside to cultivate the land , and the giant energy accumulators are destroyed . Columns made to look like bulls are erected in city squares and at crossroads , and roar twice a day like a dying animal to remind people of the catastrophe of the Ural War . Marduk succeeds Marke as the Consul and continues the period of brutal authoritarian rule .
= = = Fourth Book : The Deceivers = = =
Marduk 's rule begins to be challenged by both his friends and his enemies . Groups of " deceivers " ( " Täuscher " ) wage a protracted guerrilla war against him , seeking a rapprochement with science and technology . The resurgent London senate seeks to bring Marduk 's excesses under control , and he in turn attempts to expand his realm to gain more cultivable land , attacking nearby city @-@ states such as Hamburg and Hannover . Zimbo , from the Congo , becomes a rival of Marduk 's . New elemental weapons are developed over the course of these struggles , which involve scenes of violence and torture . Zimbo 's forces eventually manage to unseat Marduk , who then wages a guerrilla campaign of his own , destroying machines and factories wherever he can . He dies in action , and Zimbo becomes the third Consul of Berlin .
= = = Fifth Book : The Draining of the Cities = = =
As the fifth book begins , the setting shifts briefly to North America . Following the Ural War , the Japanese had led an Asian occupation of western North America . The local populations , inspired by Native American beliefs and mythologies , react by leaving the cities for the wilderness and destroying the food factories and cities , eventually driving out the Asian occupation . In America and then globally people begin leaving cities in favor of the wild . Shamanism and the belief in ghosts reemerge amongst the populace , as does an oral tradition of story @-@ telling . The draining of the cities grows into a settler movement : egalitarian communities that live in nature , characterized by gender equality and sexual liberation . In response to the threat this movement poses to the ruling Senates , political leaders in London hatch a plan to colonize Greenland , thereby channeling both the drive for technological innovation and the drive to settle new land .
= = = Sixth Book : Iceland = = =
To settle Greenland , it is necessary to melt its ice sheet ; to do this , a massive expedition sets out for Iceland to harvest its volcanic energy . Led by Kylin , the expedition begins breaking open Iceland 's volcanoes . Resistance by the local population is met with massacres . Once Iceland has been split open and turned into a lake of magma , the energy is stored in " tourmaline veils " ( " Turmalinschleier " ) . The geography of Iceland is described in rich detail in this section , as is the cataclysmic destruction of the landscape . The scale of destruction proves traumatizing to many of the expedition members , who flee and have to be forcibly recaptured before the expedition can head to Greenland .
= = = Seventh Book : The Melting of Greenland 's Ice = = =
As they sail for Greenland , strange things begin to happen to the ships bearing the tourmaline veils . Marine life and sea birds of all kinds are attracted towards them , and crew stationed aboard them for too long begin acting intoxicated and amorous . The plant and animal life attracted to the ships experiences rapid growth , so that before they reach Greenland the ships look more like mountains or meadows than ships . Strange sea creatures never before seen appear around the ships , and when the expedition is ready to deploy the tourmaline veils , they have to cut through the riot of organic growth that has totally filled the ships . Once the energy of the veils is unleashed on Greenland , it melts the ice quickly but also has unanticipated effects . Prehistoric bones and plant remains that were buried under the ice are reanimated , and fuse together into monstrous forms made up of plant , animal , and mineral parts . Greenland , free of its icy burden , rises up , ripping from north to south in the process and becoming two separate islands . As the chapter ends , the now enormous monsters brought to life by the volcanic energy are spilling away from Greenland towards Europe .
= = = Eighth Book : The Giants = = =
As the wave of mutilation breaks over Europe , the force animating the monsters proves fatal : any contact with their bodies or blood provokes a frenzy of organic growth , so that animals of different species grow into each other and humans are strangled by their own growing organs . The populations remaining in the cities move underground . The ruling technocrats , led by Francis Delvil , begin to devise biological weapons to combat the monsters . Using the energy of the remaining tourmaline veils , they construct massive towers — the eponymous " Giants " — out of humans , animals , and plants , grotesque assemblages of organic life that , planted on mountains or in the sea , serve as defensive turrets . In a frenzied technological mania , some of the scientists turn themselves into giant monsters and wander around Europe , wreaking havoc and forgetting their original intent . A group of the original Iceland expedition led by Kylin returns to Europe , bearing the memory of the devastation they caused .
= = = Ninth Book : Venaska = = =
The novel 's final book begins with a group of settlers in southern France who call themselves the " Snakes " ( " Die Schlangen " ) . Venaska , a beautiful woman from the south , becomes influential amongst the settlers and is revered as a kind of goddess of love . With the other " Snakes " she lives in nature , apart from the wrecked cities and their dwindling authoritarian rule . As the traumatized remnants of the Iceland expedition come into contact with the settlers , a new type of society comes into existence , marked by a reconciled relationship to nature and egalitarian social relations . To the north the giants , now including Delvil among them , still rage , but their violence slowly subsides . Within the large number of creatures that compose their bodies , they begin to lose their individual human consciousness and grow into the earth , becoming mountains and hills in England and Cornwall . As Delvil fights to retain his consciousness , Venaska arrives and reconciles him with his dissolution into nature . She too grows into the hills that mark the former giants . In the wake of the destruction of Europe 's cities and the collapse of its governments , waves of refugees storm across the landscape accompanied by rage and cannibalism . The survivors of the Iceland expedition meet them head @-@ on , dividing them into groups and leading them to settlements around the globe . As the novel ends , humanity has resettled and begun to cultivate the destroyed landscapes . The fertile land between the Belgian coast and the Loire is renamed Venaska .
= = Thematic and stylistic aspects = =
Critic Gabriele Sander has called Berge Meere und Giganten an " epic about the conflict between nature and technology , " and other critics have also emphasized the novel 's portrayal of the often violent relationship between humanity , nature , and technology . Peter Sprengel has taken a different approach , arguing that the novel is characterized not by a dichotomous opposition between nature and technology , but rather by the way it blurs the distinction between the organic and the inorganic . Hannelore Qual has documented how the novel ties Döblin 's philosophy of nature to his ideas about society and politics , arguing for an affinity between Döblin 's thought and the anarchism of Gustav Landauer and Pyotr Kropotkin .
Berge Meere und Giganten presciently invokes such topics as world war , urbanization , the alienation from nature , mechanization , the dehumanization of the modern world , as well as mass migration , globalization , totalitarianism , fanaticism , terrorism , state surveillance , genetic engineering , synthetic food , the breeding of humans , biochemical warfare , and others . Döblin 's experiences during the First World War , when he served in Alsace as a military doctor , left their mark on the novel : psychically damaged veterans , devastated landscapes , and all @-@ destructive technological excesses give this novel its particularly apocalyptic feeling . Because of the bleak vision of the future that the novel presents , it has often been described by critics as a fundamentally pessimistic , irrationalistic , or regressive work . Hannelore Qual argues against this that Berge Meere und Giganten is instead characterized by an optimistic view of social and historical perfectibility ; the portrayals of catastrophic destruction and brutally authoritarian regimes reflect , in this reading , not Döblin 's own world view but instead different historical possibilities , alongside which more egalitarian and peaceful social orders are to be found .
Stylistically , it is characterized by its innovative syntax and the frequent paratactic use of multiple subjects , objects , and verbs in a single sentence without conjunctions or punctuation to separate them . Structurally , it consists of nine books that , because of the immense time span , often do not share common characters or settings ; the third @-@ person narrative voice , which has been likened to that of an anonymous chronicler , does not pass judgment on the events or provide commentary that would help tie events together .
= = Critical reception = =
The novel was regarded as a difficult work upon its release , and its experimental stylistic , structural , and thematic idiosyncrasies have often provoked emotional judgments from critics , ranging from fascination to repulsion . Among others , Günter Grass has praised the novel 's continued relevance and insight .
Despite the early fascination with the novel , after the Second World War it fell into neglect as critical attention to Döblin was directed primarily towards his next novel , Berlin Alexanderplatz ( 1929 ) , and a new edition of Berge Meere und Giganten was not published until 1977 . The last few decades have however seen a resurgence of critical interest in the novel .
= = Genesis and publication = =
Döblin wrote the novel between fall 1921 and summer 1923 . According to the author , the novel set out to explore the question : " What will become of the human being if he keeps living like he lives now ? " Döblin would later write that the original inspiration for the novel was the sight of pebbles rolling in the surf on the Baltic Sea coast during a family vacation in the summer of 1921 ; this epiphanic vision provoked a sudden and uncharacteristic interest in nature for Döblin , who began taking extensive notes in various Berlin museums and libraries on natural history and science , geology , geography , climatology , ethnography , and other fields . If he had originally conceived of the novel as a " hymn to the city " and to technology , as he got into the project it increasingly became an encomium to nature . In early 1922 he closed his medical practice for a month to further his research for the novel . The section on Iceland and Greenland , which occurs towards the end of the published novel , was one of the first sections Döblin envisioned and drafted , and an advance publication of this section appeared in the Vossische Zeitung on New Year 's Day 1922 with the title Die Enteisung Grönlands im Jahre 2500 . Das Zauberschiff ( The Melting of Greenland 's Ice in the Year 2500 : The Magical Ship ) . In May 1922 Döblin rented a villa in Zehlendorf to complete the draft of the novel , a setting explicitly referenced in the novel 's unusual " Dedication " . The exertions of drafting the novel provoked a sort of nervous breakdown : as he would later write , " the fantasy was too wild and my brain would not release me . " In a 2011 biography , Wilfried Schoeller has suggested that there was an additional reason for Döblin 's breakdown — namely , that the temporary move to Zehlendorf was also his unsuccessful attempt to leave his wife in favor of his lover Charlotte Niclas . According to Schoeller , this personal dimension left its mark on the novel , especially on the novel 's dedication .
Berge Meere und Giganten was published in 1924 by the Fischer Verlag . In 1931 Döblin began working on a radically simplified and shortened version , in order to make the difficult work more accessible to a wider audience ; the new version was published by the Fischer Verlag in May 1932 under the title Giganten ( Giants ) . 2006 saw the release of a new critical edition of Berge Meere und Giganten by the Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag ( Munich ) , edited by Gabriele Sander . The original manuscript and Döblin 's extensive notes for the novel are preserved in the German literary archive in Marbach am Neckar . As of 2016 , there is no English translation available .
= Legitimate expectation in Singapore law =
The doctrine of legitimate expectation in Singapore protects both procedural and substantive rights . In administrative law , a legitimate expectation generally arises when there has been a representation of a certain outcome by the public authorities to an individual . To derogate from the representation may amount to an abuse of power or unfairness . The doctrine of legitimate expectation as a ground to quash decisions of public authorities has been firmly established by the English courts . Thus , where a public authority has made a representation to an individual who would be affected by a decision by the authority , the individual has a legitimate expectation to have his or her views heard before the decision is taken . Alternatively , an individual may also have a legitimate expectation to a substantive right . The recognition of substantive legitimate expectations is somewhat controversial as it requires a balancing of the requirements of fairness against the reasons for any change in the authority 's policy . This suggests the adoption of a free @-@ standing proportionality approach , which has been said not to apply in administrative law .
The procedural dimension of the doctrine of legitimate expectation has been recognized by Singapore courts and , since 2013 , the substantive form of the doctrine as well . However , whether the courts will adopt the UK approach with regard to measuring legitimate expectation with the ruler of proportionality remains an open question .
= = Development of the doctrine in the English courts = =
= = = Legitimate expectation of a procedural right = = =
The doctrine of legitimate expectation originates from common law principles of fairness . English courts developed this doctrine largely to encourage good administration and prevent abuses by decision @-@ makers . Generally , the courts will grant judicial review of an administrative decision based on an individual 's legitimate expectation if a public authority has made a representation to the individual within its powers . The individual has to show that the representation was a clear and unambiguous promise , an established practice or a public announcement . This is largely a factual inquiry .
The key idea is that under certain circumstances where a representation has been made by a public authority to an individual who would be affected by a decision by the authority , the individual expects to be heard before the decision is made . To deny the right to be heard amounts to unfairness . The court will thus be inclined to quash a decision if there has been unfairness and reliance by the individual on the representation to his detriment . This is demonstrated in the 1983 House of Lords decision Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service ( the GCHQ case ) . This case involved the trade unions of employees of the Government Communications Headquarters ( GCHQ ) , a government signals and intelligence department , who argued that they had an expectation to be consulted before the Minister took the decision to deny them the right to join trade unions . The Minister argued that it had been necessary to take that step as the trade unions were conducting strikes that crippled GCHQ operations and threatened the national security of the United Kingdom . The Court established that in the past the trade unions had been consulted on employment @-@ related matters , even though it was not a rule . However , their Lordships clearly recognized that an individual can have a legitimate expectation to be consulted before a decision is taken when it is proven that this is the practice . Such a representation can come in the form of a clear and unambiguous promise to hear the individual or an established practice to consult those affected before taking the decision . Nonetheless , on the facts of the case , their Lordships agreed that they could not review the Minister 's decision even though there was an enforceable legitimate expectation as the decision had been made on national security grounds .
= = = Legitimate expectation of a substantive benefit = = =
The English courts initially wavered in recognizing that an individual has a legitimate expectation of a substantive benefit arising from a representation from the authorities . The notion of protecting a substantive legitimate expectation was espoused in the 1995 High Court decision in R. v. Ministry of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food , ex parte Hamble ( Off @-@ shore ) Fisheries Ltd . In that controversial case , Justice Stephen Sedley formulated the framework for legitimate expectations as the balance of the requirements of fairness against the decision @-@ maker 's reasons to change the policy . This was in step with the development of the doctrine of proportionality as prescribed in the Treaty on European Union , and in European Court of Justice case law . The decision wove proportionality back into the fabric of judicial review in the UK under the banner of an expanding doctrine of " fair administration " despite the clear rejection of proportionality as a self @-@ standing ground of review by the House of Lords in R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Brind ( 1991 ) .
In 1996 , the Court of Appeal opined in R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Hargreaves that " [ o ] n matters of substance ( as contrasted with procedure ) Wednesbury provides the correct test " . In Associated Provincial Picture Houses v. Wednesbury Corporation ( 1947 ) , the High Court had introduced the idea of Wednesbury unreasonableness , that is , a public authority 's decision is unlawful if , although they have " kept within the four corners of the matters they ought to consider , they have nevertheless come to a conclusion so unreasonable that no reasonable authority could ever have come to it " . The inference to be made from ex parte Hargreaves was that where an applicant claimed to have a substantive expectation , it was not for the court to judge if that expectation should be protected vis @-@ à @-@ vis the broader public interest . The court should only intervene if the decision @-@ maker 's exercise of its discretion satisfied the Wednesbury threshold .
However , the courts ' role in protecting substantive legitimate expectations was clearly established by the Court of Appeal of England and Wales in R. v. North and East Devon Health Authority , ex parte Coughlan ( 1999 ) . The case involved an applicant who was promised by her local authority that a new nursing home would be her " home for life " . The Court granted the application for review on the ground that the applicant had a legitimate expectation to have the substantive benefit of staying in the nursing home as promised by the local authority . It also set out the approach to be taken in safeguarding procedural and substantive legitimate expectations . Where procedural legitimate expectations were concerned , courts would require an opportunity for consultation to be given unless there was an overriding reason to resile from it ( such as the national security concern that arose in the GCHQ case ) . As regards substantive legitimate expectations , courts would decide whether cases lie " ... in what may inelegantly be called the macro @-@ political field " , or are those " where the expectation is confined to one person or a few people , giving the promise or representation the character of a contract " . In the first situation , the public authority " is only required to bear in mind its previous policy or other representation , giving it the weight it thinks right , but no more , before deciding whether to change course " , and the court may only review the authority 's decision on the ground of Wednesbury unreasonableness . On the other hand , when assessing a case in the second situation , the court decides whether for an authority to frustrate an expectation is so unfair that it amounts to an abuse of power . The court must weigh the requirements of fairness towards the individual against any overriding interests relied by the authorities to justify the change of policy .
A slightly different approach has been adopted by Lord Justice of Appeal John Laws . In R. v. Secretary of State for Education and Employment , ex parte Begbie ( 1999 ) , he suggested that the Coughlan categories are not " hermetically sealed " , and in Nadarajah v. Secretary of State for the Home Department ( 2005 ) , he expanded on this by taking a proportionality approach :
[ A ] public body 's promise or practice as to future conduct may only be denied ... in circumstances where to do so is the public body 's legal duty , or is otherwise ... a proportionate response ( of which the court is the judge , or the last judge ) having regard to a legitimate aim pursued by the public body in the public interest .
In Coughlan the view was expressed that the court will assess whether it is unfair for an authority to frustrate a legitimate expectation when the expectation is " confined to one person or a few people , giving the promise or representation the character of a contract " . In R. ( Bancoult ) v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs ( No. 2 ) ( 2007 ) , it was accepted that members of a group of close to a thousand or even up to several thousand people could have a legitimate expectation of a substantive benefit following the government 's announcement of its intentions .
Where a person convinces the court that his or her substantive legitimate expectation has been frustrated , the usual remedy is for the court to order that the public authority fulfil the expectation . However , in R. ( Bibi ) v. Newham London Borough Council ( 2001 ) it was held that when the decision in question is " informed by social and political value judgments as to priorities of expenditure " it is more appropriate for the authority to make the decision , and the court may order that the authority should merely reconsider its decision , taking into account the person 's substantive legitimate expectation .
Coughlan has been criticized for allowing the doctrine of proportionality to affect administrative law , as the court has to judge the merits of a case when granting a review on grounds of substantive legitimate expectation and , in a sense , usurp the discretion of the executive branch of government . This is arguably inconsistent with the court 's traditional role in judicial review which is to avoid examining the merits of administrative decisions and only scrutinize them for compliance with the law .
= = Singapore = =
= = = Legitimate expectation of a procedural right = = =
Singaporean courts have accepted the existence of both procedural and substantive legitimate expectations . In Re Siah Mooi Guat ( 1988 ) , the applicant was a Malaysian national who was declared a prohibited immigrant under section 8 ( 3 ) ( k ) of the Immigration Act and had her re @-@ entry permit to Singapore and employment pass cancelled . As the applicant 's appeal to the Minister for Home Affairs was rejected , the applicant took out an application to the High Court to quash the decision of the Minister . One ground of the application was that the applicant had a legitimate expectation to two procedural rights : the opportunity to make representations to the Minister before he considered her case under the Immigration Act , and the duty of the Minister to give reasons for his decision .
In his judgment , Justice T. S. Sinnathuray considered Schmidt v. Secretary of State for Home Affairs ( 1968 ) , decided by the Court of Appeal of England and Wales . He found that the procedural principles that govern the administration of Singapore 's immigration laws were similar to those in the UK . In Schmidt it was decided that an alien has no right to enter the country except by leave and the Home Secretary can refuse leave without giving any reason ; that if an alien is given leave to enter the country for a limited period he has no right to stay , and no legitimate expectation of being allowed to stay , for a day longer than the permitted period ; and that an alien 's application for an extension of his stay can be refused without reasons and without a hearing as the rules of natural justice do not apply . Furthermore , in Schmidt Lord Denning had espoused the obiter view that where an alien 's permit to stay " is revoked before the time limit expires , he ought ... to be given the opportunity of making representations : for he would have a legitimate expectation of being allowed to stay for a permitted time " . This argument was advanced by Siah 's counsel to persuade the court that " an alien who is in possession of an entry permit which has not yet expired is in the country lawfully until the date of expiry and , therefore , he has an interest during the unexpired portion that carries with it a public law right to a fair procedure , if and when the minister desires to terminate that leave to stay prematurely " . The High Court judge considered this proposition and conceded that it was an " attractive " one . However , he ultimately dismissed the argument by saying that it had " not been supported by any English authority " , and that the position in Singapore is " quite different " . He stated that Parliament had already provided in the Immigration Act for appeals and the right to be heard has been given statutory recognition and protection in the Act , and the applicant had already availed herself of the right to appeal . The Minister was not required to give reasons for his rejection of the appeal under the common law or the Immigration Act .
= = = Legitimate expectation of a substantive benefit = = =
The existence of the doctrine of substantive legitimate expectation in Singapore public law was accepted by the Court of Appeal in the case of Abdul Nasir bin Amer Hamsah v. Public Prosecutor . In his judgment written on behalf of the Court , Chief Justice Yong Pung How stated that the idea behind the doctrine is that certain " expectations could , in suitable circumstances , be deserving of protection , even though they did not acquire the force of a legal right " . Nonetheless , the Court stated : " [ W ] e were not concerned with judicial review , nor were we deciding whether any claim of a legitimate expectation could estop the Prisons Department in future from applying the interpretation which we gave to life imprisonment . That was a separate matter which was not under consideration here . "
Other decided cases also do not indicate whether the doctrine of substantive legitimate expectation will be developed in the way it has been developed in the UK . In Siah Mooi Guat , another argument the applicant raised was that she had a legitimate expectation to continue to reside in Singapore until the expiry of her re @-@ entry permit . Sinnathuray J. distinguished Attorney @-@ General of Hong Kong v. Ng Yuen Shiu ( 1983 ) , a Privy Council case on appeal from Hong Kong , from the case at hand . In the Privy Council case there had been an express promise made to Ng by the Government of Hong Kong which had created a substantive legitimate expectation . In the present case , no promise had been made to be applicant that her stay in Singapore was to be conditioned by any considerations other than those provided in the Immigration Act and related regulations . No substantive legitimate expectation arose in the applicant 's favour , following the dictum of Lord Fraser of Tullybelton in the GCHQ case that legitimate expectation arises " either from an express promise given on behalf of a public authority or from the existence of a regular practice which the claimant can reasonably expect to continue " . Thus , the judge did not discuss the detailed legal rules to be applied to determine when an aggrieved person may be said to have a legitimate expectation to a substantive right .
In Borissik Svetlana v. Urban Redevelopment Authority ( 2009 ) , the applicant and her husband owned a semi @-@ detached house which they wished to redevelop . In 2002 , the Urban Redevelopment Authority ( URA ) had issued a circular imposing certain restrictions on the redevelopment of semi @-@ detached houses . The URA rejected the applicant 's redevelopment application on the basis of the circular . Counsel for the applicant argued before the High Court that the applicant had a legitimate expectation that the proposal to redevelop the house would be approved . The Court held that the URA had not acted in a way that could have led the applicant to have such a legitimate expectation . It adopted four conditions set out in De Smith 's Judicial Review ( 6th ed . , 2007 ) to determine whether a legitimate expectation has been created : the public body 's representation must be clear , unambiguous and devoid of any relevant qualification ; induced by the conduct of the decision @-@ maker ; made by a person with actual or ostensible authority ; and applicable to the applicant , who belongs to the class of persons to whom the representation is reasonably expected to apply . The only legitimate expectation that could have arisen after the 2002 circular had been issued was that the URA would act in accordance with those guidelines unless the circumstances were such that an exception has to be made . The applicant in Borissik argued that she had a legitimate expectation to a substantive right , but since the Court decided that the URA had made no clear representation to her , it did not make any pronouncements on the approach that should be taken towards substantive legitimate expectations in Singapore .
In UDL Marine ( Singapore ) Pte . Ltd. v. Jurong Town Corp. ( 2011 ) , the High Court " entertain [ ed ] some doubt " as to whether the doctrine of substantive legitimate expectation is part of Singapore law , but did not discuss the matter further as neither the respondent nor the Attorney @-@ General had made submissions on the issue . Subsequently , however , in Chiu Teng @ Kallang Pte . Ltd. v. Singapore Land Authority ( 2013 ) a differently constituted High Court held that substantive legitimate expectation should be recognized as a ground of judicial review if the following conditions are satisfied :
( a ) The applicant must prove that the statement or representation made by the public authority was unequivocal and unqualified ;
( i ) if the statement or representation is open to more than one natural interpretation , the interpretation applied by the public authority will be adopted ; and
( ii ) the presence of a disclaimer or non @-@ reliance clause would cause the statement or representation to be qualified .
( b ) The applicant must prove the statement or representation was made by someone with actual or ostensible authority to do so on behalf of the public authority .
( c ) The applicant must prove that the statement or representation was made to him or to a class of persons to which he clearly belongs . ( d ) The applicant must prove that it was reasonable for him to rely on the statement or representation in the circumstances of his case :
( i ) if the applicant knew that the statement or representation was made in error and chose to capitalise on the error , he will not be entitled to any relief ;
( ii ) similarly , if he suspected that the statement or representation was made in error and chose not to seek clarification when he could have done so , he will not be entitled to any relief ;
( iii ) if there is reason and opportunity to make enquiries and the applicant did not , he will not be entitled to any relief .
( e ) The applicant must prove that he did rely on the statement or representation and that he suffered a detriment as a result .
( f ) Even if all the above requirements are met , the court should nevertheless not grant relief if :
( i ) giving effect to the statement or representation will result in a breach of the law or the State ’ s international obligations ;
( ii ) giving effect to the statement or representation will infringe the accrued rights of some member of the public ;
( iii ) the public authority can show an overriding national or public interest which justifies the frustration of the applicant 's expectation .
= = Assessment = =
Academics have expressed scepticism as to whether the doctrine of legitimate expectation should apply to substantive rights . Thio Li @-@ ann argues that legitimate expectations should relate only to procedural rather than substantive rights . Procedural protection only has a minimal impact on the administrative autonomy of the relevant public authority , since the court is only concerned with the manner in which the decision was made and not whether the decision was fair . Thus , the ultimate autonomy of public authorities is never placed in jeopardy . Conversely , as Mark Elliot posits , giving effect to a substantive legitimate expectation impinges on the separation of powers . The authority has been entrusted by Parliament to make decisions about the allocation of resources in public interest . Applying legitimate expectation substantively allows the courts to inquire into the merits of the decision . Such interference with the public authority 's discretion would be overstepping their role and exceeding their proper constitutional function .
On the other hand , in Coughlan the Court of Appeal cited the following passage from R. v. Inland Revenue Commissioners , ex parte MFK Underwriting Agents Ltd . ( 1990 ) :
If a public authority so conducts itself as to create a legitimate expectation that a certain course will be followed it would often be unfair if the authority were permitted to follow a different course to the detriment of one who entertained the expectation , particularly if he acted on it . ... The doctrine of legitimate expectation is rooted in fairness .
The Court of Appeal emphasized that the approach taken in that case made no formal distinction between procedural and substantive unfairness . Substantive legitimate expectation does not intrude upon the executive 's policy @-@ making powers , as it is for public authorities , acting within their statutory powers , to adopt or change policies . The reasons for doing so are not usually open to judicial review . On the other hand , it is the job of the courts to determine whether an authority 's application of a policy to an individual who has been led to expect something different is a just exercise of power .
= = = Cases = = =
= = = = Singapore = = = =
Re Siah Mooi Guat [ 1988 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 165 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Abdul Nasir bin Amer Hamsah v. Public Prosecutor [ 1997 ] SGCA 38 , [ 1997 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 842 , Court of Appeal ( Singapore ) , archived from the original on 24 December 2011 .
Borissik v. Urban Redevelopment Authority [ 2009 ] SGHC 154 , [ 2009 ] 4 S.L.R. ( R. ) 92 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Chiu Teng @ Kallang Pte . Ltd. v. Singapore Land Authority ( 2013 ) [ 2014 ] 1 S.L.R. 1047 , H.C. ( Singapore ) .
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service [ 1983 ] UKHL 6 , [ 1985 ] A.C. 374 , House of Lords ( UK ) ( " GCHQ case " ) .
R. v. North and East Devon Health Authority , ex parte Coughlan [ 1999 ] EWCA Civ 1871 , [ 2001 ] Q.B. 213 , Court of Appeal ( England and Wales ) .
R. ( Bibi ) v. Newham London Borough Council [ 2001 ] EWCA Civ 607 , [ 2002 ] 1 W.L.R. 237 , C.A. ( England & Wales ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Leyland , Peter ; Anthony , Gordon ( 2009 ) , " Legitimate Expectations " , Textbook on Administrative Law ( 6th ed . ) , Oxford ; New York , N.Y. : Oxford University Press , pp. 313 – 330 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 921776 @-@ 2 .
= = = Articles = = =
Knight , C.J.S ( January 2009 ) , " Expectations in Transition : Recent Developments in Legitimate Expectations " , Public Law : 15 – 24 .
Pandya , Abhijit P.G. ( June 2009 ) , " Legitimate Expectations in English Law : Too Deferential an Approach ? " , Judicial Review 14 ( 2 ) : 170 – 176 .
Roberts , Melanie ( January 2001 ) , " Public Law Representations and Substantive Legitimate Expectations " , Modern Law Review 64 ( 1 ) : 112 – 122 , doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / 1468 @-@ 2230 @.@ 00312 , JSTOR 1097141 .
Sales , Philip ; Steyn , Karen ( 2004 ) , " Legitimate Expectations in English Law : An Analysis " , Public Law : 564 – 653 .
Schønberg , Søren ; Craig , Paul ( 2000 ) , " Substantive Legitimate Expectations after Coughlan " , Public Law : 684 – 701 .
Steele , Iain ( April 2005 ) , " Substantive Legitimate Expectations : Striking the Right Balance ? " , Law Quarterly Review 121 : 300 – 328 .
Watson , Jack ( December 2010 ) , " Clarity and Ambiguity : A New Approach to the Test of Legitimacy in the Law of Legitimate Expectations " , Legal Studies 30 ( 4 ) : 633 – 652 , doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1748 @-@ 121X.2010.00177.x .
= = = Books = = =
Schønberg , Søren J. ( 2000 ) , Legitimate Expectations in Administrative Law , Oxford ; New York , N.Y. : Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 829947 @-@ 9 .
Thomas , Robert ( 2000 ) , Legitimate Expectations and Proportionality in Administrative Law , Oxford : Hart Publishing , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84113 @-@ 086 @-@ 6 .
Wade , William ; Forsyth , Christopher ( 2009 ) , Administrative Law ( 10th ed . ) , Oxford : Oxford University Press , pp. 446 – 457 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 923161 @-@ 4 .
= Alyssa Healy =
Alyssa Jean Healy ( born 24 March 1990 on the Gold Coast , Queensland ) is a cricketer who plays for New South Wales and the Australian women 's team . She made her international debut in February 2010 .
A right @-@ handed batter and wicket @-@ keeper , she is the daughter of Greg Healy , who was part of the Queensland squad , while her uncle Ian Healy was Australia 's Test wicket @-@ keeper and held the world record for the most Test dismissals . Healy first came to prominence in late 2006 when she became the first girl to play among boys in the private schools ' competition in New South Wales . She moved up the state age group ranks and made her debut for the senior New South Wales team in the 2007 – 08 season . She played most of her first two seasons as a specialist batsman due to the presence of Leonie Coleman — a wicket @-@ keeper for Australia — in the state side . Coleman left New South Wales at the start of the 2009 – 10 season and Healy took up the glovework on a full @-@ time basis for her state . During the same season , she recorded her highest score of 89 not out at faster than a run a ball , and made the most dismissals of any wicket @-@ keeper in the Women 's National Cricket League .
Following the injury to Australian captain and wicket @-@ keeper Jodie Fields , Healy was given her international debut in the 2010 Rose Bowl series against New Zealand . She played in the first five One Day Internationals ( ODIs ) and five Twenty20 ( T20 ) internationals , but was dropped for the last three ODIs during the New Zealand leg of the series . Healy played in every match of the 2010 World Twenty20 as Australia won the tournament after an unbeaten campaign .
= = Early years = =
Healy is the daughter of Greg , who was a member of the Queensland squad , while Greg 's younger brother Ian was Australia 's Test wicket @-@ keeper from the late 1980s until 1999 and was the world record holder for the most Test dismissals . Another uncle , Ken , played for Queensland . Despite the family heritage , and watching her uncle represent Australia , she said that she did not become interested in cricket until she moved from Queensland to Sydney as a child and was coaxed into taking up the sport by a friend .
Her selection at the age of 16 in late 2006 as wicket @-@ keeper for Barker College First XI , the first time a girl had been picked to play among boys in the elite private schools ' cricket competition in New South Wales , drew press commentary from various sources . This came about after an anonymous person , believed to be a former male student , circulated an email entitled " Save Barker Cricket Now " in the school community attacking the selection as a " disgrace " and calling for gender segregation of the cricket team . The sportsmaster of Barker College condemned the anonymous writer as " gutless " and maintained that Healy 's selection was based on merit . Ian Healy and Alex Blackwell , a cricketer for the Australian women 's team and former Barker student , also defended the selection and criticised the email author . The emailer was also criticised , and Alyssa Healy commended , by social commentators in newspapers . In 2010 , she reflected " I 'd do it all again ... I really enjoyed playing school cricket with the boys and it definitely helped lift my skills and tighten my technique . " Both she and Australian team @-@ mate Ellyse Perry have publicly advocated girls playing against boys .
In January 2007 , Healy was selected in the New South Wales team to play in the Under @-@ 19 interstate competition . Opening the batting in all three matches and keeping in only the second of these , she scored 47 , 73 and 41 in her first three matches , and took one catch . She went on to end with 345 runs at a batting average of 57 @.@ 50 , topping the run @-@ scorers list and was named the best under @-@ 17 player at the tournament . The following month , she was selected in the Australia Youth team , composed of under @-@ 23 cricketers , to play against New Zealand A , the only player selected before making their senior domestic debut . She scored 10 not out , 41 and 63 in three matches , and made one stumping . Her 63 from 84 balls in the final match was the top @-@ score for the Australians , but it was not enough to prevent a 22 @-@ run defeat . She played as a wicket @-@ keeper batting in the middle @-@ order in the first match , and opened in the last two matches , playing purely as a batsman . The series ended 1 – 1 after the second match was tied .
= = Senior domestic debut = =
At the start of the 2007 – 08 season , she made her senior debut for the New South Wales Breakers in the Australian domestic one @-@ day league . She was used as a specialist batsman in the top @-@ order , as Leonie Coleman , a wicket @-@ keeper in the Australian squad , also played for New South Wales . She made her debut against South Australia and was unsuccessful to begin with , scoring only 24 runs in her first five innings . After one month at senior level , she broke through with a match @-@ winning performance in her sixth senior game . After Queensland had made 170 , Healy came in with the score at 5 / 99 after 32 overs , with 18 overs remaining . She raised the run rate , scoring 41 not out from 50 balls , with eight fours , shepherding the tail @-@ enders and guiding her state to a two @-@ wicket win with 17 balls to spare .
New South Wales reached the final and were awarded the title because they placed first in the qualifying matches after rain washed out the deciding game . Healy ended the season with 78 runs at 11 @.@ 14 . She also played in two Twenty20 interstate matches . She scored two and made a stumping in the first match , and neither batted nor kept wicket in the latter . New South Wales prevailed in both .
At the end of the season , she was selected for the Under @-@ 23 Australian team to play a series against the senior England and Australian teams . She scored 45 , 1 and 41 not out in three matches . In the third match , she combined for a second @-@ wicket partnership of 52 with Elyse Villani , hitting six boundaries in 62 balls and guiding her team to an eight @-@ wicket win over the Australian team . Playing as a specialist batsman , she also took three catches . The new 2008 – 09 season started the same way , with the Under @-@ 23 national team playing against Australia and India . The first match , against India , was washed out and Healy made a duck [ zero ] and 9 in the other matches . Playing as a batsman , she did not take a catch .
Healy again played as a batsman , with Coleman ensconced behind the stumps . In the first four matches of the new domestic season , she batted only once , scoring nine . In these matches she was placed in the lower @-@ order and did not bowl . She was dropped after these four matches .
She then played six matches for the Second XI in the space of a week , mostly as a top @-@ order batsman , sometimes opening and as a wicket @-@ keeper . New South Wales won all the fixtures except for one that was abandoned due to inclement weather . She scored 120 runs at 40 @.@ 00 , took six catches and made three stumpings , and was recalled to the senior team after one week in the second @-@ string outfit . In her first three matches back , Healy was placed in the middle @-@ order and not required to bat or keep wickets . In the last league match , she scored 59 from 55 balls in an 89 @-@ run partnership at faster than a run a ball with Lisa Sthalekar against Victoria . New South Wales won by three wickets despite losing Healy and three subsequent batsmen in the closing phase of the run @-@ chase . In the final against the same team the following week , Healy made 11 from 22 balls before being run out , but New South Wales nevertheless won by six wickets with more than 15 overs to spare to claim the title . Healy ended the one @-@ day competition with 79 runs at 26 @.@ 33 . She was named Australia 's 30 @-@ strong shortlist for the 2009 Women 's Cricket World Cup , but was not a part of the final squad of 15 .
Healy also played in two Twenty20 matches for her state during the season , scoring 35 from 27 balls against South Australia and 16 from 21 balls against Victoria . She was New South Wales ' second top @-@ scorer in both matches ; the first was won but the second lost .
= = Full @-@ time wicket @-@ keeper = =
After the Women 's World Cup held in early 2009 , Coleman transferred to play for the Australian Capital Territory , so Healy became New South Wales ' gloveman on a full @-@ time basis for the start of the 2009 – 10 season . After making scores of 11 , 12 and 29 in her first three innings of the one @-@ day season , she struck an unbeaten 89 against Victoria . Coming in upon the fall of Leah Poulton with the score at 1 / 9 after three overs , she hit 13 fours in 82 balls , putting on partnerships of 72 with Blackwell and 82 with Sthalekar . New South Wales reached their target of 187 with more than 13 overs to spare and Healy was named the Player of the Match , having earlier taken a catch and made a stumping . Her season was interrupted by her selection in the Australian Under @-@ 21 team to play against the New Zealand Emerging Players . In five matches , she scored 50 runs at 10 @.@ 00 , took five catches and made one stumping as Australia won the series 4 – 1 .
In the final of the one @-@ day competition , she scored 23 from 37 balls batting at No. 3 and took two catches as New South Wales defeated Victoria by 59 runs . Healy ended her first full season as a wicket @-@ keeper with 208 runs at 29 @.@ 71 , the second @-@ highest average in her team behind Blackwell . In 11 matches , she also took 11 catches and completed 9 stumpings , effecting more dismissals than any other player .
She made 52 runs at 13 @.@ 00 in seven T20 matches . Her best score was an unbeaten 20 from 13 balls in an eight @-@ wicket win over Tasmania . In the final , Victoria batted first and made 5 / 127 , Healy completing a catch and stumping . In reply , Healy made a duck as New South Wales lost four wickets in the first 13 balls and were all out for 75 to lose by 22 runs .
= = International debut = =
Healy was selected in the Australian squad for the Rose Bowl series against New Zealand in February 2010 due to an injury to the incumbent wicketkeeper and captain Jodie Fields . The selection committee released a statement saying " Alyssa has been identified for higher honours for a number of years and now gets the chance to display her wicket @-@ keeping skills and attacking batting on the international stage " . Healy made her ODI debut at the Adelaide Oval and played in all five ODIs in the Australian leg of the series . In her first match , she scored 21 from 11 balls in the death overs , hitting four fours as Australia made 241 before bowling out the visitors for 126 to seal a 115 @-@ run win . She took one catch , removing Amy Satterthwaite from the bowling of Rene Farrell . Healy made consecutive ducks in the next two matches , and made four in the final match at Junction Oval . She had only brief opportunities with the bat in the closing stages of the innings . She ended the series with 25 runs at 6 @.@ 25 and a strike rate of 100 @.@ 00 , five catches and a stumping .
She then played in the three T20s held at Bellerive Oval in Hobart . The first of these matches was a curtain @-@ raiser to the match between the Australia and West Indies men teams , and was the first match to be shown live on free @-@ to @-@ air television in Australia . New Zealand batted first and Australian fast bowler Ellyse Perry extracted an outside edge from captain Aimee Watkins from the first ball of the match . The ball flew straight to Healy 's mid @-@ riff and she dropped it . Watkins went on to score 44 from 36 balls as New Zealand made 7 / 117 and Healy 's only dismissal was to catch Nicola Browne from Sthalekar 's off spin . Healy came to the crease at 6 / 107 at the end of the 19th over and had scored three runs from as many balls and found herself on strike for the final ball of the match , bowled by Browne , with Australia needing three runs for the win . The delivery was wide outside off and Healy 's expansive shot took the outside edge of the bat and flew towards the vacant first slip area . It would have gone for a match @-@ winning four runs but for New Zealand wicket @-@ keeper Rachel Priest diving across and catching the ball one @-@ handed in her right glove , handing the tourists a two @-@ run victory .
Healy had little impact with the bat in the three T20s in Australia and two more at the start of the New Zealand leg of the series , scoring 17 runs at 5 @.@ 66 and a strike rate of 77 @.@ 27 . Apart from one catch on her debut , she did not make any more dismissals . Australia lost all five matches . She was then omitted for the three ODIs in New Zealand as batsman Jess Cameron stood in as a makeshift wicket @-@ keeper .
= = 2010 World Twenty20 = =
Healy was selected for the 2010 World Twenty20 in the West Indies and played in every match after Fields was again forced out by injury . In the first warm @-@ up match , she took two catches and did not bat as Australia lost to New Zealand by 18 runs . In the last warm @-@ up match , she was again not required to bat and did not make a dismissal as the Australians defeated Pakistan by 82 runs .
Australia were grouped with England , South Africa and the West Indies . In the first match against England , Healy took one catch to dismiss Danielle Hazell from the bowling of Sthalekar . In pursuit of 105 for victory , Australia were struggling when Healy came to the crease with the score at 7 / 63 after 14 @.@ 2 overs . Three wickets had fallen in the space of 16 balls , during which only three runs had been added , and England had the momentum , and 42 runs were needed from 34 balls for victory . Healy then struck three fours , making 15 from 9 balls before being dismissed by Nicki Shaw , ending a stand of 23 from 13 balls with Sthalekar . However , Rene Farrell was run out going for the winning run from the third last ball available , leaving the scores tied .
A Super Over eventuated , and Laura Marsh bowled for England . Healy came in at 1 / 3 after Leah Poulton fell on the fourth ball . She hit a two from the fifth ball , and was run out by Jenny Gunn while attempting to complete a second run on the sixth and final ball of Australia 's Super Over , leaving them at 2 / 6 . England also ended with 2 / 6 after a run out in an attempt to secure the winning run on the final ball . Australia was awarded the match because they had hit more sixes in the match — Jess Cameron scored the solitary six .
In the next match against South Africa , Healy was elevated two positions to No. 7 . Coming in upon the fall of Cameron , her partner Sarah Elliott was then run out without further addition to the score . Healy hit one boundary and was then out for 8 from 6 balls at 7 / 151 . Her dismissal was part of a sudden collapse as Australia lost 6 / 16 including the last four wickets for four runs to be all out for 155 with three balls unused . Healy did not make a dismissal as Australia completed a 22 @-@ run win . In the final group match against the West Indies , Healy came in at 6 / 111 and hit 12 from 8 balls , before being caught from the final ball of the innings as Australia finished on 7 / 133 . She had put on 22 runs in 16 balls with Sthalekar . She caught Deandra Dottin from the bowling of Perry for a golden duck as Australia won by nine runs to finish the group stage unbeaten at the top of their quartet .
Australia went on to face India in the semi @-@ final . Healy stumped leading Indian batsman Mithali Raj from the bowling of Sthalekar and was not required to bat as Australia reached their target of 120 with seven wickets and seven balls to spare . Australia elected to bat first in the final against New Zealand , but was top @-@ order struggled and Healy came to the crease to join Elliott at 5 / 51 in the 13th over after the fall of two wickets in quick succession . The pair lifted the run rate by adding 21 runs in 18 balls . Healy scored 10 from as many balls , but was then run out attempting a second run after being dropped by Sara McGlashan in the outfield . This left the score at 6 / 72 in the 16th over , and Australia eventually ended on 8 / 106 .
During the middle of the run @-@ chase , Priest was incorrectly given out stumped by Healy after the television umpire Asad Rauf had pressed the wrong button , and he had to retract his decision . Soon after New Zealand were at 5 / 36 after 11 overs , leaving them with 71 runs to score from the last 54 balls , and Australia were in the ascendancy . However , New Zealand 's chances were revived by Nicola Browne and Sophie Devine , who put on 41 from as many balls . In the 18th over , Healy caught Browne from Perry 's bowling , and Australia went on to win by three runs after New Zealand ended on 6 / 103 .
= = 2015 Ashes = =
In June 2015 , she was named as one of Australia 's touring party for the 2015 Women 's Ashes in England .
= = Personal life = =
In 2015 she became engaged to fast bowler Mitchell Starc . They were married in April 2016 . The Starcs are only the third married couple to play test cricket after the English Prideauxs ( Roger and Ruth ) in the 1950s - 60 , and the Sri Lankan de Alwis couple ( Guy and Rasanjali ) in the 1980s to 90 's
= John Vanbiesbrouck =
John Vanbiesbrouck ( born September 4 , 1963 ) , nicknamed " the Beezer " , is an American professional ice hockey executive and former player . A goaltender as a player , he was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 2007 . Vanbiesbrouck played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the New York Rangers , Florida Panthers , Philadelphia Flyers , New York Islanders , and New Jersey Devils . He began his career playing major junior hockey for the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . Following a successful season with the Greyhounds , he was drafted by the New York Rangers in the fourth round , 72nd overall , in the 1981 NHL Draft . After his junior career ended , he played for the Rangers minor league affiliate , the Tulsa Oilers of the Central Hockey League . Despite the team 's near collapses due to financial concerns , Vanbiesbrouck led the Oilers to a league championship and shared the league 's MVP honors .
He began playing full @-@ time with the Rangers in the 1984 – 85 season . Vanbiesbrouck won the Vezina Trophy as the league 's top goaltender and was named a First Team NHL All @-@ Star the following season . After playing in parts of 11 seasons with the Rangers , he was taken in the 1993 NHL Expansion Draft by the Florida Panthers . In Florida , Vanbiesbrouck was a three @-@ time all @-@ star , and led the Panthers to their first and only Stanley Cup Finals appearance in 1996 . While in Florida he recorded his 300th career victory , becoming the 15th goaltender and only the second American goalie in NHL history to do so . During his career , Vanbiesbrouck compiled a record of 374 wins , 346 losses , 119 ties , and 40 shutouts , making him the winningest American @-@ born goaltender and tying Frank Brimsek for most career shutouts by an American @-@ born goaltender .
Internationally , Vanbiesbrouck has represented the United States on several occasions . He played in the 1982 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships as well as four IIHF World Championships . He was named to the Second All @-@ Star team at the 1985 World Ice Hockey Championships . He also played in two Canada Cup tournaments , registering the lowest goals against average in 1987 and was a back @-@ up goaltender during the Americans ' second @-@ place finish in 1991 . He represented Team USA for the final time in 1998 , serving as the back @-@ up on the Olympic ice hockey team .
Following his playing career , he took over as the head coach and General Manager of the Greyhounds . However , after using a racial slur referencing his team captain , he resigned . Vanbiesbrouck worked as a broadcaster and in hockey @-@ related businesses . In 2013 , Vanbiesbrouck was named the general manager of the United States Hockey League 's Muskegon Lumberjacks .
= = Early life = =
Vanbiesbrouck was born in Detroit , Michigan to a Belgian immigrant bricklayer , Robert Vanbiesbrouck , and an Italian immigrant Sara . He grew @-@ up with two brothers ; the oldest , Frank , who was also a goaltender in youth hockey . He inspired Vanbiesbrouck to play goaltender . John later noted that he learned more about goaltending just from watching Frank than any coaching could , adding that no one ever helped him more to become the player he was .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior and minor leagues = = =
While playing midget level hockey Vanbiesbrouck joined the Little Caesars hockey club , a travel ice hockey team in Detroit . During a tournament in Toronto , Vanbiesbrouck lost his jersey and was forced to wear a teammate 's uniform . He played well in the tournament with junior scouts in attendance . Since Vanbiesbrouck wore another player 's jersey he went undrafted in the midget draft , while the player whose jersey he wore was drafted in the fourth round . After being unclaimed in the draft Vanbiesbrouck was offered a try @-@ out with the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds , members of the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League , later becoming the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . At the try @-@ out he made the team , winning a spot over several other players and became the starting goalie for the Greyhounds . Vanbiesbrouck played in 56 games and complied a 31 – 16 – 1 record during his first season in Sault Ste . Marie . Following the 1980 – 81 season he was drafted in the 4th round , 72nd overall of the NHL Draft by the New York Rangers .
On December 5 , 1981 , just months after being drafted , Vanbiesbrouck made his professional debut with the Rangers as an emergency call @-@ up . He defeated the Colorado Rockies 2 – 1 . Despite only allowing one goal and earning his first NHL win , the Rangers decided to return him to Sault Ste . Marie — a move intended to aid his development . He finished the year with a 12 – 12 – 2 record for the Greyhounds and made his first international appearance , representing the United States at the 1982 World Junior Championships . He played one more season for the Greyhounds , playing 62 games winning 39 of them and being named to OHL Second All @-@ Star Team .
Following his career with the Greyhounds , Vanbiesbrouck moved on to the minor leagues joining the Central Hockey League 's ( CHL ) Tulsa Oilers . During the 1983 @-@ 84 season , his first with the Oilers , the ownership group was unable to sustain the team . They went bankrupt , were taken over by the league , and forced to play their remaining games on the road . After losing their home rink the team was housed in Denver , Colorado where they shared a practice facility with the University of Denver and fellow CHL team the Colorado Flames . The lack of ice time often forced the Oilers to practice in a Mall where they were not allowed to shoot pucks . For extra practice Vanbiesbrouck had tennis balls hit at him in the parking lot . Despite all the adversity the Oilers won the Adams Cup as league champions . Meanwhile , Vanbiesbrouck won the Terry Sawchuk Award , with back @-@ up Ron Scott , for fewest goals against in the league and shared CHL MVP honors with Bruce Affleck by winning the Tommy Ivan Trophy .
= = = New York Rangers = = =
He made the Rangers full @-@ time in the 1984 – 85 season , playing in 42 games and posted a 4 @.@ 20 goals against average ( GAA ) . The following year Vanbiesbrouck enjoyed a breakout season , playing in 61 games , winning a career high 31 . The 31 victories accounted for all but 5 of the Rangers ' regular season total . His success continued over to the post @-@ season , where he led the Rangers to an upset over the Philadelphia Flyers in the opening round . He then followed it by beating a Washington Capitals team that registered 107 points in the regular season . The Rangers lost in the Conference Finals to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Montreal Canadiens . In the off season Vanbiesbrouck was named a First Team NHL All @-@ Star , won the Vezina Trophy as the league 's top goaltender , and signed a new three @-@ year contract with the Rangers . He was unable to repeat his success in the next season , winning 18 games in 50 games played while losing 20 contests .
Prior to the 1987 – 88 season Vanbiesbrouck was hit by a puck under his mask in practice , which caused a non @-@ displaced fracture of his lower jaw and a broken tooth . Fortunately for him the injury did not require his jaw to be wired shut , and he was able to return to practice the next day . He showed no ill effects from the injury , playing in 56 games , winning 27 . On June 13 , 1988 Vanbiesbrouck suffered nerve damage to his left wrist after a glass coffee table he was sitting on collapsed and broken glass lacerated his ulnar nerve and three tendons . He was sitting on the table assembling video equipment in anticipation of the birth of his first child . The glass broke beneath him , and as he braced for the fall , his wrist was cut by the glass . Vanbiesbrouck required five hours of microsurgery to remove glass from his wrist and repair the nerve and tendon damage . He was initially expected to miss 4 – 6 months , but he recovered in time to attend the Rangers pre @-@ season training camp just 3 months later . Again he played in 56 games , and increased his win total to 28 .
He began the 1989 @-@ 90 season as the Rangers ' starting goaltender , but after the Rangers struggled in early January , he began to share the duties with the recently called up Mike Richter . During the playoffs head coach Roger Neilson employed a rotation system between the two goaltenders . The Rangers won their first round match @-@ up against the Islanders , but lost to the Capitals in the second round . For his part Vanbiesbrouck posted a 2 – 3 record with a 3 @.@ 02 GAA and a .902 save percentage .
The following season the two goaltenders formed the best duo in the NHL . The duo remained together even after Vanbiesbrouck had a chance to leave via free agency in 1992 . A new collective bargaining agreement established him as a group 2 free agent , allowing the Rangers to match any offer from another team or to claim draft choices as compensation if he were to sign with another team . After not receiving much interest from other clubs , Vanbiesbrouck re @-@ signed with the Rangers , signing a two @-@ year deal with an option for the third averaging $ 1 million per season . At the end of the 1992 – 93 season , the decision was made to trade Vanbiesbrouck . With the upcoming expansion draft the Rangers would only be able to protect one goaltender . Faced with the prospect of losing one of their two goaltenders , the Rangers traded the " equally talented " but older Vanbiesbrouck to the Vancouver Canucks for future considerations ( Doug Lidster ) .
= = = Florida Panthers = = =
Vancouver made the trade not with the intention of keeping Vanbiesbrouck , but rather in an attempt to keep other players on their roster from being drafted . Rules of the 1993 NHL Expansion Draft allowed teams to protect one goaltender , nine forwards and five defensemen . Additional rules stated that teams could only lose one goaltender in the draft and prevented teams from losing both a defenseman and a goaltender . Prior to the draft Florida Panthers general manager Bobby Clarke won a coin @-@ toss giving them the first pick in the draft . Thus with their first selection , the Panthers picked Vanbiesbrouck to be the number one goalie for their team . Upon his arrival in Florida , Vanbiesbrouck went on a " mall tour " to help elevate the visibility of the franchise and made an informative video explaining ice hockey terms for Blockbuster , then owners of the franchise . In January 1994 he made his return to Madison Square Garden . In his first game back to his former home venue , Vanbiesbrouck made 51 saves ultimately losing the game 3 – 2 to his former team . During the season he was also named to the All @-@ Star game as the Panthers ' sole representative . In the game Vanbiesbrouck played the third period , made six saves and was credited with the win . At the completion of his first season in Florida , he played in 57 games posting a 21 – 25 – 11 record , registering a 2 @.@ 53 GAA , and his career best save percentage of .924 ranked him second in the league . Vanbiesbrouck was named a Second Team NHL All @-@ Star and was shortlisted for the Hart and Vezina Trophies . His 21 wins tied the Minnesota North Stars ' Cesare Maniago 's record for the most by an expansion goaltender . The record was later passed by Ron Tugnutt during the Columbus Blue Jackets inaugural season . The Panthers finished the season with 83 points , one point behind the New York Islanders , for the eighth and final playoff spot in the Eastern Conference . The following season was shortened due to the 1994 – 95 NHL lockout . As a result , Vanbiesbrouck played in just 37 games registering a 14 – 15 – 4 record . He lowed his GAA from the previous year to 2 @.@ 47 and increased his shutout total from one to four . However his save percentage dropped to .914 . The Panthers again fell a point short of making the playoffs .
In the 1995 – 96 season , Vanbiesbrouck was named to the All @-@ Star Game . In the game he played the second period and gave up three goals on seven shots . The Panthers were in playoff position for more than half of the season , but faltered late in the season and were close to falling out of the playoff race . Late in the season Vanbiesbrouck shutout the New Jersey Devils putting Florida into the playoffs . At the end of the regular season he played in 57 games posting a 21 – 25 – 11 with 2 shutouts . His games played ranked him tenth in the league while his GAA of 2 @.@ 68 was ninth . In the first round Florida defeated the Boston Bruins in five games . Their second round match @-@ up was against the heavily favored Philadelphia Flyers . Vanbiesbrouck posted a shutout in the first game of the series , the third post season shutout of his career and the first in Panthers playoff history . During the series Vanbiesbrouck held the Flyers scoreless for 116 : 46 straight minutes , as Florida upset Philadelphia winning four games to two . In the Conference Finals the Panthers were again huge underdogs to the Pittsburgh Penguins , a team that featured the leagues two top scorers in Mario Lemieux and Jaromir Jagr . The Penguins took a 3 – 2 series lead , but the Panthers won game six 4 – 3 to force game seven . In game 7 Vanbiesbrouck made 39 saves in a 3 – 1 Panthers victory , winning the Eastern Conference and putting them in the Stanley Cup Finals . The Panthers fell behind the Colorado Avalanche 3 – 0 in the series . Game four was considered one of the classic games in finals ' history . The game was a 0 – 0 tie entering the third overtime period . Early in the period , a long shot from Colorado 's Uwe Krupp eluded Vanbiesbrouck giving the Avalanche a 1 – 0 win and the Stanley Cup . Vanbiesbrouck made 55 saves in the loss and finished third in voting for the Conn Smythe Trophy as playoff MVP .
During the 1996 – 97 season he was elected by the fans to the All @-@ Star Game as the starting goaltender . Vanbiesbrouck ' 200 @,@ 457 votes led the Eastern Conference . By season 's end Vanbiesbrouck finished in the top ten in the NHL for save percentage ( 6 ) , GAA ( 5 ) and tied for 11 in wins ( 27 ) . The Panthers finished fourth in the Eastern conference and faced the Rangers in the first round of the Stanley Cup Playoffs . Vanbiesbrouck made 34 saves in game one , shutting out the Rangers 3 – 0 . It was the only game the Panthers won as the Rangers defeated them 4 – 1 in the series . The following season Vanbiesbrouck reached a personal milestone . On December 27 , 1997 the Panthers defeated the New York Islanders 6 – 2 at Nassau Coliseum . The win marked the 300th of his career , making him the 15th goaltender , and second American , in NHL history to reach the mark . Despite his personal milestone Vanbiesbrouck suffered through his worst statistical season with the Panthers . The team fared no better as they finished the season in 12th place in the Eastern conference and out of the playoffs .
= = = Post Panthers = = =
During the off @-@ season Vanbiesbrouck signed a two @-@ year $ 7 @.@ 25 million contract , with an option for a third year , with the Philadelphia Flyers . His first season with Philadelphia was successful , he posted a career best 2 @.@ 18 GAA , notching 6 shutouts , playing in a career high 62 games and registering a 27 – 18 – 15 record . However , he struggled in the playoffs . Despite posting good individual numbers , Vanbiesbrouck let in " soft " goals that cost the Flyers games . Philadelphia was eliminated in the first round by the Toronto Maple Leafs in six games . He continued to be " shaky " at the beginning of the 1999 – 2000 season . As a result , rookie Brian Boucher began playing more . Vanbiesbrouck reached another milestone during the season , becoming the 8th goaltender in NHL history to play in 800 games . He played in 50 games during the season registering a 25 – 15 – 9 record , but in the playoff the Flyers went with Boucher .
During the 2000 NHL Entry Draft , Philadelphia traded Vanbiesbrouck to the New York Islanders for a fourth @-@ round draft pick . The Islanders made the trade with the intention of having Vanbiesbrouck mentor first overall draft pick Rick DiPietro . He played in 44 games for the Islanders winning 10 of them and recording a shutout . On the eve of the NHL trade deadline , the Islanders traded Vanbiesbrouck to the New Jersey Devils for Chris Terreri and a ninth @-@ round pick . New Jersey made the deal with the intent to give starting goaltender Martin Brodeur some rest prior to the playoffs . With Terreri struggling they felt it best to bring in someone who had played regularly throughout the year . Vanbiesbrouck played in 4 games for the Devils , winning them all , and recorded his 40th career shutout . The shutout tied him with Frank Brimsek for the most shutouts by an American born goaltender in NHL history . Vanbiesbrouck did not play during the playoffs , but the Devils advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals . The Devils played the Colorado Avalanche and lost in seven games . Vanbiesbrouck retired immediately after game seven on June 10 , 2001 . He stated that " it 's time " and he wanted to leave the game healthy . He was retired for only eight months before he agreed to terms with the Devils to come out of retirement . He posted a 2 – 3 – 0 record as the Devils back up , finishing his career with 374 wins . His win total is the most by an American born goaltender in NHL history . He again did not play in the playoffs as the Devils were eliminated in the first round by the eventual Eastern Conference champion Carolina Hurricanes . Vanbiesbrouck retired for the second and final time on May 24 , 2002 .
Following his playing career Vanbiesbrouck earned several accolades . The Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds retired his number ( 1 ) . NHL.com named him the best NHL player to wear jersey number 34 , and on October 12 , 2007 Vanbiesbrouck was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame . He remains thirteenth in NHL history in wins . However , he is also fifth in all @-@ time in losses .
= = International play = =
Vanbiesbrouck made his international debut in 1982 representing the United States at the World Junior Championship . In five games he posted a 1 – 3 – 0 record with a 5 @.@ 70 GAA , as the Americans finished in sixth place . The next year he again participated in the World Junior Championship . He appeared in five games and lowered his GAA to 3 @.@ 64 , helping the American team improve to fifth place .
In 1985 he played for Team USA at the IIHF World Championships . Vanbiesbrouck posted a 6 – 3 – 0 record , defeating three of three top ranked teams in the world ( Canada , Czech Republic and Sweden ) . He later noted that those three victories gave him the confidence to be successful at the NHL level . The Americans were the second seed following the preliminary round . However they failed to win a single game in the championship round and finished the tournament in fourth place . Individually Vanbiesbrouck was named to the Second All @-@ Star team . Two years later he played in his second World Championship . He was unable to duplicate his prior success posting a 2 – 5 – 0 record , as Team USA finished in seventh place one position away from being relegated to Division I. During 1987 Vanbiesbrouck also participated in the Canada Cup , registering a 2 – 2 – 0 record with a 2 @.@ 25 GAA . He registered the lowest GAA in the tournament , but the United States finished in fifth place . He played in two more World Championships in 1989 and 1991 going 1 – 2 – 1 and 3 – 4 – 2 respectively , as the US improved to sixth place in 1989 and finished just short of winning a medal in 1991 placing fourth . Vanbiesbrouck was named to the Canada Cup team in 1991 , but spent the tournament as Mike Richter 's back @-@ up . He played only one game in the tournament defeating Finland 4 – 3 . The United States finished the Canada Cup in second place losing the best of three championship to Canada 2 – 0 . He was named to the 1996 World Cup of Hockey team but missed the Americans ' victory due to a small cartilage tear in his right shoulder that required off @-@ season surgery to repair .
Prior to the 1998 Winter Olympics an announcement was made that NHL would shut down for two and a half weeks to allow its players to participate in the international tournament for the first time . Vanbiesbrouck was named to the United States team , but spent the majority of the tournament on the bench , playing in one game for only one minute . As a team the Americans finished in a " disappointing " sixth place .
= = Playing style = =
Vanbiesbrouck was a hybrid goaltender who combined the butterfly style and the more traditional stand @-@ up style . He was strong at playing his angles and challenged shooters well . Small for a goaltender , standing only 5 ' 8 " , he relied on his quickness to regain his feet after making saves or to make additional saves in goalmouth scrambles . Vanbiesbrouck was aggressive when it came to playing the puck , which helped him tie the Rangers single season record for assists by a goaltender and set the Rangers career record as well . Although he was considered one of the best positional goaltenders in the league , his greatest attribute may have been his self @-@ confidence . Former teammate Tom Laidlaw once noted that he believed Vanbiesbrouck 's confidence carried him farther than his talent .
= = Retirement = =
= = = Trevor Daley incident = = =
When he retired from the NHL , Vanbiesbrouck took over as the head coach and director of hockey operations for the Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds . In February 2003 , the team had a record of 18 @-@ 24 @-@ 4 @-@ 3 . A month later on March 7 , the Greyhounds lost 6 – 1 to the Guelph Storm . After the game Vanbiesbrouck used a racial slur in expressing his anger with Trevor Daley ( now with the Pittsburgh Penguins ) , a black player and Greyhounds ' team captain , to two of Daley 's white teammates . Daley was told of the remarks by his teammates and was advised to leave the team by his agent Bobby Orr . Daley returned home to Toronto and informed the commissioner of the OHL about the remarks . The day after Daley left the team , Vanbiesbrouck resigned his positions as coach and general manager , and sold his ownership stake in the team . In his apology Vanbiesbrouck stated " I used the ' N ' word instead of calling him Trevor , I used it just not thinking . It 's a mistake and consequences have to be paid by me , I 've embarrassed everybody and my family by this one comment . It 's not what they represent and it 's not what the Sault Greyhounds organization represents . " He added " I told Trev this is an old wound with me , I grew up with it . I 'm as sorry as anybody that it 's stuck with me . " Daley returned to the team three days after leaving , but Vanbiesbrouck never returned to a coaching position .
= = = Broadcasting career , management = = =
After leaving the Greyhounds , Vanbiesbrouck spent some time as a broadcaster , working as an analyst for Versus network as well as hockey broadcasts on HDNet . In 2010 Vanbiesbrouck , along with Steve Goldstein , formed the broadcast team for Westwood One 's radio coverage of the Winter Olympic hockey games . In 2013 , Vanbiesbrouck was named the general manager and director of hockey operations for the United States Hockey League 's ( USHL ) Muskegon Lumberjacks .
= = Personal = =
Vanbiesbrouck grew up as the youngest of three brothers . His oldest brother , Frank , was a goaltender who played three seasons of junior @-@ A hockey from 1974 until 1977 . His other brother , Julian , played left wing for the University of Michigan and briefly played in the International Hockey League as a member of the Toledo Goaldiggers . When Vanbiesbrouck was with the Rangers , his brother Frank showed signs of severe depression and suicidal tendencies . During this time John attempted to reach out to Frank , occasionally flying separately from the team on road trips to check in on his brother , and talking to him every day . Despite his efforts Frank committed suicide in 1993 . Vanbiesbrouck called Frank 's death " devastating , " and that he " felt very empty " when Frank died , adding that his Christian faith and the Bible helped him through the difficult time .
While playing with the Flyers , Vanbiesbrouck and his family lived in Moorestown Township , New Jersey . He and his wife , Rosalinde , have four sons , Ian , Ben , Nicholas and Daniel . Ian was diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder ( ADD ) when he was five @-@ years old . As a result , Vanbiesbrouck started the Vanbiesbrouck Foundation for children with Attention Deficit Disorder to increase awareness of and raise money for children with ADD . However , when he left Florida via free agency the foundation was dissolved and the mission of the program went into an information service based in South Florida . Vanbiesbrouck is also the celebrity sponsor of a golf event in support of The Alan T. Brown Foundation to Cure Paralysis . He returned to his home state of Michigan following his playing days .
= = Awards and honors = =
F. W. " Dinty " Moore Trophy ( OHL – best rookie goals against average ) winner in 1981 .
Selected to the OHL Second All @-@ Star team in 1983 .
Selected to the CHL First All @-@ Star Team in 1984 .
Terry Sawchuk Trophy winner in 1984 ( shared with Ron Scott ) .
Tommy Ivan Trophy ( CHL Most valuable Player ) winner in 1984 ( shared with Bruce Affleck ) .
Selected to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team in 1986 .
Selected to the NHL Second All @-@ Star Team in 1994 .
Vezina Trophy Winner in 1986 .
Played in 1994 , 1996 , and 1997 National Hockey League All @-@ Star Games .
Became the 15th , and only the 2nd American , goaltender in NHL history to record 300 career wins .
Inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in October 2007 .
Ranked No. 31 on the all @-@ time list of New York Rangers in the book 100 Ranger Greats .
Vanbiesbrouck appears on the NHL 97 cover .
= = = Records = = =
Holds New York Rangers all @-@ time franchise record for most assists in a single season by a goaltender ( 5 ) ( shared ) .
Holds New York Rangers all @-@ time franchise record for most career assists by a goaltender ( 25 ) .
Holds NHL all @-@ time record for most Victories among American born goaltenders ( 374 ) .
Holds NHL all @-@ time record for most Shutouts among American born goaltenders ( 40 ) ( shared with Frank Brimsek ) .
= = Career statistics = =
Bolded numbers indicate league leader .
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Post season = = =
= = = International = = =
= Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It =
Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It is the debut album of rapper Eazy @-@ E , released on September 13 , 1988 , through both Ruthless and Priority Records . The production by Dr. Dre and DJ Yella was deemed dense and funky by critic Jason Birchmeier . The pieces were written primarily by The D.O.C. , Ice Cube , and MC Ren . The album 's title track features Eazy rapping about himself and things that he does . " Boyz n the Hood " and " No More ? ' s " are about life in Compton , California and the gangsta lifestyle .
The album charted on two different charts and went 2x Platinum in the United States despite minimal promotion by radio and television . Three singles were released from the album , each charting in the US . The Remastered version contains the 1992 EP 5150 . The 25th anniversary ( 2013 ) contains 2 bonus tracks , a 12 " remix of " We Want Eazy " and a 12 " remix of " Still Talkin "
= = Recording and production = =
Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It was recorded at Audio Achievements in Torrance , California from 1987 to 1988 . The album 's writing was a three @-@ pronged effort involving MC Ren , Ice Cube , and The D.O.C .. MC Ren 's writing style was described by Marcus Reeves , author of Somebody Scream ! : Rap Music 's Rise to Prominence in the Aftershock of Black Power ( 2009 ) ISBN 9780865479975 , as " elaborate storytelling and acrobatic verbiage " , while the D.O.C. ' s included " syllabically punchy boasts " and Ice Cube wrote , " masterfully insightful first @-@ person narratives . " Ice Cube 's writing was often inspired by comedians like Richard Pryor and Rudy Ray Moore .
The album 's production , almost solely done by Dr. Dre and DJ Yella , was praised by several critics . Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic gave a considerable amount of attention to the album 's production , saying that " Dr. Dre and Yella meld together P @-@ Funk , Def Jam @-@ style hip hop , and the leftover electro sounds of mid- [ 19 ] 80s Los Angeles , creating a dense , funky , and thoroughly unique style of their own . " Birchmeier would also write that some songs — " Eazy Duz It " , " We Want Eazy " , " Eazy @-@ er Said Than Dunn " , and " Radio " — are all heavily produced and have " layers upon layers of samples and beats competing with Eazy @-@ E 's rhymes for attention . " Rapper Kanye West also touted Dr. Dre 's production on the album .
= = Composition = =
Glen Boyd of Blogcritics said that the album has " Deep @-@ ass bass lines , old @-@ school funk samples , and plenty of street smart ghetto attitude are what powers this record . " Jerry Heller wrote that Eazy raps more up front on the album than he does on Straight Outta Compton , and insists that the album 's lyrics contain more sexual humor than gangsta vibe .
The album 's title track and lead single " Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It " , written by MC Ren , opens with a woman acclaiming Eazy @-@ E 's style . Eazy then interrupts saying " Bitch shut the fuck up , get the fuck outta here . " This is followed by a bass line provided by Dr. Dre . Soon , Eazy begins to rap about himself and things that he does . The song declares that Eazy is a " hardcore villain " who collects money from his prostitutes , and feels great when his " pockets are fat . " The chorus , repeated three times , states that he " is a gangsta having fun " . The piece is laden with the aural mainstays of gangsta rap , including gunshots , and references to several drugs .
" Boyz n the Hood " was written by Ice Cube , with some contribution by Eazy @-@ E. The song is about growing up in Compton , California , and describes the gangster lifestyle . It conceives the " ghetto landscape as a generalized abstract construct … [ and ] also introduces a localized nuance that conveys a certain proximity , effectively capturing a narrowed sense of place through which young thugs and their potential crime victims move in tandem , " as put by cultural historian Murray Forman .
" No More ? ' s " is similar to " Boyz n the Hood " in its theme . The piece begins with an interview between Eazy and a female journalist , who asks about his childhood . Eazy explains ( in verse ) that he was ruthless , in a gang , " specialized in gankin , " ( loosely , to steal from ) and had no respect for rules . He is then asked if he has ever been in an armed robbery . He responds , " You mean a 211 ? " The following verses tell of Eazy 's exploits as a thief and thug .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album received little attention from radio and television stations , but got support from Los Angeles 's hip @-@ hop underground . On May 20 , 1989 , it peaked at number 41 on the Billboard 200 , and since 1989 , was in various places on the chart for 90 weeks . It peaked at number 12 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart on March 11 , 1989 . Since the album 's release , it has been on the chart during 51 different weeks . On February 15 , 1989 , the album was certified Gold ( 500 @,@ 000 sales ) by the Recording Industry Association of America , and on June 1 , 1989 , it was certified Platinum ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sales ) . It received its peak certification of Double Platinum ( 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sales ) on September 1 , 1992 . In 1989 , it had sold over 650 @,@ 000 copies , and by early 1995 , Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It had sold between 2 million and 2 @.@ 5 million copies . On February 11 , 1989 , " We Want Eazy " charted on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs at number 43 . It stayed on the chart for 15 weeks . The song also charted at number seven on the Hot Rap Songs chart . " Eazy @-@ er Said Than Dunn " , the album 's third single , peaked at number 84 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts on May 6 , 1989 , where it would maintain some lower position on the chart for six weeks . " Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It " charted on the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart at number 39 . In August 2015 , a couple weeks after the release of the N.W.A. biopic film , Straight Outta Compton , the album re @-@ entered the chart at number 32 , out @-@ peaking its original peak position in 1989 when it charted at number 41 .
= = = Critical response = = =
AllMusic 's Jason Birchmeier praised the album , awarding the album four out of five stars . Birchmeier noted that " the album plays like a humorous , self @-@ centered twist on Straight Outta Compton with Eazy @-@ E , the most charismatic member of N.W.A , front and center while his associates are busy behind the scenes , producing the beats and writing the songs . " He compared it to N.W.A 's Straight Outta Compton , which Eazy also performs on , saying that Straight Outta Compton is " more revolutionary , " but claimed Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It to be Straight Outta Compton 's " great companion " and to have showcased N.W.A 's style .
Music journalist Robert Christgau gave the album a C + , criticizing the thin beats and lyrics like " I might be a woman beater but I 'm not a pussy eater " Soren Baker from the Los Angeles Times called it a " landmark albums brimming with violence , profanity , sexually explicit content and antigovernment themes , " and said that it established Eazy as a " major player in the rap industry " Daniel Kreps of the Los Angeles Times called it a " solo masterpiece , " and said that it was evidence that Eazy was one of the best rappers ever . Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly described the album as " an obscenity @-@ littered depiction of violent , hollowed @-@ out life in Compton . "
Shan Fowler from PopMatters said that it received " underground success . " Glen Boyd reviewed the album on the online newspaper Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , noting that it " paved the way for all of the groundbreaking music which came later . " Boyd also said that songs like " Boyz In The Hood " and " Radio " would establish " the street buzz that N.W.A would later ride to platinum selling success as the first true West Coast rap superstars . " Jon Wiederhorn from MTV wrote that it " demonstrated Eazy 's knack for provocative lyrics , " and also said that it paved the way to Straight Outta Compton .
= = Track listing = =
All songs produced by Dr. Dre and DJ Yella
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel can be verified by both Allmusic and the album 's notes .
Big Bass Brian - Mastering
Dr. Dre - Producer and performer
The D.O.C. - Writer and performer
Eazy @-@ E - Executive Producer and performer
Eric Poppleton - Photography
Donovan Sound - Engineer
Yella - Producer
Ice Cube - Writer and performer
MC Ren - Writer and performer
= = Charts = =
= = = Chart positions = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Chart positions = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= USS Siboney ( ID @-@ 2999 ) =
USS Siboney ( ID @-@ 2999 ) was a ship transport for the United States Navy during World War I. She was the sister ship of USS Orizaba ( ID @-@ 1536 ) but neither was part of a ship class . Launched as SS Oriente , she was soon renamed after Siboney , Cuba , a landing site of United States forces during the Spanish – American War . After her navy service ended , she was SS Siboney for the Ward Line and American Export Lines . During World War II she served the U.S. Army as transport USAT Siboney and as hospital ship USAHS Charles A. Stafford .
As a transport during World War I , Siboney made 17 transatlantic voyages for the navy carrying troops to and from Europe , and had the shortest average in @-@ port turnaround time of all navy transports . During her maiden voyage , her steering gear malfunctioned which resulted in a collision between two other troopships in the convoy .
After her World War I service ended , Siboney was returned to the Ward Line and placed in New York – Cuba – Spain transatlantic service ; the liner ran aground at Vigo , Spain in September 1920 . Despite considerable damage , she was repaired and placed back in service . In late 1921 , Siboney was switched to New York – Cuba – Mexico routes , which were a popular and inexpensive way for Americans to escape Prohibition . In late 1940 , she was chartered to American Export Lines to return Americans fleeing Europe at the outset of World War II , making seven roundtrips from Jersey City , New Jersey , to Lisbon .
During World War II , Siboney was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and assigned to the War Department as a U.S. Army transport . She made several transatlantic trips and called at ports in Africa , the Middle East , Canada , the Caribbean , and the United Kingdom . During a 1944 overhaul , the ship was selected for conversion to a hospital ship . Renamed USAHS Charles A. Stafford after a U.S. Army doctor killed in action in Australia , the ship served in both the European and the Pacific Theatres . After the end of her army service , the ship was laid up in the National Defense Reserve Fleet in February 1948 , and sold for scrapping in 1957 .
= = World War I naval service = =
SS Oriente was a combination cargo and passenger vessel built by William Cramp and Sons , Philadelphia , for the Ward Line . In mid @-@ 1917 the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) commandeered and received title to all private shipbuilding projects in progress , including the still @-@ incomplete Oriente and her sister ship Orizaba . Plans for both ships were modified for troop carrying duties . Oriente was launched on 15 August 1917 , renamed Siboney on 28 February 1918 , delivered to the navy on 8 April , and commissioned the same day , Commander A.T. Graham in command .
Siboney sailed from Philadelphia on 16 April as a unit of the Cruiser and Transport Force , and arrived at Newport News two days later to embark her first contingent of troops . She departed Hampton Roads on 23 April and joined her first convoy the following day . On 25 April , her rudder jammed ; and , in the ensuing confusion , transports Aeolus and Huron collided and had to return to New York . On 4 May , the convoy was joined by the war zone escort of eight destroyers and , on 6 May , Siboney arrived at Brest . Debarking her troops , she sailed the following day and arrived at Hoboken , New Jersey , on 15 May .
Siboney embarked her second contingent of troops at Lambert 's Point , Virginia , on 25 May and sailed the following day . The New York section of the convoy joined two days later and the ships entered the war zone on 6 June . In French waters , they were met by USS Corsair , a squadron of minesweepers , an American dirigible , and two French hydroplanes . Siboney arrived in Bordeaux on 8 June and departed the following day but remained anchored in the mouth of the Gironde until 13 June , awaiting the tanker Woonsocket . On 15 June , the convoy passed six empty lifeboats from the torpedoed transport USS President Lincoln . Siboney entered the American war zone on 20 June , and the next day rescued survivors of the British vessel , SS Dwinsk , which had been torpedoed three days previously . The transport arrived at New York on 22 June and anchored in the North River .
Siboney sailed for France on 30 June ; after delivering her troops at Brest on 12 July , she returned to New York on 25 July . She sailed again on 31 July . Before arriving at Brest on 12 August , she had to maneuver several times to evade possible submarine contacts . She arrived at New York on 22 August and was given a two @-@ week repair period .
On 4 September , Siboney sailed from New York on her fifth crossing and arrived at Saint @-@ Nazaire nine days later . On 15 September , she embarked a number of wounded troops and left Saint @-@ Nazaire the same day , but , due to heavy submarine activity , swung at anchor for several days before her convoy sailed . She arrived on 29 September at New York . On her sixth eastward crossing , between 6 and 15 October , an influenza epidemic broke out among the troops , killing a number of soldiers . Sailing from Brest on 16 October , the transport returned to New York on 24 October .
Siboney had already embarked troops for her next voyage when , on 3 November , she was ordered to disembark them . She sailed the following day with an army brigadier general and his staff , and a naval draft of 500 men . She arrived at Saint @-@ Nazaire on the 12 November , shortly after the announcement of the Armistice , and was met by a cheering crowd .
Siboney then began her peacetime mission of returning American veterans from Europe to the United States . After embarking 513 wounded men at Saint @-@ Nazaire , she moved to Brest on the 15th and took on 600 more passengers . She sailed the same day under escort and reached New York on 24 November . During the next ten months , Siboney made ten more round trips between the United States and France , returning over 3 @,@ 000 troops per trip when fully loaded . On one such return trip in August 1919 , Siboney carried Admiral Henry T. Mayo and Congressman Thomas S. Butler home from France .
Siboney returned to New York on 2 September at the conclusion of her 17th trip , having traveled over 115 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 213 @,@ 000 km ) and transported approximately 55 @,@ 000 military passengers to and from French ports . According to the Statistical Department of the U.S. Navy , Siboney had the shortest average in @-@ port turnaround time out of 37 U.S. Navy transports used during World War I. The ship completed 17 round trips and had an average turn @-@ around time of just under 30 days per trip , almost ten days shorter than the average of 39 @.@ 8 days .
On 10 September at Hoboken , Siboney was decommissioned and turned over to the War Department , who returned the ship to the Ward Line , her original owners .
= = Interwar civilian service = =
After her reacquisition , the Ward Line placed SS Siboney in transatlantic service on a New York to Havana , Tenerife , Bilbao , Santander , and Vigo route . On 9 September 1920 , the ship ran aground in the harbor at Vigo . Initial efforts to re @-@ float her were unsuccessful , but by late October , Siboney had been repaired enough to make it to Shields . Despite considerable damage , Siboney
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was refitted and placed in service again and , by March 1921 , the Ward Line was advertising passage to Spain via Havana aboard her . The Ward Line , however , abandoned the New York – Cuba – Spain service later in 1921 due to a lack of passengers .
By November 1921 , Siboney was placed in New York – Cuba – Mexico service , where business thrived , in part because of Prohibition in the United States . Ward Line cruises to Havana were one of the quickest and least expensive ways to what one author called " alcohol @-@ enriched vacations " . A typical route from this time period would sail from New York and call at Nassau , Havana , Progreso , Veracruz , and Tampico , skipping Nassau on the return . Prohibition also had a more direct effect on Siboney and her crew . On 27 June 1922 , Siboney — freshly returned from Havana with a load of pineapples — was raided by United States Customs Service inspectors who seized 300 bottles of smuggled liquor on board . In December 1923 , four boiler room workers were arrested when police became suspicious of a man who had apparently just delivered a supply of alcohol to the docked ship .
Siboney underwent a major refit in 1924 during which time she was replaced on her routes by SS Yucatán , formerly the North German Lloyd ship Prinz Waldemar . After returning to service for the Ward Line , Siboney was the first to relay messages from Miami about the severity of the Great Miami Hurricane when she passed there shortly after the storm hit in September 1926 .
On 18 February 1928 , Siboney rammed and sank the coal barge Seneca off Ambrose Light during a snowstorm ; the barge had been cut down in 1915 from SS Seneca , coincidentally , a former Ward Line ship . Bad luck continued for Siboney on 5 January 1929 , when she rammed and sank the Bauer Towing Company tug Phillip Hoffman off the Battery , killing the tug ’ s engineer .
Siboney continued her same routes into the 1930s , and by 1933 typical runs for Siboney were from New York to Havana , Progreso , and Veracruz and back , omitting Progreso on the return . On one such return trip from Veracruz and Havana in April 1935 , a passenger had $ 5 @,@ 000 worth of diamond and platinum jewelry stolen while on board . By 1935 , multiple public relations disasters for the Ward Line — the fire and sinking of Morro Castle off New Jersey in 1934 and the grounding of Havana and the sinking of Mohawk in the months that followed — caused the " Ward Line " name to be dropped in favor of the " Cuba Mail Line " moniker . By 1939 , Siboney , still on the New York – Cuba – Mexico route , sported a new paint scheme of " dove grey " hull and black funnels with white markings to reflect this change in name . In late 1940 , however , the struggling Cuba Mail Line chartered Siboney to American Export Lines which employed her on Jersey City – Lisbon service . During her American Export service , one of her passengers to the U.S. was French aviator and writer Antoine de Saint Exupéry , when he immigrated in January 1941 to Asharoken , New York after Germany ’ s armistice with France .
On 12 April 1941 at 13 : 30 , 320 nautical miles ( 590 km ) out of Lisbon , the ship — painted with a large American flag and " American Export " lettering on each side — was accosted by " two submarine chasers flying British ensigns " that fired shots over Siboney 's bow , one of which landed less than 100 feet ( 30 m ) away from the ship . According to Siboney 's captain , Wenzel Habel , the two ships were British corvette types marked " K @-@ 25 " and " K @-@ 125 " — which may have been Flower @-@ class corvettes HMS Azalea ( K25 ) and HMCS Kenogami ( K125 ) . After answering questions from " K @-@ 25 " shouted via loudspeaker , Siboney was allowed to resume her course . Habel filed a protest with British officials when Siboney docked at Bermuda .
= = World War II Army service = =
At the conclusion of her seventh and final journey for American Export , Siboney was handed over on 28 May 1941 to the U.S. Army for transport duty . After a hasty outfitting , the redesignated USAT Siboney was put to work transporting troops . Based in New York , she made trips up and down the Atlantic and into the Caribbean , and , by the end of 1941 , had called at Bermuda , San Juan , Trinidad , St. John 's , Charleston , Newport News , Cristóbal , Jamaica , and Panama .
December 1941 saw Siboney depart from New York to Trinidad and on to Cape Town , then sailing up the east coast of Africa to Basra , Iraq , and Bandar Shahpur , Iran . The ship returned to Cape Town via Aden and underwent routine boiler repairs there , before returning to New York in April 1942 . After undergoing six weeks of repairs at Bethlehem Steel Company , the transport sailed for Halifax , Iceland , and the Clyde , Scotland , in late May , returning to New York in July . Another trip to England and back followed in September 1942 .
In early December 1942 Siboney departed for Newfoundland but put into Halifax for two months of drydocking and repairs after she collided with SS City of Kimberly . After returning to New York in February 1943 , she made several transatlantic runs , calling at Casablanca , Oran , Gibraltar , Clyde , Durban , Rio de Janeiro , Trinidad , and Cuba over the next 11 months . Siboney returned to New York for major repairs and reboilering at Bethlehem Steel Co . In January 1944 , while undergoing this work , the ship was selected for conversion to a hospital ship .
The ship was renamed USAHS Charles A. Stafford after Captain Charles A. Stafford of the U.S. Army Medical Corps , who was killed during the air raid on Broome , Western Australia , while participating in the evacuation of Java on 3 March 1942 . With her conversion complete in September 1944 , the Stafford , equipped with new boilers , a single stack in place of her original two , and other improvements , moved to her new homeport of Charleston . From that port the ship made monthly runs to the United Kingdom and back until May 1945 , interrupting the pattern only once for a trip to Gibraltar and Marseilles . Steaming to New York at the conclusion of her last transatlantic run , Charles A. Stafford was overhauled for duty in the South Pacific .
With the alterations complete , the veteran ship — now homeported at Los Angeles — sailed in August 1945 for Cristobál and on to Honolulu , Manila , Biak , Leyte , and Mindoro . After returning to Los Angeles in October , the Stafford sailed for Honolulu , Manila , and Eniwetok and back .
After sailing to her new homeport of New York via the Panama Canal during February 1946 , Charles A. Stafford resumed her North Atlantic runs to the UK , which continued until February 1948 , at which time she was laid up in Maritime Commission 's James River Reserve Fleet . Kept on reserve under her original name of Siboney , the ship was delivered by the Maritime Administration to Bethlehem Steel for scrapping on 22 January 1957 .
= Rega Planar 3 =
The Rega Planar 3 , together with its successors , the P3 and RP3 , is a well @-@ known budget audiophile turntable by British hi @-@ fi manufacturer , Rega Research available since 1977 . It was a belt @-@ drive deck that broke from convention , by employing a solid plinth in lieu of the compliantly @-@ suspended chassis or sub @-@ chassis used in many quality turntables since the early 1960s .
The product has lived through several guises and name changes , any of which are often referred to simply as " Rega 3 " . It is highly influential , and has made its small British manufacturer 's name synonymous with hi @-@ fi turntables , and gave the company the widest brand recognition in this product sector in the US . Its relative simplicity and affordability made the Rega 3 a " bedrock of analog playback for well over 30 years " .
= = History = =
The record player has been through four principal guises : Planar 3 ( 1977 – 2000 ) ( 2016- ) , P3 ( 2000 – 2007 ) , P3 @-@ 24 ( 2007 – 2012 ) and RP3 ( 2012 @-@ 2016 ) . The first Rega turntable , the Planar 2 was launched in 1975 . This was followed by the launch in June 1977 of the Planar 3 . The two decks are of identical design but built to different budgets . The Planar 3 turntable established itself as a " threshold " or entry @-@ level for high quality turntables . It became hugely popular and is one of the most well @-@ known turntables ever produced . A Planar 3 might take centre place in the system of many audiophiles as a " serious turntable " until they could afford the coveted Linn Sondek LP12 . It became a reference for simplicity and value , confirming Britain as an important player in the specialist hi @-@ fi industry .
= = = Design = = =
Rega went against conventional wisdom of the time , preferring to make their decks lightweight and rigid as a means of controlling unwanted resonances . Their belief was that mass absorbs energy and results in lost music . In other senses , the turntables are deliberately minimalistic and neither require nor justify any ' tweaking ' by users , except adjustment to the vertical @-@ tracking @-@ angle ( VTA ) of the cartridge . It is a belt @-@ driven design incorporating a driving ' sub @-@ platter ' mounted in a high quality oil @-@ lubricated bearing , which is fixed directly to a medite ( MDF ) plinth supported by three simple rubber feet . A heavy glass platter sits atop the sub @-@ platter , which is driven by a mechanically @-@ isolated 24V synchronous motor through a rubber belt . A 2mm @-@ thick mat sits on top of the glass platter . The turntable is without suspension , and the rubber feet provide limited mechanical isolation from floor @-@ transmitted vibrations . A perspex cover is provided for some isolation against airborne vibrations . The record deck is single speed – it runs at 33 rpm , and the user must physically remove the platter to reposition the drive belt to play 45 rpm records .
The two major changes to the Planar 3 during its life were firstly the inclusion of the higher quality Rega RB300 tonearm in the 1980s , and the change to a new AC synchronous motor more recently . The motor , which had been tuned for lower vibration , allowed for the elimination of the old motor 's compliant mounting .
= = = = ' RB ' tonearms = = = =
The Planar 3 comes factory @-@ fitted with a RB300 tonearm whose one @-@ piece die @-@ cast aluminium @-@ alloy tube is the core of all Rega arms . It has higher @-@ tolerance bearings , a decoupled counterweight , a coil @-@ spring – type tracking force adjustment , and higher @-@ quality interconnect cables compared to the RB250 fitted to the Planar 2 . The P3 @-@ 24 , ( launched in 2007 ) was fitted with a RB301 , which had a new anti @-@ skate mechanism , external tonearm cable , an improved vertical bearing and a new three @-@ point attachment to the plinth instead of a single pillar .
Considered by some to be classics , the Rega tonearms are regarded as offering high value by many reviewers , in the context of the price of the deck . Its high price – performance ratio made the RB300 popular for use with other manufacturers ' decks , including , for example , the Linn Sondek . It earned its place as the most widely used OEM tonearm on the market .
= = = Comparison with Planar 2 / P2 = = =
The Planar 2 was supplied with a RB250 tonearm as against a RB300 on the Planar 3 , and is available only in black finish . Earlier models had a glass platter , wood surround @-@ frame plinth and S @-@ shaped arm ; Rega changed to using a fibreboard platter on the P2 which it describes as being " CNC machined HDF which is then metalised [ sic ] , giving a platter with good mass and accuracy . " Compared to the Planar 2 , the Rega Planar 3 has a thicker , heavier plinth ; the drive motor is mounted on the plinth using a rubber suspension for improved isolation . The glass platter is also thicker , as is the felt mat .
In 2003 , Lim Juan of The Star speculated that the revised P2 looked " a lot less substantial than its ancestor " , because of cost @-@ cutting . Whilst the platter of the costlier Rega decks , P3 and P25 , continued to be of glass , reviewers derided the fibreboard platter of the P2 as " not inspiring much confidence " . The plinth , which the Rega website described as a low mass particulate core sandwiched by highly rigid phenolic laminates , " looks like any plain cheap medite board " , according to Lim . The badly @-@ toleranced medite platter proved unpopular with prospective buyers so Rega reverted to glass platters for a while , until the P2 was discontinued in 2005 .
On the discontinuation of the P2 , the P3 became Rega 's entry @-@ level record player until the company relaunched the P1 in 2006 ( at $ 350 including arm and cartridge ) to compete with offerings from Music Hall and Pro @-@ Ject . In late 2006 / early 2007 , the P2 was resurrected once again , with different platter – thicker than before at 22mm , and weightier . When giving their verdicts , audio reviewers often advised readers to pay a little extra for the P3 over the P2 .
= = = Evolution = = =
The Rega Planar 3 was updated and renamed the P3 in 2000 , and started being made available in a range of bright colours . The P3 @-@ 24 , in the name of the 24 @-@ pole AC synchronous motor used – same for the costlier P5 and P7 decks , was released ( in 2007 ) . A separate power supply drives the " very low vibration " motor directly mounted on the table . The P3 @-@ 24 may be used with an optional external power supply designed for the P7 that gives a stable voltage to drive the motor and which allows for two @-@ speed operation ( 33 and 45 rpm ) without requiring manual speed change . The plinth of the P3 @-@ 24 and more recent models , constructed of laminates with a 0.9mm phenolic resin skin instead of MDF , is custom @-@ made by a Scottish kitchen cabinet supplier .
In superseding the Rega P3 @-@ 24 with the RP3 , Rega made improvements to the bearing , arm , and plinth . Rega co @-@ founder and chief designer Roy Gandy realised the plinth could be made lighter if thicker bracing was installed at key points to make the structure stronger and stiffer . It was found that after a 2mm @-@ thick brace was incorporated on the top and bottom of the plinth , the phenolic skin could be dispensed with . The RB301 tonearm fitted to its predecessor was changed to the RB303 , which has a cast alloy tube that offered greater rigidity and better control of resonance .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sound quality = = =
Ross at Vinyl Asylum regarded the original Rega 's overall sonic presentation as " much more refined than a typical Dual " ( referring to the Dual 505 ) or similarly priced Japanese record players . He found fault , however , in a number of parameters , such as average transient response , not enough sense of depth , a higher than expected noise floor , and some slurring of musical notes and details – such as individual voices among a small group of singers .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Sam Tellig wrote in Stereophile that the Rega 3 " is a good @-@ sounding turntable and a good value — at the UK price ... it 's a miracle that the Rega sounds as good as it does " compared with the apparently better built Harmon @-@ Kardon T60 . From a sound quality viewpoint , Tellig noted " a very dynamic sound with powerful , punchy bass — the table conveys the music 's excitement ... [ but with ] too much emphasis of the mid- to upper @-@ bass [ and ] tends to sound a little muddy in bass detail " . He added that the deck 's pitch instability was audible " every so often , particularly with woodwinds " . Szabady , in Stereo Times , also agreed that musical expressiveness was the classic Planar 3 strength ; its weaknesses included occasional speed inconsistency and slurring of heavily modulated bass transients .
HiFi Choice said in 1984 that the Planar 3 sounded " nicely musical in a balanced and coherent manner . Presentation of detail was considered well above average " ; in 1992 it asserted that the Rega Planar 3 has been " a long time leader " under £ 250 . Michael Fremer wrote in December 1996 that " while the 2 did nothing really wrong , the 3 offered somewhat deeper and tighter bass , better dynamics at both ends of the scale , a better sensation of ' quiet ' , and smoother overall performance " . Considered on its own terms , the Rega 3 was " quiet , dynamic , free of obvious tracking distortion or other supposed analog problems , extremely well @-@ balanced top to bottom , offers very deep and reasonably tight bass " . In comparison with the $ 9000 TNT Mk.3 / Immedia RPM , recordings sounded " more like a recording and less like real life on the Rega 3 " .
Brent Burmester said in Audioenz in 2005 that , compared to the already discontinued Rega 2 , the Rega 3 is " tauter , faster , just a little quieter ... and better in all the dimensions in which the P2 is already strong . My only niggle was the slight hollowness invested in the lower @-@ midrange " . Burmester described the P3 sound as " dynamic , expressive ... fresh and enthusiastic feel , not quite but nearly weaving the illusion that you 're sitting in the third row of the auditorium or the engineer 's booth at the recording studio . [ It ] sounded ' newer ' , more together , sharper , more focused . It 's a contemporary sound , not a million miles from well sorted CD players of three times the price " .
Writing in Secrets of Home Theater and High Fidelity in 2012 , Jim Clements said of the RP3 that it has " several meaningful advances over the P3 @-@ 24 [ that ] help the RP3 operate with low background noise and an innate ability for detail retrieval . This table also conveys above average dynamic shadings while providing a solid foundation to support the whole frequency balance of your cartridge . " Writing in The Absolute Sound , Wayne Garcia appraised that " the RP3 is sonically superior to its predecessor in every way . " Stereophile said it " retained the P3 @-@ 24 's fast , forgiving sound , but added tighter and better @-@ controlled low frequencies " .
= = = Popularity and accolades = = =
The Regar Planar 3 is one of the better @-@ known turntables in the history of hi @-@ fi . Jim Clements said that the Rega 3 in its various incarnations " is probably one of the best @-@ selling turntable lines in the history of the world " . Audiogon notes that " the Planar 3 or the current P3 it has remained a bedrock of analog playback for well over 30 years " . Techradar notes that " Few hi @-@ fi components have lived longer or exerted greater influence than Rega 's Planar 3 turntable " . Jeff Dorgay said that " P3 is not only the ' table that put Rega on the map in the US but the one that gave the company the widest brand identity " .
The P3 @-@ 24 was both a " Joint Analog Source " and a " Joint Budget Component " for 2008 . In 2012 , the RP3 won Stereophile 's " Analog Source Component of the Year " and What Hi @-@ fi ? voted it Product of the Year in the category of Best Turntable £ 500- £ 750 .
= Shades of Gray ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Shades of Gray " is the 22nd episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , the 48th episode overall . It was originally broadcast on July 17 , 1989 , in broadcast syndication . It was the only clip show filmed during the series and was created due to a lack of funds left over from other episodes during the season . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise . In this episode , Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) undergoes medical treatment by Dr. Katherine Pulaski ( Diana Muldaur ) for an alien infection and must relive numerous past events .
It was the final episode written by Maurice Hurley , who originated the idea and wrote the first draft of the script , with Hans Beimler and Richard Manning conducting re @-@ writes . It was directed by Rob Bowman and the framework sequences were filmed over the course of three days . It was watched by 9 @.@ 8 million viewers on the first broadcast , the highest ratings for the series since " Samaritan Snare " two months earlier . " Shades of Gray " is widely regarded as the worst episode of the series , with critics calling it " god @-@ awful " and a " travesty " ; even Hurley referred to it negatively . It can be compared to " Spock 's Brain " in The Original Series .
= = Plot = =
During a geological survey on Surata IV , Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) is struck by a thorn growing on a motile vine plant . The away team immediately beams back to the Enterprise , where Dr. Katherine Pulaski ( Diana Muldaur ) finds out that the thorn has released a deadly virus into Riker 's body . Within a matter of hours , the virus will reach Riker 's brain , killing him . To try to save Riker 's life , Pulaski puts him into a machine that will artificially stimulate his brain neurons , keeping them active and resisting the virus . This causes Riker to dream of his past adventures aboard the Enterprise . Riker 's first dreams are of reasonably neutral occasions , such as his first meeting with Lieutenant Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) . He soon moves on to more passionate and even erotic dreams , such as meeting the cheerful young Edo women on Rubicon III , the matriarch Beata ( Karen Montgomery ) on Angel One , or the computer @-@ generated holodeck woman Minuet ( Carolyn McCormick ) .
However , while pleasing to Riker 's mind , the passionate dreams only worsen Riker 's condition , as the virus feeds on the positive endorphins his brain is creating . Pulaski and Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) therefore agree to try to make the machine evoke negative dreams instead . Thus Riker dreams of Lieutenant Tasha Yar 's ( Denise Crosby ) death , or the apparent death of Deanna Troi 's child ( R. J. Williams ) . This has the desired effect , as the negative endorphins drive the virus away , but the endorphins are not strong enough . As a last resort , Pulaski uses the machine to evoke dreams of raw , primitive feelings of fear and survival . Thus Riker dreams of fighting the tar creature Armus ( Mart McChesney ) , the alien @-@ controlled Admiral Gregory Quinn ( Ward Costello ) , and the Klingon officer Klag ( Brian Thompson ) on board the warship Pagh . Seeing that the raw emotions work best , Pulaski intensifies the dreams to come at a more rapid pace . This finally kills the virus and Riker recovers .
= = Production = =
The episode was intended to save money at the end of the season by being a bottle episode which featured few additional characters . The only guest star was Colm Meaney as recurring character Chief Miles O 'Brien . The reason was that the show had overspent on the episodes " Elementary , Dear Data " and " Q Who " , and Paramount Studios was holding the series to their overall season budget . It was the last episode on which Maurice Hurley acted as head writer ; he referred to the episode as a " piece of shit " and " terrible , just terrible " . He turned in the idea of a cheap clip show to save money and wrote the first draft of the script , with Richard Manning and Hans Beimler conducting re @-@ writes .
Director Rob Bowman initially thought that the episode could be filmed in five days , two less than usual . However , it was actually filmed in three days after pressure from Paramount with two spent only on the sickbay set . He later said that he simply shot the framework for the clips to be added in later , and never saw a final cut of the episode . Production assistant Eric A. Stillwell was responsible for selecting the clips that went into the episode , with 21 different clips included . The prop used on Riker to fight the infection was created from drawings by designer Rick Sternbach .
Ron Jones created the music for the episode , including a three note motif to represent the virus which infects Riker . Themes build as the episode progresses , with elements from " Infection Spreads " which is played over the scene between Riker and Troi move into the pieces " Shades of Pleasure " and " Earth Boys Are Easy " which is played over the pleasurable memories . String instructions and flutes are added to " Shades of Sadness " which played over the unhappy memories , before it built to a climax in the intense memories in the pieces " Critical Condition " , " Shades of Conflict " and " Final Intensities " . Several scenes retained the compositions from the episodes , including pieces by Dennis McCarthy , while others by McCarthy were re @-@ composed by Jones .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Shades of Gray " was first shown on July 17 , 1989 in broadcast syndication . It was the final episode of the second season and was watched by 9 @.@ 8 million viewers on the first broadcast . It was the highest number of viewers for an episode since " Samaritan Snare " some two months prior .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido watched " Shades of Gray " for Tor.com , and admitted that he hadn 't seen the episode since the original broadcast . He said that it was a " trainwreck " and even worse than he remembered , because other shows such as Xena : Warrior Princess and Stargate SG @-@ 1 had since done much better clip shows . DeCandido summed it up by saying that " In all honesty , they ’ d have been better off doing one fewer episode — the season was shortened by the writers strike anyhow — and upping the budget on one of the other 21 . Just an awful , awful episode . " He gave the episode a score of zero out of ten . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club , describing the script as " god @-@ awful " and the episode as " forced " .
Michelle Erica Green in her review for TrekNation called the storyline " absurdly flimsy " and that the episode " just felt lazy on every level " . She compared it to The Original Series episode " Operation : Annihilate ! " and the Voyager episode " Resolutions " for better episodes featuring alien infections . In the list of the five worst Star Trek : The Next Generation compiled by TechRepublic writer Jay Garmon , " Shades of Gray " was listed as the worst . Garmon described it a " travesty " and that the " nicest " thing you could say about the episode was that it was the last time there was a flashback episode in the series and the last appearance of Pulaski . It was also the original choice of worst episode by Empire magazine , but it was decided that it didn 't count as it was a clip show – so " Masks " was chosen instead .
The first home media release of " Shades of Gray " was on VHS cassette , appearing on October 12 , 1994 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season two DVD box set , released in on May 7 , 2002 . The most recent release was as part of the season two Blu @-@ ray set on December 4 , 2012 .
= PRR 460 =
PRR 460 , nicknamed the " Lindbergh Engine " , is a Pennsylvania Railroad E6s steam locomotive now located in the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania , outside of Strasburg , Pennsylvania in the United States . It was built in 1914 and became famous after racing an aircraft to New York City carrying newsreels of Charles Lindbergh 's return to the United States after his transatlantic flight in 1927 . In the late 1930s , No. 460 was operated by the Long Island Rail Road , and the Pennsylvania – Reading Seashore Lines in the early 1950s , before being retired in 1953 . No. 460 is the only surviving locomotive of its class and was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1979 . Since mid @-@ 2010 , 460 has been undergoing restoration at the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania .
= = Background = =
An experimental Model E6 was developed in 1910 and , after two other " sample " locomotives and four years of tests , it was found that the 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 Atlantic 's speed equaled that of the larger 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 Pacific 's . An additional 80 E6 locomotives were ordered with superheaters and classified as the E6s .
= = History = =
No. 460 was the last of the E6s model to be built , out of a total of 80 locomotives . From their construction in 1914 until 1920 , the E6s ran mostly on the corridor between New York City and Washington , D.C. After being replaced by the K4s model , the E6s locomotives were relegated to charter services because of their high speed .
After returning from Europe and his transatlantic flight on June 11 , 1927 , Charles Lindbergh was promoted to colonel and awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross by President Calvin Coolidge . Two rival newsreel companies , who were each vying to be the first to have their films of the ceremony shown in New York theaters , chartered a train and an aircraft , respectively , from Washington to New York City . No. 460 headed up the charter train , pulling only its tender , a baggage car and a passenger car . The train departed Washington at 1 : 14 PM and arrived at the Manhattan Transfer , outside of New York City , 2 hours and 56 minutes later . The final leg , through the tunnels underneath the Hudson River , was completed by an electric DD1 . No. 460 averaged 82 @.@ 7 miles per hour ( 133 @.@ 1 km / h ) and attained a maximum speed of 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) . Even though the aircraft arrived in New York first , the film brought by No. 460 was in theaters hours before the other , thanks to a film processing lab on board the baggage car .
After the race , No. 460 went back to its normal duties until March 1937 , when it was loaned to the Long Island Rail Road . In January 1939 , No. 460 was returned to the Pennsylvania , but was still occasionally used on Long Island as a " short term ' loaner ' " . Starting in 1942 , it hauled trains between Camden and Bay Head , New Jersey . In 1951 , parts were taken of other E6s locomotives that were going to be scrapped : the drivers on the engineer 's ( right ) side are from PRR 1565 , the air reservoir on the fireman 's ( left ) side was from PRR 690 and the reservoir on the engineer 's side was from PRR 782 . 460 's tender was replaced in 1952 with one from 1565 ; the original tender had been transferred to maintenance @-@ of @-@ way service . 460 was leased to the Pennsylvania – Reading Seashore Lines in 1953 before being retired in 1955 and added to the Pennsylvania 's collection of historic locomotives in Northumberland , Pennsylvania .
= = = Preservation = = =
No. 460 was moved from Northumberland in October 1969 to the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania in Strasburg . Although a part of the museum , it was not owned by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission until it was officially donated to the museum in December 1979 , by the Penn Central Transportation Company , which received ownership when the Pennsylvania was merged with the New York Central Railroad . No. 460 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 17 , 1979 . From 1982 to 1984 , volunteers at the museum cleaned the locomotive , replaced wooden window frames and doors , applied rust inhibitor primer and repainted the metal . The locomotive 's " asbestos lagging " was removed in 2008 . A $ 400 @,@ 000 restoration , lasting 3 to 4 years , is planned and is expected to start once an unrelated project at the museum is completed in the summer of 2011 . 460 was moved into the museum restoration shops on March 17 , 2010 after raising $ 50 @,@ 000 and receiving an additional $ 50 @,@ 000 donation . From July to August 2010 , 460 was " blasted " to remove the several layers of lead paint from the locomotive . The blasting uncovered original timing marks and stamped numbers showing that the origins of some of the parts on 460 were cannibalized from other E6s locomotives .
= Love , Blactually =
" Love , Blactually " is the first episode of the seventh season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on September 28 , 2008 . The episode features anthropomorphic dog Brian as he meets a fellow atheist named Carolyn ( Kat Foster ) at a book store , and the two begin dating . Heeding advice from Stewie ( also voiced by MacFarlane ) , Brian decides not to have sex with her . Carolyn is led to believe that Brian does not want a substantive relationship , so she begins to date Cleveland ( Mike Henry ) .
The episode was written by Henry , and directed by Cyndi Tang . It received generally positive reviews from critics for its storyline . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 9 @.@ 2 million viewers in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Foster and Meredith Baxter , along with several recurring voice actors from the series . " Love , Blactually " was released on DVD along with eight other episodes from the season on June 16 , 2009 . This was also the first episode where Chris is not seen or mentioned , and the second for Meg after Believe It or Not , Joe 's Walking on Air .
= = Plot = =
During a costume party , Lois suggests Brian to find a girlfriend . After going to the bookstore to buy The God Delusion , Brian meets an atheist named Carolyn , who happens to be looking for the same book . Brian becomes interested in Carolyn , and the two begin to date . When she invites him to her house , Stewie apprehends Brian and tells him that his relationships fail because he has sex with his girlfriends immediately when they meet . Brian realizes that Stewie is right and decides to listen to his advice . However , he finds out that Carolyn has begun to date Cleveland , since Brian did not want to have sex for the three weeks they have dated . A heartbroken Brian tries to deal with his loss , but keeps running into Cleveland and Carolyn having sex in various locations . Blaming Stewie for his advice that cost him a relationship with Carolyn , Brian is about ready to give up on love . Apologizing for his botched attempt to help him out , Stewie suggests that he can convince Cleveland 's ex @-@ wife , Loretta , to reconcile with him .
The two visit Loretta in her own room and find out that she feels guilty for cheating on him with Quagmire . Brian feels uncertain that he should carry out this plan , but Cleveland announces plans to elope with Carolyn in Hawaii , which makes their friendship tense . Realizing that Loretta may be his only hope to get Carolyn back , Brian asks for her help and she agrees to help him . She invites Cleveland to meet her at her hotel room , asking him to let her explain herself and if he can forgive her for her adulterous affair . Thinking Brian is up to no good , Peter recruits Quagmire to have sex with Loretta just to keep Cleveland and Carolyn together . Quagmire meets her at the hotel , but this time , Loretta resists his advances and tells him to leave . When Cleveland shows up to her hotel room , Loretta apologizes for her actions and tells her former husband that she wants to start a new life with him . Cleveland forgives her , but insists that it is time for the both of them to move on while still remaining friends . Loretta finally agrees to move on without him . When Cleveland visits Carolyn , he finds her and Quagmire having sex . Since both Brian and Cleveland have been cheated on by the same woman , Cleveland apologizes to him for stealing Carolyn and they make amends , with the former revealing himself to have received a genital wart .
= = Production = =
" Love , Blactually " is the season premiere of the seventh season of Family Guy . It was written by one of the show 's main voice actors Mike Henry , in his first episode of the season . The episode dealt a lot with the character of Cleveland Brown , which is one of the characters for which Henry provides the voice . The episode was directed by Cyndi Tang , who has been with the show since its fifth season . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors for the episode . The episode is one of the last to concentrate on the character of Cleveland , since he would be moved to The Cleveland Show ( which Henry co @-@ created ) .
" Love , Blactually " , along with the first eight episodes of the seventh season were released on DVD by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on June 16 , 2009 , one month after it had completed broadcast on television . The " Volume 7 " DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes , animatics , and commentaries for every episode .
In addition to the regular cast , actress Kat Foster portrayed the voice of Carolyn , and actress Meredith Baxter portrayed herself . Recurring voice actors Ralph Garman , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener also made minor appearances . Then @-@ series writer and regular voice actress Alex Borstein portrayed the voice of Loretta Brown .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode begins with a costume party , where Brian and Stewie are both dressed as Snoopy from Peanuts , Quagmire dresses up as Napoleon Dynamite , Peter as Laura Bush , Lois as Michael Dutton Douglas , Joe as Mark Spitz ( although people believe he is a crippled Thomas Magnum ) , and Cleveland as Charlie Chaplin . Woodstock , another character from Peanuts also makes a cameo appearance . The popular conversation between Stewie and Brian which draws attention to a hard " h " consonant sound is directly sourced from dialogue within the film Hot Rod . Stewie finds a book entitled Horton Hears Domestic Violence in the Next Apartment and Doesn 't Call 911 ! , a parody of Horton Hears a Who ! Cleveland 's deadpan exclamation of " ... and boom goes the dynamite " is a reference to the popular catchphrase which became an Internet sensation . Cleveland and Carolyn meet at a Starbucks . Peter doesn 't remember the name of Cleveland 's ex @-@ wife ( Loretta ) and he guesses that it 's Jennifer Hudson . When Brian lies and says that he thinks Loretta is beautiful and that her personality is only slightly abrasive his nose grows , which is a reference to a scene in the film Airplane ! , which in turn is a reference to Pinocchio . When the family is mediating with Cleveland on whether or not to get back with Loretta , Peter accuses Brian of pushing Cleveland back with Loretta just so he himself could have Carolyn , and Peter says , " You know , Brian , sometimes I don 't believe I know you , " in a low and harsh tone ; this is a quote from The Sound of Music , where Captain Von Trapp utters the same thing to Max Detweiler in response to his indifference to the Nazi invasion of Austria . When Quagmire tries to seduce Loretta , he strips naked and says , " Eh @-@ neeek @-@ chock " , to enlarge his penis , which is a reference to Apache Chief and is implied to enlarge , along with the sound effects accompanying the phrase.When Quagmire runs into Cleveland at the hotel where Lorreta is , Cleveland asks why he is nude . Quagmire responds , " What ? ! People have been telling me that I have been wearing robes made from the most beautiful silk ! " That is a reference from a book , The Emperor 's New Clothes .
The title is a reference to the British romantic comedy film Love Actually .
= = Reception = =
The episode was watched by 9 @.@ 2 million viewers , compared to 9 @.@ 3 million that tuned in to The Simpsons and 7 million that watched King of the Hill for their season openers on Fox . The episode received positive reviews . Ahsan Haque of IGN praised " Love , Blactually " , writing that it had " many memorable scenes , quote @-@ worthy dialogue , politically incorrect references , and great storyline " . He graded the episode 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club wrote that the episode was " pretty funny overall " with " some great meta @-@ commentary " , and graded it B + . In contrast Robin Pierson of The TV Critic gave the episode a negative review , saying that Family Guy has become like the shows it mocked in its earlier seasons and he ended his review by stating that it has become " predictable , stale and irritating to watch " and he gave it a 29 out of a possible 100 .
= Circular permutation in proteins =
A circular permutation is a relationship between proteins whereby the proteins have a changed order of amino acids in their peptide sequence . The result is a protein structure with different connectivity , but overall similar three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) shape . In 1979 , the first pair of circularly permuted proteins – concanavalin A and lectin – were discovered ; over 2000 such proteins are now known .
Circular permutation can occur as the result of evolutionary events , posttranslational modifications , or artificially engineered mutations . The two main models proposed to explain the evolution of circularly permuted proteins are permutation by duplication and fission and fusion . Permutation by duplication occurs when a gene undergoes duplication to form a tandem repeat , before redundant sections of the protein are removed ; this relationship is found between saposin and swaposin . Fission and fusion occurs when partial proteins fuse to form a single polypeptide , such as in nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenases .
Circular permutations are routinely engineered in the laboratory to improve their catalytic activity or thermostability , or to investigate properties of the original protein .
Traditional algorithms for sequence alignment and structure alignment are not able to detect circular permutations between proteins . New non @-@ linear approaches have been developed that overcome this and are able to detect topology @-@ independent similarities .
= = History = =
In 1979 , Bruce Cunningham and his colleagues discovered the first instance of a circularly permuted protein in nature . After determining the peptide sequence of the lectin protein favin , they noticed its similarity to a known protein – concanavalin A – except that the ends were circularly permuted . Later work confirmed the circular permutation between the pair and showed that concanavalin A is permuted post @-@ translationally through cleavage and an unusual protein ligation .
After the discovery of a natural circularly permuted protein , researchers looked for a way to emulate this process . In 1983 , David Goldenberg and Thomas Creighton were able to create a circularly permuted version of a protein by chemically ligating the termini to create a cyclic protein , then introducing new termini elsewhere using trypsin . In 1989 , Karolin Luger and her colleagues introduced a genetic method for making circular permutations by carefully fragmenting and ligating DNA . This method allowed for permutations to be introduced at arbitrary sites .
Despite the early discovery of post @-@ translational circular permutations and the suggestion of a possible genetic mechanism for evolving circular permutants , it was not until 1995 that the first circularly permuted pair of genes were discovered . Saposins are a class of proteins involved in sphingolipid catabolism and antigen presentation of lipids in humans . Chris Ponting and Robert Russell identified a circularly permuted version of a saposin inserted into plant aspartic proteinase , which they nicknamed swaposin . Saposin and swaposin were the first known case of two natural genes related by a circular permutation .
Hundreds of examples of protein pairs related by a circular permutation were subsequently discovered in nature or produced in the laboratory . As of February 2012 , the Circular Permutation Database contains 2 @,@ 238 circularly permuted protein pairs with known structures , and many more are known without structures . The CyBase database collects proteins that are cyclic , some of which are permuted variants of cyclic wild @-@ type proteins . SISYPHUS is a database that contains a collection of hand @-@ curated manual alignments of proteins with non @-@ trivial relationships , several of which have circular permutations .
= = Evolution = =
There are two main models that are currently being used to explain the evolution of circularly permuted proteins : permutation by duplication and fission and fusion . The two models have compelling examples supporting them , but the relative contribution of each model in evolution is still under debate . Other , less common , mechanisms have been proposed , such as " cut and paste " or " exon shuffling " .
= = = Permutation by duplication = = =
The earliest model proposed for the evolution of circular permutations is the permutation by duplication mechanism . In this model , a precursor gene first undergoes a duplication and fusion to form a large tandem repeat . Next , start and stop codons are introduced at corresponding locations in the duplicated gene , removing redundant sections of the protein .
One surprising prediction of the permutation by duplication mechanism is that intermediate permutations can occur . For instance , the duplicated version of the protein should still be functional , since otherwise evolution would quickly select against such proteins . Likewise , partially duplicated intermediates where only one terminus was truncated should be functional . Such intermediates have been extensively documented in protein families such as DNA methyltransferases .
= = = = Saposin and swaposin = = = =
An example for permutation by duplication is the relationship between saposin and swaposin . Saposins are highly conserved glycoproteins , approximately 80 amino acid residues long and forming a four alpha helical structure . They have a nearly identical placement of cysteine residues and glycosylation sites . The cDNA sequence that codes for saposin is called prosaposin . It is a precursor for four cleavage products , the saposins A , B , C , and D. The four saposin domains most likely arose from two tandem duplications of an ancestral gene . This repeat suggests a mechanism for the evolution of the relationship with the plant @-@ specific insert ( PSI ) . The PSI is a domain exclusively found in plants , consisting of approximately 100 residues and found in plant aspartic proteases . It belongs to the saposin @-@ like protein family ( SAPLIP ) and has the N- and C- termini " swapped " , such that the order of helices is 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 1 @-@ 2 compared with saposin , thus leading to the name " swaposin " .
= = = Fission and fusion = = =
Another model for the evolution of circular permutations is the fission and fusion model . The process starts with two partial proteins . These may represent two independent polypeptides ( such as two parts of a heterodimer ) , or may have originally been halves of a single protein that underwent a fission event to become two polypeptides .
The two proteins can later fuse together to form a single polypeptide . Regardless of which protein comes first , this fusion protein may show similar function . Thus , if a fusion between two proteins occurs twice in evolution ( either between paralogues within the same species or between orthologues in different species ) but in a different order , the resulting fusion proteins will be related by a circular permutation .
Evidence for a particular protein having evolved by a fission and fusion mechanism can be provided by observing the halves of the permutation as independent polypeptides in related species , or by demonstrating experimentally that the two halves can function as separate polypeptides .
= = = = Transhydrogenases = = = =
An example for the fission and fusion mechanism can be found in nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenases . These are membrane @-@ bound enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a hydride ion between NAD ( H ) and NADP ( H ) in a reaction that is coupled to transmembrane proton translocation . They consist of three major functional units ( I , II , and III ) that can be found in different arrangement in bacteria , protozoa , and higher eukaryotes . Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the three groups of domain arrangements were acquired and fused independently .
= = = Other processes that can lead to circular permutations = = =
= = = = Post @-@ translational modification = = = =
The two evolutionary models mentioned above describe ways in which genes may be circularly permuted , resulting in a circularly permuted mRNA after transcription . Proteins can also be circularly permuted via post @-@ translational modification , without permuting the underlying gene . Circular permutations can happen spontaneously through autocatalysis , as in the case of concanavalin A. Alternately , permutation may require restriction enzymes and ligases .
= = The role of circular permutations in protein engineering = =
Many proteins have their termini located close together in 3D space . Because of this , it is often possible to design circular permutations of proteins . Today , circular permutations are generated routinely in the lab using standard genetics techniques . Although some permutation sites prevent the protein from folding correctly , many permutants have been created with nearly identical structure and function to the original protein .
The motivation for creating a circular permutant of a protein can vary . Scientists may want to improve some property of the protein , such as :
Reduce proteolytic susceptibility . The rate at which proteins are broken down can have a large impact on their activity in cells . Since termini are often accessible to proteases , designing a circularly permuted protein with less @-@ accessible termini can increase the lifespan of that protein in the cell .
Improve catalytic activity . Circularly permuting a protein can sometimes increase the rate at which it catalyzes a chemical reaction , leading to more efficient proteins .
Alter substrate or ligand binding . Circularly permuting a protein can result in the loss of substrate binding , but can occasionally lead to novel ligand binding activity or altered substrate specificity .
Improve thermostability . Making proteins active over a wider range of temperatures and conditions can improve their utility .
Alternately , scientists may be interested in properties of the original protein , such as :
Fold order . Determining the order in which different parts of a protein fold is challenging due to the extremely fast time scales involved . Circularly permuted versions of proteins will often fold in a different order , providing information about the folding of the original protein .
Essential structural elements . Artificial circularly permuted proteins can allow parts of a protein to be selectively deleted . This gives insight into which structural elements are essential or not .
Modify quaternary structure . Circularly permuted proteins have been shown to take on different quaternary structure than wild @-@ type proteins .
Find insertion sites for other proteins . Inserting one protein as a domain into another protein can be useful . For instance , inserting calmodulin into green fluorescent protein ( GFP ) allowed researchers to measure the activity of calmodulin via the fluorescence of the split @-@ GFP . Regions of GFP that tolerate the introduction of circular permutation are more likely to accept the addition of another protein while retaining the function of both proteins .
Design of novel biocatalysts and biosensors . Introducing circular permutations can be used to design proteins to catalyze specific chemical reactions , or to detect the presence of certain molecules using proteins . For instance , the GFP @-@ calmodulin fusion described above can be used to detect the level of calcium ions in a sample .
= = Algorithmic detection of circular permutations = =
Many sequence alignment and protein structure alignment algorithms have been developed assuming linear data representations and as such are not able to detect circular permutations between proteins . Two examples of frequently used methods that have problems correctly aligning proteins related by circular permutation are dynamic programming and many hidden Markov models . As an alternative to these , a number of algorithms are built on top of non @-@ linear approaches and are able to detect topology @-@ independent similarities , or employ modifications allowing them to circumvent the limitations of dynamic programming . The table below is a collection of such methods .
The algorithms are classified according to the type of input they require . Sequence @-@ based algorithms require only the sequence of two proteins in order to create an alignment . Sequence methods are generally fast and suitable for searching whole genomes for circularly permuted pairs of proteins . Structure @-@ based methods require 3D structures of both proteins being considered . They are often slower than sequence @-@ based methods , but are able to detect circular permutations between distantly related proteins with low sequence similarity . Some structural methods are topology independent , meaning that they are also able to detect more complex rearrangements than circular permutation .
= 1939 California tropical storm =
The 1939 California tropical storm , also called the 1939 Long Beach tropical storm , El Cordonazo , The Lash of St. Francis was a tropical cyclone that hit Southern California in September , 1939 . Formerly a hurricane , it was the only tropical storm to make landfall in California in the twentieth century . The only other known tropical cyclone to directly affect California is the 1858 San Diego Hurricane , and only three other eastern Pacific tropical cyclones have caused gale @-@ force winds in the continental United States . The tropical storm caused heavy flooding , leaving many dead , mostly at sea .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 15 , a tropical depression formed off the coast of Central America . It moved west @-@ northwest , passing southwest of the Revillagigedo Islands . It then turned north and then north @-@ eastward . For some time , it was a hurricane , and it lost that intensity on or just before September 25 . The tropical storm made landfall near San Pedro , California early on September 25 with winds of severe gale strength . It dissipated later that day . The strongest reported wind was of Force 11 , reported by a ship , making this system a minimal hurricane . The lowest pressure was reported by the same ship and was 28 @.@ 67 inHg ( 971 mb ) .
Due to the rotation of the Earth , tropical cyclones in the Northern Hemisphere tend to move from east to west . This causes tropical cyclones to approach the West Coast of the United States infrequently . Another inhibiting factor for a California landfall is the water temperatures . Because of the water currents , the waters off California are rarely above 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) , which is too cold for hurricanes to sustain themselves . This tropical cyclone was rare enough that only three other eastern Pacific tropical cyclones brought tropical storm @-@ force winds to the Continental United States during the twentieth century . The Long Beach Tropical Storm was the only one to make landfall ; the other three hit Mexico before moving north .
= = Impact = =
The storm dropped heavy rain on California , with 5 @.@ 66 inches ( 144 mm ) falling in Los Angeles ( 5 @.@ 24 inches in 24 hours ) and 11 @.@ 60 inches ( 295 mm ) recorded at Mount Wilson , both September records . Over three hours , one thunderstorm dropped nearly 7 inches ( 180 mm ) of rain on Indio . 9 @.@ 65 inches fell on Raywood Flat , and 1 @.@ 51 inches ( 38 mm ) on Palm Springs . 4 @.@ 83 inches fell on Pasadena , a September record at the time . At the Citrus Belt near Anaheim , at least 4 @.@ 63 inches of rain fell . The 11 @.@ 60 inches ( 295 mm ) at Mount Wilson is one of California 's highest rainfall amounts from a tropical cyclone , although at least one system has a higher point maximum . The rains caused a flood 2 to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep in the Coachella Valley , although some of this may be attributable to a rainstorm dropping 6 @.@ 45 inches ( 164 mm ) the day before the storm hit . The Los Angeles River , which was usually low during September , became a raging torrent .
The flooding killed 45 in Southern California , although some of these may be attributable to the rain immediately before the tropical storm . At sea , 48 were killed . The National Hurricane Center only attributes 45 deaths to this system . Six people caught on beaches drowned during the storm . Most other deaths were at sea . Twenty @-@ four died aboard a vessel called the Spray as it attempted to dock at Point Mugu . The two survivors , a man and a woman , swam ashore and then walked five miles ( 8 km ) to Oxnard . Fifteen people from Ventura drowned aboard a fishing boat called the Lur . Many other vessels were sunk , capsized , or blown ashore .
Many low @-@ lying areas were flooded . The Hamilton Bowl overflowed , flooding the Signal Hill area . Along the shore from Malibu to Huntington Beach houses were flooded . Throughout the area , thousands of people were stranded in their homes . Streets in Los Angeles proper were covered with water , flooding buildings and stalling cars . Flooding in Inglewood and Los Angeles reached a depth of 2 to 3 feet . Construction on a flood control project in the Los Angeles River 's channel by the Army Corps of Engineers was stopped by the flooding . In Long Beach windows throughout that city were smashed by the wind . At Belmont Shore , waves undermined ten homes before washing them away . Debris was scattered throughout the coast . Agriculture was disrupted . Crop damage in the Coachella Valley reached 75 % .
Rains washed away a 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) section of the Southern Pacific Railroad near Indio , and a stretch of the Santa Fe main line near Needles . Waters backing up from a storm drain under construction in the Santa Monica Valley blocked U.S. Route 6 in California . The pier at Point Mugu was washed away . In Pasadena , 5000 people were left without electricity and 2000 telephones lost service . Communications throughout the affected area was disrupted or rendered impossible . The total amount of damage was $ 2 million ( 1939 USD , $ 26 @.@ 2 million 2005 USD ) .
The tropical storm was credited with at least one beneficial effect : it ended a vicious heat wave that had lasted for over a week and killed at least 90 people .
People were caught unprepared by the storm , which was described as " sudden " . Some people were still on the beach at Long Beach when the wind reached 40 miles per hour , at which time lifeguards closed the beach . Schools were closed there . At sea , the Coast Guard and Navy conducted rescue operations , saving dozens of people . In response to Californians ' unpreparedness , the Weather Bureau established a forecast office for southern California , which began operations in February 1940 .
= William de Chesney =
William de Chesney ( flourished 1142 – 1161 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norman magnate during the reign of King Stephen of England ( reigned 1135 – 1154 ) and King Henry II of England ( reigned 1154 – 1189 ) . Chesney was part of a large family ; one of his brothers became Bishop of Lincoln and another Abbot of Evesham Abbey . Stephen may have named him Sheriff of Oxfordshire . Besides his administrative offices , Chesney controlled a number of royal castles , and served Stephen during some of the king 's English military campaigns . Chesney 's heir was his niece , Matilda , who married Henry fitzGerold .
= = Background = =
Following King Henry I 's death in 1135 , the succession was disputed between the Henry 's nephews — Stephen and his elder brother , Theobald II , Count of Champagne — and Henry 's surviving legitimate child Matilda , usually known as the Empress Matilda because of her first marriage to the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry V. Matilda 's brother , and King Henry 's only legitimate son , William died in 1120 , leaving Matilda as Henry 's only legitimate offspring . After Matilda was widowed in 1125 , she returned to England , where her father married her to Geoffrey , Count of Anjou . All the magnates of England and Normandy were required to declare fealty to Matilda as Henry 's heir , but when Henry I died in 1135 , Stephen rushed to England and had himself crowned before either Theobald or Matilda could react . The Norman barons accepted Stephen as Duke of Normandy , and Theobald acquiesced to his brother 's usurpation .
Matilda , though , was not reconciled to losing the throne , and secured the support of the Scottish king , David , who was her maternal uncle . In 1138 she also secured the support of her half @-@ brother , Robert of Gloucester the Earl of Gloucester , an illegitimate son of Henry I. Most of the reign of King Stephen was dominated by the efforts of Matilda and later her son , Henry of Anjou to oust Stephen from the throne . The height of the civil war was from 1142 to 1148 , but it began in 1138 when Robert of Gloucester declared for Matilda , after previously supporting Stephen . Traditionally , historians have referred to the period of civil war as " The Anarchy " , but recent scholarship has rejected the extreme view of the time period as lawless ; most historians see the reign as disordered but not highly so , and Stephen as weak but not useless .
= = Early life = =
Chesney was the son of Roger de Chesney and Alice de Langetot . The elder Chesney came from near Quesney @-@ Guesnon in the Calvados region of Normandy , and held lands in England from Robert d 'Oilly at the time of the Domesday Survey in 1087 . Alice was the daughter of Ralph de Langetot , who held lands of Walter Giffard at the time of Domesday . William 's brother Robert de Chesney later became Bishop of Lincoln . His other siblings were Reginald , who later became abbot of Evesham Abbey , Hugh , Ralph , Hawise , Beatrice , Isabel , and Roger . Chesney was the uncle of Gilbert Foliot who became successively abbot of Gloucester Abbey , Bishop of Hereford and Bishop of London . It is likely that it was one of William 's sisters that married Gilbert 's father , although there is no sure evidence of this . Chesney also mentioned as relatives the brothers Alexander de Chesney and Ralph de Chesney , but the exact relationship is unknown . Chesney needs to be distinguished from another William de Chesney , who held the office of Sheriff of Norfolk between 1146 and 1153 .
= = Career = =
William and his brother Roger de Chesney were leading supporters of King Stephen in 1141 , and were both leaders in Stephen 's army that gathered at Winchester . In 1143 , William de Chesney was given control of the town and royal castle at Oxford . He also held the town and castle of Deddington , which he had acquired at least by 1157 , and possibly earlier . Although he did not begin the fortifications at Deddington Castle , it is likely that he began the first stone defences at the site . Deddington was Chesney 's most important holding in Oxfordshire , and the basis of his power in the county .
Before he controlled Deddington , Chesney temporarily administered the lands of Robert d 'Oilly , who had previously held Oxford Castle but had defected to the side of the Empress Matilda in 1141 and died a year later . D 'Oilly 's heir took refuge with Matilda when Stephen overran his lands two weeks after his father 's death , leading to Chesney 's control of the d 'Oilly lands . Some historians have seen this holding of the lands as Stephen giving Chesney the d 'Oilly barony , but the only evidence for this is that Chesney eventually owned a manor previously belonging to d 'Oilly which does not necessarily mean that he received the whole barony . It is far more likely that Stephen gave Chesney parts of the lands of William fitzOsbern , which had reverted to the king in 1075 . Most of the known lands of fitzOsbern are known to have been owned by Chesney or by tenants who held the lands from him .
Historians are divided in their views as to whether Chesney held the office of Sheriff of Oxfordshire . Whatever the exact office that Chesney held in Oxfordshire , the townsmen of Oxford referred to him as their " alderman " before such honorifics were in common use .
In 1145 , Chesney was forced to ask Stephen for help in fending off the approach of Philip , a younger son of Robert , Earl of Gloucester , who was threatening Chesney 's control of Oxford . During the period 1142 – 1148 Chesney forced Gloucester Abbey , then under the abbacy of his nephew Gilbert Foliot , to pay him sums of money . Foliot , in one of his surviving letters , reprimanded his uncle for his behaviour , asking him " Which of God 's poor around you have you not harmed ? " In 1147 , Chesney granted the island of Medley to Osney Abbey in the name of his father and brother Roger , as well as King Stephen , Queen Matilda and their son Eustace . After 1148 , Chesney apparently began to hedge his bets as he appears in the company of Roger of Hereford , the Earl of Hereford , who was a firm supporter of Matilda 's and her son Henry 's cause .
Chesney served again as the leader of Stephen 's army at Wallingford Castle in 1153 and in August he was defeated by Henry of Anjou . The subsequent peace settlement , the Treaty of Wallingford , gave Henry the English throne after Stephen 's death . A part of the treaty awarded control of Oxford Castle to Roger de Bussy . Although Chesney had lost control of the castle , none of his lands were confiscated . Early in 1154 , Chesney was with Henry , as he was a witness on two charters of Henry 's . After Henry 's ascension to the throne , Chesney came to terms with the new king , and received confirmation of his lands from the king by 1157 . He spent time in Normandy with Henry from 1159 through to 1161 . He continued to receive favours from the king , such as exemption for payment of danegeld on his manor of Deddington in 1156 .
Chesney married Margaret de Lucy , who was probably a relative of Richard de Lucy , another of Stephen 's main supporters . He died sometime between 1172 and 1176 . Chesney 's heir was his niece Matilda , whom King Henry II married to Henry fitzGerold , a royal chamberlain .
= Xenu =
Xenu ( / ˈziːnuː / ) , also called Xemu , was , according to Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard , the dictator of the " Galactic Confederacy " who 75 million years ago brought billions of his people to Earth ( then known as " Teegeeack " ) in a DC @-@ 8 @-@ like spacecraft , stacked them around volcanoes , and killed them with hydrogen bombs . Official Scientology scriptures hold that the thetans ( immortal spirits ) of these aliens adhere to humans , causing spiritual harm .
These events are known within Scientology as " Incident II " , and the traumatic memories associated with them as " The Wall of Fire " or " R6 implant " . The narrative of Xenu is part of Scientologist teachings about extraterrestrial civilizations and alien interventions in earthly events , collectively described as " space opera " by Hubbard . Hubbard detailed the story in Operating Thetan level III ( OT III ) in 1967 , warning that the " R6 implant " ( past trauma ) was " calculated to kill ( by pneumonia , etc . ) anyone who attempts to solve it " .
Within the Church of Scientology , the Xenu story is part of the church 's secret " Advanced Technology " , considered a sacred and esoteric teaching , which is normally only revealed to members who have completed a lengthy sequence of courses costing large amounts of money . The church avoids mention of Xenu in public statements and has gone to considerable effort to maintain the story 's confidentiality , including legal action on the grounds of copyright and trade secrecy . Officials of the Church of Scientology widely deny or try to hide the Xenu story . Despite this , much material on Xenu has leaked to the public via court documents , copies of Hubbard 's notes , and the Internet . In commentary on the impact of the Xenu text , academic scholars have discussed and analyzed the writings by Hubbard and their place within Scientology within the contexts of science fiction , UFO religions , Gnosticism and creation myths .
= = Summary = =
The story of Xenu is covered in OT III , part of Scientology 's secret " Advanced Technology " doctrines taught only to advanced members who have undergone many hours of auditing and reached the state of Clear followed by Operating Thetan levels 1 and 2 . It is described in more detail in the accompanying confidential " Assists " lecture of October 3 , 1968 , and is dramatized in Revolt in the Stars ( a screen @-@ story -- in the form of a novel -- written by L. Ron Hubbard in 1977 ) .
Hubbard wrote that Xenu was the ruler of a Galactic Confederacy 75 million years ago , which consisted of 26 stars and 76 planets including Earth , which was then known as " Teegeeack " . The planets were overpopulated , containing an average population of 178 billion . The Galactic Confederacy 's civilization was comparable to our own , with aliens " walking around in clothes which looked very remarkably like the clothes they wear this very minute " and using cars , trains and boats looking exactly the same as those " circa 1950 , 1960 " on Earth .
Xenu was about to be deposed from power , so he devised a plot to eliminate the excess population from his dominions . With the assistance of psychiatrists , he gathered billions of his citizens under the pretense of income tax inspections , then paralyzed them and froze them in a mixture of alcohol and glycol to capture their souls . The kidnapped populace was loaded into spacecraft for transport to the site of extermination , the planet of Teegeeack ( Earth ) . The appearance of these spacecraft would later be subconsciously expressed in the design of the Douglas DC @-@ 8 , the only difference being that " the DC8 had fans , propellers on it and the space plane didn 't " . When they had reached Teegeeack , the paralyzed citizens were unloaded around the bases of volcanoes across the planet . Hydrogen bombs were then lowered into the volcanoes and detonated simultaneously , killing all but a few aliens . Hubbard described the scene in his film script , Revolt in the Stars :
Simultaneously , the planted charges erupted . Atomic blasts ballooned from the craters of Loa , Vesuvius , Shasta , Washington , Fujiyama , Etna , and many , many others . Arching higher and higher , up and outwards , towering clouds mushroomed , shot through with flashes of flame , waste and fission . Great winds raced tumultuously across the face of Earth , spreading tales of destruction ...
The now @-@ disembodied victims ' souls , which Hubbard called thetans , were blown into the air by the blast . They were captured by Xenu 's forces using an " electronic ribbon " ( " which also was a type of standing wave " ) and sucked into " vacuum zones " around the world . The hundreds of billions of captured thetans were taken to a type of cinema , where they were forced to watch a " three @-@ D , super colossal motion picture " for thirty @-@ six days . This implanted what Hubbard termed " various misleading data " ' ( collectively termed the R6 implant ) into the memories of the hapless thetans , " which has to do with God , the Devil , space opera , etcetera " . This included all world religions ; Hubbard specifically attributed Roman Catholicism and the image of the Crucifixion to the influence of Xenu . The two " implant stations " cited by Hubbard were said to have been located on Hawaii and Las Palmas in the Canary Islands .
In addition to implanting new beliefs in the thetans , the images deprived them of their sense of personal identity . When the thetans left the projection areas , they started to cluster together in groups of a few thousand , having lost the ability to differentiate between each other . Each cluster of thetans gathered into one of the few remaining bodies that survived the explosion . These became what are known as body thetans , which are said to be still clinging to and adversely affecting everyone except Scientologists who have performed the necessary steps to remove them .
A government faction known as the Loyal Officers finally overthrew Xenu and his renegades , and locked him away in " an electronic mountain trap " from which he has not escaped . Although the location of Xenu is sometimes said to be the Pyrenees on Earth , this is actually the location Hubbard gave elsewhere for an ancient " Martian report station " . Teegeeack was subsequently abandoned by the Galactic Confederacy and remains a pariah " prison planet " to this day , although it has suffered repeatedly from incursions by alien " Invader Forces " since that time .
In 1988 , the cost of learning these secrets from the Church of Scientology was £ 3 @,@ 830 , or US $ 6 @,@ 500 . This is in addition to the cost of the prior courses which are necessary to be eligible for OT III , which is often well over US $ 100 @,@ 000 ( roughly £ 60 @,@ 000 ) . Belief in Xenu and body thetans is a requirement for a Scientologist to progress further along the Bridge to Total Freedom . Those who do not experience the benefits of the OT III course are expected to take it and pay for it again .
= = Scientology doctrine = =
Within Scientology , the Xenu story is referred to as " The Wall of Fire " or " Incident II " . Hubbard attached tremendous importance to it , saying that it constituted " the secrets of a disaster which resulted in the decay of life as we know it in this sector of the galaxy " . The broad outlines of the story — that 75 million years ago a great catastrophe happened in this sector of the galaxy which caused profoundly negative effects for everyone since then — are told to lower @-@ level Scientologists ; but the details are kept strictly confidential , within Scientology .
The OT III document describes that Hubbard entered the Wall of Fire but emerged alive ( " probably the only one ever to do so in 75 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years " ) . He first publicly announced his " breakthrough " in Ron 's Journal 67 ( RJ67 ) , a taped lecture recorded on September 20 , 1967 , to be sent to all Scientologists . According to Hubbard , his research was achieved at the cost of a broken back , knee , and arm . OT III contains a warning that the R6 implant is " calculated to kill ( by pneumonia etc . ) anyone who attempts to solve it " . Hubbard claimed that his " tech development " — i.e. his OT materials — had neutralized this threat , creating a safe path to redemption .
The Church of Scientology forbade individuals from reading the OT III Xenu cosmogony without first having taken prerequisite courses . Scientologists warn that reading the Xenu story without proper authorization could cause pneumonia .
In RJ67 , Hubbard then alludes to the devastating effect of Xenu 's genocide :
And it is very true that a great catastrophe occurred on this planet and in the other 75 planets which formed this [ Galactic ] Confederacy 75 million years ago . It has since that time been a desert , and it has been the lot of just a handful to try to push its technology up to a level where someone might adventure forward , penetrate the catastrophe , and undo it . We 're well on our way to making this occur .
OT III also deals with Incident I , set four quadrillion years ago . In Incident I , the unsuspecting thetan was subjected to a loud snapping noise followed by a flood of luminescence , then saw a chariot followed by a trumpeting cherub . After a loud set of snaps , the thetan was overwhelmed by darkness . It is described that these traumatic memories alone separate thetans from their static ( natural , godlike ) state .
Hubbard uses the existence of body thetans to explain many of the physical and mental ailments of humanity which , he says , prevent people from achieving their highest spiritual levels . OT III tells the Scientologist to locate body thetans and release them from the effects of Incidents I and II . This is accomplished in solo auditing , where the Scientologist holds both cans of an E @-@ meter in one hand and asks questions as an auditor . The Scientologist is directed to find a cluster of body thetans , address it telepathically as a cluster , and take first the cluster , then each individual member , through Incident II , then Incident I if needed . Hubbard warns that this is a painstaking procedure , and that OT levels IV to VII are necessary to continue dealing with one 's body thetans .
The Church of Scientology has objected to the Xenu story being used to paint Scientology as science fiction fantasy ( see Space opera in Scientology doctrine ) . Hubbard 's statements concerning the R6 implant have been a source of contention . Critics and some Christians state that Hubbard 's statements regarding R6 prove that Scientology doctrine is incompatible with Christianity , despite the Church 's statements to the contrary . In " Assists " , Hubbard says :
Everyman is then shown to have been crucified so don 't think that it 's an accident that this crucifixion , they found out that this applied . Somebody somewhere on this planet , back about 600 BC , found some pieces of R6 , and I don 't know how they found it , either by watching madmen or something , but since that time they have used it and it became what is known as Christianity . The man on the Cross . There was no Christ . But the man on the cross is shown as Everyman .
= = Origins of the story = =
Hubbard wrote OT III in late 1966 and early 1967 in North Africa while on his way to Las Palmas to join the Enchanter , the first vessel of his private Scientology fleet ( the " Sea Org " ) . ( OT III says " In December 1967 I knew someone had to take the plunge " , but the material was publicised well before this . ) He emphasized later that OT III was his own personal discovery .
Critics of Scientology have suggested that other factors may have been at work . In a letter of the time to his wife Mary Sue , Hubbard said that , in order to assist his research , he was drinking alcohol and taking stimulants and depressants ( " I 'm drinking lots of rum and popping pinks and greys " ) . His assistant at the time , Virginia Downsborough , said that she had to wean him off the diet of drugs to which he had become accustomed . Russell Miller posits in Bare @-@ faced Messiah that it was important for Hubbard to be found in a debilitated condition , so as to present OT III as " a research accomplishment of immense magnitude " .
Elements of the Xenu story appeared in Scientology before OT III . Hubbard 's descriptions of extraterrestrial conflicts were put forward as early as 1950 in his book Have You Lived Before This Life ? , and were enthusiastically endorsed by Scientologists who documented their past lives on other planets .
= = Influence of OT III on Scientology = =
The 1968 and subsequent reprints of Dianetics have had covers depicting an exploding volcano , which is reportedly a reference to OT III . In a 1968 lecture , and in instructions to his marketing staff , Hubbard explained that these images would " key in " the submerged memories of Incident II and impel people to buy the books .
A special ' Book Mission ' was sent out to promote these books , now empowered and made irresistible by the addition of these overwhelming symbols or images . Organization staff were assured that if they simply held up one of the books , revealing its cover , that any bookstore owner would immediately order crateloads of them . A customs officer , seeing any of the book covers in one 's luggage , would immediately pass one on through .
Since the 1980s , the volcano has also been depicted in television commercials advertising Dianetics . Scientology 's " Sea Org " , an elite group within the church that originated with Hubbard 's personal staff aboard his fleet of ships , takes many of its symbols from the story of Xenu and OT III . It is explicitly intended to be a revival of the " Loyal Officers " who overthrew Xenu . Its logo , a wreath with 26 leaves , represents the 26 stars of Xenu 's Galactic Confederacy . According to an official Scientology dictionary , " the Sea Org symbol , adopted and used as the symbol of a Galactic Confederacy far back in the history of this sector , derives much of its power and authority from that association " .
In the Advanced Orgs in Edinburgh and Los Angeles , Scientology staff were at one time ordered to wear all @-@ white uniforms with silver boots , to mimic Xenu 's Galactic Patrol as depicted on the cover of Dianetics : The Evolution of a Science . This was reportedly done on the basis of Hubbard 's declaration in his Flag Order 652 that mankind would accept regulation from that group which had last betrayed it — hence the imitation of Xenu 's henchmen . In Los Angeles , a nightwatch was ordered to watch for returning spaceships .
= = Name = =
The name has been spelled both as Xenu and Xemu . The Class VIII course material includes a three @-@ page text , handwritten by Hubbard , headed " Data " , in which the Xenu story is given in detail . Hubbard 's indistinct handwriting makes either spelling possible , particularly as the use of the name on the first page of OT III is the only known example of the name in his handwriting . In the " Assists " lecture , Hubbard speaks of " Xenu , ahhh , could be spelled X @-@ E @-@ M @-@ U " and clearly says " Xemu " several times on the recording . The treatment of Revolt in the Stars — which is typewritten — uses Xenu exclusively .
= = Church of Scientology 's position = =
In its public statements , the Church of Scientology has been reluctant to allow any mention of Xenu . A passing mention by a trial judge in 1997 prompted the Church 's lawyers to have the ruling sealed , although this was reversed . In the relatively few instances in which it has acknowledged Xenu , Scientology has stated the story 's true meaning can only be understood after years of study . They complain of critics using it to paint the religion as a science @-@ fiction fantasy .
Senior members of the Church of Scientology have several times publicly denied or minimized the importance of the Xenu story , but others have affirmed its existence . In 1995 , Scientology lawyer Earl Cooley hinted at the importance of Xenu in Scientology doctrine by stating that " thousands of articles are written about Coca @-@ Cola , and they don 't print the formula for Coca @-@ Cola " . Scientology has many graduated levels through which one can progress . Many who remain at lower levels in the church are unaware of much of the Xenu story which is first revealed on Operating Thetan level three , or " OT III " . Because the information imparted to members is to be kept secret from others who have not attained that level , the member must publicly deny its existence when asked . OT III recipients must sign an agreement promising never to reveal its contents before they are given the manila envelope containing the Xenu knowledge . It is knowledge so dangerous , members are told , that anyone learning this material before he is ready could become afflicted with pneumonia .
Religious Technology Center director Warren McShane testified in a 1995 court case that the Church of Scientology receives a significant amount of its revenue from fixed donations paid by Scientologists to study the OT materials . McShane said that Hubbard 's work " may seem weird " to those that have not yet completed the prior levels of coursework in Scientology . McShane said the story had never been secret , although maintaining there were nevertheless trade secrets contained in OT III . McShane discussed the details of the story at some length and specifically attributed the authorship of the story to Hubbard .
When John Carmichael , the president of the Church of Scientology of New York , was asked about the Xenu story , he said , as reported in the September 9 , 2007 , edition of the Daily Telegraph : " That 's not what we believe " . When asked directly about the Xenu story by Ted Koppel on ABC 's Nightline , Scientology leader David Miscavige said that he was taking things Hubbard said out of context . However , in a 2006 interview with Rolling Stone , Mike Rinder , the director of the church 's Office of Special Affairs , said that " It is not a story , it is an auditing level " , when asked about the validity of the Xenu story .
In a BBC Panorama programme that aired on May 14 , 2007 , senior Scientologist Tommy Davis interrupted when celebrity members were asked about Xenu , saying : " None of us know what you 're talking about . It 's loony . It 's weird . " In March 2009 , Davis was interviewed by investigative journalist Nathan Baca for KESQ @-@ TV and was again asked about the OT III texts . Davis told Baca " I 'm familiar with the material " , and called it " the confidential scriptures of the Church " . In an interview on ABC News Nightline , October 23 , 2009 , Davis walked off the set when Martin Bashir asked him about Xenu . He told Bashir , " Martin , I am not going to discuss the disgusting perversions of Scientology beliefs that can be found now commonly on the internet and be put in the position of talking about things , talking about things that are so fundamentally offensive to Scientologists to discuss . ... It is in violation of my religious beliefs to talk about them . " When Bashir repeated a question about Xenu , Davis pulled off his microphone and left the set .
In November 2009 the Church of Scientology 's representative in New Zealand , Mike Ferris , was asked in a radio interview about Xenu . The radio host asked , " So what you 're saying is , Xenu is a part of the religion , but something that you don 't want to talk about " . Ferris responded , " Sure " . Ferris acknowledged that Xenu " is part of the esoterica of Scientology " .
= = Leaking of the story = =
Despite the Church of Scientology 's efforts to keep the story secret , details have been leaked over the years . OT III was first revealed in Robert Kaufman 's 1972 book Inside Scientology , in which Kaufman detailed his own experiences of OT III . It was later described in a 1981 Clearwater Sun article , and came to greater public fame in a 1985 court case brought against Scientology by Lawrence Wollersheim . The church failed to have the documents sealed and attempted to keep the case file checked out by a reader at all times , but the story was summarized in the Los Angeles Times and detailed in William Poundstone 's Bigger Secrets ( 1986 ) from information presented in the Wollersheim case . In 1987 , a book by L. Ron Hubbard Jr . , L. Ron Hubbard : Messiah or Madman ? quoted the first page of OT III and summarized the rest of its content .
Since then , news media have mentioned Xenu in coverage of Scientology or its celebrity proponents such as Tom Cruise . In 1987 , the BBC 's investigative news series Panorama aired a report entitled " The Road to Total Freedom ? " which featured an outline of the OT III story in cartoon form .
On December 24 , 1994 , the Xenu story was published on the Internet for the first time in a posting to the Usenet newsgroup alt.religion.scientology , through an anonymous remailer . This led to an online battle between Church of Scientology lawyers and detractors . Older versions of OT levels I to VII were brought as exhibits attached to a declaration by Steven Fishman on April 9 , 1993 , as part of Church of Scientology International v. Fishman and Geertz . The text of this declaration and its exhibits , collectively known as the Fishman Affidavit , were posted to the Internet newsgroup alt.religion.scientology in August 1995 by Arnie Lerma and on the World Wide Web by David S. Touretzky . This was a subject of great controversy and legal battles for several years . There was a copyright raid on Lerma 's house ( leading to massive mirroring of the documents ) and a suit against Dutch writer Karin Spaink — the Church bringing suit on copyright violation grounds for reproducing the source material , and also claiming rewordings would reveal a trade secret .
The Church of Scientology 's attempts to keep Xenu under wraps have been cited in court findings against it . In September 2003 , a Dutch court , in a ruling in the case against Karin Spaink , stated that one objective in keeping OT II and OT III secret was to wield power over members of the Church of Scientology and prevent discussion about its teachings and practices :
Despite his claims that premature revelation of the OT III story was lethal , L. Ron Hubbard wrote a screenplay version under the title Revolt in the Stars in the 1970s . This revealed that Xenu had been assisted by beings named Chi ( " the Galactic Minister of Police " ) and Chu ( " the Executive President of the Galactic Interplanetary Bank " ) . It has not been officially published , although the treatment was circulated around Hollywood in the early 1980s . Unofficial copies of the screenplay circulate on the Internet .
On March 10 , 2001 , a user posted the text of OT3 to the online community Slashdot . The site owners took down the comment after the Church of Scientology issued a legal notice under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act . Critics of the Church of Scientology have used public protests to spread the Xenu secret . This has included creating web sites with " xenu " in the domain name , and displaying the name Xenu on banners , and protest signs .
= = In popular culture = =
Versions of the Xenu story have appeared in both television shows and stage productions . The Off @-@ Broadway satirical musical A Very Merry Unauthorized Children 's Scientology Pageant , first staged in 2003 and winner of an Obie Award in 2004 , featured children in alien costumes telling the story of Xenu .
The Xenu story was again satirized in a November 2005 episode of the Comedy Central animated television series South Park titled " Trapped in the Closet " . The Emmy @-@ nominated episode , which also lampooned Scientologists Tom Cruise and John Travolta as closeted homosexuals , depicted Xenu as a vaguely humanoid alien with tentacles for arms , in a sequence that had the words " This Is What Scientologists Actually Believe " superimposed on screen . The episode became the subject of controversy when musician Isaac Hayes , the voice of the character " Chef " and a Scientologist , quit the show in March 2006 , just prior to the episode 's first scheduled re @-@ screening , citing South Park 's " inappropriate ridicule " of his religion . Hayes ' statement did not mention the episode in particular , but expressed his view that the show 's habit of parodying religion was part of a " growing insensitivity toward personal spiritual beliefs " in the media that was also reflected in the Muhammad cartoons controversy : " There is a place in this world for satire , but there is a time when satire ends and intolerance and bigotry towards religious beliefs of others begins . " Responding to Hayes ' statement , South Park co @-@ creator Matt Stone said his resignation had " nothing to do with intolerance and bigotry and everything to do with the fact that Isaac Hayes is a Scientologist and that we recently featured Scientology in an episode of South Park ... In 10 years and over 150 episodes of South Park , Isaac never had a problem with the show making fun of Christians , Muslims , Mormons and Jews . He got a sudden case of religious sensitivity when it was his religion featured on the show . Of course we will release Isaac from his contract and we wish him well . " Comedy Central cancelled the repeat at short notice , choosing instead to screen two episodes featuring Hayes . A spokesman said that " in light of the events of earlier this week , we wanted to give Chef an appropriate tribute by airing two episodes he is most known for . " It did eventually rebroadcast the episode on July 19 , 2006 . Stone and South Park co @-@ creator Trey Parker felt that Comedy Central 's owners Viacom had cancelled the repeat because of the upcoming release of the Tom Cruise film Mission : Impossible III by Paramount , another Viacom company : " I only know what we were told , that people involved with MI3 wanted the episode off the air and that is why Comedy Central had to do it . I don 't know why else it would have been pulled . "
= = Commentary = =
Writing in the book Scientology published by Oxford University Press , contributor Mikael Rothstein observes that , " To my knowledge no real analysis of Scientology 's Xenu myth has appeared in scholarly publications . The most sober and enlightening text about the Xenu myth is probably the article on Wikipedia ( English version ) and , even if brief , Andreas Grünschloss 's piece on Scientology in Lewis ( 2000 : 266 – 268 ) . " Rothstein places the Xenu text by L. Ron Hubbard within the context of a creation myth within the Scientology methodology , and characterizes it as " one of Scientology 's more important religious narratives , the text that apparently constitutes the basic ( sometimes implicit ) mythology of the movement , the Xenu myth , which is basically a story of the origin of man on Earth and the human condition . " Rothstein describes the phenomenon within a belief system inspired by science fiction , and notes that the " myth about Xenu , ... in the shape of a science fiction @-@ inspired anthropogony , explains the basic Scientological claims about the human condition . "
Andreas Grünschloß analyzes the Xenu text in The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements , within the context of a discussion on UFO religions . He characterizes the text as " Scientology 's secret mythology ( contained especially in the OT III teachings ) " . Grünschloß points out that L. Ron Hubbard , " also wrote a science fiction story called Revolt in the Stars , where he displays this otherwise arcane story about the ancient ruler Xenu in the form of an ordinary science fiction novel " . Grünschloß posits , " because of the connections between several motifs in Hubbard 's novels and specific Scientology teachings , one might perceive Scientology as one of the rare instances where science fiction ( or fantasy literature generally ) is related to the successful formation of a new spiritual movement . " Comparing the fusion between the two genres of Hubbard 's science fiction writing and Scientology creation myth , Grünschloß writes , " Although the science fiction novels are of a different genre than other ' techno @-@ logical ' disclosures of Hubbard , they are highly appreciated by participants , and Hubbard 's literary output in this realm ( including the latest movie , Battlefield Earth ) is also well promoted by the organization . " Writing in the book UFO Religions edited by Christopher Partridge , Grünschloß observes , " the enthusiasm for ufology and science fiction was cultivated in the formative phase of Scientology . Indeed , even the highly arcane story of the intergalactic ruler Xenu ... is related by Hubbard in the style of a simple science fiction novel " .
Several authors have pointed out structural similarities between the Xenu story and the mythology of gnosticism . James A. Herrick , writing about the Xenu text in The Making of the New Spirituality : The Eclipse of the Western Religious Tradition , notes that " Hubbard 's gnostic leanings are evident in his account of human origins ... In Hubbard , ideas first expressed in science fiction are seamlessly transformed into a worldwide religion with affinities to gnosticism . " Mary Farrell Bednarowski , writing in America 's Alternative Religions , similarly states that the outline of the Xenu mythology is " not totally unfamiliar to the historian acquainted with ancient gnosticism " , noting that many other religious traditions have the practice of reserving certain texts to high @-@ level initiates . Nevertheless , she writes , the Xenu story arouses suspicion in the public about Scientology and adds fuel to " the claims that Hubbard 's system is the product of his creativity as a science fiction writer rather than a theologian . "
Authors Michael McDowell and Nathan Robert Brown discuss misconceptions about the Xenu text in their book World Religions at Your Fingertips , and observe , " Probably the most controversial , misunderstood , and frequently misrepresented part of the Scientology religion has to do with a Scientology myth commonly referred to as the Legend of Xenu . While this story has now been undoubtedly proven a part of the religion ( despite the fact that church representatives often deny its existence ) , the story 's true role in Scientology is often misrepresented by its critics as proof that they ' believe in alien parasites . ' While the story may indeed seem odd , this is simply not the case . " The authors write that " The story is actually meant to be a working myth , illustrating the Scientology belief that humans were at one time spiritual beings , existing on infinite levels of intergalactic and interdimensional realities . At some point , the beings that we once were became trapped in physical reality ( where we remain to this day ) . This is supposed to be the underlying message of the Xenu story , not that humans are " possessed by aliens " . McDowell and Brown conclude that these inappropriate misconceptions about the Xenu text have had a negative impact , " Such harsh statements are the reason many Scientologists now become passionately offended at even the mention of Xenu by nonmembers . "
Free speech lawyer Mike Godwin analyzes actions by the Scientology organization to protect and keep secret the Xenu text , within a discussion in his book Cyber Rights about the application of trade secret law on the Internet . Godwin explains , " trade secret law protects the information itself , not merely its particular expression . Trade secret law , unlike copyright , can protect ideas and facts directly . " He puts forth the question , " But did the material really qualify as ' trade secrets ' ? Among the material the church has been trying to suppress is what might be called a ' genesis myth of Scientology ' : a story about a galactic despot named Xenu who decided 75 million years ago to kill a bunch of people by chaining them to volcanoes and dropping nuclear bombs on them . " Godwin asks , " Does a ' church ' normally have ' competitors ' in the trade secret sense ? If the Catholics got hold of the full facts about Xenu , does this mean they 'll get more market share ? " He comments on the ability of the Scientology organization to utilize such laws in order to contain its secret texts , " It seems likely , given what we know about the case now , that even a combination of copyright and trade secret law wouldn 't accomplish what the church would like to accomplish : the total suppression of any dissemination of church documents or doctrines . " The author concludes , " But the fact that the church was unlikely to gain any complete legal victories in its cases didn 't mean that they wouldn 't litigate . It 's indisputable that the mere threat of litigation , or the costs of actual litigation , may accomplish what the legal theories alone do not : the effective silencing of many critics of the church . "
= 827th Tank Destroyer Battalion =
The 827th Tank Destroyer Battalion was a tank destroyer battalion of the United States Army active during the Second World War . It was activated in April 1942 as a segregated African American unit , deploying to Europe at the end of 1944 and attached to 12th Armored Division . It saw action during Operation Nordwind in January 1945 , where elements of the battalion performed creditably . However , its overall combat record was marred by severe disciplinary problems and insufficient training . It was withdrawn in February , and assigned to rear @-@ area duties ; while it nominally remained active for the remainder of the war , it had been effectively disbanded .
= = Background = =
The US Army 's basic wartime racial policy , established in 1937 , dictated that both whites and African Americans were to be inducted into the Army in equal proportions and strength , but that they were to be assigned to segregated units . Black soldiers could be led by white officers , but not vice versa , and unit composition was to be strictly controlled by the War Department . The mix of combat and support service units was , in theory , to be roughly equal between both groups . This caused tension between the Department and operational commanders , with the latter generally unwilling to provide places for black combat units . In practice , almost all combat units in the pre @-@ war period were white .
In response to growing pressure for a more equal distribution , the White House issued a statement in October 1940 which , while reaffirming segregation , provided that , " Negro organizations will be established in each major branch of the service " . The first black armored units , which had been a matter of great public interest , were activated in early 1941 . Two black tank destroyer units were formed that December , as tank destroyer battalions were treated as a separate arm of service . A further five were activated in 1942 , and four ( in addition to two planned , but later canceled ) in 1943 .
= = Early service = =
The 827th Tank Destroyer Battalion was activated on April 20 , 1942 , at Camp Forrest , Tennessee , one of five such battalions created that year . Initially armed with 75 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) M3 GMC half @-@ tracks , it later received the self @-@ propelled M10 tank destroyer before being reorganized as a towed battalion , equipped with trucks and 3 " anti @-@ tank guns . It finally returned to a self @-@ propelled unit , equipped with M18 Hellcats . At no point during this constant reshuffling did the unit ever receive a full allocation of equipment . At the same time , the original officer cadre was replaced twice — first with black officers , then with white officers from other disbanded segregated battalions . By the time the battalion sailed overseas , it had seen eight separate commanding officers .
The unit emerged from these repeated reorganizations in very poor state ; training was inadequate , with the unit repeatedly failing battalion competence tests , and some areas of combat training — notably indirect fire — were avoided altogether . Discipline and order within the unit was equally low — in September 1944 , the battalion held two courts @-@ martials for murder . The situation was so dire that the battalion 's commander felt it was likely that he would oversee the disbanding of the battalion or its conversion into a non @-@ combat service unit ( the latter of which had already happened to a number of other segregated tank destroyer battalions ) .
The 827th was originally scheduled to be sent to the Pacific theater , but in February , 1944 , it was declared insufficiently trained and held back for further preparation ; a different unit was substituted at the last minute . The next six months did not show great improvement in quality , but nonetheless the battalion was eventually sent overseas . It arrived in Marseille in late 1944 , deploying to the front in December , attached to the 12th Armored Division .
= = Combat = =
The first portion of the 827th to be deployed for combat was a single company in support of the 714th Tank Battalion of the 12th Armored Division , on 20 December 1944 . Failing to see action , the company was withdrawn to reserve after three days on the line . Discipline proved to be a problem during this period , with men abandoning their guns to collect firewood , despite assistance and advice from the 614th Tank Destroyer Battalion ( an experienced and well @-@ regarded black unit operating in the same area ) . A second company was used for screening purposes in the first week of January , also not seeing combat , while the remainder of the battalion narrowly avoided being assigned to an indirect @-@ fire role it was completely unprepared for .
On 6 January , the battalion while still attached to the 12th Armored Division , was assigned to participate in Task Force Wahl led by the 79th Infantry Division , which was defending against the January , 1945 , German counteroffensive in the Alsace @-@ Lorraine region . Disciplinary problems persisted ; the company ordered to lead the move was unable to deploy as most of its men were absent , and the remainder mostly drunk . By the time the battalion managed to move , one of its officers had shot a man — and been shot himself — while trying to restore order among his company , and in a separate incident a sergeant had been assaulted by one of his own men and , defending himself , accidentally shot a bystander .
The following two weeks saw a period of prolonged combat , as the task force slowly fell back to the pressure of the German offensive , with the battalion split up among various commands and often cut off or out of communication . The infantry units the tank destroyers were assigned to expected to take full operational control , often giving inappropriate orders more suited to tanks than to the lightly armored M18s , breeding resentment among the battalion 's crews . At the same time , the 827th had trained with the expectation that the gunners would fire only on the direct instruction of their own officers , which limited both their ability to co @-@ operate with outsiders and their willingness to adapt and improvise during small @-@ scale combat . Vehicle commanders regularly argued about orders , or refused to act on them without their " own " commander present . In one case on 9 January , an infantry commander threatened to shoot a M18 crew if it did not engage a German tank stranded on the roadside .
Not all elements of the battalion suffered similar problems , however ; on the same day , 9 January , B Company destroyed eleven German tanks advancing on the village of Rittershoffen , with four more the next day , while another section working with the 813th Tank Destroyer Battalion in Hatten nearby accounted for nine . These units remained with the infantry in the village for several days , unable to withdraw , and acquitted themselves well in close fighting . This was all the more of an achievement when it was considered that , leaving disciplinary problems aside , the battalion suffered from major training deficiencies and was entirely combat inexperienced . One member of the battalion was awarded the Silver Star , while the 79th Division recommended a crew which had fought in Hatten to receive Bronze Stars — it is unclear if these were ever awarded .
= = Service duties = =
Following reports of disciplinary problems , VI Corps ordered an investigation , which took place over four days while elements of the battalion were still engaged at Rittershoffen . It recommended that the battalion be withdrawn and retrained before returning to combat under a new commander , while Major @-@ General Edward H. Brooks , the corps commander , instead recommended that the battalion be entirely disbanded and its men distributed to other units . General Alexander Patch , commanding Seventh Army , agreed with Brooks , suggesting that a new tank destroyer battalion be formed from the men of service units , themselves replaced by the men of the 827th . This was contentious , however ; the number and status of segregated combat units was a matter of intense political debate , and converting a black combat unit to a service one , in favor of white troops , was likely controversial .
As discussion continued , the battalion was withdrawn from the front lines , leaving Task Force Wahl on 23 January . It returned to 12th Armored Division , where three platoons were committed to combat to support the fighting in the Colmar Pocket in the first week of February . The remainder of the battalion was kept in reserve , where the disciplinary problems , including assaults on civilians , grew to the point at which the commander had to request outside assistance to restore control on 5 February . The battalion was removed from its attachment to the 12th Armored on 12 February — by request of the divisional command — and withdrawn to the rear area of XV Corps to take up guard duties .
The battalion 's future had been referred to Sixth Army Group , the controlling formation , for further consideration ; after some debate , they requested the investigation be reopened with a particular focus on the enlisted men of the unit . The second inspection showed that the enlisted men were broadly competent at their duties , but that most of them preferred rear @-@ area duties over combat roles . The inspection recommended that the enlisted men be transferred to one of the segregated infantry divisions . In the event , the unit was assigned to Sixth Army Group headquarters , where it was used in a service role . It remained nominally active — to avoid the political fallout of deactivating a black combat unit — but its equipment was transferred as replacements to other battalions and the battalion itself was virtually disbanded as a combat unit .
= HD 28185 b =
HD 28185 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 138 light @-@ years away from Earth in the constellation of Eridanus . The planet was discovered orbiting the Sun @-@ like star HD 28185 in April 2001 as a part of the CORALIE survey for southern extrasolar planets , and its existence was independently confirmed by the Magellan Planet Search Survey in 2008 . HD 28185 b orbits its sun in a circular orbit that is at the inner edge of its star 's habitable zone .
= = Discovery = =
HD 28185 b was discovered by detecting small periodic variations in the radial velocity of its parent star caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet . This was achieved by measuring the Doppler shift of the star 's spectrum . In 2001 it was announced that HD 28185 exhibited a wobble along the line @-@ of @-@ sight with a period of 383 days , with an amplitude indicating a minimum mass 5 @.@ 72 times that of Jupiter .
= = Orbit and mass = =
HD 28185 b takes 1 @.@ 04 years to orbit its parent star . Unlike most known long @-@ period planets , the orbit of HD 28185 b has a low eccentricity , comparable to that of Mars in the Solar System . The orbit lies entirely within its star 's habitable zone .
The amplitude of the radial velocity oscillations means that the planet has a mass at least 5 @.@ 7 times that of Jupiter in the Solar System . However , the radial velocity method only yields a minimum value on the planet 's mass , depending on the orbital inclination to our line @-@ of @-@ sight . Therefore , the true mass of the planet may be much greater than this lower limit .
= = Characteristics = =
Given the planet 's high mass , it is most likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface . Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through observations of the star , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown .
Since HD 28185 b orbits in its star 's habitable zone , some have speculated on the possibility of life on worlds in the HD 28185 system . While it is unknown whether gas giants can support life , simulations of tidal interactions suggest that HD 28185 b could harbor Earth @-@ mass satellites in orbit around it for many billions of years . Such moons , if they exist , may be able to provide a habitable environment , though it is unclear whether such satellites would form in the first place . Additionally , a small planet in one of the gas giant 's Trojan points could survive in a habitable orbit for long periods . The high mass of HD 28185 b , of over six Jupiter masses , actually makes either of these scenarios more likely
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than if the planet was about Jupiter 's mass or less .
= Joachim Helbig =
Oberst Joachim Helbig ( 10 September 1915 – 5 October 1985 ) was an officer and pilot in the German Luftwaffe bomber arm during World War II . He was credited with the destruction of 182 @,@ 000 gross register tons ( GRT ) of Allied shipping accomplished in 480 missions during World War II .
Joachim Helbig was born in 1915 and joined the Luftwaffe in 1936 . At the outbreak of World War II he served as an observer in Lehrgeschwader 1 ( LG 1 ) and participated in the invasion of Poland . He saw further action in the Norwegian Campaign and the Battles of the Netherlands , Belgium and France . For his contribution and military success in these campaigns Helbig received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 9 November 1940 . He was then transferred to the Mediterranean theater of operations where he operated against Malta , the British Mediterranean Fleet and in support of the Deutsches Afrikakorps ( DAK ) . Helbig became the 20th recipient of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) on 28 September 1942 for the support of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel 's 1942 summer offensive and the sinking of 182 @,@ 000 GRT of enemy shipping .
Initially Helbig was banned from further combat flying and became an inspector on the staff of the General der Kampfflieger , the senior officer responsible for the Luftwaffe 's bomber force . In August 1943 he was made Geschwaderkommodore of Lehrgeschwader 1 operating against the Allied invasion forces in Italy . In the last weeks of the war in Europe , Helbig commanded a combat unit on the Eastern Front consisting of elements of Lehrgeschwader 1 and Kampfgeschwader 200 ( KG 200 ) . After the war he worked as a manager for a brewery in Berlin . Joachim Helbing died in Malente on 5 October 1985 following a car accident on vacation in Spain .
= = Military career = =
Joachim Helbig was born on 10 September 1915 on the estate called Börln , which is located in Dahlen , Saxony . He grew up in the countryside and was very fond of horse back riding . He volunteered for military service on 1 April 1935 and initially served one year with the Artillerieregiment 4 ( 4th Artillery Regiment ) in Dresden . In the fall of 1936 , he transferred to the Kampffliegerschule ( Combat or Bomber Flying School ) in Lechfeld . After completing his training as an observer and aerial gunner on 20 April 1937 , he was posted with III . Gruppe ( 3rd Group ) Kampfgeschwader ( Bomber Wing ) 152 " Hindenburg " in Schwerin . III . / KG 152 " Hindenburg " became II . Group of Lehrgeschwader 1 ( 1st Demonstration Wing ) on 1 November 1938 , where he started his informal pilot training .
His two friends , Oberleutnant Fritz Sohler and Oberleutnant Gerhard Schröder , taught " Observer " Helbig to fly and he earned his Luftwaffe Advanced Pilot 's Certificate ( Erweiterter Luftwaffen @-@ Flugzeugführerschein ) , also known as ' C ' -Certificate , confirming proficiency on multi @-@ engine aircraft . Helbig 's informal training was unique in the entire Luftwaffe bomber force .
= = = Invasions of Poland , Norway and France = = =
Leutnant Helbig was still an observer in a He 111 Kampfliegeraufklärung ( Bomber Reconnaissance ) at the outbreak of World War II . On the third day of the Polish campaign , while on a recon mission over Poland , Helbig shot down a Polish reconnaissance aircraft . Although the next day he was injured in a motorcycle accident , which prevented him from seeing further combat in this campaign , he was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd class ( Eisernes Kreuz 2 . Klasse ) . In October 1939 , he participated in a number of uneventful missions against the British Home Fleet in the North Sea .
By 9 April 1940 , when Operation Weserübung began in Norway , Helbig had completed his pilot training . He flew missions supporting the German ground forces , particularly in the Narvik area . For these missions , the He 111s took off from Aalborg for low @-@ altitude strikes against British positions . In one such sortie , Helbig 's flight engineer was severely wounded , and the left engine of his aircraft was shot out by flak . Helbig received the Narvik Shield for his participation in the battle for Norway .
When the campaign against the Netherlands , Belgium , and France began in May 1940 , Helbig was appointed Staffelkapitän ( Squadron Leader ) of 4 . / LG 1 , a position he held until 5 November 1941 . 4 . / LG 1 was equipped with the Ju 88 . On one mission over Dunkirk , Helbig 's aircraft was intercepted by enemy fighters . One engine was shot out and three crew members , including Helbig , suffered various degrees of injuries . For his actions in the French campaign , he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st class ( Eisernes Kreuz 1 . Klasse ) . Following the defeat of France , he received an early promotion to Hauptmann ( Captain ) on 19 July 1940 .
= = = Battle of Britain = = =
On 15 August 1940 , Helbig and his Staffel ( Squadron ) , consisting of nine Ju 88s , took off from Orléans at 4 : 45 pm , with the primary target RAF Worthy Down . Over the English coast the German formation consisting of Ju 88s from LG 1 , Ju 87s from Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 ( StG 1 ; 1st Dive Bomber Wing ) escorted by elements of Zerstörergeschwader 2 ( ZG 2 ; 2nd Heavy Fighter Wing ) , Jagdgeschwader 27 ( JG 27 ; 27th Fighter Wing ) and Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 ; 53rd Fighter Wing ) , were intercepted by British fighters from No. 10 Group RAF and No. 11 Group RAF . The combined attacking force of more than 200 German aircraft were intercepted by 14 British fighter squadrons totaling 170 fighter aircraft . This mission turned out to be disastrous for 4th Staffel . Only Helbig and his crew returned their heavily damaged aircraft back to friendly territory . The majority of his men , 32 members of the 4th Staffel , were taken prisoner by the British .
As the Battle of Britain progressed , Helbig developed into an industrial target specialist . As a result of his success during more than 100 combat missions , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . By the time Helbig received the coveted decoration , he had flown 122 combat missions .
Helbig 's success in surviving seemingly hopeless situations was due to his excellent crew , which included Oberfeldwebel Franz Schlund who , on 30 August 1941 , became the first Luftwaffe radio operator to be awarded the Knight 's Cross . Manning one of the machine guns , Schlund drove off the attacking fighter force on a mission against the Warrington Propeller Works located north of Liverpool . He also contributed to the success of other missions , including the attack and destruction of the lock entrance to the Manchester Ship Canal at Eastham and the attack on the pilot training airfield at Penrose . In more than 200 combat missions , Schlund successfully fought off 13 attacks by enemy fighters .
= = = North African and Mediterranean campaign = = =
The Fourth Staffel of LG 1 was ordered to attack the British ships in the port of Piraeus on the night of Good Friday 1941 . During this moonlight mission , Helbig dive @-@ bombed and sank a troop transport ship , most likely the Ellenis , which was also used as a hospital ship by Greek forces . On 5 November 1941 Helbig took cammand as Gruppenkommandeur ( Group Commander ) of I. ( Kampf ) / LG 1 ( 1st Bomber Group of the 1st Demonstration Wing ) , succeeding Hauptmann Kuno Hoffmann . With 220 combat missions flown , he was one of the youngest Gruppenkommandeure in the Luftwaffe . On 16 January 1942 Helbig became the 64th recipient of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) after having completed 300 combat missions . During the German assault on Tobruk in 1942 , Helbig , flying two missions per night , bombed the heavily defended fortress on ten consecutive nights . Taking off from Heraklion , each mission lasted 4 to 4 @.@ 5 hours .
Five Ju 88s from I. ( Kampf ) / LG 1 took off on an armed reconnaissance patrol in the sea area south of Crete on 11 May 1942 . The crew of Oberfeldwebel Otto Leupert was searching the area of quadrant 5574 / 23 East — roughly 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) south of Crete — and detected the four British destroyers HMS Jervis , HMS Kipling , HMS Jackal and HMS Lively before noon . Joachim Helbig was immediately informed by radio communications . The destroyers approached the sea between Crete and Tobruk at around noon and were again spotted by a German reconnaissance aircraft at 12 : 35 pm . At 2 : 30 pm 14 Ju 88s from I. ( Kampf ) / LG 1 headed for quadrant 6450 / 23 East . The aircraft were armed with two 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) and two 250 @-@ kilogram ( 550 lb ) bombs . Despite the protection of accompanying Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers from No. 272 Squadron RAF , operating as long @-@ range fighters , the Ju 88s attacked . The HMS Lively was struck by Oberfeldwebel Leupert and sank at about 3 : 30 pm . After refueling and rearming , a second wave led by Leupert failed to reach the destroyers .
The third wave led by Hauptmann Helbig took off from Heraklion with seven aircraft of I. Gruppe / LG 1 . His flight included the experienced veterans Oberleutnant Iro Ilk , Oberleutnant Backhaus , Leutnant Gerhard Brenner and Oberfeldwebel Otto Leupert . The seven Ju 88s attacked the destroyers with the already setting sun behind them . In the space of ten minutes , they sank two of the three vessels . Helbig had selected the Kipling as his target . His four bombs struck the destroyer amidships , sinking her at 32 @.@ 39 ° N 26 @.@ 19 ° E / 32 @.@ 39 ; 26 @.@ 19 . The Jackal was hit several times . The British attempted to tow the crippled vessel to a friendly port ; however , the next day , it sank , scuttled by Jervis . This achievement earned Helbig his first of two references in the Wehrmachtbericht on 13 May 1942 . The Wehrmachtbericht was a daily propaganda radio report made by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( High Command of the Armed Forces ) reporting on the military situation on all fronts . He also developed a reputation among his opponents : The British called his squadron " The Helbig Flyers " . In June 1942 , British commandos targeted his unit at their base in Heraklion , and succeeded in blowing up seven of his Ju 88s .
Helbig flew numerous missions in support of the Siege of Malta . On 28 September 1942 he was awarded the 20th Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) . He had sunk 182 @,@ 000 GRT of enemy shipping . In defense of the Allied landings in Algeria and Tunisia ( Operation Torch ) in November 1942 he sank a 10 @,@ 000 GRT munitions transport , USS Leedstown , off the coast of Algeria .
= = = High command = = =
In January 1943 , Helbig was transferred to the staff of the General der Kampfflieger ( Commander of Bombers ) , as an inspector . In March 1943 he was often tasked with the duties of the General der Kampfflieger and in this role he received a preferential promotion to Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) on 1 September 1943 . After numerous difficulties and clashes with his superiors , including Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Albert Kesselring , who lacked his operational expertise , he transferred to an operational unit and was made Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of Lehrgeschwader 1 on 14 August 1943 in Wiener Neustadt .
Helbig led his Geschwader against the Allied beachheads at Anzio and Nettuno in Italy with the beginning of Operation Shingle on 22 January 1944 . On 23 January 1944 LG 1 sank the HMS Janus with a Henschel Hs 293 glider bomb and again damaged the Jervis severely for the loss of 11 aircraft . In Italy on 30 January 1944 , his Ju 88 L1 + AM was destroyed in an aerial attack by American bombers . This aircraft , which was solely piloted by Helbig himself , was the only Ju 88 to survive more than 1 @,@ 000 hours of combat operations . After successful operations against Allied airfields on the isle of Corsica , he was mentioned a second time in the Wehrmachtbericht on 28 May 1944 .
= = = In defense of the Reich = = =
On 6 June 1944 LG 1 was ordered to transfer to Belgium for air defence during the Allied invasion of France . Helbig ordered the transfer postponed due to unfavourable weather conditions over Southern France and fearing that the intensive Allied fighter operations in the area would render any movement impossible without sustaining high losses . Helbig was accused of disobeying orders by Luftflotte 2 ( 2nd Air Fleet ) . Helbig relocated the Geschwader as soon as the low @-@ pressure area dissipated , arriving in Belgium at dusk without losing a single aircraft .
The court martial proceedings against Helbig , which had already begun , were dropped , because he was able to prove that his actions had been of decisive importance in preserving the Geschwader and its operational readiness . It was at this time that Helbig received the promotion to Oberst ( Colonel ) on 1 July 1944 which Generalfeldmarschall Wolfram von Richthofen had proposed some time earlier . Helbig then led his Geschwader with some success in the battles against the invasion fleet . However the ever present Allied fighter aircraft over the invasion front inflicted heavy losses on LG 1 .
He formed a combined ground support and reconnaissance battle group in defense of the Reich on 10 September 1944 . Visiting one of the ground support squadrons at Vogelsang in the Eifel , he was severely wounded by strafing enemy aircraft . Due to his injuries Helbig had to surrender command of the Gefechtsverband Helbig , as the battle group was referred to , to the commander and Geschwaderkommodore of Kampfgeschwader 2 ( KG 2 ) Oberstleutnant Rudolf Hallensleben . Shortly before the end of World War II , he led a small battle group made up of LG 1 and Kampfgeschwader 200 . He was ordered by Generalmajor Franz Reuß , commanding general of the 4 . Flieger @-@ Division ( 4th Air Division ) , on 30 April 1945 to lead a small formation of Fieseler Fi 156 Storch . The unit was to fly into Berlin @-@ Wannsee and evacuate at least ten high @-@ ranking officials , people from Adolf Hitler 's inner circle , of the Reich . Nine aircraft headed for Berlin , but were forced to abandon the mission due to strong defensive anti @-@ aircraft fire .
The city of Hamburg was declared an open city on 3 May 1945 and I. / LG 1 abandoned their positions in southern Hamburg and relocated to Barmstedt near Elmshorn , roughly 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of Hamburg , on 4 May 1945 . Helbig received the order to leave his Geschwader to serve as a courier , flying vital documents and secret orders from the Flensburg government to the senior command staff of Generalfeldmarschall Ferdinand Schörner , the new Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the German Army ( Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres ) , in Czechoslovakia . After delivering his reports , he departed early on the evening of 8 May 1945 . Flying west , he avoided capture by the Red Army and escaped from Czechoslovakia . He was taken prisoner of war ( POW ) by the Americans and was taken to the Sennelager POW camp from which he escaped on 9 June .
After the war Helbig built a civilian life and became a manager of the Schultheiss Brewery on the Kreuzberg in Berlin . He died on 5 October 1985 in Malente , following a road accident on his way to vacation in Spain two days earlier .
= = Awards = =
Narvik Shield
Wound Badge in Silver
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 400 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds
" Afrika " and " Kreta " Cuffband
Medaglia d 'Argento al Valor Militare
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd class ( 16 September 1939 )
1st class ( 20 June 1940 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( 6 October 1940 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 24 November 1940 as Hauptmann and Staffelkapitän of the 4 . ( K ) / Lehrgeschwader 1
64th Oak Leaves on 16 January 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the I. ( K ) / Lehrgeschwader 1
20th Swords on 28 September 1942 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the I. ( K ) / Lehrgeschwader 1
Mentioned twice in the Wehrmachtbericht
= = = Wehrmachtbericht references = = =
= Nicole Haislett =
Nicole Lee Haislett ( born December 16 , 1972 ) is an American former competitive swimmer who was a three @-@ time Olympic gold medalist , a former world and American record @-@ holder , and an eight @-@ time American national college champion . During her international swimming career , Haislett won twenty @-@ two medals in major international championships , including fourteen golds .
= = Early years = =
Haislett was born in St. Petersburg , Florida in 1972 . She was a " water baby " — she learned to swim at 18 months old . At the time , her parents merely wanted her to be comfortable in water , not intending that swimming would become her life focus . She began to train with the St. Pete Aquatics Club at the age of 6 . Haislett attended Lakewood High School in St. Petersburg , where she swam for the Lakewood Spartans high school swim team , winning four Florida high school state championships in two years . As a 16 @-@ year @-@ old high school junior , she won the 50- , 100- and 200 @-@ meter events at the U.S. Open Swimming Championships in 1989 . At the 1990 U.S. Short Course Swimming National Championships , she won the national title in the 200 @-@ yard freestyle .
= = College swimming career = =
After graduating from high school , Haislett accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where she swam for coach Mitch Ivey and coach Chris Martin 's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) competition from 1991 to 1994 . As a Gator swimmer , she won NCAA national titles in the 200 @-@ yard freestyle for four consecutive years from 1991 to 1994 , the 200 @-@ yard individual medley in 1993 , and the 500 @-@ yard freestyle in 1994 , and was a member of the Gators ' NCAA @-@ winning relay teams in the 4 × 100 @-@ yard freestyle in 1993 and the 4 × 100 @-@ yard medley relay in 1994 . She received twenty @-@ eight All @-@ American honors in four years — the maximum number possible . In four years of swimming , she was undefeated in Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) competition , and was recognized as the SEC Female Swimmer of the Year for four consecutive years from 1991 to 1994 , and the SEC Female Athlete of the Year ( all sports ) in 1993 and 1994 . She was the 1993 – 94 recipient of the Honda Sports Award for Swimming and Diving , recognizing her as the outstanding college female swimmer of the year .
= = International swimming career = =
Haislett was the first American woman to defeat a swimmer from East Germany in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle since the 1972 Summer Olympics ; she did so at the 1990 Goodwill Games in Seattle , Washington . At the 1991 World Aquatics Championships in Perth , Western Australia , Haislett won the 100 @-@ meter freestyle , and swam the anchor legs for the winning U.S. teams in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle and the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relays , ending the East German women 's eighteen years of overwhelming dominance in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle at the world championships . Haislett also endured the emotional agony of disqualifying her team on an early exchange in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay – a relay race that the American women won in the water .
Haislett qualified for four events at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , Spain . After finishing a disappointing fourth in the women 's 100 @-@ meter freestyle , Haislett won the 200 @-@ meter freestyle event with a time of 1 : 57 @.@ 90 for her first Olympic gold medal . Drafting off German swimmer Franziska Van Almsick , she swam what was described as a " perfect race . " She was a member of the winning U.S. team in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , together with Jenny Thompson , Dara Torres and Angel Martino , which set a new world record of 3 : 39 @.@ 46 in the event final while winning the gold medal . Haislett swam the freestyle leg in the preliminaries of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay to earn her third Olympic gold medal .
Haislett was the first American woman to swim the 200 @-@ meter freestyle in under one minute , fifty @-@ eight seconds ( 1 : 58 ) , and held the American record until 2003 , when it was broken by Lindsay Benko . After six months in residence at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs , she announced her retirement from competition swimming in 1995 , citing her prior success and waning motivation and competitive desire .
= = Life after competition swimming = =
Haislett graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor 's degree in telecommunications in 1996 , and served as an assistant coach for the Florida Gators women 's swim team under head coach Kevin Thornton from 1996 to 1997 . Afterward , she studied to be a chef at the Florida Culinary Institute in West Palm Beach , Florida , and subsequently worked as the dining room manager and activities director at an assisted living community for seniors . She was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a " Gator Great " in 2004 , and the Florida Sports Hall of Fame in 2005 . Haislett and her ex @-@ husband have a daughter , Blake , who was born in 2006 .
= = World record = =
Women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay
Note : Record time and location are sourced to USA Swimming 's list of world records .
= Teddy Sheean =
Edward " Teddy " Sheean ( 28 December 1923 – 1 December 1942 ) was a sailor in the Royal Australian Navy during the Second World War . Born in Tasmania , Sheean was employed as a farm labourer when he enlisted in the Royal Australian Naval Reserve in April 1941 . Following training at HMAS Derwent and the Flinders Naval Depot , he was posted to Sydney , where he joined the newly commissioned corvette HMAS Armidale in June 1942 . Sheean served aboard Armidale as she initially took part in escort duties along the eastern Australian coast and in New Guinea waters , before he transferred with the ship to Darwin in October , where Armidale was tasked with assisting Australian operations in Timor .
On 29 November 1942 , Armidale set out for an operation to Betano , Timor , along with HMAS Castlemaine . The two ships were attacked by Japanese aircraft along the way , and were subsequently late in arriving at their destination , missing a planned rendezvous with HMAS Kuru . While returning to Darwin , the pair encountered Kuru south of Betano and it was decided by Castlemaine 's commanding officer — as the senior officer — that Armidale and Kuru should voyage to Betano . The two ships undertook different routes to Betano , during which both vessels came under aerial assault .
During a subsequent confrontation with thirteen Japanese aircraft on 1 December , Armidale was struck by two torpedoes and a bomb , and began to sink ; the order to abandon ship was given . After helping to free a life @-@ raft , Sheean was wounded by two bullets . He made his way to the aft Oerlikon 20 mm cannon and began to fire on the Japanese aircraft to protect those in the water . Sheean managed to shoot down one of the Japanese bombers , but was killed when Armidale sank . Many of the survivors credited their lives to Sheean and he was posthumously mentioned in despatches . In 1999 , the submarine HMAS Sheean was named in his honour , and efforts have been made to have Sheean belatedly awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia .
= = Early life = =
Sheean was born in Lower Barrington , Tasmania , on 28 December 1923 , the youngest of fourteen children to James Sheean , a labourer , and his wife Mary Jane ( née Broomhall ) . Soon after Edward 's birth , the Sheean family moved to Latrobe , where he was educated at the local Catholic school . Following the completion of his schooling , Sheean gained casual employment working on several farms in the vicinity of Latrobe and Merseylea .
= = Second World War = =
On 21 April 1941 , Sheean enlisted in the Royal Australian Naval Reserve . He had followed in the steps of five of his brothers who had already joined the armed forces — four in the Australian Army and one in the Royal Australian Navy — for service in the Second World War . Sheean was initially posted to the Hobart naval base HMAS Derwent for training , where he gained a period of seafaring experience aboard HMAS Coombar , an auxiliary minesweeper , from 17 – 31 December . On finishing his initial training course , Sheean was attached to the Flinders Naval Depot in Western Port , Victoria , for further instruction from 11 February 1942 .
Completing his course at the Flinders Naval Depot , Sheean was posted to the Garden Island naval base HMAS Penguin in Sydney Harbour on 11 May . During his time with Penguin , he was billeted on the requisitioned ferry HMAS Kuttabul . Granted a period of leave later that month , he returned home to Tasmania . While he was on leave , Japanese midget submarines attacked Sydney Harbour and sank Kuttabul on 31 May . Returning to Sydney eleven days after the raid , Sheean joined the newly commissioned Bathurst @-@ class corvette HMAS Armidale as an Oerlikon anti @-@ aircraft gun loader .
Leaving Sydney Harbour in late August 1942 , Sheean served aboard Armidale as she carried out " relatively uneventful " escort duties along the North Queensland , Port Moresby and Milne Bay coasts over the subsequent two months . During October , Armidale was ordered to Darwin . Setting sail , she arrived on 7 November and was detailed to assist in the Australian operations in Timor .
= = = Sinking of Armidale = = =
On 24 November 1942 , the evacuation of the 2 / 2nd Australian Independent Company from Timor along with 150 Portuguese people was approved by the Allied Land Forces Headquarters . In response to this , Commodore Cuthbert Pope , the Naval Officer @-@ in @-@ Charge Darwin , organised an operation utilizing HMA Ships Kuru , Castlemaine and Armidale . The operation was to involve the three ships undertaking two voyages each , the first to take place on the night of 30 November / 1 December and involve a trip to Betano , Timor , in which the ships were to land 50 fresh Dutch guerrillas in the area along with supplies , and simultaneously withdraw 190 Dutch soldiers as well as the 150 Portuguese refugees . The second excursion was to be carried out on the night of 4 / 5 December , and entail the extraction of the 2 / 2nd Independent Company .
At 22 : 30 on 28 November 1942 , Kuru set sail for Betano . Kuru was scheduled to arrive at approximately 20 : 30 on 30 November , where she was to unload the supplies on board and embark the Portuguese refugees , which were to transfer to Castlemaine once she arrived along with Armidale two hours later . However , Kuru hit bad weather during her voyage and arrived at Betano three hours late . Armidale — with two Dutch Army officers , 61 Netherlands East Indies troops and three Australian Army soldiers aboard — and Castlemaine set sail from Darwin at 01 : 42 on 29 November . At approximately 09 : 15 on 30 November , while 190 kilometres ( 100 nmi ) from their destination , the two ships were attacked by a single Japanese aircraft . Having missed with several bombs , the aircraft flew off in the direction of Timor an hour later . Fearing that their discovery by this aircraft would jeopardise the mission , Castlemaine 's Commanding Officer , Lieutenant Commander Philip Sullivan , ordered evasive action and signalled Darwin for further orders . A signal returned decreeing that the operation must proceed and a party of fighter aircraft were to be dispatched as protective cover .
Continuing in their voyage , Armidale and Castlemaine were attacked twice more by air , each time by a formation of bombers that bombed and machine @-@ gunned the ships . Despite this , neither ship suffered damage or casualties and both arrived at Betano at 03 : 30 on 1 December , however there was no sign of Kuru . Having made sure that Kuru was not in the bay , the two corvettes decided to abandon the mission and sailed south in order to return to Darwin . Kuru 's commanding officer , Lieutenant John Grant , had loaded 77 of the Portuguese refugees as well as one critically injured Australian soldier on board the ship and set sail at around 02 : 00 on 1 December from Betano , fearing he had missed the rendezvous with the other two ships . While approximately 110 kilometres ( 59 nmi ) south of Betano , Armidale and Castlemaine sighted Kuru , and the three ships closed by dawn .
Following the transfer of passengers from Kuru to Castlemaine , the former received orders that she was to return to Betano that evening " and do the job tonight " . At this time , a formation of Japanese aircraft was spotted and Kuru sailed for cover . Assessing the situation , Sullivan — as senior officer — decided that Armidale would accompany Kuru in order to unload the former 's passengers at Betano while Castlemaine returned to Darwin . Armidale and Kuru assumed separate routes to Betano , and at approximately 13 : 00 Armidale was attacked by a party of five Japanese bombers ; the explosives , however , fell wide of their target . At 13 : 58 , Armidale reported that she was under attack from " nine bombers , four fighters " over the Arafura Sea .
Armidale undertook evasive action , manoeuvring frantically to avoid the aerial attack . However , at 15 : 15 , the vessel was struck by two air @-@ launched torpedoes , one hitting her port side and the other colliding with the engineering spaces , before a bomb exploded aft . Armidale listed sharply to port at this stage , and the order was given to abandon ship . As the crew leapt into the sea , they were strafed by the attacking aircraft . Sheean — after assisting to free a life @-@ raft — was hit by two bullets from one of the aircraft , wounding him in the chest and back . Scrambling across the deck , he strapped himself into the aft Oerlikon 20 mm cannon and began shooting at the fighters in an effort to protect some of the sailors already in the sea . Subject to the fire from Sheean 's Oerlikon , the Japanese aircraft were kept at bay and were unable to effectively strafe those in the water .
With Armidale rapidly sinking , Sheean continued to fire and managed to shoot down one of the Japanese bombers . He damaged a further two aircraft before Armidale 's stern was engulfed by the sea . Despite this , Sheean maintained his fire as the water rose above his feet , and remained firing as he " disappeared beneath the waves " . Sheean 's crewmates later testified to witnessing tracers rising from beneath the water 's surface as Sheean was dragged under .
= = Legacy = =
Sheean was among 100 of the original 149 people on board HMAS Armidale at the time of the attack who were killed during the ship 's sinking and its aftermath . Many of the survivors attributed their lives to Sheean . For his " bravery and devotion when HMAS Armidale was lost " , Sheean 's actions were recognised with a posthumous Mention in Despatches , awarded on the recommendation of Armidale 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Commander David Richards , and announced in a supplement to The London Gazette on 29 June 1943 . However , many hold the opinion that Sheean 's gallantry , devotion to duty and self @-@ sacrifice were worthy of the Victoria Cross , with author Robert Macklin stating his " actions were in the highest tradition of the Australian military " and comparing them with those of Vietnam War Victoria Cross recipient Kevin Wheatley .
On 1 May 1999 , the submarine HMAS Sheean was launched by Ivy Hayes — sister of Teddy Sheean — named in the ordinary seaman 's honour . Sheean was subsequently commissioned into the Royal Australian Navy on 23 February 2001 , and was the first Royal Australian Navy vessel to be named in honour of a naval rating . Carrying the motto " Fight On " , the vessel was one of six Collins @-@ class submarines entered into service . Later that year , a Bill was introduced into the Australian Senate to have three awards of the Victoria Cross for Australia made , one being to Sheean . The Bill came as part of a campaign by the then @-@ leader of the Australian Labor Party and Federal Opposition , Kim Beazley , to secure more rights for war veterans . However , it was subsequently rejected by the Liberal Government . A painting depicting Sheean 's final moments is held by the Australian War Memorial . His home town of Latrobe commemorates his life via the Sheean Walk and Teddy Sheean Memorial , opened in 1992 . In 2003 , the Australian Navy Cadets established a training ship at Tewantin , Queensland , called NTS Sheean in his honour .
= = = Valour Inquiry = = =
In 2011 , at the direction of the Parliamentary Secretary for Defence , Senator David Feeney , the Defence Honours and Awards Appeals Tribunal opened an inquiry into thirteen cases of unresolved recognition for past acts of gallantry . Among the group were eleven naval personnel , including Sheean . Known as the ' Valour Inquiry ' , the Tribunal was directed to determine if the individuals were unduly overlooked for recognition at the time of their actions and , if so , whether retrospective awards were appropriate . The inquiry lasted two years and witnessed 166 written submissions from the public , before the Tribunal reported its findings in January 2013 . In the case of Sheean , the Tribunal found that there was no manifest injustice with the award of the Mention in Despatches , and that there was no new evidence to support the reconsideration of Sheean for a Victoria Cross for Australia . If Sheean had lived , they reported , he might have been recommended for either the Conspicuous Gallantry Medal or the Distinguished Service Medal instead , but neither medal could be awarded posthumously in 1942 . The Tribunal did recommend that the RAN perpetuate the use of Sheean as the name of a major combatant vessel .
= Ben Starosta =
Ben Mark Starosta ( born 7 January 1987 ) is a footballer who last played for Nuneaton Town . Born in Sheffield , England he started his career at his hometown club Sheffield United , although he never broke through into the first team . He was loaned to a number of clubs , both in England and Poland , while at United before eventually being released in 2009 . After an aborted spell at Darlington he spent a period at Dandenong Thunder in Australia on non @-@ contract terms before signing for Miedź Legnica in 2011 . Starosta then spent a year at United Football League side Global in the Philippines . He has also played for the Polish national U @-@ 20 team , qualifying as he holds a Polish passport through his family .
= = Club career = =
= = = Sheffield United = = =
Starosta started his club career with Sheffield United and had a spell in early 2006 on work experience with non @-@ league Tamworth . He signed a new two @-@ year contract with Sheffield United in May 2007 , before joining Brentford in a five @-@ month loan deal in August 2007 after impressing in two pre @-@ season friendlies . Starosta played 23 games in all competitions for Brentford but was sent off during his last game for the club , a Boxing Day fixture against Wycombe Wanderers . In January 2008 , he signed for Bradford City on loan for the rest of the 2007 – 08 season . Starosta made his debut for Bradford on 26 January 2008 as a half @-@ time substitute in a 1 – 1 draw away at Wrexham . He took Darren Williams ' place at right back the following game and played in a total of 15 games for Bradford , sharing first team duties with Williams .
Starosta returned to Sheffield United at the end of the season , but he moved back to League Two when he joined Aldershot Town on a one @-@ month loan deal for the start of the 2008 – 09 season , with a view to a permanent transfer . He made his Aldershot debut in Town 's game against Accrington Stanley at the start of the season , and played four games during his loan spell . With a permanent deal with Aldershot not materialising , Starosta instead joined Polish side Lechia Gdańsk on a six @-@ month loan deal in September 2008 . He returned to Sheffield United in February 2009 having played eleven times for Gdańsk but was released at the end of the season as the Blades cut back their squad .
= = = Darlington , Alfreton Town , Dandenong Thunder and Frickley Athletic = = =
In the summer of 2009 , Starosta was unveiled as one of ten new signings made by Colin Todd at League Two side Darlington following their spell in administration . With the club still in financial difficulty however , he left by mutual consent before the season even started as Darlington tried to cut the wage bill . Starosta then spent a spell with Conference North side Alfreton Town , before , seeking a new club , he took up an offer from Australian Victorian Premier League side Dandenong Thunder , where he played on non @-@ contract terms for a period , but soon left citing the poor quality of football on offer . Starosta returned to the UK and signed a short term deal with Frickley Athletic of the Northern Premier League in March 2011 , but failed to make an appearance for the club .
= = = Miedź Legnica = = =
In the summer of 2011 Starosta returned to Poland and signed a one @-@ year deal for II liga side Miedź Legnica with the option of extending the deal for another two seasons . After a slow start he broke into the first team in August , appearing as a second @-@ half substitute in a game against Bytovia Bytów . Establishing himself in the first team he played regularly through the season , making nineteen appearances as Miedź gained promotion to I liga . Miedź took up the option of extending his deal for him to remain with the club for the new season , however he subsequently left Legnica after the club cancelled his contract by mutual consent .
= = = Global = = =
In January 2013 Starosta signed for UFL side Global in the Philippines , making his league debut for Global at the start of February , scoring in a 2 – 0 victory over Pachanga Diliman . Starosta was released by Global the following March , having played 26 games and scored five goals and being made captain of the club .
= = = Nuneaton Town = = =
After leaving Global , Starosta rejoined his former Global manager Brian Reid , signing for Nuneaton Town in May 2014 .
= = International career = =
Starosta qualified to play for Poland through his grandfather who moved to England from Poland after the Second World War . He received his Polish passport in early 2007 and was called up to the Poland squad for the 2007 FIFA U @-@ 20 World Cup . He started all four games , including the 1 – 0 defeat of Brazil on 30 June .
= = Honours = =
Miedź Legnica
II liga ( West ) : 2012
Global
UFL Division 1 : Runner @-@ up 2013
= = Personal life = =
Having been born to a Polish family but brought up in England , Starosta speaks English but has learned Polish during his time in the country . As a young player his heroes were David Beckham and Kaká . Starosta cites his main hobby as playing golf and also enjoys singing to the point that his Miedź team mates suggested he enter the Polish version of Must Be The Music .
= Michael Chopra =
Rocky Michael Chopra ( born 23 December 1983 ) , known as Michael Chopra , is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker .
A product of the Newcastle United youth system , he spent six years at the club without managing to secure a regular first team place , instead spending time on loan at Watford , Nottingham Forest , and Barnsley . He was sold to Cardiff City for £ 500 @,@ 000 in June 2006 , and won a place on the PFA Team of the Year for his performances in the 2006 – 07 season . He then made a £ 5 million move to Premier League side Sunderland in July 2007 , before returning to Cardiff on a loan deal that was made permanent in July 2009 for £ 3 million . He again was included in the PFA Team of the Year for the 2009 – 10 campaign , before being sold on to Ipswich Town for £ 1 million in June 2011 . He joined Blackpool on a free transfer in July 2013 , before moving to the Indian Super League with Kerala Blasters for the inaugural 2014 season . Chopra signed for Scottish Championship club Alloa Athletic in March 2015 , playing for the side for a year before being released in March 2016
He has represented England at the under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 17 , under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 20 levels . In 2006 , he scored what was then the fastest goal by a substitute in Premier League history , scoring after being on the pitch for 15 seconds . With an Indian father , he was also the first player of Indian parentage to play and score in the Premier League . A gambling addict made him fall in severe debt and he had to seek professional help to overcome his addiction .
= = Club career = =
= = = Newcastle United = = =
Born in Newcastle upon Tyne , Tyne and Wear , Chopra attended Gosforth High School in Newcastle , and owing to his goal @-@ scoring exploits there , and later with the Montagu Boys ' Club , was recruited to the Newcastle United academy in July 1993 . Being an unused substitute for Newcastle in a Premier League match against Charlton Athletic in October 2002 , Chopra signed a three @-@ year contract with the club on 30 October .
Chopra made his professional debut on 6 November , at St James ' Park against Everton in the League Cup . Coming as a substitute for Lomana LuaLua , he missed a penalty kick in the shootout , sending Everton to the round of 16 . He made his UEFA Champions League debut in December 2002 against Barcelona . Coming as a substitute for Lualua , in the final minutes of the match , Newcastle was handed a 3 – 1 defeat .
Further playing once for the club against Bayer Leverkusen , Chopra was loaned to second @-@ tier club Watford for five matches on 25 March 2003 . During his short loan spell , he scored five goals in as many matches , which included four goals against Burnley . Being behind Alan Shearer , Craig Bellamy , Shola Ameobi and Lualua in the pecking order , Watford manager Ray Lewington expressed his desire to re @-@ sign him on loan for the next season . He said that Chopra " had an experience he wouldn 't have believed a month ago having played in an FA Cup semi @-@ final . " In September of the same year , the BBC reported that Indian club Mohun Bagan was interested in signing him .
Failing to find a goal in the 2003 – 04 season , Newcastle loaned Chopra to Nottingham Forest for a month in February 2004 . Even there he failed to find the net , as he ended the season playing eleven times without scoring . At the start of the 2004 – 05 season , he was loaned for a month to League One club Barnsley in August . Making his debut against Hull City , he would score his first goal for Barnsley against Hartlepool . Chopra " fired Barnsley ahead " to give them a lead , only to be equalized by Adam Boyd in the final minutes of the match . Scoring a total of five goals , his loan was extended in November till the end of the season . In the rest of the season , Chopra scored twelve times – including two hat @-@ tricks , one against Peterborough and another against Huddersfield .
In August 2004 he went on loan to League One club Barnsley for the entirety of the 2004 – 05 season . He scored 17 goals in 42 appearances for Paul Hart 's " Tykes " , including hat @-@ tricks against Peterborough United and Huddersfield Town . New Barnsley boss Andy Ritchie intended to sign Chopra in the summer to play alongside Paul Hayes , but was unsuccessful .
Chopra began the 2005 – 06 season back in Newcastle 's first team , scoring his first senior goal for Newcastle in the 3 – 1 away win to Slovakian side Dubnica on 17 July in UEFA Intertoto Cup . Making his second ever start for Newcastle , he opened the scoring in the fourth minute of the match . In the second leg of the match , he suffered concussion with Sky Sports reporting that he was " set to miss out " the next match against Spanish club Deportivo de La Coruna . Nevertheless , he played in that match where he " slid home Charles N 'Zogbia 's cross at the far post " . In a Premier League match against Sunderland in April 2006 , Chopra would score the fastest goal by a substitute – find the net after coming for fifteen seconds . Later in that season Chopra injured his knee ligaments , which he claimed to be the " worst injury " he ever had .
= = = Cardiff City = = =
Becoming frustrated owing to his failure to make an impact in Newcastle , Chopra signed for Cardiff City in June 2006 for £ 500 @,@ 000 . On his decision of leaving Newcastle Chopra commented that he had shown his loyalty to the club [ Newcastle ] and expressed his desire to get the same loyalty from the club . He also added that he would love to return to Newcastle in the future . During the season , Chopra scored 22 goals in forty 44 matches . He helped the club to stay in the " top of the table " during the month of September , and earning the Championship Player of the month for September . He was also featured in the PFA Team of the season ( an annual award given to a set of 44 footballers in the top four tiers of English football ) .
= = = Sunderland = = =
In July 2007 , newly promoted Premier League side Sunderland agreed a deal worth up to £ 5 million , activating a release clause , to sign Chopra on a four @-@ year contract . His Geordie roots and high price @-@ tag caused unrest among some Sunderland fans . He scored on his debut for the " Black Cats " on the opening day of the 2007 – 08 season at the Stadium of Light , when Chopra came on as a substitute late in the second half and scored the winning goal against Tottenham Hotspur in injury time . He scored in the next game at Birmingham City , but then went 15 games without scoring before he converted a penalty at Reading on 23 December . He went on to score the only goal of a 1 – 0 win over Aston Villa at Villa Park , before he scored his sixth and final goal of the season in Sunderland 's 3 – 2 win over Tees – Wear derby rivals Middlesbrough , finishing as the second highest scorer at the club , being just one goal behind Kenwyne Jones . After missing the initial matches for " personal problems " , he scored two goals in his second game of the 2008 – 09 season as Sunderland beat Middlesbrough 2 – 0 on 20 September .
With the arrivals of Djibril Cisse and El @-@ Hadji Diouf , Chopra found his playing time to be limited . So he rejoined Cardiff City in November on a two @-@ month loan . Chopra made his debut against Queens Park Rangers playing the entire ninety minutes of the 1 – 0 defeat . In the next match against Crystal Palace , he found his first goal . Chopra converted a 31st @-@ minute penalty the saw Cardiff winning the match 2 – 1 . Scoring five goals his the spell , he was recalled from loan by the new Sunderland manager Ricky Sbragia to the squad , with The Guardian writing that he was " excited " to return to the squad . Chopra rejoined Cardiff on loan in February 2009 for the rest of the season , with the transfer becoming permanent at the end of the season . Cardiff chairman Peter Ridsdale said that Chopra was " over the moon " about the transfer . During his second loan spell at the club , he found the net four times .
= = = Return to Cardiff = = =
Chopra completed a permanent move on 1 July following the opening of the transfer window for a fee of £ 3 million . The transfer smashed the club 's transfer record which was previously held by the £ 1 @.@ 75 million signing of Peter Thorne from Stoke City in 2001 . He scored in his debut , " claiming the first and third goals " in a 4 – 0 victory over Rotherham United . Chopra then would score consecutively in matches against Blackpool , Plymouth Argyle , Bristol City and Bristol Rovers . In the post @-@ match ceremony , manager Dave Jones commented , " Chopra is on fire , he 's scored seven goals already and he 's shown he will get the goals if he gets the supply " . Chopra scored a total of 21 goals which included a four @-@ goal haul against Derby County . For a second time , he was included in the PFA Team of the Year .
After the season , Goal.com reported that Ipswich Town lodged a £ 3 million bid to secure Chopra 's services . Though it was increased , he continued the next season with Cardiff City . In the 2010 – 11 season , he suffered a hamstring injury during a match against Barnsley on 23 April 2011 ruling him out of action for 10 to 12 weeks . A statement released by the club hailed it as a " disappointing news " as they would prepare for the rest of their matches without one of their " potent attacking options " . His played his next match against Queens Park Rangers on 23 April which ended in a 2 – 2 draw . He also featured in both the legs of the Championship play @-@ offs against Reading . In the second leg , he was near to scoring , only for his shot to be deflected by Reading captain Matt Mills .
= = = Ipswich Town = = =
On 10 June 2011 , Chopra penned a three @-@ year deal with Ipswich Town signing for an undisclosed fee , which was reported by East Anglian Daily Times to be £ 1 @.@ 5 million . Manager Paul Jewell revealed that he was the type of player the club was searching for . After signing , Chopra said that he was hungry for goals . He started his Ipswich years with a bang scoring twice in his debut against Bristol City . He also scored a goal in each of the two match = es against his former club Cardiff City . He ended the season as the club 's top scorer with 14 goals . However , Chopra had a lackluster second season with the club , where he scored five times in thirty six matches . Unhappy with his performance , manager Mick McCarthy said that he was not in his plans for going forward and they were free to look for another club . Nevertheless , he found the winner goal in the dying minutes of a match against Watford . Though he missed a couple of chance earlier in the match , he was successful in converting Carlos Edwards low cross in the last minute of the encounter .
= = = Blackpool = = =
Though he was close to signing with Barnsley , Chopra signed for Blackpool in July 2013 . Wales Online wrote that he joined the club to regain his " goal touch " . He said that the Blackpool move was a fresh start for him . He also expressed his confidence of scoring goals playing alongside the two wingers – Thomas Ince and Matt Phillips . In January of the following year , he was fined for a tweet in which he criticised the club 's training schedules . During his time with the side , he made 20 appearances but failed to score in any of them . Chopra later called his stay at the club " hard times " .
= = = Kerala Blasters = = =
In August 2014 , Chopra confirmed his participation in the inaugural season of the Indian Super League . He said that he felt honoured to " involved in this new era " . He was drafted by Kerala Blasters which was managed by David James . In an interview , he said that he felt honoured to " play for a team that is owned by Sachin Tendulkar " . He made his debut in the first match against NorthEast United FC , coming as a substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat , with The Times of India commenting that he " looked sharp " . His time in India was cut short by an injury which he suffered in a training for a match against Atlético de Kolkata . Goal.com criticized him for his poor " fitness level " and wrote that he never " impressed in the competition and failed to find the back of the net " . Nevertheless , he played the 120 minutes of the semifinal against Chennaiyin FC , and also started the final against the Kolkatan side where he managed two shots on goal . He ended the season playing nine times without scoring .
= = = Alloa Athletic = = =
On 17 March 2015 , Chopra signed for Scottish Championship club Alloa Athletic for the rest of the season . On that very day , he made his debut against Rangers . On 2 May 2015 , he scored his first goal for Alloa when he scored from six yards out in a league match against Cowdenbeath . Four days later , he scored his second goal for the club , as he opened the scoring in a 2 – 0 victory against Brechin City in the relegation play @-@ offs . Chopra was released by Alloa due to injury in March 2016 , exactly one year after he signed for the club .
= = International career = =
Chopra has represented England at under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 17 , under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 20 levels . He played in the 2000 UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship and the 2002 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship .
Born and raised in England , Chopra is eligible to play for India through his father . In November 2010 , Chopra entered into talks over acquiring an Indian passport in order to represent India in the 2011 AFC Asian Cup . However , without an Indian passport , and the Indian government 's refusal to change its stance on dual citizenship , Chopra cannot play for India without first renouncing his British citizenship . In August 2014 , Chopra stated that he wanted to play for India at international level , and was willing to renounce his British citizenship to do so .
= = Personal life = =
Chopra appeared in OK ! magazine in October 2007 to announce he had become engaged to Heather Swan , and that they were expecting their first baby . On 15 February 2008 , they welcomed a 6 lb 10 oz baby boy , Sebastian Rocco Thomas Chopra . In July , it was reported that the couple had split only weeks after their £ 250 @,@ 000 wedding , but they later reconciled as she vowed to " stand by him " as he entered rehab for his gambling addiction , which included a spell at the Sporting Chance clinic . He was re @-@ admitted to the same clinic for three weeks in October 2011 . In December 2011 , Ipswich Town gave Chopra £ 250 @,@ 000 to help pay off his gambling debts .
On 4 October 2012 , Chopra was one of three footballers among a group charged by the British Horseracing Authority ( BHA ) over an investigation into " suspicious betting activity " . The allegations focus on horses being laid to lose on betting exchanges . On 25 January 2013 he was found guilty of this offence and given a 10 @-@ year ban from racing by the BHA .
= = Club statistics = =
As of 20 May 2015
= Golden white @-@ eye =
The golden white @-@ eye ( Cleptornis marchei ) is a species of bird in the white @-@ eye family Zosteropidae . It is the only species within the genus Cleptornis . The golden white @-@ eye was once considered to be a honeyeater in the family Meliphagidae and although it is now known to be a white @-@ eye , its position within that family is still uncertain . The species is restricted to the islands of Saipan and Aguijan in the Northern Mariana Islands , where it is sympatric ( shares its range ) and competes with the related bridled white @-@ eye . The golden white @-@ eye has golden plumage and a pale eye @-@ ring . It feeds on insects , fruit , and nectar and forages in pairs or small family groups . The bird is monogamous and lays two eggs in a small cup nest .
Fossil evidence shows the golden white @-@ eye once also occurred on Tinian and Rota but was extirpated in those locations through the impact of human activities . Despite its current abundance on Saipan and Aguijan , and the fact that it has among the highest recorded densities for any bird , it is nevertheless considered to be critically endangered . It is threatened by the invasive brown tree snake , which has become established on nearby Guam , and this predator is expected to cause a rapid decline in the population if it reaches Saipan . Efforts are under way to control the snakes and breed the white @-@ eye in zoos .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was once called the golden honeyeater as it was considered to be a honeyeater ( Meliphagidae ) . It was placed within the genus Ptilotis by French naturalist Émile Oustalet when he described the species in 1889 ; that genus is now considered defunct and is no longer used . It was subsequently moved into the genus Cleptornis , which had been provisionally established by Oustalet in case the species proved to be distinct . Behavioural and morphological characteristics led American ornithologist Harold Douglas Pratt , Jr . , to suggest in 1987 that it was related to the white @-@ eyes . Subsequent studies have supported the idea that this species was a white @-@ eye . It is possibly most closely related to the Micronesian white @-@ eyes of the genus Rukia , or the monotypic Bonin white @-@ eye ( Apalopteron ) , another species once placed with the honeyeaters and subsequently moved to the white @-@ eyes . The golden white @-@ eye has a long 10th primary feather ( one of the flight feathers ) , unlike other white @-@ eyes where that primary is reduced or absent , which has led to the alternative suggestion that it is basal ( an early offshoot ) among the white @-@ eyes .
Its generic name , Cleptornis , is derived from the Ancient Greek kleptes , a robber or thief , and ornis , a bird . This is not a reference to any aspect of the golden white @-@ eye 's behaviour , but to the old French name of the Mariana Islands , les Îles des Voleurs , or Robbers ' Islands . The specific epithet marchei refers to the French explorer and writer Antoine @-@ Alfred Marche , who procured the original specimens .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The golden white @-@ eye is endemic to the Northern Mariana Islands in the western Pacific Ocean , where it currently occurs on the islands of Saipan and Aguijan . Within its range , it occupies a variety of habitats , both natural and man @-@ made . It is common in native forests , particularly limestone forests , but also occurs in open shrubland and suburban areas . On Saipan , the only habitats it is absent from are the marshes around Lake Susupe and grassy savannas .
= = Description = =
The golden white @-@ eye differs from the other white @-@ eyes in having large eyes and an outermost primary wing feather that is not reduced ( as it is in the other species ) . It is a large white @-@ eye , 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long and weighing around 20 g ( 0 @.@ 7 oz ) . The species has bright , unmistakable plumage , with : an orange @-@ yellow head coupled with a pale eye @-@ ring ; a yellow @-@ green back , wings , and tail ; and golden orange undersides . The bill and legs are also orange . The plumage of both sexes is similar ; the males can be told from the females only when examined in the hand , since the males have longer wings than the females . The juveniles have similar plumage , though duller than the adults ' , with brownish patches on the face and neck and brown @-@ yellow streaks on the breast . Juveniles also have dusky bills and dull legs .
The golden white @-@ eye makes a variety of calls . The song is a long raspy warble , rendered as " séé mé @-@ can you séé mé @-@ I can séé yóú @-@ can you séé mé " . The species also makes rasping shorter calls and whistles when in flocks and in flight . Chicks give plaintive whistles when begging for food from adults .
= = Behaviour = =
Like other white @-@ eyes , the golden white @-@ eye is diurnal . In contrast to the bridled white @-@ eye , which forages in groups and is not territorial , the golden white @-@ eye occurs in pairs or small family groups consisting of a breeding pair and fledged young . The golden white @-@ eye is also territorial , and pairs will sing throughout the day in response to neighbouring pairs . Groups can become aggressive when they encounter one another . The golden white @-@ eye is also aggressive towards the smaller bridled white @-@ eye , chasing it away from food and perches and flying through flocks of them in order to disperse them . While it chases other forest passerines , it is less aggressive towards them , and in fact the rufous fantail seeks out the golden white @-@ eye , foraging behind it to snatch insects flushed by the latter species . The golden white @-@ eye is socially dominant over the bridled white @-@ eyes and rufous fantails , but it is subordinate to the Micronesian myzomela and is chased by that species . It is also occasionally chased by the fantails if it approaches their nests too closely .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
The golden white @-@ eye is a generalist , feeding on fruit , berries , and insects . Nectar forms part of the diet , and , along with the Micronesian myzomela and the bridled white @-@ eye , the golden white @-@ eye is a pollinator of some trees , albeit not one as important as these other species . Insects may be either gleaned from the bark of trees and from leaves , or caught in the air . Certain tree species are preferred as foraging habitat . The common forest tree Cynometra ramifolia is the most favoured tree and used more frequently than the equally common Guamia mariannae . There is considerable overlap between this species ' foraging range and that of the bridled white @-@ eye , but the golden white @-@ eye is more generalised in its diet . Within the forest there is some partitioning of niche , with bridled white @-@ eyes ( and Micronesian myzomelas ) feeding primarily in the forest canopy , and the golden white @-@ eye feeding in both the canopy and understory of the forest , as well as a variety of smaller trees and bushes . It shares the understory with the rufous fantail , which has a different feeding technique . At a smaller scale additional partitioning occurs . The golden white @-@ eye shows differences in the preferred microhabitat for obtaining insects , for example , feeding in dead leaves and branches , whereas the bridled white @-@ eye prefers gleaning insects on live leaves . It is the most generalised of all the extant forest passerines on Saipan . It has been suggested that the versatility in diet and foraging technique is an adaptation to the challenges presented by typhoons , which can dramatically alter the structure of the forest .
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding occurs throughout the year on Saipan , where the species ' nesting behaviour has been studied . The peak breeding period seems to be from March to July . The species is monogamous . The nests are simple undecorated cups of casuarina needles , grasses , and vines . These are placed around 2 @.@ 9 m ( between 1 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 5 m ) off the ground in a variety of trees including Casuarina , Guamia , Cynometra , Leucaena , and Citrus . The nests are predated by other bird species , specifically Micronesian starlings and collared kingfishers , as well as the introduced green tree skink .
The typical clutch size is two eggs , 20 @.@ 3 × 15 @.@ 1 mm in size , which are pale blueish green with red or brown splotches that are concentrated around the wider end . Both sexes share the incubation duties , with each parent incubating for stints of around 25 minutes before being relieved . This species is extremely territorial around the nest , chasing away other birds , including brindled white @-@ eyes , rufous fantails , and other golden white @-@ eyes . From laying it takes about two weeks for the eggs to hatch . The hatchlings are altricial , in other words naked and helpless . Both parents share the brooding and feeding duties , and take away faecal sacs to keep the nest clean . The diet of the chicks is almost exclusively composed of insects and caterpillars . Chicks fledge around 10 – 14 days after hatching . After fledging they may remain with their parents in small groups for some time .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The range of the golden white @-@ eye has contracted considerably since the arrival of humans in the Mariana Islands . Fossil bones of this species have been found on the nearby islands of Tinian and Rota , and it may once have occurred on Guam and other islands in the Marianas .
At present the golden white @-@ eye is very common , and in fact a 1996 study found that their densities on Saipan were among the highest recorded for any bird , up to 2 @,@ 095 birds / km ² ( 8 @.@ 47 per acre ) . It was believed that Saipan cannot sustain a larger population of this white @-@ eye than it already does . A 2009 study , which incorporated results from a 2007 survey , found that the species had declined between 1982 and 2007 , in common with two other species on Saipan , the rufous fantail and the nightingale reed warbler . All three species are insectivorous and were theorised to have declined due to habitat loss . Nevertheless , the species remained relatively abundant , and the current world population is estimated at around 71 @,@ 997 birds .
The species is nonetheless evaluated as critically endangered by the IUCN because the population is expected to undergo a rapid decline if the brown tree snake becomes established on Saipan . The primary threat to this species is the brown tree snake , a native of Australia , New Guinea and the Solomon Islands , which eliminated all 12 landbird species on nearby Guam after being accidentally introduced . The snake has not yet become established on Saipan , one of the two islands that compose the range of the golden white @-@ eye , and which holds the largest population of the species . The isolation of Aguijan makes the introduction of brown tree snakes there unlikely , but the small population there is vulnerable as the island is only 718 ha ( 1774 acres ) in size and a direct hit by a supertyphoon could wipe them out . Efforts are under way to breed the species in captivity and to prevent the snakes from being introduced and established on Saipan . Six zoos have recently received this species and breeding was expected to begin by 2011 . Success came more quickly , and the first captive birds were bred in 2009 in the North Carolina Zoo . Birds from captive breeding will be introduced on new islands . In addition , 24 birds were translocated from Saipan to the island of Sarigan , a predator @-@ free island reserve , in 2011 in the hope of establishing a breeding population .
= John Breckinridge ( U.S. Attorney General ) =
John Breckinridge ( December 2 , 1760 – December 14 , 1806 ) was a lawyer and politician from the U.S. state of Virginia . He served in the state legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky before being elected to the U.S. Senate and appointed United States Attorney General during the second term of President Thomas Jefferson . He is the progenitor of Kentucky 's Breckinridge political family and the namesake of Breckinridge County , Kentucky .
Breckinridge 's father was a local politician , and his mother was a member of the Preston political family . Breckinridge attended the William and Mary College intermittently between 1780 and 1784 ; his attendance was interrupted by the Revolutionary War and his election to the Virginia House of Delegates . One of the youngest members of that body , his political activities acquainted him with many prominent politicians . In 1785 , he married " Polly " Cabell , a member of the Cabell political family . Despite making a comfortable living through a combination of legal and agricultural endeavors , letters from relatives in Kentucky convinced him to move to the western frontier . He established " Cabell 's Dale " , his plantation , near Lexington , Kentucky , in 1793 .
Breckinridge was appointed as the state 's attorney general soon after arriving . In November 1797 , he resigned and was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives the next month . As a legislator , he secured passage of a more humane criminal code that abolished the death penalty for all offenses except first @-@ degree murder . On a 1798 trip to Virginia , an intermediary gave him Thomas Jefferson 's Kentucky Resolutions , which denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts . At Jefferson 's request , Breckinridge assumed credit for the modified resolutions he shepherded through the Kentucky General Assembly ; Jefferson 's authorship was not discovered until after Breckinridge 's death . He opposed calling a state constitutional convention in 1799 but was elected as a delegate . Due to his influence , the state 's government remained comparatively aristocratic , maintaining protections for slavery and limiting the power of the electorate . Called the father of the resultant constitution , he emerged from the convention as the acknowledged leader of the state 's Democratic @-@ Republican Party and was selected Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1799 and 1800 .
Elected to the U.S. Senate in 1800 , Breckinridge functioned as Jefferson 's floor leader , guiding administration bills through the chamber that was narrowly controlled by his party . Residents of the western frontier called for his nomination as vice president in 1804 , but Jefferson appointed him as U.S. Attorney General in 1805 instead . He was the first cabinet @-@ level official from the West but had little impact before his death from tuberculosis on December 14 , 1806 .
= = Early life and family = =
John Breckinridge 's grandfather , Alexander Breckenridge , immigrated from Ireland to Bucks County , Pennsylvania , around 1728 . In 1740 , the family moved to Augusta County , Virginia , near the city of Staunton . John Breckinridge was born there on December 2 , 1760 , the second of six children of Robert Breckenridge and his second wife , Lettice ( Preston ) Breckenridge . His mother was the daughter of John Preston of Virginia 's Preston political family . Robert Breckinridge had two children by a previous marriage , and it was through one of these half @-@ brothers that John Breckinridge was uncle to future Congressman James D. Breckinridge . A veteran of the French and Indian War , Robert Breckinridge served first as Augusta County 's under @-@ sheriff , then sheriff , then justice of the peace . Soon after John Breckinridge 's birth , the family moved to Botetourt County where Robert Breckinridge became a constable and justice of the peace , as well as serving in the local militia . He died in 1773 , leaving 12 @-@ year @-@ old John 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) of land , one slave , and half @-@ ownership of another slave .
According to his biographer , Lowell H. Harrison , Breckinridge may have attended school , including Augusta Academy ( now Washington and Lee University ) , but any records containing this information have been lost . After his father 's death , the younger Breckinridge helped support the family by selling whiskey , brandy , and hemp . He learned surveying from his uncle , William Preston , and between 1774 and 1779 , he was employed as a recorder in the land office of Fincastle . Preston sought opportunities for his nephew to attend private schools alongside his sons , but such schools were prone to intermittent operation , and Breckinridge 's other responsibilities interfered with his attendance . Preston also nominated Breckinridge as deputy surveyor of Montgomery County , a position he accepted after passing the requisite exam on February 1 , 1780 . Later that year , he joined his cousin , future Kentucky Senator John Brown , at William and Mary College ( now College of William & Mary ) . The instructors who influenced him most were Reverend James Madison and George Wythe .
The Revolutionary War forced William and Mary to close in 1781 , as its buildings were used as barracks for British , French , and American troops as each nation successively controlled the college and surrounding area . Although William C. Davis records that Breckinridge had previously served as an ensign in the Botetourt County militia , Harrison notes that the most reliable records of Virginians ' military service do not indicate his participation in the Revolutionary War , but less reliable sources mention him as a subaltern in the Virginia militia . If he enlisted , Harrison speculates that he served in one or two short 1780 militia campaigns supporting Nathanael Greene 's army in southwest Virginia .
= = = Early political career = = =
Although he had not sought the office and was not old enough to serve , Breckinridge was elected to represent Botetourt County in the Virginia House of Delegates in late 1780 . Legend says he was twice refused his seat because of his age , but his constituents reelected him each time , and he was seated the third time , but official records do not support this . His legislative colleagues included Patrick Henry , Benjamin Harrison , John Tyler , John Taylor of Caroline , George Nicholas , Daniel Boone , and Benjamin Logan .
Prevented by British soldiers from meeting at Williamsburg , the House convened May 7 , 1781 in Richmond , but failed to achieve a quorum . Because of British General Charles Cornwallis ' May 10 advance on that city , the legislators adjourned to Charlottesville on May 24 . Breckinridge arrived in Charlottesville on May 28 ; a quorum was present to conduct legislative business through June 3 . The next morning , Jack Jouett rode into the city , warning the legislators that 250 light cavalrymen under Banastre Tarleton were approaching . Legislators quickly adjourned to Staunton and fled for their horses . Days later , they completed the session 's business there . Breckinridge stayed at his mother 's house between sessions , rejoining the legislature in Richmond in November 1781 . Much of the session consisted of adopting resolutions of thanks for individuals who had made that city safe by defeating Cornwallis at Yorktown .
Financial difficulties prevented Breckinridge 's return to college . He did not seek reelection in 1782 ; instead , he spent a year earning money by surveying , and was reelected to the House of Delegates in 1783 , joining his legislative colleagues in May . He also joined the Constitutional Society of Virginia ; fellow society members included future U.S. presidents James Madison and James Monroe . The House adjourned June 28 , 1783 , and Breckinridge returned to William and Mary , studying through the end of the year , excepting the legislative session in November and December . With the war over , he urged that no economic or political penalties be imposed on former Loyalists . In contrast to his later political views , he desired a stronger central government than provided for in the Articles of Confederation ; he argued that the national government could not survive unless it could tax its citizens , a power it did not have under the Articles .
Financial problems caused Breckinridge to leave William and Mary after the spring semester in 1784 . Because of his studies earlier in the year , he had no time to campaign for reelection to the House of Delegates , so he asked his brother Joseph and his cousin John Preston to campaign on his behalf . Initially , his prospects seemed favorable , but he was beaten by future Virginia Congressman George Hancock . After the defeat , voters from Montgomery County – where Breckinridge had previously been a surveyor – chose him to represent them in the House . He was appointed to the prestigious committees on Propositions and Grievances , Courts of Justice , Religion , and Investigation of the Land Offices . His fellow committee members included Henry Tazewell , Carter Henry Harrison , Edward Carrington , Spencer Roane , John Marshall , Richard Bland Lee , and Wilson Cary Nicholas . Inspired by his legislative service , he spent the summer between legislative sessions studying to become a lawyer . The legislative session focused on domestic issues like whether Virginia should establish a tax to benefit religion in the state . Breckinridge was not associated with any denomination , and his writings indicate that he was opposed to such a tax . Instead , he and James Madison secured approval of a religious liberty bill first proposed by Thomas Jefferson over five years earlier . The legislature rose on January 7 , 1785 , and Breckinridge was admitted to the bar later that year , beginning practice in Charlottesville .
= = = Marriage and children = = =
On June 28 , 1785 , Breckinridge married Mary Hopkins ( " Polly " ) Cabell , daughter of Joseph Cabell , a member of the Cabell political family . As a dowry , he received a 400 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 6 @-@ km2 ) plantation in Albemarle County dubbed " The Glebe " . Nine children were born to the John and Polly Breckinridge – Letitia Preston ( b . 1786 ) , Joseph " Cabell " ( b . 1787 ) , Mary Hopkins ( b . 1790 ) , Robert ( b . 1793 ) , Mary Ann ( b . 1795 ) , John ( b . 1797 ) , Robert Jefferson ( b . 1800 ) , William Lewis ( b . 1803 ) , and James Monroe ( b . 1806 ) .
Polly , Cabell , and Letitia all fell ill but survived a smallpox epidemic in 1793 ; however , Mary Hopkins and Robert died . Cabell would later serve as Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives and Kentucky 's Secretary of State . He was the father of U.S. Vice President John C. Breckinridge . The younger John Breckinridge attended Princeton Theological Seminary , served as chaplain of the U.S. House of Representatives , and was president of Oglethorpe College ( now Oglethorpe University ) in Georgia . Robert Jefferson was appointed superintendent of public instruction under Governor William Owsley and became known as the father of Kentucky 's public education system . William Lewis became a prominent Presbyterian minister , serving as moderator of the Presbyterian General Assembly in 1859 and later as president of Centre College in Danville , Kentucky , and Oakland College in Yale , Mississippi . In 1804 , Letitia married Alfred W. Grayson , son of Virginia Senator William Grayson . Alfred Grayson died in 1808 , and in 1816 , Letitia married Peter Buell Porter , who would later serve as Secretary of War under President John Quincy Adams .
The Glebe 's profits were barely enough for Breckinridge 's growing family . His legal career provided enough money for some comforts but required long hours and difficult work . Patrick Henry regularly represented clients opposite Breckinridge , and John Marshall both referred clients to him and asked him to represent his own clients in his absence . Though still interested in politics , Breckinridge refused to campaign for the people 's support . He believed changes were needed to the Articles of Confederation and agreed with much of the proposed U.S. constitution , but he did not support equal representation of the states in the Senate nor the federal judiciary . Heeding the advice of his brother James and his friend , Archibald Stuart , he did not seek election as a delegate to Virginia 's ratification convention .
= = Relocation to Kentucky = =
Breckinridge 's half @-@ brothers , Andrew and Robert , moved to Kentucky in 1781 , and his brother William followed in 1783 . By 1785 , Andrew and Robert were trustees of Louisville . Their letters described Kentucky 's abundant land and plentiful legal business , in contrast to the crowded bar and scarce unclaimed land in Virginia . By 1788 , Breckinridge was convinced that Kentucky offered him more opportunity , and the next year , he traveled west to seek land on which to construct an estate . Although inaccurate reports of his death reached Virginia , he arrived safely in Kentucky on April 15 , 1789 , and returned to Virginia in June . The following year , he paid 360 pounds sterling for 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) along the North Elkhorn Creek about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from present @-@ day Lexington , Kentucky . The land , purchased from his only sister Betsy 's father @-@ in @-@ law , lay adjacent to land owned by his sister , and in 1792 , he purchased an adjacent 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) , bringing his total holdings in Kentucky to 1 @,@ 600 acres ( 6 @.@ 5 km2 ) . After the purchase , he instructed William Russell , a friend already living in Kentucky , to find tenants to lease and improve the land .
In February 1792 , Breckinridge , a Democratic @-@ Republican , was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives over token opposition . On the date of the election , he wrote to Archibald Stuart , " The People appearing willing to elect , I could have no objection to serve them one Winter in Congress . " Despite this , he left for Kentucky in March 1793 and resigned without serving a day in Congress , which convened on March 4 . He chose the longer but safer route to Kentucky , joining a group of flatboats at Brownsville , Pennsylvania , for the trip down the Monongahela and Ohio rivers to Limestone ( now Maysville , Kentucky ) . His family , along with 25 slaves , arrived in April and established their plantation , Cabell 's Dale . By the time of Breckinridge 's move , he owned 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 km2 ) in Kentucky .
= = Domestic life in Kentucky = =
When he arrived in Kentucky , much of Breckinridge 's land was occupied by tenant farmers whose leases had not yet expired . He planted rye and wheat on 20 acres ( 0 @.@ 081 km2 ) of unleased land and sent 11 slaves and an overseer to clear land for the fall planting . Eventually , his crops at Cabell 's Dale included corn , wheat , rye , barley , hay , grass seed , and hemp , but he refused to grow tobacco , a major cash crop , which he found too vulnerable to over @-@ cultivation . He also bred thoroughbred horses , planted an orchard , and practiced law . He engaged in land speculation , particularly in the Northwest Territory , and at various times owned interests in iron and salt works , but these ventures were never very successful .
As his plantation became more productive , Breckinridge became interested in ways to sell his excess goods . On August 26 , 1793 , he became a charter member of the Democratic Society of Kentucky , which lobbied the federal government to secure unrestricted use of the Mississippi River from Spain . Breckinridge was elected chairman , Robert Todd and John Bradford were chosen as vice @-@ chairmen , and Thomas Todd and Thomas Bodley were elected as clerks . Breckinridge authored a tract entitled Remonstrance of the Citizens West of the Mountains to the President and Congress of the United States and may have also written To the Inhabitants of the United States West of the Allegany ( sic ) and Apalachian ( sic ) Mountains . He pledged funding to French minister Edmond @-@ Charles Genêt 's proposed military operation against Spain , but Genêt was recalled before it could be executed . Although alarmed that frontier settlers might initiate war with Spain , President George Washington made no immediate attempt to obtain use of the Mississippi , which the society maintained was " the natural right of the citizens of this Commonwealth " . The resistance of the eastern states , particularly Federalist politicians , caused Breckinridge to reconsider his support of a strong central government .
Breckinridge was also concerned with easing overland transport of goods to Virginia . In mid @-@ 1795 , he , Robert Barr , Elijah Craig , and Harry Toulmin formed a committee to raise funds for a road connecting the Cumberland Gap to central Kentucky . Breckinridge was disappointed with the quality of the route , which was finished in late 1796 , concluding that the individual maintaining it was keeping most of the tolls instead of using them for the road 's upkeep .
Breckinridge was also interested in education . Before moving to Kentucky , he accumulated a substantial library of histories , biographies , law and government texts , and classical literature . Frequently , he allowed aspiring lawyers and students access to the library , which was one of the most extensive in the west . He also provided funding for a municipal library in Lexington . His lobbying for a college to be established in Lexington bore fruit with the opening of Transylvania Seminary ( now Transylvania University ) in 1788 . He was elected to the seminary 's board of trustees on October 9 , 1793 , and supported hiring Harry Toulmin as president in February 1794 and consolidating the seminary with Kentucky Academy in 1796 . Conservatives on the board and in the Kentucky General Assembly forced Toulmin – a liberal Unitarian – to resign in 1796 , and Breckinridge 's enthusiasm for his trusteeship waned . He attended board meetings less frequently and resigned in late 1797 .
= = Kentucky Attorney General = =
Kentucky needed qualified governmental leaders , and on December 19 , 1793 , Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby appointed Breckinridge attorney general . Three weeks after accepting , he was offered the post of District Attorney for the Federal District of Kentucky , but he declined . Secretary of State Edmund Randolph directed Shelby to prevent French agents in Kentucky from organizing an expedition against Spanish Louisiana . On Breckinridge 's advice , Shelby responded that he lacked the authority to interfere . Lack of funding prevented the expedition , but Shelby 's noncommittal response helped prompt passage of the Neutrality Act of 1794 which outlawed participation by U.S. citizens in such expeditions .
In November 1794 , the Democratic @-@ Republicans nominated Breckinridge to succeed John Edwards in the U.S. Senate . Federalists were generally unpopular in Kentucky , but the signing of Pinckney 's Treaty – which temporarily secured use Kentucky 's of the Mississippi River – and Anthony Wayne 's expedition against the Indians in the Northwest Territory prompted a surge of support for the federal government in Kentucky . The election 's first ballot reflected this , as Federalist candidate Humphrey Marshall received 18 votes to Breckinridge 's 16 , John Fowler 's 8 , and 7 votes for the incumbent Edwards . On the runoff ballot , Marshall was elected over Breckinridge by a vote of 28 – 22 . Harrison posits that Marshall 's incumbency in the General Assembly may have aided his election but notes that Marshall downplayed its significance .
In May 1796 , Kentucky 's gubernatorial electors convened to choose Shelby 's successor . Their votes were split among four candidates ; frontiersman Benjamin Logan received 21 votes , Baptist minister James Garrard received 17 , Thomas Todd received 14 , and Breckinridge 's cousin , Senator John Brown , received 1 . The Kentucky Constitution did not specify whether a plurality or a majority was required for election , but the electors held a runoff vote . Most of Todd 's supporters voted for Garrard , and he won the election . Breckinridge claimed he had no authority to intervene but declared that , as a private citizen , he believed Logan should be governor . The state senate was authorized to settle disputed elections , but they , too , refused to intervene . Breckinridge resigned as attorney general on November 30 , 1797 ; the extension of the attorney general 's duties to include representing the state in federal district court as well as the Kentucky Court of Appeals , and reluctance to serve under Garrard after publicly declaring he had no right to his office may have contributed to the decision . A month later , he declared his candidacy to fill a vacancy in the Fayette County delegation to the Kentucky House of Representatives . Of the 1 @,@ 323 votes cast , he garnered 594 ( 45 % ) , the most of any of the six candidates in the race .
= = Kentucky House of Representatives = =
Breckinridge pressed to reform the state 's criminal code , which was based on the English system and imposed the death penalty for over 200 different crimes . Inspired by Thomas Jefferson 's failed attempt to reform Virginia 's code , he first asked the Lexington Democratic Society to study ways to make punishments more proportional to crimes in November 1793 . By 1796 , he was drafting a new code based on the principles that criminals should be rehabilitated , victims should be compensated for their injury , the public should be reimbursed for the cost of prosecuting the criminal , and the punishment 's severity should serve as a deterrent for would @-@ be offenders . In January 1798 , he introduced his proposed code in the General Assembly . A month later , the Assembly reformed the code , abolishing the death penalty for every crime except first @-@ degree murder .
= = = Kentucky Resolutions = = =
In August , Breckinridge traveled to Virginia 's Sweet Springs to improve his health . He visited family and friends while there , but the exact dates and locations he visited are not known . At some point , he obtained a draft of resolutions written by Vice President Thomas Jefferson denouncing the recently @-@ enacted Alien and Sedition Acts . Jefferson wished to keep his authorship secret , and Breckinridge accepted credit for them during his life . In 1814 , John Taylor revealed Jefferson 's authorship ; Breckinridge 's grandson , John C. Breckinridge , wrote Jefferson for confirmation of Taylor 's claims . Cautioning that the passage of time and his failing memory might cause him to inaccurately recount the details , Jefferson responded that he , Breckinridge , Wilson Nicholas , and possibly James Madison met at Monticello , at a date Jefferson could not recall , to discuss the need for resolutions denouncing the Alien and Sedition Acts . They decided that Jefferson would pen the resolutions and that Breckinridge would introduce them in the Kentucky legislature upon his return to that state .
Letters between Nicholas and Jefferson indicate a different series of events . In a letter dated October 4 , 1798 , Nicholas informed Jefferson that he had given " a copy of the resolutions you sent me " to Breckinridge , who would introduce them in Kentucky . The letter also indicated that this was a deviation from the original plan to deliver the draft to a legislator in North Carolina for introduction in the legislature there . Nicholas felt that recipient was too closely associated with Jefferson , risking his being discovered as the resolutions ' author . According to Nicholas , Breckinridge wanted to discuss the draft with Jefferson , but Nicholas advised against the meeting , fearing it could implicate Jefferson . A subsequent letter from Jefferson expressed his approval of Nicholas ' actions . Lowell Harrison notes that after Breckinridge left Virginia , his contacts with Jefferson were few until his election to the Senate in 1801 . Harrison considered it unlikely that Jefferson was mistaken about a meeting between the two to discuss a matter as important as the resolutions , positing that Jefferson may have met separately with Breckinridge and Nicholas to discuss the resolutions , and that the meeting with Breckinridge was kept secret from Nicholas . Because of the uncertainty surrounding Breckinridge 's activities in Virginia in 1798 , the extent of his influence on Jefferson 's original draft of the resolutions is unknown .
In Garrard 's November 5 , 1798 State of the Commonwealth address , he encouraged the General Assembly to declare its views on the Alien and Sedition Acts . Breckinridge was chosen as chairman of a three @-@ person committee to carry out the governor 's charge . The resolutions that the committee brought to the floor on November 10 became known as the Kentucky Resolutions . The first seven were exactly as Jefferson had written them , but Breckinridge modified the last two , eliminating Jefferson 's suggestion of nullifying the unpopular acts . During the debate on the House floor , Breckinridge endorsed nullification if Congress would not repeal the acts after a majority of states declared their opposition to them . Federalist William Murray led opposition to the resolutions in the House but was the only dissenting vote on five of the nine ; John Pope led similarly unsuccessful Federalist opposition in the Senate . Upon concurrence of both houses , Garrard signed the resolutions .
Federalist state legislatures , primarily those north of the Potomac River , sent the Kentucky General Assembly negative responses to the resolutions . Nicholas convinced Jefferson that Kentucky should adopt a second set of resolutions affirming the first , lest the lack of a reply be seen acquiescence . Jefferson refused to compose these resolutions , maintaining that there were sufficiently talented individuals in Kentucky to compose them and fearing still that he would be discovered as the author of the first set . Breckinridge , chosen Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives at the outset of the 1799 session , took on the task , drafting resolutions reasserting the original principles and endorsing nullification . The resolutions unanimously passed the House . The Federalist minority in the Senate opposed them , especially the endorsement of nullification , but that chamber also adopted the resolutions as written . Breckinridge 's presumed authorship of the original resolutions and his subsequent defense of them caused his popularity to soar in Kentucky .
= = = Kentucky Constitution of 1799 = = =
Some Kentucky citizens were already displeased with parts of the state 's constitution , and the disputed gubernatorial election of 1796 had added to the enthusiasm of those calling for a constitutional convention to revise it . Breckinridge opposed such a call , fearing changes would imperil his wealth and power . John Breckinridge asked , " Where is the difference whether I am robbed of my horse by a highway @-@ man , or of my slave by a set of people called a Convention ? … If they can by one experiment emancipate our slaves ; the same principle pursued , will enable them at a second experiment to extinguish our land titles ; both are held by rights equally sound . " The desire for a convention was so strong , even in aristocratic Fayette County , that Breckinridge 's position nearly cost him his seat in the legislature . Seeking election to a full term in May 1798 , he was the seventh @-@ highest vote @-@ getter , securing the last of Fayette County 's seats in the legislature by only eight votes . Despite the efforts of conservatives like Breckinridge and George Nicholas , in late 1798 , the General Assembly called a convention for July 22 , 1799 . Delegates to the convention were to be elected in May 1799 , and the conservatives immediately began organizing slates of candidates that would represent their interests . Popular because of his role in securing adoption of the Kentucky Resolutions , Breckinridge was among the six conservative candidates promoted in Fayette County , all of whom were elected . Out of the fifty @-@ eight men who arrived in Frankfort in late July as convention delegates , fifty @-@ seven owned slaves and fifty held substantial property . Between the election and the convention , Breckinridge and Judge Caleb Wallace worked with Nicholas ( who did not seek election as a delegate ) to draft resolutions that Breckinridge would introduce at the convention in an attempt to steer the proceedings toward conservative positions .
The largest group of delegates at the convention – about 18 in number – were aristocrats who advocated protection of their wealth and status , including instituting voice voting in the legislature ( which left legislators vulnerable to intimidation ) , safeguarding legal slavery , and limiting the power of the electorate . A smaller group led by Green Clay and Robert Johnson consisted mostly of planters who opposed most limits on the power of the legislature , which they believed was superior to the executive and judicial branches . A third group , led by future governor John Adair , agreed with the notion of legislative supremacy , but opposed limits on other branches of the government . The smallest group was the most populist and was led by John Bailey . The conservative faction strengthened the previous constitution 's slavery protections by denying suffrage to free blacks and mulattoes . Legislative apportionment based on population , the addition of a lieutenant governor , and voice voting of the legislature – all issues advocated by Breckinridge – were also adopted . He was unable to preserve the electoral college that elected the governor and state senators , but the direct election of these officers was balanced by a provision that county sheriffs and judges be appointed by the governor and confirmed by the Senate . Attempts to make judicial decisions subject to legislative approval were defeated after Breckinridge defended the extant judicial system . He was also the architect of the constitution 's provisions for amendment , which made changing the document difficult , but not entirely impossible . Because of his leading role in the convention , Breckinridge was regarded as the father of the resultant constitution , which was ratified in 1799 , and emerged from the convention as the leader of his party . He was reelected as Speaker of the House in 1800 .
= = U.S. Senator = =
On November 20 , 1800 , the Kentucky General Assembly elected Breckinridge to the U.S. Senate by a vote of 68 – 13 over John Adair . He was eligible for the special congressional session called for March 4 , 1801 , but his summons to the session remained undelivered at the Lexington post office until March 5 , and he consequently missed the entire session . When he left for Washington , D.C. , late in the year , he left several of his pending legal cases in the hands of rising attorney Henry Clay , who would later become U.S. Secretary of State .
Although Democratic @-@ Republicans held a narrow majority in the Senate , the Federalist senators were both experienced and devoted their cause . Breckinridge acted as floor leader for the Democratic @-@ Republicans and newly elected president , Thomas Jefferson . His proposed repeal of the Federalist @-@ supported Judicial Act of 1801 , which had increased the number of federal courts and judges , was particularly controversial . On January 4 , 1802 , he presented caseload data to argue that the new courts and judges were unnecessary . Federalist leader Gouverneur Morris countered that the proposal was unconstitutional ; once established , courts were inviolate , he maintained . On January 20 , Federalist Jonathan Dayton moved to return the bill to a committee to consider amendments . South Carolina 's John E. Colhoun , a Democratic @-@ Republican , voted with the Federalists , and the result was a 15 – 15 tie . Empowered to break the tie , Jefferson 's vice president , Aaron Burr , voted with the Federalists . The five @-@ man committee consisted of three Federalists , enough to prevent the bill 's return to the floor , but when Vermont Senator Stephen R. Bradley , who had traveled home because of a family illness , returned to the chamber , the Democratic @-@ Republicans regained a majority and introduced a successful discharge petition . In one last attempt to derail the legislation in debate , Federalists argued that the judiciary would strike down the repeal as unconstitutional ; Breckinridge denied the notion that the courts had the power to invalidate an act of Congress . On February 3 , the Senate repealed the act by a vote of 16 – 15 , with the House concurring a month later .
= = = Louisiana Purchase = = =
Breckinridge advocated internal improvements and formed a coalition of legislators from South Carolina , Georgia , Tennessee and Kentucky to support a system of roads connecting the Southern coastal states with the western frontier , but the routes they proposed proved impossible to construct with the technology available at the time . Spanish revocation of Kentucky 's right of deposit at New Orleans – in violation of Pinckney 's Treaty – further frustrated and angered frontier residents . Although many desired war with Spain , Jefferson believed a diplomatic resolution was possible and urged restraint . Federalists , seeking to divide the Democratic @-@ Republicans and curry favor with the West , abandoned their usual advocacy of peace . Pennsylvania Federalist James Ross introduced a measure allocating $ 5 million and raising 50 @,@ 000 militiamen to seize the Louisiana Territory from Spain . Cognizant of Jefferson 's desire for more time , Breckinridge offered a substitute resolution on February 23 , 1803 , allocating 80 @,@ 000 troops and unlimited funds for the potential invasion of New Orleans , but he left their use at the discretion of the president . Breckinridge 's resolution was adopted after a heated debate .
Before an invasion became necessary , U.S. ambassadors learned that Spain had ceded Louisiana to France via the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso , and France offered to sell the territory to the U.S. Robert R. Livingston and James Monroe , U.S. ministers to France , agreed to the purchase , even though they had not been given the authority to do so . Jefferson was pleased with the purchase , but feared he had no constitutional authority to effect it . In an August 12 , 1803 letter to Breckinridge , Jefferson discussed his constitutional misgivings about the Louisiana Purchase and proposed that Breckinridge introduce a simple constitutional amendment in the Senate : " Louisiana , as ceded by France to the U.S. , is made a part of the U.S. " Breckinridge ignored the proposed amendment and immediately formed a coalition of western senators to approve the purchase .
After the purchase was approved , Jefferson drafted a system of governing the newly acquired territory . Fearing that the Federalists would oppose any system he had devised , he delivered his draft to Breckinridge and asked him to introduce it in the Senate as his own . To maintain the ruse , Breckinridge moved that a committee be formed to recommend a plan for governing Louisiana Territory . Working through the committee , he brought Jefferson 's plan to the Senate floor with its essentials intact . Because the plan provided for the taxation of Louisiana residents without giving them representation in Congress , Federalists and some Democratic @-@ Republicans opposed it . Nevertheless , it passed by a vote of 26 – 6 .
= = = Consideration for the vice presidency = = =
By July 1803 , citizens of the western states , desiring more representation in the federal government and intent on breaking the pattern of nominating a Virginians and New Yorkers for most important federal offices , were advocating Breckinridge 's nomination as vice president in the 1804 presidential election . Thomas Jefferson was expected to be reelected , but most Democratic @-@ Republicans had grown disenchanted with Vice President Aaron Burr ; he would not be Jefferson 's running mate . Breckinridge 's service as Senate floor leader made him a natural choice .
The Democratic @-@ Republican congressional caucus convened February 25 , 1804 . Contrary to previous conventions , the proceedings were open and formal . Afraid that taking vice presidential nominations from the floor would precipitate divisive oratory , chairman Stephen Bradley called for open balloting for the nomination . New York 's George Clinton received a majority with 67 votes ; Breckinridge garnered 20 votes , mostly from western delegates , and the remaining votes were scattered among 4 other candidates . Historian James C. Klotter concluded that the solons felt a ticket composed of Jefferson , a Virginian , and Breckinridge , a former Virginian , made little political sense . Breckinridge acceded to the choice ; some reports hold that he asked his colleagues not to vote for him at all . Before the caucus adjourned , a thirteen @-@ man committee was formed to promote the election of the Democratic @-@ Republican ticket ; Breckinridge represented Kentucky on the committee .
Westerners expressed dissent over Clinton 's nomination instead of their preferred candidate . The June 29 , 1804 edition of Philadelphia 's Independent Gazetteer carried an editorial , signed " True American " , that denounced the Virginia – New York coalition , attacked Clinton as too old , and called for electors to vote for Breckinridge for vice president . Potential electors in western states pledged to carry out " True American " ' s proposal . Allan B. Magruder attempted to warn Breckinridge in advance of the editorial 's publication , but his letter – dated June 23 , 1804 – did not reach Breckinridge until July 1 . On July 5 , Breckinridge published a response in the Kentucky Palladium denouncing the proposal and encouraging electors to vote for the Democratic @-@ Republican slate as nominated . He requested that all newspapers that had printed the " True American " editorial also print his response .
In the same edition that carried Breckinridge 's response , Daniel Bradford , editor of the Kentucky Gazette , penned an editorial revealing Breckinridge 's close friend , William Stevenson , as the author of the " True American " article and noting that Breckinridge had waited nearly a week to publish a response , and claiming the delay was intended to allow him to gauge public sentiment before denouncing Stevenson 's proposal . Bradford had been at odds with Breckinridge since the 1799 constitutional convention , and his dislike intensified when Breckinridge refused to use his influence to gain appointments for Bradford 's relatives – John Bradford and James Bradford – as Public Printer of the United States and Secretary of Louisiana Territory , respectively . Bradford 's claims were quickly endorsed by anonymous editorial writers in newspapers across the west .
Stevenson swore under oath that Breckinridge had no part in composing the " True American " article . Breckinridge publicly stated that Bradford 's brother , Charles , had shown him a draft of the " True American " editorial prior to its publication and asked his opinion of it ; Breckinridge advised him not to publish it , and Bradford temporarily obliged . An illness , Breckinridge said , had confined him to his home at the time of the editorial 's publication , and he was not aware that the Independent Gazetteer had printed it until he attended the court at Frankfort days later ; he immediately returned home and composed his rebuttal . In light of this evidence , few still maintained the credibility of the reports in the Kentucky Gazette by the time of the election . Every Kentucky elector voted for both Jefferson and Clinton .
= = = Other Senate matters = = =
After the Louisiana Purchase , Breckinridge focused on securing a vote to present the Twelfth Amendment to the states for ratification . He did not agree with all the changes effected by the amendment , the primary purpose of which was to direct presidential electors to vote separately for president and vice president ; he supported abolishing the electoral college , electing both officials by popular vote . Democratic @-@ Republicans wanted the amendment adopted before the 1804 election to avoid Jefferson 's being saddled with a hostile vice president again , and Breckinridge announced his support for the amendment in late October . With several members of his party absent , he would not be able to secure the two @-@ thirds majority needed to send the amendment to the states for ratification . Recognizing this fact , Federalists pushed for an immediate vote , putting Breckinridge in the position of trying to delay a vote on a measure both he and his constituents supported . Debate began on November 23 after several Democratic @-@ Republicans had returned . South Carolina Federalist Pierce Butler contended that the amendment would allow large states to pick the president ; James Jackson , a Democratic @-@ Republican from Georgia , countered by taunting , " Never will there be a Federal President or Vice @-@ President again elected , to the end of time . " Federalists moved adjournment at 6 : 00 p.m. on December 2 , but Breckinridge , determined to hold a vote that night , blocked the move and took the floor for the first time in days . By 10 : 00 p.m. , senators clamored for a vote , and the measure was approved 22 – 10 . State legislatures quickly acted on the amendment , and by September 23 , 1804 , it was declared in force for the upcoming election .
Other business in the session included creating a special fund that would allow Jefferson to recover the USS Philadelphia , which had been captured off the coast of northern Africa , and the repeal of the Bankruptcy Act of 1800 ; Breckinridge supported the passage of both measures . He feared that passage of an act making permanent the pay raises for executive administrative personnel first enacted in 1799 would hurt his party in the upcoming elections , especially in the House , but the act passed and there was no significant backlash at the polls . Robert Wright 's measure adjourning Congress to Baltimore , Maryland , in protest of legislators ' poor accommodations in Washington , D.C. , was defeated by a vote of 9 – 19 , but Breckinridge considered the issue of moving the U.S. capital worthy of further study . Breckinridge supported the successful impeachment of federal judge John Pickering and also served on the Senate committee that prepared the rules governing the impeachment of Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase . The latter impeachment was widely seen as politically motivated , and some Democratic @-@ Republicans joined the Federalist minority in voting for acquittal . Majorities were obtained on only three of the eight articles of impeachment , and each of those fell at least three votes short of the required two @-@ thirds majority . Breckinridge and three other Democratic @-@ Republicans voted to convict on every article except the fifth , on which every senator sided with Chase .
= = U.S. Attorney General = =
When U.S. Attorney General Levi Lincoln resigned in December 1804 , Jefferson and Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin sought a replacement . Virginia 's John Thomson Mason , Gallatin 's first choice , declined the appointment . U.S. Navy Secretary Robert Smith desired the office , and Jefferson agreed to appoint him , contingent upon finding a suitable replacement for Smith as Secretary of the Navy . Jefferson appointed Massachusetts Congressman Jacob Crowninshield to replace Smith , and both appointments were confirmed by the Senate March 3 , 1805 . Crowninshield refused his appointment , however , and Smith was forced to remain as Secretary of the Navy . Jefferson then offered the position to Breckinridge , Gallatin 's second choice . Breckinridge resigned from the Senate on August 7 , 1805 to accept the appointment . He was the first U.S. cabinet @-@ level official from west of the Allegheny Mountains , and his appointment boosted Jefferson 's popularity in the west . Lowell Harrison called the appointment a mistake by Jefferson , not because Breckinridge lacked any qualifications , but because Jefferson was not able to replace his leadership in the Senate . He noted that after Breckinridge 's departure from the chamber , the Federalist minority experienced a revival of influence under the leadership of Connecticut 's Uriah Tracy .
Stopping to visit with friends en route to Washington , D.C. , Breckinridge arrived on December 7 , 1805 . His nomination was confirmed by the Senate on December 20 . He was influential in Jefferson 's infrequent cabinet meetings , where he served as the lone voice of the west . His most notable advisory opinion – that no local government in the Territory of Orleans had the power to tax federal property there – was upheld in the Supreme Court by Chief Justice John Marshall in McCulloch v. Maryland . He was sworn in to represent the federal government before the Supreme Court when it convened – about a week late because of the illness of several justices – on February 12 , 1806 . He was spared the awkwardness of practicing before a judge he had voted to impeach because Samuel Chase was absent for the Court 's entire six @-@ week term . The court heard only six cases during the term ; most of them were cases Breckinridge had inherited from his predecessor , and Harrison wrote that none were of lasting importance . Cases such as Maley v. Shattuck involved international maritime law – an area with which Breckinridge was not familiar – and arose from the Napoleonic Wars , which complicated neutral American trade with both Great Britain and France . During the term , Breckinridge lost four cases , won one , and the justices sent one back for retrial in a lower court .
= = Death and legacy = =
Breckinridge returned to Cabell 's Dale in early 1806 and fell ill in June . In July , he visited Kentucky 's Olympian Springs , hoping it would aid his recovery , but it did not . Doctors disagreed on the cause of his illness , with diagnoses ranging from typhus fever to stomach ailments . He attempted to return to Washington , D.C. , on October 22 , but while his horse was being prepared for the journey , he collapsed in pain and had to be helped back inside . Friends and relatives hoped for a recovery that never came , and he died on December 14 , 1806 . The cause of death was eventually determined to be tuberculosis . According to family tradition , Polly Breckinridge was so distraught over her husband 's death that she went blind from her incessant crying . Breckinridge was first buried at Cabell 's Dale on December 16 but was later reinterred in Lexington Cemetery .
At the time of his death , Breckinridge owned over 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) of land , and his net worth was estimated at more than $ 20 @,@ 000 . With a workforce of nearly 70 slaves , he was one of the largest slaveholders in the state . The breeding of horses and mules at Cabell 's Dale had become more profitable than selling the excess crops raised there . His daughter , Mary Ann , and her husband , David Castleman , inherited the horse and mule breeding operations , which eventually became the thoroughbred stable of Castleton Lyons . Breckinridge County , Kentucky , created from a portion of Hardin County in 1799 , was named in Breckinridge 's honor .
= Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home =
Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home is a 1986 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures . It is the fourth feature film based on Star Trek , and is a sequel to Star Trek III : The Search for Spock ( 1984 ) . It completes the story arc begun in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan ( 1982 ) and continued in The Search for Spock . Intent on returning home to Earth to face trial for their actions in the previous film , the former crew of the USS Enterprise finds the planet in grave danger from an alien probe attempting to contact now @-@ extinct humpback whales . The crew travel to Earth 's past to find whales who can answer the probe 's call .
After directing The Search for Spock , cast member Leonard Nimoy was asked to direct the next feature , and given greater freedom regarding the film 's content . Nimoy and producer Harve Bennett conceived a story with an environmental message and no clear @-@ cut villain . Dissatisfied with the first screenplay produced by Steve Meerson and Peter Krikes , Paramount hired The Wrath of Khan writer and director Nicholas Meyer . Meyer and Bennett divided the story between them and wrote different parts of the script , requiring approval from Nimoy , lead actor William Shatner , and Paramount .
Principal photography commenced on February 24 , 1986 . Unlike previous Star Trek films , The Voyage Home was shot extensively on location ; many real settings and buildings were used as stand @-@ ins for scenes set around and in the city of San Francisco . Special effects firm Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) assisted in post @-@ production and the film 's special effects . Few of the humpback whales in the film were real : ILM devised full @-@ size animatronics and small motorized models to stand in for the real creatures .
The Voyage Home premiered on November 26 , 1986 , in North America , becoming the top @-@ grossing film in the weekend box office . The film 's humor and unconventional story were well received by critics , fans of the series and the general audience . It was financially successful , earning $ 133 million worldwide .
The film earned several awards and four Academy Award nominations for its cinematography and audio . It was dedicated to the crew of the Space Shuttle Challenger , which broke up 73 seconds after takeoff on the morning of January 28 , 1986 . Principal photography for The Voyage Home began four weeks after Challenger and her crew were lost .
= = Plot = =
In 2286 , a large cylindrical probe moves through space , sending out an indecipherable signal and disabling the power of ships it passes . As it takes up orbit around Earth , its signal disables the global power grid and generates planetary storms , creating catastrophic , sun @-@ blocking cloud cover . Starfleet Command sends out a planetary distress call and warns starships not to approach Earth .
On the planet Vulcan , the former officers of the USS Enterprise are living in exile ( after the events of Star Trek III : The Search for Spock ) . Accompanied by the Vulcan Spock , still recovering from his resurrection , the crew — except for Saavik , who remains on Vulcan — take their captured Klingon Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey starship ( nicknamed the Bounty , after the Royal Navy ship ) and head to Earth to face trial for their theft and destruction of Enterprise . Hearing Starfleet 's warning , Spock determines that the probe 's signal matches the song of extinct humpback whales , and that the object will continue to wreak havoc until its call is answered . The crew uses their ship to travel back in time via a slingshot maneuver around the Sun , planning to return with a whale to answer the alien signal .
Arriving in 1986 , the crew finds their ship 's power drained . Hiding their ship in San Francisco 's Golden Gate Park using its cloaking device , the crew split up to accomplish several tasks : Admiral James T. Kirk and Spock attempt to locate humpback whales , while Montgomery Scott , Leonard McCoy , and Hikaru Sulu construct a tank to hold the whales they need for a return to the 23rd century . Uhura and Pavel Chekov are tasked to find a nuclear reactor , whose energy leakage will enable their ship 's power to be restored .
Kirk and Spock discover a pair of whales in the care of Dr. Gillian Taylor at a Sausalito museum , and learn they will soon be released into the wild . Kirk tells her of his mission and asks for the tracking frequency for the whales , but she refuses to cooperate . Meanwhile , Scott , McCoy , and Sulu trade the formula of transparent aluminum for the materials needed for the whale tank . Uhura and Chekov locate a nuclear @-@ powered ship , the aircraft carrier Enterprise . They collect the power they need , but are discovered on board . Uhura is beamed back but Chekov is captured and severely injured in an escape attempt .
Taylor learns the whales have been released early , and goes to Kirk for assistance . Taylor , Kirk , and McCoy rescue Chekov and return to the now @-@ recharged Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey . After transporting the whales aboard the ship , the crew returns with Taylor to their own time . On approaching Earth , the ship loses power and comes down in San Francisco Bay . Once released , the whales respond to the probe 's signal , causing the object to reverse its effects on Earth and return to the depths of space . All charges against the Enterprise crew are dropped , save one for insubordination : for disobeying a superior officer , Kirk is given a demotion from Admiral to Captain . The crew departs on their ship , the newly christened USS Enterprise ( NCC @-@ 1701 @-@ A ) , and leaves on a new mission .
= = Cast = =
William Shatner portrays Admiral James T. Kirk , former captain of the Enterprise . Shatner was unwilling to reprise the role of Kirk until he received a salary of $ 2 million and the promise of directing the next film . Shatner described The Voyage Home 's comic quality as one " that verges on tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek but isn 't ; it 's as though the characters within the play have a great deal of joy about themselves , a joy of living [ and ] you play it with the reality you would in a kitchen @-@ sink drama written for today 's life " .
Leonard Nimoy plays Spock , who was resurrected by the effects of a powerful terraforming device and had his " living spirit " restored to his body in the previous film . DeForest Kelley portrays Doctor Leonard McCoy , who is given many of the film 's comedic lines ; Kelley biographer Terry Lee Rioux wrote that in the film " he seemed to be playing straight man to himself . " On Earth McCoy was paired with engineer Montgomery Scott ( James Doohan ) , as producer Harve Bennett felt that Kelley worked well with Doohan 's " old vaudeville comic " . The other members of the Enterprise crew include George Takei as helmsman Hikaru Sulu , Walter Koenig as Commander Pavel Chekov , and Nichelle Nichols as Uhura . Koenig commented that Chekov was a " delight " to play in this film because he worked best in comedic situations .
Catherine Hicks plays Doctor Gillian Taylor , a biologist on 20th century Earth . During production a rumor circulated that the part had been created after Shatner demanded a love interest , a regular aspect of the television series that was absent from the first three films . Writer Nicholas Meyer denied this , saying that the inspiration for Taylor came from a woman biologist featured in a National Geographic documentary about whales . Nimoy chose Hicks after inviting her to lunch with Shatner and witnessing a chemistry between the two .
Majel Barrett reprises her role as Christine Chapel , the director of Starfleet Command 's medical services . Many of her scenes — some reportedly very large — were omitted in the final cut , angering the actress . Her final role in the film consists of one line of dialogue and a reaction shot . Mark Lenard and Jane Wyatt play Ambassador Sarek and Amanda Grayson , respectively , Spock 's parents . Wyatt commented that although she generally disliked working with actors who were directing , she found Nimoy an exception because he could concentrate on being part of the cast as well as setting up the crew . Robin Curtis reprises the role of Saavik , a Starfleet lieutenant . Saavik 's role is minimal in the film — originally , she was intended to remain behind on Vulcan because she was pregnant after she had mated with the younger Spock in Star Trek III : The Search for Spock . In the final cut of the film , all references to her condition were dropped .
The film contains several cameos and smaller roles . Alex Henteloff plays Dr. Nichols , plant manager of Plexicorp . Madge Sinclair makes an uncredited appearance as captain of the USS Saratoga ( the first female Federation starship captain to appear in Star Trek ) . Musician Jane Wiedlin and tennis star Vijay Amritraj appear as Starfleet officers seen briefly on video screens at Starfleet Command . John Schuck appears as a Klingon ambassador , Robert Ellenstein as the Federation President , Michael Berryman as an alien display officer at Starfleet Command , and Brock Peters as Fleet Admiral Cartwright . Grace Lee Whitney reprises her role as Janice Rand from the original television series .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Before The Search for Spock was released , its director Leonard Nimoy was asked to return to direct the next film in the franchise . Whereas Nimoy had been under certain constraints in filming the previous picture , Paramount gave the director greater freedom for the sequel . " [ Paramount ] said flat out that they wanted my vision , " Nimoy recalled . In contrast to the drama @-@ heavy and operatic events of the three previous Star Trek features , Nimoy and producer Harve Bennett wanted a lighter movie that did not have a clear @-@ cut villain . As William Shatner was unwilling to return , Nimoy and Bennett spent eight months considering a prequel concept by Ralph Winter about the characters at Starfleet Academy , before Shatner received a pay increase and signed on to star . Nimoy and Shatner each received $ 2 @.@ 5 million for the film , less than their original demands , but the film cast 's rising salaries caused Paramount to create a new television series , Star Trek : The Next Generation ( 1987 ) , with less @-@ expensive , lesser @-@ known actors .
Despite Shatner 's doubts , Nimoy and Bennett selected a time travel story in which the Enterprise crew encounters a problem that could only be fixed by something only available in the present day ( the Star Trek characters ' past ) . They considered ideas about violin makers and oil drillers , or a disease that had its cure destroyed with the rainforests . " But the depiction of thousands of sick and dying people seemed rather gruesome for our light @-@ hearted film , and the thought of our crew taking a 600 @-@ year round trip just to bring back a snail darter wasn 't all that thrilling , " explained Nimoy . The director read a book on extinct animals and conceived the storyline that was eventually adopted . Nimoy hit upon the idea of humpback whales after talking with a friend — their song added mystery to the story , and their size added logistical challenges the heroes would have to overcome .
Nimoy approached Beverly Hills Cop writer Daniel Petrie , Jr. to write the screenplay when a concept that executive producer Jeffrey Katzenberg described as " either the best or worst idea in the world " arose — Star Trek fan Eddie Murphy wanted a starring role . Nimoy and Murphy acknowledged his part would attract non @-@ Star Trek fans to the franchise following the rising popularity of Murphy , but it also meant the film might be ridiculed . Steve Meerson and Peter Krikes were hired to write a script with Murphy as a college professor who believes in aliens and likes to play whale songs . Murphy disliked the part , explaining he wanted to play an alien or a Starfleet officer , and chose to make The Golden Child — a decision Murphy later said was a mistake . The character intended for Murphy was combined with those of a marine biologist and a female reporter to become Gillian Taylor .
Paramount was dissatisfied with the script , so its head of production Dawn Steele asked Nicholas Meyer , the writer and director of Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan , to help rewrite it . Meyer never read the earlier script , reasoning it pointless to do so since the content had no appeal to the studio . He and Bennett split the task of conceiving the plot between them . Bennett wrote the first quarter of the story , up to the point where the crew goes back in time . Meyer wrote the story 's middle portion , taking place on 20th @-@ century Earth , and Bennett handled the ending . After 12 days of writing , Meyer and Bennett combined their separate portions . In this version , Gillian Taylor stays on 1986 's Earth and vows to ensure the survival of the humpback whale despite the paradox it could create . Meyer preferred this " righter ending " to the film version , explaining " the end in the movie detracts from the importance of people in the present taking the responsibility for the ecology and preventing problems of the future by doing something today , rather than catering to the fantasy desires of being able to be transported in time to the near @-@ utopian future . " Meyer and Bennett cut out Krikes and Meerson 's idea of having the Klingon Bird @-@ of @-@ Prey fly over the Super Bowl and the hint that Saavik remained on Vulcan because she was pregnant with Spock 's child .
Nimoy said Meyer gave the script " the kind of humor and social comment , gadfly attitude I very much wanted " . He added that his vision was for " no dying , no fighting , no shooting , no photon torpedoes , no phaser blasts , no stereotypical bad guy . I wanted people to really have a great time watching this film [ and ] if somewhere in the mix we lobbed a couple of big ideas at them , well , then that would be even better . " One of Meyer 's earlier films , Time After Time , was largely based in San Francisco ; when he was told by the producers that The Voyage Home had to be set in the same city , he took the opportunity to comment upon cultural aspects not covered by his earlier film , such as punk rock — The Voyage Home 's scene where Kirk and Spock meet an annoying punk rocker was based on a similar scene cut from Time After Time .
Meyer found writing the script to be a smooth process . He would write a few pages , show it to Nimoy and Bennett for consultation , and return to his office to write some more . Once Nimoy , Bennett , and Meyer were happy , they showed the script to Shatner , who offered his own notes for another round of rewrites . The completed script was shown to Paramount executives , who were very pleased .
= = = Design = = =
Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) was responsible for The Voyage Home 's model design and optical effects . The alien probe was the responsibility of ILM 's model shop , which brought in outside help like illustrator Ralph McQuarrie for concept art . The modelmakers started with art director Nilo Rodis ' basic design , a simple cylinder with whalelike qualities . The prototype was covered with barnacles and colored . The ball @-@ shaped antenna that juts out from the bottom of the probe was created out of a piece of irrigation pipe ; internal machinery turned the device . Three sizes of the " whale probe " were created ; the primary 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) probe model was supplemented by a smaller model for wide shots and a large 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) model that used forced perspective to give the probe the illusion of massive dimensions .
The effects crew focused on using in @-@ camera tricks to realize the probe ; post @-@ production effects were time @-@ consuming , so lighting effects were done on stage while filming . Model shop supervisor Jeff Mann filled the probe 's antenna with tube lamps and halogen bulbs that were turned on in sequence for different exposures ; three different camera passes for each exposure were combined for the final effect . After watching the first shot , the team found the original , whalelike probe design lacking in menace . The modelmakers repainted the probe a shiny black , pockmarked its surface for greater texture and interest , and re @-@ shot the scene . Although they wanted to avoid post @-@ production effects work , the opticals team had to recolor the antenna ball in a blue hue , as the original orange looked too much like a spinning basketball
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In Madison Park , Seattle , a family are gathered around the television . The mother leaves to go to bed , and the atmosphere in the room grows tense . The older of two sisters , Connie Bangs ( Michelle Joyner ) takes her sister Sara — who is clearly much younger than she is — to her bedroom and locks her in , warning her not to let her father inside . Connie runs out of the house , fighting off her father , and is later found wandering the streets confused . She is taken to clinical social worker Catherine Black ( Megan Gallagher ) , and admits that her father has been sexually abusing her for years .
However , given the length of time the abuse has been going on , Connie is afraid no one will believe her . The assistant district attorney assigned to the case , Rhonda Preshutski ( Christine Dunford ) agrees , believing the case to be weak . Child Protective Services cannot remove Sara from the household until Connie undergoes a psychiatric evaluation , although Black and police lieutenant Bob Bletcher ( Bill Smitrovich ) investigate the Bangs home to check up on the girl . The father , Joe Bangs ( Paul Dooley ) , chases them off as his wife watches detachedly . Bangs wields a degree of political clout in the community , and pressures the district attorney 's office to drop the case . Preshutski is furious with Black over the matter , until it is discovered from Connie 's medical exams that Sara is not her sister , but her daughter .
Black is later woken in her office by her husband Frank ( Lance Henriksen ) . She had fallen asleep there while trying to find a legal precedent to remove Sara from the Bangs home . Catherine visits Connie , who is staying with another sister , Ruthie ( Lenore Zann ) . Ruthie also reveals that their father had abused her , until she was sectioned following mental breakdown . Black is worried that Connie might be persuaded by her mother to drop the case .
Joe Bangs finds himself unable to have the case dropped , but Bletcher still feels that Black 's pursuit of it may end up costing her her job . However , Black knows she is doing the right thing and is determined to continue . Her fears for Sara are confirmed when it is discovered she and the elder Bangs have gone missing . Frank , an offender profiler , deduces that Bangs ' controlling personality would cause him to take his daughter somewhere he knows , and realizes that they will be in the family 's holiday cabin in the woods . A police manhunt begins , and Bangs is arrested without Sara coming to harm .
The case against Bangs is presented before a grand jury , and Black is afraid that Connie will be too afraid to testify . However , she manages to reveal the truth of her abuse to the court . Later , she is seen with the lock from her bedroom door — which had previously been used by her father to lock them both inside — which she throws into a river .
= = Production = =
" The Well @-@ Worn Lock " was the first of three Millennium episodes directed by Ralph Hemecker . Hemecker would later helm the second season 's " The Curse of Frank Black " , and the third season episode " Exegesis " . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter . Beyond creating the concept for Millennium , Carter would write a total of six other episodes for the series in addition to " The Well @-@ Worn Lock " — three in the first season , and a further three in the third season .
Several of the actors in this episode have made other appearances in Millennium or series related to it . Michelle Joyner , who played abuse victim Connie Bangs , would later appear on Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , starring in the seventh season episode " Chimera " . Guest star J. Douglas Stewart , who portrays Larry Bangs , later appeared in the second season episode " Monster " in an unrelated role . Fellow guest Sheila Moore , who played Clea Bangs , had previously made two appearances on The X @-@ Files , in the episodes " Deep Throat " and " Excelsis Dei " .
The episode opens with a quotation by Robert Louis Stevenson — " The cruelest lies are often told in silence " . The line is taken from Virginibus Puerisque , and Other Papers , an 1881 collection of essays .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Well @-@ Worn Lock " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on December 20 , 1996 , and earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 8 , meaning that roughly 6 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned into the episode .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five , noting that it " turns the complex into something easy and obvious " . Shearman and Pearson felt that the character of Sara Bangs was " treated as an object by the episode " , and that Carter 's script " takes a very real issue and trivialises it " by presenting such an " open and shut case " . However , they noted that the episode was " very well acted " , and was " clearly well intentioned " . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a B + , noting that it " tries some interesting things with the Millennium template " . VanDerWerff felt that several of the episode 's scenes " are as horrifying as anything I 've seen on TV " , adding that " they accomplish much of this through the mere power of suggestion " . However , he also noted that the character of Joe Bangs was too simplistic , claiming that he is " so damned blatant about what he does that it eventually stops being horrifying and becomes preposterous " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 , finding that its focus on legal issues and counselling " fragments the tone and atmosphere " built by previous episodes . However , Gibron felt that " Carter 's script handles the horrifying subject very well " .
= Lena Rivers ( 1910 film ) =
Lena Rivers is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film follows a young woman who leaves home to search for employment and becoming married to a wealthy man , but the marriage is kept secret . The husband is arrested by mistake and by the time he is freed , his wife and child depart and he believes them dead . The young woman entrusts her baby , Lena , to her mother before her death . At age 16 , Lena goes to the city is visited by her father , but the relationship is only known when he sees a picture of her mother in her locket . The film was an adaptation of Mary Jane Holmes ' 1856 novel Lena Rivers and was released on August 12 , 1910 . It had a wide national release and received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 13 , 1910 . It states : " At the opening of the play , Granny Nichols ' only daughter is leaving the farm to go to the city in search of employment . We next find her in the city , married to a wealthy man who has forbidden her to make their marriage public as he is afraid his family will object . One day , after a year of happy married life , the husband leaves his wife and baby daughter to go downtown on business . Through a case of mistaken identity , he is arrested , and before he can prove his innocence , to the satisfaction of the police , his wife - believing him to have deserted her - takes her baby and returns to her mother . The husband , upon regaining his freedom and returning home , finds only a note from his wife saying that he will never see her or the baby again . He mourns his loved ones as dead , thinking that his wife left him contemplating the death of herself and her child . The mother and child return to the farm and there , with her dying breath , the mother entrusts baby Lena to the care of Granny Nichols . Here , on the farm , Lena grows to womanhood never knowing her father 's name . When Lena is 16 her Uncle John decides to take his mother to live with him in the city . Granny refuses to leave without Lena , so she also moves to Uncle John 's home . In the meantime , Lena 's father is a frequent visitor to the home of Uncle John , whom he little thinks is any relation to his dead wife . Here he meets Lena , and espying a locket containing the picture of her mother , which she wears around her neck , recognizes her as his daughter . Not only this but lucky Lena is enabled to marry the man she loves . "
= = Cast = =
Violet Heming
Anna Rosemond
Frank H. Crane
= = Production = =
The story for the production is an adaptation of Mary Jane Holmes ' 1856 novel Lena Rivers . The novel was very popular and reprinted numerous times by 1900 . According to The Atlanta Constitution , the theater stage productions had recently been adapted for the old work in June 1910 . Though newspapers records show the appearance of a stage adaptation by winter 1906 . The writer of the adapted scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The Thanhouser Company adaptation is the first film adaptation of the book .
The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Though the roles of the leading players are unknown , it is likely that numerous other character roles and persons appeared in the film . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . The cast includes both leading ladies of the company , Anna Rosemond and Violet Heming . The other known credit , Frank H. Crane was a leading male actor of the company . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on August 12 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , with theater advertisements appearing in Pennsylvania , Minnesota , Washington D. C. , Washington state , and North Carolina . Some advertisements were ambiguous in whether or not the picture of the play was being performed , as one Bell Theatre advertisement shows .
The one reel format was very restrictive in terms of allowing complex plots to be told while still being showing action in the production . The release of St. Elmo in March 22 , 1910 was the first adaptation and second film to be released by the Thanhouser Company . The film was reviewed by critics to be too reliant on the use of inter @-@ titles to tell the story . The company 's adaptation of The Winter 's Tale would require foreknowledge of the plot to understand the film , but some theaters employed aids to inform the audience of such productions By the adaptation of Uncle Tom 's Cabin the coherency in the story was praised by critics , but this story was both popular and well @-@ known subject . The Moving Picture World review provides specific insight to the Thanhouser adaptation 's ability to convey the story to audiences : " To those who have read Lena Rivers with pleasure the picture will be more than ordinarily entertaining . To those who have not read the story the film presents a narrative not without its interest in offering a quarter hour 's diversion well worthwhile . " The New York Dramatic Mirror would commend the picture for its acting and also confirm the adaptations coherency , " The well @-@ known novel is adapted for a film story with considerable success in this picture . The story is clear and not too complicated , although the film covers all the essential points of the written story . "
= Blue 's Clues =
Blue 's Clues was an American children 's television series that premiered on Nickelodeon in 1996 . Producers Angela Santomero , Todd Kessler and Traci Paige Johnson combined concepts from child development and early @-@ childhood education with innovative animation and production techniques that helped their viewers learn . It was hosted originally by Steve Burns , who left in 2002 to pursue a music career , and was replaced by Donovan Patton . The show follows an animated blue @-@ spotted dog named Blue as she plays a game with the host and the viewers . Blue 's Clues became the highest @-@ rated show for preschoolers on American commercial television and was critical to Nickelodeon 's growth . It has been called " one of the most successful , critically acclaimed , and ground @-@ breaking preschool television series of all time . " A spin @-@ off called Blue 's Room premiered in 2004 .
The show 's producers and creators presented material in a narrative format instead of the more traditional magazine format , used repetition to reinforce its curriculum , and structured every episode the same way . They used research about child development and young children 's viewing habits that had been conducted in the thirty years since the debut of Sesame Street in the U.S. , and revolutionized the genre by inviting their viewers ' involvement . Research was part of the creative and decision @-@ making process in the production of the show and was integrated into all aspects and stages of the creative process . Blue 's Clues was the first cutout animation series for preschoolers and resembles a storybook in its use of primary colors and its simple construction paper shapes of familiar objects with varied colors and textures . Its home @-@ based setting is familiar to American children but has a look unlike other children 's TV shows . A live production of Blue 's Clues , which used many of the production innovations developed by the show 's creators , toured the U.S. starting in 1999 . As of 2002 , over 2 million people had attended over 1 @,@ 000 performances .
By 2002 , Blue 's Clues had received several awards for excellence in children 's programming , educational software , and licensing , and had been nominated for nine Emmy Awards . It has been syndicated in 120 countries and translated into 15 languages . Regional versions of the show featuring local hosts have been produced in other countries . It was one of the first preschool shows to incorporate American Sign Language into its content . The show 's extensive use of research in its development and production process inspired several research studies that have provided evidence for its effectiveness as a learning tool .
= = History = =
Blue 's Clues was developed during a transitional period for children 's television . In 1990 , Congress had passed the Children 's Television Act , which required networks and TV stations to devote a portion of their programming to children 's shows , but the legislation did not specify how many hours of programming broadcasters were required to air . It set no guidelines or criteria for educational programs and had no provisions for enforcement . According to author Diane Tracy in her 2002 book Blue 's Clues for Success , " The state of children 's television was pretty dismal . " Since the late 1960s , PBS was one of the few sources for children 's educational television programming in the U.S. , and most other U.S. children 's TV shows were violent and created for the purpose of selling toys . The Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) ruled in 1997 that the commercial broadcast networks had to air educational children 's programs for a minimum of three hours per week . The cable network Nickelodeon , which had been airing programs for six- to twelve @-@ year @-@ olds , was not legally bound by this legislation but complied with it anyway many years before the laws and regulations were passed .
Nickelodeon assigned a team of producers to create a new U.S. television program for young children in mid @-@ 1994 using research on early childhood education and the viewing habits of preschoolers . These producers , who were made up of the " green creative team " of Angela Santomero , Todd Kessler and Traci Paige Johnson , met at Nickelodeon Studios for a month to develop Blue 's Clues . Kessler , Santomero and Johnson , according to Tracy , did not have the traditional backgrounds of most producers of children 's programs but " did possess an amazing combination of talents , backgrounds and personal attributes " . Researcher Daniel R. Anderson of the University of Massachusetts Amherst , who had also worked on Sesame Street , was an adviser for the new show . The character Blue was originally conceived as a cat , and the name of the show was to be " Blue 's Prints , " but the show 's name was changed and Blue became a dog because Nickelodeon was already producing a show about a cat . Kessler handled the show 's production , Santomero the research , and Johnson the animation and design . They were given a modest $ 150 @,@ 000 to produce a pilot .
Blue 's Clues premiered in the U.S. on September 8 , 1996 . It was a smash hit , largely due to the producers ' extensive research , and became crucial to Nickelodeon 's growth . Within 18 months of its premiere , Blue 's Clues was as well @-@ known as more established children 's shows such as the 30 @-@ year @-@ old Sesame Street . It became the highest @-@ rated show for preschoolers on commercial television . By 2002 , 13 @.@ 7 million viewers tuned in each week .
In 2004 , a spin @-@ off , Blue 's Room , was launched . It featured puppets instead of animation as well as the original show 's second host , Joe , in several episodes . Blue 's Clues celebrated its 10 @-@ year anniversary in 2006 with a DVD that consisted of a 12 @-@ minute retrospective produced by VH1 's " Behind the Music " staff and a collection of " milestone " episodes , including first host Steve Burns ' 2002 departure .
= = = Casting = = =
The most important casting decision was that of the host , the only human character in the show . The host 's role was to empower and challenge the show 's young viewers , to help increase their self @-@ esteem , and to strongly connect with them through the television screen . The producers originally wanted a female host , but after months of research and over 1 @,@ 000 auditions , they hired actor / performer Steve Burns based on the strength of his audition . Burns received the strongest and most enthusiastic response in tests with preschoolers . Johnson said that what made Burns a great children 's TV host was that " he didn 't want to be a children 's host ... He loved kids , but he didn 't want to make a career out of it . " Burns remained on Blue 's Clues for seven years and was in over 100 episodes before he left to pursue a musical career in 2002 . Burns himself stated , " I knew I wasn 't gonna be doing children 's television all my life , mostly because I refused to lose my hair on a kid 's TV show , and it was happenin ' — fast . "
Accompanied by a " concentrated multiplatform promotional campaign " that included articles in Nickelodeon 's magazine and on its webpage , an arc of three episodes introduced Burns ' replacement Donovan Patton , who played Steve 's brother Joe . Patton was subjected to the same kind of scrutiny to earn the job , and was selected out of 1 @,@ 500 auditions . Patton had never seen Blue 's Clues before he auditioned for the part but , like Burns , was the favorite with preschool test audiences . Burns helped train Patton to perform the role . " We saw Steve Burns ' retirement from the show as a chance to put Blue 's Clues on a new course , " Johnson said . Also , according to Johnson , Joe 's character was more like a preschooler and more innocent than Steve .
Johnson was cast as Blue 's voice because , of the show 's crew , she was able to sound the most like a dog . Nick Balaban , who wrote the music for the show along with Michael Rubin , was cast as the voice of Mr. Salt . Balaban initially used a Brooklyn accent for Mr. Salt before settling on a French accent . Rubin also provided the voice of Mailbox .
= = Format = =
In The Tipping Point , author Malcolm Gladwell called the show " sticky , " and described its format :
Steve , the host , presents the audience with a puzzle involving Blue , the animated dog ... To help the audience unlock the puzzle , Blue leaves behind a series of clues , which are objects marked with one of her paw prints . In between the discovery of the clues , Steve plays a series of games — mini @-@ puzzles — with the audience that are thematically related to the overall puzzle ... As the show unfolds , Steve and Blue move from one animated set to another , jumping through magical doorways , leading viewers on a journey of discovery , until , at the end of the story , Steve returns to the living room . There , at the climax of the show , he sits down in a comfortable chair to think — a chair known , of course , in the literal world of Blue 's Clues , as the Thinking Chair . He puzzles over Blue 's three clues and attempts to come up with the answer .
Nickelodeon researcher Daniel R. Anderson called the structure of Blue 's Clues a game that presented its viewers with increasingly challenging and developmentally appropriate problems to solve . Early episodes focused on basic subjects such as colors and numbers , but later the programs focused on math , physics , anatomy and astronomy . The show 's producers believed that comprehension and attention were strongly connected , so they wrote the episodes to encourage and increase their viewers ' attention . They used content and production characteristics such as pacing which gave children time to respond , as well as " camera techniques , children 's voices , musical cues , sound effects , clear transitions , repeatable dialogue , and visuals . " Participation , in the form of spoken or physical response from the audience , and the mastery of thinking skills were encouraged by the use of repetition , both within the structure of individual episodes and across multiple episodes . The producers used a variety of formal features , which were auditory , and content features , which consisted of invitations given to the audience , such as " Will you help ? " The features were also in the form of both recurrent and unique formats and content . The purpose of the recurrent formats and content , which were similar in every episode , was to increase viewers ' attention , comprehension , and participation during key educational lessons .
Nickelodeon originally aired the same episode daily for five days before showing the next one . The producers believed this telecast strategy empowered young children by giving them many opportunities to master the content and problems presented to them .
= = Educational goals = =
The creators ' and producers ' goals were to " empower , challenge , and build the self @-@ esteem of preschoolers " while entertaining them . Kessler , Santomero and Johnson were influenced by Sesame Street , the first children 's television program to utilize a detailed and comprehensive educational curriculum developed from research . " We wanted to learn from Sesame Street and take it one step further , " Santomero said . Like Sesame Street , formative research which the producers called their " secret sauce , " was used during all aspects of the creative and decision @-@ making process during the production of Blue 's Clues . In addition to a curriculum that emphasized reasoning skills relevant to preschoolers ' everyday lives , the producers wanted to include audience participation , called by Variety its " call and response style , " that encouraged mastery of the information presented , positive reinforcement , and prosocial messages . In their first brainstorming sessions in 1994 , Santomero , Kessler and Johnson decided to promote mastery rather than rote learning or memorizing , make sure that their viewers knew the answers to the puzzles with which they were presented , and include elements of surprise and play . By 2001 , the show 's research team consisted of head researcher Alice Wilder , Alison Sherman , Karen Leavitt , and Koshi Dhingra . The research team and creators worked collaboratively .
Unlike Sesame Street , which tested a third of its episodes , the Blue 's Clues research team field tested every episode three times with children aged between two to six in preschool environments such as Head Start programs , public schools , and private day care centers . There were three phases of testing : content evaluation , video evaluations , and content analysis . In their tests of the pilot , conducted throughout the New York City area with over 100 children aged from three to seven , the show was " immediately successful . " They found that as the pilot progressed , children 's attention was not only captured and sustained , but they became excited and actively participated with what they saw , to the point that they stood up to get closer to the television and spoke back to the host . The producers and researchers also consulted outside advisers , who were chosen based on their expertise and the needs of each script . As Anderson stated , the formative research team served " as a liaison between the feedback provided by the preschoolers and outside advisers and the production team , including writers , talent , producers , directors , element artists , and animators . "
Twenty years worth of research had showed that television , a " cultural artifact " accessible to most American children , could be a " powerful educational agent . " The show was designed and produced on the assumption that , since children are cognitively active when they watch television , a show could be an effective method of scientific education for young children by telling stories through pictures and by modeling behavior and learning . The creators and producers used film techniques to present information from multiple perspectives in many " real world " contexts , or situations within the daily experiences of young children . They wanted to provide their viewers with more " authentic learning opportunities " by placing problem @-@ solving tasks within the stories they told , by slowly increasing the difficulty of these tasks , and by inviting their involvement . These learning opportunities included the use of mnemonics in the form of mantras and songs , and what Tracy called " metacognitive wrap @-@ up " at the end of each episode , in which the lessons were summarized and rehearsed . The producers wanted to foster their audience 's sense of empowerment by eliciting their assistance for the show 's host and by encouraging their identification with the character Blue , who served as a stand @-@ in for the typical preschooler .
Sesame Street was designed around the prevailing view that preschoolers had short attention spans , so its curriculum was a magazine @-@ like format in which each episode was made up of a variety of segments . Based on research conducted over the 30 years since the launch of Sesame Street by theorists like Anderson , the producers of Blue 's Clues wanted to develop a show that took advantage of children 's intellectual and behavioral activity when watching television . Previous children 's television programs presented their content with little input from their viewers , but Blue 's Clues was one of the first children 's shows to actively invite its viewers ' involvement . Its creators believed that if children were more involved in what they were viewing , they would attend to its content longer than previously expected — for up to a half hour — and learn more . They also dropped the magazine format for a more traditional narrative format . As Variety magazine stated , " ... The choice for Blue 's Clues became to tell one story , beginning to end , camera moving left @-@ to @-@ right like reading a storybook , transitions from scene to scene as obvious as the turning of a page . " Every episode of Blue 's Clues was structured in this way .
The pace of Blue 's Clues was deliberate , and its material was presented clearly . Similar to Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood , which also inspired the producers , this was done was in the use of pauses that were " long enough to give the youngest time to think , short enough for the oldest not to get bored . " The length of the pauses , which was estimated from formative research , gave children enough time to process the information and solve the problem . After pausing , child voice @-@ overs provided the answers so that they were given to children who had not come up with the solution and helped encourage viewer participation . Researcher Alisha M. Crawley and her colleagues stated that the show was " unique in making overt involvement a systematic research @-@ based design element . " In 2002 , the success of Blue 's Clues inspired the producers of Sesame Street to change its format and add more interactive segments . Blue 's Clues also differed from Sesame Street by not using cultural references or humor aimed at adults , as this could confuse preschoolers , but instead made the show literal , which the producers felt would better hold the children 's attention . The structure of each episode was repetitive , designed to provide preschoolers with comfort and predictability .
= = Production = =
Blue 's Clues was set in the home — the environment that was most familiar and secure for preschoolers — and looked like no other children 's television show . Each episode was in development , from idea development to final production , for approximately one year . Writers created a goal sheet , which identified their objectives based on the show 's curriculum and audience needs . Script drafts , once developed and approved by the show 's creators and research team , were tested at public and private schools , day care centers , preschools , and Head Start programs by three researchers , who would narrate the story in the form of a storybook and take notes about the children 's responses . The writers and creators revised the scripts based on this feedback . A rough video , in which the host performed from the revised script in front of a blue screen with no animation , was filmed and retested . The script was revised based on the audiences ' responses , tested a third time with animation and music added , and incorporated into future productions .
Most of the show 's production was done in @-@ house , rather than by outside companies as was customary for children 's TV shows . The show 's creators understood that the look and visual design of the show would be integral to children 's attachment with it . Johnson expanded on the " cut @-@ out " style she had created during her college years . Blue 's Clues was the first animated series for preschoolers that utilized simple cut @-@ out construction paper shapes of familiar objects with a wide variety of colors and textures , resembling a storybook . Johnson also used primary colors and organized each room of the home setting into groups . The green @-@ striped shirt worn by the show 's original host , Steve , was inspired by Fruit Stripe gum . The goals were to make the show look natural and simplistic ; as Tracy put it , " freshly cut and glued together with a vivid array of textures , colors , and shadows " similar to picture book illustrations . The music , produced by composer Michael Rubin and pianist Nick Balaban , was simple , had a natural sound , and exposed children to a wide variety of genres and instruments . According to Tracy , the music empowered children and gave the show " a sense of playfulness , a sense of joy , and a sense of the fantastic " . Rubin and Balaban encouraged the musicians who performed for the show to improvise .
The host performed each episode in front of a " blue screen " , with animation added later . The show 's digital design department combined high @-@ tech and low @-@ tech methods by creating and photographing three @-@ dimensional objects , then cutting them out and placing them into the background . This made the objects look more real and added perspective and depth . Their animation technique was at that time a new technology . Johnson hired artist Dave Palmer and production company Big Pink to create the animation from simple materials like fabric , paper , or pipe @-@ cleaners , and scan them into a Macintosh computer so that they could be animated using inexpensive computer software such as Media 100 , Ultimatte , Photoshop and After Effects , instead of being repeatedly redrawn as in traditional animation . The result was something that looked different from anything else on television at the time , and the producers were able to animate two episodes in eight weeks , as compared to the sixteen weeks necessary to create a single episode by traditional methods . Their process looked like traditional cut @-@ out animation , but was faster , more flexible , and less expensive , and it allowed them to make changes based on feedback from test audiences . Unlike traditional animation environments , which tended to be highly structured , the animators were given information about the characters and goals of the scenes they would animate , and then given the freedom to work out the timing and look of each scene themselves , as long as their creations were true to the characters and to the story . By 1999 , the show 's animation department consisted of Palmer , 20 animators , 11 digital designers , and 5 art directors and model makers . By 2002 , Nickelodeon had built a " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art " $ 6 million digital animation studio that housed 140 people , including 70 animators .
= = Reception = =
Ratings for Blue 's Clues were high during its first season , and it was Nickelodeon 's most popular preschool program . It has been described as the first commercial television show for preschoolers that was both educational and profitable . Its creators met regularly with businesses that developed Blue 's Clues merchandise and products to ensure that toys that were educational and met " the same high ... standards as the show . " Products , like the show , were heavily tested prior to marketing . Blue 's Clues had sold almost 40 million units of its 45 VHS and DVD titles by 1998 and generated over $ 1 billion in product licensing in 2000 . More than ten million Blue 's Clues books were in print by 2001 and over three million copies of six CD @-@ ROM titles based on the show had been sold . Seven Blue 's Clues titles sold at least 1 million copies each . The show 's first direct @-@ to @-@ video production was Blue 's Big Musical Movie ( 2000 ) , featuring Ray Charles and The Persuasions ; it received mostly positive reviews and has sold over 3 million copies since 2006 . The launch of Blue 's Clues products at FAO Schwarz 's flagship store in New York City was the most successful product launch in the store 's history and was attended by over 7 @,@ 000 people . By 2002 , Blue 's Clues had received several awards for children 's programming , educational software , and licensing and been nominated for nine Emmy Awards . It also won a Peabody Award in 2001 .
Starting in 1999 , a live production of Blue 's Clues toured the U.S. to positive reviews . Johnson compared the show 's audience participation with that of The Rocky Horror Picture Show . As of 2002 , over 2 million people had attended over 1 @,@ 000 performances . The creators of the TV show were involved in all aspects of the live show , aiming to translate the bond between the TV show 's audience and its cast to the stage and to provide young audiences with their first theatrical experience . The creators chose Jonathan Hochwald as the live show 's producer , Gip Hoppe as its director , and Dave Gallo as its set designer . Neither Hoppe nor Gallo had any previous experience in children 's theater . Nick Balaban and Michael Rubin , who wrote the music for the TV show , composed the live show 's soundtrack . The producers were concerned with children 's response to the host , who was played by Tom Mizer ( a different actor than the host of the TV show ) , but his young audience enthusiastically accepted and embraced him . Actors were encouraged to improvise and respond to the audience , which resulted in changes throughout the show 's run . The show 's script included humor that both children and their parents could enjoy .
Regional versions of the show , featuring native hosts , have been produced in other countries . It was a big hit in the United Kingdom ( hosted by Kevin Duala ) , became part of pop culture in Korea , was syndicated in 120 countries , and was translated into 15 languages . In 2000 , it became one of the first preschool shows to incorporate American Sign Language into its content , with between five and ten signs used consistently in each episode . Blue 's Clues won an award from the Greater Los Angeles Agency on Deafness ( GLAD ) for promoting deaf awareness in the media .
= = Influence = =
The show 's extensive use of research in its development and production process inspired several studies that provided evidence for its effectiveness as a learning tool . Field tests showed that the attention and comprehension of young viewers increased with each repeat viewing . In 1999 , Anderson and a team of researchers , some of which were his colleagues at Nickelodeon , studied how episode repetition affected comprehension , audience participation , and visual attention . The researchers tested whether repeated viewings of the show resulted in mastery over the material presented , or whether viewers would habituate or become bored . They discovered that audience participation was lower for the first few viewings , because children paid more attention to unfamiliar material , and because it was more cognitively demanding to understand and solve the problems presented . After five viewings , more of the viewers ' cognitive resources were available for interaction and participation , so they answered more questions . Episode repetition seemed to empower viewers , as shown in their enthusiastic efforts to solve the problems presented to them . Repetition , which the researchers called " an inexpensive tool to maximize comprehension , " improved comprehension , held children 's attention , and increased audience participation . Children were not only tolerant of repetition , they were " positively enthusiastic " about it . Nielsen ratings of the show 's first season , when the same episode was shown daily , were flat over the five @-@ day period , which indicated to Anderson that young children did not tire of its repetition or of its complexity over time . Anderson and Crawley felt that the telecast strategy helped increase the show 's ratings and called it a success .
In 2000 , another team of researchers , including Anderson , Crawley , and other Nickelodeon colleagues , studied whether experienced Blue 's Clues viewers interacted more with the show than less @-@ frequent viewers and whether regular viewers of the show interacted more with other shows than did children who were not . They found that when the content of a program was new and challenging , children paid more attention , and when it was familiar , either from previous viewings or in a format they recognized , they instead interacted more . In short , they found that " interaction in Blue 's Clues to some extent reflects mastery . " A similar study , also conducted in 2000 by many of the same researchers , found that experienced Blue 's Clues viewers interacted more with other educational programs than did inexperienced viewers , which proved that watching Blue 's Clues changed the way children watch television . Researcher Shalom M. Fisch , however , stated that although the show attempted to be " participatory , " it could not truly be so , because unlike interactive computer games , the viewers ' responses could not change or influence what occurred on @-@ screen .
Jennings Bryant conducted a two @-@ year longitudinal study of the effects of Blue 's Clues at the University of Alabama in 2001 to ascertain whether or not the show 's curriculum goals were achieved . He compared regular viewers and non @-@ viewers and found that the show 's episode repetition strategy improved children 's comprehension while holding their attention and increasing their participation , which suggested that watching Blue 's Clues increased children 's learning and social interactions . At the end of the study , regular viewers outperformed the non @-@ viewers , solving problems more successfully and systematically . Anderson stated , " Given the program 's large audience , it appears that the program is not only doing well , but it is also doing good . "
In 2002 , Crawley , Anderson , and their colleagues conducted another study on the effects of Blue 's Clues , this time researching whether more experienced viewers mastered the content and cognitive challenges faster and easier than first @-@ time viewers . They surmised that experienced viewers would comprehend and interact more with the recurring and familiar segments of the show designed to aid comprehension , but they found that familiarity with the structure of an individual episode did not provide experienced viewers with an advantage over the inexperienced viewers . Crawley and Anderson also studied whether experienced viewers of Blue 's Clues interacted more with other children 's TV shows and whether the viewing behaviors they learned from Blue 's Clues could be transferred to other shows . They found that although experienced viewers of Blue 's Clues interacted with an episode of another series , they did not spend more time watching it than viewers unfamiliar with the show . The researchers stated , " It is apparent that , although preschoolers learn to enthusiastically engage in overt audience participation , they do not , by and large , have a metacognitive understanding of why they do so . " The 2002 studies demonstrated that experience with watching one TV series affects how children watch other programs , especially in the way they interact with them . They also showed that since children are selective in the material they attend to and that their interaction increases with comprehension and mastery , children tend to pay more attention to novel information and interact more with material they have seen before and mastered . The researchers predicted that since shows like Blue 's Clues help children feel empowered to learn , it could have long @-@ term effects in motivating children to learn and provide them with a lifelong love of learning .
Erin Ryan and her colleagues performed a 2009 study on the effect of the use of American Sign Language ( ASL ) in Blue 's Clues episodes . They analyzed 16 episodes over two weeks for the content and frequency of the signs used and found a high incidence of ASL usage by various characters , but that it was inconsistent , especially in the connection between English words and their corresponding signs . The purpose of signed communication and its connection with ASL and the Deaf community was not clearly explained , either . The researchers speculated that hearing children with no previous ASL exposure would be familiarized with ASL and the deaf by these episodes , thus reducing the stigma attached to deafness and hard of hearing individuals . Based on other research about the positive effects of teaching ASL to hearing children , the researchers also speculated that it could lead to an increase of vocabulary skills and IQ , as well as improve interpersonal communication . They surmised that deaf children would feel more included and less isolated and be provided with the opportunity to view positive models of ASL and deaf people .
Georgene L. Troseth and her colleagues at Vanderbilt University studied how toddlers use information gained from prerecorded video and from interactions with a person through closed @-@ circuit video , and found that two @-@ year @-@ olds do not learn as much from prerecorded videos because the videos lack social cues and personal references . Two @-@ year @-@ olds who viewed a pretaped video with instructions about how to find a toy in an adjoining room by a non @-@ interactive researcher did not use the information , even though they smiled and responded to questions . Troseth speculated that their research had implications for interactive educational shows like Blue 's Clues , which although was " on the right track " due to the way in which the host invites interaction with the show 's viewers , did not provide children with the social cues to solve real @-@ world problems . Troseth stated that repetition , repeated exposure , and familiarity with the show 's host may increase children 's ability to learn facts and to use strategies they learn from Blue 's Clues to solve new problems . Her research suggested that Blue 's Clues engaged young children and elicited their active participation because they mimicked social interaction . A longitudinal study published in 2005 found that early exposure to Blue 's Clues to children between six and thirty months of age was positively linked with vocabulary and expressive language later learned .
= Llantwit Major =
Llantwit Major ( Welsh : Llanilltud Fawr ) is a small coastal town and community in the Vale of Glamorgan , Wales , lying on the Bristol Channel coast . It is one of four towns in the Vale of Glamorgan and the third largest by population ( 13 @,@ 366 ( 2001 ) ) after Barry and Penarth , and ahead of Cowbridge , which lies about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) to the northeast . The town centre of Llantwit Major lies about 9 miles ( 14 km ) southeast of the centre of Bridgend , 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of the centre of Barry , and about 15 miles ( 24 km ) miles south @-@ west of the centre of the Welsh capital of Cardiff .
The town 's name in Welsh , Llanilltud Fawr , is derived from the name of Saint Illtud , who came to the area from Brittany , Gaul . He founded the monastery of Illtud and the college attached to it , Cor Tewdws , which would grow into one of the most esteemed Christian colleges of the times . At peak it attracted over 2000 students , including princes and numerous eminent clergymen , some now revered as saints . Destroyed by the Vikings in 987 , the monastery was rebuilt in 1111 and continued to be a centre of learning governed by Tewkesbury Abbey until it closed in 1539 during the Dissolution of the Monasteries . The 13th @-@ century St Illtyd 's Church , built near the ancient monastery , today is a Grade I listed building and one of the oldest parish churches in Wales .
The modern town of Llantwit developed rapidly in the 20th century to accommodate Royal Air Force personnel from the base built at nearby St Athan , but it retains its medieval cobbled streets and buildings of the 15th and 16th centuries . Llantwit Major railway station on the Vale of Glamorgan Line was reopened in June 2005 . Collugh Beach is a popular surfing venue and has the remnants of an Iron Age fort and some of the finest examples of Jurassic @-@ period fossils in Wales . The pebble beach and its dramatic clifftops are part of a 14 miles ( 23 km ) -long coastline protected under the Glamorgan Heritage Coast , which stretches from Gileston in the east to Newton Point beyond Southerndown in the west .
= = Name = =
Although the parish church glosses the name of the town rather literally as " Illtud 's Great Church " , both the Welsh placename and its English form do not properly call the place " great " but rather " greater " : the epithet distinguishes this Llantwit from Llantwit Fardre ( Llanilltud Faerdref ) near Pontypridd and Llantwit Minor ( Llanilltud Fach ; also known as Llantwit @-@ juxta @-@ Neath and Lower Llantwit ) near Neath . The Welsh placename element llan , meanwhile , is related to English lawn ( which was borrowed into Middle English from French , which borrowed it from Gaulish ) and referred to the sanctified community around early Christian settlements in Wales and its parish rather than merely the church itself ( eglwys ) .
= = History = =
Llantwit Major has been occupied for over 3000 years and archaeological evidence has shown it was occupied in Neolithic times . The remains of an Iron Age fort lie in the beach area . Excavations at the Roman villa at Caer Mead have revealed that this area was occupied during Roman times for around 350 years ; its bathrooms and the mosaic pavements date from the mid 2nd century AD .
In the 5th century , after the withdrawal of the Roman legions , Saint Illtud came to the Hodnant valley from Brittany and founded the monastery of Illtud on the Ogney Brook , and a college , in close proximity to the current St Illtyd 's Church , about a mile from the sea . The exact date of its founding is unknown , but some sources indicate around the year 500 AD ; the blue plaque on the church today also gives this date . Because of its monastery and teaching centre it became a major centre for education and Celtic Church evangelism , attracting scholars from across Wales , Devon , Cornwall and Brittany and the wider world . The college of Llantwit , known as the College or Seminary of Theodosius ( Cor Tewdws in Welsh ) or College of St. Illtyd , at its peak reputedly had seven halls , over 400 houses and over 2000 students , including seven sons of British princes , and scholars such as St. Patrick , St. Paul Aurelian , the bard Taliesin , Gildas the historian , Samson of Dol , Paulinus , Bishop of Leon , and St. David is believed to have spent some time there . Samson was known to have been summoned by Dyfrig to join the monastery in 521 and he was briefly elected abbot before leaving for Cornwall . King Hywel ap Rhys ( d . 886 ) was buried at the monastery .
The college suffered during the invasions of the Saxons and the Danes and was destroyed by the Vikings in 987 and the Normans in the late 11th century . However , in 1111 , it is documented as being restored but likely in a lesser state than the original . It is known to have continued to function as a monastic school until the 16th @-@ century Reformation . The ruins of the original school house are located in a garden on the northern end of the churchyard and the monastic halls were located in a place called Hill @-@ head on the north side of the tithe @-@ barn . Although nothing of the original monastery remains , the present church was originally built between 950 and 1400 and its earliest existing secular buildings date from the 15th century . The church and school became the property of Tewkesbury Abbey around 1130 after becoming part of the Norman kingdom of Glamorgan .
After the dissolution of the monasteries by king Henry VIII during the Reformation , it became independent from Tewkesbury in 1539 . St Donat 's Castle , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the west , was built in the 13th century .
In the 20th century , Llantwit developed into a dormitory town and grew about 15 times in size to accommodate the Royal Air Force at St Athan . Despite its modernization and rapid growth , it retains its pre @-@ modern feel with its narrow winding streets , high walls , old town hall and gatehouse , and several inns and houses dated to the 16th century . Llantwit Major railway station on the Vale of Glamorgan Line was reopened in June 2005 . In 2014 , it was rated one of the most attractive postcode areas to live in Wales .
= = Geography = =
Llantwit Major is located in southeast Wales and mid @-@ west along the coast of the Vale of Glamorgan . The town can be accessed from the north directly by the B4268 road and indirectly by the B4270 road ( St. Athan road ) stemming from the A48 road , and directly by the B4265 road which leads to Bridgend in the northwest and Cardiff Airport and Barry in the east . It is one of four towns in the Vale of Glamorgan and the third largest by population after Barry and Penarth , and ahead of Cowbridge , which lies about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) to the northeast . The town centre of Llantwit Major lies about 9 miles ( 14 km ) from the centre of Bridgend , 10 miles from the centre of Barry and about 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the centre of Cardiff which lies further to the east . Boverton is an eastern suburb of Llantwit .
A small stream , the River Ogney , runs through the town and joins the streams [ Hoddnant and Boverton Brook ] which flow in from Eglwys Brewis in the northeast ; these then merge and become the Afon Colhuw which meanders down the Colhuw meadows before discharging through an outfall into the sea . The Llantwit Major area is built on a range of different levels and the town itself is sloping . At the lower coastal level is the flat , glacial Collugh Valley , marked by steep cliffs on both sides , leading to a pebble beach . The beach , located to the south of the town ( 51 @.@ 396667 ° N 3 @.@ 500833 ° W / 51 @.@ 396667 ; -3.500833 ) , has the remains of an ancient old stone wall from the large Iron Age hill fort , Castle Ditches , which was once located here . The steep cliffs at Llantwit which allow walks along the coast to St Donat 's Castle and Atlantic College have undergone dramatic erosion in recent years with the result that , in many places , the rock structure has collapsed in piles , particularly on the eastern face .
The cliff path , once set approximately 100 yards ( 91 m ) from the edge is now within metres of the nature pathway , causing the installation of extensive new barriers by the Vale of Glamorgan Council to prevent fatalities . The 14 miles ( 23 km ) of coastline from Gileston in the east to Newton Point and in the west , passing through St Donat 's and Southerndown is protected under the Glamorgan Heritage Coast . Tresilian Bay is situated between Llantwit Major and St Donat 's . Along this stretch of coast the cliff path winds through numerous valleys . Llantwit Major beach has one of the finest sites in Wales for Jurassic fossils , including corals , giant brachiopods , gastropods and the bones of Ichthyosaurus . In the early 1990s the beach flooded with the tide rising beyond the beach wall and inundating the surrounding pasture in the valley , which is now used as a campsite .
The beach is a popular tourist destination during the summer months and has a campsite on the nearby fields . The beach has a snack bar and restaurant and associated amenities to cater for the increased public demand in recent years . The beach at low tide is an expansive rocky beach with a stretch of sand towards the far west , offering dramatic views of the Bristol Channel and the coastline of Somerset , England , with the landmark white roof of Butlins , Minehead .
= = Economy and local government = =
Llantwit Major is a small town which is largely dependent on local retail and earnings from further afield . The majority of the inhabitants commute to work elsewhere , especially Cardiff or Bridgend . During the summer months tourism is important to the town which has " The Precinct " , Rainbow Plaza and several pubs and restaurants . Of note are the Old Swan Inn , Old White Hart Inn , The Tudor Tavern , and the 17th century West House Country Hotel Heritage Restaurant .
Llantwit Major has considerable renown in South Wales as a surfing location , although it is much less known than Porthcawl further down the coast . The beach has a lifeguard station funded by the Vale of Glamorgan Council , built in the late 1990s , functioning during the summer months . There is a surf shop in the town catering to surfers and several others selling items related to surfing fashion . During the summer months the local government often charges visitors to the beach for parking and further income is obtained from the beach cafe and organised walks .
The Victorian Fair Day , established in 1983 , is usually held in June on the Saturday nearest to the 22nd of the month , with a Victorian theme which attracts people from across southern Wales . The town has several supermarkets including Somerfield and Filco , and a town library . At least three pharmacies and two banks ( HSBC and Lloyds TSB ) located in the central shopping area along Boverton Road . The local artistic community supports a number of arts and crafts shops , some selling locally made pottery and other ceramics .
An electoral ward of the same name exists . This ward covers Llantwit Major community but also stretches west to St. Donats . The total population of this ward at the 2011 census was 10 @,@ 621 .
The town is governed by the Llantwit Major town council consisting of fifteen councillors . There are fifteen independent councillors . The current Mayor is Councillor Mick Mason . It also comes under the administration of the Vale of Glamorgan unitary authority . Llantwit Major is twinned with Le Pouliguen , France .
= = Notable landmarks = =
= = = Roman villa = = =
The Roman villa at Caermead ( 51 @.@ 4192 ° N 3 @.@ 4989 ° W / 51 @.@ 4192 ; -3.4989 ) remains as faint earthworks in a field , near the 13th century parish church of St Illtud . The L @-@ shaped courtyard villa was discovered in 1888 . Records from 1893 suggest that one room was used as a praetorium , another as a workshop ; and there was a 5th @-@ century adjoining sacristy , simple in style , which featured a chancel , nave , and stone altar . Found remains included Brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls , as well as horse bones . Fine mosaic floors are a notable feature of the villa . The tesserae included blue and crystalline limestone , green volcanic stones , brown sandstone , and red @-@ brick cuttings , encircled with a red , white , blue and brown border . A record from 1907 described the relics as Samian ware pieces ; bronze coins of Maximinus Thrax , Victorinus , and Constantius Chlorus ; as well as roofing materials .
The site was again excavated between 1938 and 1948 . It may have been first settled in the 1st century , but the first stone structure was not erected until a hundred years later . The site developed slowly and , it has been suggested , was even abandoned for a while during the 3rd century . By the 4th century , there was an L @-@ shaped villa with a large , aisled building possibly for farm workers and a number of smaller agricultural structures almost enclosing a central courtyard . The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales has associated collection records of the site , including drawings of other remains such as statues and tessellated pavement , as well as documentation of a 1971 excavation . An early @-@ medieval @-@ period cemetery is in evidence. as are earthworks , traces of walling , a bank and a ditch . Pieces of pottery have been found .
= = = Listed buildings = = =
= = = = St Illtyd 's Church and monastery = = = =
The town grew up around Cor Tewdws , a monastery and divinity school , alternately named Caerworgorn , or Bangor Tewdws ( College of Theodosius ) , or later Bangor Illtyd ( " Illtyd 's college " ) . Saint David , Saint Samson , Saint Paul Aurelian , Saint Gildas , Saint Tudwal , Saint Baglan and king Maelgwn Gwynedd are said to have studied at the divinity school.Cor Tewdws was destroyed in AD 446 and re @-@ founded in AD 508 by St Illtyd as a centre of learning . The ruins of the school are in a garden on the north side of the churchyard ; and the monastery was situated north of the tithe barn on Hill Head .
The elongated church ( 51 @.@ 4081 ° N 3 @.@ 4878 ° W / 51 @.@ 4081 ; -3.4878 ) , a conglomeration of distinct buildings , is divided into two areas by a wall , a 13th @-@ century monastery church , and the Norman parish church . The eastern section contains interesting medieval wall paintings with religious themes , and a fine reredos . The western section , a Lady chapel , 40 @.@ 5 feet ( 12 @.@ 3 m ) in length , has an inscription to King Rhys ap Arthfael of Morgannwg who died in the mid @-@ 9th century . The church contains a curfew bell and medieval priest effigies . The older church is 64 feet ( 20 m ) long ; the newer church was built by Richard Neville .
St. Illtyd 's church predates the Age of the Saints in early Welsh Christianity and thus by its very existence provides evidence of continuity with sub @-@ Roman Christianity . The churchyard contains three ancient relics , a pillar and two inscribed stones ; one dates from Saint Samson 's time . The grounds also include a 13th @-@ century gatehouse , a monks ' pigeon @-@ house , ruined walls in a garden area , and mounds near the vicarage .
= = = = Town Hall = = = =
Manorial records indicate that the Town Hall ( 51 @.@ 4076 ° N 3 @.@ 4848 ° W / 51 @.@ 4076 ; -3.4848 ) dates to the 15th century but it is often attributed to Gilbert de Clare , Lord of Glamorgan , who died much earlier in 1295 . It then functioned as a manor and a meeting venue for the court to organise duties and collect rents and at weekends held fairs . It was renovated in the late 16th century and over the years the lower floor functioned as a school , a slaughterhouse and a jail and the top floor a venue for church meetings , leased to Oddfellows in the 1830s . Aside from fairs it also held plays , concerts and dances . It became a Grade : II * listed building on 22 February 1963 . It features a bell with the inscription , Sancte Iltute , ora pro nobis ( " Saint Illtyd , pray for us " ) . It is reached by a flight of steps .
= = = = Great House = = = =
The Great House ( 51 @.@ 412361 ° N 3 @.@ 488173 ° W / 51 @.@ 412361 ; -3.488173 ) , located along the road to Cowbridge , on the northern outskirts originally dated from the 14th century when it consisted of just a square central section , but significant additions have made it an excellent example of a Tudor " Ty mawr " ( Great House ) . A northern wing with a stable and dovecot were amongst the added parts . The house was occupied by the Nicholl family for centuries but by the 1920s it had been abandoned and fell into a heavily dilapidated state . The building was bought and restored to its former glory in the 1950s .
= = = = Dove cote and gatehouse = = = =
Covered by a domical vault , the Dove Cote ( 51 @.@ 406414 ° N 3 @.@ 48913 ° W / 51 @.@ 406414 ; -3.48913 ) is a Grade II * listed tall 13th @-@ century cylindrical column in a middle of the Hill Head field , which lies in close proximity to St Illtuds Church , next to the site of the old tithe barn , built for the monks at the St. Illtud 's monastery . Another site on Hill Head is the ( 13th – 14th century ) gatehouse , now belonging to St Illtyd 's Church , Llantwit Major . Today these are the only remaining buildings which at one time belonged to Tewkesbury Abbey . There is a plaque on the gatehouse , telling of its history .
= = = = The Old Place = = = =
The Old Place ( 51 @.@ 407665 ° N 3 @.@ 489745 ° W / 51 @.@ 407665 ; -3.489745 ) is a ruin of an Elizabethan manor house , built by Griffith Williams for his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law Edmund Vann in 1596 . It is often mistakenly called Llantwit Castle . The Williams family were successful lawyers and part of the rising minor gentry who were loathed by the Seys of Boverton and the Stradlings of St Donats . Vann was fined over £ 1 @,@ 000 for being involved in a scuffle in central Llantwit on a Sunday which led him to take on the Sey family and seek his revenge .
= = = = Old Swan Inn = = = =
Records state that a building was located here from the 11th century and during medieval times it is believed to have been a monastic or manorial mint. but the current Grade II * listed inn ( 51 @.@ 408341 ° N 3 @.@ 486029 ° W / 51 @.@ 408341 ; -3.486029 ) is dated to the 16th century , aside from restoration work ; it was once thatched roofed . It was run for many years in Tudor times by the Raglan family . In the mid 17th century there is evidence that its owner Edward Craddock was again using it as a mint to " mint his own tokens as there was a shortage of coin at this time . " There are five other pubs and four restaurants in the town .
= = = = Plymouth House = = = =
According to the blue plaque on the wall outside Plymouth House ( 51 @.@ 408791 ° N 3 @.@ 488876 ° W / 51 @.@ 408791 ; -3.488876 ) , the house is believed to have been formerly part of the monastery , perhaps functioning as a halled house for some time in the fifteenth century . After its closure in 1539 , it became the manor house of West Llantwit owned by Edward Stradling . Later owners include Lewis of the Van , the Earl of Plymouth and then Dr. J. W. Nicholl Carne , who renamed it after its previous owner some time in the 19th century .
= = = = Court House = = = =
From the blue plaque on the Court House ( 51 @.@ 409519 ° N 3 @.@ 485348 ° W / 51 @.@ 409519 ; -3.485348 ) , it was formerly known as Ivy house when it was a town house from the 16th century . In the 18th century it was extended by Christopher Bassett . For some time it was owned by the Throckmorton family of Coughton Court , Warwickshire , descendants of one of the perpetrators of the Gunpowder Plot . Later owners included Daniel Durrell , headmaster of Cowbridge Grammar School , and the benefactor of Tabernacle Chapel , Elias Bassett . It then fell to his niece and her husband William Thomas and became part of the Thomas family and at one time was owned by Illtyd Thomas , father of Mare Treveleyan , an antiquarian . The Thomases built the Town Hall clock to commemorate Queen Victoria .
= = = = Knolles Place = = = =
According to the blue plaque on the building ( also known as " The Old School " ) ( 51 @.@ 408413 ° N 3 @.@ 487469 ° W / 51 @.@ 408413 ; -3.487469 ) , it was built around 1450 by John Raglan ( Herbert ) and was then owned by Robert Raglan , from a family who had significant power in the area at the time and held many local administrative posts as stewards and priests . In the 17th century it became a vicarage for Stephen Slugg and functioned as a boarding school for primary school children between 1874 and 1975 .
= = = = Old police station = = = =
The old police station ( 51 @.@ 4069 ° N 3 @.@ 4872 ° W / 51 @.@ 4069 ; -3.4872 ) was built in the mid @-@ 1840s after the place is Glamorgan Constabulary was established in 1841 , and was originally comprised a single @-@ storey building , but was expanded in 1876 to include four bedrooms on the top floor . It continued to function as a police station until 1928 when a new building opened nearer the town centre on Wesley Street .
= = = = War memorial = = = =
This is located in the centre of Llantwit War Memorial ( 51 @.@ 40842 ° N 3 @.@ 486894 ° W / 51 @.@ 40842 ; -3.486894 ) , between the Old Swan and the White Hart and has a Celtic cross . The memorial commemorates residents who lost their lives or went missing in World War I and World War II . There are 32 names listed for World War I and 26 names for World War II .
= = = = Bethel Baptist Church = = = =
Bethel Baptist Church ( 51 @.@ 408714 ° N 3 @.@ 485035 ° W / 51 @.@ 408714 ; -3.485035 ) was erected in 1830 to provide for local Baptists and its first minister was a local shopkeeper named Jabez Lawrence . Christmas Evans , a one @-@ eyed Welsh preacher of considerable renown was reported to have held services here .
= = = = Boverton Place = = = =
Located in Boverton , Boverton Place ( 51 @.@ 404751 ° N 3 @.@ 464059 ° W / 51 @.@ 404751 ; -3.464059 ) is a former fortified manor house , now in ruins . It was built at the end of the 16th century and served as the seat of Roger Seys , Queen ’ s Attorney to the Council of Wales and the Marches in the 1590s . It remained in Seys family until the last heiress Jane Seys married Robert Jones of Fonmon who sold it to owners who let it fall into ruin . Its last occupants were mentioned in the census of 1861 .
= = = = Dimlands = = = =
Dimlands ( or Dimland Castle or Dimland Lodge ) ( 51 @.@ 406172 ° N 3 @.@ 501055 ° W / 51 @.@ 406172 ; -3.501055 ) is situated about a kilometre back from the clifftops of the Bristol Channel along the road to St. Donats . It was owned at one time by John Whitlock Nicholl Carne of the University of Oxford who moved there after his father 's death . Dimlands was built by John Carne 's father , Rev. Robert Carne , at the end of the 18th century , upon land left him by his father , Whitlock Nicholl of The Ham , sheriff for the county of Glamorgan in 1746 . The property was held by the Nicholl family since the time of King Henry VII . The dwelling is of castellated Tudor architecture with blue lias limestone exterior , and Coombedown stone windows and cornices . The south @-@ facing front is more than 130 feet ( 40 m ) in length . The western coast of Cornwall and Lundy Island are visible from the turrets . The carved chimney in the dining room is made of Caen stone , and the chimney @-@ piece in the drawing room is also . Other features are the Minton tile flooring , the large Tudor @-@ style staircase , two sitting rooms , and the library , a newer addition . The Dimlands stables feature sharp @-@ pointed gables , as well as a carved stone with the date of the original grant ( 1336 ) .
= = Education and sport = =
Llanilltud Fawr Comprehensive School is the secondary school in the town . A fire gutted the building in October 1991 and a new building was constructed . The school has roughly 1300 pupils and around 85 full @-@ time staff . Immediately adjacent is Llanilltud Fawr primary school , one of four primary schools in Llantwit , the others being Eagleswell primary school , Ysgol Dewi Sant and St. Illtyd 's primary school .
Facilities at the Llantwit Major leisure centre include a small swimming pool , large and small sports halls , the LifeStyle Fitness Studio , sunbed facilities , conference room and bar . The Llantwit Major Rugby Football Club , which played its first match against Cowbridge Rugby Football Club in 1889 , fields two senior , one youth ( U / 19 ) and eight mini / junior teams , and plays in Division Four of the Welsh Rugby Union leagues . Other sports clubs represent association football and cricket .
= = Cultural references = =
The town is fictionally portrayed in the late Glyn Daniel 's novel Welcome Death ( 1954 ) . Some areas of the town have been used in the recording of the recent series of Doctor Who and The Sarah Jane Adventures ( created by BBC Wales ) . The local tearooms were used in the 2007 making of Y Pris filmed by and shown on S4C .
= = Notable people = =
Joe Blackman ( 1984- ) , Entrepreneur and Magistrate , grew up in Llantwit Major .
Glyn Daniel ( 1914 – 1986 ) , scientist and archaeologist
Dafydd Hewitt ( 1985 – ) , Cardiff Blues Rugby Player
Daniel Hopkin MC ( 1886 – 1951 ) , Labour MP born in Llantwit Major
Pat Mountain ( 1976 – ) , goalkeeping coach for Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. , grew up in Llantwit Major
Ray ' The Belgian ' Cullinane ( 1937 – ) , East End gangster linked with the Kray twins but ran a pie and mash stall in Borough Market and had six witnesses when it all went down in the Blind Beggar
Theophilus Redwood ( 1806 – 1892 ) , pharmacist , one of the founding members of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain
= Dance in the Dark =
" Dance in the Dark " is a song by American recording artist Lady Gaga , from her third EP , The Fame Monster . Inspired by Gaga 's " Fear of Self Monster " , the song deals with the intimate experience between two people alone in a bedroom . According to Gaga , the record is about a girl who likes to have sex with the lights off because she is embarrassed about her body . She explained that she came across such women while working on the MAC AIDS Fund , and that the song is not about freedom , but rather the assurance that Gaga understood their feelings . The song was initially planned to be released after " Telephone " , but due to a dispute between Gaga and her record company , " Alejandro " was released instead . It was later released as a digital download and radio @-@ only single in Australia , Belgium , and France .
" Dance in the Dark " contains retro and new wave music influences , and begins with a stuttering introduction . It includes a spoken interlude , where Gaga says the names of famous people whose lives ended tragically . The song has received critical acclaim from music critics . It charted on the UK Singles Chart and Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , while reaching the top @-@ thirty in Australia and the top @-@ ten in Slovakia , Hungary and Czech Republic .
Gaga performed " Dance in the Dark " as the opening song of The Monster Ball Tour . In the first leg of the tour , she appeared behind a scrim @-@ lit screen to perform the song , while in the revamped shows , Gaga performs it on a set reminiscent of a New York City night scene . The song was also performed at the 2010 BRIT Awards , where Gaga dedicated it to her close friend , Alexander McQueen , who had committed suicide a few days earlier . It was nominated for Best Dance Recording at the 53rd Grammy Awards , but lost to Rihanna 's " Only Girl ( In the World ) " .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
Gaga told Los Angeles Times that the inspiration behind " Dance in the Dark " as being the intimate experience taking place between two people alone in a bedroom , the fear of Sex Monster . According to her , the record is about a girl who likes to have sex with the lights off , because she is embarrassed about her body . " She doesn 't want her man to see her naked . She will be free , and she will let her inner animal out , but only when the lights are out , " Gaga explained . She added that like the song , she has to struggle with issues of body image and self @-@ doubt in her own life . While working on the MAC AIDS Fund , she realized that women of her age do not speak their mind , in fear that their boyfriends would not love them if they did so .
" All of these new things entering my life are changing the way I view my purpose , but ' Dance in the Dark ' in particular is about me wanting to live — but also , the song isn 't called ' Dance in the Light ' . I 'm not a gospel singer trying to cross people over . What I 'm saying is , ' I get it . I feel you , I feel the same way , and it 's OK.'
" I hope and pray that I can inspire some sort of change in people subliminally through the show . They 're singing ' Dance in the Dark , ' but they 're dancing and they 're free , they 're letting it out . But the songs are not about freedom , they 're about [ the fact that ] I get it . I feel the way you feel . "
According to MTV , the song was initially planned to be released after " Telephone " , but due to a dispute between Gaga and her record company , " Alejandro " was released instead . The song was released to Belgian iTunes on November 9 , 2009 .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Dance in the Dark " infuses influences of retro and new wave music in its composition . Michael Hubbard from musicOMH wrote that the song begins with a stuttering introduction and orgasmic groans , followed by Gaga singing the song . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Dance in The Dark " was written in the time signature of common time , with a tempo of 121 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of D minor with Gaga 's vocal range spanning from B ♭ 3 to D5 . It follows a basic sequence of Am – Dm / A – F / A – G as its chord progression . A spoken interlude is also present .
The lyrics of the song refer to vampires and werewolves : " Run run her kiss is a vampire grin / The moon lights her way while she 's howlin ' at him " . Gaga explained that the lines were means of expressing how people rely on external motivations to cope with internal anxiety . " She doesn 't feel free without the moon , " Gaga said . " These lyrics are a way for me to talk about how I believe women and some men feel innately insecure about themselves all the time . It 's not sometimes , it 's not in adolescence , it 's always . " The spoken interlude refers to famous people who met with a tragic end of their lives , namely Marilyn Monroe , Judy Garland , Sylvia Plath , JonBenét Ramsey , Liberace , Jesus Christ , Stanley Kubrick , and Princess Diana .
= = Critical reception = =
The song has received critical acclaim from music critics , with many citing it as a highlight of the album . Paul Lester from BBC felt that the song was " generic machine RnB " . Evan Sawdey from PopMatters commented that " Dance in the Dark " , along with " Monster " are a " delightfully dirty retro workout ..... to make for one surprisingly effective pop cocktail . " Scott Plagenhoef from Pitchfork Media felt that Gaga had morphed into Madonna on the song . Nick Levine from Digital Spy commented that " ' Dance in the Dark ' is the sort of song that , well , makes you want to dance with your top off in a grotty German bondage basement . " Edna Gunderson from USA Today called the song " campy " .
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that " ' Bad Romance ' and ' Dance in the Dark ' are stacked with towering new @-@ wave synths and seemingly endless hooks ; if melodies could be time @-@ stamped , these would have " ' 80s " branded on their asses . [ ... ] The song isn 't a cautionary tale per say [ sic ] , but a call to arms to misfits everywhere . " She went on to declare the song as one of the highlights of The Fame Monster but added that " After a stuttering intro of orgasmic groans it becomes a little bit Gaga @-@ by @-@ numbers , which is a shame given the standard of the early tracks " . Ben Patashnik from NME felt that " Dance in the Dark " , along with another song " Monster " , was " slightly disposable " . Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH complimented the song for its " monumental chorus and some Madonna @-@ esque spoken @-@ word moments , including this shout out to a lost Royal : ' You will never fall apart Diana , you 're still in our hearts / Never let you fall apart / Together we 'll dance in the dark . ' "
= = Chart performance = =
In Hungary , the song debuted on the Mahasz Single Top 10 lista chart at number nine on November 30 , 2009 but fell off the chart the next week . In the United Kingdom , " Dance in the Dark " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 89 on December 12 , 2009 , but was present on the chart for one week . In Canada , the song charted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 88 on the issue dated November 11 , 2009 . " Dance in the Dark " debuted at number 93 on the Australian Singles Chart , after it was released to Australian radio , moving to number 43 and then to a peak of number 24 in the following weeks . In France , the song entered the French Digital Singles Chart at forty and has thus far reached a peak of thirty . On the Billboard issue dated August 21 , 2010 , " Dance in the Dark " debuted on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 22 , and on the Hot Dance / Electronic Digital Songs at number nine , on the issue dated October 9 , 2010 . As of September 2010 , " Dance in the Dark " has sold 120 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States , according to Nielsen Soundscan .
= = Live performances = =
Gaga performed " Dance in the Dark " as the opening song of The Monster Ball Tour . The show began with Gaga appearing behind a giant , green laser lit video screen featuring scrim lights , in a futuristic silver jewelled jumpsuit with bulbs on it . She had matching eye makeup and wore a mask , beginning to sing " Dance in the Dark " , " while dancers dressed in white balaclavas and white jumpsuits moved around her . " The scrim resembled an electric math grid which was lifted during the performance . Jane Stevenson from Toronto Sun felt that it was not until Gaga had moved on to the next song after " Dance in the Dark " , that the Monster Ball " was alive " . In the revamped 2010 @-@ 11 shows of The Monster Ball tour , the song was once again added as the opening song of the setlist , as a part of the segment titled " City " . Gaga performed it in a set , reminiscent of New York City night scene , with flickering neon signs displaying the words " Ugly " , " Sexy " and " Liquor " , fire escape stairwells and a broken yellow taxi .
Gaga performed " Dance in the Dark " at the BRIT Awards on February 16 , 2010 , at Earls Court Exhibition Centre . The performance was inspired by the recent death of her friend , fashion designer Alexander McQueen . Initially she had planned a different version of the performance , but changed the concept at the last minute , since she wanted to pay tribute to McQueen . Hence she chose acoustic versions of her songs " Telephone " and " Dance in the Dark " . She started the performance by sitting in front of a piano and announcing " This is for Alexander McQueen . " The whole performance was low @-@ key compared to her previous ones . The stage was decked out in white , and perched on a pedestal was a statue of Gaga wearing a piano skirt and the lobster @-@ claw heels she wore in her " Bad Romance " music video . After finishing an acoustic performance of " Telephone " , she got up from her piano as the disco groove of " Dance in the Dark " was heard throughout the room . She wore a lace bodysuit and a large bouffant wig , took to a giant keytar and performed a techno rendition of the track . After the show , she posted a message on her Twitter account : " Tonight 's performance is inspired by our friend . Mask by Phillip Treacy , Sculpture by Nick Knight , Music by Lady Gaga . We miss you . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Dance in the Dark " – 4 : 49
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriter , co @-@ producer , additional instrumentation and arrangement
Fernando Garibay – songwriter , producer , instrumentation , programming and arrangement
Jonas Westling – recording and tracking engineer
Dan Parry – recording and tracking engineer
Christian Delano – recording and tracking engineer
Recorded at Metropolis Studios , London , England
Tracked at Paradise Studios , Hollywood , Los Angeles , California
Robert Orton – audio mixing at Sarm Studios , London , England
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California
Credits adapted from The Fame Monster album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Je Souhaite =
" Je Souhaite " is the twenty @-@ first and penultimate episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on May 14 , 2000 . It was written and directed by Vince Gilligan . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Je Souhaite " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , being watched by 12 @.@ 79 million people in its initial broadcast , and received mostly positive reviews from critics . The title means " I Wish " in French .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully encounter a man and his physically disabled brother who lead the agents to an indifferent genie whose willingness to grant wishes belies a deeper motive .
" Je Souhaite " was Gilligan 's directorial debut . Originally , the script was supposed to be a " stark and scary " story , but Gilligan relented and wrote a humorous tale about a genie . The episode featured several elaborate " genie effects " that were created through digital technology ; this included manipulating stock footage of former American president Richard Nixon and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini . One scene in the episode required the producers to shut down eight blocks of downtown Los Angeles .
= = Plot = =
In St. Louis , Anson Stokes , an apathetic employee at a self storage facility , is yelled at by his boss to clean out an old and dusty storage locker . To his surprise , he finds a woman wrapped in a rug . His boss comes to check on him ; while he is yelling for Anson , his mouth disappears . FBI agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) speak with the boss , Jay Gilmore , after surgery to fix his mouth , which has left him disfigured and with a speech impediment . They question Stokes ' brother Leslie at their mobile home , which inexplicably has a large boat in its tiny front yard . The woman from the storage container is in the Stokes brothers ' kitchen . Mulder and Scully search the container and find old antiques and a picture of the previous owner with the woman from the apartment .
The woman is revealed to be a genie . Stokes is angry that he wasted his first two wishes ; Stokes had previously wished for his boss to stop talking ( which caused Gilmore 's mouth to disappear ) and for a boat . The boat , however , was not placed in water and Stokes is still forced to pay taxes on it . The genie suggests that Anson should give his physically handicapped brother the ability to walk as his third wish ; but he instead wishes for the ability to be turned invisible . Anson , now invisible , runs out into the street and is killed by a truck as he crosses the road .
Scully does the autopsy on the invisible body by covering it in powder . Mulder , meanwhile , researches the owner of the container . He learns that the man in the picture was an extremely wealthy and lucky for a short period , before he died with a giant oversized penis . Mulder believes the woman in the picture is responsible for everything , and determines she is a jinniyah , or a female jinn . Mulder goes to the Stokes residence and asks Leslie to hand her over , presuming her to be kept in a box . It turns out , however , that she is not in the box , but back in the storage facility , where Mulder also finds pictures of the jinniyah next to Benito Mussolini in the 1930s and next to Richard Nixon in the 1960s , two men that had a lot of power and lost it in a bad way .
Leslie takes possession of the jinniyah and asks for his brother to be returned to life . Anson is returned , but in a decaying state , complete with injuries from the crash . Leslie 's second wish is for Anson to talk , which results in Anson screaming at the top of his lungs and telling his brother that he is cold . Back at the morgue , Scully finds the body has disappeared and Mulder suspects it is because of Leslie 's wish . They go to the Stokes residence and Anson blows the house up trying to light the stove in an attempt to warm up . Mulder questions Jenn , the jinniyah , who says she 's 500 years old . According to her , she gained her powers after wishing for great power and long life from another genie . She also says that Mulder unrolled her so he now has three wishes of his own . Mulder wishes for peace on earth and she wipes out the entire human population . With his second wish , Mulder undoes his first wish . Mulder then writes down his third wish to be very specific . However , just before making the final wish , Scully helps Mulder realize that the power of a genie should not be used to force people to be good , and so he ultimately wishes for Jenn to be free .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and directing = = =
The episode — whose title means " I wish " in French — was written and directed by long @-@ time X @-@ Files contributor Vince Gilligan . Gilligan noted that , " from the very beginning I always had the intention of directing an episode , but I kept putting it off because I figured I didn 't know enough . " Gilligan , however , soon learned directing techniques from his four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years of experience on the show . As season seven neared its end and the rumors that the season would be the show 's last , Gilligan decided to finally direct an episode . After approaching series creator Chris Carter , an episode set to be written and directed by Gilligan was green @-@ lit . Initially , Gilligan 's first script was a " stark and scary " outing for the show . However , as the deadline for the script grew closer , he relented and decided to write a more humorous episode .
In the DVD commentary for the episode , Gilligan revealed that he wrote the character of the genie , Jenn , with Janeane Garofalo in mind , but she was unavailable at the time of filming . However , he was ultimately very pleased with Paula Sorge 's performance , stating " In fact , she was even better than how I had written the character . In Paula 's audition , she came off like a world @-@ weary wise @-@ ass who was not only tough and smart , but had a heart of gold . She made it a really fun character . " The casting process to find an actress for the part took so long that an idea Gilligan had to give the character double pupils had to be scrapped when the production team ran out of time to source them . Instead , she wore contacts over her already blue eyes to make them brighter , and a blue jewel on her cheekbone .
After deciding upon the idea to use a genie , Gilligan approached Carter for feedback . Carter was impressed with the story , saying , " Vince had been playing around with somebody finding something in a storage locker . He played around with several different ideas and one day he came in with one idea of a genie and three wishes . The one thing I noticed right away was that the relationship between Mulder and the genie was very sweet . " After finalizing his script , Gilligan began to worry that he had " painted himself in a corner " : " I did not intend to write a hard episode to direct [ ... ] But before I realize it , I was blowing up a trailer , having a truck hit an invisible man , and all sorts of genie effects . [ ... ] I looked at all the people on the set [ ... ] and thought , ' Oh man , I 'm going to be exposed as an impostor . ' " Luckily , the cast and crew helped the new director ease into his position . In addition , many of the members of production noted that the work environment under Gilligan was largely stress @-@ free .
= = = Special effects = = =
The scene that features Scully applying a yellow powder to the invisible body of Anson Stokes made use of various digital techniques . The first shot of the scene used a blue head cast of Kevin Weisman , the actor who portrayed Stokes . Gillian Anderson then added the yellow dust onto the cast . The second shot used motion control in order to match the film up exactly . Anderson then attempted to match her movements so that , when the two strips of film were combined , they would create the illusion of one complete scene . Finally , various close @-@ ups of the blue head cast were filmed , with the blue color being removed via chroma keying . Paul Rabwin later called the scene " very effective . "
During the episode , Mulder shows Scully several bits of historical footage of Richard Nixon and Benito Mussolini that includes footage of the genie . In order to create the Nixon scene , the production crew used a real clip of Nixon , his wife , and daughter . The crew then cut a matte in order to replace certain parts ; Nixon 's daughter was removed to make room for the genie . Paula Sorge , who played Jenn , was then blue screened and the subsequent shot was " dirtied up " to properly age the film . The scenes were then combined .
During the scene where Mulder wanders the deserted city , the production crew had to shut down eight blocks of downtown Los Angeles . The only practical way of doing this was to shoot on a Sunday morning . Filming the scene did not go as planned : a homeless person walked right through the " perfect take , " according to producer Harry Bring . Luckily , using digital technology , the man was erased from the final cut of the scene .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Je Souhaite " first aired in the United States on May 14 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 , with a 13 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 13 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 12 @.@ 79 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on August 6 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 72 million viewers , making it the fourth most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Be careful what you wish for . "
The episode received mostly positive reviews with one detractor . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " and called it his " favorite episode of season seven " and that he wished that " it had been the series finale " for The X @-@ Files . VanDerWerff argued that the episode possessed a " warmth and tenderness " that was missing from the following two seasons , after Duchovny left the series as a full @-@ time star . He concluded that " the genius of ' Je Souhaite ' lies in how it embraces the inherent weirdness of the world this show is set in . " Rob Bricken from Topless Robot named " Je Souhaite " the second most funny X @-@ Files episode , writing , " Best line : When Scully , ever the skeptic , begins trying to rationalize her examination of an invisible body , Mulder replies with an exasperated , ' Oh ! ' It 's what most of us had been thinking for years about Scully 's refusal to acknowledge all the strange crap she had seen . "
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to
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Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is visited by a retired Federal Bureau of Investigation agent , Richard Gilbert ( Glenn Morshower ) . Gilbert hopes to headhunt Black for his new private security firm , The Trust . Their meeting abruptly ends when Black receives word that his father has died . At the funeral , Black explains the notion of death to his young daughter ; later that day , he unsuccessfully tries to contact fellow Group member Lara Means ( Kristen Cloke ) , with whom he has lost contact .
Black meets with another Group member , Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) to investigate the death of a man found surrounded by six pints of spilt blood , with no evidence of murder . A coroner determines that the man drowned when his lungs filled with his own blood , surmising the cause to be a viral infection . Everyone who came into contact with the corpse is isolated in quarantine , waiting to be tested for exposure to any pathogen . While quarantined , Black accuses Watts and the Millennium Group of knowing more about the virus than is apparent . Watts simply responds by quoting the Bible 's Book of Revelation . The pair are examined by mysterious doctors in protective suits ; shortly afterwards , they are cleared to leave quarantine . Black contacts Gilbert and expresses his wish to leave the Millennium Group and join The Trust — however , he first wishes to " rescue " his friends within the Group .
Elsewhere , a family sit down to dinner together , before spontaneously collapsing and bleeding profusely ; further victims of the virus . At home , Black learns that his daughter has been having vivid nightmares about the end of the world , in which she and her parents are isolated in a woodland cabin . Black admits to his wife that he has come to accept the Group as a cult , and wishes to leave . He arranges to see a doctor , wishing to be tested but wanting the results to remain secret .
Gilbert surveils Watts , finding that the latter has been in contact with Means . Black travels to where Means is living , where he remotely observes a cult @-@ like ceremony in which Means is ritually inducted into the Group . He contacts Watts , divulging the results of his tests — they were injected with a vaccine while quarantined . Black warns Watts that the Group is dangerous ; Watts neither confirms nor denies this , but predicts the arrival of an earthquake , urging Black that should this prediction come to pass , he should accept full membership of the Group . That night , Black answers a telephone call from Means , who tells him that the Group mean no harm . The line suddenly cuts , and the tremors of an earthquake begin just as Watts had predicted . Black moves through his home , noticing that his pet bird is dead in its cage , covered in blood .
= = Production = =
" The Fourth Horseman " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong . The duo would pen a total of fifteen episodes throughout the series ' run . The pair had also taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers for the season . The episode was the second of three to be directed by Dwight Little , who had previously helmed " Midnight of the Century " , and would return in the third season for " Borrowed Time " .
Written simultaneously with the concluding episode , " The Time Is Now " , the episode 's script went through several different versions before a final plot was decided upon , as Morgan and Wong believed the series would not be renewed for a third season and wished to write a suitable ending . The idea of depicting an apocalyptic scenario as being the result of a virus came from Morgan 's research into possible end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ world scenarios , and was influenced by the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the United Kingdom . The build @-@ up to , and depiction of , the viral outbreak was seen by the writing staff as conclusive proof that the series would be cancelled , leading to several writers beginning to look for work on other projects while still officially under contract to work on Millennium .
Actress Brittany Tiplady , who portrays Black 's young daughter Jordan , has cited " The Fourth Horseman " as one of the episodes which she considered to have caused her to grow as an actress . Tiplady described her role in the episode as not being " just the cute Jordan Black with easy scenes and lots of giggling " , and added that the increased depth her character was given served to heighten her interest in acting .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Fourth Horseman " was first broadcast on the Fox network on May 8 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 4 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 4 @.@ 61 million households , and left the episode the eighty @-@ fifth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
" The Time Is Now " received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode an " A " . VanDerWerff felt that the two @-@ part finale was " at once haunting and terrifying " , finding both " The Fourth Horseman " and " The Time Is Now " to be Millennium 's most frightening instalments . VanDerWerff noted that the episode 's plotting and symbolism were not always subtle , but felt that this directness suited the series ' tone . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 5 out of 5 . Gibron felt that both Cloke and O 'Quinn gave particularly strong performances in both this episode and its follow @-@ up . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " The Fourth Horseman " five stars out of five .
= Åndalsnes Station =
Åndalsnes Station ( Norwegian : Åndalsnes stasjon ) is a railway station in the town of Åndalsnes , the administrative centre of Rauma Municipality in Møre og Romsdal county , Norway . It has been the terminal station of the Raumabanen railway line since the line was extended to Åndalsnes on 30 November 1924 . The station was designed by Gudmund Hoel and is located on reclaimed land along the Isfjorden . To get the line to the station , a cutting had to be built . In addition to a station building , the station has an engine shed and a bus station ; the station building is next to a cruise ship port . It serves four passenger trains per day , and has correspondence by bus onwards to the nearby towns of Molde and Ålesund . The station is manned and features a chapel within a retired train carriage .
= = History = =
The area where the station is located is built on reclaimed land , as the Åndalsnes side of Isfjorden is sufficiently shallow . The earthwork for the reclaiming was taken from a cutting built to allow the line access to Åndalsnes . The earthwork was transported using temporary 90 and 60 centimetres ( 35 and 24 in ) gauge railways . In 1912 , tests were done in the area of the cutting to establish if it should be a cutting or a tunnel . Work with excavation started in 1915 , with the cutting up to 16 meters ( 52 ft ) deep . It was necessary to move one house to make room for the line through Åndalsnes . The station building was built in 1923 and 1924 , and had an area of 316 @.@ 2 square meters ( 3 @,@ 404 sq ft ) . It cost NOK 254 @,@ 836 to build . Both the main station building and the auxiliary buildings were designed by Gudmund Hoel of NSB Arkitektkontor , the in @-@ house architecture firm for the Norwegian State Railways , who were responsible for construction .
The station also received an engine shed in natural stone brick . Built from mid to late 1924 , it cost NOK 107 @,@ 000 . The classic style brick buildings on the station stuck out from the other station buildings on the Rauma Line . To secure a sufficient water supply for the steam locomotives , a new water pool needed to be built at Bjørmosen . By damming up a pool , it was possible to supply 120 cubic meters ( 4 @,@ 200 cu ft ) of water per day to the station . This was built by NSB , but was then given free of charge to the municipality who operated it , in exchange for the railway receiving the allocated amount of water free for all eternity . Because of delayed delivery of parts from Germany , the water system was not opened until 10 February 1925 . On 29 November 1924 , Norsk Spisevognselskap established a restaurant in the station . As one of the larger railway station restaurants in the country , it included an outdoor patio . Åndalsnes Station was opened on 30 November 1924 , when the Rauma Line was extended from Verma Station .
The train chapel was opened on 10 June 2003 . On 8 June 2011 , a renovation project for the station was completed . This included better transfer between trains and buses and cruise ships , a new park , and raising of the platforms . Including upgrades to the track , the upgrades cost NOK 19 million . The station building has received an elevator and a renovation of the lobby . The station is considered worthy of preservation and the renovation was done in cooperation with the preservation authorities .
= = Facilities = =
Åndalsnes Station is located in downtown Åndalsnes at 4 meters ( 13 ft ) above mean sea level and is 457 kilometers ( 284 mi ) from Oslo Central Station . The station building is owned by Rom Eiendom , a subsidiary of NSB , while the infrastructure is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . Åndalsnes Station has a manned ticket sale and has a waiting room , lockers , a kiosk , a bicycle rack and parking for 15 cars . It is located next to the cruise ship terminal . The part of the station building not used for train operations is rented out to businesses . At the station is a train chapel , a retired B3 carriage which has been converted to a chapel . It has kept the original seating of the train , but there is incorporated an altar . It is run as a cooperation between the Church of Norway , the Salvation Army and the Pentecostal Church .
= = Service = =
The Norwegian State Railways operates passenger train services on the line . Using Class 93 trains , they operate four services in each direction per day . From the station , there is correspondence with buses to the nearby towns of Ålesund and Molde . During the summer , from June through August , NSB operates the trains as tourists trains , limiting the service from Åndalsnes to Bjorli .
= RAAF area commands =
Area commands were the major operational and administrative formations of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) between 1940 and 1954 . Established in response to the outbreak of World War II , they underpinned the Air Force 's geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control system for the duration of the conflict and into the early years of the Cold War , until being superseded by a functional control system made up of Home , Training , and Maintenance Commands .
The area commands and their responsibilities evolved over time according to changing circumstances . The RAAF established four commands to begin with in 1940 – 41 : Southern Area , Central Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . They oversaw almost all operations , training and maintenance within their boundaries . A concession to functional control occurred in mid @-@ 1941 , when the Air Force formed two groups that assumed the training role of the southern and eastern states ; Central Area itself was disbanded and most of its units taken over by Northern and Southern Areas , and the newly formed No. 2 ( Training ) Group . The area structure was further revised in 1942 , following the outbreak of the Pacific War . Northern Area was split into North @-@ Eastern Area and North @-@ Western Area , and a new command , Eastern Area , was created , making a total of five commands . The same year , the RAAF formed two functional groups that assumed the maintenance role of the area commands ; the latter focussed on operations until the end of hostilities . A new area command covering RAAF units in New Guinea , Northern Command , was formed in 1944 and dissolved soon after the war .
By the early 1950s , most operational units were based within Eastern Area Command , most Air Force training was controlled by Southern Area Command , and maintenance was the responsibility of Maintenance Group . The area command structure was no longer considered appropriate for delivering the concentration of force necessary for combat , and the Federal government decided to replace it with a functional command @-@ and @-@ control system . In 1953 , Eastern Area Command was re @-@ formed as Home Command ( controlling operations ) , Southern Area Command was re @-@ formed as Training Command , and Maintenance Group was re @-@ designated Maintenance Command . The three remaining area commands ceded their authority to the functional commands in 1954 , and were disbanded by the end of 1956 .
= = History = =
= = = Origin and purpose = = =
On the eve of World War II , the RAAF comprised twelve flying squadrons , two aircraft depots and a flying school , situated at five air bases . An air force of this size did not require large @-@ scale operational formations such as wings , groups , or commands , as all units could be directly administered and controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . With the onset of war in September 1939 , the Australian Air Board decided to implement a decentralised form of command , commensurate with an envisioned increase in manpower and units . The RAAF 's initial move in this direction was to create Nos. 1 and 2 Groups in November 1939 , the former based in Melbourne to control units in Victoria , and the latter in Sydney to control units in New South Wales .
In January 1940 , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal Jimmy Goble , proposed organising the RAAF along functional lines with Home Defence , Training , and Maintenance Commands , but the Federal government did not take up this plan . Goble was replaced in February by a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) officer , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , who focussed on rapid expansion of the RAAF to meet the needs of the Empire Air Training Scheme and believed that Australia 's huge land mass would make a functional command system unwieldy . He proceeded to reorganise the Air Force into a geographically based " area " system . The roles of each area command were the same : air defence ; protection of adjacent sea lanes ; and aerial reconnaissance . Each area was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) who was responsible for the administration and operations of all bases and units within his boundary . Exceptions to this policy included aircraft depots and the Central Flying School that trained flying instructors , as their range of responsibilities crossed area boundaries and therefore came under the direct control of RAAF Headquarters . The static area system was primarily defensive in nature , but considered well suited to training new pilots , who could be instructed at flying schools and mentored through their initial squadron postings , all within the same geographical region .
= = = Evolution and control = = =
The RAAF planned four area commands initially : Southern Area , covering all units in Victoria , Tasmania , South Australia and the southern Riverina district of New South Wales ; Central Area , covering units in New South Wales except southern Riverina and the north of the state ; Western Area , covering units in Western Australia ; and Northern Area , covering units in northern New South Wales , Queensland , Northern Territory and Papua . The first two commands established , in March 1940 , were Southern Area , which essentially took over the role and headquarters of No. 1 Group in Melbourne , and Central Area , which evolved from No. 2 Group in Sydney . Western and Northern Areas eventually followed in January and May 1941 , respectively ; pending their formation , units in Queensland were temporarily controlled by Central Area Command , and those in Western Australia , Northern Territory and Papua came under the direct control of RAAF Headquarters .
By mid @-@ 1941 , RAAF Headquarters had determined to form training units in the southern and eastern states into semi @-@ geographical , semi @-@ functional groups separate to the area commands . This led to the establishment in August of No. 1 ( Training ) Group in Melbourne , covering Victoria , Tasmania and South Australia , and No. 2 ( Training ) Group in Sydney , covering New South Wales and Queensland . Central Area was then disbanded and its responsibilities " divided as convenient " , according to the official history of the war , between Southern Area , Northern Area , and No. 2 ( Training ) Group . Western Area retained responsibility for training , as well as operations and maintenance , within its boundaries .
With the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 , Northern Area was split the following month into North @-@ Western and North @-@ Eastern Areas , to counter distinct Japanese threats to Northern Australia and New Guinea , respectively . Southern Area was also considered appropriate for subdivision owing to its size , so Eastern Area was established in May 1942 to take over control of operational units in New South Wales and southern Queensland . These arrangements stabilised the number of area commands at five . Of necessity , the two northerly commands were primarily responsible for bombing and air defence , while the other commands focussed on maritime patrol and anti @-@ submarine warfare . Further convergence of command @-@ and @-@ control responsibilities along semi @-@ geographical , semi @-@ functional lines took place between June and September 1942 , when authority over maintenance units was transferred from the area commands to the newly formed No. 4 ( Maintenance ) Group in Melbourne and No. 5 ( Maintenance ) Group in Sydney . Some finetuning of the area boundaries occurred in August : as well as the Northern Territory , North @-@ Western Area was given responsibility for the portion of Western Australia north of a line drawn south @-@ east from Yampi Sound to the Northern Territory border , and part of Queensland adjacent to the Barkly Tableland .
Until 1942 , RAAF Headquarters exercised complete operational and administrative control over the area commands . In April that year , Allied Air Forces ( AAF ) Headquarters was established under General Douglas Macarthur 's South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , with operational authority over all RAAF combat infrastructure , including the area commands . In September the new AAF commander , Major General George Kenney , formed the majority of his US flying units into Fifth Air Force , and most of their Australian counterparts into RAAF Command , led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock . Bostock exercised control of Australian air operations through the area commands , although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold overarching administrative authority , meaning that Bostock and his area commanders were ultimately dependent on the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones in Melbourne , for supplies and equipment .
To help overcome the static nature of the area command system , in September 1942 the RAAF created a large mobile formation known as No. 9 ( Operational ) Group , a self @-@ contained tactical air force that could keep pace with Allied advances north through New Guinea and towards Japan . By April 1944 , No. 9 Group had become a garrison force in New Guinea and lost its mobile function to No. 10 ( Operational ) Group ( later the Australian First Tactical Air Force ) . No. 9 Group was therefore re @-@ formed as a dedicated area command covering air units in New Guinea ; Bostock had recommended calling it Northern Area , before RAAF Headquarters settled on Northern Command . In August that year , RAAF Headquarters proposed to disband the training and maintenance groups formed in 1941 – 42 and return their functions to the control of the area commands , but no action was taken . The same month , the Air Board recommended carving a new Central Area Command out of Eastern Area , which it considered too large to be controlled by one headquarters . This proposed Central Area would have been responsible for units in southern Queensland but the War Cabinet deferred its decision , as it had when a similar concept was raised in October 1943 .
Near the end of the war , No. 11 Group was formed as a " static command " headquartered on Morotai in the Dutch East Indies , using elements of Northern Command and the First Tactical Air Force ; this freed the latter from garrison duties following the liberation of Borneo . In recommending the Morotai garrison 's establishment , Bostock explained that while it shared the static characteristic of an area command , it differed in that the area commands were part of the permanent structure of the Air Force and situated within the borders of Australia 's mainland and overseas territories , whereas the new formation was a temporary wartime measure , headquartered on foreign territory .
= = = Post @-@ war organisation and supersession = = =
Following the end of the Pacific War in August 1945 , SWPA was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne again assumed full control of all its operational formations , including the area commands . Nos. 1 and 2 ( Training ) Groups , and No. 5 ( Maintenance ) Group in Sydney , were disbanded between January and March 1946 . Northern Command , having been re @-@ designated Northern Area in December 1945 , was disbanded in February 1947 . The other area commands continued to function with essentially the same boundaries as during the war , except that North @-@ Western Area no longer covered the Dutch East Indies .
By the 1950s , a geographically based area command system was considered outmoded , and calls came to replace it with a system based on function . With hindsight , the area commands were judged adequate for the organisation of the Air Force in the early years of World War II , but not for the rapid response times and concentration of force necessary to properly prepare for attacks on Australia following the start of the Pacific War , nor for conducting offensive operations from 1943 onwards . Air Marshal Jones , who had retained his position as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) following the war , resisted pressure to replace the area structure . He was persuaded by his staff to set up a conference to discuss the possibility of change , but participation by the CAS , who had been satisfied with the wartime structure , and the area commanders themselves , whose positions were on the line , was half @-@ hearted at best . Jones did suggest reducing the number of area commands to three ( Northern Area to cover Queensland and the Northern Territory , Eastern Area to cover New South Wales , and Southern Area to encompass Western Australia , South Australia , Victoria and Tasmania ) as part of a much larger proposal to restructure the post @-@ war RAAF , but this never eventuated .
The Federal government retired Jones in 1952 and replaced him with an RAF officer , Air Marshal Donald Hardman , who was well versed in the functional command system employed in Britain . Hardman believed that restructuring the Air Force would remove inefficiencies and duplication , and permit commanders greater autonomy , allowing more effective concentration of strength in a potential combat situation . He declared that the RAAF was " the one force that could quickly strike for Australia 's and the Commonwealth 's defence in South East Asia " . To this end he identified three major functions : operations , covering home defence and mobile task forces ; training , including all permanent , reserve and national service recruitment and instruction ; and maintenance , responsible for supply , equipment and other logistical services . The three functions were duly constituted in October 1953 as Home , Training , and Maintenance Commands , respectively .
Home Command was re @-@ formed from the existing Eastern Area Command , which was considered a de facto operational organisation owing to the preponderance of such forces within its boundaries . Training Command was re @-@ formed from Southern Area Command , as it was already the hub of training services , controlling those in New South Wales and Queensland as well as Victoria and South Australia . Maintenance Command was re @-@ formed from the extant Maintenance Group headquarters in Melbourne . The transition to a functional system was completed in February 1954 , when the three new commands assumed control of all operations , training and maintenance from Western , North @-@ Western , and North @-@ Eastern Area Commands . These three area commands remained in existence , but only as " remote control points " for Home Command . North @-@ Western Area Command was disbanded in June 1955 , Western Area Command in November 1956 , and North @-@ Eastern Area Command in December 1956 .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The functional commands established in 1953 – 54 were revised in 1959 . Home Command was renamed Operational Command , and Training and Maintenance Commands merged to become Support Command . Operational Command was renamed Air Command in 1987 , and three years later Support Command split into Logistics Command and Training Command . In 1997 , logistics management became the responsibility of Support Command ( Air Force ) , the RAAF component of the Defence @-@ wide Support Command Australia ( later subsumed by the Defence Materiel Organisation ) . Training Command was re @-@ formed as Air Force Training Group , a force element group under Air Command , in 2006 . Air Command thus became the sole command @-@ level organisation in the RAAF .
= = Summary of area commands formed = =
The RAAF raised eight area commands over the course of World War II , and five of them continued to operate into the 1950s :
= Bart the Fink =
" Bart the Fink " is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 11 , 1996 . In this episode , Bart ruins Krusty the Clown 's career by accidentally exposing Krusty as one of the biggest tax cheats in American history . Driven to despair , Krusty fakes a suicide in order to start life anew as a sailor ; feeling guilty for what he did , Bart convinces Krusty to become a television clown again .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and Bob Kushell , and directed by Jim Reardon . American actor Bob Newhart guest starred in it as himself . The episode 's title is a play on the 1991 film Barton Fink . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews by television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 , and was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
After the death of great aunt Hortense , the Simpson family attends a will reading . Each member of the family discovers they will receive $ 100 to do with as they like , but only after spending the night in a haunted house ( which is surprisingly pleasant ) . Though Bart wishes to buy a hundred tacos from the TacoMat and Lisa to contribute to the Corporation for Public Broadcasting , Marge has them open bank accounts at the Bank of Springfield . Bart is excited with his new checking account , and begins writing checks for his friends .
Bart attempts to get Krusty the Clown 's autograph , but Krusty is having a new sandwich named after him and has to leave . Just before he does , Bart slips a check for twenty @-@ five cents into Krusty 's pocket , figuring that he will receive a copy of it endorsed with Krusty 's signature with his monthly bank statement . However , when Bart receives the check , it is endorsed with a stamp ( " Cayman Islands Off @-@ Shore Holding Corporation " ) instead of a signature ; dismayed , Bart takes the check back to the bank so that they can force Krusty to sign it . The bank teller informs Bart that stamping the back of a check is perfectly legal , but becomes suspicious after analyzing the stamp and excuses himself to make a phone call . Four minutes later , Krusty is arrested for tax evasion , though Bart is not made aware of this for several hours .
The IRS takes control of Krusty 's assets and his show ( renaming it Herschel Krustofsky 's Clown @-@ Related Entertainment Show and turning Krusty Burger into IRS Burger , with meals named with tax @-@ related terms and a six @-@ to @-@ eight @-@ week wait to the customers , who apparently must report their income with every order as Homer asked Marge how much she lost on gambling ) , reducing his lifestyle to that of an average citizen . One evening , as the town watches , a depressed Krusty pilots his airplane into a mountainside . He is later pronounced dead .
A memorial service is held for Krusty at which Bob Newhart offers condolences . While everyone assumes that Krusty is dead , Bart believes otherwise when he begins to see a Krusty look @-@ alike all over town . With Lisa 's help , he soon discovers that Krusty has gone into hiding under the disguise of Rory B. Bellows , a grizzled old longshore worker . With Krusty leaving on a boat heading for the ocean , they supposedly convince him to return to his former life . However , Krusty had insured the life of his pseudonym and rigged his boat with explosives ; returning to shore with Bart and Lisa , " Bellows " ' s boat explodes , allowing Krusty to collect the insurance cash and end his tax woes .
= = Production = =
" Bart the Fink " was written by John Swartzwelder , but Bob Kushell came up with the idea for it . The episode was based on the " big tax problems " that American country singer Willie Nelson had at the time . The idea of Krusty faking his own death was an idea the production team had wanted to do for a long time , and it was inspired by the rumored fake death of American actor Andy Kaufman . Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , the show runners of The Simpsons ' seventh and eighth season , thought the beginning of the episode in which the family spends the night in a haunted house would have been " the cruddiest beginning of any cruddy thing " , if they had not added the twist that the family did not encounter any ghosts in the house and had their " best night 's sleep ever " . The twist was Oakley 's idea and he thought it " worked out great " .
The episode was directed by Jim Reardon . Consultant David Mirkin suggested that the animators should add " some funny things " to the episode to " spice it up " , such as the gorilla suit that one of the bank employees wear . After the audio recording of the script by the Simpsons cast , the episode ended up too long . Weinstein said one of the reasons for it was that Krusty talks very slowly , which drags out the time . They were only allowed to send twenty minutes worth of audio to Film Roman for them to animate , but the audio track for the episode was twenty @-@ six minutes long . American actor Bob Newhart guest starred in the episode as himself . Oakley said Newhart also talked very slowly and they had to cut out more than half of his recorded lines . Many of the writers were big fans of Newhart and everybody wanted to see him record his lines . Oakley and Weinstein decided to shut down production so that the whole writing staff could go to the recording studio . The episode was recorded in a big room so everyone had to be really quiet . It took Newhart two and a half minutes to record his first take , and , as no one was allowed to laugh during that time , there was an " explosion " of laughter in the room when he finished . Parts of Phil Hartman 's appearance as Troy McClure were also cut from the episode due to time limits .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title is a play on the 1991 film Barton Fink . After losing his show and money , Krusty takes the bus home . An advertisement on the bus reads " Are you missing Mad About You right now ? NBC Must See TV Sundays at 8 p.m. " Krusty 's airplane , " I 'm @-@ on @-@ a @-@ rolla @-@ Gay " , that he uses to stage his death is a spoof of the Enola Gay B @-@ 29 airplane that dropped the atomic bomb on the Japanese city Hiroshima in World War II . Krusty 's illegal Cayman @-@ Islands " accountant " is modeled on the actor Sydney Greenstreet , particularly on his role in the film Casablanca , considering his line " Oh , it 's too hot today ! " Swartzwelder is seen attending Krusty 's funeral , who appears with a Kermit the Frog puppet on his hand .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bart the Fink " finished sixty @-@ fourth in the ratings for the week of February 5 – 11 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 . The episode was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Melrose Place , The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 and Married ... With Children .
" Bart the Fink " received generally positive reviews from television critics . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson called the episode a " winner " and praised it for the " one hundred tacos for $ 100 " joke . Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict said that the best part of the episode is when Homer comforts Bart after Krusty 's death by assuring him that he , too , could wake up dead tomorrow . In the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Unofficial " Simpsons " Guide by Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , they comment that " Bart the Fink " is " very fast and very good , with plenty of gags and effective set pieces . Bob Newhart 's eulogy to Krusty is especially memorable . " The authors of Media , home , and family , Stewart Hoover , Lynn Schofield Clark , and Diane Alters wrote that " Krusty ultimately expertly proves the truth about the IRS : ruining the financial and emotional life of many [ people ] . " William Irwin , author of The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer also praised the use of IRS in " Bart the Fink " to convey the message that " none of us can escape the unavoidable taxes " . In addition , Chris Turner claims " Bart the Fink " offers a " pointed answer to the question of why such a manifestly miserable world of phonies and cheats would be so enticing to many . "
In July 2014 , Channel 4 accidentally aired the scene where Krusty ( as Rory ) says " bastard " . The station apologized to Ofcom for airing the scene before 9pm .
= Future Husband =
" Future Husband " is the fourteenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was directed by series producer Don Scardino , and written by Jon Haller and Tracey Wigfield . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on March 11 , 2010 . Elizabeth Banks , James Rebhorn , and Michael Sheen guest star in the episode , and there are cameo appearances by Jack Welch and Brian Williams .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) finds a mysterious number in her phone under the name " Future Husband . " At the same time , Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for General Electric ( GE ) , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is informed that a cable company is rumored to buy out NBC . Elsewhere , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) stages a one @-@ man show in an attempt to win a Tony Award , as part of his EGOT quest . The episode makes reference to the real @-@ life acquisition of NBC Universal by the cable company network Comcast .
" Future Husband " received generally mixed reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 894 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) comes across an unrecognized contact in her cellphone listed as " future husband " , and realizes that it must be a man she met at her dental appointment with Dr. Kaplan ( James Rebhorn ) , while awakening from anesthesia in the recovery room after root canal surgery ( seen in the previous episode ) . She calls the number , pretends to be the Jamaican dental receptionist , and asks the man to come back to see Dr. Kaplan . At the appointed time , she returns to the dentist 's office , but does not recognize anyone there ; so she calls the number again . When the man ( Michael Sheen ) answers , she sees him and hangs up . Unbeknownst to Liz , her number is already listed in his cellphone under " future wife " . He calls her back upon seeing she called , and they arrange a date ; she learns that his name is Wesley . On their date , the two fail to hit it off : they find each other annoying and share many flaws but few interests . Later , at the 30 Rock studios , Liz discovers that Wesley was the person who retrieved NBC page Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) wallet , after Kenneth threw it out of a window earlier . Because of this coincidence , Liz and Wesley decide to go on another date .
At the same time , Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) aspirations of becoming CEO of General Electric ( GE ) comes to a halt when his girlfriend and CNBC host , Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) informs him that the Philadelphia @-@ based cable company Kabletown is rumored to be buying NBC . Jack — who serves as Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for GE — insists that no sale is pending , as he believes that his mentor and GE CEO Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) would not agree to such a deal . As rumors persist , Jack panics , but things get worse when he learns from former GE chairman Jack Welch ( as himself ) that Don Geiss has been dead for weeks and that the company negotiated a takeover with Kabletown . Welch kept Geiss 's death a secret while negotiations took place . Liz comforts Jack when he admits his dream of running GE is crushed . The next day , on Avery Jessup 's program , The Hot Box , Jessup confirms that the buyout has gone forward , praising Jack Donaghy as a wise choice to lead Kabletown 's new acquisition . Jack , who is watching the program , is cheered by this .
Elsewhere , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) performs a one @-@ man show on Broadway so that he can be considered for a Tony Award as part of his EGOT quest . His show receives positive reviews , and Tracy is convinced that he will win a Tony , but Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) tells him that in order for him to qualify for the award he must do his one @-@ man show eight times , which worries Tracy , as he is unable to perform anything the same way twice . Despite initial reluctance to help him , Jenna eventually agrees to coach Tracy in the principles of acting , but this leads nowhere , resulting in the two arguing and Jenna telling him he can go on his show and read the phone book for all she cares . At the end of the episode , Tracy does read the phone book at his show , making Jenna very proud of him , and inexplicably drawing high praise from the audience .
= = Production = =
" Future Husband " was directed by series producer Don Scardino , and was written by Jon Haller and Tracey Wigfield . This was Haller 's first penned script , and was Wigfield 's second writing credit , having co @-@ written " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " for the show 's third season . " Future Husband " originally aired in the United States on March 11 , 2010 , on NBC as the fourteenth episode of the fourth season . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on December 17 , 2009 .
In December 2009 , it was confirmed that actress Elizabeth Banks would guest star on the show , and in this episode , she played right @-@ wing CNBC anchor Avery Jessup , and love interest to the Jack Donaghy character , played by Alec Baldwin . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Banks revealed that she approached the 30 Rock staff about making an appearance as she is a fan of the show . " I definitely put feelers out , like , ' I would love to be on your show . ' And they did it . They made it happen ! I 'm a huge fan , so this is a dream come true . " She also revealed that she had no intention on becoming a series regular , explaining that she has been having " too much fun " making movies to commit to a television show full @-@ time . Banks made her debut as Avery Jessup in the previous episode " Anna Howard Shaw Day " . In January 2010 , it was announced that actor Michael Sheen would guest star as a love interest for Liz Lemon , played by series creator Tina Fey . In this episode , he made his debut as the character Wesley . Liz and Wesley 's story arc continued in the episodes " Don Geiss , America and Hope " , " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " , and " I Do Do " .
In " Future Husband " , Jack learns from former GE chairman Jack Welch that current GE CEO Don Geiss , played by Rip Torn , has died . Torn did not make any appearances in this season , marking his last role as Don Geiss in the episode " Larry King " that aired on February 26 , 2009 , during the third season . Television writer Bob Sassone of TV Squad wondered if Torn was written out of the series due to an alcohol @-@ related incident that occurred to Torn in January 2010 . Welch appeared as himself here and was chairman and CEO of GE from 1981 until 2001 . Actor James Rebhorn , best known for his current role as a special agent in the USA Network crime comedy @-@ drama White Collar , made his debut as the character Dr. Kaplan , Liz and Wesley 's dentist . This was news anchor Brian Williams ' third guest appearance as himself . In the scene in which he appears , Williams engages in smack talk in the CNBC offices , telling Avery and her colleagues that his news program NBC Nightly News " rules " .
The storyline in " Future Husband " involving the fictitious Philadelphia @-@ based cable company Kabletown purchasing NBC is based on the acquisition of NBC Universal by Comcast in November 2009 . After winning her fourth Screen Actors Guild Award as her television character at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards in January 2010 , Fey was asked whether or not 30 Rock would make reference to the Comcast acquisition to which she said that it would be dealt with . " The sale of NBC to another company is integral to our show and it will be hard for Jack . " In April 2010 , the NBC network created a website for Kabletown . When asked by a contributor from The Philadelphia Inquirer why the characters on 30 Rock refer to the network 's new owner as " Kabletown , with a K " , co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock revealed that the reason for this was that the staff writers came up with the name " Cabletown " , however , they later learned that there was a real company with a similar name , so NBC 's legal team department " wanted to emphasize the difference , and after a while , everyone just liked the sound of it . "
This was the second time the series referenced the Tracy Jordan character trying to get his EGOT . This plot first began in the December 3 , 2009 , episode " Dealbreakers Talk Show " in which Tracy finds a diamond encrusted " EGOT " necklace and sets a new life goal to achieve EGOT status by winning four major awards : an Emmy , a Grammy , an Oscar , and a Tony . In the episode , Tracy performs a one @-@ man show so that he can get a Tony Award .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of this episode , Liz asks where Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) is , as he is one of her staff writers and she wants him to write some Winter Olympics sketches . This results in Liz breaking the fourth wall — a term used when a character in a television show , film or on stage directly addresses the audience — where she mouths speech that is unintelligible , while her voice is heard saying " Lindsey Vonn ! " who won the " gold medal for skiing ! "
Kenneth references the 1987 thriller film Fatal Attraction after encouraging Liz to meet with her " future husband " and deeming it a romantic situation , saying " Just like that movie I only saw the first 10 minutes of , Fatal Attraction ! " . The movie is about a married man who has a weekend affair with a woman who refuses to end the affair as she becomes obsessed with him . In addition , Jane Krakowski appeared in Fatal Attraction . Kenneth later has a dream that seems to be influenced by the movie The Shining , telling Jenna , " Late at night these two little twin girls told me they wanted to play with me forever . " He also references the story of Lot and his daughters from the Bible , and a vignette from Saved by the Bell involving characters Samuel " Screech " Powers and Lisa Turtle .
Wondering why he has not seen any of his GE colleagues , Jack 's office assistant Jonathan ( Maulik Pancholy ) suggests that maybe they are the last people on Earth , as he references the 2007 film I Am Legend , " You 're Will Smith and I 'm the dog ! " In I Am Legend , Will Smith 's character is the last healthy human in New York City and lives with his dog . In order to figure out what is going on , Jonathan does investigative work and downloads Don Geiss 's schedule while self @-@ narrating to the theme music of Mission Impossible ( 1996 ) . After Kenneth convinces her to call her " future husband " , Liz , who speaks in a Jamaican accent as Dr. Kaplan 's dental assistants are Jamaican women , tells the man he needs to come into Dr. Kaplan 's office for some work , and Liz ends the call with " Cool Runnings , man ! Bobsled ! " This is a reference to the comedy movie Cool Runnings ( 1993 ) in which the Jamaica national bobsled team 's made their debut the 1988 Winter Olympics . In another scene , Liz 's ringtone is the song " Fuck the Pain Away " by Canadian electronic musician Peaches .
While giving elocution lessons to Tracy , Jenna quotes the song " I Am So Proud " from Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Mikado when she asks him to repeat the phrase , " To sit in solemn silence in a dull dark dock / Awaiting the sensation of a short , sharp , shock . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Future Husband " was watched by 5 @.@ 894 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that 2 @.@ 9 percent of all people in that group , and 8 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . During its original broadcast , " Future Husband " ranked fourth in its 9 : 30 p.m. slot , behind CBS 's crime drama CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , ABC 's medical series Grey 's Anatomy , and Fox 's reality show Kitchen Nightmares .
Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club was not positive in his review , describing " Future Husband " as the " laziest " episode of the fourth season . Nonetheless , Pierce responded favorably to Tracy 's one @-@ man show , calling it the " shortest and best of the plots " and " even manages to get a laugh out of that old ' I 'd watch him reading the phone book ' chestnut . " Sean Gandert for Paste magazine said in his recap that part of this episode was disappointing , writing that the main plot was not " too awful , [ it was ] just comparatively dull . " Though , he was positive towards the show 's interpretation of the NBC and Kabletown storyline , saying it was a nice " little riff " on the actual merger between NBC and Comcast . Gandert was appreciative to Elizabeth Banks ' small part , and hoped to see her in future episodes . Entertainment Weekly contributor Margaret Lyons opined it was a " strange " episode of 30 Rock , and concluded " It 's not that ' Future Husband ' was radically terrible or anything , but wow , that episode just did not click into place . " Bob Sassone of TV Squad did not enjoy Jenna 's involvement in Tracy 's story , and that overall he did not find their antics " too funny " . Nonetheless , Sassone enjoyed Brian Williams ' cameo .
IGN contributor Robert Canning wrote that the NBC / Comcast reference here " wasn 't exactly a well of laughs , but Baldwin 's Donaghy kept the story entertaining enough to want to follow it . " He enjoyed Banks ' appearance , noting that her standout moment came when Avery and Jack argued over the direction of NBC " and for that brief moment Banks stole the show from Baldwin . " In conclusion , Canning gave it an 8 out of 10 rating . James Poniewozik of Time magazine said that the main story " played more like a subplot even though it gave the episode its title " . He added that there were some fine moments , and that overall Liz and Jack 's plots " have the potential to give the show some interesting forward movement " . Los Angeles Times contributor Meredith Blake felt that Michael Sheen was " underused " in his role , and observed that Jack and Avery 's relationship showcased here seemed " remarkably convincing . " Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that the episode 's storytelling was " better than it 's been in recent weeks " , however , was not complimentary towards Liz meeting Sheen 's Wesley , as he felt that their plot fell flat .
= Armando Galarraga 's near @-@ perfect game =
In a Major League Baseball game played on June 2 , 2010 , at Comerica Park in Detroit , Michigan , Detroit Tigers pitcher Armando Galarraga nearly became the 21st pitcher in Major League history to throw a perfect game . Facing the Cleveland Indians , Galarraga retired the first 26 batters he faced , but his bid for a perfect game was ended one out short when first base umpire Jim Joyce incorrectly ruled that Indians batter Jason Donald reached first base safely on a ground ball . Galarraga instead finished with a one @-@ hit shutout in a 3 – 0 victory . He faced 28 batters and threw 88 pitches ( 67 strikes and 21 balls ) , striking out three . The game is sometimes referred to as the " 28 @-@ out perfect game " , the " Imperfect Game " , or simply the " Galarraga game " .
Joyce was tearful and apologetic to Galarraga after the game upon realizing he had made the incorrect call . Galarraga was forgiving and understanding of the mistake . Without irony , he told reporters after the game , " Nobody 's perfect . " Galarraga was the most prominent of the many people throughout Major League Baseball who subsequently voiced their support for Joyce . Unusually , the umpire met with both the pitcher and the media after the game to apologize for his error . The sportsmanship demonstrated by Galarraga and Joyce earned them both widespread praise for their handling of the incident .
= = Game summary = =
Detroit scored a run on a second @-@ inning solo home run by Miguel Cabrera . Two more runs scored in the eighth inning when Austin Jackson singled , then advanced on an infield hit by Johnny Damon . Jackson and Damon both then scored on a single by Magglio Ordóñez and a throwing error by Shin @-@ Soo Choo .
In the top of the ninth inning , Tigers ' center fielder Austin Jackson executed an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder catch on the run to retire Cleveland 's Mark Grudzielanek for the first out and preserve the perfect game , a play that has been compared to DeWayne Wise 's leaping catch at the wall in the ninth @-@ inning that preserved Mark Buehrle 's perfect game in 2009 . Mike Redmond grounded out to make the second out of the inning . Jason Donald then hit a soft ground ball that first baseman Miguel Cabrera had to range far to his right to retrieve . Donald was ruled safe , giving him an infield single , but video replay showed that Cabrera 's throw to Galarraga , who was covering first base , beat Donald to the bag . Donald advanced to second and third base on defensive indifference during Trevor Crowe 's at @-@ bat , until Crowe grounded out to Brandon Inge , ending the game in a 3 – 0 victory for the Tigers .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Linescore = = =
= = = Boxscore = = =
Source : MLB.com
= = Historical context = =
Only four days before Galarraga 's near @-@ perfect outing , Roy Halladay pitched a perfect game for the Philadelphia Phillies , and just twenty days prior to that , Dallas Braden threw a perfect game for the Oakland Athletics . Halladay 's and Braden 's perfect games had been the first pair of such games to occur in the same season during the modern era , let alone the same month . Joyce served as the second base umpire for Braden 's perfect game .
The twenty days between Braden 's perfect game and Halladay 's was the shortest span between two perfect games since 1880 and there was a chance that for the first time in MLB history there would be three perfect games in such short succession . Had Galarraga 's game been correctly called , the four @-@ day span since Halladay 's perfect game would have broken that 130 @-@ year @-@ old record , and marked the only time that three consecutive no @-@ hitters had been perfect games , the only time that three perfect games had occurred in one season ( since done in 2012 by Philip Humber , Matt Cain and Félix Hernández ) , the only time that three perfect games had occurred in a span shorter than a month , the only time four perfect games had occurred in a span shorter than a year ( as Mark Buehrle of the Chicago White Sox threw a perfect game in July 2009 ) , and the only time that four perfect games had occurred within a stretch of five no @-@ hitters .
This would have also marked the first perfect game in the Tigers ' 110 @-@ year history . The 83 pitches thrown before the blown call would have been the fewest pitches in a perfect game since 1908 . Galarraga 's near @-@ perfect game was the first such game since Mike Mussina 's bid for a perfect game on September 2 , 2001 , which was broken up by 27th batter Carl Everett . It was also the third time for a Tigers pitcher to come so close to a perfect game , as Milt Wilcox also missed getting the 27th straight batter out on April 15 , 1983 , and Tommy Bridges missed the 27th batter on August 5 , 1932 .
Galarraga 's near @-@ perfect game was the tenth time in major league history that the 27th batter in a game broke up what was ( to that point ) a perfect game . One other instance of this occurrence also involved a missed call by an umpire , who later admitted to his mistake . On July 4 , 1908 , Hooks Wiltse of the New York Giants , perfect through 26 batters , hit Philadelphia Phillies pitcher George McQuillan on a 2 – 2 count in a scoreless game . Umpire Cy Rigler later admitted that he should have called the previous pitch strike three , which would have ended the inning . Wiltse pitched on , winning 1 – 0 in ten innings , with the hit @-@ batsman the only lapse separating him from a perfect game .
= = Reactions = =
= = = Armando Galarraga and Jim Joyce = = =
On tagging first base after Cabrera 's relay , Galarraga began celebrating his accomplishment . His immediate reaction to Joyce 's on @-@ field ruling was a momentary pause followed by a wry smile at the umpire before returning to the mound . Galarraga told reporters after the game that the outing " was my best game , so far " , and said that Joyce " probably feels more bad than me . Nobody 's perfect . Everybody 's human . I understand . I give the guy a lot of credit for saying , ' I need to talk to you . ' You don 't see an umpire tell you that after a game . I gave him a hug . " He also told reporters , " I know that I pitched a perfect game , I believe I got it . I said before , I got a perfect game . I 'm going to show my son . Maybe it 's not in the book , but I 'm going to tell my son , ' One time I got a perfect game . ' I 'll show him the CD , " further calling his effort " the first 28 @-@ out perfect game " . Tigers ' manager Jim Leyland added , " It 's a crying shame . Jim [ Joyce ] is a class guy . This sounds crazy , but after looking at the play , nobody is going to feel worse than he does . I yelled a bit after the game because emotions are high . You just want it so bad for the kid . I don 't think you 're as mad at the umpire as mad the kid didn 't get it — and he did deserve it . " Leyland also said that Joyce 's call was part of the " human element of the game " .
Joyce , a 22 @-@ year veteran , tearfully admitted after reviewing video of the play after the game that " I did not get the call correct " , insisting that he " took a perfect game away from that kid over there that worked his ass off all night " . Joyce called the Donald ruling " the biggest call of my career " , claiming that " I thought [ Donald ] beat the throw . I was convinced he beat the throw , until I saw the replay " . The umpire later said , " I didn 't want this to be my 15 minutes of fame . I would have liked my 15 minutes to be a great call in the World Series . Hopefully , my 15 minutes are over now " .
Just prior to the next day 's game , a tearful Joyce met Galarraga at home plate to receive the Tigers ' lineup card . The two shook hands and Joyce gave the pitcher a pat on the shoulder , with a warm reception from the audience . Joyce 's accountability and regret , and Galarraga 's sportsmanship were widely praised for turning the unfortunate situation into a positive .
= = = The rest of MLB = = =
Many people within Major League Baseball spoke out in support of Joyce , offering their sympathies and noting his exceptional reputation . New York Yankees pitcher Mariano Rivera said , " It happened to the best umpire we have in our game . The best . And a perfect gentleman . ... It 's a shame for both of them , for the pitcher and for the umpire . But I 'm telling you he is the best baseball has , and a great guy . It 's just a shame . " Former Chicago Cubs pitcher Milt Pappas said , " I would tell [ Galarraga ] , ' I feel for you . There have been only 20 perfect games in the history of baseball . The umpire situation was the same one I had — they blew it . At least I had the satisfaction of getting the no @-@ hitter . You don 't . I feel for you . You pitched a tremendous game . At least you have the satisfaction of the umpire saying he was sorry . But that doesn 't help your situation as far as a perfect game . " Pappas ' own bid for a perfect game on September 2 , 1972 , was spoiled when umpire Bruce Froemming called a borderline 3 @-@ and @-@ 2 pitch to 27th @-@ batter Larry Stahl a ball , issuing a walk to the pinch @-@ hitter . Former Yankees pitcher Don Larsen — who threw the fourth perfect game of the modern era and the only one in World Series history on October 8 , 1956 — said , " I feel sorry for the umpire , and I just feel real badly for the kid . He 's probably wondering right now whose side God is on . "
The incorrect call led many baseball writers to call for the increased use of instant replay in baseball , which was used only to review disputed boundaries on home runs during the 2010 season . Many journalists also advocated for MLB commissioner Bud Selig to overturn Joyce 's call and award a perfect game to Galarraga . On June 3 , Selig announced that Major League Baseball would look at expanded replay and umpiring , but he did not specifically address Joyce 's call . A baseball official familiar with the decision confirmed to The Associated Press that the call was not being reversed . For his efforts in this game , Galarraga was named the American League Player of the Week on June 7 . Also , first base , a ball used in the game , and Galarraga 's spikes were sent to the Baseball Hall of Fame .
Less than two weeks after the controversial game , ESPN The Magazine released an anonymous poll of 100 current MLB players that named Joyce as the best umpire in Major League Baseball . Joyce was named on 53 % of ballots , 19 ballots ahead of second @-@ place Tim McClelland . One player was quoted as saying , " The sad thing about the Galarraga game is , Jim Joyce is seriously one of the best umpires around ... He always calls it fair , so players love him . Everyone makes mistakes , and it 's terrible that this happened to him . " Furthermore , the players in this poll overwhelmingly endorsed ( 86 % ) Selig 's decision not to overturn the call , and were overwhelmingly against ( 77 % ) instituting replay for calls on the bases .
= = = Outside baseball = = =
On June 3 , White House Press Secretary Robert Gibbs said during his morning press briefing , " I hope that baseball awards a perfect game to that pitcher " , joking that the White House was " going to work on an executive order " to that effect . He elaborated , " To watch an umpire take responsibility and to watch a pitcher do what he did , the type of sportsmanship that was exhibited there — I think that gives a lot of heart ( ... ) I think it 's tremendously heartening to see somebody understand that they made a mistake and somebody accept the apology from somebody who made that mistake . I think that 's a good lesson in baseball . " Michigan state Governor Jennifer Granholm also issued a gubernatorial proclamation stating , in part , " I , Jennifer M. Granholm , governor of the state of Michigan , do hereby declare Armando Galarraga to have pitched a perfect game . "
Former SportsCenter co @-@ host Keith Olbermann dedicated a special edition of the " Worst Person in the World " segment of his political commentary show Countdown to lambasting Bud Selig 's refusal to reverse Joyce 's call . While Olbermann ordinarily lists three " Worsts " , Selig alone was awarded the title because " there can only be one Worst Person tonight " . Olbermann went on to cite Lee MacPhail 's handling of George Brett 's 1983 Pine Tar Incident as an example of a commissioner overruling an umpire 's call , and discussed the matter with both Governor Granholm and documentarian Ken Burns .
The day after the botched call , in a ceremony before the Tigers game , General Motors presented Galarraga with a red 2010 Chevy Corvette Grand @-@ Sport convertible , recognizing his outstanding performance on and off the field . GM North American President Mark Reuss said the way the pitcher had handled the situation deserved to be recognized . Galarraga was presented with a " Medal of Reasonableness " by Jon Stewart at the Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear for his measured response . On July 14 , 2010 , Joyce and Galarraga together presented the ESPY Award for Best Moment at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles . The winner was the stoppage @-@ time goal scored by Landon Donovan for the US National Team versus Algeria at the 2010 World Cup .
= = = Book release and resulting MLB rule = = =
Armando Galarraga and Jim Joyce , along with Daniel Paisner , released a book titled Nobody 's Perfect , chronicling their experiences during and after the game . In June 2011 , one year after the near @-@ perfect game , Major League Baseball put a rule into effect that Joyce cannot umpire any games in which Galarraga 's team plays . Due to the book release , the two are now business partners , and this relationship could affect Joyce 's impartiality while umpiring Galarraga 's team . It is similar to the policy that prevents umpire Jim Wolf from being the plate umpire in games that his younger brother Randy pitches in .
= = In popular culture = =
Singer @-@ songwriter Dan Bern composed and recorded a song , " Joyce and Galarraga " , about the game . It appears on his 2012 album of baseball @-@ themed songs , Doubleheader .
= Stampesletta =
Stampesletta is a multi @-@ use stadium complex in Lillehammer , Norway . Owned and operated by Lillehammer Municipality , it consists of a track and field venue , an artificial turf football field , three natural grass football fields , a gravel field and natural grass training pitches . In addition , it features a club house , locker facilities and a grandstand between the athletics and artificial turf fields . The venue is located about 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) from the town center , and serves as the home ground for the Second Division side Lillehammer FK , Lillehammer KFK , Roterud IL in football , and Lillehammer IF in athletics .
Construction of Stampesletta started in 1946 and the grass football field opened in 1949 . A now removed equestrian exhibition area opened in 1958 , and in 1973 the track and field venue opened . The latter received a hard surface in 1982 . During the 1994 Winter Olympics , Stampesletta itself was used for medal ceremonies , attracting crowds of up to 30 @,@ 000 people . The area around Stampesletta was sometimes referred to as the Olympic Park , as it also has in its immediate vicinity the ice hockey venues Håkons Hall and Kristins Hall , the ski jumping hill Lysgårdsbakken , and Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena . The two halls are often regarded as part of Stampesletta . The arena is used as the goal are for Birkebeinerrittet and Birkebeinerløpet , and from 1932 to 1992 for Birkebeinerrennet . Stampesletta hosted the Norwegian Athletics Championships in 1977 , 1995 and 2009 , and annually hosts Norway 's second @-@ largest track and field tournament , Veidekkelekene . Stampesletta is scheduled to host the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics .
= = History = =
The area around Stampesletta , which is located along the creek Mesnaelva , and means " the plain beside a mill " . The area , which traditionally had been called Myra , was originally part of the farm Lysgård , with Stampesletta being its own croft . The area was bought by Lillehammer Municipality in 1933 . The hillside further up , at Kanthaugen and Lysgård , featured ski activities from the turn of the 20th century . Plans to use one of the few flat places in Lillehammer for sports was launched by the municipal planning office in 1941 . However , the German occupation of Norway caused an interruption in the plans , and a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp for Russians , Lager Edelweiss , was located there instead .
Construction of the grass field started in 1946 , after the municipality had decided to build a multi @-@ sport complex . The original stadium was by the contemporary capital press described as having " international proportions " . The venue was planned built in several stages , and the plans called for a main football field with grass turf and a main athletics field . Additional plans called for an outdoor swimming pool , tennis courts , an indoor arena for handball and gymnastics , and a club house . The grass pitch was officially opened by Mayor Einar Hansen in 1949 , and had a spectator capacity for 12 @,@ 000 people . Two years later , a hostel , owned by the municipality and with room for 108 people , opened beside the venue .
In 1958 , an equestrian exhibition area was built at Stampesletta to host the state 's mare exhibition , which had previously been held in Lillehammer from 1887 to 1940 . It was by Agricultural Director Aslak Lidtveidt as the country 's most modern . The venue also became home of the state 's stallion display . The exhibition grounds covered an area of 4 hectares ( 10 acres ) , cost NOK 190 @,@ 000 and included two stables . The show remained at Lillehammer until the opening of Biri Travbane .
The track and field venue opened in 1973 , with a capacity for 6 @,@ 000 people . The following year Lillehammer IF moved from Sportsplassen i Lillehammer to Stampesletta , with the old venue being retired in 1975 . In 1977 , Stampesletta hosted the Norwegian Athletics Championships . It was the last time the championships were held on gravel , and this caused problems because excessive rain drowned the venue , and the fire department had to pump off the water . The club started planning fixed surface on the venue in 1980 , and was granted a loan for NOK 500 @,@ 000 . On 18 August 1981 , the municipal council voted to grant NOK 200 @,@ 000 for the upgrade . The work was largely done with voluntary work , and the new surface was inaugurated on 28 August 1982 with the Norwegian Relay Athletics Championship .
In 1970 , the plans for an indoor arena , primarily for handball , was launched again , but the cost of NOK 6 million was not able to be financed . Following the work with the Lillehammer bid for the 1992 Winter Olympics , the plans resurfaced , this time with an ice hockey rink to be the centerpiece . In 1985 , Lillehammer Municipal Council accepted an agreement with the Norwegian Confederation of Sports ( NIF ) , which offered to finance 50 % of a new multi @-@ use arena in Lillehammer . The venue opened in December 1988 and cost NOK 65 million . After Lillehammer was awarded the 1994 Winter Olympics in 1988 , it became necessary to build a larger venue to hold the Olympic ice hockey matches . In June 1989 , the municipal council voted to locate most of the Lillehammer venues to the Stampesletta area , and to put Håkons Hall adjacent to Kristins Hall . This was controversial among the politicians , and many councilors voted in support of the originally @-@ planned decentralized plan , with the venues spread out through the municipality . Håkons Hall cost NOK 238 million and it opened on 1 February 1993 . Prior to the Olympics , the power lines across the fields were dug down to give better television images . The bid for the Olympics had also included using Stampesletta for the speed skating events , but with the demands for an indoor venue , it was instead decided to build Vikingskipet in Hamar .
The running track was renovated in 2003 , and received a new surface layer and paint job . In 2005 , the club house was completed by the women 's football club . In 2006 , the gravel ice rink received an artificial ice machine to secure stable ice conditions throughout the winter .
= = Facilities = =
The sports complex consists of a track and field venue , a main artificial turf football field with a grandstand , three natural grass football fields , a gravel field and warm @-@ up / practice fields with grass . The track and field venue has eight lanes around the full course , as well as a start allowing 110 meter hurdling .
Kristins Hall consists of two halls , one featuring an ice hockey rink and one with a handball court . The arena also has a curling rink and a running track . The ice hockey rink has room for 3 @,@ 197 spectators and is the home venue of GET @-@ ligaen side Lillehammer IK . Håkons Hall is a multi @-@ sport arena which is used for international handball and ice hockey matches , as well as conferences , conventions and banquets . The venue has a capacity for 11 @,@ 500 , making it the largest handball and ice hockey venue in the country . It can make use of the main hall for two handball or football field , or six volleyball or badminton courts . In addition , there is a permanent health club , a climbing wall , an aerobics room , a golf center with two golf simulators and a putting green , and two badminton courts . The hall also features a 370 meters ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) long sprinting track and the Norwegian Olympic Museum The Olympics ski jumping hill Lysgårdsbakken and Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena are located a few hundred meters from Stampesletta . Collectively , the area is sometimes referred to as the Olympic Park .
= = Events = =
The football fields are used by Lillehammer FK , Lillehammer KFK , and Roterud IL 's senior teams . As of 2012 , Lillehammer FK 's first @-@ team plays in the Second Division . The track and field venue is used by Lillehammer IF . Veidekkelekene is an annual track and field tournament held at Stampesletta . In 2010 it had 1 @,@ 150 participants and is organized by Lillehammer IF , Gausdal FIK and Moelven IL . The tournament is the second @-@ largest track and field event in Norway , after Tyrvinglekene . Lillehammer IF has hosted the Norwegian Athletics Championships three times , in 1977 , 1995 and 2009 . They have also hosted a series of other Norwegian championships , such as the Norwegian Junior Athletics Championships in 1958 , 1987 and 2002 , and the Norwegian Relay Athletics Championships in 1960 , 1974 , 1976 , 1982 , 1991 and 1999 .
From 1932 to 1992 , Birkebeinerrittet , a mass ski marathon between Rena and Lillehammer , has used Stampesletta as a start or goal area , depending on if the race ran from Lillehammer to Rena or in the opposite direction . Since 1992 , the goal area was moved to Birkebeineren Ski Stadium . Birkebeinerrittet , a cycle version of the ski marathon , has its goal area at Stampesletta . The half @-@ marathon terrain race Birkebeinerløpet uses Stampesletta as its start and goal area . During the 1994 Winter Olympics , Stampesletta was used for medal ceremonies for all non @-@ skating events . The backdrops for the podium was built using ice and snow , with the podium itself being made from ice from the glacier Jostedalsbreen . This contrasted with the surrounding pine elements . Attendance was free , and between 25 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 people attended the medal ceremonies . Lillehammer is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics . The Stampesletta area will be used for the opening and closing ceremonies with a spectator capacity of 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 ; existing and new buildings nearby will be used for the Olympic Village .
= Hurricane Edouard ( 1996 ) =
Hurricane Edouard was the strongest hurricane in the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season , reaching winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) on its path . Edouard remained a major hurricane for eight days , an unusually long amount of time . A Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane , the storm formed near the coast of Africa in the middle of August . It moved westward then curved northward , and persisted until early September when it became extratropical to the southeast of New England . Edouard was originally forecast to strike the northeast United States , but it produced hurricane @-@ force gusts to portions of southeastern Massachusetts while remaining offshore . The winds caused minor damage totaling $ 20 million . In addition , the hurricane generated strong waves and rip currents to coastlines , killing two people in New Jersey and causing numerous injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 19 , accompanied with spiral bands of convection around an area of low pressure . A large circulation quickly developed once it reached the Atlantic Ocean , and the system organized into Tropical Depression Four late on August 19 while located 345 mi ( 555 km ) southeast of Cape Verde . Initial forecasts predicted for great intensification , including one forecast for the depression to strengthen to a hurricane within three days . However , the depression remained disorganized , and slowly intensified to attain tropical storm status on August 22 .
After becoming a tropical storm , Edouard quickly strengthened due to the establishment of an upper @-@ level anticyclone over the storm . The storm moved to the west in response to a strong subtropical ridge to its north , and Edouard strengthened into a hurricane on August 23 . Due to very favorable conditions , the hurricane rapidly strengthened on August 24 and August 25 to peak as a 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Scale . A weakness in the subtropical ridge allowed for a motion more to the west @-@ northwest , and the hurricane passed about 250 mi ( 400 km ) north of the Lesser Antilles on August 28 . For three days during this time , Edouard maintained Category 4 intensity , though weakened late on August 28 due to an eyewall replacement cycle and vertical shear .
Late on August 29 , Hurricane Edouard developed three concentric eyewalls , an unusual occurrence coinciding with an increase in strength to 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . A mid @-@ tropospheric trough turned the hurricane to the north to an area of unfavorable conditions , and Edouard weakened to a Category 3 hurricanes on August 31 . On September 1 , the hurricane passed about midway between Bermuda and Cape Hatteras , and turned to the north @-@ northeast . Edouard continued to weaken as it turned to the northeast , and on September 2 passed about 95 mi ( 150 km ) to the southeast of Nantucket , Massachusetts as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) hurricane , its closest point of approach to the United States . Edouard weakened to tropical storm status on September 3 , and became extratropical shortly thereafter while located to the south of Nova Scotia . As an extratropical storm , Edouard turned to the east , then moved around the periphery of a larger extratropical storm until becoming absorbed by the storm early on September 7 .
= = Preparations = =
A high pressure system over New England resulted in the possibility that Edouard would track to the west and strike the United States . One computer model predicted the hurricane would strike near Atlantic City , New Jersey with winds of over 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) on Labor Day . This caused Cape May County officials to contemplate ordering an evacuation for the busiest tourist weekend of the year , though an evacuation never occurred . Due to the possibility for a landfall on the East Coast of the United States , officials at the National Hurricane Center issued Tropical Storm and Hurricane Watches and Warnings from Cape Lookout , North Carolina to Eastport , Maine at various times . Tropical storm warnings existed from North Carolina to Watch Hill , Rhode Island and from the mouth of the Merrimack River to the United States / Canada border , while hurricane warnings existed from Watch Hill , Rhode Island to Merrimack River , Massachusetts . Hurricane watches were also issued for the tropical storm warning area .
In North Carolina , Cape Lookout was closed and evacuated prior to the storm 's passage . Because a Hurricane Watch existed for the New York City metropolitan area , New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani urged citizens to take preparations . In addition , city officials set up a hurricane helpline , activated the city 's Emergency Command Center at the Police Headquarters , and distributed leaflets to flood @-@ prone areas . Near New Bedford , Massachusetts , where landfall was predicted to occur , schools were prepared as shelters in case of a direct hit . New Bedford Mayor issued a state of emergency for the city . However , few people stayed in shelters during the storm 's passage . On Cape Cod , thousands of tourists and summer residents evacuated in preparation for the storm , resulting in an 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) traffic backup . As a result , many beach resorts lost millions in potential revenue . Of those who remained on Cape Cod , 900 stayed in emergency shelters when the storm passed the area . In Boston 's Logan International Airport , numerous flights were cancelled or delayed to move planes to safety . Many sailors removed their boats from the water prior to the storm . At one time in Mattapoisett Harbor , workers removed boats at a rate of one every eight minutes . In Maine , the Red Cross opened several emergency shelters , though they were never used . Like in Massachusetts , sailors removed their boats , and due to media coverage , residents were well @-@ prepared for the hurricane .
= = Impact = =
Despite initial predictions , Edouard 's effects were much less than expected . Strong waves struck much of the East Coast of the United States , killing 2 and injuring numerous others . In 2011 the National Hurricane Center reported that Edouard had caused a total of US $ 20 million with the greatest damage occurring on Cape Cod , where moderate wind gusts resulted in $ 4 @.@ 6 million ( 2007 USD ) .
= = = Carolinas and Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
In South Carolina , minor beach erosion was reported in Charleston and Colleton Counties . Swells of up to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) , in combination with strong waves , caused overwash on Route 12 on Hatteras Island . Minor beach erosion occurred . Moderate winds of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) blew down a few trees and caused shingle damage to buildings . In Delaware , rough surf closed numerous coastal beaches , while storm tides and waves flooded a campground near the Indian River in Sussex County . Strong waves in New Jersey killed two people and seriously injured another . Lifeguards made numerous rescues along the coast , while other beaches were closed or had restrictions on bathing . Winds were minor along the Jersey coastline , peaking at less than 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) .
In New York , Edouard produced strong waves and storm tides of one to two ft ( 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 6 m ) , causing overwash along southern Long Island due to high tide . Coastal flooding occurred , including in Hampton Bays where the waves flooded one road and covered another with sand . The flooding trapped six cars , while the strong waves forced several beaches to close . Because the hurricane moved through the New York Shipping Channel , numerous ships reported winds of over hurricane status , though winds remained below tropical storm force on land . A boat capsized off the coast of Jones Beach Island , though its passengers were not injured . A Celebrity Cruises cruise ship suffered damage from 30 to 50 ft ( nine to 15 m ) waves , injuring several passengers and crew members . Rainfall was minimal , peaking at less than a half of an inch in eastern Long Island .
= = = New England and Canada = = =
Hurricane Edouard passed about 95 miles ( 150 km / h ) southeast of Nantucket while moving at only 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) , much slower than previous New England hurricanes . This resulted in several hours of strong waves , winds , and rain . The hurricane produced wave heights of up to 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) , which washed twelve boats ashore and damaged numerous others . The strong waves and a storm surge of up to 2 @.@ 1 feet ( .6 m ) in Nantucket flooded a few coastal roads . Edouard also produced tropical storm force winds across much of Massachusetts , as well as one hurricane @-@ force gust on Nantucket . In addition , there were unofficial reports of stronger gusts , including 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) on Cape Cod , 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) on Martha 's Vineyard , and 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) on Nantucket . The strong winds caused power outages to 2 / 3 of Nantucket , all of Martha 's Vineyard for six hours , and most of Cape Cod for several hours . Power outages , effecting 35 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 were reported throughout Massachusetts , though far from the power outages caused by Hurricane Bob five years prior . The winds also downed numerous trees , and blew off the roof of the fire station in Hyannis . Rainfall was moderate from the slow @-@ moving hurricane , peaking at 6 @.@ 37 inches ( 162 mm ) in West Dennis with many other locations reporting over 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . The rainfall produced minor street flooding . Damage on Cape Cod totaled to $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( 1996 USD , $ 4 @.@ 6 million 2007 USD ) .
In New Hampshire , the hurricane produced winds gusts of up to 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) and around 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rain along the coast . In Maine , heavy surf closed several beaches and injured two people . Waves also damaged several boats . Winds were moderate near the coast , peaking at 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) with gusts to 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) at Mount Desert Island . The winds knocked over several trees and caused sporadic power outages throughout the state , including loss of power for 1 @,@ 900 Portland residents . In Kittery , water fell through an office building , damaging computer equipment . Rainfall was minor , peaking at 1 @.@ 23 inches ( 31 @.@ 24 mm ) in Eastport .
In southern Nova Scotia , Edouard produced heavy rainfall from 3 @.@ 7 to 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 95 to 140 mm ) . Winds were moderate , peaking at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) in Cape Breton Highlands . The hurricane also caused beach erosion on southeastern Nova Scotia .
= Ant =
Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and , along with the related wasps and bees , belong to the order Hymenoptera . Ants evolved from wasp @-@ like ancestors in the Cretaceous period , about 99 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants . More than 12 @,@ 500 of an estimated total of 22 @,@ 000 species have been classified . They are easily identified by their elbowed antennae and the distinctive node @-@ like structure that forms their slender waists .
Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies that may occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals . Larger colonies consist mostly of sterile , wingless females forming castes of " workers " , " soldiers " , or other specialised groups . Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called " drones " and one or more fertile females called " queens " . The colonies are described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity , collectively working together to support the colony .
Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth . The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands . Ants thrive in most ecosystems and may form 15 – 25 % of the terrestrial animal biomass . Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats , tap resources , and defend themselves . Their long co @-@ evolution with other species has led to mimetic , commensal , parasitic , and mutualistic relationships .
Ant societies have division of labour , communication between individuals , and an ability to solve complex problems . These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study . Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine , medication , and rituals . Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents . Their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans , however , as they can damage crops and invade buildings . Some species , such as the red imported fire ant ( Solenopsis invicta ) , are regarded as invasive species , establishing themselves in areas where they have been introduced accidentally .
= = Etymology = =
The word " ant " is derived from ante , emete of Middle English which are derived from ǣmette of Old English , and is related to the dialectal Dutch emt and the Old High German āmeiza , hence the modern German Ameise . All of these words come from West Germanic * ēmaitijǭ , and the original meaning of the word was " the biter " ( from Proto @-@ Germanic * ai- , " off , away " + * mait- " cut " ) . The family name Formicidae is derived from the Latin formīca ( " ant " ) from which the words in other Romance languages , such as the Portuguese formiga , Italian formica , Spanish hormiga , Romanian furnică , and French fourmi are derived . It has been hypothesised that a Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European word * morwi- was used , cf . Sanskrit vamrah , Latin formīca , Greek μύρμηξ mýrmēx , Old Church Slavonic mraviji , Old Irish moirb , Old Norse maurr , Dutch mier .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera , which also includes sawflies , bees , and wasps . Ants evolved from a lineage within the aculeate wasps , and a 2013 study suggests that they are a sister group of the Apoidea . In 1966 , E. O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant ( Sphecomyrma ) that lived in the Cretaceous period . The specimen , trapped in amber dating back to around 92 million years ago , has features found in some wasps , but not found in modern ants . Sphecomyrma possibly was a ground forager , while Haidomyrmex and Haidomyrmodes , related genera in subfamily Sphecomyrminae , are reconstructed as active arboreal predators . Older ants in the genus Sphecomyrmodes have been found in 99 million year @-@ old amber from Myanmar . After the rise of flowering plants about 100 million years ago they diversified and assumed ecological dominance around 60 million years ago . Some groups , such as the Leptanillinae and Martialinae , are suggested to have diversified from early primitive ants that were likely to have been predators underneath the surface of the soil .
During the Cretaceous period , a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian supercontinent ( the Northern Hemisphere ) . They were scarce in comparison to the populations of other insects , representing only about 1 % of the entire insect population . Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Paleogene period . By the Oligocene and Miocene , ants had come to represent 20 – 40 % of all insects found in major fossil deposits . Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch , around one in 10 genera survive to the present . Genera surviving today comprise 56 % of the genera in Baltic amber fossils ( early Oligocene ) , and 92 % of the genera in Dominican amber fossils ( apparently early Miocene ) .
Termites , although sometimes called ' white ants ' , are not ants . They belong to the sub @-@ order Isoptera within the order Blattodea . Termites are more closely related to cockroaches and mantids . Termites are eusocial , but differ greatly in the genetics of reproduction . The similarity of their social structure to that of ants is attributed to convergent evolution . Velvet ants look like large ants , but are wingless female wasps .
= = Distribution and diversity = =
Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica , and only a few large islands , such as Greenland , Iceland , parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species . Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches and exploit many different food resources as direct or indirect herbivores , predators and scavengers . Most ant species are omnivorous generalists , but a few are specialist feeders . Their ecological dominance is demonstrated by their biomass : ants are estimated to contribute 15 – 20 % ( on average and nearly 25 % in the tropics ) of terrestrial animal biomass , exceeding that of the vertebrates .
Ants range in size from 0 @.@ 75 to 52 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 030 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) , the largest species being the fossil Titanomyrma giganteum , the queen of which was 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long with a wingspan of 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) . Ants vary in colour ; most ants are red or black , but a few species are green and some tropical species have a metallic lustre . More than 12 @,@ 000 species are currently known ( with upper estimates of the potential existence of about 22 @,@ 000 ) ( see the article List of ant genera ) , with the greatest diversity in the tropics . Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants . Online databases of ant species , including AntBase and the Hymenoptera Name Server , help to keep track of the known and newly described species . The relative ease with which ants may be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in biodiversity studies .
= = Morphology = =
Ants are distinct in their morphology from other insects in having elbowed antennae , metapleural glands , and a strong constriction of their second abdominal segment into a node @-@ like petiole . The head , mesosoma , and metasoma are the three distinct body segments . The petiole forms a narrow waist between their mesosoma ( thorax plus the first abdominal segment , which is fused to it ) and gaster ( abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole ) . The petiole may be formed by one or two nodes ( the second alone , or the second and third abdominal segments ) .
Like other insects , ants have an exoskeleton , an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles , in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates . Insects do not have lungs ; oxygen and other gases , such as carbon dioxide , pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles . Insects also lack closed blood vessels ; instead , they have a long , thin , perforated tube along the top of the body ( called the " dorsal aorta " ) that functions like a heart , and pumps haemolymph toward the head , thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids . The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body , with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages .
= = = Head = = =
An ant 's head contains many sensory organs . Like most insects , ants have compound eyes made from numerous tiny lenses attached together . Ant eyes are good for acute movement detection , but do not offer a high resolution image . They also have three small ocelli ( simple eyes ) on the top of the head that detect light levels and polarization . Compared to vertebrates , most ants have poor @-@ to @-@ mediocre eyesight and a few subterranean species are completely blind . However , some ants , such as Australia 's bulldog ant , have excellent vision and are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a metre away .
Two antennae ( " feelers " ) are attached to the head ; these organs detect chemicals , air currents , and vibrations ; they also are used to transmit and receive signals through touch . The head has two strong jaws , the mandibles , used to carry food , manipulate objects , construct nests , and for defence . In some species , a small pocket ( infrabuccal chamber ) inside the mouth stores food , so it may be passed to other ants or their larvae .
= = = Legs = = =
All six legs are attached to the mesosoma ( " thorax " ) and terminate in a hooked claw .
= = = Wings = = =
Only reproductive ants , queens , and males , have wings . Queens shed their wings after the nuptial flight , leaving visible stubs , a distinguishing feature of queens . In a few species , wingless queens ( ergatoids ) and males occur .
= = = Metasoma = = =
The metasoma ( the " abdomen " ) of the ant houses important internal organs , including those of the reproductive , respiratory ( tracheae ) , and excretory systems . Workers of many species have their egg @-@ laying structures modified into stings that are used for subduing prey and defending their nests .
= = = Polymorphism = = =
In the colonies of a few ant species , there are physical castes — workers in distinct size @-@ classes , called minor , median , and major workers . Often , the larger ants have disproportionately larger heads , and correspondingly stronger mandibles . Such individuals are sometimes called " soldier " ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting , although they still are workers and their " duties " typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers . In a few species , the median workers are absent , creating a sharp divide between the minors and majors . Weaver ants , for example , have a distinct bimodal size distribution . Some other species show continuous variation in the size of workers . The smallest and largest workers in Pheidologeton diversus show nearly a 500 @-@ fold difference in their dry @-@ weights . Workers cannot mate ; however , because of the haplodiploid sex @-@ determination system in ants , workers of a number of species can lay unfertilised eggs that become fully fertile , haploid males . The role of workers may change with their age and in some species , such as honeypot ants , young workers are fed until their gasters are distended , and act as living food storage vessels . These food storage workers are called repletes . For instance , these replete workers develop in the North American honeypot ant Myrmecocystus mexicanus . Usually the largest workers in the colony develop into repletes ; and , if repletes are removed from the colony , other workers become repletes , demonstrating the flexibility of this particular polymorphism . This polymorphism in morphology and behaviour of workers initially was thought to be determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and hormones that led to different developmental paths ; however , genetic differences between worker castes have been noted in Acromyrmex sp . These polymorphisms are caused by relatively small genetic changes ; differences in a single gene of Solenopsis invicta can decide whether the colony will have single or multiple queens . The Australian jack jumper ant ( Myrmecia pilosula ) has only a single pair of chromosomes ( with the males having just one chromosome as they are haploid ) , the lowest number known for any animal , making it an interesting subject for studies in the genetics and developmental biology of social insects .
= = Life cycle = =
The life of an ant starts from an egg . If the egg is fertilised , the progeny will be female diploid ; if not , it will be male haploid . Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larva stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult . The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers . Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis , a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop . This is also how adults share food , stored in the " social stomach " . Larvae , especially in the later stages , may also be provided solid food , such as trophic eggs , pieces of prey , and seeds brought by workers .
The larvae grow through a series of four or five moults and enter the pupal stage . The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa . The differentiation into queens and workers ( which are both female ) , and different castes of workers , is influenced in some species by the nutrition the larvae obtain . Genetic influences and the control of gene expression by the developmental environment are complex and the determination of caste continues to be a subject of research . Winged male ants , called drones , emerge from pupae along with the usually winged breeding females . Some species , such as army ants , have wingless queens . Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development , and so often , are moved around among the various brood chambers within the colony .
A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young . She then graduates to digging and other nest work , and later to defending the nest and foraging . These changes are sometimes fairly sudden , and define what are called temporal castes . An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging , making it an acceptable risk only for ants who are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes .
Ant colonies can be long @-@ lived . The queens can live for up to 30 years , and workers live from 1 to 3 years . Males , however , are more transitory , being quite short @-@ lived and surviving for only a few weeks . Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times as long as solitary insects of a similar size .
Ants are active all year long in the tropics , but , in cooler regions , they survive the winter in a state of dormancy or inactivity . The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state , ( diapause ) , while in others , the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity .
= = = Reproduction = = =
A wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species . Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through thelytokous parthenogenesis . Secretions from the male accessory glands in some species can plug the female genital opening and prevent females from re @-@ mating . Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate . Contrary to popular belief , some ant nests have multiple queens , while others may exist without queens . Workers with the ability to reproduce are called " gamergates " and colonies that lack queens are then called gamergate colonies ; colonies with queens are said to be queen @-@ right .
Drones can also mate with existing queens by entering a foreign colony . When the drone is initially attacked by the workers , it releases a mating pheromone . If recognized as a mate , it will be carried to the queen to mate . Males may also patrol the nest and fight others by grabbing them with their mandibles , piercing their exoskeleton and then marking them with a pheromone . The marked male is interpreted as an invader by worker ants and is killed .
Most ants are univoltine , producing a new generation each year . During the species @-@ specific breeding period , new reproductives , females , and winged males leave the colony in what is called a nuptial flight . The nuptial flight usually takes place in the late spring or early summer when the weather is hot and humid . Heat makes flying easier and freshly fallen rain makes the ground softer for mated queens to dig nests . Males typically take flight before the females . Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground , for example , a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge . Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow . Males will mount females in the air , but the actual mating process usually takes place on the ground . Females of some species mate with just one male but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males , storing the sperm in their spermathecae .
Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony . There , they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs . The females can selectively fertilise future eggs with the sperm stored or lay unfertilized haploid eggs to produce workers . The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers , but they begin to serve the colony immediately . They enlarge the nest , forage for food , and care for the other eggs . Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site , a process akin to swarming in honeybees .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
= = = Communication = = =
Ants communicate with each other using pheromones , sounds , and touch . The use of pheromones as chemical signals is more developed in ants , such as the red harvester ant , than in other hymenopteran groups . Like other insects , ants perceive smells with their long , thin , and mobile antennae . The paired antennae provide information about the direction and intensity of scents . Since most ants live on the ground , they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that may be followed by other ants . In species that forage in groups , a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony ; this trail is followed by other ants , these ants then reinforce the trail when they head back with food to the colony . When the food source is exhausted , no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates . This behaviour helps ants deal with changes in their environment . For instance , when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle , the foragers leave the path to explore new routes . If an ant is successful , it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return . Successful trails are followed by more ants , reinforcing better routes and gradually identifying the best path .
Ants use pheromones for more than just making trails . A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy and attracts more ants from farther away . Several ant species even use " propaganda pheromones " to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves . Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour 's glands , poison glands and glands on the hindgut , pygidium , rectum , sternum , and hind tibia . Pheromones also are exchanged , mixed with food , and passed by trophallaxis , transferring information within the colony . This allows other ants to detect what task group ( e.g. , foraging or nest maintenance ) other colony members belong to . In ant species with queen castes , when the
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dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone , workers begin to raise new queens in the colony .
Some ants produce sounds by stridulation , using the gaster segments and their mandibles . Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species .
= = = Defence = = =
See also Insect defences
Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and , in many species , by stinging , often injecting or spraying chemicals , such as formic acid in the case of formicine ants , alkaloids and piperidines in fire ants , and a variety of protein components in other ants . Bullet ants ( Paraponera ) , located in Central and South America , are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect , although it is usually not fatal to humans . This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index .
The sting of jack jumper ants can be fatal , and an antivenom has been developed for it .
Fire ants , Solenopsis spp . , are unique in having a venom sac containing piperidine alkaloids . Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people .
Trap @-@ jaw ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap @-@ jaws , which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom . One study of Odontomachus bauri recorded peak speeds of between 126 and 230 km / h ( 78 and 143 mph ) , with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average . The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backward to escape a threat . Before striking , the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism . Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory organs resembling hairs on the inside of the mandibles . The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks . Trap @-@ jaws also are seen in the following genera : Anochetus , Orectognathus , and Strumigenys , plus some members of the Dacetini tribe , which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution .
A Malaysian species of ant in the Camponotus cylindricus group has enlarged mandibular glands that extend into their gaster . When disturbed , workers rupture the membrane of the gaster , causing a burst of secretions containing acetophenones and other chemicals that immobilise small insect attackers . The worker subsequently dies .
Suicidal defences by workers are also noted in a Brazilian ant , Forelius pusillus , where a small group of ants leaves the security of the nest after sealing the entrance from the outside each evening .
In addition to defence against predators , ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens . Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or necrophory , the disposal of dead nest @-@ mates . Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released from dead ants that triggers necrophoric behaviour in Atta mexicana while workers of Linepithema humile react to the absence of characteristic chemicals ( dolichodial and iridomyrmecin ) present on the cuticle of their living nestmates to trigger similar behaviour .
Nests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and overheating by elaborate nest architecture . Workers of Cataulacus muticus , an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows , respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest , and excreting it outside . Camponotus anderseni , which nests in the cavities of wood in mangrove habitats , deals with submergence under water by switching to anaerobic respiration .
= = = Learning = = =
Many animals can learn behaviours by imitation , but ants may be the only group apart from mammals where interactive teaching has been observed . A knowledgeable forager of Temnothorax albipennis will lead a naive nest @-@ mate to newly discovered food by the process of tandem running . The follower obtains knowledge through its leading tutor . The leader is acutely sensitive to the progress of the follower and slows down when the follower lags and speeds up when the follower gets too close .
Controlled experiments with colonies of Cerapachys biroi suggest that an individual may choose nest roles based on her previous experience . An entire generation of identical workers was divided into two groups whose outcome in food foraging was controlled . One group was continually rewarded with prey , while it was made certain that the other failed . As a result , members of the successful group intensified their foraging attempts while the unsuccessful group ventured out fewer and fewer times . A month later , the successful foragers continued in their role while the others had moved to specialise in brood care .
= = = Nest construction = = =
Complex nests are built by many ant species , but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures . Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees . These nests may be found in the ground , under stones or logs , inside logs , hollow stems , or even acorns . The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter , and ants carefully select their nest sites ; Temnothorax albipennis will avoid sites with dead ants , as these may indicate the presence of pests or disease . They are quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of threats .
The army ants of South America , such as the Eciton burchellii species , and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests , but instead , alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest ( bivouac ) from their own bodies , by holding each other together .
Weaver ant ( Oecophylla spp . ) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together , first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges . Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of Polyrhachis .
Formica polyctena , among other ant species , constructs nests that maintain a relatively constant interior temperature that aids in the development of larvae . The ants maintain the nest temperature by choosing the location , nest materials , controlling ventilation and maintaining the heat from solar radiation , worker activity and metabolism , and in some moist nests , microbial activity in the nest materials .
Some ant species , such as those that use natural cavities , can be opportunistic and make use of the controlled micro @-@ climate provided inside human dwellings and other artificial structures to house their colonies and nest structures .
= = = Cultivation of food = = =
Most ants are generalist predators , scavengers , and indirect herbivores , but a few have evolved specialised ways of obtaining nutrition . It is believed that many ant species that engage in indirect herbivory rely on specialized symbiosis with their gut microbes to upgrade the nutritional value of the food they collect and allow them to survive in nitrogen poor regions , such as rainforrest canopies . Leafcutter ants ( Atta and Acromyrmex ) feed exclusively on a fungus that grows only within their colonies . They continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony , cut into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens . Workers specialise in related tasks according to their sizes . The largest ants cut stalks , smaller workers chew the leaves and the smallest tend the fungus . Leafcutter ants are sensitive enough to recognise the reaction of the fungus to different plant material , apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus . If a particular type of leaf is found to be toxic to the fungus , the colony will no longer collect it . The ants feed on structures produced by the fungi called gongylidia . Symbiotic bacteria on the exterior surface of the ants produce antibiotics that kill bacteria introduced into the nest that may harm the fungi .
= = = Navigation = = =
Foraging ants travel distances of up to 200 metres ( 700 ft ) from their nest and scent trails allow them to find their way back even in the dark . In hot and arid regions , day @-@ foraging ants face death by desiccation , so the ability to find the shortest route back to the nest reduces that risk . Diurnal desert ants of the genus Cataglyphis such as the Sahara desert ant navigate by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled . Distances travelled are measured using an internal pedometer that keeps count of the steps taken and also by evaluating the movement of objects in their visual field ( optical flow ) . Directions are measured using the position of the sun . They integrate this information to find the shortest route back to their nest . Like all ants , they can also make use of visual landmarks when available as well as olfactory and tactile cues to navigate . Some species of ant are able to use the Earth 's magnetic field for navigation . The compound eyes of ants have specialised cells that detect polarised light from the Sun , which is used to determine direction . These polarization detectors are sensitive in the ultraviolet region of the light spectrum . In some army ant species , a group of foragers who become separated from the main column may sometimes turn back on themselves and form a circular ant mill . The workers may then run around continuously until they die of exhaustion .
= = = Locomotion = = =
The female worker ants do not have wings and reproductive females lose their wings after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies . Therefore , unlike their wasp ancestors , most ants travel by walking . Some species are capable of leaping . For example , Jerdon 's jumping ant ( Harpegnathos saltator ) is able to jump by synchronising the action of its mid and hind pairs of legs . There are several species of gliding ant including Cephalotes atratus ; this may be a common trait among most arboreal ants . Ants with this ability are able to control the direction of their descent while falling .
Other species of ants can form chains to bridge gaps over water , underground , or through spaces in vegetation . Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods . These rafts may also have a role in allowing ants to colonise islands . Polyrhachis sokolova , a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps , can swim and live in underwater nests . Since they lack gills , they go to trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests to breathe .
= = = Cooperation and competition = = =
Not all ants have the same kind of societies . The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most basal of ants . Like virtually all ants , they are eusocial , but their social behaviour is poorly developed compared to other species . Each individual hunts alone , using her large eyes instead of chemical senses to find prey .
Some species ( such as Tetramorium caespitum ) attack and take over neighbouring ant colonies . Others are less expansionist , but just as aggressive ; they invade colonies to steal eggs or larvae , which they either eat or raise as workers or slaves . Extreme specialists among these slave @-@ raiding ants , such as the Amazon ants , are incapable of feeding themselves and need captured workers to survive . Captured workers of the enslaved species Temnothorax have evolved a counter strategy , destroying just the female pupae of the slave @-@ making Protomognathus americanus , but sparing the males ( who don 't take part in slave @-@ raiding as adults ) .
Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scent , which comes from hydrocarbon @-@ laced secretions that coat their exoskeletons . If an ant is separated from its original colony , it will eventually lose the colony scent . Any ant that enters a colony without a matching scent will be attacked . Also , the reason why two separate colonies of ants will attack each other even if they are of the same species is because the genes responsible for pheromone production are different between them . The Argentine ant , however , does not have this characteristic , due to lack of genetic diversity , and has become a global pest because of it .
Parasitic ant species enter the colonies of host ants and establish themselves as social parasites ; species such as Strumigenys xenos are entirely parasitic and do not have workers , but instead , rely on the food gathered by their Strumigenys perplexa hosts . This form of parasitism is seen across many ant genera , but the parasitic ant is usually a species that is closely related to its host . A variety of methods are employed to enter the nest of the host ant . A parasitic queen may enter the host nest before the first brood has hatched , establishing herself prior to development of a colony scent . Other species use pheromones to confuse the host ants or to trick them into carrying the parasitic queen into the nest . Some simply fight their way into the nest .
A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with these reproducers apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible . The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring . An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in Wasmannia auropunctata , where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process whereby a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males who are clones of the father .
= = = Relationships with other organisms = = =
Ants form symbiotic associations with a range of species , including other ant species , other insects , plants , and fungi . They also are preyed on by many animals and even certain fungi . Some arthropod species spend part of their lives within ant nests , either preying on ants , their larvae , and eggs , consuming the food stores of the ants , or avoiding predators . These inquilines may bear a close resemblance to ants . The nature of this ant mimicry ( myrmecomorphy ) varies , with some cases involving Batesian mimicry , where the mimic reduces the risk of predation . Others show Wasmannian mimicry , a form of mimicry seen only in inquilines .
Aphids and other hemipteran insects secrete a sweet liquid called honeydew , when they feed on plant sap . The sugars in honeydew are a high @-@ energy food source , which many ant species collect . In some cases , the aphids secrete the honeydew in response to ants tapping them with their antennae . The ants in turn keep predators away from the aphids and will move them from one feeding location to another . When migrating to a new area , many colonies will take the aphids with them , to ensure a continued supply of honeydew . Ants also tend mealybugs to harvest their honeydew . Mealybugs may become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealybugs from their natural enemies .
Myrmecophilous ( ant @-@ loving ) caterpillars of the butterfly family Lycaenidae ( e.g. , blues , coppers , or hairstreaks ) are herded by the ants , led to feeding areas in the daytime , and brought inside the ants ' nest at night . The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them . Some caterpillars produce vibrations and sounds that are perceived by the ants . Other caterpillars have evolved from ant @-@ loving to ant @-@ eating : these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone that makes the ants act as if the caterpillar is one of their own larvae . The caterpillar is then taken into the ant nest where it feeds on the ant larvae . Fungus @-@ growing ants that make up the tribe Attini , including leafcutter ants , cultivate certain species of fungus in the Leucoagaricus or Leucocoprinus genera of the Agaricaceae family . In this ant @-@ fungus mutualism , both species depend on each other for survival . The ant Allomerus decemarticulatus has evolved a three @-@ way association with the host plant , Hirtella physophora ( Chrysobalanaceae ) , and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey .
Lemon ants make devil 's gardens by killing surrounding plants with their stings and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees , ( Duroia hirsuta ) . This modification of the forest provides the ants with more nesting sites inside the stems of the Duroia trees . Although some ants obtain nectar from flowers , pollination by ants is somewhat rare . Some plants have special nectar exuding structures , extrafloral nectaries , that provide food for ants , which in turn protect the plant from more damaging herbivorous insects . Species such as the bullhorn acacia ( Acacia cornigera ) in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants ( Pseudomyrmex ferruginea ) who defend the tree against insects , browsing mammals , and epiphytic vines . Isotopic labelling studies suggest that plants also obtain nitrogen from the ants . In return , the ants obtain food from protein- and lipid @-@ rich Beltian bodies . Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the Macaranga tree , which has stems adapted to house colonies of Crematogaster ants .
Many tropical tree species have seeds that are dispersed by ants . Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread and new estimates suggest that nearly 9 % of all plant species may have such ant associations . Some plants in fire @-@ prone grassland systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal as the seeds are transported to safety below the ground . Many ant @-@ dispersed seeds have special external structures , elaiosomes , that are sought after by ants as food .
A convergence , possibly a form of mimicry , is seen in the eggs of stick insects . They have an edible elaiosome @-@ like structure and are taken into the ant nest where the young hatch .
Most ants are predatory and some prey on and obtain food from other social insects including other ants . Some species specialise in preying on termites ( Megaponera and Termitopone ) while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants . Some termites , including Nasutitermes corniger , form associations with certain ant species to keep away predatory ant species . The tropical wasp Mischocyttarus drewseni coats the pedicel of its nest with an ant @-@ repellent chemical . It is suggested that many tropical wasps may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants . Other wasps such as A. multipicta defend against ants by blasting them off the nest with bursts of wing buzzing . Stingless bees ( Trigona and Melipona ) use chemical defences against ants . Certain species of ants have the power to drive certain wasps , such as Polybia occidentalis to extinction if they attack more than once and the wasps cannot keep up with rebuilding their nest .
Flies in the Old World genus Bengalia ( Calliphoridae ) prey on ants and are kleptoparasites , snatching prey or brood from the mandibles of adult ants . Wingless and legless females of the Malaysian phorid fly ( Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea ) live in the nests of ants of the genus Aenictus and are cared for by the ants .
Fungi in the genera Cordyceps and Ophiocordyceps infect ants . Ants react to their infection by climbing up plants and sinking their mandibles into plant tissue . The fungus kills the ants , grows on their remains , and produces a fruiting body . It appears that the fungus alters the behaviour of the ant to help disperse its spores in a microhabitat that best suits the fungus . Strepsipteran parasites also manipulate their ant host to climb grass stems , to help the parasite find mates .
A nematode ( Myrmeconema neotropicum ) that infects canopy ants ( Cephalotes atratus ) causes the black @-@ coloured gasters of workers to turn red . The parasite also alters the behaviour of the ant , causing them to carry their gasters high . The conspicuous red gasters are mistaken by birds for ripe fruits , such as Hyeronima alchorneoides , and eaten . The droppings of the bird are collected by other ants and fed to their young , leading to further spread of the nematode .
South American poison dart frogs in the genus Dendrobates feed mainly on ants , and the toxins in their skin may come from the ants .
Army ants forage in a wide roving column , attacking any animals in that path that are unable to escape . In Central and South America , Eciton burchellii is the swarming ant most commonly attended by " ant @-@ following " birds such as antbirds and woodcreepers . This behaviour was once considered mutualistic , but later studies found the birds to be parasitic . Direct kleptoparasitism ( birds stealing food from the ants ' grasp ) is rare and has been noted in Inca doves which pick seeds at nest entrances as they are being transported by species of Pogonomyrmex . Birds that follow ants eat many prey insects and thus decrease the foraging success of ants . Birds indulge in a peculiar behaviour called anting that , as yet , is not fully understood . Here birds rest on ant nests , or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers ; this may be a means to remove ectoparasites from the birds .
Anteaters , aardvarks , pangolins , echidnas and numbats have special adaptations for living on a diet of ants . These adaptations include long , sticky tongues to capture ants and strong claws to break into ant nests . Brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) have been found to feed on ants . About 12 % , 16 % , and 4 % of their faecal volume in spring , summer , and autumn , respectively , is composed of ants .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Ants perform many ecological roles that are beneficial to humans , including the suppression of pest populations and aeration of the soil . The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is considered one of the oldest known applications of biological control . On the other hand , ants may become nuisances when they invade buildings , or cause economic losses .
In some parts of the world ( mainly Africa and South America ) , large ants , especially army ants , are used as surgical sutures . The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it . The ant seizes the edges of the wound in its mandibles and locks in place . The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles remain in place to close the wound . The large heads of the soldiers of the leafcutting ant Atta cephalotes are also used by native surgeons in closing wounds .
Some ants have toxic venom and are of medical importance . The species include Paraponera clavata ( tocandira ) and Dinoponera spp . ( false tocandiras ) of South America and the Myrmecia ants of Australia .
In South Africa , ants are used to help harvest rooibos ( Aspalathus linearis ) , which are small seeds used to make a herbal tea . The plant disperses its seeds widely , making manual collection difficult . Black ants collect and store these and other seeds in their nest , where humans can gather them en masse . Up to half a pound ( 200 g ) of seeds may be collected from one ant @-@ heap .
Although most ants survive attempts by humans to eradicate them , a few are highly endangered . These tend to be island species that have evolved specialized traits and risk being displaced by introduced ant species . Examples include the critically endangered Sri Lankan relict ant ( Aneuretus simoni ) and Adetomyrma venatrix of Madagascar .
It has been estimated by E.O. Wilson that the total number of individual ants alive in the world at any one time is between one and ten quadrillion ( short scale ) ( i.e. between 1015 and 1016 ) . According to this estimate , the total biomass of all the ants in the world is approximately equal to the total biomass of the entire human race . Also , according to this estimate , there are approximately 1 million ants for every human on Earth .
= = = As food = = =
Ants and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world . The eggs of two species of ants are used in Mexican escamoles . They are considered a form of insect caviar and can sell for as much as US $ 40 per pound ( $ 90 / kg ) because they are seasonal and hard to find . In the Colombian department of Santander , hormigas culonas ( roughly interpreted as " large @-@ bottomed ants " ) Atta laevigata are toasted alive and eaten .
In areas of India , and throughout Burma and Thailand , a paste of the green weaver ant ( Oecophylla smaragdina ) is served as a condiment with curry . Weaver ant eggs and larvae , as well as the ants , may be used in a Thai salad , yam ( Thai : ยำ ) , in a dish called yam khai mot daeng ( Thai : ยำไข ่ มดแดง ) or red ant egg salad , a dish that comes from the Issan or north @-@ eastern region of Thailand . Saville @-@ Kent , in the Naturalist in Australia wrote " Beauty , in the case of the green ant , is more than skin @-@ deep . Their attractive , almost sweetmeat @-@ like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species " . Mashed up in water , after the manner of lemon squash , " these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland , and is even appreciated by many European palates " .
In his First Summer in the Sierra , John Muir notes that the Digger Indians of California ate the tickling , acid gasters of the large jet @-@ black carpenter ants . The Mexican Indians eat the replete workers , or living honey @-@ pots , of the honey ant ( Myrmecocystus ) .
= = = As pests = = =
Some ant species are considered as pests , primarily those that occur in human habitations , where their presence is often problematic . For example , the presence of ants would be undesirable in sterile places such as hospitals or kitchens . Some species or genera commonly categorized as pests include the Argentine ant , pavement ant , yellow crazy ant , banded sugar ant , Pharaoh ant , carpenter ants , odorous house ant , red imported fire ant , and European fire ant . Some ants will raid stored food , others may damage indoor structures , some can damage agricultural crops directly ( or by aiding sucking pests ) , and some will sting or bite . The adaptive nature of ant colonies make it nearly impossible to eliminate entire colonies and most pest management practices aim to control local populations and tend to be temporary solutions . Ant populations are managed by a combination of approaches that make use of chemical , biological and physical methods . Chemical methods include the use of insecticidal bait which is gathered by ants as food and brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other colony members through trophallaxis . Management is based on the species and techniques can vary according to the location and circumstance .
= = = In science and technology = = =
Observed by humans since the dawn of history , the behaviour of ants has been documented and the subject of early writings and fables passed from one century to another . Those using scientific methods , myrmecologists , study ants in the laboratory and in their natural conditions . Their complex and variable social structures have made ants ideal model organisms . Ultraviolet vision was first discovered in ants by Sir John Lubbock in 1881 . Studies on ants have tested hypotheses in ecology and sociobiology , and have been particularly important in examining the predictions of theories of kin selection and evolutionarily stable strategies . Ant colonies may be studied by rearing or temporarily maintaining them in formicaria , specially constructed glass framed enclosures . Individuals may be tracked for study by marking them with dots of colours .
The successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault @-@ tolerant systems for solving problems , for example Ant colony optimization and Ant robotics . This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion , search engines that make use of " foraging trails " , fault @-@ tolerant storage , and networking algorithms .
= = = In culture = = =
Anthropomorphised ants have often been used in fables and children 's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort . They also are mentioned in religious texts . In the Book of Proverbs in the Bible , ants are held up as a good example for humans for their hard work and cooperation . Aesop did the same in his fable The Ant and the Grasshopper . In the Quran , Sulayman is said to have heard and understood an ant warning other ants to return home to avoid being accidentally crushed by Sulayman and his marching army . [ Quran 27 : 18 ] In parts of Africa , ants are considered to be the messengers of the deities . Some Native American mythology , such as the Hopi mythology , considers ants as the very first animals . Ant bites are often said to have curative properties . The sting of some species of Pseudomyrmex is claimed to give fever relief . Ant bites are used in the initiation ceremonies of some Amazon Indian cultures as a test of endurance .
Ant society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously . Mark Twain wrote about ants in his 1880 book A Tramp Abroad . Some modern authors have used the example of the ants to comment on the relationship between society and the individual . Examples are Robert Frost in his poem " Departmental " and T. H. White in his fantasy novel The Once and Future King . The plot in French entomologist and writer Bernard Werber 's Les Fourmis science @-@ fiction trilogy is divided between the worlds of ants and humans ; ants and their behaviour is described using contemporary scientific knowledge . H.G. Wells wrote about intelligent ants destroying human settlements in Brazil and threatening human civilization in his 1905 science @-@ fiction short story , The Empire of the Ants . In more recent times , animated cartoons and 3 @-@ D animated films featuring ants have been produced including Antz , A Bug 's Life , The Ant Bully , The Ant and the Aardvark , Ferdy the Ant and Atom Ant . Renowned myrmecologist E. O. Wilson wrote a short story , " Trailhead " in 2010 for The New Yorker magazine , which describes the life and death of an ant @-@ queen and the rise and fall of her colony , from an ants ' point of view .
From the late 1950s through the late 1970s , ant farms were popular educational children 's toys in the United States . Later versions use transparent gel instead of soil , allowing greater visibility . In the early 1990s , the video game SimAnt , which simulated an ant colony , won the 1992 Codie award for " Best Simulation Program " .
Ants also are quite popular inspiration for many science @-@ fiction insectoids , such as the Formics of Ender 's Game , the Bugs of Starship Troopers , the giant ants in the films Them ! and Empire of the Ants , Marvel Comics ' super hero Ant @-@ Man , and ants mutated into super @-@ intelligence in Phase IV . In computer strategy games , ant @-@ based species often benefit from increased production rates due to their single @-@ minded focus , such as the Klackons in the Master of Orion series of games or the ChCht in Deadlock II . These characters are often credited with a hive mind , a common misconception about ant colonies .
= Transformers ( film ) =
Transformers is a 2007 American science fiction action film based on the Transformers toy line . The film , which combines computer animation with live @-@ action , is directed by Michael Bay , with Steven Spielberg serving as executive producer . It is the first installment of the live @-@ action Transformers film series . It stars Shia LaBeouf as Sam Witwicky , a teenager who gets caught up in a war between the heroic Autobots and the villainous Decepticons , two factions of alien robots who can disguise themselves by transforming into everyday machinery , primarily vehicles . The Autobots intend to use the AllSpark , the object that created their robotic race , in an attempt to rebuild Cybertron and end the war while the Decepticons desire control of the AllSpark with the intention of using it to build an army by giving life to the machines of Earth . Tyrese Gibson , Josh Duhamel , Anthony Anderson , Megan Fox , Rachael Taylor , John Turturro , and Jon Voight also star while voice actors Peter Cullen and Hugo Weaving voice Optimus Prime and Megatron respectively .
The film was produced by Don Murphy and Tom DeSanto . They developed the project in 2003 , and DeSanto wrote a treatment . Steven Spielberg came on board the following year , hiring Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman to write the screenplay . The U.S. Armed Forces and General Motors ( GM ) loaned vehicles and aircraft during filming , which saved money for the production and added realism to the battle scenes .
Hasbro 's promotional campaign for the film included deals with hundreds of companies . Advertising included a viral marketing campaign , coordinated releases of prequel comic books , toys , and books , as well as product placement deals with GM , Burger King , and eBay .
Transformers received mixed to positive reviews from critics and fans , and is the forty @-@ fifth highest @-@ grossing film and the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 , grossing approximately $ 709 million worldwide , with an estimated 46 million tickets sold in the US . The film won four awards from the Visual Effects Society and was nominated for three Academy Awards , for Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , and Best Visual Effects . LaBeouf 's performance was praised by Empire , and Cullen 's reprisal of Optimus Prime from the 1980s television series was well received by fans . A sequel , Revenge of the Fallen , was released on June 24 , 2009 . A third film , Dark of the Moon , was released on June 29 , 2011 , in 3 @-@ D and went on to gross over $ 1 billion . A fourth entry , Age of Extinction , was released on June 27 , 2014 , which also grossed over $ 1 billion . A fifth installment , titled Transformers : The Last Knight , is scheduled for a Summer 2017 release .
= = Plot = =
Several thousand years ago , the planet Cybertron was consumed by a civil war by the two Transformer factions , the Autobots led by Optimus Prime and the Decepticons led by Megatron . Optimus jettisoned the AllSpark , a mystical artifact that brings life to the planet , into space , but Megatron pursued it . Megatron crashed in the Arctic Circle and froze , and was discovered in 1895 by explorer Archibald Witwicky . Witwicky activated Megatron ’ s navigational system , which scanned the AllSpark ’ s coordinates into his glasses . The glasses end up in the possession of his great @-@ great @-@ grandson Sam Witwicky . In the present , Sam buys his first car , a rusting Chevrolet Camaro , but discovers it has a life of its own .
In modern Qatar , Blackout attacks and destroys a U.S. military base in a failed attempt to hack the military network to find information on Megatron and the AllSpark . A team of soldiers led by Captain William Lennox escape across the desert , pursued by Blackout ’ s drone Scorponok . They fight Scorponok off , aided by aerial reinforcements and travel home with Scorponok ’ s stinger , discovering sabot rounds damaged the armor . At the Pentagon , Secretary of Defense John Keller leads the investigation into the attack . Sound analyst Maggie Madsen catches another Decepticon , Frenzy , hacking into the network while onboard Air Force One . While the hack is thwarted , Frenzy downloads files on Archibald ’ s glasses , tracking down Sam with Barricade , disguised as a police car .
Sam and his high school crush Mikaela Banes are rescued by the Camaro who turns out to be Autobot scout Bumblebee , but he is mute and has to communicate through his car radio . Previously sending a beacon to his fellow Autobots , Bumblebee takes Sam and Mikaela to meet the new arrivals – Optimus , Jazz , Ironhide , and Ratchet . Optimus explains the details of their situation , revealing if Megatron gained the AllSpark he would transform Earth ’ s machinery into a new army and exterminate mankind . Sam , Mikaela , and the Autobots travel to Sam ’ s house to retrieve the glasses , but the teenagers are captured by agents of Sector Seven , a top secret government branch led by Seymour Simmons . The Autobots stop the agents , but Simmons calls for backup , who take Sam , Mikaela , and Bumblebee into custody with Optimus obtaining the glasses .
The respective groups connected to the Transformers are gathered together at Hoover Dam by Sector Seven ’ s director Tom Banachek . Inside , the group discover the frozen Megatron and the AllSpark , but Frenzy , who smuggled away in Mikaela ’ s bag , summons the other Decepticons to attack . Bumblebee is released to protect the AllSpark , shrinking it down to a handheld size so it can be transported to safety . Megatron escapes the dam after thawing out . A lengthy battle occurs in Los Angeles , with most of the Decepticons being killed , but Megatron murders Jazz . He prevents Sam ’ s attempted escape with the AllSpark , and begins to fight Optimus . After a long brawl Megatron seems to get the upper hand . Optimus then tells Sam to push the cube into his chest , but Sam rams it into Megatron 's chest instead , extinguishing his spark . Starscream is the only Decepticon to escape , but Barricade remains on Earth .
Optimus salvages a shard of the AllSpark from Megatron ’ s body . The U.S. government shuts down Sector Seven , disposing of the dead Decepticons in the Laurentian Abyss . Sam and Mikaela then start a relationship while the Autobots secretly hide out on Earth , Optimus sends a transmission into space inviting any surviving Autobots to join them .
= = Cast = =
= = = Humans = = =
Shia LaBeouf as Sam Witwicky , the young descendant of an Arctic explorer who stumbles on a big secret which becomes the last hope for Earth .
Tyrese Gibson as Sgt. Robert Epps , a U.S. Air Force Combat Controller and technical sergeant of a Special Operations team based at the U.S. SOCCENT base in Qatar .
Josh Duhamel as Capt. William Lennox , the leader of Epps 's Special Operations team in Qatar .
Anthony Anderson as Glen Whitmann , a hacker recruited by the U.S. Defense Department .
Megan Fox as Mikaela Banes , a classmate of Sam who assists him in his mission by using skills she learned as a juvenile car thief . She is also Sam 's love interest .
Rachael Taylor as Maggie Madsen , a Pentagon analyst friend of Glen 's .
John Turturro as Agt . Seymour Simmons , a member of Sector 7 Advanced Research Division .
Jon Voight as John Keller , the U.S. Secretary of Defense .
Michael O 'Neill as Tom Banachek , head of Sector 7 .
Kevin Dunn as Ron Witwicky , Sam 's father .
Julie White as Judy Witwicky , Sam 's mother .
Amaury Nolasco as ACWO Jorge " Fig " Figueroa , a Special Operations soldier who survives the destruction of the SOCCENT base in Qatar and was also a member of Captain Lennox 's team .
Zack Ward as First Sergeant Donnelly , a member of Captain Lennox 's team .
W. Morgan Sheppard as Captain Archibald Witwicky , Sam 's great @-@ great @-@ grandfather who accidentally activates Megatron 's navigational system .
Bernie Mac as Bobby Bolivia , a used cars salesman .
John Robinson as Miles Lancaster , Sam 's best friend .
Travis Van Winkle as Trent DeMarco , Mikaela 's ex @-@ boyfriend .
Glenn Morshower as Colonel Sharp ( credited as " SOCCENT sergeant " )
= = = Transformers = = =
= = = = Autobots = = = =
Peter Cullen as Optimus Prime , the leader of the Autobots who transforms into a blue and red 1994 Peterbilt 379 semi @-@ trailer truck . Peter Cullen had previously voiced Optimus Prime in the original 1980s cartoon and was chosen to reprise his role , which was warmly welcomed by audiences and considered one of the film 's best aspects .
Mark Ryan as Bumblebee , the Autobot scout and Sam 's new guardian who transforms into a yellow and black 2006 Chevrolet Camaro .
Darius McCrary as Jazz , Optimus 's second @-@ in @-@ command who transforms into a silver 2006 Pontiac Solstice .
Robert Foxworth as Ratchet , the Autobot medic who transforms into a yellow 2004 search and rescue Hummer H2 ambulance .
Jess Harnell as Ironhide , the Autobot weapons expert who transforms into a black 2005 GMC Topkick C4500 .
= = = = Decepticons = = = =
Hugo Weaving as Megatron , the leader of the Decepticons who transforms into a silver Cybertronian jet . Originally Frank Welker ( voice of Megatron in the original series ) was considered but according to DVD commentary , Bay thought his voice didn 't fit , so Weaving was chosen instead .
Charlie Adler as Starscream , Megatron 's second @-@ in @-@ command who transforms into a Lockheed Martin F @-@ 22 Raptor . Adler had previously voiced several characters in the original series , most noticeably Silverbolt .
Blackout , Megatron 's third @-@ in @-@ command who transforms into a MH @-@ 53J Pave Low III .
Jess Harnell as Barricade , the Decepticon scout and interrogator who transforms into a black Saleen S281 police car .
Jim Wood as Bonecrusher , the Decepticon mine sweeper who transforms into a Buffalo H Mine @-@ Protected vehicle .
Brawl , the Decepticon demolition specialist who transforms into a dark green M1 Abrams .
Reno Wilson as Frenzy , the Decepticon hacker and Barricade 's minion , who transforms into a PGX Boombox , and later a Nokia 8800 .
Scorponok , a scorpion Decepticon and Blackout 's minion .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Don Murphy was planning a G.I. Joe film adaptation , but when the United States launched the invasion of Iraq in March 2003 , Hasbro suggested adapting the Transformers franchise instead . Tom DeSanto joined Murphy because he was a fan of the series . They met with comic book writer Simon Furman , and cited the Generation 1 cartoon and comics as their main influence . They made the Creation Matrix their plot device , though Murphy had it renamed because of the film series The Matrix . DeSanto chose to write the treatment from a human point of view to engage the audience , while Murphy wanted it to have a realistic tone , reminiscent of a disaster film . The treatment featured the Autobots Optimus Prime , Ironhide , Jazz , Prowl , Arcee , Ratchet , Wheeljack , and Bumblebee , and the Decepticons Megatron , Starscream , Soundwave , Ravage , Laserbeak , Rumble , Skywarp and Shockwave .
Steven Spielberg , a fan of the comics and toys , signed on as executive producer in 2004 . John Rogers wrote the first draft , which pitted four Autobots against four Decepticons , and featured the Ark spaceship . Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman , fans of the cartoon , were hired to rewrite the script in February 2005 . Spielberg suggested that " a boy and his car " should be the focus . This appealed to Orci and Kurtzman because it conveyed themes of adulthood and responsibility , " the things that a car represents in the United States " . The characters of Sam and Mikaela were the sole point of view given in Orci and Kurtzman 's first draft . The Transformers had no dialogue , as the producers feared talking robots would look ridiculous . The writers felt that even if it would look silly , not having the robots speak would betray the fanbase . The first draft also had a battle scene in the Grand Canyon . Spielberg read each of Orci and Kurtzman 's drafts and gave notes for improvement . The writers remained involved throughout production , adding additional dialogue for the robots during the sound mixing ( although none of this was kept in the final film , which ran fifteen minutes shorter than the initial edit ) . Furman 's The Ultimate Guide , published by Dorling Kindersley , remained as a resource to the writers throughout production . Prime Directive was used as a fake working title . This was also the name of Dreamwave Productions ' first Transformers comic book .
Michael Bay was asked to direct by Spielberg on July 30 , 2005 , but he dismissed the film as a " stupid toy movie " . Nonetheless , he wanted to work with Spielberg , and gained a new respect for the concept upon visiting Hasbro . Bay considered the first draft " too kiddie " , so he increased the military 's role in the story . The writers sought inspiration from G.I. Joe for the soldier characters , being careful not to mix the brands . Bay based Lennox ' struggle to get to the Pentagon phoneline while struggling with an unhelpful operator from a real account he was given by a soldier when working on another film .
Orci and Kurtzman experimented with numerous robots from the franchise , ultimately selecting the characters most popular among the filmmakers to form the final cast . Bay acknowledged that most of the Decepticons were selected before their names or roles were developed , as Hasbro had to start designing the toys . Some of their names were changed because Bay was upset that they had been leaked . Optimus , Megatron , Bumblebee and Starscream were the only characters present in each version of the script . Arcee was a female Transformer introduced by Orci and Kurtzman , but she was cut because they found it difficult to explain robotic gender ; Bay also disliked her motorcycle form , which he found too small . An early idea to have the Decepticons simultaneously strike multiple places around the world was also dropped .
= = = Design = = =
The filmmakers created the size of each robot with the size of their vehicle mode in mind , supporting the Transformer 's rationale for their choice of disguise on Earth . The concept of traveling protoforms was developed by Roberto Orci when he wondered why " aliens who moonlight as vehicles need other vehicles to travel " . This reflected a desire to move to a more alien look , away from the " blocky " Generation 1 Transformers . Another major influence in the designs was samurai armor , returning full @-@ circle to the Japanese origins of the toy line . The robots also had to look alien , or else they would have resembled other cinematic robots made in the image of man .
A product placement deal with General Motors supplied alternate forms for most of the Autobots , which saved $ 3 million for the production . GM also provided nearly two hundred cars , destined for destruction in the climactic battle scene . The U.S. Armed Forces provided significant support , enhancing the film 's realism : the film features F @-@ 22s , F @-@ 117s , and V @-@ 22 Ospreys , the first time these aircraft were used for a film ; soldiers served as extras , and authentic uniforms were provided for the actors . A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt IIs and Lockheed AC @-@ 130s also appear . Captain Christian Hodge joked that he had to explain to his superiors that the filmmakers wanted to portray most of their aircraft as evil Decepticons : however , he remarked " people love bad guys " .
= = = Filming = = =
To save money for the production , Bay reduced his usual fee by 30 % . He planned an 83 @-@ day shooting schedule , maintaining the required pace by doing more camera set @-@ ups per day than usual . Bay chose to shoot the film in the United States instead of Australia or Canada , allowing him to work with a crew he was familiar with , and who understood his work ethic . A pre @-@ shoot took place on April 19 , 2006 and principal photography began three days later at Holloman Air Force Base , which stood in for Qatar . To film the Scorponok sequence at White Sands Missile Range , a sweep was performed to remove unexploded ordnance before building of a village set could begin ; ironically , the village would be blown up . The scene was broken down for the Air battle managers flying aboard the AWACS aircraft , who improvised dialogue as if it were an actual battle .
The company also shot at Hoover Dam and at the Pentagon , the first time since the September 11 attacks that film crews had been allowed at these locations . The external Hoover Dam scenes were shot before tourists arrived daily at 10 : 00 a.m. , with shooting moving inside for the remainder of the day . Production in California was based at Hughes Aircraft at Playa Vista , where the hangar in which Megatron is imprisoned was built . Six weekends were spent in Los Angeles , California shooting the climactic battle , with some elements being shot on the Universal Studios backlot and at Detroit 's Michigan Central Station . The crew was allowed to shoot at Griffith Observatory , which was still closed for renovations begun in 2002 . Filming wrapped on October 4 , 2006 .
The film has been found to re @-@ use footage from Bay 's previous film Pearl Harbor ( 2001 ) .
= = = Effects = = =
Spielberg encouraged Bay to restrict computer @-@ generated imagery to the robots and background elements in the action sequences . Stunts such as Bonecrusher smashing through a bus were done practically , while cameras were placed into the midst of car crashes and explosions to make it look more exciting . Work on the animatics began in April 2005 . Bay indicated that three quarters of the film 's effects were made by Industrial Light & Magic , while Digital Domain made the rest , including the Arctic discovery of Megatron ; Frenzy 's severed head ; a vending machine mutated by the Allspark , and the Autobots ' protoforms . Many of the animators were big Transformers fans and were given free rein to experiment : a scene where Jazz attacks Brawl is a reference to a scene in The Transformers : The Movie where Kup jumps on Blitzwing .
ILM created computer @-@ generated transformations during six months in 2005 , looking at every inch of the car models . Initially the transformations were made to follow the laws of physics , but it did not look exciting enough and was changed to be more fluid . Bay rejected a liquid metal surface for the characters ' faces , instead going for a " Rubik 's Cube " style of modeling . He wanted numerous mechanical pieces visible so the robots would look more interesting , realistic , dynamic and quick , rather than like lumbering beasts . One such decision was to have the wheels stay on the ground for as long as possible , allowing the robots to cruise around as they changed . Bay instructed the animators to observe footage of two martial artists and numerous martial arts films to make the fights look graceful .
Due to the intricate designs of the Transformers , even the simplest motion of turning a wrist needs 17 visible parts ; each of Ironhide 's guns are made of ten thousand parts . Bumblebee uses a piece below his face @-@ plate as an eyebrow , pieces in his cheeks swivel to resemble a smile , and all the characters ' eyes are designed to dilate and brighten . According to Bay , " The visual effects were so complex it took a staggering 38 hours for ILM to render just one frame of movement " ; that meant ILM had to increase their processing facilities . Each rendered piece had to look like real metal , shiny or dull . This was difficult to model because the aged and scarred robots had to transform from clean cars . Close @-@ up shots of the robots were sped up to look " cool " , but in wide shots the animation was slowed down to convincingly illustrate a sense of weight . Photographs were taken of each set . These were used as a reference for the lighting environment , which was reproduced within a computer , so the robots would look like they were convincingly moving there . Bay , who has directed numerous car commercials , understood ray tracing was the key to making the robots look real ; the CG models would look realistic based on how much of the environment was reflecting on their bodies . Numerous simulations were programmed into the robots , so the animators could focus on animating the particular areas needed for a convincing performance .
= = = Music = = =
Composer Steve Jablonsky , who collaborated with Bay on The Island , scored music for the trailers before work began on the film itself . Recording took place in April 2007 , at the Sony Scoring Stage in Culver City , California . The score , including the teaser music , uses six major themes across ninety minutes of music . The Autobots have three themes , one named " Optimus " to represent the wisdom and compassion of the Autobot leader , and another played during their arrival on Earth . The Decepticons have a chanted theme which relies on electronics , unlike most of the score . The AllSpark also has its own theme . Hans Zimmer , Jablonsky 's mentor , also helped to compose the score .
= = Marketing = =
Hasbro 's toy line for the film was created over two months in late 2005 and early 2006 , in heavy collaboration with the filmmakers . Protoform Optimus Prime and Starscream were released in the United States on May 1 , 2007 , and the first wave of figures was released on June 2 . The line featured characters not in the film , including Arcee . A second wave , titled " AllSpark Power " , was set for release late 2007 , which consisted of repaints and robotic versions of ordinary vehicles in the film . The toys feature " Automorph Technology " , where moving parts of the toy allow other parts to shift automatically . Merchandise for the film earned Hasbro $ 480 million in 2007 .
Deals were made with 200 companies to promote the film in 70 countries . Michael Bay directed tie @-@ in commercials for General Motors , Panasonic , Burger King and PepsiCo , while props – including the Camaro used for Bumblebee and the AllSpark – were put up for charity sale on eBay . A viral marketing alternate reality game was employed through the Sector 7 website , which presented the film and all previous Transformers toys and media as part of a cover @-@ up operation called " Hungry Dragon , " perpetrated by a " real life " Sector 7 to hide the existence of genuine Transformers . The site featured several videos presenting " evidence " of Transformers on Earth , including a cameo from the original Bumblebee .
= = Release and reception = =
Transformers had its worldwide premiere at N Seoul Tower on June 10 , 2007 . The film 's June 27 premiere at the Los Angeles Film Festival used a live digital satellite feed to project the film on to a screen . A premiere took place at Rhode Island on June 28 , which was a freely available event giving attendees the opportunity to buy tickets for $ 75 to benefit four charities : the Rhode Island Community Food Bank , the Autism Project of Rhode Island , Adoption Rhode Island , and Hasbro Children 's Hospital . The film was released in IMAX on September 21 , 2007 , with additional footage that had not been included in the general theatrical release .
= = = General = = =
Transformers fans were initially divided over the film due to the radical redesigns of many characters , although the casting of Peter Cullen was warmly received . Transformers comic book writer Simon Furman and Beast Wars script consultant Benson Yee both considered the film to be spectacular fun , although Furman also argued that there were too many human storylines . Yee felt that being the first in a series , the film had to establish much of the fictional universe and therefore did not have time to focus on the Decepticons .
The film created a greater awareness of the franchise and drew in many new fans . Transformers ' box office success led to the active development of films based on Voltron and Robotech , as well as a Knight Rider remake . When filming the sequel , Bay was told by soldiers the film helped their children understand what their work was like , and that many had christened their Buffalos – the vehicle used for Bonecrusher – after various Transformer characters .
After the film 's 2009 sequel was titled Revenge of the Fallen , screenwriter Orci was asked if this film would be retitled , just as Star Wars was titled Star Wars Episode IV : A New Hope when re @-@ released . He doubted the possibility , but said if it was retitled , he would call it Transformers : More Than Meets the Eye .
= = = Critical reception = = =
At the website Metacritic , the film received a rating average of 61 , based on 35 reviews , indicating that it is generally a favorably reviewed film . Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 57 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , based on 219 reviews . IGN 's Todd Gilchrist called it Bay 's best film , and " one of the few instances where it 's OK to enjoy something for being smart and dumb at the same time , mostly because it 's undeniably also a whole lot of fun " . The Advertiser 's Sean Fewster found the visual effects so seamless that " you may come to believe the studio somehow engineered artificial intelligence " . The Denver Post 's Lisa Kennedy praised the depiction of the robots as having " a believably rendered scale and intimacy " , and ABC presenter Margaret Pomeranz was surprised " that a complete newcomer to the Transformers phenomenon like myself became involved in the fate of these mega @-@ machines " . Ain 't It Cool News 's Drew McWeeny felt most of the cast grounded the story , and that " it has a real sense of wonder , one of the things that 's missing from so much of the big CGI lightshows released these days " . Author Peter David found it ludicrous fun , and said that " [ Bay ] manages to hold on to his audience 's suspension of disbelief long enough for us to segue into some truly spectacular battle scenes " . Roger Ebert gave the film a positive review , giving it 3 stars out of a possible 4 , writing : " It 's goofy fun with a lot of stuff that blows up real good , and it has the grace not only to realize how preposterous it is , but to make that into an asset . "
Despite the praise for the visual effects , there was division over the human storylines . The Hollywood Reporter 's Kirk Honeycutt liked " how a teen plotline gets tied in to the end of the world " , while Empire 's Ian Nathan praised Shia LaBeouf as " a smart , natural comedian , [ who ] levels the bluntness of this toy story with an ironic bluster " . Ain 't It Cool News founder Harry Knowles felt Bay 's style conflicted with Spielberg 's , arguing the military story only served as a distraction from Sam . James Berardinelli hated the film as he did not connect with the characters in @-@ between the action , which he found tedious . Los Angeles Times ' Kenneth Turan found the humans " oddly lifeless , doing little besides marking time until those big toys fill the screen " , while ComingSoon.net 's Joshua Starnes felt the Transformers were " completely believable , right up to the moment they open their mouths to talk , when they revert to bad cartoon characters " . Daily Herald 's Matt Arado was annoyed that " the Transformers [ are ] little more than supporting players " , and felt the middle act was sluggish . CNN 's Tom Charity questioned the idea of a film based on a toy , and felt it would " buzz its youthful demographic [ ... ] but leave the rest of us wondering if Hollywood could possibly aim lower " .
= = = Box office = = =
Worldwide , the film was the highest @-@ grossing non @-@ sequel film in 2007 . It grossed $ 709 @.@ 7 million , making it Bay 's third highest @-@ grossing film to date , with only the two sequels surpassing this amount . It was also the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 worldwide , behind Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , Spider @-@ Man 3 , and Shrek the Third . The film was released in 10 international markets on June 28 , 2007 , including Australia , New Zealand , Singapore , and the Philippines . Transformers made $ 29 @.@ 5 million in its first weekend , topping the box office in 10 countries . It grossed $ 5 @.@ 2 million in Malaysia , becoming the most successful film in the country 's history . Transformers opened in China on July 11 and became the second highest @-@ grossing foreign film in the country ( behind Titanic ) , making $ 37 @.@ 3 million . Its opening there set a record for a foreign language film , making $ 3 million . The film was officially released in the United Kingdom on July 27 , making £ 8 @.@ 7 million , and helped contribute to the biggest attendance record ever for that weekend . It was second at the UK box office , behind The Simpsons Movie . In South Korea , Transformers recorded the largest audience for a foreign film in 2007 and the highest foreign revenue of the movie .
In North America , the film had the highest per @-@ screen and per @-@ theater gross in 2007 . It was released on July 3 , 2007 with 8 p.m. preview screenings on July 2 . The U.S. previews earned $ 8 @.@ 8 million and in its first day of general release , it grossed $ 27 @.@ 8 million , a record for Tuesday box @-@ office gross until it was broken by The Amazing Spider @-@ Man in 2012 . It did , however , break Spider @-@ Man 2 's record for the biggest July 4 gross , making $ 29 million . Transformers opened in over 4 @,@ 050 theaters in North America and grossed $ 70 @.@ 5 million in its first weekend , amounting to a $ 155 @.@ 4 million opening week , giving it the record for the biggest opening week for a non @-@ sequel . The opening 's gross in the United States was 50 % more than what Paramount Pictures had expected . One executive attributed it to word of mouth that explained to parents that " it [ was ] OK to take the kids " . A CinemaScore poll indicated the film was most popular with children and parents , including older women , and attracted many African American and Latino viewers . Transformers ended its theatrical run in the United States and Canada with a gross of $ 319 @.@ 2 million , making it the third highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 in these regions behind Spider @-@ Man 3 and Shrek the Third . The film sold an estimated 46 @,@ 402 @,@ 100 tickets in North America .
= = = Accolades = = =
Before its release , Transformers was voted " Best Summer Movie You Haven 't Seen Yet " at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards , and at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards , it was voted " best movie " . It was nominated for three Academy Awards , in the fields of Achievement in Sound Editing , Achievement in Sound Mixing ( Kevin O 'Connell , Greg P. Russell and Peter J. Devlin ) , and Achievement in Visual Effects ( Scott Benza , Russell Earl , Scott Farrar and John Knoll ) , but lost to The Bourne Ultimatum and The Golden Compass , respectively . It received a 2008 Kids ' Choice Award nomination for Favorite Movie , but lost to Alvin and the Chipmunks . The film received a Jury Merit Award for Best Special Effects in the 2007 Kuala Lumpur International Film Festival . Visual effects supervisor Scott Farrar was honored at the Hollywood Film Festival and Hollywood Awards Gala Ceremony on October 22 , 2007 for his work on the film .
In 2008 , the Visual Effects Society awarded Transformers four awards : for the best visual effects in an " effects driven " film and the " best single visual effects sequence " ( the Optimus @-@ Bonecrusher battle ) . The film 's other two awards were for its miniatures and compositing . Broadcast Music Incorporated awarded composer Steve Jablonsky for his score . Entertainment Weekly named Bumblebee as their fourth favorite computer generated character , while The Times listed Optimus Prime 's depiction as the thirtieth best film robot , citing his coolness and dangerousness . On the negative side , Jon Voight was nominated for Worst Supporting Actor ( also for Bratz : The Movie , September Dawn and National Treasure : Book of Secrets ) at the 28th Golden Raspberry Awards .
= = = Home media = = =
Transformers was released in Region 1 territories on October 16 , 2007 , on DVD and the now defunct HD DVD format . The Wal @-@ Mart edition of the DVD included a shortened animated version of the prequel comic book , titled Transformers Beginnings and featuring the voices of Ryan , Cullen , and Dunn , as well as Welker as Megatron . The Target copy was packaged with a transforming Optimus Prime DVD case and a prequel comic book about the Decepticons . The DVD sold 8 @.@ 3 million copies in its first week , making it the fastest @-@ selling DVD of 2007 , in North America , and it sold 190 @,@ 000 copies on HD DVD , which was the biggest debut on the format . The DVDs sold 13 @.@ 74 million copies , making the film the most popular DVD title of 2007 .
It was released on Blu @-@ ray on September 2 , 2008 . In the first week , the two @-@ disc edition of the Blu @-@ ray was number one in sales compared to other films on the format . The Blu @-@ ray version accounted for two @-@ thirds of the film 's DVD sales that first week , selling the third most in overall DVD sales . On June 16 , 2009 , Paramount included a sticker on all new Transformers DVDs that contained a code to view exclusive content online from the first film and get a sneak peek at Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen . The content includes three exclusive clips from Revenge of the Fallen , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage from both films , and never @-@ before @-@ seen deleted scenes from the first film . As of July 2012 , in North America , the DVD of the film has sold 16 @.@ 23 million copies , earning $ 292 @,@ 144 @,@ 274 .
The film 's distribution rights were transferred to Universal Studios in 2016 .
= = Sequels = =
The second film , Revenge of the Fallen was released June 24 , 2009 . The third film , Dark of the Moon was released June 29 , 2011 . The fourth film , Age of Extinction was released June 27 , 2014 . And the fifth as of now titled Transformers 5 is scheduled for a summer 2017 release . All three sequels received negative critical reviews but were still box office successes .
= Yawkey ( MBTA station ) =
Yawkey is a commuter rail station on the MBTA Commuter Rail Framingham / Worcester Line , located in the Fenway @-@ Kenmore neighborhood of Boston , Massachusetts near Kenmore Square . The station sits below grade between Beacon Street and Brookline Avenue , next to the Massachusetts Turnpike . Yawkey station was originally opened as an infill station in 1988 , for limited service to Boston Red Sox games at Fenway Park . Regular commuter service began in 2001 for riders headed to Boston University , Kenmore Square , and the Longwood Medical and Academic Area .
Inbound and outbound trains formerly shared a single two @-@ car platform on the inbound track , requiring Yawkey passengers to embark or debark from the front two cars of outbound trains or the rear two cars of inbound trains . In 2012 , work began on a new station , which includes two longer high @-@ level platforms and an overhead pedestrian bridge . The bridge will eventually allow direct access from the Beacon Street and Brookline Avenue overpasses through the planned Fenway Center development . Passengers boarded from the east end of the new station until March 10 , 2014 ; after delays , it opened fully that day .
The new station is served by all Worcester Line trains ; it is expected to increase ridership at Yawkey from 585 total daily boardings and alightings to 937 . By a 2012 count , there were 827 daily ( 362 boardings and 465 alightings ) . With the completion of the new station , Yawkey is fully handicapped accessible .
= = History = =
= = = Game day service = = =
Named in honor of long @-@ time Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey , Yawkey was opened on April 29 , 1988 , and initially was only used for special service to Fenway Park for Boston Red Sox games . It was used by Framingham Line trains as well as special " Fenway Flyer " baseball trains from the Attleboro ( now Providence / Stoughton ) and Franklin lines . The " Fenway Flyer " trains had an annual ridership of 58 @,@ 000 in 1990 . The station became popular enough that the MBTA added regular commuter service . This largely obviated the need for " Fenway Flyer " specials , though certain weekend Providence trains ran to Yawkey as late as 2007 . Similar special trains continue to serve Foxboro station during football and soccer games and special events at Gillette Stadium .
Yawkey was built with a low @-@ level asphalt platform and was not initially handicapped accessible . After the 1990 passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act , a mini @-@ high platform was added between 1990 and 1992 . However , the mini @-@ high platform only served one of the line 's two tracks , limiting the number of trains that could stop at the station .
= = = Regular service = = =
In early 2000 , the MBTA released a study which analyzed the possibility of full @-@ time commuter service to Yawkey to serve workers at nearby Boston University , Kenmore Square , and the Longwood Medical and Academic Area . An addendum released in August 2000 analyzed increased service ( on all modes ) to Fenway Park on game days . Possibilities studied included running game day service from the Plymouth / Kingston Line with an unused trainset , a South Station @-@ Yawkey shuttle , increased Green Line service , and bus shuttles to the Red Line in Cambridge and to Ruggles station . Consideration was given to building a dedicated terminal spur and station on the remains of the former Highland Branch .
Regular weekday commuter service to the station began on January 2 , 2001 with 4 daily round trips . Weekend service was still initially limited to game days . Regular weekend service was added on April 30 , 2001 . From 2001 to 2014 , not all trains stopped at the station ; most peak @-@ direction trains stopped , but many off @-@ peak trains did not . Before the rebuilding began in 2012 , some trains stopped at Yawkey only on game days during the Red Sox season .
= = = New station = = =
In August 2007 , the MBTA published a feasibility study exploring the possibility of rebuilding Yawkey as a full @-@ service station . The study concluded that doing so would increase ridership by 60 % , from 585 daily boardings and alightings to 937 . On November 15 , 2010 , Governor Deval Patrick and other officials broke ground on a major rebuilding of the station , originally expected to be completed in the spring of 2012 . The new station has two full @-@ length high @-@ level platforms that provide level , handicapped @-@ accessible boarding for all passengers ; the old platform had only a wooden ramp for accessibility . The two 700 @-@ foot @-@ long platforms ( a side platform between the tracks plus a side platform on the south side of the tracks ) are connected with an overpass , and passengers no longer have to cross the tracks to access certain outbound trains .
The rebuilt station was intended to be the first component of a larger , mostly private development called Fenway Center . The new station , which cost about $ 13 @.@ 5 million , is planned to be powered entirely by solar panels after the development opens . Although the developer , Meredith Corporation , wished to close the station during rebuilding , the MBTA elected to keep it open . Fenway Center , which was to be built on the air rights over the adjacent Massachusetts Turnpike ( I @-@ 90 ) , would eventually cover much of the station . As part of the development , walkways would be built above the station , allowing passengers to walk directly to the pedestrian bridge and platforms from Beacon Street and Brookline Avenue rather than passing through private parking lots . After lengthy negotiations , an air @-@ rights deal between the city and the developer regarding Fenway Center was reached in May 2013 . As of June 2016 , construction on the new buildings had still yet to begin , while financing and staging negotiations for the section not located over the station and highway were underway .
The Framingham / Worcester line schedule was changed slightly in April 2012 to allow for temporary single @-@ tracking through the station for construction . Actual station construction activity started in June 2012 , and in August one track was cut , reducing the line to one track through the station . The platforms were installed in late November 2012 ; construction of the elevator shafts began in February 2013 . A temporary ramp opened in June 2013 for passengers to use the east end of the future outbound platform ; the old platform was demolished soon afterwards to make room for the west ends of the new platforms . The pedestrian bridge was lifted into place in August 2013 , followed by the various roof and canopy elements . The second track was rebuilt in late September , followed by the remaining platform segments .
The new station fully opened on March 10 , 2014 , coinciding with planned service increases on the Framingham / Worcester Line . Before the reconstruction , 17 trains stopped at Yawkey each weekday ; after , all 48 daily trains ( 24 round trips ) stopped . The opening was first planned for January 13 , then January 27 , but was delayed due to problems with the Yawkey elevators and adjustments to the schedule based on public comment . The walkway between the new station and Fenway Park includes large lit statues of the uniform numbers retired by the Red Sox .
After special events like concerts at Fenway Park , the MBTA sometimes runs special commuter rail shuttles from Yawkey to South Station .
In December 2015 , Boston Globe columnist Adrian Walker proposed renaming Yawkey Way and Yawkey station because their current namesake , Tom Yawkey , was a racist .
= = = Cancelled plans = = =
Yawkey Station was a proposed stop on the MBTA 's proposed Urban Ring Project . The Urban Ring was to be a Bus Rapid Transit ( BRT ) Line designed to connect the current MBTA Lines to reduce strain on the downtown stations . Under the most recent plan , the Urban Ring would access Yawkey via Mountfort Street to the north and a new tunnel paralleling the Green Line " D " Branch to the southwest , with a turnoff and station at Overland Street . The Urban Ring project is currently shelved due to the MBTA 's financial difficulties .
In 2014 , it was revealed by the state that the stop would be part of the proposed Indigo Line system with frequent DMU service , but that plan was canceled in 2015 .
= = Station design = =
The station is fully handicapped accessible , with two full @-@ length high @-@ level platforms and elevators to cross from one track to another . The overhead pedestrian bridge is designed to connect to a future deck between Brookline Avenue and Beacon Street as part of the Fenway Center project . The main entrance to the station is on Overland Street between the two major streets ; staircases to Beacon Street are also available from the west ends of the platforms .
The station has an extremely unusual platform layout , where the outbound side platform is between the tracks rather than to the side . This is because the station is located on a tight curve ; doors located on the end of passenger cars would have gaps next to a convex platform .
= = Connections = =
Four MBTA Bus routes stop on Brookline Avenue at Yawkey Way :
8 Harbor Point / UMass – Kenmore Station via B.U. Medical Center & Dudley Station
19 Fields Corner Station – Kenmore or Ruggles Station via Grove Hall & Dudley Station
60 Chestnut Hill – Kenmore Station via Brookline Village & Cypress Street
65 Brighton Center – Kenmore Station via Washington Street , Brookline Village & Brookline Avenue
Kenmore station , located 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) to the northeast along Brookline Avenue , provides connections to the " B " , " C " , and " D " branches of the MBTA Green Line , as well two additional bus routes :
57 Watertown Yard – Kenmore Station via Newton Corner & Brighton Center
57A Oak Square – Kenmore Station via Commonwealth Avenue
MASCO , a consortium of medical facilities and universities , runs a number of private and semi @-@ private bus routes that serve its member organizations . Two private routes , the HSPH Landmark Shuttle and the Fenway Combined Shuttle , stop at Yawkey station on Overland Street .
= HTC One A9 =
The HTC One A9 is an Android smartphone manufactured and marketed by HTC . It was officially announced on October 20 , 2015 . It is the successor to the One M9 in the United States ; but in global markets , it was sold alongside the One M9 as a mid @-@ range offering . It was launched as an effort to improve the revenue of HTC 's smartphone business after the failure of the One M9 .
It features a unibody aluminum frame with a Super AMOLED HD display and Dolby Surround sound for headphones . It also features a fingerprint sensor which can be used to unlock the phone . It is the first non @-@ Nexus device to be pre @-@ installed with Android Marshmallow and the first non @-@ CDMA phone that is compatible to work with the Verizon network in the United States .
It received mixed reviews following its release . While many critics lent specific praise to its construction and fingerprint scanner , other aspects have generally received indifferent or mixed reception . Some thought that its price point was too high , while others thought it was a clone of the iPhone 6 . In November 2015 , HTC reported a 15 percent increase in overall revenue .
= = Development = =
Following the launch of the One M9 , the manufacturer saw a decline of nearly 40 percent of their revenue due to the poor sales of the M9 because of the overheating issue caused by the Snapdragon 810 chipset which forced the manufacturer to throttle the processor and the poor performance of the camera which also led the manufacturer to reduce its component order by 30 percent . HTC has reported further loss of revenue in the first and second quarter and they have also mentioned that they closed some of their manufacturing facilities due to the poor sales and outsourced some of their manufacturing . In June , the CEO of HTC , Cher Wang , confirmed that it was developing a " hero product " which was planned to launch in October intended to improve its smartphone business .
Rumors surrounding the development of the phone began to surface in July 2015 after the failure of the One M9 . It was reported by evleaks that the device will feature a metal unibody , a five @-@ inch screen , and a fingerprint sensor . The internal specifications of the phone was speculated through an unofficial AnTuTu benchmark test report . Several leaked images of the device began to surface which showed its similarities with the iPhone 6 .
In October 2015 , HTC began to release a teaser video to promote the launch event of the device on its official Twitter account . On 20 October 2015 , the phone was unveiled online in a virtual event held by HTC .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Hardware = = =
Similar to the One M8 , the phone is constructed of a unibody aluminum frame with brushed metal backing . The device weighs 143 g ( 5 @.@ 0 oz ) . It is 145 @.@ 75 mm ( 5 @.@ 738 in ) tall , 70 @.@ 8 mm ( 2 @.@ 79 in ) wide , and 7 @.@ 26 mm ( 0 @.@ 286 in ) thick . The display of the device is 5 @.@ 0 in ( 130 mm ) Super AMOLED with a resolution of 1920 x 1080 pixels and pixel density of 440 ppi .
The device features an octa @-@ core Qualcomm Snapdragon 617 system @-@ on @-@ chip . There are two configurations offered : 16 GB of capacity with 2 GB LPDDR4 RAM and 32 GB of capacity with 3 GB RAM . Both configurations can support storage expansion by microSD card up to 2 TB .
HTC emphasized the device 's camera due to criticism of the camera of its older phones . The HTC One A9 is equipped with a 13 @.@ 0 @-@ megapixel BSI rear @-@ facing camera along with optical image stabilization , ƒ / 2 @.@ 0 aperture and dual @-@ LED tone flash . Similar to One M9 , the front facing camera has a UltraPixel image sensor , designed to work well in low @-@ light environments . The camera offers a pro @-@ mode where the user can adjust the ISO , shutter speed and the white balance the camera is also capable of capturing images in RAW format . The rear and front cameras can record videos at 1080p .
The device also features a fingerprint sensor integrated with the home button which can be used to unlock the phone . It also adds support with NFC but however it is restricted to be only used with Android Pay , which is a digital wallet platform developed by Google to power in @-@ app and tap @-@ to @-@ pay purchases on mobile devices .
The phone is available in opal silver , deep garnet , topaz gold and carbon grey color finishes . In January 2016 , HTC launched the device in pink color variant for sale in Taiwan .
= = = Software = = =
The device is pre @-@ installed with a customized version of Android 6 @.@ 0 Marshmallow along with a lighter version of the Sense 7 as the user interface utilizing stock android experience which is known as Sense 7G . Unlike the Sense 6 and 7 used on other devices , the Sense 7G utilizes the material design as the default color scheme , the stock notification and recent apps menu are used instead of the HTC 's own design of notification and recent apps menu . The color schemes , icons , sounds , and fonts throughout the operating system can be customized by using HTC Themes where the users can create their own themes or download additional themes . It is also the first non @-@ Nexus device to come pre @-@ installed with Android Marshmallow .
Pre @-@ loaded applications on the A9 provide access to Google ’ s various services , including Google Play , which can be used to download and purchase apps , music , movies , and e @-@ books . The phone also features HTC 's software suite such as BlinkFeed , Gallery which supports to display and edit images in RAW format and Zoe which allows users to collaborate on highlight reels but it no longer features the HTC 's Music app and instead comes pre @-@ installed with Google Play Music . The phone utilizes the Marshmallow features such as Google Now on Tap which allows users to perform searches within the context of information currently being displayed in an app , a new power management system that reduces background activity when a device is not being physically handled which is known as " Doze " , native support for fingerprint recognition and the ability to migrate data to a microSD card and use it as primary storage , as well as other internal changes .
HTC has committed to provide software updates for the unlocked variant of the phone within 15 days after the software update for the Nexus devices released by Google . [ a ] They have also mentioned that the users of the unlocked variant of the device can unlock the bootloader without voiding the warranty of the phone .
In December 2015 , HTC released a maintenance update for the unlocked variant which updates the phone to Android Marshmallow 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 1
= = = Sound = = =
Unlike the One M9 , the phone does not feature the " Boomsound " stereo front facing speakers but instead it utilizes a mono speaker located on the bottom of the device . The phone features Dolby Surround sound for headphones and it can also play high @-@ resolution audio . It is installed with a digital @-@ to @-@ analog converter ( DAC ) which upscale the audio from 16 bits to 24 bits .
= = = Network = = =
The unlocked varriant of the A9 is the first non @-@ CDMA phone that is compatible to work with the Verizon networks which was enabled by a software update . HTC has explained that the phone connected to Verizon 's network relies on the phone 's LTE radio for making phone calls and sending SMS and MMS , which became possible through the advancement of VoLTE . However , the communication capabilities cannot work if there is no LTE coverage .
= = Variants = =
= = Reception = =
The phone has received mixed reviews by critics , although more favorable than the One M9 . Its construction , fingerprint scanner , and software received particular praise ; some critics noted the camera as an improvement over other HTC phones . Chris Velazco of Engadget said that it was " not the winner this company [ HTC ] needs " , but it praised it for coming with Android 6 @.@ 0 . Andrew Hoyle of CNET said that it " is just fine for a midrange device " . Ajay Kumar of PC Magazine praised its construction , describing it as " impeccable " .
Some critics thought that the phone was overpriced for its feature set . It was also criticized for looking similar to the iPhone 6 . Vlad Savov of The Verge was mixed on the phone overall , praising its emphasis on audio and display ; but described it as a " blasphemous concoction of Apple design and Google software . "
= = = Sales = = =
The phone was launched in the United States in November on all major carriers [ b ] which are sold as an unlocked device . During at launch , the device for Verizon was delayed due to compatibility issues and was launched in December 2015 . In India , the phone was announced in November and launched in December .
Following the launch of the device , HTC has reported a rise of revenue for November which is six months high for the company and 15 % increase of the revenue for October .
= The Projected Man =
The Projected Man is a 1966 British science fiction film directed by Ian Curteis , written by Peter Bryan , John C. Cooper , and Frank Quattrocchi , and starring Bryant Haliday , Mary Peach , Norman Wooland , Ronald Allen , and Derek Farr . It was released in the United States by Universal Studios , as a double bill with Island of Terror . The plot revolves around a scientist , Dr. Paul Steiner , experimenting with matter teleportation by means of a laser device . However , after a failed attempt at projecting himself , he becomes a disfigured monster who embarks on a murderous rampage .
Discovered by Alex Gordon as an unproduced screenplay by Hollywood writer Frank Quattrocchi , The Projected Man was directed by Ian Curteis ; it would be the first theatrical film that he would direct . However , due to his lack of experience , he ran into several problems during filming . As the film fell behind schedule and the budget kept increasing , he was fired during the film 's final stages . Producer John Croydon replaced him ; however , Croydon remained uncredited as the producers did not wish to publicise the problems which had occurred on set .
The Projected Man has received mixed reviews . Several sources were critical of the film 's resemblance to other science fiction films , with The Fly and 4D Man being singled out by critics and moviegoers alike as possible inspirations , although the film 's executive producer Richard Gordon has denied this . The Projected Man was featured in a ninth season episode of comedy television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 , and has been released on DVD by Cinema Club .
= = Plot = =
Dr. Paul Steiner ( Bryant Haliday ) and Dr. Christopher Mitchell ( Ronald Allen ) work on a projection device that enables them to transmit any object within a few miles of the machine . While they find the device works with inanimate objects , the living creatures they use it on always seem to die . When Dr. Patricia Hill ( Mary Peach ) arrives , she helps them fix the error , making Steiner think the problem has been solved . Meanwhile , Dr. Blanchard ( Norman Wooland ) , Steiner 's boss and head of the institute he works for , is being blackmailed by Mr. Latham ( Derrick De Marney ) , who wants credit for Steiner 's discovery . He forces Blanchard to demand Steiner to give a premature presentation to Professor Lembach ( Gerard Heinz ) .
Steiner , Mitchell , and Hill feel they are ready to present , but at the event , Blanchard places acid on the machine when everyone is unaware , causing an explosion . The funding for Steiner 's project is ended instantly , however , Mitchell later discovers that the device has been tampered with . Steiner goes to Blanchard 's house , where Lembach and Latham are having dinner . He presents the men with the evidence that his machine was deliberately tampered with , and Lembach allows him to have another chance . Steiner decides to try to project himself to Lembach 's house , and , with help from his secretary , Sheila ( Tracey Crisp ) , he begins the procedure . However , right then , Mitchell and Hill return to the laboratory .
The two try to convince Sheila to stop the projection , but as she is inexperienced with the device , she instead ends up projecting Steiner to somewhere else . He ends up at a construction site , the hideout of a band of thieves who are attempting to break into a bank . It is learned that an error in the projection has given Steiner the ability to kill people by touching them , and has mutilated one half of his body . Steiner kills the criminals , and then enters a store , where he steals a pair of rubber gloves and a coat . He then breaks into the institute , where he finds Latham and kills him . He also destroys the building 's power supply , alerting Hill and Mitchell that something is wrong . By this time , Inspector Davis ( Derek Farr ) has discovered the bodies of the criminals and is determined to stop Steiner .
Sheila is kidnapped by Steiner , who interrogates her in her apartment . She reveals that Blanchard and Latham planned against him , angering Steiner . Before leaving , Steiner sets Sheila 's apartment on fire with her inside ( unaware that she survives ) and goes to hide at Blanchard 's house . When Blanchard returns home , he is killed by Steiner . Meanwhile , Davis has examined Latham 's body and realises that the electric marks left on Latham were the same as the criminals . Steiner shows up at Hill 's house , where he finds her and Mitchell . Steiner demands that they tell him where he can find more electricity , since after the projection he needs energy to survive . Hill and Mitchell try to convince him to return to the laboratory so they can try reversing the projection , but Steiner rebuffs them and leaves toward a power plant .
Davis , Hill , and Mitchell find him rumbling around in the power plant . Davis tries to kill him , but Steiner resists his bullets , so Hill again tries to persuade Steiner to return to the laboratory . Steiner is eventually convinced , so he goes with them , but when he arrives , he tricks them and begins destroying things . With the laboratory on fire and the projection device wildly out of control , Steiner is hit by the projection device 's laser , causing him to disappear as the fire rages on .
= = Production = =
The Projected Man was discovered as an unproduced screenplay by film producer Alex Gordon . The script was written by Frank Quattrochi , a Hollywood screenwriter , and was originally set in the United States . Gordon sent it to his brother Richard , also a film producer . Richard enjoyed reading it , but had it re @-@ written to be set in London . He would serve as producer on the film . Ian Curteis was hired to direct The Projected Man , which would be his first theatrical film , as all of his previous work had been in television . Curteis was hired at the insistence of producer John Croydon , who was confident that Curteis would later become a success .
The movie was 50 % financed by Compton , the company of Michael Klinger and Tony Tenser .
Bryant Haliday was cast in the lead role as Professor Steiner . He was chosen for the role as Gordon was opposed to a British actor playing the title role , and the budget would not allow a Hollywood star to be used . The fact that Gordon was already familiar with him , as he had cast him in Curse of Simba and Devil Doll , was also a factor . Haliday , a fan of horror movies , enjoyed doing The Projected Man . British stage actress Mary Peach was cast in the lead role as Dr. Patricia Hill . It was insisted that she be given top billing for her role . Norman Wooland , a German @-@ born British character actor , was cast as Dr. Blanchard , the film 's villain . Derek Farr portrays Inspector Davis , and Ronald Allen plays the role of Dr. Christopher Mitchell . A scene in the film features actress Norma West lying topless on a morgue table ; this scene was added to aid sales overseas .
Curteis ran into several problems while directing the film . Owing to his absence of feature film experience , the film 's tight schedule , and limited funding , he became quickly overwhelmed , and The Projected Man started going over its budget and falling behind on schedule . Executive producers Michael Klinger and Tony Tenser threatened to take over production as they did not want to increase the budget . Since Croydon had hired Curteis , it became his responsibility to fire him and finish directing the film . Richard Gordon suggested that " I think Curteis was relieved to step out because he simply didn 't know any longer what to do . " Croydon was not credited for his directing work on the film ; as Gordon said , " one tries not to publicize such incidents . "
= = Release = =
The Projected Man was released in the United Kingdom by Compton @-@ Cameo Films Ltd in the summer of 1966 under an X @-@ certificate , which indicated it was suitable only for those aged 16 and older .
The Projected Man was shot at the same time as Island of Terror , with which it was released on a double bill . The idea of the double bill came to Richard Gordon when he ran Island of Terror for Universal Studios ' executive in charge , Hi Martin . As The Projected Man 's special effects were not yet finished , Gordon showed Martin Island of Terror . Martin enjoyed the film and obtained the American rights for a " very large sum of money . " As Gordon was not keen on the idea of Island of Terror being placed at the bottom of the bill with one of Universal 's other features , which he described as " no good for [ our production company ] financially , " he proposed adding a second film , noting that The Projected Man was nearing completion . He showed an unfinished workprint of the film to see if Martin was interested , and he enjoyed it enough to accept the deal . When The Projected Man was shown in theatres in the United States , it was cut thirteen minutes shorter than the original British print , due to the fact that Universal felt the opening scene , which depicted a rehearsal for an experiment which came later in the film , was " repetitive . " They also did not want a double bill with a duration of over three hours , and did not want to edit Island of Terror , so The Projected Man was trimmed to provide an exact 180 @-@ minute running time .
= = = Reception = = =
A review in entertainment industry magazine Variety praised The Projected Man , writing that the screenplay " is a mosaic compiled from other films but the pieces hang together fairly well . " However , Variety criticised the character 's motives , saying that " the origin and motives of the third party are never fully explained . " The magazine wrote that the performances in the film were " generally good , " and that " the characters do not fall prey to the usual cliches . " Writing for Ottawa Citizen , Gordon Stoneham , reviewing the double bill of The Projected Man and Island of Terror , called The Projected Man " dreadful stuff , " saying that the film was " badly written , woodenly acted , and abounding in the cliches of the horror film genre . " However , he wrote that " it is short and to the point " and wrote that " although it trods a familiar path , every now and then it comes up with some arresting bit of cinematic coloring that rivels the attention . " Comparing the two films , he stated that The Projected Man was " the best . " A TV Guide review wrote that the " characters are better portrayed than usual in films of this nature , keeping the actors from becoming mere stereotypes " and that " subtle artistic direction and first @-@ quality special effects give this picture a strong visual presence . " The review graded The Projected Man with two stars out of four . The anonymous reviewer for the British Kinematograph Weekly called the cast " competent " and noted that , while the " plot [ was ] at least as old as H. G. Wells " , there was something about the film that would challenge the " hard @-@ boiled child of today " .
Many reviews were critical of the film 's resemblance to The Fly . British magazine Time Out pointed it out , as did TV Guide . Audiences also noted that it was similar to the 1959 science fiction film 4D Man . In a 2000 interview with Video Watchdog , Richard Gordon stated " we weren 't really influenced by The Fly " and wrote in the 2006 book Interviews with B Science Fiction and Horror Movie Makers that " Projected Man does have a very strong similarity to The Fly , but it came to us as a finished screenplay and seemed to be a perfectly logical film to make . "
= = = Mystery Science Theater 3000 = = =
The Projected Man was shown in a ninth season episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 . The show , a comedy television series , revolves around a human character Mike Nelson and his two robots friends , Crow T. Robot
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willingness to defend its freedoms at the risk of his professional career in time of peace .
In a 1968 public interview , reflecting on his most important contributions , Black put his dissent from Adamson v. California " at the top of the list , but then spoke with great eloquence from one of his earliest opinions in Chambers v. Florida ( 1940 ) . "
= = = Criminal procedure = = =
Black adopted a narrower interpretation of the Fourth Amendment than many of his colleagues on the Warren Court . He dissented from Katz v. United States ( 1967 ) , in which the Court held that warrantless wiretapping violated the Fourth Amendment 's guarantee against unreasonable search and seizure . He argued that the Fourth Amendment only protected tangible items from physical searches or seizures . Thus , he concluded that telephone conversations were not within the scope of the amendment , and that warrantless wiretapping was consequently permissible .
Justice Black originally believed that the Constitution did not require the exclusion of illegally seized evidence at trials . In his concurrence to Wolf v. Colorado ( 1949 ) , he claimed that the exclusionary rule was " not a command of the Fourth Amendment but ... a judicially created rule of evidence . " But he later changed his mind and joined the majority in Mapp v. Ohio ( 1961 ) , which applied it to state as well as federal criminal investigations . In his concurrence , he indicated that his support was based on the Fifth Amendment 's guarantee of the right against self @-@ incrimination , not on the Fourth Amendment 's guarantee against unreasonable searches and seizures . He wrote , " I am still not persuaded that the Fourth Amendment , standing alone , would be enough to bar the introduction into evidence ... seized ... in violation of its commands . "
In other instances Black took a fairly broad view of the rights of criminal defendants . He joined the Supreme Court 's landmark decision in Miranda v. Arizona ( 1966 ) , which required law enforcement officers to warn suspects of their rights prior to interrogations , and consistently voted to apply the guarantees of the Fourth , Fifth , Sixth , and Eighth Amendments at the state level .
Black was the author of the landmark decision in Gideon v. Wainwright ( 1963 ) , which ruled that the states must provide an attorney to an indigent criminal defendant who cannot afford one . Before Gideon , the Court had held that such a requirement applied only to the federal government .
= = = Bill of Rights applicable to states , or " incorporation " question = = =
One of the most notable aspects of Justice Black 's jurisprudence was the view that the entirety of the federal Bill of Rights was applicable to the states . Originally , the Bill of Rights was binding only upon the federal government , as the Supreme Court ruled in Barron v. Baltimore ( 1833 ) . According to Black , the Fourteenth Amendment , ratified in 1868 , " incorporated " the Bill of Rights , or made it binding upon the states as well . In particular , he pointed to the Privileges or Immunities Clause , " No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States . " He proposed that the term " privileges or immunities " encompassed the rights mentioned in the first eight amendments to the Constitution .
Black first expounded this theory of incorporation when the Supreme Court ruled in Adamson v. California ( 1947 ) that the Fifth Amendment 's guarantee against self @-@ incrimination did not apply to the states . It was during this period of time that Hugo Black became a disciple of John Lilburne and his claim of ‘ freeborn rights ’ . In an appendix to his dissenting opinion , Justice Black analyzed statements made by those who framed the Fourteenth Amendment , reaching the conclusion that " the Fourteenth Amendment , and particularly its privileges and immunities clause , was a plain application of the Bill of Rights to the states . "
Black 's theory attracted the support of Justices such as Frank Murphy and William O. Douglas . However , it never achieved the support of a majority of the Court . The most prominent opponents of Black 's theory were Justices Felix Frankfurter and John Marshall Harlan II . Frankfurter and Harlan argued that the Fourteenth Amendment did not incorporate the Bill of Rights per se , but merely protected rights that are " implicit in the concept of ordered liberty , " which was the standard Justice Cardozo had established earlier in Palko v. Connecticut .
The Supreme Court never accepted the argument that the Fourteenth Amendment incorporated the entirety of the Bill of Rights . However , it did agree that some " fundamental " guarantees were made applicable to the states . For the most part , during the 1930s , 1940s , and 1950s , only First Amendment rights ( such as free exercise of religion and freedom of speech ) were deemed sufficiently fundamental by the Supreme Court to be incorporated .
However , during the 1960s , the Court under Chief Justice Warren took the process much further , making almost all guarantees of the Bill of Rights binding upon the states . Thus , although the Court failed to accept Black 's theory of total incorporation , the end result of its jurisprudence is very close to what Black advocated . Today , the only parts of the first eight amendments that have not been extended to the states are the Third and Seventh Amendments , the grand jury clause of the Fifth Amendment , the Eighth Amendment 's protection against excessive bail , and the guarantee of the Sixth Amendment , as interpreted , that criminal juries be composed of 12 members and be unanimous in their verdicts .
= = = Due process clause = = =
Justice Black was well known for his rejection of the doctrine of substantive due process . Most Supreme Court Justices accepted the view that the due process clause encompassed not only procedural guarantees , but also " fundamental fairness " and fundamental rights . Thus , it was argued that due process included a " substantive " component in addition to its " procedural " component .
Black , however , believed that this interpretation of the due process clause was unjustifiably broad . In his dissent to Griswold , he charged that the doctrine of substantive due process " takes away from Congress and States the power to make laws based on their own judgment of fairness and wisdom , and transfers that power to this Court for ultimate determination . " Instead , Black advocated a much narrower interpretation of the clause . In his dissent to In re Winship , he analyzed the history of the term " due process of law " , and concluded : " For me , the only correct meaning of that phrase is that our Government must proceed according to the ' law of the land ' — that is , according to written constitutional and statutory provisions as interpreted by court decisions . "
Black 's view on due process drew from his reading of British history ; to him , due process meant all persons were to be tried in accordance with the Bill of Rights ' procedural guarantees and in accordance with constitutionally pursuant laws . Black advocated equal treatment by the government for all persons , regardless of wealth , age , or race . Black 's view of due process was restrictive in the sense that it was premised on equal procedures ; it did not extend to substantive due process . This was in accordance with Black 's literalist views . Black did not tie procedural due process exclusively to the Bill of Rights , but he did tie it exclusively to the Bill of Rights combined with other explicit provisions of the Constitution .
None of Black 's colleagues shared his interpretation of the due process clause . His chief rival on the issue ( and on many other issues ) was Felix Frankfurter , who advocated a substantive view of due process based on " natural law " — if a challenged action did not " shock the conscience " of the jurist , or violate British concepts of fairness , Frankfurter would find no violation of due process of law . John M. Harlan II largely agreed with Frankfurter , and was highly critical of Black 's view , indicating his " continued bafflement at ... Black 's insistence that due process ... does not embody a concept of fundamental fairness " in his Winship concurrence .
= = = Voting rights = = =
Black was one of the Supreme Court 's foremost defenders of the " one man , one vote " principle . He delivered the opinion of the court in Wesberry v. Sanders ( 1964 ) , holding that the Constitution required congressional districts in any state to be approximately equal in population . He concluded that the Constitution 's command " that Representatives be chosen ' by the People of the several States ' means that as nearly as is practicable one man 's vote in a congressional election is to be worth as much as another 's . " Likewise , he voted in favor of Reynolds v. Sims ( 1964 ) , which extended the same requirement to state legislative districts on the basis of the equal protection clause .
At the same time , Black did not believe that the equal protection clause made poll taxes unconstitutional . Thus , he dissented from the Court 's ruling in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections ( 1966 ) invalidating the use of the poll tax as a qualification to vote . He criticized the Court for exceeding its " limited power to interpret the original meaning of the Equal Protection Clause " and for " giving that clause a new meaning which it believes represents a better governmental policy . "
= = = Equal Protection Clause = = =
By the late 1940s , Black believed that the Fourteenth Amendment 's due process clause was a constitutional prohibition against any state governmental actions that discriminated on the basis of race in an invidious or capricious manner . Black saw only race and the characteristics of alienage as the " suspect " categories that were addressed and protected by equal protection . Black believed that the equal protection clause could not be introduced as a means to invalidate state action , unless that action involved civil rights or racial discrimination . Black would maintain this view to his death , saying that race discrimination litigation merited strict scrutiny , whereas all other state @-@ action litigation did not . Black reserved the power to change the meaning and the scope of due process to the legislature .
= = Retirement and death = =
Justice Black admitted himself to the National Naval Medical Center in Bethesda , Maryland , in August 1971 , and subsequently retired from the Court on September 17 . He suffered a stroke two days later and died on September 25 .
Services were held at the National Cathedral , and over 1 @,@ 000 persons attended . Pursuant to Justice Black ’ s wishes , the coffin was “ simple and cheap ” and was displayed at the service to show that the costs of burial are not reflective of the worth of the human whose remains were present .
His remains were interred at the Arlington National Cemetery . He is one of twelve Supreme Court justices buried at Arlington . The others are Harry Andrew Blackmun , William J. Brennan , Arthur Joseph Goldberg , Thurgood Marshall , Potter Stewart , William O. Douglas , Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr . , Chief Justice William Howard Taft , Chief Justice Earl Warren , Chief Justice Warren Burger , and Chief Justice William Rehnquist . Justice Black is buried to the right of the main cemetery entrance , and up a hill , 200 yards behind the Taft monument . Black 's headstone is " identical in size and shape to the tens of thousands of military headstones in Arlington . " It says simply , " Hugo Lafayette Black , Captain , U. S. Army " .
President Richard Nixon first considered nominating Hershel Friday to fill the vacant seat , but changed his mind after the American Bar Association found Friday unqualified . Nixon then nominated Lewis Powell , who was confirmed by the Senate .
= = Legacy = =
Hugo Black was twice the subject of covers of Time Magazine : On August 26 , 1935 as a United States Senator ; and on October 9 , 1964 as an Associate Justice ( art by Robert Vickrey ) .
In 1986 , Black appeared on the Great Americans series postage stamp issued by the United States Postal Service . Along with Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr. he was one of only two Associate Justices to do so until the later inclusions of Thurgood Marshall , Joseph Story , Louis Brandeis , Felix Frankfurter , and William J. Brennan , Jr . See , Justice Hugo L. Black 5 ¢ stamp. and Hugo L. Black , First Day Cover . In 1987 , Congress passed a law sponsored by Ben Erdreich , H.R. 614 , designating the new courthouse building for the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Alabama in Birmingham , as the " Hugo L. Black United States Courthouse . "
An extensive collection of Black 's personal , senatorial , and judicial papers is archived at the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress , where it is open for research .
Justice Black is honored in an exhibit in the Bounds Law Library at the University of Alabama School of Law . A special Hugo Black collection is maintained by the library .
Black served on the Supreme Court for thirty @-@ four years , making him the fifth longest @-@ serving Justice in Supreme Court history . He was the senior ( longest serving ) justice on the court for an unprecedented twenty @-@ five years , from the death of Chief Justice Stone on April 22 , 1946 to his own retirement on September 17 , 1971 . As the longest @-@ serving associate justice , he was acting Chief Justice on two occasions : from Stone 's death until Vinson took office on June 24 , 1946 ; and from Vinson 's death on September 8 , 1953 until Warren took office on October 5 , 1953 . There was no interregnum between the Warren and Burger courts in 1969 .
= 1970 Canada hurricane =
The 1970 Canada hurricane was an unnamed tropical cyclone that brought impact to Bermuda and Newfoundland . The fourth hurricane and ninth tropical storm of the annual hurricane season , this system developed northeast of the Bahamas as a subtropical depression on October 12 . While tracking northeastward , the system intensified , becoming a subtropical storm on the following day . The subtropical storm transitioned into a tropical cyclone on October 16 , and strengthened into a hurricane about twelve hours later . The hurricane later bypassed Bermuda , before further intensifying into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Thereafter , the hurricane accelerated rapidly northeastward , and made landfall on the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland as a Category 1 hurricane . It transitioned into an extratropical cyclone early on October 17 .
The system produced tropical storm force winds on Bermuda , which caused the suspension of schools , transportation , and interrupted businesses , although minimal structural damage occurred . Light rainfall was also reported on the island . Hurricane force winds were observed throughout Newfoundland , which caused damage to structures , though mostly limited to broken windows . Rough seas damaged fishing dories and a fishing ramp on the Atlantic coast of the island . The cost of damage on the Burin Peninsula was estimated to be in the thousands of dollars , although the specific figure in unknown . Heavy rainfall was also reported in the region , with precipitation in Quebec reaching nearly 5 inches ( 130 mm ) . On the French Territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , several buildings and houses lost their roof due to strong winds .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 11 , 1970 , satellite images indicated that a tropical depression developed north of Hispaniola . However , according to post @-@ analysis , a subtropical depression actually formed on October 12 at 1200 UTC . The depression slowly intensified over the next few days , and became a subtropical storm on October 12 , thought this was operationally unnoticed by the National Hurricane Center . By October 13 , satellite imagery indicated that convection associated with the depression merged with a weak stationary front . As a result , the National Hurricane Center no longer considered it purely tropical and classified the system as a " subtropic storm " on October 14 . Later that day , the National Hurricane Center began issuing special bulletins for the storm , indicating the possibility of the system acquiring tropical characteristics .
Early on October 16 , satellite imagery indicated that the storm was developing a cloud pattern typical of a normal tropical cyclone . In addition , Reconnaissance aircraft flight data indicated that a warm core was developing . As a result , the system had acquired enough characteristics to be considered a tropical cyclone at 0000 UTC on that day . Later that day , the storm strengthened enough to be upgraded to a hurricane at 1200 UTC . Six hours later , the system passed just west of Bermuda , although winds were well below hurricane force on the island . Spiral cloud bands and an eye feature were observed on radars as the hurricane bypassed the island . The warm core persisted into October 17 , which indicated that the hurricane was fully tropical for at least 30 – 36 hours . Early on October 17 , the National Hurricane Center discontinued bulletins on the system , while it was located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) northeast of Bermuda .
At 0600 UTC on October 17 , the system intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Six hours later , the hurricane attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 974 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Although a radio bulletin by the Naval Communications Station Washington , D.C. Transmitter ( NSS ) at 1200 UTC noted that it had hurricane characteristics , the National Hurricane Center did not name the storm . By 1800 UTC , a cold front began impacting the circulation of the hurricane , which caused the storm to weaken back to a Category 1 hurricane , and began losing its tropical characteristics . At approximately 2330 UTC on October 17 , the hurricane made landfall on the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Only 30 minutes later , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnant extratropical cyclone curved abruptly northward and later re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic , before dissipating on October 20 .
= = Impact = =
Late on October 16 , the storm passed close to Bermuda as a minimal Category 1 hurricane , causing strong winds on the island . Maximum sustained winds of 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) and gusts up to 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) were recorded . At an elevated location , an anemometer reported sustained winds as high as 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Strong winds caused the suspension of school , transportation , and disruption to businesses across Bermuda . A riot started by the recurrence of vandalism and arson plagued the island for two weeks leading up to the storm . However , merchants and police were forced to ease their anti @-@ riot efforts to board up their windows . In addition to high winds , the storm also produced light rainfall on the island of Bermuda , which peaked at 1 @.@ 68 inches ( 43 mm ) .
Shortly before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone , the hurricane moved across the extreme southeastern portion of Newfoundland at Category 1 intensity . As a result , high winds were reported across the region ; wind speeds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) occurred on the Burin Peninsula . Wind damage occurred throughout the island , although mostly limited to broken windows , trees being uprooted , and fences knocked over . In addition , a house under construction blew over in Marystown ; another house was abandoned in St. John 's for the fear of the roof blowing off . Hydro poles also caught fire in Burin and Grand Banks . Rough seas caused by the storm sunk or damage several fishing dories in Grand Bank and three fishing premises were washed away in Lamaline . In addition , a fishing ramp was washed out to sea in Lourdes Cove . Damage in the Burin Peninsula alone totaled to thousands of dollars , although the exact figure is unknown .
Heavy rainfall also occurred across much of the Atlantic Canada region , especially in areas well west of the path of the storm . The highest amount of precipitation from the storm was reported in Quebec , where rainfall peaked at 4 @.@ 9 inches ( 120 mm ) in the extreme eastern part of the province . Rainfall occurred further north into Labrador , with precipitation of at least 1 inch ( 25 mm ) being reported as far north as Groswater Bay . Further south in the provinces of Prince Edward Island , Nova Scotia , and New Brunswick , rainfall amounts did not exceed 4 inches ( 100 mm ) . No flooding was reported in Atlantic Canada . On the offshore French Territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , severe wind damage was also reported on Saint @-@ Pierre . Several homes and a church lost its roof .
= ... Baby One More Time ( song ) =
" ... Baby One More Time " is the debut single by American singer Britney Spears . It was written and produced by Max Martin and Rami , and released in 1998 , by JIVE Records for Spears ' debut studio album of the same name ( 1999 ) . After recording and sending a demo tape with an unused song from Toni Braxton , Spears signed a multi @-@ album deal with JIVE . " ... Baby One More Time " is a teen pop and dance @-@ pop song that refers to a girl 's feelings after a break @-@ up with her boyfriend . The song received generally favorable reviews from critics , who praised its composition .
" ... Baby One More Time " attained global success , reaching number one in every country it charted , including the United Kingdom , where it earned double @-@ platinum status and became the country 's best @-@ selling song of 1999 . It also received numerous certifications around the world , and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with over 10 million copies sold . An accompanying music video , directed by Nigel Dick , portrays Spears as a student from a Catholic high school , who starts to daydream that she is singing and dancing around the school , while watching her love interest from afar . The music video was later referenced in the music video of " If U Seek Amy " ( 2008 ) , where Spears 's fictional daughter is dressed with a similar schoolgirl outfit while wearing pink ribbons in her hair . In 2010 , the music video for " ... Baby One More Time " was voted the third most influential video in the history of pop music , in a poll held by Jam ! . In 2011 , " ... Baby One More Time " was voted the best music video of the 1990s . It has been featured on all of her greatest hits and other compilation albums .
Spears has performed " ... Baby One More Time " in a number of live appearances and in all of her concert tours . It was the encore of the ... Baby One More Time Tour ( 1999 ) and Dream Within a Dream Tour ( 2001 ) ; Spears also performed remixed versions of the song during the Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour ( 2000 ) , The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) , The M + M 's Tour ( 2007 ) , The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) , the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) , and Britney : Piece of Me ( 2013 ) . " ... Baby One More Time " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , and has been included in lists by Blender , Rolling Stone and VH1 . It has been noted for redefining the sound of late 1990s music . Spears has named " ... Baby One More Time " as one of her favorite songs from her career . It was also the final song to be played on the BBC 's music programme Top of the Pops in the 1990s .
= = Background = =
In June 1997 , Spears was in talks with manager Lou Pearlman to join female pop group Innosense . Lynne Spears asked family friend and entertainment lawyer Larry Rudolph for his opinion and submitted a tape of Spears singing over a Whitney Houston karaoke song along with some pictures . Rudolph decided he wanted to pitch her to record labels , therefore she needed a professional demo . He sent Spears an unused song from Toni Braxton ; she rehearsed for a week and recorded her vocals in a studio with a sound engineer . Spears traveled to New York with the demo and met with executives from four labels , returning to Kentwood the same day . Three of the labels rejected her , arguing audiences wanted pop bands such as the Backstreet Boys and the Spice Girls , and " there wasn 't going to be another Madonna , another Debbie Gibson , or another Tiffany . " Two weeks later , executives from JIVE Records returned calls to Rudolph . Senior vice president of A & R Jeff Fenster stated about Spears 's audition that " It 's very rare to hear someone that age who can deliver emotional content and commercial appeal . [ ... ] For any artist , the motivation — the ' eye of the tiger ' — is extremely important . And Britney had that . " They appointed her to work with producer Eric Foster White for a month , who reportedly shaped her voice from " lower and less poppy " delivery to " distinctively , unmistakably Britney . " After hearing the recorded material , president Clive Calder ordered a full album . Spears had originally envisioned " Sheryl Crow music , but younger more adult contemporary " but felt all right with her label 's appointment of producers , since " It made more sense to go pop , because I can dance to it — it 's more me . " She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden , where half of the album was recorded from March to April 1998 , with producers Max Martin , Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub , among others .
Martin showed Spears and her management a track titled " Hit Me Baby One More Time " , which was originally written for American group Backstreet Boys and R & B group TLC ; however , when the song was submitted to them , they rejected it . Spears later claimed that she felt excited when she heard it and knew it was going to be a hit record . " We at JIVE said , ' This is a ... smash ' , " revealed the label 's A & R executive at the time Steven Lunt ; however , other executives were concerned that the line " Hit Me " would condone domestic violence , later being revised to " ... Baby One More Time " . Spears recorded her vocals for the song in March 1998 at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . The singer revealed that she " didn ’ t do well at all the first day in the studio [ recording the song ] , I was just too nervous . So I went out that night and had some fun . The next day I was completely relaxed and nailed it . You gotta be relaxed singing ‘ … Baby One More Time ’ . " The track was produced by Denniz Pop , Martin and Rami , and was also mixed by Martin at Cheiron Studios . Thomas Lindberg played the guitar , while Johan Carlberg played the bass guitar . Background vocals were provided by Spears , Martin and Nana Hedin . Spears also recorded a track called " Autumn Goodbye " , written and produced by Eric Foster White , that was released as a b @-@ side to " ... Baby One More Time " . The track was recorded in 1998 at 4MW East Studios in New Jersey . " ... Baby One More Time " was released as Spears 's debut single on October 23 , 1998 , by JIVE Records , when she was only 16 years old . The singer has named " ... Baby One More Time " as one of her favorite songs from her entire career , naming " Toxic " and " He About to Lose Me " as the other two .
= = Composition = =
" ... Baby One More Time " is a teen pop and dance @-@ pop song that lasts for three minutes and 30 seconds . The song is composed in the key of C minor and is set in the time signature of 4 / 4 common time with a moderate tempo of 93 beats per minute . Songwriting and production is largely based on previous Cheiron productions , most notably Robyn Carlsson 's " Show Me Love " which shows similar song scheme , drum patterns , wah guitars and piano hits . Spears 's vocal range spans over two octaves from E ♭ 3 to the high @-@ tone of G5 . The song begins with a three @-@ note motif in the bass range of the piano , an opening that has been compared to many other songs , such as " We Will Rock You " ( 1977 ) , " Start Me Up " ( 1981 ) and the theme song of the film Jaws due to the fact the track " makes its presence known in exactly one second " . According to magazine Blender , " ... Baby One More Time " is composed by " wah @-@ wah guitar lines and EKG @-@ machine bass @-@ slaps " .
Claudia Mitchell and Jacqueline Reid @-@ Walsh , authors of Girl Culture : Studying girl culture : a readers ' guide ( 2008 ) , noted the lyrics of the song " gesture toward [ Spears ] longing for the return of an ex @-@ boyfriend . " Spears said " ... Baby One More Time " is a song " every girl can relate to . She regrets it . She wants him back . " The lyrics , however , caused controversy in the United States , because the line " Hit me baby one more time " supposedly has sadomasochistic connotations . As a response , the singer said the line " doesn 't mean physically hit me . [ ... ] It means just give me a sign , basically . I think it 's kind of funny that people would actually think that 's what it meant . " Contemporary author Ben Shapiro deemed the song 's lyrics as suggestive , mostly " Oh baby , baby / The reason I breathe is you / Boy , you got me blinded / Oh pretty baby / There 's nothing that I wouldn 't do " and " When I 'm not with you I lose my mind / Give me a sign / Hit me baby one more time " .
= = Critical reception = =
" ... Baby One More Time " received generally favorable reviews from contemporary critics , who mostly praised its composition . Marc Oxoby , author of The 1990s ( 2003 ) , noted the song " was derided as vapid by some critics , yet tapped into the same kind of audience to whom the Spice Girls music appealed , young teens and pre @-@ teens . " Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic commented , " [ " ... Baby One More Time " is ] well @-@ composed , tightly arranged , and even with Spears 's vocal limitations it goes straight for the proverbial pop jugular . " She also said that the song was a highlight in the pop music genre and added , " There is little doubt that ' ... Baby One More Time ' will be long remembered as one of the cornerstones of pop music in general , and it is a strong front @-@ runner as the prototype for the late 90s pop resurgence . " Bill Lamb of About.com considered " ... Baby One More Time " as Spears 's best song , saying , " the song is full of hooks and a big mainstream pop sound . The accompanying schoolgirl video caused a sensation , and , when the single hit No. 1 , Britney was assured of stardom . " In a list compiled by Sara Anderson of AOL Radio , " ... Baby One More Time " was ranked sixth in a list of Spears 's best songs . She noted the singer " somehow made the school girl outfit and pink pom @-@ pom hair @-@ ties trendy again , worn by every tween in the succeeding years . "
Beth Johnson of Entertainment Weekly called " ... Baby One More Time " a " candy @-@ pop @-@ with @-@ a @-@ funky @-@ edge smash " , while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the song was " ingenious " , Brian Raftery of Blender called it " a perfectly fine , slickly conceived pop tune . [ .. ] At the time , teen @-@ pop was still a boys ’ club , but while the guys were crooning about crushes , Spears was already planning the sleep @-@ over party " . Rolling Stone called it " some of the best radio pop of the past decade @-@ plus " . NME considered " ... Baby One More Time " " incredible " , commenting that " it 's a symphony of teenage lust as fully realised as anything Brian Wilson ever wrote – a truly grand pop song that overwhelms any lingering undercurrent of Lolita paedo @-@ creepiness through the sheer fanatical earnestness of its delivery . " " ... Baby One More Time " won a Teen Choice Award for Single of the Year and an MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song .
= = Chart performance = =
The song was officially sent to the American radio stations on October 23 , 1998 . On November 21 , 1998 , " ... Baby One More Time " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the chart two and a half months later for two consecutive weeks , replacing R & B @-@ singer Brandy 's " Have You Ever ? " . Simultaneously , it climbed to number @-@ one on the Canadian Singles Chart . The song reached the top spot of the Hot 100 Singles Sales and stayed there for four consecutive weeks . This eventually propelled the single to a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America . Though not as strong as its sales tallies , " ... Baby One More Time " also experienced considerable airplay , becoming her first top ten hit on the Hot 100 Airplay , peaking at number eight . The single also became an all @-@ around hit on Top 40 radio , going top ten on both the Top 40 Tracks and Rhythmic Top 40 , and to number one for five weeks on the Mainstream Top 40 . It spent 32 weeks on the Hot 100 and ended up at number five on Billboard magazine 's year @-@ end chart . As of June 2012 , " ... Baby One More Time " has sold 1 @,@ 412 @,@ 000 physical singles , with 511 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States . It is Spears 's best @-@ selling physical single in the country . " ... Baby One More Time " debuted at number 20 on the Australian Singles Chart , a month later reached number one and stayed there for nine consecutive weeks . The song eventually became the second highest @-@ selling single of the year , only behind Lou Bega 's " Mambo # 5 " , and was certified three @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for selling over 210 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the single spent four non @-@ consecutive weeks at the top of the charts and after shipping over 15 @,@ 000 units to retailers the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand certified it platinum .
The track reached the top spot in every European country in which it charted . " ... Baby One More Time " spent two consecutive weeks at number @-@ one on the French Singles Chart and was certified platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique after selling over 500 @,@ 000 units in the country . Additionally , the song topped the German Singles Chart for six consecutive weeks and sold over 750 @,@ 000 copies , resulting in a three @-@ times gold certification by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry In the United Kingdom , according to JIVE Records , the single " … Baby One More Time " sold more than 250 @,@ 000 copies in a mere three days . Spears broke a first @-@ week sales record for a female act at the time when " ... Baby One More Time " sold a total of 460 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . The single went on to sell over 1 @.@ 5 million units , making it the highest @-@ selling single of the year and the 32nd best @-@ selling of all @-@ time in Britain . Eventually , the British Phonographic Industry certified it two @-@ times platinum on March 26 , 1999 . Additionally , " ... Baby One More Time " is the fifth best @-@ selling single by a female artist in the country , just behind Cher 's " Believe " , Whitney Houston 's " I Will Always Love You " , Adele 's " Someone like You " and Céline Dion 's " My Heart Will Go On " . " ... Baby One More Time " is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with over 10 million copies sold worldwide .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video was filmed on August 6 , 7 and 8 , 1998 , and was directed by Nigel Dick . After being chosen , Dick received criticism from his colleagues about wanting to work with Spears . He responded saying , " It 's a great song . I don 't know anything about Britney . I never watched The Mickey Mouse Club . She seems like a great kid and she 's very enthusiastic , but I just love the song . It 's just a great song " . The video 's original setup was in high contrast to what eventually became the final product . The plan was to have the video in a cartoon @-@ like environment , in a likely attempt to attract the audience of younger children . Spears was unhappy with this , and argued that she wanted her video to reflect the lives of her fans and wanted to set the video in a school . Spears pitched this idea to Dick , and further explained she wanted the video to have dance scenes . The original setting was scrapped and replaced with Spears 's concept . Dick ’ s original idea for the wardrobe was jeans and a T @-@ shirt , but during the wardrobe fitting Spears decided to change it for a schoolgirl outfit . Dick said that " Every piece of wardrobe in the video came from Kmart , and I was told at the time not one piece of clothing in the video cost more than $ 17 . On that level , it 's real . That probably , in retrospect , is a part of its charm . " The knotted shirt design was Spears 's idea , she recollects saying , " The outfits looked kind of dorky , so I was like , ' Let 's tie up our shirts and be cute ' " . About the experience of shooting her first music video , Spears said , " It was a wonderful experience . All these people there , working for you . I had my own trailer . It was an amazing experience " . The music video was shot at Venice High School , the same school used to film the movie Grease . The video premiered on MTV and other video stations in November 1998
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Spears appearing bored in class at a Catholic high school . Her assistant Felicia Culotta played the role of Spears 's teacher . When the bell rings , Spears runs out into the hall and begins a choreographed dance in the corridor . After this , Spears is outside , now adorned in an pink athletic outfit , and seen in a car . Along with a couple of other students , she performs a number of gymnastic moves before heading back inside . She is then sitting on the bleachers in the gymnasium watching a basketball game , and she dances in the gymnasium . Her love interest is revealed sitting close to her , played by her real @-@ life cousin Chad . After this short segment , Spears begins her final dance routine and the video ends shortly afterwards , and the bell rings and Spears leaves the gymnasium , revealing that the whole thing had actually just been Spears 's daydream .
= = = Reception = = =
The schoolgirl outfit is considered to be one of Spears 's iconic looks and is on display at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas , Nevada . The ensemble caused controversy among parents associations for showing the midriff of a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old . Spears faced the criticism saying , " Me showing my belly ? I 'm from the South ; you 're stupid if you don 't wear a sports bra [ when you ] go to dance class , you 're going to be sweating your butt off . " In 1999 , " ... Baby One More Time " earned Spears her first three MTV Video Music Award nominations , in the categories of Best Pop Video , Best Choreography , and Best Female Video . In a list compiled by VH1 in 2001 , it was listed at number ninety in the best videos of all time . The video was the first of fourteen of her videos to retire on MTV 's television series TRL . On its final episode , a three @-@ hour special aired on November 16 , 2008 , " … Baby One More Time " was number one in their final countdown as the most iconic music videos of all time and was the last video to be played on the show . Wesley Yang in his essay " Inside the Box " in n + 1 , compared the music video to Britny Fox 's " Girlschool " because it featured " a classroom full of Catholic schoolgirls gyrating to the beat in defiance of a stern teacher . [ .. ] But that was a sexist video by a horrible hair metal band that exploited women . Britney Spears was something else — an inflection point in the culture " . The music video is also referenced in the music video of Spears 's 2000 single , " Stronger " where Spears sings , " My loneliness ain 't killing me no more " - a reference to " ... Baby One More Time " where she sings , " My loneliness is killing me . " The music video is also referenced in 2009 single , " If U Seek Amy " . After she comes out of the house dressed as a housewife , her daughter is dressed with a similar schoolgirl outfit while wearing pink ribbons in her hair . The video was ranked at number four on a list of the ten most controversial music videos in pop by AOL on September 29 , 2011 . In April 2014 , the music video for " ... Baby One More Time " reached over 100 million views on VEVO becoming Spears ' 5th music video to do so and making it the first 90 's video by a female singer to receive a certification .
= = Live performances = =
Spears performed " ... Baby One More Time " on several occasions . She performed the song on July 6 , 1999 , during her appearance at the Woodstock 99 festival . Neil Strauss , from The New York Times , noted that " all the backing music was on tape , and most of the vocals were recorded , with Ms. Spears just reinforcing selected words in choruses and singing an occasional snippet of a verse " . It was also performed at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards ; after a classroom roll call ended , Spears appeared on the stage and began performing the song . Halfway through , she was Joined by Justin Timberlake and the members of NSYNC for a dance routine . Afterwards , the band performed their hit " Tearin ' Up My Heart " . The song was also performed at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards , along with " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " , and at the 1999 Billboard Music Awards . Spears performed the song in a medley with " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " at the 42nd Grammy Awards . Spears was wearing a turtleneck and a full tulle skirt at the beginning of the performance , while dancers surrounded her with enormous hand fans . After singing a shortened version of the song , she then took a few moments to shuffle into a form @-@ fitting red rhinestone outfit ( with side cutouts ) and emerged onto a stage to perform " ... Baby One More Time . " Spears was also criticized of lipsynching the song during her performance . Later , in 2003 , Spears performed the song in a remixed form at Britney Spears : In the Zone , a concert special that aired in ABC on November 17 , 2003 . " ... Baby One More Time " was also performed at the 2003 NFL Kickoff Live on September 4 , 2003 , at the National Mall , in a medley with " I 'm a Slave 4 U " ( 2001 ) , which included pyrotechnics . She sported shoulder @-@ length blond hair and was dressed in black football pants , a black @-@ and @-@ white referee halter top and boots from Reebok . Her outfit was later auctioned off to benefit the Britney Spears Foundation .
" ... Baby One More Time " has been performed in seven of Spears 's concert tours since its release . On ... Baby One More Time Tour , the encore consisted of a performance of the song , in which Spears wore a black bra under pink halter , a pink sequined plaid mini @-@ skirt , and black thigh @-@ high stockings . On 2000s Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour , " ... Baby One More Time " was performed after a dance interlude in which the dancers showed their individual moves while their names appeared on the screens . Spears took the stage in a conservative schoolgirl outfit to perform the song . She ripped it off halfway through the song to reveal a cheerleader ensemble . The song was also the encore of 2001 's Dream Within a Dream Tour . It began with a giant projection of a hologram of Spears onto a water screen . The projection gradually shrunk until Spears rose from the stage while wearing a plastic cowboy hat , blue hip @-@ huggers , and a matching bra top . She began performing " ... Baby One More Time " in a ballad version until reaching the end of the runway . Pyrotechnics surrounded the stage while the song changed to a more uptempo version with elements of techno .
On The Onyx Hotel Tour , after performing " Showdown " , a video interlude followed featuring Spears and her friends outside a club . While she was leaving , she noticed a woman dressed in 1930s fashion . She followed her and the woman asked Spears to enter the " Mystic Lounge " . Spears reappeared wearing a corset to perform " … Baby One More Time " along with " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " and " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " . All of the three were reworked for the show with elements of jazz and blues . " ... Baby One More Time " was also performed on the promotional tour made on some House of Blues locations , called The M + M 's Tour . The show started with Spears singing a short version of the song dressed in a white go @-@ go boots , a white miniskirt and a sparkling pink bikini top . On The Circus Starring Britney Spears , the song made into the Electro Circ act . It was the final song of the act , performed after " Toxic " . The performance consisted on Spears and her dancers performing a remix of the song . On 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour , " ... Baby One More Time " was performed in a medley with the remix of Rihanna 's " S & M " ( 2010 ) . On Spears ' current residency show Britney : Piece of Me in Las Vegas , the song was included on its setlist .
= = Cover versions , samples and usage in media = =
" … Baby One More Time " has been covered on numerous occasions . One of the earliest live covers of the song was by the Scottish band Travis , recorded during one of their concerts at " The Bay Tavern " in Robin Hood 's Bay , North Yorkshire , England . The song was later included in the release of their 1999 single , " Turn " . Lead singer Francis Healey said , " We did it for a laugh the first time . [ .. ] And as we played it , the irony slipped from my smile . It ’ s a very well @-@ crafted song . It [ has ] that magic thing . " The Guardian said this cover showed a new and more " dark " side of the band , commenting " slowed down to a mournful crawl , it was amazing how ominous the couplet " This loneliness is killing me / Hit me , baby , one more time " sounded " . PopWreckoning.com called it " perhaps the most well done cover of Britney ’ s catalyst to eternal fame " . Spears heard their version while shopping in a mall and said , " It was so weird . I liked it though , I thought it was cool . It was a very different vibe from what I did " . In July 2005 , The Dresden Dolls performed a cover during their summer concerts while opening for Panic ! at the Disco . On July 18 , 2006 , frontman Brendon Urie joined the band to perform the song in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . PopWreckoning.com said the cover was " a strange twist to this pop ditty . It ’ s obviously darker and actually tortured as opposed to Britney ’ s school girl despair " . On November 29 , 2008 , the same day Spears performed " Womanizer " on The X Factor , contestants JLS performed a cover of the song that was deemed " lame " by judge Simon Cowell .
On July 13 , 2009 , Tori Amos covered the song live during her Sinful Attraction Tour at the Paramount Theatre in Oakland , California . On October 15 , 2009 , Kris Allen covered the song for the first time at a concert in Seton High School in Cincinnati , Ohio . His rendition received positive reviews . An excerpt was used in 20th Century Fox 's CGI @-@ animated comedy film Robots , but was not included on the soundtrack album . Swedish humorist heavy metal band Black Ingvars covered the song for their 2000 album Kids Superhits . The same year , British death metal cover band Ten Masked Men included a rendition of the song on their Return of the Ten Masked Men album . A cover by Ahmet and Dweezil Zappa was featured in the soundtrack of the 2000 film Ready to Rumble . In 2003 , the song was covered by American pop punk band Bowling for Soup for the soundtrack of the remake film Freaky Friday and commented that their version was " really , really , dark and really rock , [ .. ] not the kind of ' pop ' -py stuff that we usually do . " In 2005 , power pop band Fountains of Wayne covered the song for their compilation album Out @-@ of @-@ State Plates . Robert Christgau of The Village Voice highlighted their rendition saying the song is " as redolent and fetching as any of [ Fountains of Wayne ] ' s peaks " . Japanese pop singer Shiori Takei covered the song of her 2005 album The Note of My Nineteen Years .
In 2006 , a lounge music style cover of the song by Trombo Combo was included on their covers album Trombo Combo : Swedish Sound Deluxe . A hi @-@ NRG @-@ eurodance cover by Jayne Montgomery was released through Almighty Records . In the 2009 compilation Punk Goes Pop 2 , a cover of the song by metalcore band August Burns Red was included along with a cover of " Toxic " by A Static Lullaby . Music duo Doll Factory included a cover of the song as a bonus track on later printings of their album Weightless . Singer @-@ songwriter Christopher Dallman released an EP titled Sad Britney that includes a cover of the song along with covers of " Toxic " , " Gimme More " and " Radar " . The song has also been covered by Brainshake , Intwine , Kevorkian , P.T. Grimm and the Dead Puppies , Jenny Owen Youngs , Neil Sahgal and Annie Bethancourt , among others . In the 2010 Glee episode " Britney / Brittany " , the character of Rachel Berry , played by Lea Michele , covered the song using similar outfits to the ones of the music video . Spears also made a cameo , taking the teacher 's role , previously played by Cullota . Darren Criss also of Glee performed a mash @-@ up of " ... Baby One More Time " with " Für Elise " on Sing Out , Raise Hope for The Trevor Project and the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation in December 2011 . In 2012 , British singer Ed Sheeran did an acoustic version of the song NOW 100 @.@ 5 FM . A year later he covered it on The Elvis Duran Z100 Morning Show and added a rap verse . The song is sung by actresses Selena Gomez , Vanessa Hudgens , Ashley Benson and Rachel Korine in Harmony Korine 's film Spring Breakers . Swedish singer Tove Styrke released a cover of the song on July 24 , 2015 .
= = Impact = =
" … Baby One More Time " was listed at number twenty five in the greatest pop songs since 1963 , in a list compiled by Rolling Stone and MTV in 2000 . Blender listed it at number two in The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born . The song was also listed as the 2nd best song of the 1990s by VH1 and in a listing compiled in 2003 , ranked at number one in 100 Best Songs of the Past 25 Years . Bill Lamb of About.com ranked " ... Baby One More Time " at number one on a compiled list with the Top 40 Pop Songs Of All Time . The music video was voted the third most influential promo in the history of pop music on a poll held by Jam ! . " … Baby One More Time " is also one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with over 9 million copies sold , and also earned Spears 's first nomination for a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . In April 2005 , the British TV network ITV aired a short series called Hit Me , Baby , One More Time hosted by Vernon Kay . The show pitted one @-@ hit wonders who generally had their moments of fame in the 1980s against each other to play their own hits and a currently popular cover song . The favorites were chosen by audience voting . The American version of the show also aired on NBC later in the year , and it was also hosted by Kay . In the 2012 poll created by The Official Chart Company and ITV to discover The Nation 's Favourite Number 1 Single of all @-@ time , " … Baby One More Time " was listed as the seventh favorite song by the United Kingdom .
Spears became an international pop culture icon immediately after launching her recording career . Rolling Stone magazine wrote : " One of the most controversial and successful female vocalists of the 21st century , " she " spearheaded the rise of post @-@ millennial teen pop ... Spears early on cultivated a mixture of innocence and experience that broke the bank " . Barbara Ellen of The Observer has reported : " Spears is famously one of the ' oldest ' teenagers pop has ever produced , almost middle aged in terms of focus and determination . Many 19 @-@ year @-@ olds haven 't even started working by that age , whereas Britney , a former Mouseketeer , was that most unusual and volatile of American phenomena — a child with a full @-@ time career . While other little girls were putting posters on their walls , Britney was wanting to be the poster on the wall . Whereas other children develop at their own pace , Britney was developing at a pace set by the ferociously competitive American entertainment industry " .
Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork noted " songs like Nirvana 's " Smells Like Teen Spirit " , Dr. Dre 's " Nothing But a G Thang " , and Britney Spears 's " ... Baby One More Time " altered the landscape of pop culture so quickly in large part because they were delivered to all corners of the U.S. simultaneously by MTV . [ ... ] MTV 's ability to place a song and musician into the pop music conversation was unparalleled at the time , and by the end of the decade that meant absurd levels of both financial and creative commitment to music videos . " PopMatters writer Evan Sawdey commented that Spears 's concept for the music video of the song was the one responsible for her immediate success , saying that , as a result , the singer " scored a massive No. 1 single , inadvertently started the late ' 90s teen pop boom , and created a public persona for herself that was simultaneously kid @-@ friendly and pure male fantasy . Her videos got played on both MTV and the Disney Channel at the same time , showing just how well Spears ( and her armies of PR handlers ) managed to walk that fine line between family @-@ friendly pop idol and unabashed sex object . "
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " ... Baby One More Time " and " Autumn Goodbye " are taken from the single 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Saturn =
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second @-@ largest in the Solar System , after Jupiter . It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth . Although only one @-@ eighth the average density of Earth , with its larger volume Saturn is just over 95 times more massive . Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture ; its astronomical symbol ( ♄ ) represents the god 's sickle .
Saturn 's interior is probably composed of a core of iron – nickel and rock ( silicon and oxygen compounds ) . This core is surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen , an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium , and finally outside the Frenkel line a gaseous outer layer . Saturn has a pale yellow hue due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere . Electrical current within the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn 's planetary magnetic field , which is weaker than Earth 's , but has a magnetic moment 580 times that of Earth due to Saturn 's larger size . Saturn 's magnetic field strength is around one @-@ twentieth of Jupiter 's . The outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast , although long @-@ lived features can appear . Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1 @,@ 800 km / h ( 500 m / s ) , higher than on Jupiter , but not as high as those on Neptune .
Saturn has a prominent ring system that consists of nine continuous main rings and three discontinuous arcs and that is composed mostly of ice particles with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust . Sixty @-@ two moons are known to orbit Saturn , of which fifty @-@ three are officially named . This does not include the hundreds of moonlets comprising the rings . Titan , Saturn 's largest moon , and the second @-@ largest in the Solar System , is larger than the planet Mercury , although less massive , and is the only moon in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Saturn is a gas giant because it is predominantly composed of hydrogen and helium ( ' gas ' ) . It lacks a definite surface , though it may have a solid core . Saturn 's rotation causes it to have the shape of an oblate spheroid ; that is , it is flattened at the poles and bulges at its equator . Its equatorial and polar radii differ by almost 10 % : 60 @,@ 268 km versus 54 @,@ 364 km , respectively . Jupiter , Uranus , and Neptune , the other giant planets in the Solar System , are also oblate but to a lesser extent . Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water — about 30 % less . Although Saturn 's core is considerably denser than water , the average specific density of the planet is 0 @.@ 69 g / cm3 due to the atmosphere . Jupiter has 318 times the Earth 's mass , while Saturn is 95 times the mass of the Earth , Together , Jupiter and Saturn hold 92 % of the total planetary mass in the Solar System .
On 8 January 2015 , NASA reported determining the center of the planet Saturn and its family of moons to within 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) .
= = = Internal structure = = =
Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium , most of Saturn 's mass is not in the gas phase , because hydrogen becomes a non @-@ ideal liquid when the density is above 0 @.@ 01 g / cm3 , which is reached at a radius containing 99 @.@ 9 % of Saturn 's mass . The temperature , pressure , and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core , which causes hydrogen to transition into a metal in the deeper layers .
Standard planetary models suggest that the interior of Saturn is similar to that of Jupiter , having a small rocky core surrounded by hydrogen and helium with trace amounts of various volatiles . This core is similar in composition to the Earth , but more dense . Examination of Saturn 's gravitational moment , in combination with physical models of the interior , allowed French astronomers Didier Saumon and Tristan Guillot to place constraints on the mass of Saturn 's core . In 2004 , they estimated that the core must be 9 – 22 times the mass of the Earth , which corresponds to a diameter of about 25 @,@ 000 km . This is surrounded by a thicker liquid metallic hydrogen layer , followed by a liquid layer of helium @-@ saturated molecular hydrogen that gradually transitions to a gas with increasing altitude . The outermost layer spans 1 @,@ 000 km and consists of gas .
Saturn has a hot interior , reaching 11 @,@ 700 ° C at its core , and it radiates 2 @.@ 5 times more energy into space than it receives from the Sun . Jupiter 's thermal energy is generated by the Kelvin – Helmholtz mechanism of slow gravitational compression , but this alone may not be sufficient to explain heat production for Saturn , because it is less massive . An alternative or additional mechanism may be generation of heat through the " raining out " of droplets of helium deep in Saturn 's interior . As the droplets descend through the lower @-@ density hydrogen , the process releases heat by friction and leaves Saturn 's outer layers depleted of helium . These descending droplets may have accumulated into a helium shell surrounding the core .
= = = Atmosphere = = =
The outer atmosphere of Saturn contains 96 @.@ 3 % molecular hydrogen and 3 @.@ 25 % helium by volume . The proportion of helium is significantly deficient compared to the abundance of this element in the Sun . The quantity of elements heavier than helium is not known precisely , but the proportions are assumed to match the primordial abundances from the formation of the Solar System . The total mass of these heavier elements is estimated to be 19 – 31 times the mass of the Earth , with a significant fraction located in Saturn 's core region .
Trace amounts of ammonia , acetylene , ethane , propane , phosphine and methane have been detected in Saturn 's atmosphere . The upper clouds are composed of ammonia crystals , while the lower level clouds appear to consist of either ammonium hydrosulfide ( NH4SH ) or water . Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes methane photolysis in the upper atmosphere , leading to a series of hydrocarbon chemical reactions with the resulting products being carried downward by eddies and diffusion . This photochemical cycle is modulated by Saturn 's annual seasonal cycle .
= = = = Cloud layers = = = =
Saturn 's atmosphere exhibits a banded pattern similar to Jupiter 's , but Saturn 's bands are much fainter and are much wider near the equator . The nomenclature used to describe these bands is the same as on Jupiter . Saturn 's finer cloud patterns were not observed until the flybys of the Voyager spacecraft during the 1980s . Since then , Earth @-@ based telescopy has improved to the point where regular observations can be made .
The composition of the clouds varies with depth and increasing pressure . In the upper cloud layers , with the temperature in the range 100 – 160 K and pressures extending between 0 @.@ 5 – 2 bar , the clouds consist of ammonia ice . Water ice clouds begin at a level where the pressure is about 2 @.@ 5 bar and extend down to 9 @.@ 5 bar , where temperatures range from 185 – 270 K. Intermixed in this layer is a band of ammonium hydrosulfide ice , lying in the pressure range 3 – 6 bar with temperatures of 290 – 235 K. Finally , the lower layers , where pressures are between 10 – 20 bar and temperatures are 270 – 330 K , contains a region of water droplets with ammonia in aqueous solution .
Saturn 's usually bland atmosphere occasionally exhibits long @-@ lived ovals and other features common on Jupiter . In 1990 , the Hubble Space Telescope imaged an enormous white cloud near Saturn 's equator that was not present during the Voyager encounters and in 1994 , another , smaller storm was observed . The 1990 storm was an example of a Great White Spot , a unique but short @-@ lived phenomenon that occurs once every Saturnian year , roughly every 30 Earth years , around the time of the northern hemisphere 's summer solstice . Previous Great White Spots were observed in 1876 , 1903 , 1933 and 1960 , with the 1933 storm being the most famous . If the periodicity is maintained , another storm will occur in about 2020 .
The winds on Saturn are the second fastest among the Solar System 's planets , after Neptune 's . Voyager data indicate peak easterly winds of 500 m / s ( 1800 km / h ) . In images from the Cassini spacecraft during 2007 , Saturn 's northern hemisphere displayed a bright blue hue , similar to Uranus . The color was most likely caused by Rayleigh scattering . Thermography has shown that Saturn 's south pole has a warm polar vortex , the only known example of such a phenomenon in the Solar System . Whereas temperatures on Saturn are normally − 185 ° C , temperatures on the vortex often reach as high as − 122 ° C , suspected to be the warmest spot on Saturn .
= = = = North pole hexagonal cloud pattern = = = =
A persisting hexagonal wave pattern around the north polar vortex in the atmosphere at about 78 ° N was first noted in the Voyager images . The sides of the hexagon are each about 13 @,@ 800 km ( 8 @,@ 600 mi ) long , which is longer than the diameter of the Earth . The entire structure rotates with a period of 10h 39m 24s ( the same period as that of the planet 's radio emissions ) which is assumed to be equal to the period of rotation of Saturn 's interior . The hexagonal feature does not shift in longitude like the other clouds in the visible atmosphere . The pattern 's origin is a matter of much speculation . Most scientists think it is a standing wave pattern in the atmosphere . Polygonal shapes have been replicated in the laboratory through differential rotation of fluids .
= = = = South pole vortex = = = =
HST imaging of the south polar region indicates the presence of a jet stream , but no strong polar vortex nor any hexagonal standing wave . NASA reported in November 2006 that Cassini had observed a " hurricane @-@ like " storm locked to the south pole that had a clearly defined eyewall . Eyewall clouds had not previously been seen on any planet other than Earth . For example , images from the Galileo spacecraft did not show an eyewall in the Great Red Spot of Jupiter .
The south pole storm may have been present for billions of years . This vortex is comparable to the size of Earth , and it has winds of 550 km / h .
= = = = Other features = = = =
Cassini has observed a series of cloud features nicknamed " String of Pearls " found in northern latitudes . These features are cloud clearings that reside in deeper cloud layers .
= = = Magnetosphere = = =
Saturn has an intrinsic magnetic field that has a simple , symmetric shape – a magnetic dipole . Its strength at the equator – 0 @.@ 2 gauss ( 20 µT ) – is approximately one twentieth of that of the field around Jupiter and slightly weaker than Earth 's magnetic field . As a result , Saturn 's magnetosphere is much smaller than Jupiter 's . When Voyager 2 entered the magnetosphere , the solar wind pressure was high and the magnetosphere extended only 19 Saturn radii , or 1 @.@ 1 million km ( 712 @,@ 000 mi ) , although it enlarged within several hours , and remained so for about three days . Most probably , the magnetic field is generated similarly to that of Jupiter – by currents in the liquid metallic @-@ hydrogen layer called a metallic @-@ hydrogen dynamo . This magnetosphere is efficient at deflecting the solar wind particles from the Sun . The moon Titan orbits within the outer part of Saturn 's magnetosphere and contributes plasma from the ionized particles in Titan 's outer atmosphere . Saturn 's magnetosphere , like Earth 's , produces aurorae .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
The average distance between Saturn and the Sun is over 1 @.@ 4 billion kilometres ( 9 AU ) . With an average orbital speed of 9 @.@ 69 km / s , it takes Saturn 10 @,@ 759 Earth days ( or about 29 1 ⁄ 2 years ) , to finish one revolution around the Sun . The elliptical orbit of Saturn is inclined 2 @.@ 48 ° relative to the orbital plane of the Earth . The perihelion and aphelion distances are , respectively , 9 @.@ 022 and 10 @.@ 053 AU , on average . The visible features on Saturn rotate at different rates depending on latitude and multiple rotation periods have been assigned to various regions ( as in Jupiter 's case ) .
Astronomers use three different systems for specifying the rotation rate of Saturn . System I has a period of 10 hr 14 min 00 sec ( 844 @.@ 3 ° / d ) and encompasses the Equatorial Zone , the South Equatorial Belt and the North Equatorial Belt . The polar regions are considered to have rotation rates similar to System I. All other Saturnian latitudes , excluding the north and south polar regions , are indicated as System II and have been assigned a rotation period of 10 hr 38 min 25 @.@ 4 sec ( 810 @.@ 76 ° / d ) . System III refers to Saturn 's internal rotation rate . Based on radio emissions from the planet in the period of the Voyager flybys , it has been assigned a rotation period of 10 hr 39 min 22 @.@ 4 sec ( 810 @.@ 8 ° / d ) . Because it is close to System II , it has largely superseded it .
A precise value for the rotation period of the interior remains elusive . While approaching Saturn in 2004 , Cassini found that the radio rotation period of Saturn had increased appreciably , to approximately 10 hr 45 min 45 sec ( ± 36 sec ) . The latest estimate of Saturn 's rotation ( as an indicated rotation rate for Saturn as a whole ) based on a compilation of various measurements from the Cassini , Voyager and Pioneer probes was reported in September 2007 is 10 hr 32 min 35 sec .
In March 2007 , it was found that the variation of radio emissions from the planet did not match Saturn 's rotation rate . This variance may be caused by geyser activity on Saturn 's moon Enceladus . The water vapor emitted into Saturn 's orbit by this activity becomes charged and creates a drag upon Saturn 's magnetic field , slowing its rotation slightly relative to the rotation of the planet .
= = Natural satellites = =
Saturn has 62 known moons , 53 of which have formal names . In addition , there is evidence of dozens to hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40 – 500 meters in Saturn 's rings , which are not considered to be true moons . Titan , the largest moon , comprises more than 90 % of the mass in orbit around Saturn , including the rings . Saturn 's second @-@ largest moon , Rhea , may have a tenuous ring system of its own , along with a tenuous atmosphere .
Many of the other moons are small : 34 are less than 10 km in diameter and another 14 between 10 and 50 km in diameter . Traditionally , most of Saturn 's moons have been named after Titans of Greek mythology . Titan is the only satellite in the Solar System with a major atmosphere , in which a complex organic chemistry occurs . It is the only satellite with hydrocarbon lakes .
On 6 June 2013 , scientists at the IAA @-@ CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan , a possible precursor for life . On 23 June 2014 , NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud , associated with comets , and not from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier times .
Saturn 's moon Enceladus , which seems similar in chemical makeup to comets , has often been regarded as a potential habitat for microbial life . Evidence of this possibility includes the satellite 's salt @-@ rich particles having an " ocean @-@ like " composition that indicates most of Enceladus 's expelled ice comes from the evaporation of liquid salt water .
In April 2014 , NASA scientists reported the possible beginning of a new moon , within the A Ring , of the planet Saturn , which was imaged by Cassini on 15 April 2013 .
= = = Planetary rings = = =
Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary rings that makes it visually unique . The rings extend from 6 @,@ 630 km to 120 @,@ 700 km outward from Saturn 's equator , average approximately 20 meters in thickness and are composed of 93 % water ice with traces of tholin impurities and 7 % amorphous carbon . The particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of dust up to 10 m . While the other gas giants also have ring systems , Saturn 's is the largest and most visible .
There are two main hypotheses regarding the origin of the rings . One hypothesis is that the rings are remnants of a destroyed moon of Saturn . The second hypothesis is that the rings are left over from the original nebular material from which Saturn formed . Some ice in the E ring comes from the moon Enceladus 's geysers .
In the past , astronomers once thought the rings formed alongside the planet when it formed billions of years ago . Instead , the age of these planetary rings is probably some hundreds of millions of years .
Beyond the main rings at a distance of 12 million km from the planet is the sparse Phoebe ring , which is tilted at an angle of 27 ° to the other rings and , like Phoebe , orbits in retrograde fashion .
Some of the moons of Saturn , including Pandora and Prometheus , act as shepherd moons to confine the rings and prevent them from spreading out . Pan and Atlas cause weak , linear density waves in Saturn 's rings that have yielded more reliable calculations of their masses .
= = History of observation and exploration = =
There have been three main phases in the observation and exploration of Saturn . The first era was ancient observations ( such as with the naked eye ) , before the invention of the modern telescopes . Starting in the 17th century progressively more advanced telescopic observations from Earth have been made . The other type is visitation by spacecraft , either by orbiting or flyby . In the 21st century observations continue from the Earth ( or Earth @-@ orbiting observatories ) and from the Cassini orbiter at Saturn .
= = = Ancient observations = = =
Saturn has been known since prehistoric times . In ancient times , it was the most distant of the five known planets in the Solar System ( excluding Earth ) and thus a major character in various mythologies . Babylonian astronomers systematically observed and recorded the movements of Saturn . In ancient Roman mythology , the god Saturnus , from which the planet takes its name , was the god of agriculture . The Romans considered Saturnus the equivalent of the Greek god Cronus . The Greeks had made the outermost planet sacred to Cronus , and the Romans followed suit . ( In modern Greek , the planet retains its ancient name Cronus — Κρόνος : Kronos . )
The Greek scientist Ptolemy based his calculations of Saturn 's orbit on observations he made while it was in opposition . In Hindu astrology , there are nine astrological objects , known as Navagrahas . Saturn , one of them is known as " Shani " and judges everyone based on the good and bad deeds performed in life . Ancient Chinese and Japanese culture designated the planet Saturn as the " earth star " ( 土星 ) . This was based on Five Elements which were traditionally used to classify natural elements .
In ancient Hebrew , Saturn is called ' Shabbathai ' . Its angel is Cassiel . Its intelligence or beneficial spirit is Agiel ( layga ) and its spirit ( darker aspect ) is Zazel ( lzaz ) . In Ottoman Turkish , Urdu and Malay , its name is ' Zuhal ' , derived from Arabic زحل .
= = = European observations ( 17th – 19th centuries ) = = =
Saturn 's rings require at least a 15 @-@ mm @-@ diameter telescope to resolve and thus were not known to exist until Galileo first saw them in 1610 . He thought of them as two moons on Saturn 's sides . It was not until Christiaan Huygens used greater telescopic magnification that this notion was refuted . Huygens discovered Saturn 's moon Titan ; Giovanni Domenico Cassini later discovered four other moons : Iapetus , Rhea , Tethys and Dione . In 1675 , Cassini discovered the gap now known as the Cassini Division .
No further discoveries of significance were made until 1789 when William Herschel discovered two further moons , Mimas and Enceladus . The irregularly shaped satellite Hyperion , which has a resonance with Titan , was discovered in 1848 by a British team .
In 1899 William Henry Pickering discovered Phoebe , a highly irregular satellite that does not rotate synchronously with Saturn as the larger moons do . Phoebe was the first such satellite found and it takes more than a year to orbit Saturn in a retrograde orbit . During the early 20th century , research on Titan led to the confirmation in 1944 that it had a thick atmosphere – a feature unique among the Solar System 's moons .
= = = Modern NASA and ESA probes = = =
= = = = Pioneer 11 flyby = = = =
Pioneer 11 carried out the first flyby of Saturn in September 1979 , when it passed within 20 @,@ 000 km of the planet 's cloud tops . Images were taken of the planet and a few of its moons , although their resolution was too low to discern surface detail . The spacecraft also studied Saturn 's rings , revealing the thin F @-@ ring and the fact that dark gaps in the rings are bright when viewed at high phase angle ( towards the Sun ) , meaning that they contain fine light @-@ scattering material . In addition , Pioneer 11 measured the temperature of Titan .
= = = = Voyager flybys = = = =
In November 1980 , the Voyager 1 probe visited the Saturn system . It sent back the first high @-@ resolution images of the planet , its rings and satellites . Surface features of various moons were seen for the first time . Voyager 1 performed a close flyby of Titan , increasing knowledge of the atmosphere of the moon . It proved that Titan 's atmosphere is impenetrable in visible wavelengths , therefore no surface details were seen . The flyby changed the spacecraft 's trajectory out from the plane of the Solar System .
Almost a year later , in August 1981 , Voyager 2 continued the study of the Saturn system . More close @-@ up images of Saturn 's moons were acquired , as well as evidence of changes in the atmosphere and the rings . Unfortunately , during the flyby , the probe 's turnable camera platform stuck for a couple of days and some planned imaging was lost . Saturn 's gravity was used to direct the spacecraft 's trajectory towards Uranus .
The probes discovered and confirmed several new satellites orbiting near or within the planet 's rings , as well as the small Maxwell Gap ( a gap within the C Ring ) and Keeler gap ( a 42 km wide gap in the A Ring ) .
= = = = Cassini – Huygens spacecraft = = = =
On 1 July 2004 , the Cassini – Huygens space probe performed the SOI ( Saturn Orbit Insertion ) maneuver and entered orbit around Saturn . Before the SOI , Cassini had already studied the system extensively . In June 2004 , it had conducted a close flyby of Phoebe , sending back high @-@ resolution images and data .
Cassini 's flyby of Saturn 's largest moon , Titan , has captured radar images of large lakes and their coastlines with numerous islands and mountains . The orbiter completed two Titan flybys before releasing the Huygens probe on 25 December 2004 . Huygens descended onto the surface of Titan on 14 January 2005 , sending a flood of data during the atmospheric descent and after the landing . Cassini has since conducted multiple flybys of Titan and other icy satellites .
Since early 2005 , scientists have been tracking lightning on Saturn . The power of the lightning is approximately 1 @,@ 000 times that of lightning on Earth .
In 2006 , NASA reported that Cassini had found evidence of liquid water reservoirs that erupt in geysers on Saturn 's moon Enceladus . Images had shown jets of icy particles being emitted into orbit around Saturn from vents in the moon 's south polar region . According to Andrew Ingersoll , California Institute of Technology , " Other moons in the Solar System have liquid @-@ water oceans covered by kilometers of icy crust . What 's different here is that pockets of liquid water may be no more than tens of meters below the surface . " Over 100 geysers have been identified on Enceladus . In May 2011 , NASA scientists at an Enceladus Focus Group Conference reported that Enceladus " is emerging as the most habitable spot beyond Earth in the Solar System for life as we know it " .
Cassini photographs have led to other significant discoveries . They have revealed a previously undiscovered planetary ring , outside the brighter main rings of Saturn and inside the G and E rings . The source of this ring is hypothesized to be the crashing of a meteoroid off Janus and Epimetheus . In July 2006 , Cassini images provided evidence of hydrocarbon lakes near Titan 's north pole , the presence of which were confirmed in January 2007 . In March 2007 , additional images near Titan 's north pole revealed hydrocarbon seas , the largest of which is almost the size of the Caspian Sea . In October 2006 , the probe detected an 8 @,@ 000 km diameter cyclone @-@ like storm with an eyewall at Saturn 's south pole .
From 2004 to 2 November 2009 , the probe discovered and confirmed eight new satellites . Its primary mission ended in 2008 when the spacecraft had completed 74 orbits around the planet . The probe 's mission was extended to September 2010 and then extended again to 2017 , to study a full period of Saturn 's seasons .
In April 2013 Cassini sent back images of a hurricane at the planet 's north pole 20 times larger than those found on Earth , with winds faster than 530 km / h .
On 19 July 2013 , " The Day the Earth Smiled " , Cassini was pointed towards Earth to capture an image of the Earth and the Moon ( and , as well , Venus and Mars ) as part of a natural light , multi @-@ image portrait of the entire Saturn system . It was the first time NASA informed the people of Earth that a long @-@ distance photo was being taken in advance .
= = Observation = =
Saturn is the most distant of the five planets easily visible to the naked eye from Earth , the other four being Mercury , Venus , Mars and Jupiter . ( Uranus and occasionally 4 Vesta are visible to the naked eye in dark skies . ) Saturn appears to the naked eye in the night sky as a bright , yellowish point of light with an apparent magnitude of usually between + 1 and 0 . It takes approximately 29 @.@ 5 years for the planet to complete an entire circuit of the ecliptic against the background constellations of the zodiac . Most people will require an optical aid ( very large binoculars or a small telescope ) that magnifies at least 30 times to achieve an image of Saturn 's rings , in which clear resolution is present . Twice every Saturnian year ( roughly every 15 Earth years ) , the rings briefly disappear from view , due to the way in which they are angled and because they are so thin . Such a " disappearance " will next occur in 2025 , but Saturn will be too close to the Sun for any ring @-@ crossing observation to be possible .
Saturn and its rings are best seen when the planet is at , or near , opposition , the configuration of a planet when it is at an elongation of 180 ° , and thus appears opposite the Sun in the sky . A Saturnian opposition occurs every year — approximately every 378 days — and results in the planet appearing at its brightest . However , both the Earth and Saturn orbit the Sun on eccentric orbits , which means their distances from the Sun vary over time , and therefore so do their distances from each other , hence varying the brightness of Saturn from one opposition to the other . Also , Saturn appears brighter when the rings are angled such that they are more visible . For example , during the opposition of 17 December 2002 , Saturn appeared at its brightest due to a favorable orientation of its rings relative to the Earth , even though Saturn was closer to the Earth and Sun in late 2003 .
Also , from time to time Saturn is occulted by the Moon ( that is , the Moon covers up Saturn in the sky ) . As with all the planets in the Solar System , occultations of Saturn occur in “ seasons ” . Saturnian occultations will take place 12 or more times over a 12 @-@ month period , followed by about a five @-@ year period in which no such activity is registered . Australian astronomy experts Hill and Horner explain the seasonal nature of Saturnian occultations :
This is the result of the fact that the moon ’ s orbit around the Earth is tilted to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun – and so most of the time , the moon will pass above or below Saturn in the sky , and no occultation will occur . It is only when Saturn lies near the point that the moon ’ s orbit crosses the “ plane of the ecliptic ” that occultations can happen – and then they occur every time the moon swings by , until Saturn moves away from the crossing point .
= = In culture = =
Saturn in astrology ( ) is the ruling planet of Capricorn and , traditionally , Aquarius .
Saturn , the Bringer of Old Age is a movement in Gustav Holst 's The Planets .
The Saturn family of rockets were developed by a team of mostly German rocket scientists led by Wernher von Braun to launch heavy payloads to Earth orbit and beyond . Originally proposed as a military satellite launcher , they were adopted as the launch vehicles for the Apollo program .
The day Saturday is , like the planet Saturn , named after the Roman god of agriculture , Saturn ( linked to the Greek god Cronus ) .
= Smooth hammerhead =
The smooth hammerhead ( Sphyrna zygaena ) is a species of hammerhead shark , and part of the family Sphyrnidae . This species is named " smooth hammerhead " because of the distinctive shape of the head , which is flattened and laterally extended into a hammer shape ( called the " cephalofoil " ) , without an indentation in the middle of the front margin ( hence " smooth " ) . Unlike other hammerheads , this species prefers temperate waters and occurs worldwide at medium latitudes . In the summer , these sharks migrate towards the poles following cool water masses , sometimes forming schools numbering in the hundreds to thousands .
The second @-@ largest hammerhead shark after the great hammerhead shark , the smooth hammerhead can measure up to 5 m ( 16 ft ) long . It is an active predator that takes a wide variety of bony fishes and invertebrates , with larger individuals also feeding on sharks and rays . As in the rest of its family , this shark is viviparous and gives birth to litters of 20 – 40 pups . A relatively common shark , it is captured , intentionally or otherwise , by many commercial fisheries throughout its range ; its fins are extremely valuable for use in shark fin soup . This shark is potentially dangerous and has likely been responsible for a few attacks on humans , though it is less likely to encounter swimmers than other large hammerhead species due to its temperate habitat .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Swedish natural historian Carl Linnaeus , known as the " father of taxonomy " , originally described the smooth hammerhead as Squalus zygaena in the 1758 tenth edition of Systema Naturae , without designating a type specimen . The name was later changed to Sphyrna zygaena . The specific epithet zygaena originates from the Greek word zygòn , meaning " yoke " , referring to the shape of its head . The Greek name zýgaina had already been used for the hammerhead shark by Aristotle in the second book of his History of Animals . Other common names for this species include common hammerhead , common smooth hammerhead , round @-@ headed hammerhead , or simply hammerhead .
Studies based on morphology have generally regarded the smooth hammerhead as one of the more derived members of its family , grouped together with the scalloped hammerhead ( S. lewini ) and the great hammerhead ( S. mokarran ) . Phylogenetic analyses based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA have concluded differently : while the smooth and great hammerheads are closely related , they are not as closely related to the scalloped hammerhead as the other Sphyrna species . Furthermore , the smooth hammerhead is among the more basal hammerhead species , indicating that the first hammerheads to evolve had large cephalofoils .
= = Description = =
The second @-@ largest hammerhead next to the great hammerhead , the smooth hammerhead typically measures 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 5 ft ) long , with a maximum recorded length and weight of 5 m ( 16 ft ) and 400 kg ( 880 lb ) respectively . The smooth hammerhead differs from other large hammerheads in the shape of its cephalofoil , which has a curved front margin without an indentation in the center . The cephalofoil is wide but short , measuring 26 – 29 % of the body length across . The nostrils are located near the ends of the cephalofoil , with long grooves running towards the center . There are 26 – 32 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 25 – 30 tooth rows in the lower jaw . Each tooth is triangular in shape , with smooth to weakly serrated edges .
The body is streamlined , without a dorsal ridge between the two dorsal fins . The first dorsal fin is moderately tall and falcate ( sickle @-@ like ) in shape , with a rounded tip . The pectoral and pelvic fins are not falcate , rather having nearly straight rear margins . The anal fin is larger than the second dorsal fin , with long free rear tip and a strong notch in the rear margin . The dermal denticles are densely packed , each with 5 – 7 horizontal ridges ( 3 in juveniles ) leading to a W @-@ shaped rear margin . The back is dark brownish gray to olive in color , in contrast to the simple brown of most other hammerheads , becoming lighter on the flanks . The belly is white , and sometimes the pectoral fins have dark edges underneath .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Of the hammerhead sharks , the smooth hammerhead is the species most tolerant of temperate water , and occurs worldwide to higher latitudes than any other species . In the Atlantic , it occurs from Nova Scotia to the Virgin Islands and from Brazil to southern Argentina in the west , and from the British Isles to Côte d 'Ivoire , including the Mediterranean Sea , in the east . In the Indian Ocean , it is found off South Africa , India , and Sri Lanka . In the western Pacific , it occurs from the Gulf of Tonkin to southern Japan and Siberia , as well as off Australia and New Zealand . In the central and eastern Pacific , it occurs off the Hawaiian Islands , California , Panama , the Galapagos Islands , Ecuador , and Chile . This species is usually considered to be amphitemperate ( absent from the tropics ) in distribution , though there are rare reports from tropical waters such as in the Gulf of Mannar off India , and off southern Mozambique . Its presence in the tropics is difficult to determine due to confusion with other hammerhead species .
Compared to the scalloped and great hammerheads , the smooth hammerhead stays closer to the surface , in water less than 20 m ( 66 ft ) deep . However , it has been recorded diving to a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) . It prefers inshore waters such as bays and estuaries , but is sometimes found in the open ocean over the continental shelf , and around oceanic islands . This shark has also been reported entering freshwater habitats , such as the Indian River in Florida . In the summer , smooth hammerheads migrate poleward to stay in cooler water , heading back towards the equator in winter .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Adult smooth hammerheads are either solitary or form small groups . They may come together in great numbers during their annual migrations ; schools of over a hundred juveniles under 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long have been observed off the eastern Cape of South Africa , and schools thousands strong have been reported off California . During hot summer weather , they can be seen swimming just below the surface with their dorsal fins exposed . Young smooth hammerheads are preyed upon by larger sharks such as the dusky shark ( Carcharhinus obscurus ) ; adults have been observed being consumed by killer whales ( Orcinus orca ) off New Zealand . Known parasites of the smooth hammerhead include the nematodes Parascarophis sphyrnae and Contracaecum spp .
The smooth hammerhead is an active @-@ swimming predator that feeds on bony fishes , rays , sharks ( including of its own species ) , cephalopods , and to a lesser extent crustaceans such as shrimp , crabs , and barnacles . They readily scavenge from fishing lines . In some areas , stingrays are a favored prey and comprise a majority of its diet . The venomous barbs of stingrays are often found lodged in and around the mouths of these sharks ; one specimen examined contained 95 such spines . In northern Europe , the smooth hammerhead feeds on herring and seabass , while in North America it takes Spanish mackerel and menhaden . Off South Africa , smooth hammerheads feed on squid such as Loligo vulgaris and small schooling fish such as pilchard over the deep coral reefs at the edge of the continental shelf , with individuals over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long taking increasing numbers of smaller sharks and rays . Off Australia , squid are the most important prey , followed by bony fish .
Like other hammerheads , the smooth hammerhead is viviparous : once the young exhaust their supply of yolk , the empty yolk sac is converted into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment . Females bear relatively large litters of 20 – 50 pups after a gestation period of 10 – 11 months . Birthing occurs in shallow coastal nurseries , such as Bulls Bay in North Carolina . The pups measure 50 – 61 cm ( 20 – 24 in ) long at birth ; females reach maturity at 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) long and males at 2 @.@ 1 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long , depending upon locality . Off South Africa , newly mated females have been caught in February and females with full @-@ term embryos in November ; off the east coast of Australia , birthing takes place between January and March , with ovulation taking place around the same time . This shark is thought to live for 20 years or more .
= = Human interactions = =
The smooth hammerhead is potentially dangerous to humans . As of 2008 , the International Shark Attack File lists 34 attacks attributable to large hammerhead sharks , 17 of them unprovoked ( 1 fatal ) . However , due to the smooth hammerhead 's occurrence in temperate regions where people are less likely to enter the water , it was likely responsible for a minority of these attacks . Off southern California , this species has been reported to steal catches from sport fishers and divers .
Smooth hammerheads are caught by commercial fisheries throughout the world , including those off the United States ( East and West Coasts ) , Brazil , Spain , Taiwan , the Philippines , southwestern Australia , and western Africa , primarily using gillnets and longlines . Fishery catches of smooth hammerheads are difficult to quantify due to a frequent lack of distinction between them and other large hammerheads . The meat is sold fresh , dried and salted , or smoked , though in most markets it is considered undesirable and there are reports of poisoning . Much more valuable are the fins , which have the highest rating for use in shark fin soup and often leads to captured sharks being finned at sea . Additionally , the liver oil is used for vitamins , the skin for leather , and the offal for fishmeal . This shark is also used in Chinese medicine .
Many other fisheries from every ocean also take smooth hammerheads as bycatch , and they are caught in some numbers by recreational anglers . Smooth hammerheads are also killed by entanglement in shark nets used to protect beaches . Fewer than 10 smooth hammerheads were caught annually in the nets off KwaZulu @-@ Natal , South Africa , from 1978 – 1990 . In contrast , in the nets off New South Wales , Australia , smooth hammerheads comprised 50 % of the 4 @,@ 715 sharks captured from 1972 – 1990 . At present , this species remains relatively common and has been assessed as " Vulnerable ( VU ) " by the World Conservation Union . Off New Zealand , it is a prohibited target species and is the most abundant shark along the northwest coast . It also does not appear to have been negatively impacted by fishing off southern Australia . Off the eastern United States , catches of this species are regulated by the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) Atlantic shark Fishery Management Plan ( FMP ) , under which it is classified as a Large Coastal Shark ( LCS ) . In 2013 smooth hammerhead and other great elasmobranchs were added to Appendix 2 of CITES , bringing shark fishing and commerce of these species under licensing and regulation .
= Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies =
Dona Teresa Cristina ( 14 March 1822 – 28 December 1889 ) , nicknamed " the Mother of the Brazilians " , was the Empress consort of Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil , who reigned from 1831 to 1889 . Born a Princess of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in present @-@ day southern Italy , she was the daughter of King Don Francesco I ( Francis I ) of the Italian branch of the House of Bourbon and his wife Maria Isabel ( Maria Isabella ) . It was long believed by historians that the Princess was raised in an ultra @-@ conservative , intolerant atmosphere which resulted in a timid and unassertive character in public and an ability to be contented with very little materially or emotionally . Recent studies revealed a more complex character , who despite having respected the social norms of the era , was able to assert a limited independence due to her strongly opinionated personality as well as her interest in learning , sciences and culture .
The Princess was married by proxy to Pedro II in 1843 . Her spouse 's expectations had been raised when a portrait was presented that depicted Teresa Cristina as an idealized beauty , but he was displeased by his bride 's plain looks upon their first meeting later that year . Despite a cold beginning , the couple 's relationship improved as time passed , due primarily to Teresa Cristina 's patience , kindness , generosity and simplicity . These traits also helped her win the hearts of the Brazilian people , and her distance from political controversies shielded her from criticism . She also sponsored archaeological studies in Italy and Italian immigration to Brazil .
The marriage between Teresa Cristina and Pedro II never became passionately romantic , although a bond based upon family , mutual respect and fondness did develop . The Empress was a dutiful spouse and unfailingly supported the Emperor 's positions and never interposed with her own views in public . She remained silent on the topic of his suspected extra @-@ marital relationships — including a liaison with her daughters ' governess . In turn , she was treated with unfailing respect and her position at Court and home was always secure . Of the four children Teresa Cristina bore him , two boys died in infancy and a daughter of typhoid fever at the early age of 24 .
She , along with the remaining members of the Imperial Family , was sent into exile after a coup d 'état staged by a clique of army officers in 1889 . Being cast from her beloved adopted land had a devastating effect on Teresa Cristina 's spirit and health . Grieving and ill , she died of respiratory failure leading to cardiac arrest little more than a month after the monarchy 's collapse . She was greatly loved by her subjects , both during her lifetime and afterwards . She was even respected by the Republicans who overthrew the Empire . Despite having had no direct impact on Brazil 's political history , Teresa Cristina is well regarded by historians not only for her character and irreproachable behavior , but also for her sponsorship of Brazilian culture .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth = = =
Teresa Cristina was the daughter of the then @-@ Duke of Calabria , who later became King Don Francesco I ( Francis I ) of the Two Sicilies . Through her father , she was a member of the House of Bourbon @-@ Two Sicilies , also known as Bourbon @-@ Naples , the Italian branch of the Spanish Bourbons . She was a descendant of France 's " Sun King " , Louis XIV in the male line through his grandson , Don Felipe V ( Philip V ) of Spain . Teresa Cristina 's mother was the Infanta Doña Maria Isabel ( Maria Isabella ) , daughter of King Don Carlos IV ( Charles IV ) of Spain , and a younger sister of Doña Carlota Joaquina — who was the wife of King Dom João VI of Portugal and the paternal grandmother of Teresa Cristina 's future husband .
Born on 14 March 1822 in Naples , Teresa Cristina became an orphan when her father died in 1830 . Her mother is said to have neglected her after marrying a young officer in 1839 . Historiography has long asserted that she was raised in lonely isolation , in an environment of religious superstition , intolerance and conservatism . It has also described Teresa Cristina as a soft and timid character , unlike her ruthless father or her impulsive mother . She has even been depicted as unassertive , and accustomed to be satisfied in whatever circumstances she found herself .
Some historians have more recently held to a modified view of both the Neapolitan Bourbon court as a reactionary regime and of the extent of Teresa Cristina 's passivity . Historian Aniello Angelo Avella states that the maligned interpretation of the Neapolitan Bourbons traces its origin to perspectives generated during the 19th century il Risorgimento ( Italian unification ) following the 1861 conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies by the Kingdom of Sardinia . Teresa Cristina is revealed in her personal papers as a strong @-@ headed character . She " was not a submissive woman but instead a person who respected the roles imposed by the ethics and values of her own times . "
= = = Marriage = = =
Upon learning that the young emperor of Brazil , Dom Pedro II , sought a wife , the government of the Two Sicilies offered the hand of Teresa Cristina . It also sent Pedro II a painting that greatly embellished the princess , which prompted him to accept the proposal . A proxy wedding was held on 30 May 1843 in Naples , Pedro II being represented by his fiancée 's brother Prince Leopold , Count of Syracuse . A small Brazilian fleet composed of a frigate and two corvettes departed for the Two Sicilies on 3 March 1843 to escort the new Empress of Brazil . She arrived on Rio de Janeiro on 3 September 1843 . Pedro II immediately rushed to board the ship and greet his bride . Upon seeing this impetuous gesture , the crowds cheered and guns fired deafening salutes . Teresa Cristina fell in love with her new husband at first sight .
The 17 @-@ year @-@ old Pedro II was , for his part , clearly and greatly disappointed . His first impressions were only of her physical flaws — and of how much her appearance differed from the portrait which had been sent to him . Physically , she had dark brown hair and brown eyes , was short , slightly overweight , walked with a pronounced limp and , while not ugly , neither was she pretty . According to historian Pedro Calmon , Teresa Cristina had no true limp , but her odd way of walking was instead the result of bowed legs causing her to lean alternately right and left as she walked . Pedro II 's high expectations were crushed , and he allowed his feelings of revulsion and rejection to show . After a short interval , he left the ship . Perceiving his disillusionment , she burst into tears , lamenting that " the emperor did not like me ! " Although a proxy marriage had already been performed , an extravagant state wedding was held on 4 September at the cathedral in Rio de Janeiro .
Although the marriage had been strained from the beginning , Teresa Cristina continued striving to be a good wife . Her constancy toward fulfilling her duty , along with the birth of children , softened Pedro II 's attitude . The two discovered shared interests , and their concern for and delight in their children created a sense of family happiness . That they were sexually active and compatible is witnessed by the series of pregnancies which ensued . After the birth of their first son in February 1845 , the Empress bore children in July 1846 , July 1847 , and July 1848 — named Afonso , Isabel , Leopoldina and Pedro , respectively .
= = Empress consort of Brazil = =
= = = Domestic life = = =
Teresa Cristina had grown to be a vital part of Pedro II 's family life and routine . She never filled the roles of romantic lover or intellectual partner , however . Her devotion to the Emperor remained firm , though she feared being supplanted . She continued to appear with the Emperor in public , and he continued to treat her with respect and consideration . She was not rejected or slighted , but the relationship had changed . Pedro II treated her more as a close friend and companion than as a wife .
The long @-@ held view is that the Empress accepted the circumscribed role in which she found herself , and that her life , duty and purpose were tied to her position as the Emperor 's wife . However , her personal letters reveal that she could be strongheaded , sometimes at odds with her husband , and had a life of her own — albeit somewhat restricted . In a letter written on 2 May 1845 she stated : " I wait for the moment when we will meet , good Pedro , and seek forgiveness for all that I did to you during these days . " In another letter of 24 January 1851 , she acknowledged her difficult temperament : " I am not irritated at you [ Pedro II ] and you should forgive me because this is my character . "
Her friendships were limited to her ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , and in particular Dona Josefina da Fonseca Costa . She was well liked by her attendants , a good judge of the character of visitors and courtiers , unpretentious , generous , kindly and an affectionate mother and grandmother . She dressed and acted modestly , only wearing jewelry for occasions of state , and gave the impression of being somewhat sad . She had no interest in politics and occupied her time writing letters , reading , doing needlework , and attending to religious obligations and charitable projects . She possessed a beautiful voice , and often practiced her singing skills . Her appreciation for music also meant that she enjoyed opera and balls .
Teresa Cristina did not lack intellectual interests , and she had developed passions for the arts , music and — in particular — archaeology . The Empress began assembling a collection of archaeological artifacts from her earliest days in Brazil , and she exchanged hundreds of others with her brother , King Don Ferdinando II ( Ferdinand II ) . She also sponsored archaeological studies in Italy and many of the artifacts — dated from the Etruscan civilization and the Ancient Roman period — found were brought to Brazil . The Empress also aided in recruiting Italian physicians , engineers , professors , pharmacists , nurses , artists , artisans and qualified workers with the goal of improving public education and public health in Brazil .
= = = Rivalry with the Countess of Barral = = =
The relationship between Teresa Cristina and Pedro II never became passionately romantic . However , a bond based upon family , mutual respect and fondness did develop . The Empress was a dutiful spouse and unfailingly supported the Emperor 's positions . She was silent on the subject of his relationships with other women , suspected or otherwise . In turn , she was treated with utmost respect and there was no question of her position ever being threatened or called into question . No more children were born after July 1848 , even after the death of her two sons in infancy . A likely reason for the halt to childbearing is that the Emperor became more attracted to other women who possessed beauty , wit and intelligence which the Empress could not provide .
Teresa Cristina found ignoring her husband 's secret infidelities — hidden from the public , though not always from the Empress — more difficult after Pedro II named an aia ( governess ) for their daughters on 9 November 1856 . The person chosen was Luísa de Barros , Countess of Barral , the Brazilian @-@ born wife of a French nobleman . Barral possessed all the traits that Pedro II most admired in a woman : she was charming , vivacious , elegant , sophisticated , educated and confident . Charged with the education and upbringing of the young princesses , Barral soon captured the hearts of both Pedro II and his eldest daughter , Isabel . Leopoldina was not won over and disliked the Countess . Although Barral " may not have escaped Pedro II 's embraces " , she " certainly avoided his bed . "
Nonetheless , the Emperor 's infatuation with the Countess sometimes put Teresa Cristina in an awkward position , as when her younger daughter Leopoldina naively asked her why Pedro II kept nudging Barral 's foot during their class . The Countess 's increasing intimacy with her husband and daughter was painful and vexing to Teresa Cristina . Although she feigned ignorance of the situation , it did not pass unnoticed . She wrote in her diary that Barral " wished to make me tell her that I did not like her , but I did not say either yes or no . " Historian Tobias Monteiro wrote that the Empress " could not disguise that she detested Barral . "
= = Later years = =
= = = End of the Empire and banishment = = =
The death of her daughter Leopoldina of typhoid fever on 7 February 1871 devastated the small Imperial Family . Pedro II decided on a trip to Europe that same year to " cheer up " his wife among other reasons ( as stated in his own words ) and to pay a visit to Leopoldina 's four small boys , who had lived in Coburg with their parents since the late 1860s . The Imperial couple would travel abroad again during 1876 and 1887 . Teresa Cristina preferred her ordinary life in Brazil , " dedicating herself to her family , religious devotions , and charitable works . " In fact , visiting her native land only served to resurrect painful memories . Her family had been dethroned in 1861 and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies had been annexed to what would later become the unified Kingdom of Italy . Everyone she had known from her youth was gone . As she wrote in 1872 : " I do not know how to tell what was the impression I had upon seeing again , after 28 years , my fatherland and not to find anyone for whom I cared . "
The Empress remained strong @-@ willed even after years of marriage . Pedro II revealed in a letter written to the Countess of Barral in early 1881 that : " The [ container ] with the earrings which you mentioned , has been the cause for much recrimination on the part of someone [ Teresa Cristina ] who thinks that I have been to blame for their disappearance . " Her son @-@ in @-@ law , Prince Gaston , Count of Eu , wrote a letter recounting how she had accidentally broken her arm in October 1885 : " On Monday 26 when crossing the library on the way to dinner with the emperor who as usual preceded her by a few steps ( and with whom , I infer from what she told us , she was arguing as she sometimes does ) , she caught her foot in a file under a table and fell down flat face forward . " Nonetheless , she continued to express undiminished love for her husband .
The tranquil domestic routine ended when an Army faction rebelled and deposed Pedro II on 15 November 1889 , ordering the entire Imperial Family to leave Brazil . Upon hearing the order to depart , an officer told the Empress : " Resignation , my lady . " She replied to him : " I have it always , but how not to weep having to leave this land forever ! " According to historian Roderick J. Barman , the " events of November 15 , 1889 , broke her emotionally and physically . " The Empress " loved Brazil and its inhabitants . She desired nothing more than to end her days there . Aged 66 and plagued by both cardiac asthma and arthritis , she now faced the prospect of accompanying her husband in unceasing movement across the face of Europe , spending her last years virtually alone in alien and uncomfortable lodgings . " Having been ill during almost the entire voyage across the Atlantic , Teresa Cristina and her family arrived in Lisbon , Portugal , on 7 December .
= = = Death = = =
From Lisbon the Imperial couple went on to Porto . Isabel and her family departed to Spain on a trip . On 24 December , the Imperial Family received official news that they had been banished forever from the country . Up until that point , they had only been requested to leave with no indication as to how long they were to stay away . The " news broke D. Teresa Cristina 's will to live . " Pedro II wrote in his journal on 28 December 1889 : " Hearing the Empress complain I went to see what it was . She is cold with a pain in her sides ; but she does not have any fever . " As the day passed , Teresa Cristina 's breathing became increasingly labored , and the failure of her respiratory system led to cardiac arrest and death at 2 : 00 pm .
As she lay dying , Teresa Cristina said to Maria Isabel de Andrade Pinto , Baroness of Japurá ( sister @-@ in @-@ law of Joaquim Marques Lisboa , Marquis of Tamandaré ) : " Maria Isabel , I do not die of illness , I die of sorrow and of regret ! " Her last words were : " I miss my daughter [ Isabel ] and my grandchildren . I can not embrace her for the last time . Brazil , beautiful land ... To there I can not return " . The streets of Porto were crowded with people gathered to witness her funeral procession . By request of her husband , Teresa Cristina 's body was carried to the Church of São Vicente de Fora near Lisbon , where it was interred in the Braganza Pantheon . Her remains , along with Pedro II 's , were later repatriated to Brazil in 1921 with much fanfare and pomp . They were given a final resting place in the Cathedral of Petrópolis in 1939 .
The news of her death produced sincere mourning in Brazil . The Brazilian poet and journalist Artur Azevedo wrote of the general view toward Teresa Cristina after her death : " I never spoke to her , but also never passed her without respectifuly removing my hat and bowing myself , not to the Empress , but to the sweet and honest figure of a poor , almost humble , bourgeoise . I saw many extremist republicans do the same . " He continued : " They called her the mother of the Brazilians , and we all really attributed to her a kind of a filial veneration . That is the truth . "
Newspapers in Brazil also reported her death . The Gazeta de Notícias ( News Gazette ) commented : " Who was this saintly lady , we do not need to repeat it . All Brazil knows that , in this blow which hurt the former Emperor profoundly , it is remembered that she was justly and universally proclaimed the mother of the Brazilians . " The Jornal do Commercio ( Commercial Journal ) wrote : " For forty and six years Dona Teresa Cristina lived in the Brazilian fatherland which she sincerely loved , and during that long time never , anywhere in this vast country , was her name pronounced except in praise and words of regard . " It concluded : " Next to her husband , who was for a long time the head of the Brazilian nation , her influence was known to be felt only for the good . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Teresa Cristina has been given a less than prominent place in Brazil 's history . Historian Aniello Angelo Avella said that the Empress , nicknamed " by her contemporaries as ' Mother of the Brazilians ' , " is " completely unknown in Italy and little studied in Brazil " . According to his view , the few existing sources relegate her to having " lived in the shadow of her husband , dedicating herself to her daughters ' education , to home affairs , to charity . " The resulting image " is of a woman of limited culture , blank , silent , who compensated with kindness and virtues of the heart the lack of physical attributes . " And this is the view that has come to be enshrined in history and the popular imagination , despite being not quite a true representation of Teresa Cristina , since she was a well learned and willful woman .
According to historian Eli Behar , Teresa Cristina became notable " for her discretion , which kept her far from being associated with any political movement ; and for her tenderness and charity , which earned her the cognomen ' Mother of the Brazilians ' . " A similar opinion is voiced by Historian Benedito Antunes , who said that she " was beloved by Brazilians , who defined her , for her discretion , as the ' silent empress ' , and yet regarded her as ' the mother of the Brazilians ' . " He also praised the Empress for her sponsorship of cultural and scientific development : she " promoted culture in various ways , bringing from Italy artists , intellectuals , scientists , botanists , musicians , thus contributing to the progress and enrichment of the nation 's cultural life . " This view is shared by historian Eugenia Zerbini , who argued that , thanks to her , Brazil now has the largest classical archaeological collection in Latin America .
Just prior to his own death , Pedro II donated most of his possessions to the Brazilian government , which were later divided between the Brazilian National Archives , the Imperial Museum of Brazil , the National Library of Brazil and the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute . Pedro II imposed only one condition : that the gift was to be named in honor of his late wife , and so it is known as the " Teresa Cristina Maria Collection " . The collection is registered by UNESCO as part of the heritage of humanity in its Memory of the World Programme . Finally , Teresa Cristina is remembered in the names of several Brazilian cities , including Teresópolis ( in Rio de Janeiro ) , Teresina ( capital of Piauí ) , Cristina ( in Minas Gerais ) and Imperatriz ( in Maranhão ) .
= = Titles and honors = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
14 March 1822 – 30 May 1843 : Her Royal Highness Princess Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies
30 May 1843 – 15 November 1889 : Her Imperial Majesty The Empress of Brazil
The Empress 's full style and title were " Her Imperial Majesty Dona Teresa Cristina , Empress of Brazil " .
= = = Foreign honors = = =
Band of the Spanish Order of Queen Maria Luisa .
Band of the Portuguese Order of Saint Isabel .
Insignia of the Austrian Order of the Starry Cross .
Insignia of the Bavarian Order of Saint Elizabeth .
Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre .
Grand Dame of Honour and Devotion of the Order of Malta .
= = Genealogy = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
= = = Issue = = =
= Geoffrey ( archbishop of York ) =
Geoffrey ( c . 1152 – 12 December 1212 ) , sometimes called Geoffrey Plantagenet , fitzPlantagenet , or fitzRoy , was an illegitimate son of Henry II , King of England , who became bishop @-@ elect of Lincoln and archbishop of York . The identity of his mother is uncertain , but she may have been named Ykenai . Geoffrey held several minor clerical offices before becoming Bishop of Lincoln in 1173 , though he was not ordained as a priest until 1189 . In 1173 – 1174 , he led a campaign in northern England to help put down a rebellion by his legitimate half @-@ brothers ; this campaign led to the capture of William , King of Scots . By 1182 , Pope Lucius III had ordered that Geoffrey either resign Lincoln or be consecrated as bishop ; he chose to resign and became Chancellor instead . He was the only one of Henry II 's sons present at the king 's death .
Geoffrey 's half @-@ brother Richard I nominated him archbishop of York after succeeding to the throne of England , probably to force him to become a priest and thus eliminate a potential rival for the throne . After some dispute Geoffrey was consecrated archbishop in 1191 . He soon became embroiled in a conflict with William Longchamp , Richard 's regent in England , after being detained at Dover on his return to England following his consecration in France . Geoffrey claimed sanctuary in the town , but he was seized by agents of Longchamp and briefly imprisoned in Dover Castle . Subsequently a council of magnates ordered Longchamp out of office , and Geoffrey was able to proceed to his archdiocese . The archbishop spent much of his archiepiscopate in various disputes with his half @-@ brothers : first Richard and then John , who succeeded to the English throne in 1199 . Geoffrey also quarrelled with his suffragan bishops , his cathedral chapter , and other clergy in his diocese . His last quarrel with John was in 1207 , when the archbishop refused to allow the collection of a tax and was driven into exile in France . He died there five years later .
= = Early life = =
Geoffrey was probably born in about 1152 , before his father Henry , later Henry II of England , married Eleanor of Aquitaine , and was likely named after his paternal grandfather , Geoffrey of Anjou . Although he is often given the surname " Plantagenet " in modern histories , that name was not in use during his lifetime . The date of his birth is determined by statements of Gerald of Wales that he was barely 20 when elected bishop in 1173 , and by the fact that he was about 40 when consecrated archbishop in 1191 . His mother 's identity is unclear . The medieval chronicler Walter Map claimed she was a whore named Ykenai , and that he was not actually Henry 's son . This is the only contemporary source that gives her name , and as Map was hostile to Geoffrey , the information must be judged carefully . Instead , Ykenai may have been a daughter of a knight . Another possibility for Geoffrey 's mother is Rosamund Clifford , but most of the evidence for this is circumstantial . It is assumed that Geoffrey was the eldest of Henry 's children , legitimate or illegitimate .
Geoffrey was brought up with Henry 's legitimate children . There is no evidence that Henry tried to deny Geoffrey 's paternity , although Walter Map said that Henry 's acknowledgment was done " improperly and with little discretion " . Geoffrey had a brother named Peter , who appears to have been his maternal half @-@ brother , as Peter is generally considered unlikely to have been Henry 's son .
Geoffrey was Archdeacon of Lincoln in the diocese of Lincoln by September 1171 , and probably retained that office until he was confirmed as bishop @-@ elect in 1175 . He also held a prebend , an income from land owned by a cathedral chapter , in the diocese of London , but there is little evidence that he executed the duties of either office . There are some indications that he studied canon law at a school in Northampton , and that he taught in Paris during the early 1170s . He also acted as a papal judge @-@ delegate at that time . Pope Alexander III initially refused to confirm Geoffrey 's selection as Bishop of Lincoln in about May 1173 , prompting Geoffrey to travel to Rome in October 1174 to secure confirmation of this office . He was confirmed in the office of bishop by July 1175 , but he was not ordained at that time , as he was under the canonical age for holding a bishopric . Geoffrey 's youth was one of Alexander 's objections to Geoffrey 's election , and the pope only confirmed the office under duress . Another potential problem was Geoffrey 's illegitimacy , which normally disbarred a person from holding ecclesiastical office , but that was dealt with by the granting of a papal dispensation .
In 1173 and early 1174 Geoffrey fought a military campaign in northern England in support of his father 's attempts to subdue the Scots , who were supporting the rebellion by Geoffrey 's legitimate half @-@ brothers against their father . The campaign resulted in the capture of William the Lion , the King of Scots , at the Battle of Alnwick and also helped to compel Hugh du Puiset , the Bishop of Durham , to pledge fealty to Henry II . During the campaign , Geoffrey captured several castles held by Roger Mowbray , a supporter of the Scottish king . It was after this campaign that Henry said of Geoffrey " My other sons are the real bastards . ... This is the only one who 's proved himself legitimate ! " After Geoffrey was confirmed as bishop by Pope Alexander in 1175 , the bishop @-@ elect made a ceremonial visit to Lincoln on 1 August 1175 . He subsequently went to study at Tours , where he probably befriended Peter of Blois , a medieval poet and diplomat who dedicated a later work on St Wilfrid to Geoffrey . The bishop @-@ elect made several gifts to the cathedral at Lincoln , including two bells for the bell tower . While Geoffrey was the bishop @-@ elect at Lincoln , it appears that Adam , Bishop of St Asaph , carried out the episcopal duties in the diocese of Lincoln , as Geoffrey had not been consecrated and was unable to perform those functions . Nevertheless , he managed to recover some lands of the diocese that had been lost as well as redeeming pawned ecclesiastical items . Although he aided the finances of his diocese with these recoveries , in 1180 he taxed his diocese heavily enough to earn him a rebuke from his father . In 1181 Pope Lucius III became concerned that Geoffrey was never going to be ordained or consecrated , and demanded that the bishop @-@ elect 's position be regularised , either through consecration as bishop or through resignation .
= = Chancellor = =
Geoffrey formally resigned the see of Lincoln on 6 January 1182 , at Marlborough in England , rather than be ordained as Pope Lucius III had ordered . Henry had named him Chancellor of England in 1181 , after Geoffrey indicated he was going to resign the bishopric in February 1181 . Although Geoffrey resigned the episcopal office , he continued to hold benefices in plurality , which was normally contrary to canon law . These offices included the Treasurer of York from 1182 , the Archdeaconry of Rouen from 1183 , and probably the Archdeaconry of East Riding . Henry also gave him two continental castles , one in Anjou and one in Touraine , along with lands in England and Normandy worth 1000 marks a year . Although Geoffrey held the office of Chancellor , he appears in only few documents , mainly between 1182 and 1185 . After 1185 he does not appear in any contemporary documents until 1187 , and it is possible that he spent some time outside his father 's domains . Peter of Blois wrote that several monarchs considered Geoffrey as a possible successor for their kingdoms in Italy or the Holy Land , and that he was actually offered the throne of Jerusalem by Heraclius , the Patriarch of Jerusalem . It is possible that Geoffrey 's non @-@ appearance in documents was due to his absence from his father 's domains in pursuit of these ambitions . During Geoffrey 's term of office as Chancellor Walter de Coutances served as his " seal @-@ keeper " ; the need for someone to perform this function adds further evidence to the likelihood that Geoffrey 's time as Chancellor was spent on unrelated duties for his father . William Longchamp fulfilled the same assistant role for the archdeaconry at Rouen .
Following the declaration of war on Henry by Prince Richard and King Philip II of France in 1187 , Geoffrey was given command of a quarter of the English royal army . He and his father were driven from Le Mans , Henry 's birthplace , in 1189 . Geoffrey did not attend the subsequent conference at which Henry submitted to Philip immediately before Henry 's death , unwilling to witness his father 's humiliation , but he did help nurse him during his final days . Henry made a bedside wish that Geoffrey be made either Archbishop of York or Bishop of Winchester , and Geoffrey used his father 's seal to make appointments to York after Henry 's death . Geoffrey then escorted Henry 's body to Fontevrault Abbey for burial . He was the only one of Henry II 's sons present at his death .
= = Archbishop = =
= = = First difficulties = = =
Richard named Geoffrey Archbishop of York on 20 July 1189 , within days of taking the throne ; the formal election took place on 10 August . What happened with the vacant archbishopric of York after Richard took the throne , and why , as well as the exact chronology of events , is complicated by the contradictory nature of the main contemporary accounts . Gerald of Wales states that Geoffrey was reluctant to accept York , but another chronicler , Benedict of Peterborough relates that Geoffrey quickly took control of the archiepiscopal estates . However the election occurred , Geoffrey 's consecration did not take place until much later , and soon after his election , he either resigned or was stripped of his office of Chancellor . A further complication was that the cathedral chapter had earlier elected the Dean of York , Hubert Walter , as archbishop .
Richard probably gave York to Geoffrey in the hope of forcing him to become a full priest , and thus eliminate a potential rival for the throne . Richard also required Geoffrey to swear that he would remain outside England for three years during the time Richard expected to be out of the country on crusade . The king subsequently released Geoffrey from the oath , the initial swearing of which was apparently another of Richard 's efforts to keep Geoffrey 's possible ambitions towards the English throne in check . But the cathedral chapter at York disputed Geoffrey 's appointment , claiming that because the Dean of York , Hubert Walter , and some others of the chapter had not been present , the election was invalid . Walter 's election to York was supported by Richard 's mother , Eleanor of Aquitaine , whom a chronicler claimed hated Geoffrey as the product of one of her husband 's affairs . Richard consequently retained his control over the estates of the archbishopric , and did not confirm the election until a council held at Pipewell on 16 September . At that council Richard also appointed three men to offices within the diocese of York : he made Henry Marshal the dean ; Burchard du Puiset , a relative of Hugh du Puiset , became treasurer ; and Roger of London the abbot of Selby Abbey . Geoffrey objected to these appointments , and as a result his estates were confiscated by the king until he submitted and became a priest . The historians Ralph Turner and Richard Heiser speculate that Richard 's strategy in making these appointments was to keep Geoffrey distracted by problems within his diocese , and thus unable to challenge for the English throne . The two historians also suggest that Richard may have been making an example of Geoffrey , in a demonstration that he could be harsh even with his own relatives .
Geoffrey 's ordination as a priest took place at Southwell on 23 September 1189 , in a ceremony performed by John the Bishop of Whithorn . Geoffrey then went to York , but until his election was ratified by the pope he refused to allow Burchard to take up his office . This stance was supported by most of the York cathedral chapter . Geoffrey then was sent by Richard to escort William the Lion from Scotland to Canterbury . It was at Canterbury that papal assent to Geoffrey 's election was secured in December , when Giovanni d 'Anagni , the papal legate , not only confirmed the election , but rejected the various appeals made by the cathedral chapter against Geoffrey . But the king forced Geoffrey to allow the royal appointments , and pay a fine of £ 2000 before his lands were restored , although Geoffrey was allowed some time to make the full payment .
In early 1190 Geoffrey ordered a halt to religious ceremonies in the cathedral and excommunicated Henry Marshal and Burchard in retaliation for a dispute during an earlier church service . Richard , who was in Normandy preparing to go on the Third Crusade , ordered Geoffrey to the king 's presence in Normandy . Although Hugh du Puiset , who was Justiciar , was hampering Geoffrey 's attempts to collect revenue for the earlier fine , Richard insisted on immediate full payment . When Geoffrey was unable to pay Richard re @-@ confiscated his lands , increased the amount of the fine , and demanded a promise that Geoffrey would not visit England for three years . The dispute was settled once more when the pope stepped in and ratified Geoffrey 's election , thus enabling a reconciliation between the king and the archbishop at Tours in June . Geoffrey 's estates were returned to him in July , after paying 800 marks of his fine .
= = = Consecration and more difficulties = = =
Geoffrey was consecrated on 18 August 1191 , at Tours in France , by Bartholomew , the Archbishop of Tours , after the papacy agreed to allow the consecration . This permission was secured by the intervention of the king and his mother , Eleanor of Aquitaine . Turner and Heiser see the presumed motivation behind Eleanor and Richard 's support as part of an effort to secure a counter @-@ weight to the power exercised in England by the Chancellor , William Longchamp , about whom complaints had reached Richard in Sicily . Geoffrey received his pallium , the symbol of an archbishop 's authority , at his consecration . In September 1191 , after the consecration , he attempted to go to York , but was met at Dover by agents of Longchamp , and even though he took refuge in the priory of St. Martin in Dover , was dragged from sanctuary and imprisoned in Dover Castle . Longchamp claimed that Geoffrey had not sworn fealty to Richard , but this was probably just an excuse to eliminate a rival . Another complication was that the English bishops had appealed to the papacy because Geoffrey had not been consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury , and Longchamp could therefore claim to have been acting on behalf of the other bishops in ordering Geoffrey 's arrest . But the actions of Longchamp 's agents were considered excessive and there was soon an outcry against the Chancellor 's arrest of Geoffrey , even though Longchamp claimed that his orders had been exceeded by his agents . One cause of the outrage was the obvious parallel with the murder of Thomas Becket , who had been dragged from an altar and martyred . The archbishop was released and took part in a council held at Loddon Bridge , between Reading and Windsor ; Longch
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amp was excommunicated and deposed from the chancellorship , and Hugh of Lincoln , the Bishop of Lincoln , excommunicated those who had dragged Geoffrey from sanctuary . Geoffrey was then enthroned at York on 1 November 1191 .
While still embroiled in his conflict with Longchamp , Geoffrey began feuding with Hugh du Puiset , probably over Geoffrey 's authority in Puiset 's diocese of Durham , one of those subject to York . The dispute dragged on for years , with many appeals to Rome and the king . York had been vacant for several years , and Puiset had grown used to having untrammelled authority in the northern archdiocese . After Geoffrey 's consecration , he summoned Puiset to a provincial synod in late September 1191 , at which the bishop was charged with various irregularities . Puiset appealed to Rome and refused to attend the synod , and was excommunicated in December by Geoffrey . An attempt in March 1192 by Queen Eleanor and Hubert Walter to settle the issue came to nothing when Geoffrey insisted on a pledge of obedience from Puiset , who in turn demanded an admission from Geoffrey that the excommunication had been unjust . Further appeals to Rome led to an eventual settlement in October 1192 , when the bishop finally acknowledged Geoffrey 's authority over Durham .
Geoffrey caused offence by his attempts to have his episcopal cross carried before him in the diocese of Canterbury , thus implying that his diocese was superior or at least equal to Canterbury in rank . In pursuit of this rivalry between York and Canterbury , Geoffrey was the first archbishop of York to style himself " Primate of England " , in opposition to the Canterbury title of " Primate of all England " . He also attempted to subordinate Clementhorpe Priory to Godstow Abbey , which provoked an appeal from Prioress Alice of Clementhorpe to the papacy . Probably owing to Pope Celestine III 's dislike of Geoffrey , Hubert Walter was given a papal legateship that included Geoffrey 's province , something that had not been usual in the preceding years , and which presented Geoffrey with some difficulties in his dealings with the ecclesiastical hierarchy . But Geoffrey was on friendly terms with Prince John ; the historian G. V. Scammell has suggested that Geoffrey 's consecration allowed John to feel that Geoffrey was no longer a rival for the throne , thus paving the way for good relations between the two half @-@ brothers .
Geoffrey long faced opposition from some members of his cathedral chapter led by Henry Marshal , Burchard du Puiset , and Roger of London . They objected to his having given a large part of York 's treasury toward Richard 's ransom , and to some of his appointments in the church of York . Charges of simony , extortion , and neglect of his duties were lodged against Geoffrey , who in return excommunicated the ringleaders more than once , and locked the canons out of church . Geoffrey also faced difficulties with his appointees to the office of Dean of York ; his first choice , his half @-@ brother Peter , was opposed by the cathedral chapter . Geoffrey 's second choice , Simon of Apulia , the chancellor of York , refused to give up the office when Geoffrey decided to award it to a third man , Philip of Poitou . Simon was supported by the cathedral chapter , who elected him to the office despite Geoffrey 's opposition . An appeal was made to the papacy by Geoffrey while Simon travelled to King Richard in Germany . The king refused to allow the appeal and tried to summon Geoffrey to Germany to resolve the issue . Geoffrey was unable to leave York because of disturbances within the cathedral clergy , and Simon managed to secure papal confirmation as Dean of York .
= = = Quarrels with John , Hubert Walter and Richard = = =
When Prince John rebelled in 1193 , Geoffrey and Hugh du Puiset put aside their feud to quash the uprising . Geoffrey strengthened Doncaster 's defences and went to the aid of Puiset , who was besieging Tickhill Castle . In 1194 Geoffrey went into debt to the crown for the sum of 3000 marks to buy the office of Sheriff of Yorkshire for himself . Later that year Geoffrey began to quarrel with Hubert Walter over the primacy of England , which Canterbury claimed and York disputed . Walter 's decision to have his episcopal cross carried before him in the diocese of York in March 1194 was symbolic of his claim to primacy over York and all of England . Geoffrey responded by having his own cross carried before him in the diocese of Canterbury the following month . King Richard did not reprimand Geoffrey for this act of provocation , and even went so far as to restore some of his confiscated estates . Before Richard left England in May 1194 he appointed Walter as Justiciar ; that summer Walter began an investigation into Geoffrey 's actions , which led to Geoffrey 's estates being confiscated once again . Geoffrey appealed to the king , who was then in Maine ; Richard over @-@ ruled Walter , restored Geoffrey 's estates , and pardoned him in return for a payment of 1000 marks and the promise of 1000 more to follow .
In January 1195 Geoffrey was ordered to appear in Rome to answer various charges , under the threat of suspension from office if he did not appear by 1 June . Further quarrels with his cathedral clergy followed , including an instance of the cathedral chapter throwing chrism on a dungheap in protest . Geoffrey protested to the king after Richard forbade Geoffrey 's projected journey to Rome and in retaliation the king confiscated Geoffrey 's estates once more . This left Geoffrey vulnerable when Walter held a legatine council at York in June 1195 . Geoffrey had managed to secure a postponement of his case at Rome until 1 November , but was still unable to attend , which led Pope Celestine to order that Geoffrey 's suspension should be performed by Hugh of Lincoln . Hugh protested , and as a result Celestine himself suspended Geoffrey on 23 December 1195 , finally forcing Geoffrey to answer the charges against him . He travelled to Rome in 1196 , where his accusers were unable to substantiate their claims and he was restored to office by the pope .
Geoffrey quarrelled with Richard in 1196 in Normandy while the archbishop was attempting to return to England . Richard forbade him from administering York , and Geoffrey returned to Rome until 1198 . An attempt at reconciliation with Richard came to nothing , after Geoffrey refused to approve the king 's appointments in the diocese of York without some guarantees that they would be approved by the papacy . Ultimately Pope Innocent III on 28 April 1199 ordered that Geoffrey was to be restored to his lands as soon as he had paid his debts to the king . Innocent further ordered that any royal appointments in York would require papal approval .
= = Under John = =
After John succeeded Richard in 1199 , he decided to restore Geoffrey to the archiepiscopal estates , but continued to receive the income until the archbishop returned from Rome . Some of Geoffrey 's opponents who were officials in his diocese resigned their offices , and for a short time peace reigned in York . But the perceived arrogance of Geoffrey 's officials offended the cathedral chapter at York , and this further conflict was not resolved until March 1200 . For most of the remainder of 1199 Geoffrey was frequently with the king , and the two appear to have been on good terms , a state of affairs that continued throughout the first half of 1200 .
In October 1200 Geoffrey refused to allow the collection of carucage , a tax on land , on his property , and his lands were confiscated in retaliation . He then excommunicated the new sheriff of Yorkshire , James of Poterne , who had ravaged Geoffrey 's lands in revenge . In November 1200 , Geoffrey and John were reconciled at Hugh of Lincoln 's funeral , which allowed Geoffrey to regain his confiscated estates , but the archbishop 's continued refusal to allow the collection of carucage led to the truce falling apart . In January 1201 , John made peace with his half brother , but it did not last , as Geoffrey continued to refuse to allow the tax to be collected . John then renewed the demand for the payment for the office of sheriff due from Richard 's reign , which forced Geoffrey to rescind his excommunication and offer another payment in return for peace , which occurred in May 1201 . But it was short @-@ lived ; disputes over the appointments in the diocese of York broke out , but with the support of Pope Innocent Geoffrey was able to secure the appointment of a few of his own candidates . Geoffrey also quarrelled with some of the monasteries in his diocese , with the usual claims and counterclaims going to the papacy for judgement . Among the religious houses Geoffrey had disagreements with were Guisborough Priory , Meaux Abbey , and Fountains Abbey . Most of these conflicts arose from disputed appointments to offices , but the quarrel with Meaux involved claims of tithe exemption by that house .
Geoffrey submitted to John in 1206 , and his lands were returned to him . But in 1207 Geoffrey led the clergy of England in their refusal to pay royal taxation and was forced into exile . Geoffrey excommunicated anyone who attempted to collect the tax in his archdiocese , but the king confiscated Geoffrey 's estates in retaliation . Geoffrey once again secured the support of Pope Innocent , who ordered John to restore Geoffrey 's possessions , but in the meantime the archbishop had fled to France . A medieval chronicler , Geoffrey of Coldingham , stated that the English church considered Geoffrey a martyr because of this stand against King John .
= = Death and legacy = =
Geoffrey died while still in exile at Grandmont in Normandy on 12 December 1212 . He was buried at a Grandmontine monastery near Rouen , where he had been living for a few years . His tomb was still extant in 1767 , when the inscription on it was recorded by an antiquary . He may have become a monk before his death .
Although his archiepiscopate was mainly marked by the conflicts in which he engaged , Geoffrey also managed to institute some administrative reforms in his diocese , creating the office of chancellor . He also inspired loyalty from some of his household members , many of whom witnessed his charters , and although he made enemies of several of the suffragan bishops , clergy and religious houses in his diocese , he also secured the friendship and support of other clergy , including Pope Innocent III and Hugh of Lincoln . Although Walter Map declared that Geoffrey was " full of faults and devoid of character " , he remained loyal to his father until Henry 's death . A modern @-@ day historian , Thomas Jones , summed up Geoffrey 's character with the phrase " quarrelsome and undiplomatic " . Another historian , J. C. Holt , stated that Geoffrey was through his career " a perpetual source of danger , quarrelling now with de Puiset , now with the Yorkshire sheriffs , ever ready to attack the judicial and fiscal superiority of the Crown . "
Geoffrey 's ambitions may have included becoming King of England , which may account for some of the harshness that his two legitimate half @-@ brothers displayed towards him . His military abilities , displayed in the rebellion of 1173 – 1174 , as well his custody of castles near Tours , would have also fed into Richard 's disquiet over Geoffrey 's possible intentions . Geoffrey was known to be ambitious , which led the historian D. L. Douie to call him a " formidable bastard " . The historian Ralph Turner said of Geoffrey that " he sought power and wealth despite the handicap of his birth " and that he had " inherited the bad temper of the other Plantagenets " .
Geoffrey was a patron of scholarship , and employed scholars throughout his life , one of whom , Honorius of Kent , Geoffrey appointed Archdeacon of Richmond . Honorius was subsequently employed by Hubert Walter and wrote a legal work on canon law . The Leiden St Louis Psalter is a lavishly illuminated psalter made for the archbishop , probably in northern England in the 1190s , which passed into the hands of Blanche of Castile after Geoffrey 's death , and , as religious manuscripts often were , was used to teach the future saint King Louis IX of France how to read , as recorded by a 14th @-@ century inscription . After the king 's death it passed through several royal owners , regarded as a relic of the saint , before reaching the University Library at Leiden in 1741 .
= The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu =
" The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " is the eighth episode of the first season of the American animated science fiction television series Star Trek : The Animated Series . It first aired on NBC on October 27 , 1973 , and was written by Larry Brody , who had originally pitched the idea for the third season of Star Trek : The Original Series . However , according to Brody the dialogue was mostly re @-@ written by series creator Gene Roddenberry .
Set in the 23rd century , the series follows the adventures of Captain James T. Kirk ( voiced by William Shatner ) and the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise . In this episode , while exploring the center of the galaxy , the crew of the Enterprise are transported to the planet Megas @-@ Tu by an alien named Lucien , where magic and witchcraft are normal . Kirk and the crew are placed on trial by the inhabitants in response to the Salem Witch Trials .
The original pitch by Brody featured God rather than the Devil , but this was changed after the idea was rejected by NBC executives . Critics have written positively about the episode , praising the design work for the magical effects . It was compared to The Original Series episode " Plato 's Stepchildren " , but was thought to be an improvement . Following the broadcast , a novelization of " The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " was created by Alan Dean Foster , and it has been released on a variety of home media formats .
= = Plot = =
On stardate 1254 @.@ 4 , while exploring near the center of the galaxy , the Federation starship USS Enterprise is caught inside an energy / matter vortex and all her computer systems fail . A being named Lucien ( voiced by James Doohan ) appears on the bridge , repairs the ship 's systems and takes the crew to explore his planet , Megas @-@ Tu .
On this planet , magic and witchcraft are quite normal . The Megans are an ageless species that had , at one time , lived on Earth , and were responsible for the legends about witches . During this time , the Enterprise crew begin to experiment with magic : Lt. Hikaru Sulu ( voiced by George Takei ) conjures up a beautiful woman while Science Officer Spock ( voiced by Leonard Nimoy ) creates a Vulcan chess game . Lucien , their guide , warns the crew that their experiments would draw unwanted attention , but it is too late . The crew are transported to a location on the planet that appears to be Salem during the middle of a witch trial .
The Megans are determined to put humanity and the Enterprise crew on trial for what humans did to their people during the Salem witch @-@ trials as well as Lucien for bringing them here . Kirk comes out in support of Lucien 's life and says that killing him would make the Megans just like humans . Lucien 's punishment is to be condemned into limbo for eternity for bringing humans into the Megans ' world . While Kirk states that humanity has progressed infinitely since 1691 , the Megans ignore his words . At the end of the trial , Kirk offers his life to save Lucien 's and the Megans are so impressed by the captain 's gesture that they spare Lucien , and tell the Enterprise that they would welcome future human visits to their planet . They also return the Enterprise to its proper universe , while Lucien is revealed to be Lucifer .
= = Production = =
In 1969 , writer Larry Brody pitched a number of story ideas for the third season of Star Trek : The Original Series . He was unsure about how far these stories ideas were taken through the production team , and whether or not series creator Gene Roddenberry had ever seen them . Amongst the ideas was the plot that later became " The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " . Three years later in 1972 , Brody was invited by producer D.C. Fontana to pitch ideas for an episode of Star Trek : The Animated Series . When he arrived to pitch to Fontana , she instead ushered him into a room with Roddenberry . The Star Trek creator was pleased with the idea for " The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " , saying that they had tried to do a magic based episode ( " Catspaw " ) in the second season of The Original Series but he was unsatisfied with the effects due to the budgetary constraints .
At this point the plot concerned the crew of the Enterprise coming across God in space , something which Roddenberry had previously wanted to include in The Original Series but it had been turned down by NBC Primetime 's executives . He thought that such an idea might be palatable to the Daytime executives instead . Roddenberry felt that such an episode would work better in animated form and asked Brody to work up a full script . Brody returned home and started work on the script immediately , wanting to improve it far beyond the point that he had developed when he pitched it for The Original Series .
Roddenberry took the God idea to the NBC executives , who were concerned with the " blinding flash of light " representing God . They rejected the inclusion of God , and the production crew realized that they needed to move the episode in the direction of magic rather than religion . Brody re @-@ wrote the story to include the Devil instead of God . The script went through several re @-@ writes , with Fontana and Brody meeting to discuss the changes that Roddenberry had requested . Brody later regretted not speaking to Roddenberry directly , as at times he didn 't understand what changes he was being asked to make . Fontana was aware of the controversial content of the episode , and later said that some people felt that " The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " dealt with the Devil sympathetically , but believed that it was good .
Following the submission of the script , Roddenberry re @-@ wrote the dialogue to the extent that Brody didn 't recognise any of it when he received the final version . However , Brody 's name remained credited on it . Afterwards , he was invited to attend the cast recording session for the episode , where he met the actors including Shatner and Nimoy . " The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " was one of two episodes of The Animated Series previously pitched for live @-@ action Star Trek , the other being David Gerrold 's " More Tribbles , More Troubles " . Brody later wrote the episode " Tattoo " for the second season of Star Trek : Voyager .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " was first broadcast on NBC on October 27 , 1973 . Mark A. Altman and Edward Gross , in their book Trek Navigator ( 1998 ) , consider " The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " to be one of the best animated episodes . They explained that while it was quite ambitious and heady for a Saturday morning children 's program , " it 's somehow appropriate that Star Trek is able to pull it off successfully . " They compared this episode to the live action Star Trek episode " Plato 's Stepchildren " where Kirk and his crew also gain superpowers , saying it was " a better episode , as Kirk pleads humanity 's case to the Megans . " They highlighted that the episode depicts Kirk successfully defending Lucifer from banishment and noting that he will not fall prey to legendary superstitions and at the end of the episode following Kirk 's successful defense . They gave the episode three out of four stars .
In his column " One Trek Mind " for the official Star Trek website , published in December 2014 , Jordan Hoffman described the episode as " quite beautiful to look at " but also " weirdest " episode of the franchise . Hoffman said that the magical battle between Kirk and the Megan prosecutor was " indescribable " , and compared one scene to having Kirk " trapped inside a giant wrapper of Fruit Stripe gum " . He thought that the revelation of Lucien as the Devil and the punchline ending to the episode could not be repeated in modern television .
In January 2014 , Witney Seibold when writing for Crave Online , said that " The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " was the best episode of The Animated Series . Seibold said that it opened up a number of questions , such as " Does the most evil creature in existence deserve rights as an individual ? " , and added that the action sequence where Captain Kirk fires lightning out of his hands was " really cool " . However , Michelle Erica Green in her March 2011 review for TrekNation described the episode as so bad that she thought fans only watched it to play drinking games . Following her review , she planned to return to pretending that the " terrible " " The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " never existed at all .
The episode was expanded by Alan Dean Foster in the novel Star Trek : Log 3 alongside the episodes " Once Upon a Planet " and " Mudd 's Passion " . " The Magicks of Megas @-@ tu " was released on LaserDisc as part of the series set . The first release of Star Trek : The Animated Series on DVD was through fan made productions . The official DVD release was on November 21 , 2006 in the United States , which was a single release containing all episodes from both seasons of the television show .
= Lovebird ( song ) =
" Lovebird " is a song recorded by British singer @-@ songwriter Leona Lewis for her third studio album Glassheart ( 2012 ) . It was written by Bonnie McKee , Joshua Coleman and Dr. Luke , and produced by Josh Abrahams , Ammo and Oligee . " Lovebird " was recorded at Pulse Recording in Los Angeles and is a power ballad , incorporating a piano and synth @-@ driven melody . The lyrics consist of Lewis informing her past lover that enough time has passed since their relationship for her to have moved on and to have developed as a person . Critics praised Lewis ' vocal performance , likening the her technical abilities to those of Mariah Carey and Whitney Houston . The musical structure of the song was heavily compared to one of her previous singles , " Bleeding Love " , along with songs performed by Adele . The accompanying music video shows Lewis trying to escape from a giant bird cage .
To promote " Lovebird " , Lewis performed the song on talk shows Daybreak and Loose Women in the United Kingdom , in addition to singing competition La Voz in Spain . Nonetheless , " Lovebird " sold fewer than 600 copies upon its release , failing to attain one of the top 200 chart positions on the UK Singles Chart ; however , two weeks after the release of Glassheart , " Lovebird " peaked at number 22 on the South Korea Gaon Single Chart due to strong digital download sales .
= = Background = =
On New Years Day 2012 , a low quality snippet of " Lovebird " leaked under the title " Love Birds " . After the song leaked , Lewis expressed her frustration at the song being available for listening to on the Internet , stating : " I 'm sad that one of my songs leaked . As an artist that holds music dear to my heart I would 've liked to share it with u [ sic ] when it 's ready . I hope that you feel it like I do and when it 's time to be released you 'll still support it in the right way . Thank u [ sic ] for the love . " That same month , it was announced that the album was expected to be released on 26 March 2012 . Record executive Simon Cowell later publicly give his support for Glassheart , saying to Lewis that , although there had been a lengthy wait of two years for new music , the album was " sensational " , and that Lewis had " never sounded better . "
= = Release = =
In October 2012 , " Trouble " was released as Glassheart 's lead single . Lewis then announced that " Fireflies " would serve as the album 's second single ; a lyric video for the song was uploaded to Lewis ' official VEVO account on 26 October 2012 . However , when Lewis appeared as a special guest performer at the London Oxford Street Christmas light switch @-@ on event on 5 November 2012 , she introduced " Lovebird " as the second single and performed it for the first time . It was later confirmed by Sony Music that " Lovebird " had replaced " Fireflies " as the album 's second single , and that it would be released as the lead single for the album in Europe . " Lovebird " was made available for download in Finland , the Netherlands , Portugal and Switzerland on 16 November 2012 . It was released in France , Italy and Spain a few days later on 19 November 2012 . In the United Kingdom , " Lovebird " was not released as a standalone digital download ; occasionally record labels will select a song to be a single and promote the release for a particular date ( " impact date " ) , without the single being listed separately from the album in digital download stores . The song was available to purchase as an individual album track and was given an impact date of 9 December 2012 . It was released in Germany on 12 April 2013 .
= = Production and composition = =
" Lovebird " was written by Bonnie McKee , Joshua Coleman and Dr. Luke , and produced by Josh Abrahams , Oligee , and Coleman ( under his production name , Ammo ) . The song was engineered by Ryan Williams , assisted by Daniela Rivera . " Lovebird " was mixed by Phil Tan at the Ninja Beat Club in Atlanta , Georgia and mastered by Colin Leonard at SING Mastering using SING Technology , both located in Atlanta . The song was recorded at Pulse Recording in Los Angeles . " Lovebird " is a power ballad of three minutes and thirty seconds . The song 's musical structure bears strong resemblances to one of Lewis ' previous singles , " Bleeding Love " , from her début studio album Spirit ( 2007 ) . The track opens with a piano introduction similar to that on " Bleeding Love " , and features an " instantly hummable chorus " . Lewis informs her lover in the lyrics – with the lines " But the time went on , the wind has blown , and I have grown " – that enough time has passed since their relationship started for her to have developed as a person . As power ballad beats and " airy synths " play , she sings " Your lovebird 's flying away / Cos my heart 's been stuck in a cage " . The hook consists of Lewis singing " I 've got to sing my song , so pretty / Dum , dum , diddy " .
= = Critical reception = =
Mike Wass , a writer for Idolator , wrote that " Lovebird " was one of the two best songs on Glassheart , along with the title track . He further commented that it had strong radio potential , and that it would be successful if it were to be released in the United States , as it sounds like a " clone " of " Bleeding Love " . Digital Spy critic Lewis Corner felt that the song was reminiscent of " Bleeding Love " as well as " Better in Time " . Although he noted that Lewis ' vocal performance on " Lovebird " is very impressive , as with all her material , he was unsure of why it was included on the final cut of the album due to Glassheart having " bigger " songs on it , which were likely to chart better . The Mirror 's Clemmie Moodie thought that although the recording is a " catchy " song , it does not compare to " Bleeding Love " , but noted that it does contain " lyrical gems " , including “ Your lovebird 's flyin ’ away , ’ cos my heart 's been stuck in a cage " . Hermoine Hoby , writing on behalf of The Observer , wrote that Lewis appears to be following in the footsteps of singer @-@ songwriter Adele , due to the inclusion of " big heartfelt ballads " such as " Lovebird " and " Fireflies " on Glassheart . For Hoby , Lewis ' vocals are just as " technically irreproachable " as Whitney Houston 's and Mariah Carey 's .
= = Live performances and music video = =
Lewis performed " Lovebird " for the first time at the switching @-@ on of the Christmas lights at Oxford Street in London on 5 November 2012 ; she also performed " Trouble " . The singer performed the song live on Daybreak on 23 November 2012 , on Loose Women on 29 November 2012 and again on 8 December 2012 at the National Lottery Awards . To promote the song in Spain , Lewis sung " Lovebird " on La Voz in December 2012 .
The song 's accompanying music video was filmed in November 2012 and premiered on 5 December 2012 . The video has a metaphorical theme , and features Lewis in a giant bird cage in a dimly lit room , wearing the long ivory sleeved dress and " jewelled eye decorations " . Some scenes show the singer in a shadow and darker settings , while others are light and colourful . For most of the video , Lewis ponders about being able to escape her cage and experience freedom . At the end of the video , she realises that the cage is in fact unlocked and she is able to leave her confine , and leaves . Lucy Buckland for the Daily Mail felt that Lewis looks " positively mournful " in the video , and that while it may not be the best advert for feminism , she looks " beautiful " .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Lovebird " – 3 : 30
Digital single
" Lovebird " – 3 : 30
" Lovebird " ( music video ) – 3 : 29
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Pulse Recording , Los Angeles , California .
Mixed at Ninja Beat Club , Atlanta , Georgia .
Mastered at SING Mastering , Atlanta , Georgia .
Personnel
Songwriting – Bonnie McKee , Joshua Coleman , Lukasz Gottwald
Production – Josh Abrahams , Oligee , Ammo
Engineering – Ryan Williams
Additional / assistant engineering – Daniela Rivera
Mixing – Phil Tan
Mastering – Colin Leonard
= = Chart and commercial performance = =
Upon the release of Glassheart , " Lovebird " debuted on the South Korea Digital International Singles chart at number 73 in the issue dated 24 November 2012 . The following week , it peaked at number 20 . On the South Korea Download International Singles chart , the song debuted at number 68 , with sales of 4 @,@ 310 , on 24 November 2012 , and peaked at number 22 the following week , with sales of 10 @,@ 413 . In the United Kingdom , " Lovebird " was given an impact date of 9 December 2012 , meaning it was only available to purchase as an album track rather than a traditional separate single release . In the chart week immediately after , " Lovebird " sold fewer than 600 copies , meaning it failed to attain one of 200 chart positions on the UK Singles Chart . As a result , " Lovebird " became Lewis ' lowest selling single of her career thus far , and her first release to not chart in the UK . According to the The Mirror there was " no real marketing force " behind the single and it " failed to capture the imagination of radio bosses " . The newspaper concluded that " most people , unless they have the album , have never heard the song " and this was due to a lack of airplay .
= = Release history = =
= Freedom from Fear ( painting ) =
Freedom from Fear is the last of the well @-@ known Four Freedoms oil paintings produced by the American artist Norman Rockwell . The series was based on the four goals known as the Four Freedoms , which were enunciated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in his State of the Union Address on January 6 , 1941 . This work was published in the March 13 , 1943 , issue of The Saturday Evening Post alongside an essay by a prominent thinker of the day , Stephen Vincent Benét . The painting is generally described as depicting American children being tucked into bed by their parents while the Blitz rages across the Atlantic in Great Britain .
= = Background = =
Freedom from Fear is the last of a series of four oil paintings entitled Four Freedoms , painted by Norman Rockwell . The works were inspired by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in a State of the Union Address delivered to the 77th United States Congress on January 6 , 1941 ; the speech itself is often called the Four Freedoms . The Four Freedoms theme was eventually incorporated into the Atlantic Charter , and it became part of the charter of the United Nations . The series of paintings was printed in The Saturday Evening Post , accompanied by essays from noted writers , on four consecutive weeks in early 1943 : Freedom of Speech ( February 20 ) , Freedom of Worship ( February 27 ) , Freedom from Want ( March 6 ) and Freedom from Fear ( March 13 ) . Eventually , the series was widely distributed in poster form and became instrumental in the U.S. Government 's Second War Bond Drive .
The Blitz was a period of sustained strategic bombing of the United Kingdom by Germany during the Second World War . Between 7 September 1940 and 21 May 1941 , sixteen British cities were hit by major aerial raids . Beginning on 7 September 1940 , London was bombed by the Luftwaffe for 57 consecutive nights . Overall , more than one million London houses were destroyed or damaged during the Blitz , and more than 40 @,@ 000 civilians were killed , almost half of them in London .
= = Description = =
The painting shows children resting safely in their beds , oblivious to the perils of this world , as their parents look on . Their mother tucks them in while their father holds a newspaper describing the horrors of the ongoing conflict . However , his attention is fully on his children and not on the alarming headlines . According to another view , the children are already asleep , and their parents are checking on them in their shared narrow bed before they themselves turn in for the night . The father appears as the " classic Rockwell onlooker " who serves as a viewer within the painting . Since he is holding his glasses , we assume that he has finished reading the Bennington Banner in his hand . The newspaper 's headline reads " Bombings Ki ... Horror Hit " , referencing the Blitz . In the background is a lit hallway and a stairway leading to the first floor .
According to Rockwell , who did not really care much for the work , the theme " was based on a rather smug idea . Painted during the bombing of London , it was supposed to say , ' Thank God we can put our children to bed with a feeling of security , knowing they will not be killed in the night . ' "
= = Production = =
The models for the work were Jim Martin , Mrs. Edgar Lawrence ( Dorothy ) , and two children of Rockwell 's carpenter Walt Squires , all neighbors of Rockwell in Arlington , Vermont . At Rockwell 's request , the Bennington Banner produced a dummy edition to use for this work . Freedom from Fear was published in the March 13 , 1943 Issue of The Saturday Evening Post with a matching essay by Stephen Vincent Benét as part of the Four Freedoms series . Coincidentally , the day it was published , poet , novelist , and short @-@ story writer Benét died .
= = History = =
This painting is the only one of the Four Freedoms which had been newly created prior to the commissioning of the series . It had originally been created to depict the Battle of Britain , but went unpublished by The Saturday Evening Post . The United States Department of the Treasury toured Rockwell 's Four Freedoms paintings around the country after their publication in 1943 . The Four Freedoms Tour raised over $ 130 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in war bond sales . Rockwell 's Four Freedoms paintings were also reproduced as commemorative covers for postage stamps sold during the War Bond shows .
= = Critical review = =
The scene has been described as overly intimate . Both the arrangement of the furniture and the lighting contribute to this intimacy . Deborah Solomon describes the scene as having " some of the feeling of a French interior , with lovely haut @-@ art touches . Bruce Cole of The Wall Street Journal stated " This reference to the war is so specific that it conveys little about fear or Roosevelt 's plan for universal disarmament . Rockwell just could not get his hands around these airy abstractions . "
= Johan Hambro =
Johan Randulf Bull Hambro ( 24 October 1915 – 27 February 1993 ) was a Norwegian journalist , translator and biographer . He was the fourth son of Norwegian politician C. J. Hambro , whose biography he wrote in 1984 . He lived in the United States from 1939 to 1982 , where he studied and worked as a foreign @-@ affairs journalist , press attaché and consulate @-@ general . He was secretary general of the Norse Federation for 27 years , from 1955 to 1982 . He was decorated as a Knight , First Class of the Order of St. Olav in 1975 .
= = Family = =
Hambro was born on 24 October 1915 in Kristiania , the fourth son of politician C. J. Hambro ( 1885 – 1964 ) and his wife , Gudrun " Dudu " Grieg ( 1881 – 1943 ) . He was a paternal grandson of Nico and Edvard Isak Hambro , and a brother of Carl Joachim and Edvard Hambro . His namesake was his second great @-@ grandfather , Johan Randulf Bull ( 1749 – 1829 ) , Norway 's first Supreme Court Justice . Hambro married Lore Aickelin in 1945 .
= = Career = =
He grew up in the Uranienborg neighbourhood in the West End of Oslo , and enrolled at the Royal Frederick University in 1933 . Following law studies , he graduated in 1939 with a cand.jur. degree , and travelled to the United States to study at Columbia University in New York . From 1940 to 1945 , during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany , he was employed at the Norwegian general consulate in New York City . He worked as a foreign affairs journalist for the conservative newspaper Aftenposten from 1946 to 1948 and for the Norwegian News Agency from 1949 to 1953 . He was a press attaché for the Norwegian United Nations delegation in 1953 and 1954 . After that , he was stationed in New York as a foreign correspondent and radio chronicler for Norway .
In 1955 , he succeeded Arne Kildal as secretary general of the non @-@ profit Norse Federation , and became editor of its periodical , The Norseman . In 1957 , Hambro was the chief editor of the Norse Federation 's 50th anniversary book , De tok et Norge med seg ( " They brought a Norway with them " ) . He edited its Christmas booklet , Norges Jul ( " Norway 's Christmas " ) , in 1975 . Hambro was succeeded by Johan Fr . Heyerdahl as secretary general of the Norse Federation in 1982 . Two years later , the federation started a summer course for Norwegian students , which it named after Hambro .
Hambro released a biography on his father , C. J. Hambro , in 1984 , titled C. J. Hambro : Liv og drøm ( " C. J. Hambro : Life and Dream " ) . The book was well received by critics , and sold more than 30 @,@ 000 copies in 1984 . The book is known for revealing many secrets about his father 's private life , including his relationship with the actress Gyda Christensen . Like his father , Hambro translated many books from English to Norwegian , among them The Fountainhead by Ayn Rand in 1949 , First Among Equals by Jeffrey Archer in 1985 , and A Sport of Nature by Nadine Gordimer in 1988 .
= = Death and recognition = =
In 1958 , Hambro was pronounced an honorary citizen of Minneapolis . He was given the Regents Award of St. Olaf College in 1972 . Honorary degrees were bestowed by Luther College in 1969 and St. Olaf College in 1979 . Hambro was decorated as a Knight , First Class of the Order of St. Olav in 1975 . He died on 27 February 1993 in Oslo , at age 77 .
= Acer rubrum =
Acer rubrum ( red maple , also known as swamp , water or soft maple ) is one of the most common and widespread deciduous trees of eastern and central North America . The U.S. Forest service recognizes it as the most common species of tree in America . The red maple ranges from southeastern Manitoba around the Lake of the Woods on the border with Ontario and Minnesota , east to Newfoundland , south to Florida , and southwest to eastern Texas . Many of its features , especially its leaves , are quite variable in form . At maturity it often attains a height of around 15 m ( 49 ft ) . Its flowers , petioles , twigs and seeds are all red to varying degrees . Among these features , however , it is best known for its brilliant deep scarlet foliage in autumn .
Over most of its range , red maple is adaptable to a very wide range of site conditions , perhaps more so than any other tree in eastern North America . It can be found growing in swamps , on poor dry soils , and most anywhere in between . It grows well from sea level to about 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) . Due to its attractive fall foliage and pleasing form , it is often used as a shade tree for landscapes . It is used commercially on a small scale for maple syrup production as well as for its medium to high quality lumber . It is also the State Tree of Rhode Island . The red maple can be considered weedy or invasive . It is taking over forests in the eastern US , replacing traditional mainstays like oaks , as well as hickories and pines .
= = Description = =
Though A. rubrum is usually easy to identify , it is highly changeable in morphological characteristics . It is a medium to large sized tree , reaching heights of 18 to 27 metres ( 59 to 89 ft ) and exceptionally over 35 metres ( 115 feet ) . The leaves are usually 9 to 11 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 3 in ) long on a full grown tree . The trunk diameter can range from 46 to 76 cm ( 18 to 30 in ) , depending on the growing conditions . Its spread is about 12 m ( 39 ft ) . A 10 @-@ year @-@ old sapling will stand about 6 m ( 20 ft ) tall . In forests , the bark will remain free of branches until some distance up the tree . Individuals grown in the open are shorter and thicker with a more rounded crown . Generally speaking , however , the crown is irregularly ovoid with ascending whip @-@ like curved shoots . The bark is a pale grey and smooth when the individual is young . As the tree grows the bark becomes darker and cracks into slightly raised long plates . The largest known living red maple is located near Armada , Michigan , at a height of 38 @.@ 1 m ( 125 ft ) and a bole circumference , at breast height , of 4 @.@ 95 m ( 16 @.@ 2 ft ) .
The leaves of the red maple offer the easiest way to distinguish it from its relatives . As with nearly all North American maple trees , they are deciduous and arranged oppositely on the twig . They are typically 5 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and wide with 3 @-@ 5 palmate lobes with a serrated margin . The sinuses are typically narrow , but the leaves can exhibit considerable variation . When 5 lobes are present , the three at the terminal end are larger than the other two near the base . In contrast , the leaves of the related silver maple , A. saccharinum , are much more deeply lobed , more sharply toothed and characteristically have 5 lobes . The upper side of A. rubrum 's leaf is light green and the underside is whitish and can be either glaucous or hairy . The leaf stalks are usually red and are up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . Furthermore , the leaves can turn a brilliant red in autumn , but can also become yellow or orange on some individuals .
The twigs of the red maple are reddish in color and somewhat shiny with small lenticels . Dwarf shoots are present on many branches . The buds are usually blunt and greenish to reddish in color , generally with several loose scales . The lateral buds are slightly stalked , and in addition there may be collateral buds present as well . The buds form in fall and winter and are often visible from a distance due to their reddish tint . The leaf scars on the twig are V @-@ shaped and contain 3 bundle scars .
The flowers are generally unisexual , with male and female flowers appearing in separate sessile clusters , though they are sometimes also bisexual . They appear in spring from April to May ( though as early as late January in the southern part of its range ) , usually coming before the leaves . The tree itself is considered Polygamodioecious , meaning some individuals are male , some female , and some monoecious . The red maple will begin blooming when it is about 8 years old , but it significantly varies between tree to tree : some trees may begin flowering when they are 4 years old . The flowers are red with 5 small petals and a 5 @-@ lobed calyx borne in hanging clusters , usually at the twig tips . They are lineal to oblong in shape and are pubescent . The pistillate flowers have one pistil formed from two fused carpels with a glabrous superior ovary and two long styles that protrude beyond the perianth . The staminate flowers contain between 4 and 12 stamens , often with 8 .
The fruit is a 15 to 25 millimeter ( .5 to .75 inch ) long double samara with somewhat divergent wings at an angle of 50 to 60 degrees . They are borne on long slender stems and are variable in color from light brown to reddish . They ripen from April through early June , before even the leaf development is altogether complete . After they reach maturity , the seeds are dispersed for a 1 to 2 week period from April through July .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
A. rubrum is one of the most abundant and widespread trees in eastern North America . It can be found from the south of Newfoundland , Nova Scotia and southern Quebec to the south west of Ontario , extreme southeastern Manitoba and northern Minnesota ; south to Wisconsin , Illinois , Missouri , eastern Oklahoma , and eastern Texas in its western range ; and east to Florida . It has the largest continuous range along the North American Atlantic Coast of any tree that occurs in Florida . In total it ranges 2 @,@ 600 km ( 1 @,@ 600 mi ) from north to south . The species is native to all regions of the United States east of the 95th meridian west , with only three exceptions , namely the Prairie Peninsula of the Midwest , the coastal prairie in southern Louisiana and southeastern Texas and the swamp prairie of the Florida Everglades . In several other locations , the tree is absent from large areas but still present in a few specific habitats . An example is the Bluegrass region of Kentucky , where it is not found in the dominant open plains , but is present along streams . Here the red maple is not present in the bottom land forests of the Grain Belt , despite the fact it is common in similar habitats and species associations both to the north and south of this area .
The tree 's range ends where the − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) mean minimum isotherm begins , namely in southeastern Canada . On the other hand , the western range is limited by the much drier climate of the Great Plains . Nonetheless , it has the widest tolerance to climatic conditions of all the North American species of maple . The absence of red maple in the Prairie Peninsula is due to the species ' intolerance of fire .
A. rubrum does very well in a wide range of soil types , with varying textures , moisture , pH , and elevation , probably more so than any other forest tree in North America . It grows on glaciated as well as nonglaciated soils derived from the following rocks : granite , gneiss , schist , sandstone , shale , slate , conglomerate , quartzite , and limestone . Chlorosis can occur on very alkaline soils , though otherwise its pH tolerance is quite high . As concerns levels of moisture , the red maple grows everywhere from dry ridges and southwest facing slopes to peat bogs and swamps . It occurs commonly in rather extreme moisture conditions , both very wet and quite dry . While many types of tree prefer a south or north facing aspect , the red maple does not appear to have a preference . Its ideal conditions are in moderately well @-@ drained , moist sites at low or intermediate elevations . However , it is nonetheless common in mountainous areas on relatively dry ridges , as well as on both the south and west sides of upper slopes . Furthermore , it is common in swampy areas , along the banks of slow moving streams , as well as on poorly drained flats and depressions . In northern Michigan and New England , the tree is found on the tops of ridges , sandy or rocky upland and otherwise dry soils , as well as in nearly pure stands on moist soils and the edges of swamps . In the far south of its range , it is almost exclusively associated with swamps .
Red Maple is far more abundant today than when Europeans first arrived in North America , where along with its cousin Silver Maple , it may have comprised a mere 5 % of forest area and was confined mostly to riparian zones . The density of the tree in many of these areas has increased 6 to 7 fold and this trend seems to be continuing , much of it due to human factors , especially suppression of wildfires which would kill shallow @-@ rooted pioneer species like red maple , but leave mainline forest trees like oaks and hickories untouched . In addition , conservation efforts have caused a major increase in the population of white @-@ tailed deer since the mid @-@ 20th century . Deer will readily consume acorns , but leave maple seeds untouched , thus reducing the ability of oaks to regenerate . Concern has been expressed , as the ongoing spread of the red maple is changing the nature of eastern forests by reducing the number of oaks , hickorys and pines that would otherwise dominate . Extensive use of red maple in landscaping has also contributed to the surge in the species ' numbers as volunteer seedlings proliferate . Finally , disease epidemics have greatly reduced the population of elms and chestnuts in the forests of the US . While mainline forest trees continue to dominate mesic sites with rich soil , more marginal areas are increasingly being dominated by red maple .
= = Ecology = =
Red maple seldom lives longer than 150 years , making it short to medium lived . It reaches maturity in 70 to 80 years . Its ability to thrive in a large number of habitats is largely due to its ability to produce roots to suit its site from a young age . In wet locations , red maple seedlings produce short taproots with long and developed lateral roots , while on dry sites , they develop long taproots with significantly shorter laterals . The roots are primarily horizontal , however , forming in the upper 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of the ground . Mature trees have woody roots up to 25 m ( 82 ft ) long . They are very tolerant of flooding , with one study showing that 60 days of flooding caused no leaf damage . At the same time , they are tolerant of drought due to their ability to stop growing under dry conditions by then producing a second growth flush when conditions later improve , even if growth has stopped for 2 weeks . Red maple is one of the most drought @-@ tolerant species of maple in the Carolinas .
A. rubrum is one of the first plants to flower in spring . A crop of seeds is generally produced every year with a bumper crop often occurring every second year . A single tree between 5 and 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 and 7 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter can produce between 12 @,@ 000 and 91 @,@ 000 seeds in a season . A tree 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 ft ) in diameter was shown to produce nearly a million seeds . Red maple produces one of the smallest seeds of any of the maples . Fertilization has also been shown to significantly increase the seed yield for up to two years after application . The seeds are epigeal and tend to germinate in early summer soon after they are released , assuming a small amount of light , moisture , and sufficient temperatures are present . If the seeds are densely shaded , then germination commonly does not occur until the next spring . Most seedlings do not survive in closed forest canopy situations . However , one- to four @-@ year @-@ old seedlings are common under dense canopy and though they eventually die if no light reaches them , they serve as a reservoir , waiting to fill any open area of the canopy above . Trees growing in a Zone 9 or 10 area such as Florida will usually die from cold damage if transferred up north , Canada , Maine , Vermont , New Hampshire and New York , even if the southern trees were planted with northern red maples . Due to their wide range , genetically the trees have adapted to the climatic differences .
Red maple is able to increase its numbers significantly when associate trees are damaged by disease , cutting , or fire . One study found that 6 years after clearcutting a 3 @.@ 4 hectares ( 8 @.@ 4 acres ) Oak @-@ Hickory forest containing no red maples , the plot contained more than 2 @,@ 200 red maple seedlings per hectare ( 900 per acre ) taller than 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) . One of its associates , the black cherry ( Prunus serotina ) , contains benzoic acid , which has been shown to be a potential allelopathic inhibitor of red maple growth . Red maple is one of the first species to start stem elongation . In one study , stem elongation was one @-@ half completed in 1 week , after which growth slowed and was 90 % completed within only 54 days . In good light and moisture conditions , the seedlings can grow 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 ft ) in their first year and up to 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) each year for the next few years making it a fast grower .
The red maple is a used as a food source by several forms of wildlife . Elk and white @-@ tailed deer in particular use the current season 's growth of red maple as an important source of winter food . Several Lepidoptera ( butterflies and moths ) utilize the leaves as food ; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on maples .
Due to A. rubrum 's very wide range , there is significant variation in hardiness , size , form , time of flushing , onset of dormancy , and other traits . Generally speaking , individuals from the north flush the earliest , have the most reddish fall color , set their buds the earliest and take the least winter injury . Seedlings are tallest in the north @-@ central and east @-@ central part of the range . In Florida , at the extreme south of the red maple 's range , it is limited exclusively to swamplands . The fruits also vary geographically with northern individuals in areas with brief frost free periods producing fruits that are shorter and heavier than their southern counterparts . As a result of the variation there is much genetic potential for breeding programs with a goal of producing red maples for cultivation . This is especially useful for making urban cultivars that require resistance from verticillium wilt , air pollution , and drought .
Red maple frequently hybridizes with Silver Maple ; the hybrid , known as Freeman 's Maple Acer x freemanii , is intermediate between the parents .
= = = Allergenic potential = = =
The allergenic potential of red maples varies widely based on the cultivar .
The following cultivars are completely male and are highly allergenic , with an OPALS allergy scale rating of 8 or higher :
'Autumn Flame ' ( ' Flame ' )
'Autumn Spire'
'Columnare ' ( ' Pyramidale ' )
'Firedance ' ( ' Landsburg ' )
'Karpick'
'Northwood'
'October Brilliance'
'Sun Valley'
'Tiliford'
The following cultivars have an OPALS allergy scale rating of 3 or lower ; they are completely female trees , and have low potential for causing allergies :
'Autumn Glory'
'Bowhall'
'Davey Red'
'Doric'
'Embers'
'Festival'
'October Glory'
'Red Skin'
'Red Sunset ' ( ' Franksred ' )
= = = Toxicity = = =
The leaves of red maple , especially when dead or wilted , are extremely toxic to horses . The toxin is unknown , but believed to be an oxidant because it damages red blood cells , causing acute oxidative hemolysis that inhibits the transport of oxygen . This not only decreases oxygen delivery to all tissues , but also leads to the production of methemoglobin , which can further damage the kidneys . The ingestion of 700 grams ( 1 @.@ 5 pounds ) of leaves is considered toxic and 1 @.@ 4 kilograms ( 3 pounds ) is lethal . Symptoms occur within one or two days after ingestion and can include depression , lethargy , increased rate and depth of breathing , increased heart rate , jaundice , dark brown urine , colic , laminitis , coma , and death . Treatment is limited and can include the use of methylene blue or mineral oil and activated carbon in order to stop further absorption of the toxin into the stomach , as well as blood transfusions , fluid support , diuretics , and anti @-@ oxidants such as Vitamin C. About 50 % to 75 % of affected horses die or are euthanized as a result .
= = Cultivation = =
Red maple 's rapid growth , ease of transplanting , attractive form , and value for wildlife ( in the eastern US ) has made it one of the most extensively planted trees . In parts of the Pacific Northwest , it is one of the most common introduced trees . Its popularity in cultivation stems from its vigorous habit , its attractive and early red flowers , and most importantly , its flaming red fall foliage . The tree was introduced into the United Kingdom in 1656 and shortly thereafter entered cultivation . There it is frequently found in many parks and gardens , as well as occasionally in churchyards .
Red maple is a good choice of a tree for urban areas when there is ample room for its root system . It is more tolerant of pollution and road salt than Sugar Maples , although the tree 's fall foliage is not as vibrant in this environment . Like several other maples , its low root system can be invasive and it makes a poor choice for plantings near paving . It attracts squirrels , who eat its buds in the early spring , although squirrels prefer the larger buds of the silver maple .
Red Maple make vibrant and colorful bonsai , and have year around attractive features for display .
= = = Cultivars = = =
Numerous cultivars have been selected , often for intensity of fall color , with ' October Glory ' and ' Red Sunset ' among the most popular . Toward its southern limit , ' Fireburst ' , ' Florida Flame ' , and ' Gulf Ember ' are preferred . Many cultivars of the Freeman maple are also grown widely . Below is a partial list of cultivars :
'Armstrong ' - Columnar to fastigate in shape with silvery bark and modest orange to red fall foliage
'Autumn Blaze ' - Rounded oval form with leaves that resemble the silver maple . The fall color is orange red and persists longer than usual
'Autumn Flame ' - A fast grower with exceptional bright red fall color developing early . The leaves are also smaller than the species .
'Autumn Radiance ' - Dense oval crown with an orange @-@ red fall color
'Autumn Spire ' - Broad columnar crown ; red fall color ; very hardy
'Bowhall ' - Conical to upright in form with a yellow @-@ red fall color
'Burgundy Bell ' - Compact rounded uniform shape with long lasting , burgundy fall leaves
'Columnare ' - An old cultivar growing to 20 metres ( 66 feet ) with a narrow columnar to pyramidal form with dark green leaves turning orange and deep red in fall
'Gerling ' - A compact , slow growing selection , this individual only reaches 10 metres ( 33 feet ) and has orange @-@ red fall foliage
'Northwood ' - Branches are at a 45 degree angle to the trunk , forming a rounded oval crown . Though the foliage is deep green in summer , its orange @-@ red fall color is not as impressive as other cultivars .
'October Brilliance ' - This selection is slow to leaf in spring , but has a tight crown and deep red fall color
'October Glory ' - Has a rounded oval crown with late developing intense red fall foliage . Along with ' Red Sunset ' , it is the most popular selection due to the dependable fall color and vigorous growth . This cultivar has gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit .
'Redpointe ' - Superior in alkaline soil , strong central leader , red fall color
'Red Sunset ' - The other very popular choice , this selection does well in heat due to its drought tolerance and has an upright habit . It has very attractive orange @-@ red fall color and is also a rapid and vigorous grower .
'Scarlet Sentinel ' - A columnar to oval selection with 5 @-@ lobed leaves resembling the silver maple . The fall color is yellow @-@ orange to orange @-@ red and the tree is a fast grower .
'Schlesingeri ' - A tree with a broad crown and early , long lasting fall color that a deep red to reddish purple . Growth is also quite rapid .
'Shade King ' - This fast growing cultivar has an upright @-@ oval form with deep green summer leaves that turn red to orange in fall .
'V.J. Drake ' - This selection is notable because the edges of the leaves first turn a deep red before the color progresses into the center .
= = Other uses = =
In the lumber industry Acer rubrum is considered a soft maple . The wood is close grained and as such it is similar to that of A. saccharum , but its texture is softer , less dense , and has a poorer figure and machining qualities . High grades of wood from the red maple can nonetheless be substituted for hard maple , particularly when it comes to making furniture . As a soft maple , the wood tends to shrink more during the drying process than with the hard maples .
Red maple is also used for the production of maple syrup , though the hard maples Acer saccharum ( sugar maple ) and Acer nigrum ( black maple ) are more commonly utilized . One study compared the sap and syrup from the sugar maple with those of the red maple , as well as those of the Acer saccharinum ( silver maple ) , Acer negundo ( boxelder ) , and Acer platanoides ( Norway maple ) , and all were found to be equal in sweetness , flavor , and quality . However , the buds of red maple and other soft maples emerge much earlier in the spring than the sugar maple , and after sprouting chemical makeup of the sap changes , imparting an undesirable flavor to the syrup . This being the case , red maple can only be tapped for syrup before the buds emerge , making the season very short .
Red maple is a medium quality firewood , possessing high heat energy , nominally 5 @.@ 4 MJ / m ³ ( 18 @.@ 7 million BTU ( mbtu ) per cord ) , than other hardwoods such as Ash : 7 MJ / m ³ ( 24 mbtu / cord ) , Oak : 7 MJ / m ³ ( 24 mbtu / cord ) , or Birch : 5 @.@ 8 MJ / m ³ ( 20 mbtu / cord ) .
= HMS Indomitable ( 1907 ) =
HMS Indomitable was one of three Invincible @-@ class battlecruisers built for the Royal Navy before World War I and had an active career during the war . She tried to hunt down the German ships Goeben and Breslau in the Mediterranean when war broke out and bombarded Turkish fortifications protecting the Dardanelles even before the British declared war on Turkey . She helped to sink the German armoured cruiser Blücher during the Battle of Dogger Bank in 1915 and towed the damaged British battlecruiser HMS Lion to safety after the battle . She damaged the German battlecruisers Seydlitz and Derfflinger during the Battle of Jutland in mid @-@ 1916 and watched her sister ship HMS Invincible explode . Deemed obsolete after the war , she was sold for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Invincible @-@ class ships were formally known as armoured cruisers until 1911 when they were redesignated as battlecruisers by an Admiralty order of 24 November 1911 . Unofficially a number of designations were used until then , including " cruiser @-@ battleship " , " dreadnought cruiser " and " battle @-@ cruiser " .
Indomitable was significantly larger than her armoured cruiser predecessors of the Minotaur class . She had an overall length of 567 feet ( 172 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 78 feet 7 @.@ 75 inches ( 24 @.@ 0 m ) , and a draft of 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . She displaced 17 @,@ 250 long tons ( 17 @,@ 530 t ) at load and 20 @,@ 420 long tons ( 20 @,@ 750 t ) at deep load , nearly 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) more than the earlier ships .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Indomitable had two paired sets of Parsons direct @-@ drive turbines . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 41 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 31 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached nearly 48 @,@ 000 shp ( 36 @,@ 000 kW ) during trials in 1908 . Indomitable was designed for a speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , but reached 26 @.@ 1 knots ( 48 @.@ 3 km / h ; 30 @.@ 0 mph ) during trials . She maintained an average speed of 25 @.@ 3 knots ( 46 @.@ 9 km / h ; 29 @.@ 1 mph ) for three days during a passage of the North Atlantic in August 1908 .
The steam plant comprised 31 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers arranged in four boiler rooms . Maximum bunkerage was 3 @,@ 083 long tons ( 3 @,@ 132 t ) of coal , and an additional 713 long tons ( 724 t ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full fuel capacity , she could steam for 3 @,@ 090 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 720 km ; 3 @,@ 560 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Indomitable mounted eight BL 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Mk X guns in four twin hydraulically powered turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 4 in ( 102 mm ) QF Mk III guns . During 1915 the turret roof guns were transferred to the superstructure and the total number of guns was reduced to twelve . All of the remaining guns were enclosed in casemates and given blast shields at that time to better protect the gun crews from weather and enemy action . The QF Mk III guns were replaced by twelve 4 @-@ inch BL MK VII guns during 1917 .
Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of a single QF 3 inch 20 cwt AA gun on a high @-@ angle MKII mount at the aft end of the superstructure that was carried from July 1915 . A 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss gun on a high @-@ angle MkIc mounting with a maximum elevation of 60 ° was also mounted in November 1914 and used until August 1917 . A 4 @-@ inch BL MK VII on a high @-@ angle mount was added in April 1917 . Five 18 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted on the Invincibles , two on each side and one in the stern . Fourteen torpedoes were carried for them .
= = = Armour = = =
The Invincible 's waterline belt had a maximum thickness 6 inches ( 152 mm ) amidships . The belt was 6 inches thick roughly between the fore and aft 12 @-@ inch gun turrets , but was reduced to four inches from the fore turret to the bow , but did not extend aft of the rear turret . The gun turrets and barbettes were protected by 7 inches ( 178 mm ) of armour , except for the turret roofs which used 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of Krupp non @-@ cemented armour ( KNC ) . The thickness of the main deck was 1 – 2 inches ( 25 – 51 mm ) and the lower deck armour was 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 – 64 mm ) . Mild steel torpedo bulkheads of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thickness were fitted abreast the magazines and shell rooms .
After the Battle of Jutland revealed her vulnerability to plunging shellfire , additional armour was added in the area of the magazines and to the turret roofs . The exact thickness is not known , but it was unlikely to be thick as the total amount was less than 100 long tons ( 102 t ) .
= = Construction = =
She was built by Fairfield Shipbuilding & Engineering Co . Ltd , at Govan . She was laid down on 1 March 1906 and launched on 16 March 1907 . She was commissioned on 25 June 1908 before she was fully complete to carry the Prince of Wales to Canada .
= = Early career = =
Immediately after commissioning , Indomitable embarked the Prince of Wales ( soon to be King George V ) for the City of Quebec Tercentenary celebration . On her return voyage , " … her average was a fraction below 25 knots , almost equalling the record for an Atlantic crossing of 25 @.@ 08 knots , set by the liner RMS Lusitania " . She returned on 10 August and was immediately returned to her builders for final completion . She was assigned to the Nore Division of the Home Fleet on 28 October and assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron ( CS ) in March 1909 . She became the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral S. Colville , commanding the 1st CS , on 26 July . She was refitted several times between 1910 and 1913 before she was transferred to the Mediterranean on 27 August 1913 to form the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) with her sister ship Invincible . She was slightly damaged in a collision in Stokes Bay with the minelayer C4 on 17 March 1913 . She was refitting in Malta in July 1914 when the deepening crisis forced the Navy to cut short her refit .
= = World War I = =
= = = Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau = = =
Indomitable , accompanied by HMS Indefatigable , under the command of Admiral Sir Archibald Berkeley Milne encountered the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau on the morning of 4 August 1914 headed east after a cursory bombardment of the French Algerian port of Philippeville , but Britain and Germany were not yet at war so Milne turned to shadow the Germans as they headed back to Messina to recoal . All three battlecruisers had problems with their boilers , but Goeben and Breslau were able to break contact and reached Messina by the morning of the 5th . By this time war had been declared , after the German invasion of Belgium , but an Admiralty order to respect Italian neutrality and stay outside a six @-@ mile ( 10 km ) limit from the Italian coast precluded entrance into the passage of the Strait of Messina where they could observe the port directly . Therefore , Milne stationed Inflexible and Indefatigable at the northern exit of the Strait of Messina , still expecting the Germans to break out to the west where they could attack French troop transports , the light cruiser Gloucester at the southern exit and sent Indomitable to recoal at Bizerte where she was better positioned to react to a German sortie into the Western Mediterranean .
The Germans sortied from Messina on 6 August and headed east , towards Constantinople , trailed by Gloucester . Milne , still expecting Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon to turn west , kept the battlecruisers at Malta until shortly after midnight on 8 August when he set sail for Cape Matapan at a leisurely 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) , where Goeben had been spotted eight hours earlier . At 2 : 30 p.m. he received an incorrect signal from the Admiralty stating that Britain was at war with Austria — war would not be declared until 12 August and the order was countermanded four hours later , but Milne followed his standing orders to guard the Adriatic against an Austrian breakout attempt , rather than seek Goeben . Finally on 9 August Milne was given clear orders to " chase Goeben which had passed Cape Matapan on the 7th steering north @-@ east . " Milne still did not believe that Souchon was heading for the Dardanelles , and so he resolved to guard the exit from the Aegean , unaware that the Goeben did not intend to come out . Indomitable remained in the Mediterranean to blockade the Dardanelles , but Inflexible was ordered home on 18 August .
On 3 November 1914 , Churchill ordered the first British attack on the Dardanelles following the opening of hostilities between Turkey and Russia . The attack was carried out by Indomitable and Indefatigable , as well as the French pre @-@ dreadnought battleships Suffren and Vérité . The intention of the attack was to test the fortifications and measure the Turkish response . The results were deceptively encouraging . In a twenty @-@ minute bombardment , a single shell struck the magazine of the fort at Sedd el Bahr at the tip of the Gallipoli peninsula , displacing ( but not destroying ) 10 guns and killing 86 Turkish soldiers . The most significant consequence was that the attention of the Turks was drawn to strengthening their defences , and they set about expanding the mine field . This attack actually took place before a formal declaration of war had been made by Britain against the Ottoman Empire which didn 't happen until the 5th . Indomitable was ordered to return to England in December where she joined the 2nd BCS .
= = = Battle of Dogger Bank = = =
On 23 January 1915 , a force of German battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Franz von Hipper sortied to clear the Dogger Bank of any British fishing boats or small craft that might be there to collect intelligence on German movements . But the British were reading their coded messages and sailed to intercept them with a larger force of British battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Beatty , which included Indomitable . Contact was initiated at 07 : 20 on the 24th when the British light cruiser HMS Arethusa spotted the German light cruiser SMS Kolberg . By 07 : 35 the Germans had spotted Beatty 's force and Hipper ordered a turn to the south at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , believing that this would suffice if the ships that he saw to his northwest were British battleships and that he could always increased speed to Blücher 's maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) if they were British battlecruisers .
Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to make all practicable speed to catch the Germans before they could escape . Indomitable managed to exceed 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) and Beatty recognized her performance with a signal at 08 : 55 " Well done , Indomitable " Despite this achievement Indomitable was the slowest of Beatty 's ships and gradually fell behind the newer and faster battlecruisers . By 10 : 48 Blücher had been heavily damaged by fire from all the other battlecruisers and her speed had dropped to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) and her steering gear had been jammed ; Beatty ordered Indomitable to attack her . But due to a combination of a mistake by Beatty 's flag lieutenant in signaling and heavy damage to Beatty 's flagship Lion which had knocked out her radio and caused enough smoke to obscure her signal halyards so that Beatty couldn 't communicate with his ships caused the rest of the battlecruisers to turn away from Hipper 's main body and engage Blücher . Indomitable fired 134 shells at Blücher before she capsized and sank at 12 : 07 . After the end of the battle Indomitable was ordered to tow Lion back to port as one of her engines had been knocked out , the other was failing and she 'd been hulled a number of times beneath the waterline . It took over a day and a half at speeds of 7 – 10 knots ( 13 – 19 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 5 mph ) .
She was transferred to the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) in February 1915 although she was being repaired after an electrical fire at the time . Rear Admiral Hoace Hood took command of the 3rd BCS on 27 May 1915 . The 1st and 3rd BCS sortied in response to the German bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 – 25 April 1916 , but failed to locate the German ships in heavy weather .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
At the end of May 1916 , the 3rd BCS was temporarily assigned to the Grand Fleet for gunnery practice . On 30 May , the entire Grand Fleet , along with Admiral Beatty 's battlecruisers , was ordered to sea to prepare for an excursion by the German High Seas Fleet . In order to support Beatty , Admiral Hood took his three battlecruisers ahead of the Grand Fleet . At about 14 : 30 Invincible intercepted a radio message from the British light cruiser Galatea , attached to Beatty 's Battlecruiser Force , reporting the sighting of two enemy cruisers . This was amplified by other reports of seven enemy ships steering north . Hood interpreted this as an attempt to escape through the Skagerrak and ordered an increase in speed to 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) at 15 : 11 and steered East @-@ Southeast to cut off the fleeing ships . Twenty minutes later Invincible intercepted a message from Beatty reporting five enemy battlecruisers in sight and later signals reporting that he was engaging the enemy on a south @-@ easterly course . At 16 : 06 Hood ordered full speed and a course of south @-@ southeast in an attempt to converge on Beatty . At 16 : 56 , with no British ships in sight , Hood requested Beatty 's course , position and speed , but never received a reply .
Hood continued on course until 17 : 40 when gunfire was spotted in the direction to which his light cruiser Chester had been dispatched to investigate other gunfire flashes . Chester encountered four light cruisers of Hipper 's 2nd Scouting Group and was badly damaged before Hood turned to investigate and was able to drive the German cruisers away from Chester . At 17 : 53 Invincible opened fire on Wiesbaden and the other two Invincibles followed two minutes later . The German ships turned for the south after fruitlessly firing torpedoes at 18 : 00 and attempted to find shelter in the mist . As they turned Invincible hit Wiesbaden in the engine room and knocked out her engines while Inflexible hit Pillau once . The 2nd Scouting Group was escorted by the light cruiser Regensburg and 31 destroyers of the 2nd and 9th Flotillas and the 12th Half @-@ Flotilla which attacked the 3rd BCS in succession . They were driven off by Hood 's remaining light cruiser Canterbury and the five destroyers of his escort . In a confused action the Germans only launched 12 torpedoes and disabled the destroyer Shark with gunfire . Having turned due west to close on Beatty 's ships , the Invincibles were broadside to the oncoming torpedoes , but Invincible turned north , while Inflexible and Indomitable turned south to present their narrowest profile to the torpedoes . All the torpedoes missed , although one passed underneath Inflexible without detonating . As Invincible turned north , her helm jammed and she had to come to a stop to fix the problem , but this was quickly done and the squadron reformed heading west .
At 18 : 21 , with both Beatty and the Grand Fleet converging on him , Hood turned south to lead Beatty 's battlecruisers . Hipper 's battlecruisers were 9 @,@ 000 yards ( 8 @,@ 200 m ) away and the Invincibles almost immediately opened fire on Hipper 's flagship Lützow and Derfflinger . Indomitable hit Derfflinger three times and Seydlitz once , while the Lützow quickly took 10 hits from Lion , Inflexible and Invincible , including two hits below the waterline forward by Invincible that would ultimately doom Hipper 's flagship . But at 18 : 30 , Invincible abruptly appeared as a clear target before Lützow and Derfflinger . The two German ships then fired three salvoes each at Invincible , and sank her in 90 seconds . A 305 mm ( 12 @-@ inch ) shell from the third salvo struck the roof of Invincible 's midships ' Q ' turret , flash detonated the magazines below , and the ship blew up and broke in two , killing all but six of her crew of 1 @,@ 032 officers and men , including Rear @-@ Admiral Hood .
Inflexible and Indomitable remained in company with Beatty for the rest of the battle . They encountered Hipper 's battlecruisers only 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) away as the sun was setting about 20 : 19 and opened fire . Seydlitz was hit five times before the German battlecruisers were rescued by the appearance of the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of Rear Admiral Mauve and the British shifted fire to the new threat . Three of the predreadnoughts were hit before they too were able to turn into the gloom .
The loss of three battlecruisers at Jutland ( the others were Queen Mary and Indefatigable ) led to the force being reorganised into two squadrons , with Inflexible and Indomitable in the 2nd BCS . However , after Jutland there was little significant naval activity for the Invincibles , other than routine patrolling , thanks to the Kaiser 's order that his ships should not be allowed to go to sea unless assured of victory . She was refitted in August 1916 , where she received additional armour over her magazine and turret roofs . Indomitable was fitted with two flying off ramps fitted above her midships turrets in early 1918 .
The end of the war saw the end for many of the older vessels , not least the two remaining Invincibles . Both were sent to the Reserve Fleet in 1919 , and were paid off in March 1920 , before being sold for scrap on 1 December 1921 .
= A Quiet Night In =
" A Quiet Night In " is the second episode of the British dark comedy television anthology series Inside No. 9 . It first aired on 12 February 2014 on BBC Two . Written by Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton , it stars the writers as a pair of hapless burglars attempting to break into the large , modernist house of a couple — played by Denis Lawson and Oona Chaplin — to steal a painting . Once the burglars make it into the house , they encounter obstacle after obstacle , while the lovers , unaware of the burglars ' presence , argue . The episode progresses almost entirely without dialogue , relying instead on physical comedy and slapstick , though more sinister elements are present in the plot . In addition to Pemberton , Shearsmith , Lawson and Chaplin , " A Quiet Night In " stars Joyce Veheary and Kayvan Novak .
Shearsmith and Pemberton had originally considered including a dialogue @-@ free segment in their television series Psychoville , but ultimately did not ; they found the format of Inside No. 9 appropriate for revisiting the idea . Both journalists and those involved with the episode 's production commented on the casting of Chaplin , a grandchild of the silent film star Charlie Chaplin , in an almost entirely dialogue @-@ free episode , though her casting was not a deliberate homage . Critics generally responded positively to the episode , and a particularly laudatory review by David Chater was published in The Times , prompting a complaint from a reader who found the episode more traumatic than comedic . On its first airing , " A Quiet Night In " was watched by 940 @,@ 000 viewers ( 4 @.@ 8 % of the market ) .
" A Quiet Night In " was submitted to the British Academy of Film and Television Arts for the 2015 awards , but it was not nominated . Pemberton and Shearsmith have said that they have no plans to do further silent episodes , but have compared " A Quiet Night In " to the highly @-@ experimental " Cold Comfort " from Inside No. 9 's second series , a sentiment echoed by some television critics .
= = Production = =
Writers Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , who had previously co @-@ written and starred in The League of Gentlemen and Psychoville , took inspiration for Inside No. 9 from " David and Maureen " , episode 4 of the first series of Psychoville , which was in turn inspired by Alfred Hitchcock 's Rope . " David and Maureen " took place entirely in a single room , and was filmed in only two shots . At the same time , the concept of Inside No. 9 was a " reaction " to Psychoville , with Shearsmith saying that " we 'd been so involved with labyrinthine over @-@ arcing , we thought it would be nice to do six different stories with a complete new house of people each week . That 's appealing , because as a viewer you might not like this story , but you 've got a different one next week . " As an anthology series with horror themes , Inside No. 9 also pays homage to Tales of the Unexpected , The Twilight Zone and Alfred Hitchcock Presents .
The format of Inside No. 9 allowed Pemberton and Shearsmith to explore ideas which are less practical for other approaches to storytelling , such as the possibility of a script with little dialogue . Prior to writing " A Quiet Night In " , Shearsmith had spoken with directors , including Ben Wheatley , about the possibility of producing television without speech . The directors had expressed doubts , Shearsmith explained , because the success of dialogue @-@ free television comes down entirely to the visuals and filming . " A Quiet Night In " was inspired by an idea Shearsmith and Pemberton had discussed for Psychoville . The writers had considered omitting dialogue from a ten @-@ minute section in an episode , or even from the whole episode . Pemberton explained that this was not possible as there were " too many good jokes " which they wanted to fit into the sequence . This episode , like " A Quiet Night In " , dealt with a break @-@ in .
Inside No. 9 , for Pemberton , offered the " perfect vehicle " for revisiting the possibility of dialogue @-@ free television . Shearsmith said that , at the start of the writing process , the pair did not have the intention of scripting the entire episode without dialogue , and that it would be " great " to have ten minutes without it . However , Pemberton said it was easier to write once they had entered the correct " mindset " . Once half an episode had been written , Pemberton said , the pair thought " we 've just got to keep going " . The only dialogue in the episode is right at the end ; " what a great thing to get to the end and just have one line of dialogue " , Pemberton suggested , comparing the concept to that of the Mel Brooks film Silent Movie .
The story of " A Quiet Night In " revolves around a break @-@ in , which , combined with an argument between the people living in the house , means that the characters all have a reason to be silent . At 18 pages of stage directions , the script contained every joke in the episode , an exercise in planning atypical for Shearsmith and Pemberton . The story contains multiple " reveals " ; Pemberton explained that the he and Shearsmith " hope there 's an ' oh my God ' moment . There is always a desire to wrong @-@ foot the viewer . That 's what you strive to do " . Pemberton said that writing for a silent episode " makes you inventive in a completely different way " .
The episode was filmed at the White Lodge , in Oxted , Surrey . The episode 's burglars are played by the writers ; the pair were quoted as saying " we didn 't want to dominate [ the series ] , so we sometimes play fairly minor characters . But we know that , say , if we were writing something about two burglars , we 'd be the burglars . " Pemberton suggested that a partial influence for the episode may have been the children 's television series Brum . He said that he and Shearsmith had " always wanted to be a couple of robbers in that , so that might be where the idea came from " . Both writers agreed that their roles were " great to perform " , and Pemberton described the resulting episode by saying that it " worked out better than [ they ] could have dreamed " .
As the format of Inside No. 9 requires new characters each week , the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . In addition to Pemberton and Shearsmith , " A Quiet Night In " starred Denis Lawson , Joyce Veheary , Oona Chaplin and Kayvan Novak . Pemberton commented on the appropriateness of casting Chaplin , a grandchild of the silent film star Charlie Chaplin , in an episode with little dialogue . Shearsmith stressed that the episode should not be considered a silent film in the same way as Charlie Chaplin 's , elsewhere saying that the casting was " almost an accident but maybe a little nod " . Bruce Dessau , writing in The Independent , described the casting choice as " a satisfying nod to silent cinema " . Both Oona Chaplin and the Inside No. 9 executive producer Jon Plowman stressed , however , that there was no significance in the casting . Chaplin also said that her character was very unlike herself , explaining that the " big boobs , the heels , the blonde wig ... freed [ her ] up amazingly " .
= = Plot = =
Inside a large , modernist house , Gerald ( Lawson ) turns on Rachmaninoff 's Piano Concerto No. 2 and sits down to soup brought by his housekeeper , Kim ( Veheary ) . Through the windows behind him , burglars Eddie ( Pemberton ) and Ray ( Shearsmith ) are seen . Ray enters the house , then lets in Eddie while Gerald is using the toilet . Eddie is shocked to see that the pair have come to steal an almost completely white painting . Ray starts to dismantle the painting while Eddie keeps watch ; he tries to guide a Yorkshire Terrier out of the patio window , but inadvertently lets in an Irish Wolfhound . As Ray releases the wolfhound , Eddie accidentally throws the terrier into the window , so Ray stuffs the dog into an umbrella stand .
Sabrina ( Chaplin ) walks down the stairs , and Ray puts the painting back and hides . Sabrina turns down Gerald 's music to watch EastEnders . Gerald returns , sitting away from Sabrina . He turns up his music and the pair fight over the television remote , before leaving through the patio door and arguing , though their voices are muffled . Ray cuts away the canvas and replaces it with kitchen roll . When Sabrina reenters , she unknowingly stands on the canvas . Kim picks it up , mistaking it for laundry , and heads into a laundry room as Sabrina walks upstairs . Eddie follows Kim and she sprays something into his eyes . Ray knocks out Kim and sees the canvas in a laundry basket , which is sent up a laundry chute . He runs upstairs , while Gerald remains outside .
Sabrina packs a holdall , including the contents of the laundry basket . She locks the case and heads into an en suite . Downstairs , Gerald retrieves a pistol and heads back outside . Ray attempts to steal the key from Sabrina 's discarded trousers and he sees that Sabrina is a trans woman . On the patio , Gerald points the gun into his mouth , as Eddie stumbles around in the lounge area , having accidentally pushed chilli peppers into his eyes . Ray hides under Sabrina 's bed as she reenters the room ; lying on a sex doll with both breasts and a penis , he is almost discovered . Eddie washes his face , and Gerald starts to play " Without You " . Sabrina makes her way downstairs , taking the holdall 's key . Sabrina and Gerald dance .
Ray drags the case to the top of the stairs and meets Eddie . Gerald lays Sabrina down on the sofa , places a cushion over her face and shoots her . Gerald turns off the music as the doorbell is heard . Answering the door , Gerald sees a man ( Novak ) who holds up a sign reading " Hello , my name is Paul . I am deaf & dumb . " The reverse of the sign reads " Do you need any cleaning products today ? " Gerald heads inside and hides Sabrina 's body as Paul waits . Gerald splashes his soup onto the blood and invites Paul to clean it . Ray runs down the stairs and meets Paul ; he proceeds to buy rope before returning upstairs . Paul continues to clean , but sees the bullethole in the cushion , and then the suitcase being lowered outside the window . Gerald heads outside to investigate , but Eddie and Ray drop the case on his head . The burglars run past Paul and look out to see the canvas in the pool , before both being shot by Paul . Paul rings someone and says " Hello , it 's me . Yeah , it 's done . " He looks to the fake painting , and says " I 've got it right here . Yeah , it 's fine . Not a peep out of anyone . " He takes down the painting and walks out , as the real canvas is seen sinking in the pool .
= = Analysis = =
The style of " A Quiet Night In " is experimental and represents a creative risk . While Pemberton and Shearsmith 's characters provide comedy , the relationship of Lawson and Chaplin 's characters adds an element of darkness . The two storylines are brought together with the violence towards the end of the episode , resulting in the juxtaposition of elements reminiscent of both the Chuckle Brothers ( slapstick ) and Quentin Tarantino ( bloody violence ) .
Though the comedy remains black , the comedic style of the episode differs considerably from that of " Sardines " , the previous installment of Inside No. 9 . " A Quiet Night In " offers a kind of " sadistic slapstick " humour ; physical comedy , toilet humour and buffoonery are utilised , with the episode effectively becoming a farce . " A Quiet Night In " builds upon silent comedy tropes and norms , but , for the comedy critic Bruce Dessau , the tone is closer to that of Kill List or Sightseers than to the work of Buster Keaton . The episode features various twists , and these are generally in keeping with Pemberton and Shearsmith 's typical approach , though one is reminiscent of the Farrelly brothers .
= = Reception = =
Critics generally responded positively to " A Quiet Night In " . David Chater , writing for The Times , gave a highly laudatory review , saying the episode was " the funniest , cleverest , most imaginative and original television I have seen for as long as I can remember – one of those fabulous programmes where time stands still and the world around you disappears " . He chose not to reveal too much about the plot for fear of " spoiling the fun " . Chater later described the episode as " mindboggling in its originality " , and " one of the funniest , most imaginative programmes shown on television in the past 15 years " . Jane Simon , writing for the Daily Mirror , called the episode a " triumph " , while writers for Metro described the episode as " quality comedy " , and journalists writing for The Sunday Times characterised it as a " brilliantly conceived and choreographed mime " . Jack Seale , writing for the Radio Times , also stressed how the episode was " beautifully choreographed " , praising Pemberton and Shearsmith 's " willingness to attempt difficult concepts " .
Dessau considered the episode " genius " , and described the twist ending as " genuinely unexpected " . In The Observer , Mike Bradley called " A Quiet Night In " a " priceless silent farce " , but , in the newspaper 's sister publication The Guardian , Luke Holland was more critical . He said the episode was " an almost wordless half @-@ hour of physical comedy " , and that " it plays out like a French farce , its comedic strokes far broader " than those of " Sardines " . " If you find two men silently mime @-@ arguing about how long it takes to have a poo funny " , he continued , " you 're on sturdy ground here " . Later , a review by Phelim O 'Neill of the Inside No. 9 series 1 boxset published on theguardian.com described " A Quiet Night In " as " engaging , tense , funny , frightening – and accessibly experimental " . The episode was compared negatively to the later instalment " Tom & Gerri " in an Irish Daily Mail review — " A Quiet Night In " was called " patchy " — but was compared positively to " Last Gasp " by Rebecca McQuillan of The Herald , who said that " A Quiet Night In " was " something close to comedy genius " . An anonymous review in the South African newspaper The Saturday Star picked out " A Quiet Night In " as the strongest episode of the first series .
After the episode had aired , The Times received an email complaint about Chater 's positive review of the episode , which was discussed by the journalist Rose Wild . Part of the complaint read :
I told my husband how it was supposed to be the funniest thing ever , but we were horrified ! I 'll never be able to forget the little dog being thrown against the window and then stabbed to death by an umbrella – nor the gay man killed by his lover , nor what they had under the bed – nor the deaf man killing the thieves . Having thieves tiptoe comically around the house before having their heads blown off did not make up for my trauma .
In response , Wild said : " I am sorry if we left any permanent damage . In our defence , we did say ' black ' comedy . " Wild agreed with the reader 's comment that she and her husband " must be very different kinds of people " from Chater .
= = = Viewing figures = = =
On its first airing , the episode received 940 @,@ 000 viewers ( 4 @.@ 8 % of the market ) . This was lower than the 1 million ( 5 @.@ 6 % of viewers ) of the series 's debut , " Sardines " , and lower than the 1 @.@ 8 million ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) of Line of Duty which immediately preceded " A Quiet Night In " in most UK listings . A repeat , shown on 26 May on BBC2 , attracted 900 @,@ 000 viewers , which was 4 % of the audience . On this occasion , the episode followed The Fast Show Special . The series average , based upon the viewing figures of the first broadcast of each episode , was 904 @,@ 000 viewers , or 4 @.@ 9 % of the audience , lower than the slot average of 970 @,@ 000 ( 5 @.@ 1 % of the audience ) .
= = Legacy = =
" A Quiet Night In " was submitted to the British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) , but was not nominated for a 2015 BAFTA award . In an interview with Digital Spy , Shearsmith said that this surprised him , saying " I was upset , I did think it was a shame that it 's not been recognised . You want people to have seen it and to have recognised the work , and innovation , but I think people are doing that . I get told that every day on Twitter , or in meetings . " A number of journalists expressed surprise that Inside No. 9 had received no BAFTA nominations , with Julia Raside , of The Guardian , describing " A Quiet Night In " as " one of the most inspired pieces of mute theatre I 've seen on television " .
In 2015 , Shearsmith said that he and Pemberton had no intention to write any further silent episodes , as they would not want viewers to think they had run out of ideas , while Pemberton separately said that the pair had no desire to do what would be an inferior version of " A Quiet Night In " . " Cold Comfort " , the fourth episode of the second series of Inside No. 9 , was compared to " A Quiet Night In " by Pemberton , Shearsmith and some critics . " Cold Comfort " was also filmed an experimental style , with most of the episode shot from fixed cameras and displayed on a split screen . Despite this — with its focus on listening and the fact that it was mostly static — " Cold Comfort " could , for Pemberton , be seen as the " polar opposite " of " A Quiet Night In " .
In June 2016 , there was a screening of " A Quiet Night In " at Colston Hall as part of Bristol 's Slapstick Festival . The one @-@ off event , entitled " A Quiet Night In with Reece & Steve " , also featured Pemberton and Shearsmith discussing the episode on @-@ stage with Robin Ince , followed by a question and answer session with the writers . In an interview with Craig Jones of the Bristol Post , Shearsmith said that he was " very excited to come to Bristol " , and that he and Pemberton had been wanting to be involved with Slapstick Festival for some time . He said that " It is a lovely thing to be part of and it is great to see how respected slapstick still remains . "
= William Thompson ( Medal of Honor , 1950 ) =
William Henry Thompson ( 16 August 1927 – 6 August 1950 ) was a United States Army soldier and a recipient of the United States military 's highest decoration , the Medal of Honor , for his actions in the Korean War .
Born to a single mother in an impoverished neighborhood in New York City , Thompson entered the Army in 1945 and served tours in Alaska and Japan . At the outbreak of the Korean War , Thompson was a machine gunner of the U.S. 24th Infantry Regiment , a de facto segregated unit .
During the Battle of Masan in August 1950 , Thompson was part of a unit conducting an offensive along the Pusan Perimeter . When North Korean troops attacked his company and caused many men to panic and scatter , Thompson stood his ground , refusing orders to evacuate despite being wounded , and covering the retreat of his platoon until he was killed by a grenade . For his actions , Thompson was awarded the Medal of Honor , one of only two African Americans to be so honored in the war .
= = Biography = =
William Thompson was born on 16 August 1927 in Brooklyn , New York to an unmarried mother . Little is known of Thompson 's early life , but he grew up in an impoverished tenement house neighborhood . He dropped out of school at a young age , and spent his teen years wandering the streets . A local minister noticed Thompson sleeping in a park one evening and took him to a homeless shelter , the New York Home for Homeless Boys . Thompson remained a resident there until he turned 18 in 1945 .
Some sources alternatively state Thompson decided to join the United States Army as an opportunity to escape poverty , or that he was drafted .
= = = Military career = = =
Thompson enlisted in the army in October 1945 , and after basic combat training was assigned to a post in Adak , Alaska . After 18 months , he was honorably discharged from the military , but found adjustment to civilian life difficult and opted to return to the military . In January 1948 , Thompson reenlisted and was assigned to the U.S. 6th Infantry Division , which was on occupation duty in South Korea . When the 6th Infantry Division returned to the United States , he was reassigned to the U.S. 24th Infantry Regiment , U.S. 25th Infantry Division which was assigned to the post @-@ World War II occupation of Japan . His Military Occupational Specialty was 4812 , that of a heavy weapons infantryman who operated automatic weapons .
The 24th Infantry was a de facto segregated unit , but Thompson nonetheless enjoyed his time in the military . Described as " thin , hollow @-@ eyed and quiet , " he had enjoyed military life , viewing it as one of few places where an African American could enjoy some degree of comfort . He was a very effective soldier , consistently maintaining his uniform and equipment and keeping his firearms extremely clean . Thompson was also a skilled marksman and rarely had behavioral problems . He was content in the lower ranks of the military , preferring to follow orders instead of giving them .
At the outbreak of the Korean War , Thompson was a private first class , part of M Company of 3rd Battalion , 24th Infantry , the heavy weapons support company for the battalion .
The 24th Infantry first came into heavy contact with North Korean People 's Army troops on 22 July during the battle of Sangju . North Korean rifle fire came in on the dispersed regiment , and its troops almost immediately began retreating from the front , ignoring officers ' commands to stay in position . Historians blame the retreat as much on officers ' ineptitude as on the panicking of individual soldiers . The tendency to panic continued in nearly all the 24th Infantry operations west of Sangju . Men left their positions and straggled to the rear , abandoning weapons . On many occasions , units lost most of their equipment while on the move , even when not under fire , causing logistical shortages . In other cases , the majority of a unit deserted its position at the first sign of North Korean fire . The situation became so dire that the regiment 's senior officers set up a checkpoint west of the town and stopped every vehicle coming from the west , removing stragglers attempting to retreat . Many jeeps were filled with six or seven men claiming they were retreating after their position was overrun . The 24th quickly gained a poor reputation as a " bug out " unit , blasted for its poor performance during combat . Historians contend its accomplishments , particularly at the Battle of Yechon , were ignored , while shortcomings were seized upon to depict the 24th as a sub @-@ par unit , and African @-@ Americans as inferior soldiers to whites .
= = = Medal of Honor action = = =
On 6 August 1950 , as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter was beginning , the 25th Infantry Division was engaged in a counteroffensive near Masan , during the Battle of Masan . That night , M Company was supporting the division 's advance near the city of Haman , South Korea , in a mountain valley south of Sobuk @-@ san . As Thompson 's platoon approached the town , it was ambushed by a large force of North Korean People 's Army troops . Automatic weapons fire caused several men in the company to panic and flee . Those remaining were ordered into a tight perimeter by Second Lieutenant Herbert H. Wilson .
After a North Korean grenade knocked out the only other remaining heavy weapons specialist , Thompson manned the last heavy weapon in the platoon : his .30 caliber M1917 Browning machine gun . Thompson soon became the focus of the North Korean fire . During this period , Thompson was wounded several times by small arms fire and grenade fragments , but ignored his injuries and did not inform the rest of his unit . After the platoon was ordered to withdraw , Wilson ordered it to higher ground .
Crawling to Thompson 's position , Wilson discovered his injuries . Wilson ordered Thompson to withdraw twice , but the latter refused to obey and continued to fire on the advancing North Koreans . Thompson told Wilson he was dying and was not going to move back . Wilson then called forward two non @-@ commissioned officers , who unsuccessfully attempted to remove Thompson from the gun physically . Thompson told them , " Get out of here , I 'll cover you ! " Wilson reluctantly ordered the remaining men to pull back . As the platoon retreated , they heard grenade blasts around Thompson 's position , followed by a larger blast , at which point his gun fell silent . He had continued to fire his machine gun until he was killed .
A few days later , when M Company retook the area , they discovered Thompson had made a last stand and killed a large number of North Koreans before dying . He had prevented higher casualties in his unit as it withdrew .
= = = Subsequent recognition = = =
Thompson 's actions were initially overlooked by division commanders , who instead focused on the poor performance of the 24th Infantry Regiment , whose soldiers panicked and fled from combat . Thompson 's battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel Melvin Blair , initially refused to submit a recommendation , until 4 January 1951 , five months after the action . Thompson initially received a Silver Star Medal for the action , but after Blair changed his mind he began pushing the paperwork through , personally locating the witnesses who could attest to Thompson 's valor . Blair hoped Thompson 's recognition would improve other commanders ' views on the 24th Infantry Regiment . Eventually , though , that unit was disbanded and its personnel integrated into other units .
On 21 June 1951 , General of the Army Omar Bradley presented Thompson 's mother with the Medal of Honor , posthumously recognizing Thompson 's actions .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Thompson 's awards and decorations include :
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
Thompson was the first of two African Americans to be awarded the Medal of Honor in Korea , the other being Cornelius H. Charlton in June 1951 . Charlton was also a member of the 24th Infantry who was recognized posthumously . Other African Americans who fought in Korea are known to have been nominated for the medal but did not receive it . They were the first two African Americans to be nominated for the Medal of Honor since the Spanish – American War , though several World War II veterans were later nominated . The two nominations had seen delays because unit commanders refused to submit their nominations . In all , 131 people were awarded the medal during and in the immediate aftermath of the war .
Pfc. Thompson distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty in action against the enemy . While his platoon was reorganizing under cover of darkness , fanatical enemy forces in overwhelming strength launched a surprise attack on the unit . Pfc. Thompson set up his machine gun in the path of the onslaught and swept the enemy with withering fire , pinning them down momentarily thus permitting the remainder of his platoon to withdraw to a more tenable position . Although hit repeatedly by grenade fragments and small @-@ arms fire , he resisted all efforts of his comrades to induce him to withdraw , steadfastly remained at his machine gun and continued to deliver deadly , accurate fire until mortally wounded by an enemy grenade . Pfc. Thompson 's dauntless courage and gallant self @-@ sacrifice reflect the highest credit on himself and uphold the esteemed traditions of military service .
= Madonna : Tears of a Clown =
Madonna : Tears of a Clown was a one @-@ off concert by American singer Madonna , held at the Forum Theatre in Melbourne , Australia on March 10 , 2016 . The singer had not included Australia during her previous five concert tours , until the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) , so she created the show for her Australian fans since they had waited so long for her to perform . Madonna explained that the idea behind the show was to combine music and storytelling and was influenced by clowns . Tickets were made available to Madonna 's official fan club , Icon members and were non @-@ transferable , with the person 's name printed on them .
The show started four hours late , with the delay being caused by Madonna rehearsing . Tears of a Clown consisted of Madonna singing acoustic versions of her songs while dressed as a clown . The set list comprised previously unperformed tracks and her popular songs . It was interspersed with the singer telling jokes and anecdotes . The show received positive reviews from critics who appreciated the stripped down , confessional nature of the singer 's performance and the choice of the songs and the comedy . Madonna refuted reports of her being drunk on stage , calling them false and ageist .
= = Background = =
Madonna had last toured in Australia in 1993 with The Girlie Show World Tour , her fourth concert tour . The country was skipped for the next five tours until the singer released her thirteenth studio album , Rebel Heart ( 2015 ) . To promote the album , Madonna announced the Rebel Heart Tour , and confirmed that she would be coming to Australia with the concert , as well as visit New Zealand for the first time . Before arriving in Australia , Madonna announced an extra show on March 10 , 2016 , at Melbourne 's Forum Theatre . The show was billed as an intimate gig , and was described by the singer as a fusion of music , art and comedy . It was titled as Madonna : Tears of a Clown show and was created for the singer 's Australian fans , who had waited for her to perform there for the last 23 years . During her promotional appearance at The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon in April 2015 , Madonna confessed that she is a " kind of closet comedian " and did a skit on the show ; she added , " I always do extravaganzas , they always cost a billion dollars to make ... nobody makes any money ... and sometimes I dream about simplicity . " During the show , the singer explained her decision to do Tears of a Clown :
I 've had this idea in my head for this show Tears of a Clown which is a combination of music and storytelling . Because at the end of the day I do think of myself as a story teller . But it 's rough as f--- , so bear with me and give me all the support you can . It 's from the heart . I chose to debut this work in progress , this rough rehearsal , here in Australia because I feel so bad about cancelling on you guys the last time . I 'm sorry . You 've been so patient , you waited for so long , I feel like I owe you a present , so this is your present ... I want to make a disclaimer ... If anyone thinks they came here to see a finished final show , there 's the door . This is some brand spanking new shit . I don 't know if you like it raw .
Tickets were made available to Madonna 's official fan club , Icon members , and winners with details announced at Madonna.com and through concert promoter Telstra 's promotional webpage . According to newspaper reports , the tickets were non @-@ transferable , and had the person 's name printed on them . However , all of them were in the general admission category at Forum Theatre , which holds a maximum capacity of 1 @,@ 500 . With the production design and addition of catwalk , the space allocated became smaller than that . Prior to the show The Sydney Morning Herald reported that fans started queuing up in front of the venue , while Madonna rehearsed inside , as well as at Hisense Arena . Images and songs rehearsed were leaked to fan website Drownedmadonna.com , along with Madonna 's manager Guy Oseary uploading pictures on Instagram . Madonna made several references to clowns on her own Instagram account , including uploading a short video of her riding a small tricycle . The show was confirmed to be recorded and released along with the DVD for the Rebel Heart Tour .
= = Synopsis = =
On the day of the show , the doors at Forum Theatre were supposed to open at 8 : 30pm , but since Madonna rehearsed well into the night , the show started later at midnight . The show started with Madonna appearing onstage , in a clown 's costume consisting of a billowing dress , pink and yellow stalkings , riding a tricycle and circled round it . She finally reached the front of the stage and fell down from the cycle . After conversing with the audience and throwing candy at them . Madonna started singing Stephen Sondheim 's " Send in the Clowns " , written originally for the 1973 musical , A Little Night Music , with images of Charlie Chaplin films displayed on the backdrop . She continued with " Drowned World / Substitute for Love " while standing in the center . Three songs followed with Madonna joining the band and sitting down with her guitar , including " X @-@ Static Process " , a cover of Elliott Smith 's " Between the Bars " , " Nobody 's Perfect " and " Easy Ride " . All the songs had displays showing circus themed videos ; following this Madonna started singing the song " Intervention " , while displaying an image of her son Rocco ; the singer referred to her custody battle with ex @-@ husband Guy Ritchie about Rocco .
Other acoustic versions of songs followed , including " I 'm So Stupid " , " Paradise ( Not for Me ) " , " Joan of Arc " and " Don 't Tell Me " . Before performing the next song , " Mer Girl " , Madonna explained that once she was at her father 's house and she visited the place where her mother was buried ; the place , overgrown with weed , became an inspiration behind the song . Then Madonna sang an acoustic version of " Borderline " followed by " Take a Bow " . The last song was an acoustic version of " Holiday " and it was performed as the encore of the show with Madonna playing the ukulele accompanied by her band and her dancers dressed as clowns .
= = Critical response = =
Cameron Adams from News.com.au wrote : " [ Madonna ] poured much of her sadness into her intimate two @-@ hour Tears of a Clown show , peppering emotional renditions of her hits with cheeky jokes and banter . " In another article reviewing the show , Adams noted that Tears of a Clown was " the sort of thing you never thought you 'd see a superstar do " . He complimented Madonna 's jokes , chatting about her life in @-@ between songs , for being " raw and vulnerable " and confessed that it was " fascinating — and difficult — to watch . We 're not used to Madonna on stage doing anything less than a fully rehearsed , slick stage show . " Concluding the review , Adams believed that Tears of a Clown professed Madonna 's touring direction into the future . Writing for The Independent Nick Levine noticed that the singer " tested out her stand @-@ up comedy skills with a series of risqué jokes and took the opportunity to defend her controversial fashion sense . " Debbie Cuthbertson from The Sydney Morning Herald gave a positive review of the show , saying " For the queen of self @-@ control , it was an open , at times even vulnerable insight into her persona . She seemed relaxed , drinking Cosmopolitans as she spoke at length between songs . " Cuthbertson also commended the choice of Forum Theatre as a venue believing it to be " inspired , and her crew lit up the grand old dame in a way that showcased all her delicate charms in a way I can 't recall any other act having ever done . "
Lachlan Kanoniuk , music critic for The Guardian , noted the " bawdy " jokes and anecdotes shared onstage by Madonna . He went on to describe the show as " a weird mix of old vaudevillian @-@ style , M15 + , smut humour and bad wordplay ; some jokes about clowns , sex jokes that were really quite bad but she had such great comedic delivery " . Kanoniuk also compared the show to Prince 's Piano & a Microphone tour , and complimented her singing during " Between the Bars " , describing it as " no costume changes , no highly synchronised dance moves , just Madonna playing an acoustic guitar and baring her soul on stage . " Francis Gibb from The Times found Madonna 's performance during " Intervention " as an intimate and " naked " moment for the singer due to the legal battle . Jon Lisi from PopMatters observed that unlike the Rebel Heart Tour , Madonna had " something to say " with Tears of a Clown show . However he was confused whether Madonna was being vulnerable as a clown or it was a case of the singer " trolling us " . Citing the instance of singing " Intervention " for Rocco , Lisi explained that " Of course she loves her son , but maybe this was less about her pain and more about the press ’ exploitation of her pain . As the show got more intimate with each song and personal anecdote , a disturbing thought crept into my mind : what if it was meant to be a joke ? " Lisi concluded that the show had the ability " represent a transitional point in [ Madonna 's ] career " , although the purpose was still unclear .
After the show ended , several media outlets reported that Madonna may have been drunk during the performance ; however , Madonna blasted these reports , by responding : " Thanks for supporting me . Too bad people don 't know the art of acting and playing a character . I could never do any of my shows high or drunk . And yes underlying all of this is sexism and mysongony [ sic ] which proves that not only do we not get equal pay but we are still treated like heretics if we step out of line and think outside the box ! Sexism is alive and kicking but i am # livingforlove . "
= = Set list = =
Source :
= Fort Greble =
Fort Greble was an American Civil War @-@ era Union fortification constructed as part of the defenses of Washington , D.C. during that war . Named for First Lieutenant John Trout Greble , the first West Point graduate killed in the U.S. Civil War , it protected the junction of the Anacostia and Potomac rivers , and from its position on a bluff in the Congress Heights , precluded any bombardment of the Washington Navy Yard and southeastern portions of the city . It was supported by Fort Carroll to the northeast and Fort Foote to the south . It never fired a shot during the war , and after a brief stint as a U.S. Army Signal Corps training facility , was abandoned and the land returned to its natural state . As of July 2007 , the site of the fort is a community park .
= = Planning and construction = =
Prior to the outbreak of war , Congress Heights ( so called because the Capitol building in downtown Washington could be seen from the tops of the hills ) were owned by the Berry family , who also owned much of the Anacostia River bottomland to the west of the Heights . In the days following the First Battle of Bull Run , panicked efforts by the Union were made to defend Washington from what was perceived as an imminent Confederate attack . These makeshift entrenchments were largely confined to the direct approaches to Washington and the bridges that spanned the Potomac .
Multiple forts were constructed in the Arlington region to the southwest of Washington on land rented or leased from the pre @-@ war owners . Despite these efforts , following General George B. McClellan assuming command of the Military Division of the Potomac on July 26 , 1861 , he found that
not a single defensive work had been commenced on the Maryland side [ of the Potomac ] . There was nothing to prevent the enemy shelling the city from heights within easy range , which could be occupied by a hostile column almost without resistance .
In the wake of his declaration , fort construction was accelerated and expanded , with new strong points and artillery positions springing up around the entire 37 @-@ mile ( 60 @-@ km ) perimeter of the District of Columbia . In order to prevent an attack on the undefended Maryland side of the Potomac , Brigadier General John G. Barnard , chief engineer of the Department of Washington , directed that several forts be constructed on the Congress Heights in order to protect the Navy Yard and Washington Arsenal from bombardment . At the crucial western end of the Heights would be the then @-@ unnamed Fort Greble .
Planning and surveying for the proposed line of forts progressed quickly , and by the end of September 1861 , work had begun on what was to become Fort Greble . Under the direction of U.S. Army engineers , the work progressed quickly , and the fort , which was constructed as several closely supporting redoubts , was completed before Christmas . General Barnard , in a report to General Totten , chief engineer of the U.S. Army was able to report " Forts Greble and Stanton are completed and armed ; " on December 10 , 1861 . The fort was named for Lt. John Trout Greble , killed at the Battle of Big Bethel . The fort had a perimeter of 327 yards and places for 17 guns .
A fall 1862 review of Washington 's fortifications described Fort
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His honours before and after retirement included the Fellowship of King 's College , London ( 1945 ) , an honorary degree ( 1950 ) , the Lister Medal ( 1954 ) , a knighthood ( 1956 ) , honorary fellowships of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh ( 1949 ) and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland ( 1958 ) , and the Honorary Gold Medal of the Royal College of Surgeons of England ( 1969 ) . He died in Hindhead , Surrey , aged 87 in 1974 .
= = Early life and education = =
Victor Ewings Negus was born on 6 February 1887 in Tooting , London , the youngest of three sons of William and Emily Negus ( née Ewings ) . His father was a solicitor , Justice of the Peace , and Deputy Lieutenant for the County of Surrey . Victor 's pre @-@ university education took place at King 's College School . In 1906 , he was awarded a Sambrooke scholarship to King 's College London , on the Strand , where his studies for the next three years included premedical and preclinical subjects .
After passing the required examinations , Negus proceeded in 1909 to the next stage of his basic medical education at the nearby King 's College Hospital , at that time located on Portugal Street between the Strand and Lincoln 's Inn Fields . Three more years of study led to the attainment in 1912 of the MRCS and LRCP ( Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons and Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians , known as the ' conjoint diploma ' ) , marking his formal qualification to practice medicine . In the final year of these studies , Negus was an usher at the funeral service for Lord Lister at Westminster Abbey . Another connection with Lister 's generation came when Negus worked as surgical dresser and house surgeon under Sir William Watson Cheyne , who had himself been house surgeon to Lister . The postgraduate stages of Negus 's training involved specialisation in diseases of the ear , nose and throat , a direction influenced and guided by the otorhinolaryngologist St Clair Thomson ( 1857 – 1943 ) . In the years following his qualification in 1912 , Negus worked at King 's College Hospital , and had started further clinical training at the Hospital for Diseases of the Throat in Golden Square , Soho , but this was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War .
Negus served in the Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) with the British Expeditionary Force for the first 18 months of the war . He initially deployed with the 1st General Hospital , then saw action in the trenches on the front line with a machine @-@ gun battalion at the First Battle of Ypres . The effects of explosives during this period left him with tinnitus . This was followed by a period serving on hospital barges . In 1916 , Negus , still with the RAMC , was posted to the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division ( part of the British Indian Army ) and took part in the Mesopotamia Campaign . As one of those who had deployed to the Western Front in the opening months of the war , he was later awarded the Mons Star . His service in the RAMC ended in 1919 .
= = Surgical career and family = =
Following his discharge from the army , Negus , again with the advice and guidance of St Clair Thomson , resumed his studies and preparations for a career in throat surgery . By 1921 he had graduated MB BS ( London ) [ Bachelor of Medicine , Bachelor of Surgery ] and by 1922 he had taken the surgical exams for the FRCS ( Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons ) qualification . To gain further experience , he spent periods of time abroad studying with renowned laryngologists : firstly with Emil Moure and Georges Portmann in Bordeaux , France ; and secondly with Chevalier Jackson in Philadelphia , USA . On his return to London , he became clinical assistant to St Clair Thomson at King 's College Hospital .
At this point , still early in his surgical career , Negus took a different approach to that which was common at the time . Rather than be apprenticed to a leading surgeon in his ENT ( ear , nose and throat ) speciality , he undertook basic research on the structure of the larynx that would lead to a higher degree in 1924 and the publication of books and papers on the topic in later years . While engaged in this research , Negus continued his work at King 's College Hospital , being appointed junior surgeon in 1924 . It was during this period , following his return from the USA , that Negus both promoted the methods and tools he had seen used in Philadelphia by Jackson , and worked to improve the designs of the endoscopes and other equipment used in ENT surgery . These instruments , developed in collaboration with the Genito @-@ Urinary Company of London , included laryngoscopes , bronchoscopes ( such as the Negus bronchoscope ) and oesophagoscopes . Other surgical innovations developed by Negus included an operating table ( known as the King 's College table ) , and a speaking valve for use in tracheotomy tubes . He also helped develop strategies for treatments of throat cancer to aid the choice between surgery and radiotherapy .
In 1929 , Negus married Winifred Adelaide Gladys Rennie ( 1901 – 1980 , known as Eve ) with whom he would have two sons , David ( 1930 – 2010 ) and Richard ( 1932 – 2008 ) . Negus 's surgical and medical teaching career continued to progress , and he was appointed surgeon in 1931 . It was in 1937 that his major work in clinical medicine , the fourth edition of Diseases of the Nose and Throat , was published . This work , " still used for reference " , was described as " for many years the standard textbook in English on this subject " , and as Negus 's " major literary contribution to clinical medicine " . The 1937 edition continued work on earlier editions by St Clair Thomson , who worked jointly with Negus on the new edition . A fifth edition worked on by both men was published in 1948 following Thomson 's death , and the sixth edition by Negus alone appeared in 1955 .
In 1939 , the Negus family moved to Haslemere , Surrey . During the Second World War , Negus again served in a medical capacity , this time with the Emergency Medical Service ( EMS ) at Horton Hospital , Epsom , from 1939 to 1946 . In 1940 , on the retirement of his colleague Charles Hope , he had been appointed senior surgeon at King 's College Hospital , and in 1946 he reached the peak of his profession as a consulting surgeon . During this post @-@ war period one of Negus 's patients was the former ( and future ) prime minister Winston Churchill , who in 1950 was diagnosed by Negus with high @-@ frequency sensorineural hearing loss . Negus retired from clinical and teaching work in 1952 at the age of 65 .
= = Comparative anatomy = =
In parallel with his career as a throat surgeon at a teaching hospital , Negus become a leading expert on the comparative anatomy of first the larynx and then the nose and the paranasal sinuses . This strand of his professional life started with the research he carried out in his thirties in the 1920s that eventually led to his degree of Master of Surgery ( MS ) , awarded by the University of London . This work started as early as 1921 in the laboratories of the Royal College of Surgeons of England , whose museum housed the collections of animal specimens gathered by the anatomist John Hunter . Working on these specimens , and adding to them with others supplied by the Zoological Society of London , Negus carried out meticulous dissections that enabled him to trace the stages of evolution and development of the larynx across a wide variety of animals . Part of this research was submitted as his thesis , and the excellence of the work was recognised by the award of a Gold Medal with his MS degree in 1924 . In addition to this , Negus gave the Arris and Gale Lecture on 28 April 1924 at the Royal College of Surgeons , with his talk titled " On the Mechanism of the Larynx " .
Further recognition of his work came when Negus was made Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1925 , followed three years later in 1928 by the awarding of the triennial John Hunter Medal ( 1925 – 7 ) from the Royal College of Surgeons , which came with a prize of £ 50 . The following year Negus published his observations and conclusions in The Mechanism of the Larynx ( 1929 ) , a " classic piece of research " still referred to forty @-@ five years later in 1974 as " the standard reference book " on this topic . Negus 's work had shown that the main function of the larynx is as a valve that only allows air into the lower respiratory tract . In humans , the voice is only a byproduct of this more vital function . Another lecture resulting from this work was given under the auspices of the University of London 's Semon Lectureship , named after the German @-@ born British laryngologist Felix Semon ( 1849 – 1921 ) . This talk was delivered on 6 November 1930 at the Royal Society of Medicine under the title " Observations on Semon 's Law " .
These earlier works were followed after the Second World War by the publication of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx ( 1949 ) . This work was a condensed and updated version of Negus 's original 1929 work on the larynx . It was in this post @-@ war period that Negus would increasingly study the function of the nose , both as the organ for the sense of smell ( olfaction ) and the role of the nose in respiration . This was prompted by wartime damage in 1941 to the Royal College of Surgeons ' Hunterian Museum , which included the loss of parts of the Onodi Collection . This collection had contained specimens of the accessory sinuses ( paranasal sinuses ) prepared by the Hungarian laryngologist Adolf Onodi ( 1857 – 1919 ) and demonstrated by him in 1900 . Negus undertook to replace the destroyed and damaged specimens and to extend the collection with animal specimens . This work was covered in Negus 's Hunterian Lecture , delivered on 20 May 1954 at the Royal College of Surgeons under the title " Introduction to the Comparative Anatomy of the Nose and Paranasal Sinuses " . This was followed four years later by the publication of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Nose and Paranasal Sinuses ( 1958 ) . Much of this later work was carried out after retirement in 1952 , both at the laboratories of the Royal College of Surgeons and at the Ferens Institute of Otolaryngology at the Middlesex Hospital . Negus 's research over many years on these topics and their relation to nose and throat surgery led to the awarding of the 1954 Lister Medal . This was presented the following year when Negus delivered the Lister Oration on 5 April 1955 at the Royal College of Surgeons . The oration was titled " The Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory Tract in Relation to Clinical Problems " . Ten years later , towards the end of his life , Negus published The Biology of Respiration ( 1965 ) .
Negus 's legacy in this field was assessed in 1986 by the British surgeon and comparative anatomist Sir Donald Frederick Norris Harrison , himself an expert on the mammalian larynx . Writing further on the subject in 1995 , Harrison states that Negus 's " pioneer research into the mechanism of the animal larynx [ ... ] established him as a unique comparative anatomist . " Harrison quotes from the Scottish anatomist Sir Arthur Keith 's preface to The Mechanism of the Larynx . In this preface , Negus 's 1929 work is described as showing " the same patient power of assembling observation after observation as Darwin had and some of the hot pursuit of function as urged by Hunter " .
= = Societies and administration = =
As one of the leading practitioners in his speciality , Negus served in many roles in its organisation and administration at both a national and international level . In particular , he worked closely with the Royal College of Surgeons of England , the body responsible for the accreditation and representation of surgeons practising in England and Wales , and also the organisation that supported him in his researches in comparative anatomy . The Royal College of Surgeons is located in London , and from 1939 to 1941 he was President of its Listerian Society .
In 1942 , Negus was President of the Section of Laryngology at the Royal Society of Medicine . When Negus had been training as a surgeon , laryngology , rhinology and otology had been part of general surgery , but this was changing with the advent of ENT ( ear , nose and throat ) medicine as a combined and specialised discipline . Negus and colleagues attempted to set up the necessary structure within the Royal Society of Medicine to represent their profession as an emerging speciality , but the regulations in place would not allow the type of organisation they had planned . This led them , in 1943 , to found the British Association of Otorhinolaryngologists which would be able to represent ENT surgeons through the Royal College of Surgeons . Following the war , Negus was co @-@ opted to the Council of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1947 , and was the first to represent otolaryngology at that level . He was also a member of the college 's Court of Examiners , and worked to set up the first examination in otorhinolaryngology that could be taken for the FRCS diploma . This reorganisation was taking place against a background of immense change in how medicine was practised in the UK , due to the advent of the National Health Service ( NHS ) . Negus 's colleague , Geoffrey Bateman , writing in 1974 , credits him with having the foresight to represent the interests of otolaryngology and see it established as a major speciality in its own right within the NHS .
Negus became President of the British Association of Otorhinolaryngologists in 1951 , and this was one of a number of presidencies he held , including that of the Thoracic Society ( 1949 – 50 ) and the Fourth International Congress of Otolaryngology . The latter was a large event that took place in London over a week in July 1949 . It was held in the Great Hall of King 's College , London , and was attended by over 700 otolaryngology specialists from 39 countries . The patron was King George VI and the congress was opened by the Duchess of Kent . Negus was President and host for the 1954 annual meeting of the Collegium Oto @-@ rhino @-@ laryngologicum Amicitiae Sacrum ( CORLAS ) , held in London from 29 August to 1 September , and was the treasurer of CORLAS from 1936 to 1950 . Negus was also associated with , and gave talks to , numerous medical societies in the UK and abroad , with his connections ranging from honorary fellowships to corresponding and honorary memberships . These foreign societies included the American Broncho @-@ Esophagological Association , and the countries included Sweden , Denmark , Canada , the USA , Austria , France , Italy , Hungary , and Turkey . Bateman opined in his obituary of Negus that it seemed unlikely that any other British ENT surgeon " has been honoured by so many societies " .
Following his retirement , Negus continued his involvement with the Royal College of Surgeons , becoming a trustee ( and later chairman of the trustees ) of the Hunterian Collection , the same collection that included the specimens that had underpinned his research some thirty years earlier . He also published books on the history of the college and its collections : The History of the Trustees of the Hunterian Collection ( 1965 ) ; and The Artistic Possessions at the Royal College of Surgeons of England ( 1968 ) .
= = Honours , awards and legacy = =
In his later years , Negus received many awards and honours . In 1945 , he was made a Fellow of King 's College , London . On 25 July 1949 , he received the honorary fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh . Further tributes followed as an honorary Doctor of Science ( D.Sc. ) was conferred on him on 17 May 1950 by the University of Manchester . Back in London , the Royal Society of Medicine made him an honorary fellow in 1954 . Two years later , Negus was made a knight bachelor with the investiture taking place at Buckingham Palace on 7 February 1956 . On 28 August 1958 , it was the turn of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland to bestow their honorary fellowship on him . In addition to these awards , Negus continued to give lectures , including an Erasmus Wilson demonstration awarded by the Royal College of Surgeons of England in 1953 , and the Johns Hopkins Lecture on 30 April 1957 . Negus also received the 1963 Gould Award from the William and Harriet Gould Foundation of Chicago , USA , " for his monumental contributions to the science of laryngology " .
On 13 February 1969 , Negus and two others ( Sir Geoffrey Keynes and Sir Stanford Cade ) were presented with the Honorary Gold Medal of the Royal College of Surgeons of England . This award , which had only been made thirty times since 1802 prior to the 1969 ceremony , is presented for " liberal acts or distinguished labours , researches and discoveries , eminently conducive to the improvement of natural knowledge and of the healing art . " The medal was presented by Sir Hedley Atkins , the President of the Royal College of Surgeons , who paid tribute to Negus : " Sir Victor Negus is perhaps the most distinguished of all those who have served the Council as a co @-@ opted member . He has always been known to us as a great research worker and scientist , whose labours earned him the Lister Medal , a man of exceptional integrity and industry and a persistent advocate of the value of tradition in its best sense . " Atkins also paid tribute to Negus 's wife , Lady Negus , who had crafted and presented to the college a tapestry of its coat @-@ of @-@ arms . Responding , Negus thanked the members of the Council for the award and for the privilege of having used college facilities since 1921 , concluding : " I take this honour as a mark of approval for any work I have done , and I feel I can now sit back and leave it to others to carry on . I would also like to thank you for inviting my wife to be here to @-@ day ; she has taken a great part in all I have done . "
Negus died in Hindhead , Surrey , on 15 July 1974 , at the age of 87 , survived by his wife and children . Negus 's status in the history of laryngology in the UK was remarked on in his obituary in The Times , which stated that he " made a worthy fourth to Morell Mackenzie , Felix Semon , and St Clair Thomson " . Obituaries also appeared in a range of medical journals . In due course , biographical entries appeared in volume 6 of Lives of the Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England ( 1988 ) and in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ( 2004 ) . Two photographic portraits of Negus are held in the collections of the National Portrait Gallery in London . As well as archives relating to Negus , the Royal College of Surgeons of England houses in its one of its reserve collections ( the Hunterian Museum Collection ) over 200 sagittal sections of animals dissected by him . Additional collections of bisected animal heads prepared by Negus are held at the Grant Museum of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in London .
= = Selected publications = =
Books
The Mechanism of the Larynx ( Heinemann , 1929 )
Diseases of the Nose and Throat with St Clair Thomson ( Cassell , 4th edition 1937 ; 5th edition 1948 ; 6th edition 1955 )
Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx ( Heinemann , 1949 )
Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Nose and Paranasal Sinuses ( Livingstone , 1958 )
The Biology of Respiration ( Williams and Wilkins , 1965 )
Articles
1924 : " The Course of Endoscopy in Chevalier Jackson 's Service " . The Journal of Laryngology & Otology 39 ( 3 ) : 145 – 149
1957 : " The Evolutionary History of Man from the Evidence of the Nose and Larynx " . Archives of Otolaryngology 66 ( 4 ) : 414 – 429
1958 : " Obituary : Dr. Chevalier Jackson " . The Journal of Laryngology & Otology 72 ( 10 ) : 843 – 844
1960 : " Further Observations on the Air Conditioning Mechanism of the Nose " . Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 27 ( 3 ) : 171 – 204
1968 : " Sir St. Clair Thomson ( 1859 – 1943 ) " . Archives of Otolaryngology 87 ( 6 ) : 667 – 672
1971 : " Voice " . Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 48 ( 6 ) : 369 – 376
Named lectures
1924 Arris and Gale Lecture : " On the Mechanism of the Larynx "
1930 Semon Lecture : " Observations on Semon 's Law "
1954 Hunterian Lecture : NEGUS VE ( September 1954 ) . " Introduction to the Comparative Anatomy of the Nose and Paranasal Sinuses " . Ann R Coll Surg Engl 15 : 141 – 71 . PMC 2377799 . PMID 13198060 .
1955 Lister Oration : NEGUS VE ( May 1955 ) . " The Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory Tract in Relation to Clinical Problems " . Ann R Coll Surg Engl 16 : 281 – 304 . PMC 2377889 . PMID 14377313 .
1957 Johns Hopkins Lecture : Negus VE ( October 1957 ) . " The etiology of pharyngeal diverticula " . Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 101 ( 4 ) : 209 – 23 . PMID 13472247 .
= Halle Berry =
Halle Maria Berry ( born Maria Halle Berry ; August 14 , 1966 ) is an American actress , film producer , and former fashion model . She won an Academy Award for Best Actress in 2002 for her performance in the romantic drama Monster 's Ball ( 2001 ) , which made her the only woman of color to win a Best Actress Academy Award to date , as of 2016 .
Berry was one of the highest paid actresses in Hollywood during the 2000s and has been involved in the production of several of the films in which she performed . She is also a Revlon spokesmodel . Before becoming an actress , she started modeling and entered several beauty contests , finishing as the 1st runner @-@ up in the Miss USA Pageant and coming in 6th place in the Miss World Pageant in 1986 . Her breakthrough film role was in the romantic comedy Boomerang ( 1992 ) , alongside Eddie Murphy , which led to roles in films such as the comedy The Flintstones ( 1994 ) , the political comedy @-@ drama Bulworth ( 1998 ) and the television film Introducing Dorothy Dandridge ( 1999 ) , for which she won the Emmy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Actress , among many other awards .
In addition to her Academy Award win , Berry garnered high @-@ profile roles in the 2000s such as Storm in the X @-@ Men film series ( beginning in 2000 ) , the action crime thriller Swordfish ( 2001 ) , and the spy film Die Another Day ( 2002 ) , where she played Bond Girl Jinx . She then appeared in the X @-@ Men sequels , X2 : X @-@ Men United ( 2003 ) and X @-@ Men : The Last Stand ( 2006 ) . In the 2010s , she appeared in movies such as the science fiction film Cloud Atlas ( 2012 ) , the crime thriller The Call ( 2013 ) and X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past ( 2014 ) .
Divorced from baseball player David Justice and singer @-@ songwriter Eric Benét , Berry has a daughter by model Gabriel Aubry , and a son by actor Olivier Martinez .
= = Early life = =
Berry was born Maria Halle Berry ; her name was legally changed to Halle Maria Berry at age five . Her parents selected her middle name from Halle 's Department Store , which was then a local landmark in her birthplace of Cleveland , Ohio . Her mother , Judith Ann ( née Hawkins ) , who is of English and German ancestry , was a psychiatric nurse . Her father , Jerome Jesse Berry , was an African @-@ American hospital attendant in the psychiatric ward where her mother worked ; he later became a bus driver . Berry 's maternal grandmother , Nellie Dicken , was born in Sawley , Derbyshire , England , while her maternal grandfather , Earl Ellsworth Hawkins , was born in Ohio . Berry 's parents divorced when she was four years old ; she and her older sister , Heidi Berry @-@ Henderson , were raised exclusively by their mother .
Berry has said in published reports that she has been estranged from her father since her childhood , noting in 1992 , " I haven 't heard from him since [ he left ] . Maybe he 's not alive . " Her father was very abusive to her mother . Berry has recalled witnessing her mother being beaten daily , kicked down stairs and hit in the head with a wine bottle .
Berry graduated from Bedford High School where she was a cheerleader , honor student , editor of the school newspaper and prom queen . She worked in the children 's department at Higbee 's Department store . She then studied at Cuyahoga Community College . In the 1980s , she entered several beauty contests , winning Miss Teen All American in 1985 and Miss Ohio USA in 1986 . She was the 1986 Miss USA first runner @-@ up to Christy Fichtner of Texas . In the Miss USA 1986 pageant interview competition , she said she hoped to become an entertainer or to have something to do with the media . Her interview was awarded the highest score by the judges . She was the first African @-@ American Miss World entrant in 1986 , where she finished sixth and Trinidad and Tobago 's Giselle Laronde was crowned Miss World . According to the Current Biography Yearbook , Berry " ... pursued a modeling career in Chicago .... Berry 's first weeks in New York were less than auspicious : She slept in a homeless shelter and then in a WMCA " .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1989 , Berry moved to New York City to pursue her acting ambitions . During her early time there , she ran out of money and had to live briefly in a homeless shelter .
Later in 1989 , her situation improved and she was cast in the role of model Emily Franklin in the short @-@ lived ABC television series Living Dolls , which was shot in New York and was a spin @-@ off of the hit series Who 's the Boss ? . During the taping of Living Dolls , she lapsed into a coma and was diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes . After the cancellation of Living Dolls , she moved to Los Angeles . She went on to have a recurring role on the long @-@ running primetime serial Knots Landing .
Her film debut was in a small role for Spike Lee 's Jungle Fever ( 1991 ) , in which she played Vivian , a drug addict . That same year , Berry had her first co @-@ starring role in Strictly Business . In 1992 , Berry portrayed a career woman who falls for the lead character played by Eddie Murphy in the romantic comedy Boomerang . The following year , she caught the public 's attention as a headstrong biracial slave in the TV adaptation of Queen : The Story of an American Family , based on the book by Alex Haley . Berry was in the live @-@ action Flintstones movie playing the part of " Sharon Stone " , a sultry secretary who seduced Fred Flintstone .
Berry tackled a more serious role , playing a former drug addict struggling to regain custody of her son in Losing Isaiah ( 1995 ) , starring opposite Jessica Lange . She portrayed Sandra Beecher in Race the Sun ( 1996 ) , which was based on a true story , shot in Australia , and co @-@ starred alongside Kurt Russell in Executive Decision . Beginning in 1996 , she was a Revlon spokeswoman for seven years and renewed her contract in 2004 .
= = = Late 1990s – 2000s = = =
She starred alongside Natalie Deselle Reid in the 1997 comedy film B * A * P * S. In 1998 , Berry received praise for her role in Bulworth as an intelligent woman raised by activists who gives a politician ( Warren Beatty ) a new lease on life . The same year , she played the singer Zola Taylor , one of the three wives of pop singer Frankie Lymon , in the biopic Why Do Fools Fall in Love . In the 1999 HBO biopic Introducing Dorothy Dandridge , she portrayed the first black woman to be nominated for a Best Actress Academy Award , and it was to Berry a heart @-@ felt project that she introduced , co @-@ produced and fought intensely for it to come through . Berry 's performance was recognized with several awards , including an Emmy and a Golden Globe .
Berry portrayed the mutant superhero Storm in the film adaptation of the comic book series X @-@ Men ( 2000 ) and its sequels , X2 : X @-@ Men United ( 2003 ) , X @-@ Men : The Last Stand ( 2006 ) and X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past ( 2014 ) . In 2001 , Berry appeared in the film Swordfish , which featured her first topless scene . At first , she refused to be filmed topless in a sunbathing scene , but she changed her mind when Warner Brothers raised her fee substantially . The brief flash of her breasts added $ 500 @,@ 000 to her fee . Berry considered these stories to be rumors and was quick to deny them . After turning down numerous roles that required nudity , she said she decided to make Swordfish because her then @-@ husband , Eric Benét , supported her and encouraged her to take risks .
She appeared as Leticia Musgrove , the troubled wife of an executed murderer ( Sean Combs ) , in the 2001 feature film Monster 's Ball . Her performance was awarded the National Board of Review and the Screen Actors Guild best @-@ actress prizes ; in an interesting coincidence she became the first woman of color to win the Academy Award for Best Actress ( earlier in her career , she portrayed Dorothy Dandridge , the first African American to be nominated for Best Actress , and who was born at the same hospital as Berry , in Cleveland , Ohio ) . The NAACP issued the statement : " Congratulations to Halle Berry and Denzel Washington for giving us hope and making us proud . If this is a sign that Hollywood is finally ready to give opportunity and judge performance based on skill and not on skin color then it is a good thing . " This role generated controversy . Her graphic nude love scene with a racist character played by co @-@ star Billy Bob Thornton was the subject of much media chatter and discussion among African Americans . Many in the African @-@ American community were critical of Berry for taking the part . Berry responded : " I don 't really see a reason to ever go that far again . That was a unique movie . That scene was special and pivotal and needed to be there , and it would be a really special script that would require something like that again . "
Berry asked for a higher fee for Revlon advertisements after winning the Academy Award . Ron Perelman , the cosmetics firm 's chief , congratulated her , saying how happy he was that she modeled for his company . She replied , " Of course , you 'll have to pay me more . " Perelman stalked off in a rage . Her win at the Academy Awards led to two famous " Oscar moments . " In accepting her award , she gave an acceptance speech honoring previous black actresses who had never had the opportunity . She said , " This moment is so much bigger than me . This is for every nameless , faceless woman of colour who now has a chance tonight because this door has been opened . " One year later , as she presented the Best Actor award , winner Adrien Brody ran on stage and , instead of giving her the standard peck on the cheek , planted a long kiss on Berry .
As Bond girl Giacinta ' Jinx ' Johnson in the 2002 blockbuster Die Another Day , Berry recreated a scene from Dr. No , emerging from the surf to be greeted by James Bond as Ursula Andress had 40 years earlier . Lindy Hemming , costume designer on Die Another Day , had insisted that Berry wear a bikini and knife as a homage . Berry has said of the scene : " It 's splashy " , " exciting " , " sexy " , " provocative " and " it will keep me still out there after winning an Oscar " . The bikini scene was shot in Cadiz ; the location was reportedly cold and windy , and footage has been released of Berry wrapped in thick towels in between takes to try to stay warm . According to an ITV news poll , Jinx was voted the fourth toughest girl on screen of all time . Berry was hurt during filming when debris from a smoke grenade flew into her eye . It was removed in a 30 @-@ minute operation . After Berry won the Academy Award , rewrites were commissioned to give her more screentime for X2 .
She starred in the psychological thriller Gothika opposite Robert Downey , Jr. in November 2003 , during which she broke her arm in a scene with Downey , who twisted her arm too hard . Production was halted for eight weeks . It was a moderate hit at the United States box office , taking in $ 60 million ; it earned another $ 80 million abroad . Berry appeared in the nu metal band Limp Bizkit 's music video for " Behind Blue Eyes " for the motion picture soundtrack for the film . The same year , she was named # 1 in FHM 's 100 Sexiest Women in the World poll .
= = = Recent work = = =
Berry received $ 12 @.@ 5 million for the title role in the film Catwoman , a $ 100 million movie ; it grossed $ 17 million on its first weekend . She was awarded a Worst Actress Razzie Award in 2005 for this role . She appeared at the ceremony to accept the award in person ( making her the third person , and second actor , ever to do so ) with a sense of humor , considering it an experience of the " rock bottom " in order to be " at the top " . Holding the Academy Award in one hand and the Razzie in the other she said , " I never in my life thought that I would be here , winning a Razzie . It 's not like I ever aspired to be here , but thank you . When I was a kid , my mother told me that if you could not be a good loser , then there 's no way you could be a good winner . " The Fund for Animals praised Berry 's compassion towards cats and for squelching rumors that she was keeping a Bengal tiger from the sets of Catwoman as a " pet . "
Her next film appearance was in the Oprah Winfrey @-@ produced ABC television movie Their Eyes Were Watching God ( 2005 ) , an adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston 's novel , in which Berry portrayed Janie Crawford , a free @-@ spirited woman whose unconventional sexual mores upset her 1920s contemporaries in a small community . She was nominated for an Emmy for this TV film . Meanwhile , she voiced the character of Cappy , one of the many mechanical beings in the animated feature Robots ( 2005 ) .
Berry is involved in production of films and television . She served as executive producer on Introducing Dorothy Dandridge in 1999 , and Lackawanna Blues in 2005 . In 2007 , Berry both produced and starred in the thriller Perfect Stranger with Bruce Willis , and starred in Things We Lost in the Fire with Benicio del Toro , the first film in which she worked with a female director , Danish Susanne Bier , giving her a new feeling of " thinking the same way " , which she appreciated . Berry then starred in the film Frankie and Alice , in which she plays Frankie Murdoch , a young multiracial American women with dissociative identity disorder struggling against her alter personality to retain her true self . She was awarded the African @-@ American Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama .
Berry was one of the highest @-@ paid actresses in Hollywood during the 2000s , earning an estimated $ 10 million per film . On April 3 , 2007 , she was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in front of the Kodak Theatre at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard for her contributions to the film industry .
As of 2013 , Berry 's worldwide box office gross has been more than USD $ 3 @.@ 3 billion . In 2011 , she appeared in New Year 's Eve . She played one of the leads in the film Cloud Atlas , which was released in October 2012 .
On October 4 , 2013 , Berry signed on to star in the CBS drama series Extant . Berry played Molly Woods , an astronaut who struggles to reconnect with her husband and android son after spending 13 months in space . The show premiered on July 9 , 2014 . She served as a co @-@ executive producer on the series .
Berry has served for many years as the face of Revlon cosmetics and as the face of Versace . The Coty Inc. fragrance company signed Berry to market her debut fragrance in March 2008 . Berry was delighted , saying that she had created her own fragrances at home by mixing scents .
In March 2014 Berry launched a new production company , 606 Films , with producing partner Elaine Goldsmith @-@ Thomas . It is named after the Anti @-@ Paparazzi Bill , SB 606 , that the actress pushed for and which was signed into law by California Governor Jerry Brown in the fall of 2013 . The new company emerged as part of a deal for Berry to star in the CBS sci @-@ fi drama series Extant . 606 Films is housed within CBS .
= = Personal life = =
In February 2000 , Berry was involved in a traffic collision and left the scene . She was charged with misdemeanor hit @-@ and @-@ run .
= = = Relationships and marriages = = =
Berry dated Chicago dentist John Ronan from March 1989 to October 1991 . In November 1993 , Ronan sued Berry for $ 80 @,@ 000 in what he claimed were unpaid loans to help launch her career . Berry contended that the money was a gift , and a judge dismissed the case because Ronan did not list Berry as a debtor when he filed for bankruptcy in 1992 .
According to Berry , a beating from a former abusive boyfriend during the filming of The Last Boy Scout punctured her eardrum and caused her to lose eighty percent of her hearing in her left ear . Berry has never named the abuser but has said that he is someone well known in Hollywood .
Berry first saw baseball player David Justice on TV playing in an MTV celebrity baseball game in February 1992 . When a reporter from Justice 's hometown of Cincinnati told her that Justice was a fan , Berry gave her phone number to the reporter to give to Justice . Berry married Justice shortly after midnight on January 1 , 1993 .
Following their separation in February 1996 , Berry stated publicly that she was so depressed that she considered taking her own life . Berry and Justice were officially divorced on June 24 , 1997 .
Berry married her second husband , singer @-@ songwriter Eric Benét , on January 24 , 2001 , following a two @-@ year courtship. but by early October 2003 they had separated , with the divorce finalized on January 3 , 2005 . Benét underwent treatment for sex addiction in 2002 .
In November 2005 , Berry began dating French Canadian model Gabriel Aubry , whom she met at a Versace photoshoot . Berry gave birth to their daughter in March 2008 . On April 30 , 2010 , Berry and Aubry announced their separation .
After their 2010 separation , Berry and Aubry became involved in a highly publicized custody battle , centered primarily on Berry 's desire to move with their daughter from Los Angeles , where Berry and Aubry resided , to France , the home of French actor Olivier Martinez , whom Berry had started dating in 2010 after they met while filming Dark Tide in South Africa . Aubry objected to the move on the grounds that it would interfere with their joint custody arrangement . In November 2012 , a judge denied Berry 's request to move the couple 's daughter to France in light of Aubry 's objections . Less than two weeks later , on November 22 , 2012 , Aubry and Martinez were both treated at a hospital for injuries after engaging in a physical altercation at Berry 's residence . Martinez performed a citizen 's arrest on Aubry , and because it was considered a domestic violence incident , was granted a temporary emergency protective order preventing Aubry from coming within 100 yards of Berry , Martinez , the child with whom he shares custody with Berry , until November 29 , 2012 . In turn , Aubry obtained a temporary restraining order against Martinez on November 26 , 2012 , asserting that the fight began when Martinez threatened to kill Aubry if he did not allow the couple to move to France . Leaked court documents included photos showing significant injuries to Aubry 's face , which were widely displayed in the media .
On November 29 , 2012 , Berry 's lawyer announced that Berry and Aubry had reached an amicable custody agreement in court . In June 2014 , a Superior Court ruling called for Berry to pay Aubry $ 16 @,@ 000 a month in child support ( around 200k / year ) as well as a retroactive payment of $ 115 @,@ 000 and a sum of $ 300 @,@ 000 for Aubry 's attorney fees .
Berry and Martinez confirmed their engagement in March 2012 , and married in France on July 13 , 2013 . In October 2013 , Berry gave birth to their son . After two years of marriage , and rumors of a separation , the couple announced they were divorcing .
= = Activism = =
Along with Pierce Brosnan , Cindy Crawford , Jane Seymour , Dick Van Dyke , Téa Leoni , and Daryl Hannah , Berry successfully fought in 2006 against the Cabrillo Port Liquefied Natural Gas facility that was proposed off the coast of Malibu . Berry said , " I care about the air we breathe , I care about the marine life and the ecosystem of the ocean . " In May 2007 , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed the facility . Hasty Pudding Theatricals gave her its 2006 Woman of The Year award .
Berry took part in a nearly 2 @,@ 000 @-@ house cell @-@ phone bank campaign for Barack Obama in February 2008 . In April 2013 , she appeared in a video clip for Gucci 's " Chime for Change " campaign that aims to raise funds and awareness of women 's issues in terms of education , health , and justice . In August 2013 , Berry testified alongside Jennifer Garner before the California State Assembly 's Judiciary Committee in support of a bill that would protect celebrities ' children from harassment by photographers . The bill passed in September .
= = Public image = =
Berry was ranked No. 1 on People 's " 50 Most Beautiful People in the World " list in 2003 after making the top ten seven times and appeared No. 1 on FHM 's " 100 Sexiest Women in the World " the same year . She was named Esquire magazine 's " Sexiest Woman Alive " in October 2008 , about which she stated : " I don 't know exactly what it means , but being 42 and having just had a baby , I think I 'll take it . " Men 's Health ranked her at No. 35 on their " 100 Hottest Women of All @-@ Time " list . In 2009 , she was voted # 23 on Empire 's 100 Sexiest Film Stars . The same year , rapper Hurricane Chris released a song entitled " Halle Berry ( She 's Fine ) " , extolling Berry 's beauty and sex appeal . At the age of 42 ( in 2008 ) , she was named the “ Sexiest Black Woman ” by Access Hollywood ’ s TV One Access survey .
Born to an African @-@ American father and a white mother , Berry has stated that her biracial background was " painful and confusing " when she was a young woman , and she made the decision early on to identify as a black woman because she knew that was how she would be perceived .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Things Aren 't Simple Any More =
" Things Aren 't Simple Any More " is the final episode of the British television sitcom One Foot in the Grave . It was written by David Renwick and stars Richard Wilson as Victor Meldrew , Annette Crosbie as his wife Margaret , and features a guest appearance by Hannah Gordon . The episode depicts the death of the series ' protagonist , Victor Meldrew , in a hit @-@ and @-@ run road accident , and his wife 's efforts to deal with the driver who killed him . Renwick had been struggling to conceive and write new stories for the series and decided to kill off the character . The episode was filmed at Shawford , Hampshire , and at BBC Television Centre in London .
Renwick resisted the BBC 's attempt to broadcast the episode at Christmas , feeling that such scheduling would contrast unfavourably with the grimness of the show , and would be viewed as an overt attempt to garner high ratings . The controller of BBC1 relented and the episode was first transmitted on BBC One on 20 November 2000 . The broadcast coincided with the transmission of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? ' s first UK jackpot win . Some people within the BBC alleged that Celador , the production company in charge of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? had rigged Judith Keppel 's victory to spoil the BBC 's expected high ratings for the sitcom 's finale . The Independent Television Commission ( ITC ) cleared Celador and ITV of any wrongdoing .
The critical reception for the episode was mostly positive . Many reviewers commented that the dark tone of the final episode was characteristic of the series , and that killing off the protagonist was an appropriate way to conclude . The characters of Victor and Margaret returned in a short sketch for Comic Relief 's Red Nose Day telethon on 16 March 2001 .
= = Synopsis = =
Margaret ( Annette Crosbie ) is having a heated telephone conversation with a solicitor about an incident in which Victor is accused of having thrown a syringe into someone 's buttock . She reveals that a conviction might be difficult as her husband has been dead for five months . While coming to terms with her husband 's death as a hit and run victim , Margaret joins a church group clearing litter from roadsides . There she meets Glynis Holloway ( Hannah Gordon ) , whose husband has also recently died . The two become good friends . Confiding to a priest , Father Blakey ( William Osborne ) , Margaret pledges vengeance for Victor 's death , vowing " If they ever find the bastard who was at the wheel of that car I swear I 'll kill him , with my bare hands if I have to , and they can do what they like with me " .
The episode continually switches to flashbacks which show that the circumstances leading to Victor 's death stemmed from a simple misunderstanding . A group of pilgrims descend upon the Meldrews ' home after misunderstanding Margaret 's classified advertisement in her local newspaper of a picture of the Virgin Mary with " two small tears under her eyes " . Readers apparently took it to mean ' tears ' ( as in crying ) rather than ' tears ' ( as in rips ) . As a result of their exposure in the local paper , Victor is contacted by an old acquaintance and invited to a works reunion . Victor , who is persuaded to go by Margaret , is informed by the barman ( Paul Merton ) that all but one of the other guests have cancelled . Sitting alone while waiting for Limpy , the one remaining potential attendee , Victor is entertained by two cabaret performers ( Ed Welch — who wrote the incidental music for all series — and Jean Challis ) . Victor eventually leaves the pub , with Limpy arriving seconds after he leaves . At the railway station Victor telephones Margaret for a lift . As he stands at the side of the road waiting for his wife , Glynis approaches in her car . She begins to fall asleep and mounts the kerb ; Victor is knocked down . She stops and looks back from a short distance , but decides not to return to the scene when she sees Margaret arrive .
The episode returns to the present day . Margaret prepares some orange juice and paracetamol for Glynis ' migraine . She finds a scrap book of press cuttings surrounding Victor 's death in Glynis ' kitchen drawer and realises that her new friend is responsible for his demise . As ominous music plays , Margaret thoughtfully looks at the box of paracetamol . She drops some tablets into the glass and hands it to Glynis , who realises that her secret has been uncovered . Margaret watches her drink some of the orange juice before leaving the house . The number of tablets that Margaret put into the glass is intentionally left ambiguous . Before Margaret leaves , Glynis explains exactly what happened that night and tells Margaret how sorry she is . Margaret is then seen leaving the house , never revealing what happened next .
The episode ends with a montage of some of the events referred to during the episode , accompanied by the song " End of the Line " by The Traveling Wilburys . Scenes include Victor and his car being covered in artificial snow at a supermarket during the filming of a Christmas television advertisement ( in the middle of June ) ; Victor scaring a young couple after grass cuttings are stuck in the sunscreen on his face ; and the incident with the syringe . The final shots are of Victor and Margaret driving through the countryside .
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
David Renwick found writing the fifth series and the 1997 Christmas special " Endgame " difficult , and he was becoming increasingly busy with his detective series Jonathan Creek . In early 1998 , his concerns appeared in the national press . The Evening Standard quoted him : " I have no new ideas for Victor Meldrew ... I know that if I tried to write another series it would be even harder than the Christmas one . I don 't want the standard to drop [ and ] there would be no point in doing something I didn 't believe in . " A year later , Renwick agreed to write a final series of One Foot , having found the four @-@ year break after writing the fifth series fruitful . Renwick decided that Victor should die in the final episode because he did not want to be persuaded to write another series . He cites the final episode of the Only Fools and Horses 1996 Christmas specials " where the fantastic closing scenes of the Trilogy saw the Trotters walking up the Yellow Brick Road , only for them to return a couple of years later " . He did not want to be constantly asked by journalists and fans when Victor was coming back to their screens .
In June 1999 , while Richard Wilson was performing in Waiting for Godot at the Royal Exchange in Manchester , Renwick informed him of his decision to kill off Victor . The actor reacted positively , and said in 2006 that he did not want Victor to " take me over . " Wilson had noticed that " the scripts weren 't as original as they had been " and that he was " getting a bit tired of the character , trying to maintain a freshness " . Annette Crosbie was saddened that the show was coming to an end because she enjoyed working on it , but she understood Renwick 's feelings of being pressured to " top the last one " .
In an interview for the documentary Comedy Connections , Renwick says that killing off the protagonist " seemed to be the most natural and logical and appropriate end for the character in a show where we had tried to reflect the truthfulness of real life . " Victor 's demise had been announced in the press in the summer preceding the broadcast . In an interview with The Sun , Wilson said " I feel sad , of course , but it 's the right time . To keep doing it would have got dull " .
Renwick decided to use the flashback structure for several reasons . He felt that the episode should be about " life After Victor , which I think will be more interesting and not the route people are expecting you to take . " He realised that most viewers would have been aware of Victor 's death because of the press coverage ; there would be little point in having the death be the climax of the episode because everyone already knew the outcome . However , the focus would be upon Victor 's death rather than the details of the accident . Renwick 's decision to kill Victor in a road accident was fuelled by the writer 's concerns about reckless driving . Also , the suddenness of an accident , as opposed to death by illness , would not negate the comic tone of the rest of the episode . The twist that the person responsible for Victor 's death is Margaret 's new best friend was designed to add some complexity to the show .
Actress Hannah Gordon , who played the culprit of Victor 's demise , admired the tone of the script . Her character was returning from visiting her terminally ill husband in hospital , which distracted her concentration from the road , " but her guilt and conscience is something from which she can 't escape . " Commenting upon the ambiguity of whether or not Margaret kills Glynis by overdosing her orange juice with tablets , Renwick believes it to be more stimulating to allow audiences to reach their own conclusions .
= = = Filming = = =
The five previous series of One Foot in the Grave were produced and directed by Susan Belbin . She had retired because of ill health . Renwick persuaded her to return to work on the final series to provide continuity , but her health quickly forced her to resign from the show again . The final series was produced by Jonathon P. Llewellyn and directed by Christine Gernon . Wilson and Renwick felt that Gernon 's experience working with Belbin on the earlier series of One Foot as a production secretary and assistant , as well as on other shows , meant that her style was similar to Belbin 's , which would aid the transition between directors .
The cast and crew assembled in the Bridge Lounge at the BBC Television Centre for the read @-@ through of all six episodes from the final series on 30 June 2000 . Nine days later they moved to Bournemouth to film some exterior sequences . One Foot had used Bournemouth since the show 's beginning because of its favourable climate , easy access to London , and lower costs compared to filming in the capital . The exterior scenes of the Meldrews ' home were filmed , as they had been since series two , at Tresillian Way in Walkford ( a village near New Milton in Hampshire ) .
Victor 's death scene was filmed outside The Bridge Hotel and pub at Shawford railway bridge , next to the River Itchen , Hampshire , on 21 July 2000 . The cold temperature on the night of the shoot and the various technical considerations meant that the scene did not have a big emotional impact upon the cast and crew during filming . However , Renwick briefly felt emotional as he watched Victor 's arm falling into the shot and his cap drift away in the gutter . After the exterior sequences had been filmed , the remainder of the episode was recorded at BBC Television Centre in West London on 17 September 2000 . Unlike the location shoot , Renwick was too concerned with the complexities of filming to be emotionally affected by the filming of the final episode .
= = Broadcast = =
The BBC originally wanted to transmit the episode at Christmas , a time of year when audience figures are particularly important for broadcasters . Renwick was unhappy with the plan , writing in his journal in May 2000 :
It 's almost as if , as broadcasters , we are glorying his death . The context a show is presented in will have a huge impact on how it is received , and it 's always been our policy to swim against the tide and resist the policy to conform . It seems ironic — and depressing — to me that after deliberately avoiding the " obvious " approach in my script we are now facing a very " obvious " approach to the scheduling . If Victor dies at Christmas it 's going to look like a naked push for ratings . The opposite is true : I want Victor 's departure to be significant , but stripped of sensationalism .
Renwick outlined his concerns in a letter dated 19 May 2000 to Peter Salmon , the controller of BBC1 :
[ The show ] draws its rhythms and inspiration from reality , and occasionally has the power to disarm the viewer with material that is darker or more reflective than they are used to ... Death may be tragic but it is commonplace , the eternal Truth . Let 's not trumpet it , but place it simply before the public and let them make up their own minds . I would so like the feeling that we generate on the air to reflect the reality of death in life : most of the time it is a very quiet , private affair , generates little public attention : we grieve , and then somehow or other we just have to get on with things . I suppose at the risk of sounding squirmingly precious , I would like Victor to die with dignity .
Salmon agreed not to broadcast the episode at Christmas . It was first transmitted on BBC One on 20 November 2000 , forty minutes in length , rather than usual thirty . The episode 's transmission was immediately preceded by I Don 't Believe It ! The One Foot In The Grave Story , a documentary presented by Angus Deayton which looked back at the hit sitcom . The documentary was included as a bonus feature on the DVD release .
The Meldrews returned several months later in a sketch for the Comic Relief telethon held on 16 March 2001 . The seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute sketch , titled " Visiting Uncle Dick " , was written by Renwick and directed by Christine Gernon . It centred on Victor and Margaret 's visit to an elderly relative in hospital . Although it initially appears to be set before the final episode , the scene concludes with Victor picking up a video of the 1999 thriller film The Sixth Sense and , while commenting that he saw the ending coming , notices that Margaret is totally ignoring him , making him realize he is actually dead . Spike Milligan , who had asked for a guest part in the series , was originally cast to play the patient , but he was too ill , and the role was played by Eric Sykes . Renwick and Gernon were dissatisfied with the sketch because of the limited time they were allowed to write and film the piece .
= = = Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? controversy = = =
The transmission of the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? on rival channel ITV at the same time as the final series of One Foot led to the ratings that year being lower than for previous series . The broadcast of " Things Aren 't Simple Any More " coincided with the broadcast of the first UK jackpot win on Millionaire . The news of Judith Keppel 's win , recorded the preceding Sunday , was leaked to the press ; ITV announced Keppel 's success at a press conference on the day of broadcast . Renwick was annoyed that this would take " audience interest " away from One Foot . He said that the early announcement of the outcome of Millionaire was " naked opportunism " , and it " would have been more honorable to let the show go out in the normal way " . He pointed out that they also " killed off any element off tension or surprise in their own programme " , but " television is all about ratings " . On the night of its broadcast ITV 's Who Wants to be a Millionaire ? attracted 13 @.@ 9 million viewers ( 48 percent ) ; One Foot , which began transmission fifteen minutes later at 21 : 15 , attracted 10 @.@ 7 million ( 36 percent ) . The episode peaked at 11 @.@ 6 million viewers when it ran concurrently with its ITV rival .
It was alleged that Celador , the production company in charge of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? , had rigged the show to spoil the BBC 's expected high ratings for the sitcom 's finale . Wilson in particular was quoted as saying that ITV had " planned " the win , adding " it seems a bit unfair to take the audience away from Victor 's last moments on earth . " Richard Webber 's account , in his 2006 book , cites " unnamed BBC sources " as those who " questioned the authenticity of Keppel 's victory " . ITV claimed that the allegation " undermined viewers ' faith in the programme " , and Leslie Hill , ITV 's chairman , wrote a letter of complaint to Sir Christopher Bland , the chairman of the BBC Board of Governors . The corporation apologised , saying that any suggestion of rigging " did not represent the official view of the BBC . " Eleven viewers complained about the quiz show to the Independent Television Commission ( ITC ) , but Millionaire was cleared of any wrongdoing .
= = Reception = =
Many reviewers commented that the dark tone of the final episode was typical of the series . A reviewer for BBC Comedy said that it " was a characteristically dark end to a show which was never afraid to explore the flip side of the comedy coin . " UKTV Gold 's website says " it was a suitably downbeat end to an equally downbeat man . " Commenting that killing off the protagonist " might seem an odd way for a sitcom to end , " the British Film Institute 's ScreenOnline says that in a series " where comedy and tragedy are so intertwined , it seems entirely appropriate . "
The Daily Telegraph described the episode as displaying " an exhilarating flair for rapid change of comic gear " and commented positively on the scene in which pilgrims descend on the Meldrews ' home . Rupert Smith in The Guardian called the episode " a satisfying ending to a series that never went out of its way to be cheerful " , referring in particular to the open @-@ ended scene of Margaret dropping the paracetamol into the glass . However , The Independent 's Robert Hanks criticised the transitions into the flashbacks for being " clumsily signalled " , and said that the direction and score of the paracetamol scene was not equal to the quality of the writing and acting .
Victor Meldrew had become such a cultural icon that many fans left messages and flowers at the location of his death . Fans repeated this on the first anniversary of his screen death , although Renwick suspects that the event was orchestrated by the tabloid press .
= Jack Youngblood =
Herbert Jackson Youngblood , III ( born January 26 , 1950 ) is an American former college and professional football player who was a defensive end for the Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League ( NFL ) for fourteen seasons during the 1970s and 1980s . He was a five @-@ time consensus All @-@ Pro and a seven @-@ time Pro Bowl selection and was inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame . Before playing professionally , Youngblood played college football for the University of Florida , and was recognized as an All @-@ American . He is considered among the best players Florida ever produced — a member of the College Football Hall of Fame and one of only five Florida Gators to be named to the Gator Football Ring of Honor .
After retiring as a player in 1985 , Youngblood worked in the Rams ' front office until 1991 . He also worked in the front office of the Sacramento Surge of the World League ( WLAF ) from 1992 to 1993 , and the administration of the Canadian Football League 's Sacramento Gold Miners from 1993 to 1994 . He was a vice @-@ president , then president , of the Orlando Predators from 1995 until 1999 . From 1999 through 2002 , he served as the NFL 's liaison for the Arena Football League .
Youngblood has made forays into broadcasting ( both radio and television ) , acting , and business , and has written an autobiography . He was a popular spokesperson for various products , and he has been consistently involved in charity work , starting in college , continuing throughout his NFL career , and remaining so today . Currently , Youngblood serves on the NFLPA Mackey @-@ White Traumatic Brain Injury Committee .
In 2014 , Youngblood opened the Jack Youngblood Center for NeuroEnhancement in Orlando , Florida , which purports to treat the symptoms of traumatic brain injury and offer care to patients in effort to restore normal brain function . Youngblood has stated , " The bonus with this therapy is that the time invested is minimal , while the results are extraordinary . "
= = Early years = =
Jack Youngblood was born in Jacksonville , Florida , the son of Herbert J. and Kay Youngblood . He has two sisters , Paula and Lynn . Youngblood attended Monticello @-@ Jefferson County High School in Monticello , Florida , graduating in 1967 . As an offensive lineman and linebacker , he was a starter on offense and defense and team captain of the state champion Tigers , earning All @-@ State honors in 1966 after recording 70 tackles . He was also All @-@ Big Bend , All @-@ Conference and the Big Bend Linemen of the Year and the Outstanding Lineman for the Tigers that season while leading a defense that shutout seven opponents and allowed ten touchdowns in 12 games , including the state playoffs . He was a four @-@ year letterman in football and also played basketball at M @-@ JC High as well as participating in 4 @-@ H , Student Council and Key Club International .
Youngblood was named to Florida 's All @-@ Time High school football team by Sports Illustrated in 1989 . In November 2007 , he was recognized as one of the state of Florida 's thirty @-@ three all @-@ time greatest high school football players when he was voted to the Florida High School Athletic Association 's All @-@ Century High School football team .
= = College career = =
At the University of Florida , Youngblood was a brother of the Alpha Tau Omega Fraternity ( Alpha Omega Chapter ) , and was a three @-@ year varsity letterman for coach Ray Graves and coach Doug Dickey 's Florida Gators football teams from 1968 to 1970 . Youngblood had entered school at 195 pounds and put on 10 pounds a year through weight @-@ lifting , finishing around 245 pounds . Youngblood and his teammates were part of the testing for what became Gatorade , a beverage created by doctors Robert Cade and Dana Shires , designed to help Gator athletes who had to practice and play in Central Florida heat . Said Youngblood , " Dr. Cade began experimenting with Gatorade my freshman year . He tried to kill us all ! That first stuff was lethal ! It was thick , like syrup , and had an aftertaste . Then , it started to look like milk . ″
As a freshman Youngblood played defensive end , wearing number 52 , for the Gator freshman team . It was his first experience on the defensive line , after playing linebacker in high school . As a sophomore , Youngblood played defensive end and defensive tackle ( recording 24 tackles and 4 sacks ) while also handling the kicking chores for the Gators , kicking a career @-@ long 42 @-@ yard field goal to provide the three @-@ point winning margin in his first collegiate game which was against Air Force .
In 1969 , Youngblood was part of a 9 – 1 – 1 Gators team that upset the Tennessee Volunteers in the Gator Bowl in coach Ray Graves 's final game as coach at Florida . Youngblood played a key role in the Gator Bowl recording nine tackles and forcing a fumble . Youngblood first gained national attention after an October 4 , 1969 , 5 @-@ sack performance 21 @-@ 6 win versus instate rival Florida State University . He set a school record for sacks ( 14 ) in 1969 and led the teams ' defensive linemen with 66 tackles .
In 1970 , Youngblood was recognized as a first @-@ team All @-@ American , while recording 58 tackles and leading the team with 10 sacks to finish his Gator career with 29 quarterback sacks . Additionally , he was a finalist for the Outland Trophy following the 1970 season and was voted the 1970 SEC lineman of the year . Youngblood was also named to the SEC All @-@ Conference team in 1970 , which ended three winning seasons while at Florida . He was also the 1970 recipient of Florida 's Fergie Ferguson Award , which goes to the senior who displays outstanding leadership , character , and courage . His performance in the Florida – Georgia rivalry earned him a spot in the Florida – Georgia Game Hall of Fame as well . In the 1970 edition of the game , Florida trailed Georgia by seven points and the Georgia offense had driven to Florida 's one @-@ yard line , Youngblood stopped a Georgia running back short of the goal line and forced him to fumble and then recovered the loose ball beginning a rally that gained a come @-@ from @-@ behind 24 – 17 victory .
Some regard Youngblood , who was considered to be an excellent pass rusher , as the best defensive lineman in Gators history as well as one of the top five players in the University of Florida 's football program . When Time magazine chose him for their 1970 All @-@ America Team , it said of Youngblood : " Deceptively fast for his size , he reads screens and swing passes so adroitly that he intimidates quarterbacks by his mere presence . " His coach Doug Dickey told The Sporting News , " He is difficult to move when you run at him , has the speed and agility to pursue down the line of scrimmage , and the strength and quickness to rush the passer . " In one of a series of articles written for The Gainesville Sun in 2006 , Youngblood was ranked as the No. 5 all @-@ time greatest player for the Florida Gators .
Youngblood graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor 's degree in finance in 1972 .
= = NFL career = =
Youngblood was drafted by the Los Angeles Rams in the first round of the 1971 NFL Draft . He was the 20th overall pick in that draft and signed a 3 @-@ year $ 105 @,@ 000 contract including a $ 30 @,@ 000 signing bonus . That season he backed up Deacon Jones at left defensive end and started four games when Jones was sidelined with a severely sprained arch . He was named All @-@ Rookie by Football Digest and after the season Jones was traded to the San Diego Chargers . In 1972 the left defensive end position was Youngblood 's as he led the Rams defensive linemen in tackles with 70 , and started 11 of the 14 games he played , recording six sacks .
In 1973 Youngblood was a Second @-@ team All @-@ pro selection and went to the first of his seven Pro Bowls and led the Rams with 16 ½ sacks . The Ram defense led the NFL in fewest yards allowed and fewest rushing yards . He was voted the Rams defensive lineman of the year by the Rams Alumni Association . Beginning in the 1973 season , the Rams added the unrelated Jim Youngblood to its roster , so from that time on , both Youngbloods had the unique distinction of having their entire name on the back of their jerseys , the given name appearing above the family name . The following year , 1974 , the Rams again led the NFL in rushing defense and Youngblood led the Rams with 15 sacks while being voted a consensus First @-@ team All @-@ Pro . The Rams advanced to the NFC Championship game , losing 14 @-@ 10 to the Minnesota Vikings .
Youngblood was honored as the NFC Defensive Player of the Year by United Press International in 1975 and Pro Football Weekly named Youngblood the NFL defensive lineman of the year . For the third consecutive season Youngblood led the Rams in sacks ( 15 ) and was a consensus All @-@ pro again , repeating his 1974 honor . In a December , 1975 , 35 @-@ 23 playoff win over the St. Louis Cardinals , Youngblood pass @-@ rushed Cardinals offensive lineman Dan Dierdorf , penetrated into the backfield , then tipped and intercepted a pass by Jim Hart , returning the interception 47 yards for a touchdown . Later in the game , Youngblood forced a fumble that was recovered by teammate Fred Dryer , blocked an extra point attempt , and sacked Hart to stop a Cardinals drive .
Youngblood repeated his NFC Defensive Player of the Year Award in 1976 while co @-@ leading the Rams in sacks with 14 ½ and being a consensus first @-@ team All @-@ Pro for the third straight season . The following year , 1977 , Youngblood was voted to his fifth consecutive Pro Bowl and a consensus All @-@ NFC selection and second @-@ team All @-@ Pro while leading the Rams in sacks for the fifth straight season . In 1978 the Rams led the NFL in total defense and Youngblood was a consensus first @-@ team All @-@ Pro for the fourth time in five years .
One of the athletic feats for which Youngblood is best known , is that of playing the entire 1979 playoffs , including Super Bowl XIV , with a fractured left fibula . He also played in the 1980 Pro Bowl with the injured leg , a week after the Super Bowl . In the playoffs , Youngblood sacked Dallas Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach near the sideline in the waning moments of the divisional playoff game versus the Cowboys . Playing with the fractured leg was noted by Sports Illustrated in their Top 10 list of athletes playing in pain . For that and other achievements Jack was dubbed the " John Wayne of football " by Jim Hanifan and echoed by Hall of Fame coach John Madden . The NFL Network series NFL Top 10 selected Youngblood 's performance in the 1979 playoffs as top on its list of the " Gutsiest Performances ″ of all @-@ time .
For the 1979 season Youngblood had a career @-@ high 18 sacks and was a consensus first @-@ team All @-@ Pro for the fifth time . He was voted to his seventh consecutive Pro Bowl . In 1980 he was second @-@ team All @-@ Pro and first @-@ team All @-@ NFC while leading the Rams with 11 ½ sacks . In 1981 Youngblood led the Rams with 12 ½ sacks and was the Rams outstanding defensive lineman . In the off @-@ season , prior to the 1981 season , Jack had emergency surgery to remove a hot @-@ dog sized blood clot from under his left arm . It was a result of repeated trauma to a nerve in his arm that blocked the flow of blood . Despite the broken leg and numerous other injuries , Youngblood played in 201 consecutive games , a Rams team record ; and only missed one game in his 14 @-@ year NFL career . He played in seven straight Pro Bowls , five NFC Championships , and one Super Bowl . He was also the Rams defensive captain from 1977 through 1984 and was voted the Dan Reeves award 3 times , which is awarded to the team 's MVP . He had 151 ½ career sacks and led the Rams in sacks nine times despite playing first in assistant Coach Ray Malavasi 's stop @-@ the @-@ run @-@ first defensive scheme and then in his final two seasons in Defensive Coordinator Fritz Shurmur 's 3 @-@ 4 two @-@ gap scheme which limited some pass rush opportunities to make sure the opponent 's running game was handled .
Youngblood faced a challenge in 1983 when the Rams adopted Shurmur 's 3 @-@ 4 defense . Critics thought Youngblood might be too small to play that position , yet he performed in it well ( recording 10 ½ sacks in 1983 and 9 ½ sacks in 1984 while Rams were among the NFL 's best defenses at stopping the run ) despite being considered undersized . Among the standout games in Youngblood 's final two seasons were the opening game of the 1983 season , against the New York Giants in which Youngblood recorded two sacks ; and the 1983 season finale against the New Orleans Saints . In the Saints game Youngblood recorded 10 tackles , two sacks , recorded a safety and was named the NFL Defensive Player of the Year by Pro Football Weekly for the effort . In Week 5 of 1984 against the New York Giants , Youngblood recorded two sacks , drew three holding calls and was named NFC Defensive Player of the Week by the NFL . Then , in Week 10 , against the St. Louis Cardinals , Jack dominated the game sacking Neil Lomax three times and drawing three holding calls , and blocking a potential game @-@ tying field goal on the game 's final play to preserve a 16 @-@ 13 Rams win .
His streak of consecutive games played ended in Week 15 of the 1984 season , when Youngblood had to sit out his first football game since being a collegiate player in 1970 . He had suffered a ruptured disc in his lower back two weeks earlier . Despite the injury , he returned for the season finale against the 49ers and the playoffs . He attributed his ability to play to a series of back adjustments that allowed him more freedom of movement , even though team doctors told Youngblood he was out for the season and needed surgery . He was voted the Rams ' recipient of the 1984 Ed Block Courage Award by " representing everything that is positive about professional football and serving as an inspiration in their locker rooms being a positive role model in his communities " . Though the injury ended his streak , Youngblood still holds the record for most consecutive starts in the NFL by a strong @-@ side defensive end with 184 .
When Youngblood retired on August 27 , 1985 , he asked his career to be remembered for " dignity , integrity , respect and pride ″ .
Season sack totals : 1971 ( 3 ) , 1972 ( 6 ) , 1973 ( 16 ½ ) , 1974 ( 15 ) , 1975 ( 15 ) , 1976 ( 14 ½ ) , 1977 ( 8 ½ ) , 1978 ( 7 ) , 1979 ( 18 ) , 1980 ( 11 ⅓ ) , 1981 ( 12 ½ ) , 1982 ( 4 ) , 1983 ( 10 ½ ) , 1984 ( 9 ½ ) , Career Total ( 151 ½ )
= = Los Angeles Rams Records = =
Most Consecutive Games Played ( 201 )
Most Career Sacks in the Playoffs ( 8 @.@ 5 )
Most Playoff Starts ( 17 )
Most Career Safeties — tied ( 2 )
2nd Most Career Sacks ( 151 @.@ 5 )
2nd most Career Blocked Kicks ( 8 )
= = Post @-@ NFL career = =
= = = Acting and broadcasting = = =
Youngblood appeared in two television movies : C.A.T. Squad in 1986 and C.A.T. Squad : Python Wolf in 1988 . In the telefilms Youngblood played a Secret Service agent in the " Counter Assault Technical Squad " named John Sommers who was the " best weapons and munitions man in the business ″ and who was a fine secret service agent but hated big cities like Washington D.C. and New York and was thus banished to Alaska . In the plot @-@ line of the movies " John Sommers " was a member of the Air Force Reserve who piloted SR @-@ 71 spyplane . In these films Youngblood starred along with Joe Cortese , Steve James , and Deborah Van Valkenburgh . For " Python Wolf " he was nominated for an Emmy for Best Supporting Actor .
Both films were directed by William Friedkin who is most noted for directing The Exorcist , The French Connection , and The Boys in the Band .
Youngblood was a reporter and co @-@ host for ESPN 's NFL GameDay show in 1985 and 1986 , alongside Chris Berman and was succeeded by current co @-@ host , Tom Jackson in 1987 . In 1988 he auditioned for the NFL on CBS 's NFL Today along with Dick Butkus , Lyle Alzado , and Gary Fencik , with Butkus being hired to fill the co @-@ host slot . Youngblood was also a regular guest on ESPN programs Star @-@ Shot ( 1988 ) , Sportslook ( 1984 , 1986 , 1988 ) and Great Outdoors ( 1989 ) programs .
Youngblood was a radio analyst for the Los Angeles Rams from 1987 – 1991 , the Sacramento Surge in 1992 , and a television analyst for the Sacramento Gold Miners in 1993 .
In 2000 , Youngblood was hired as the co @-@ host for Wal @-@ Mart 's Great Outdoors ( with Bert Jones ) and served in that capacity through 2003 . Wal @-@ Mart 's Great Outdoors was telecast 52 weeks a year and was a mainstay on ESPN 's popular Saturday morning outdoors programming block , drawing impressive ratings throughout its 10 @-@ year history .
= = = Autobiography = = =
In 1988 , Youngblood authored ( with Joel Engel ) his autobiography , Blood . The book outlined Youngblood 's drive and passion for professional football and reviewed his career , his injuries , his successes , and his failures on the football field . The book recounts when , between the 1973 and 1974 seasons , Youngblood traveled to Logan , Utah , to help Rams teammates Merlin and Phil Olsen with their summer football camp . An altercation in the parking lot of a local pub resulted in Youngblood having a .44 pistol stuck in his eye and the trigger pulled and fortunately the chamber was empty , although other chambers were not . A cut eyelid was the only injury he sustained . After initially pleading innocent , the assailant later pleaded guilty and received a one @-@ year suspended sentence . The book was favorably reviewed by Publishers Weekly as " an unusual sports book ″ .
= = = Football administration = = =
After his retirement , Youngblood worked in player relations and marketing for the Rams from 1985 – 90 and served as the Rams ' color analyst for the Rams Radio Network from 1986 @-@ 1991 . Youngblood moved to the World League of American Football as the Director of Marketing for the Sacramento Surge in 1991 ( although he remained as Rams color announcer for the 1991 season ) , during which time the Surge won the 1992 World Bowl . He moved to the Sacramento Gold Miners of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) in 1993 . He also served as a color analyst for both the Surge and the Gold Miners radio networks and hosted a sports radio talk show at KHTK @-@ AM 1140 in Sacramento , California , when that station became a sports format station in 1994 .
In 1995 , he returned to his native Florida as Vice President and General Manager , then later as President , of the Orlando Predators of the Arena Football League . One of his major projects with the Predators was taking the team a publicly traded company on the NASDAQ stock exchange . In 1998 , Youngblood 's final year with the team , the club won its first Arena League championship , defeating the favored Tampa Bay Storm . In 1999 he began to work for the AFL office as a liaison to the National Football League and served as a special consultant to the Arena Football League and arenafootball2 .
= = = Business = = =
Youngblood was a division president of Dave Liles Ethanol Fuels , which produces a fuel additive that purports to boost octane , clean fuel systems , and help the environment by reducing engine emissions and being completely biodegradable . He also owns and maintains a farm in his native North Florida , in which he currently raises pine trees and where he raised cattle until 2002 .
During his NFL career Youngblood partnered with L.A. Rams teammate Larry Brooks to open " The Wild Bunch " in 1980 , a western clothing store that featured high @-@ end western wear , including cowboy boots , cowboy hats , silver belt buckles , jeans , and all else country . Additionally , while still active with the Rams Youngblood worked with BankAmericard , in a public relations capacity . He also owned and operated the South Coast Club in Huntington Beach , California , during his career .
Additionally , some of the sponsorships and advertising ventures Youngblood was involved with were a Miller Lite TV commercial in 1985 and Honda Power machines in 1985 . He also had print ads for Pro Tron Weights , regional ad , 1984 , Dan Post Handcrafted Boots , national print @-@ ad 1986 , Cal @-@ Gym , national print @-@ ad , 1986 , and was a national spokesman for Protatonin in 2001 . In the mid @-@ 1980s he also modeled Munsingwear briefs in a series of magazine and billboard ads . In the mid @-@ 1970s Jack did television commercials and print @-@ ads for In @-@ N @-@ Out Burger , a California @-@ based fast food chain .
= = = Continuing popularity = = =
During his career Youngblood gained a loyal following which seems to continue through today . In July , 2006 , a game @-@ used Jack Youngblood jersey sold for $ 6 @,@ 565 in an online auction . Fox News ' Mike Straka listed Youngblood as having one of the NFL 's " Great names ″ .
In 2007 Sports Illustrated named Youngblood the greatest professional athlete to wear the uniform number 85 . Youngblood was also given the same honor in the 2004 book Right on the Numbers by Nino Frostino , and the Best Athletes by the Number blog . One of Youngblood 's biggest fans , David G. Lewber , died on June 28 , 2007 . Mr. Lewber was buried in his autographed Jack Youngblood jersey a week later on July 3 , 2007 .
In October , 2011 , D.W. Cooper released " Because It Was Sunday " a biography about Youngblood 's playing career .
= = Awards and honors = =
= = = College = = =
Youngblood was an All @-@ America selection in 1970 , as well as being the SEC Lineman of the Year , All @-@ SEC , and a finalist for the Outland Trophy . After his college career , Youngblood played in the Senior Bowl and recorded four sacks . He was named the Outstanding Lineman of the Game and in 1989 he was voted into the Senior Bowl Hall of Fame . Additionally he was voted a member of the 50th Anniversary Senior Bowl All @-@ Time Team in 1999 .
For his achievements he was selected to the All @-@ Time SEC team in 1983 . He was also voted to the All @-@ SEC Quarter @-@ Century Team ( 1950 – 74 ) as well as being voted to the 25 @-@ year All @-@ SEC teams which spanned from the 1961 through the 1985 seasons . He was also voted best Defensive end in SEC for the years 1960 @-@ 85 . Additionally , he was voted to the SEC All @-@ Decade team for the 1970s . In 1995 , Youngblood was voted one of the SEC Football Legends and was presented at the SEC championship game in Atlanta , Georgia .
Youngblood , who is regarded by some as the best defensive end in Gators history , was named to the All @-@ time Florida Gators team in 1983 , and in 1999 he was voted to the Florida Gator All @-@ Century Team . In 2006 he was named to the 100 @-@ year Anniversary Gator Team . In 1975 , Youngblood was voted to the Florida Sports Hall of Fame which features great athletes who played college or professional athletics and have a Florida connection . In 2001 , he was elected to the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame . Five years later , in 2006 , Youngblood was among the first four Gator legends to be inducted into the Florida Football Ring of Honor , alongside Steve Spurrier , Danny Wuerffel , and Emmitt Smith .
In 1992 , Youngblood was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame . He was also selected to the FWAA 1969 @-@ 1994 All @-@ America Team with players like Lawrence Taylor , Jerry Rice , John Elway , Tony Dorsett , Ronnie Lott , and Jack Tatum . In 1999 , he was named to the Sports Illustrated NCAA Football All @-@ Century Team as one of only six defensive ends named to the squad .
He was named by one SEC publication as the Top All @-@ Time SEC Defensive of All @-@ Time . Youngblood was also named by the Birmingham News as one of the Top 10 defensive lineman in SEC history , ranking with SEC greats as Reggie White , Doug Atkins , and Bill Stanfill . In addition , he is one of the three the top defensive lineman in history of the SEC , making the 75th Anniversary All @-@ SEC Team in 2007 as determined by votes of SEC fans .
= = = National Football League = = =
Youngblood was elected to NFL All @-@ Pro teams five times ( 1974 , 1975 , 1976 , 1978 , 1979 ) during his 14 years with the Rams and was an All @-@ NFC selection seven times ( 1974 – 80 ) . In addition , Youngblood was a second @-@ team All @-@ Pro in 1973 , 1977 , and 1980 and was second @-@ team All @-@ NFC in 1973 and 1984 . He was also named to seven Pro Bowls and was a first alternate to the game in 1984 , his final season . Youngblood was also on the 1984 All @-@ Madden team and was chosen by John Madden as the player who most exemplified the All @-@ Madden team .
Youngblood is also a member of the Los Angeles Rams ' 50th Anniversary Team ( 1985 ) , and the Rams All @-@ Century Team chosen after the 1999 season . In October 2001 he was honored in the St. Louis Rams Ring of Fame , along with Jackie Slater . Youngblood was voted the Rams ' Outstanding Defensive Linemen by the Rams ' Alumni nine times ( 1973 , 1975 – 76 , 1978 – 81 , and 1983 – 84 ) .
Youngblood , in 1987 , was voted to the Orange County ( California ) Sports Hall of Fame along with Pat McCormick , Ann Meyers and Cap Sheue . Four years earlier Youngblood was recognized as the 1983 Orange County Sportsman of the Year by the Orange County Youth Sports Foundation . Other notable honorees have been Jim Nantz , Peter Ueberroth , John McKay , Bill Walsh , and Pete Carroll .
Youngblood played in 201 consecutive games , a Rams team record ; he only missed one game in his 14 @-@ year NFL career . He was also the Rams ' defensive captain from 1977 through 1984 and was voted the recipient Dan Reeves award three times , which is awarded to the team 's most valuable player . He had 151 @.@ 5 career sacks and led the Rams in sacks nine times despite playing first in assistant coach Ray Malavasi 's stop @-@ the @-@ run @-@ first defensive scheme and then in his final two seasons in defensive coordinator Fritz Shurmer 's 3 @-@ 4 two @-@ gap scheme which limited some pass rush opportunities to make sure the opponent 's running game was handled . His highest single @-@ season sack total was 18 in 1979 .
He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2001 along with Ron Yary , Lynn Swann , Jackie Slater , Mike Munchak , Marv Levy , and Nick Buoniconti and inducted in August in Canton , Ohio . Youngblood echoed his post @-@ retirement sentiments in his Hall of Fame acceptance speech by stating , " I didn 't sack the quarterback every time I rushed the passer . I didn 't make every tackle for a loss . I guess — no one could . But , it wasn 't because I didn 't have the passion to , the desire to . I hope that showed " .
Youngblood 's style of play and perceived ability to play hurt brought many notations in NFL lore . In 1996 NFL Films named him to their list of the 100 Toughest Players of All @-@ Time and in 2006 NFL writer Neil Reynolds featured Youngblood in his 2006 book " Pain Gang , " in which Reynolds names Youngblood as one of the 50 Toughest players of All @-@ Time . In addition , Blitz magazine , The Sporting News , Football Digest , and Sport magazine have singled Youngblood out as one of the toughest and one of the hardest hitting players of all @-@ time . He was named by Yahoo ! writer Charles Robinson as the best @-@ ever player taken in the 20th slot of the 1st round of the NFL draft calling Youngblood " the essence of today 's defensive end — — a mixture of strength , toughness and speed that few ends boasted in the 1970s . " In 2000 , Sports Illustrated ranked Youngblood as No. 4 in its list of the greatest pass rushers of all @-@ time , behind only Deacon Jones , Reggie White and Lawrence Taylor .
During his career , Jack won the respect of both teammates and opponents . Dan Dierdorf , a Hall of Fame tackle , said that Youngblood was " by far the toughest opponent I faced in my career " , a thought echoed by Viking Hall of Fame tackle Ron Yary who said , " There wasn 't anybody who was tougher to block than Jack " . Other NFL greats such as Hall of Fame tackles Bob Brown and Rayfield Wright , rank Jack among the top players they faced . Opposing quarterbacks also ranked Youngblood highly , with two of them , Fran Tarkenton and Roger Staubach , stating that Jack was the top defensive lineman they faced in their careers . Hall of Fame defensive tackle Merlin Olsen paid Youngblood the highest compliment by stating that Jack was the " perfect defensive end ″ . Running backs also entered the chorus , " I remember bouncing off Jack Youngblood and it was just like a pillar of strength over there on the defense , " Rocky Bleier recalled . " Jack played hurt , he played tough , and he was a great opponent . "
To all the praise , Youngblood responded , " I don 't consider myself tough , I consider myself a nut for some of the things I did " . Youngblood concluded , " I wasn ’ t the biggest guy , I certainly wasn ’ t the strongest and I wasn ’ t the fastest either . But I think one of my biggest assets was that I had an undeniable determination to be the best that has ever put his hand on the ground , I had a genuine desire to be great . "
= = Charitable activities = =
While at the University of Florida , Youngblood was involved in the Fellowship of Christian Athletes while also speaking to youth groups and raising funds for needy children — one such event was a 57 @-@ mile bicycle ride he organized which intended to send disadvantaged youth to a summer camp . Youngblood was involved in the 1974 NFL @-@ USO tour to Vietnam and Southeast Asia . In 1977 , Youngblood was the chairman of the Los Angeles @-@ area " Right to Read " program and active in the Muscular Dystrophy Foundation . The same year , he was the United Way spokesman for the Rams and was the club 's Man of the Year nominee in 1975 and 1983 . In 1986 He participated the Hands Across America , an event to end hunger in the United States . Other NFL stars including Walter Payton and Tony Dorsett were also in the nationwide hand @-@ holding line . In his final 13 years ( 1979 – 1991 ) in Los Angeles , Youngblood sponsored a celebrity golf tournament for the John Tracy Clinic for Deaf Children , and was active with programs at the Children 's Hospital for Orange County . He was named the Orange County " Sportsman of the Year " by the hospital in 1987 .
Since 2001 , Youngblood has been the St. Louis Rams ' host for the Taste of the NFL charity event , a dinner held annually at the Super Bowl to raise funds for Feeding America @-@ The Nation 's Foodbank Network . In April , 2007 , Youngblood was inducted into the National Football League Alumni Association ’ s prestigious Order of the Leather Helmet , which is the highest award for the NFL Alumni given to those " who make a lasting impression on the game " .
Throughout his NFL career and after Youngblood has been a skilled public speaker being sought after by corporate , athletic , and Christian groups due to his activity and success in those arenas . He also attends hunting , fishing and golf outings when associated with a good cause . He also is active in the Orlando chapter of Young Life , a nationwide organization whose goals include attempting to mentor young men and women in the Christian faith . Jack 's wife , Barbara Youngblood , serves on the Executive Committee for Young Life for the Orlando Chapter .
Youngblood serves on the Honorary Advisory Board of the St. Louis Rams along with notables like Bill Cosby , August A. Busch III , Jonathan Winters , Dick Gephardt , Jackie Joyner @-@ Kersee , and Stan Musial , Maxine Waters , Dr. Toby Freedman , et al . Former members of the Rams Advisory Board , created in 1981 , include , Lord David Westbury , former Ram and Evangelist Rosey Grier , Maureen Reagan , Henry Mancini , Bob Hope , Danny Thomas , Jane Upton Bell , former President Gerald Ford among others .
Youngblood is also involved in helping former NFL players in need by supporting the Gridiron Greats Assistance Fund ( GGAF ) . The Gridiron Greats sponsors golf tournaments , autograph signings , memorabilia auctions , clay pigeon shoots and dinners to raise funds for retired players .
= Relocation of Wimbledon F.C. to Milton Keynes =
Wimbledon Football Club relocated to Milton Keynes in September 2003 , 16 months after receiving permission to do so from an independent commission appointed by the Football Association . The move took the team from south London , where it had been based since its foundation in 1889 , to Milton Keynes , a new town in Buckinghamshire , about 56 miles ( 90 km ) to the northwest of the club 's traditional home district Wimbledon . Hugely controversial , the move 's authorisation prompted disaffected Wimbledon supporters to form AFC Wimbledon , a new club , in June 2002 . The relocated team played home matches in Milton Keynes under the Wimbledon name from September 2003 until June 2004 , when following the end of the 2003 – 04 season it renamed itself Milton Keynes Dons F.C. ( MK Dons ) .
Wimbledon F.C. spent most of its history in non @-@ League football before being elected to the Football League in 1977 . A series of club owners believed that its long @-@ term potential was limited by its home ground at Plough Lane , which never changed significantly from the team 's non @-@ League days . Meanwhile , the Milton Keynes Development Corporation envisaged a stadium in the town hosting top @-@ flight football and was keen on the idea of an established League team relocating there . The Wimbledon chairman Ron Noades briefly explored moving Wimbledon to Milton Keynes in 1979 , but decided it would not lead to larger crowds . Charlton Athletic briefly mooted a relocation in 1973 , and in the 1980s the Milton Keynes Development Corporation offered a new ground to Luton Town , who almost became " MK Hatters " .
Wimbledon rose through the professional divisions unusually rapidly in what has been called a " fairytale " , and by the end of the 1980s were playing at the top of the English game . In 1991 , after the Taylor Report ordered the redevelopment of English football grounds , the team entered a groundshare at Crystal Palace 's Selhurst Park stadium , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east of Plough Lane . This was supposed to be a temporary arrangement while the Wimbledon chairman Sam Hammam sought a new stadium site in south @-@ west London , but this search proved frustratingly long , both for Hammam and the club 's fans . Much to the anger of most Wimbledon supporters , Hammam proposed new locations for the team outside London , including the Irish capital Dublin . He sold the club to two Norwegian businessmen , Kjell Inge Røkke and Bjørn Rune Gjelsten , in 1997 and the following year sold Plough Lane for a supermarket redevelopment .
Starting in 2000 a consortium led by Pete Winkelman proposed a large retail development in Milton Keynes including a Football League @-@ standard stadium , and offered this site to Luton , Wimbledon , Barnet , Crystal Palace and Queens Park Rangers . Røkke and Gjelsten appointed a new chairman , Charles Koppel , who announced on 2 August 2001 that Wimbledon intended to relocate to Milton Keynes . Koppel said the club would otherwise go out of business . After the League refused permission , Koppel launched an appeal , leading to an FA arbitration hearing and subsequently the appointment of a three @-@ man independent commission by the FA in May 2002 to make a final and binding verdict . The League and FA stated opposition but the commissioners ruled in favour , two to one . The vast majority of the team 's fans switched allegiance to AFC Wimbledon in protest . Wimbledon F.C. ' s relocation was delayed for over a year by the lack of an interim ground in Milton Keynes meeting Football League standards . In June 2003 the club went into administration ; Winkelman 's consortium injected funds to keep it operating and paid for the renovation of the National Hockey Stadium in Milton Keynes , where the team played its first match in September 2003 . Winkelman 's Inter MK Group bought the relocated club in 2004 and concurrently changed its name , badge and colours . The team 's new ground , Stadium mk , opened three years later . MK Dons initially claimed Wimbledon F.C. ' s heritage and history , but renounced this in 2007 . AFC Wimbledon received planning permission for a new ground on Plough Lane in 2015 .
= = Background = =
= = = Milton Keynes = = =
Milton Keynes , in northern Buckinghamshire , was established by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government as a new town on 23 January 1967 . Named after the village of Milton Keynes already present on the site , it was formed primarily as a London overspill settlement following the recommendations of governmental studies in 1964 and 1965 to build " a new city " in Buckinghamshire incorporating existing towns such as Bletchley , Stony Stratford and Wolverton . This site was chosen as it was equidistant from London and Birmingham , close to main roads and railways , and near Luton Airport . About 40 @,@ 000 people lived on the Milton Keynes site before 1967 ; the government set a target population of 250 @,@ 000 .
When Milton Keynes was founded , no football club within its boundaries was professional and none played in the Football League . The teams most advanced in the English football league system or " pyramid " were the United Counties League sides Bletchley Town and Wolverton Town & B.R. , and Stony Stratford Town of the South Midlands League ; New Bradwell St Peter and Newport Pagnell Wanderers ( Newport Pagnell Town from 1972 ) would join the South Midlands League in 1970 and 1972 respectively . Nevertheless , the Milton Keynes Development Corporation , created by the government to oversee the town 's planning and construction , envisaged a stadium in Milton Keynes capable of accommodating a top @-@ flight football team .
= = = Accession to the Football League ; club relocation in English football = = =
In English football , the relocation of teams away from their traditional districts is unusual because of the nature of the relationship between clubs and their fans : the local football club is regarded by most English football supporters as part of the local identity and social fabric rather than as a business that can be transplanted by its owners at will . As a result , any relocation plan would be strongly opposed by fans in the club 's original area , and unlikely to succeed in most new locations due to the existence of established teams in most towns and cities that would already have secured the loyalty of local football fans . John Bale , summarising a study published in 1974 , writes that , in the view of most fans , " Chelsea would simply not be Chelsea " were that club to move a few miles within the same borough to Wormwood Scrubs .
The geographic redistribution of the 92 Football League teams was considered a possible eventuality by some around that time , including Sir Norman Chester , who headed an investigation into the condition of English football in 1968 . Before the 1986 – 87 season , clubs could not be relegated out of the League 's Fourth Division . The bottom four clubs had to apply for re @-@ election by the other member clubs at the end of each season , alongside any non @-@ League teams who wished to take their place , but the replacement of an established League side in this way was quite rare . From the inaugural post @-@ war season ( 1946 – 47 ) through to 1985 – 86 , clubs already in the League were supplanted on only six occasions . " New communities have developed ... which lack clubs in League membership , " Chester reported , in 1968 . " Amalgamations of old clubs would provide vacancies for new clubs to enter the League . Alternatively the movement of established clubs to new communities could provide a way both of saving old clubs and at the same time bringing League football to new and growing areas . " Closely fitting this description , Milton Keynes provided a clear staging ground for such an experiment .
At the end of the 1978 – 79 season , 20 leading non @-@ League clubs left the Southern League and the Northern Premier League to form the Alliance Premier League . This national non @-@ League division started in the 1979 – 80 season ; it was called the Football Conference from 1986 to 2015 , when it became the National League . Since the 1986 – 87 season , the champions of this league have received promotion to the Football League , with the League 's bottom club being relegated in exchange . This was expanded to the Conference champions and the winners of a promotion play @-@ off before the 2002 – 03 season , with the worst two Football League clubs being relegated . The situation of the Football League " closed shop " , which for nearly a century effectively barred most non @-@ League clubs from accession , therefore no longer exists . Any club in the English football pyramid ( which also includes some clubs from Wales ) can potentially win enough promotions to reach the Football League or the Premier League , the separate top division formed in 1992 .
= = = = Precursors in Scottish and English football = = = =
According to the Football League 's statement to the independent commission on Wimbledon F.C. in May 2002 , the English League " had allowed temporary relocations for good reasons outside ' conurbations ' in respect of certain clubs where it was intended the club would return , but there has been no previous occasion on which the Football League had granted permission to a club to relocate permanently to a ground outside its ' conurbation ' . " Clubs in the English professional ranks that have relocated to other locales within their traditional conurbations include Manchester United and Woolwich Arsenal , who moved 5 miles ( 8 km ) and 10 miles ( 16 km ) respectively in 1910 and 1913 . South Shields of the Third Division North relocated 8 miles ( 13 km ) west to Gateshead in 1930 and renamed themselves Gateshead A.F.C .. The commission reported that there was no Football League precedent for a move between conurbations , but stressed that there was direct precedent for such a move in Scotland .
Promotion and relegation in and out of the Scottish Professional Football League was not introduced until the league system 's reorganisation in 2014 ; until then it was nearly impossible for sides outside the League to join . Scottish League membership therefore remained largely restricted to well @-@ established cities as opposed to new towns . Two Scottish League teams left their metropolitan districts for new towns during the 1990s . Third @-@ flight club Clyde moved from Shawfield Stadium ( close to Rutherglen in the south @-@ east of Glasgow ) to the new town of Cumbernauld , about 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the north @-@ east , in 1994 , and a year later Meadowbank Thistle , a struggling Edinburgh club in the fourth tier , relocated amid fans ' protests about 20 miles ( 32 km ) west to another new town , Livingston . Clyde kept their original name , while Meadowbank renamed themselves Livingston Football Club .
In English non @-@ League football , events surrounding Enfield F.C. have been latterly described as mirroring what was to occur at Wimbledon . Enfield 's owner Tony Lazarou sold the club 's ground at Southbury Road in 1999 and arranged several short @-@ term groundshares before resettling Enfield 10 miles ( 16 km ) west in Borehamwood — temporarily , he said , while he looked for a new stadium in Enfield . Two years later , after no site had been identified and a dispute had developed regarding an escrow account , the Enfield Supporters ' Trust resolved in June 2001 that Lazarou lacked sufficient will to bring the club back to Enfield and so founded a new team , Enfield Town , which based itself locally and won the support of much of the original Enfield fanbase . In a similar case in 2012 , the supporters ' trust affiliated to Northwich Victoria broke away to form 1874 Northwich . In each of these cases , Stephen Mumford comments in his 2013 work Watching Sport : Aesthetics , Ethics and Emotion , " supporters have agonised over where their allegiance properly lies . "
= = Early Milton Keynes relocation proposals = =
= = = Charlton Athletic ( 1973 ) = = =
The south @-@ east London club Charlton Athletic were linked with a move to " a progressive Midlands borough " in 1973 , a year after Charlton 's relegation to the third tier . The Gliksten family , which owned Charlton from 1932 to 1982 and had a history of proposing elaborate schemes for the club , revealed plans to build a community sports complex at The Valley , and to hold a public market at the ground on weekdays . Greenwich Council refused to licence the market and insisted that the complex be built on public space at a local park . The club reacted by announcing the proposed move to the Midlands . Fans inundated the local media and club offices with strong opinion against a move , prompting Charlton to print a statement in the 14 April 1973 match programme telling fans that the proposed move was because of the council 's attitude regarding the market and complex plans , which the team said threatened its future . " You , the supporters , can make sure the club continues in Charlton by protesting as loud as you can to Greenwich Council over their refusal to grant us permission for our plans , " the message explained . No relocation occurred .
= = = Wimbledon ( 1979 ) = = =
The south @-@ west London club Wimbledon , traditionally a semi @-@ professional non @-@ League side , won three successive Southern League championships between 1975 and 1977 and were thereupon elected into the Football League . Nicknamed " the Dons " , they proceeded to perform strongly in fully professional football , winning promotion to the then @-@ top flight First Division for the 1986 – 87 season . The club 's swift " fairytale " rise from obscurity through the English football pyramid caused it to reach a level of prominence far above that suggested by its modest home stadium at Plough Lane , which remained largely unchanged from the club 's non @-@ League days . Wimbledon 's record attendance at Plough Lane — 18 @,@ 000 , set " in the 1930s against a team of sailors from HMS Victory " — was never broken during 14 League seasons at the ground , including five in the top flight .
Ron Noades , who purchased the club for £ 2 @,@ 782 in 1976 , came to see Plough Lane as a potential limitation by 1979 . He surmised that it could only attract a relatively small number of fans because of its location , close to large areas of sparsely populated parkland . Noades 's interest was piqued by the site the Milton Keynes Development Corporation had earmarked for a stadium next to the town 's still @-@ under @-@ construction Central railway station . " They were very keen to get a Football League club , effectively a franchise if you like , into Milton Keynes to take up that site , " Noades said in a 2001 interview . Planning to move Wimbledon there by amalgamating with an established Milton Keynes club , Noades purchased debt @-@ ridden Southern League club Milton Keynes City ( MK City ; formerly Bletchley Town ) for £ 1 . He and three other Wimbledon directors — Jimmy Rose , Bernie Coleman and Sam Hammam — were promptly voted onto MK City 's board " in an advisory capacity " . This was a separate personal investment by the four directors , Noades said at the time , and not relevant to a move , though he also spoke at length about the superior long @-@ term promise of the Milton Keynes location .
Despite his early optimism , Noades soon came to the conclusion that a League club in Milton Keynes would not draw crowds much higher than those Wimbledon already attracted in south London . " I couldn 't really see us getting any bigger gates than what Northampton Town were currently getting at that time , and , in fact , are still getting , " he recalled in 2001 . " I really couldn 't see any future in it . I can 't actually see that there is a means of drawing large attendances to Milton Keynes . " Abandoning his interest in MK City , Noades sold Wimbledon to Hammam in 1981 for £ 40 @,@ 000 . Later that year Noades bought nearby Crystal Palace and briefly explored merging that club with Wimbledon .
= = = Luton Town — " MK Hatters " ( 1980s ) = = =
Luton Town , based 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Milton Keynes in Luton and nicknamed " the Hatters " , were also seeking a new site at this time . As early as 1960 , then @-@ First Division Luton 's attendances had been deemed far too low for the top flight by Charles Buchan 's Football Monthly , which also considered their ground at Kenilworth Road , in the middle of town , to be hard to get to . At this time the club was already planning a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity ground near Dunstable , to the north @-@ west of Luton , but no new ground materialised . Luton were relegated in 1960 and , apart from the 1974 – 75 season , remained outside of the top division until 1982 – 83 .
With the team still based at the " cramped and inadequate " Kenilworth Road in 1983 , the construction of a new road next to the ground escalated the need for a replacement . The Milton Keynes Development Corporation approached Luton proposing a new all @-@ seater stadium in central Milton Keynes , housing either 18 @,@ 000 or 20 @,@ 000 spectators , as part of a leisure and retail development . Luton 's owners were receptive to the idea ; according to The Luton News , the relocated " MK Hatters " would play home matches in a " super @-@ stadium " . This ground would reportedly have an artificial pitch and a roof ; Milton Keynes Council would invest heavily in its construction . The Luton chairman Denis Mortimer surmised if the team moved it would not only garner new fans from the Milton Keynes area but also retain the existing Luton fanbase . He said that the club was financially unsustainable at Kenilworth Road and would go bankrupt if it did not move .
The Milton Keynes idea was very poorly received by Luton fans and viewed , in Bale 's words , as " tearing the club from its most loyal supporters " . Luton fans held protest marches and rallies throughout the 1983 – 84 season , and chartered a plane to fly over Kenilworth Road during one match pulling a banner reading " Keep Luton Town F.C. in Luton " . Some 18 @,@ 000 Luton residents signed a petition against the club leaving . A consortium of local businessmen attempted to persuade Vauxhall Motors , General Motors ' Luton @-@ based British marque , to invest in the club and help with a new stadium in Luton . In Milton Keynes , some residents expressed fears that Luton 's arrival in central Milton Keynes might bring with it football hooliganism and threaten local amenities . Some Luton supporters boycotted the club 's first home match of the 1984 – 85 season in protest against the Milton Keynes plans . The wide unpopularity of the proposed move and the consistently vehement opposition from Luton 's local support combined to prevent it from occurring . " The directors want our support and our money , " said Tom Hunt , a member of a Luton fans ' action group against the move , " but they ignore the views of a community that wants to keep its football club . Why should fans pay at the turnstiles to help the club in business so that it can be taken away from us ? "
= = Wimbledon leave Plough Lane = =
= = = Taylor Report = = =
Wimbledon 's success as a club in the top flight of English football was founded on unorthodox financial management and judicious dealings in the transfer market . Rumours of a move or a merger with another London side persisted , leading the club 's chief executive Colin Hutchinson to resign in 1987 amid talk of an amalgamation with Ron Noades 's new club Crystal Palace or a groundshare at Queens Park Rangers ' Loftus Road ground in Shepherd 's Bush . Wimbledon were granted planning permission to build a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ seater ground in their home borough of Merton in 1988 , soon after they won the FA Cup , but the site was instead made into a car park by a newly elected Labour council in 1990 . Wimbledon 's desire to move was made a necessity a year later , when the Taylor Report , which ordered the extensive redevelopment of football grounds , was released .
When Hammam purchased the club from Noades in 1981 , Wimbledon also owned the ground at Plough Lane ; a pre @-@ emption clause existed , however , which reserved the site for " sports , leisure or recreational purposes " only . If Wimbledon Football Club were ever wound up , Plough Lane 's owners were legally bound to sell the stadium to Merton Council for £ 8 @,@ 000 , irrespective of inflation . This clause reduced the possibility of the club losing its home stadium , but it was unpopular with a succession of Wimbledon owners as it made the site practically worthless as real estate . Hammam complained that this limited his ability to borrow money needed to redevelop the ground . Seeking to increase Plough Lane 's commercial value , Hammam entered into negotiations with the council to remove the clause in 1990 ; the eventual agreed price for the revoking of the clause was a sum between £ 300 @,@ 000 and £ 800 @,@ 000 . At least one Wimbledon club director resigned his position in protest .
Even with this clause removed , the team could not afford to redevelop Plough Lane when required to do so the following year . Wimbledon moved about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) across south London before the start of the 1991 – 92 season to share Crystal Palace 's Selhurst Park ground . This was supposed to be a temporary arrangement while Wimbledon arranged the construction of their own new ground in a more local area , but the move was still unpopular among fans . Critics alleged that it was at least partly motivated by financial considerations , particularly the profit that might be gained from selling the old ground . The respective Wimbledon and Crystal Palace reserve teams groundshared at Plough Lane after the Wimbledon first team left .
= = = Wimbledon at Selhurst Park ; Dublin proposal = = =
Merton Council had been recommending that Wimbledon move to a site in nearby Beddington , but this proposal fell through soon after the move to Selhurst Park . With the inflation in costs brought on by the foundation of the FA Premier League in 1992 , the club soon began to lose money heavily . Rumours that the groundshare would eventually result in the Dons and the Eagles merging led Hammam to say " I ’ d rather die and have vultures eat my insides than merge with Crystal Palace " . In 1992 the Greyhound Racing Association offered to redevelop Wimbledon Stadium ( less than a mile from Plough Lane ) into a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ seater dog racing and football ground . Hammam was outraged two years later when the council , attempting to retain the Plough Lane site for public use , refused to sanction its sale for a supermarket redevelopment that Hammam said would finance a new ground at the dog racing site . Hammam angrily declared he would look elsewhere , and threatened to change the club 's name and remove the double @-@ headed eagle device , a symbol of Wimbledon Borough , from the team 's badge . " We have been betrayed , " he told the press . " The council say they want us back , but when it comes to taking action they don 't want to know . "
Hammam later claimed to have looked at every possible stadium site in Merton . He initially sought to relocate within south London , examining " seven boroughs " including Tolworth and Brixton . He also began to consider selling the club . In 1994 , Wimbledon 's Irish manager Joe Kinnear contacted the football pundit and former player Eamon Dunphy to inform him of this and to put to him the idea of moving the club to Dublin . Dunphy was enthusiastic about the idea and became its main proponent in Ireland over the next three years . It was suggested that Wimbledon fans from London could be given free flights to Dublin for home matches , and that British Sky Broadcasting might pay to fly the opposing teams there during the first season .
Opinion polls in the Republic showed consistently high support for the idea of Wimbledon hosting Premier League matches in Dublin , but the League of Ireland argued that this would endanger its existence , and in September 1996 about 300 fans rallied in Dublin under the slogan " Resist the Dublin Dons " . Twenty Irish clubs " reaffirmed their opposition " to Wimbledon playing in Dublin the following month ; a week later Reuters called the proposal " dead and buried " . When Hammam requested talks with the Football Association of Ireland ( FAI ) top brass in April 1997 , they refused to even meet him . Vocal opposition from Wimbledon fans emerged — after a friendly match in August 1997 fans holding " Dublin = Death " and " Dons Belong In Merton " placards refused to leave the stadium for two hours . Soon afterwards , Hammam met six leading protesters , who told him that in the event of a move they would start a new non @-@ League club locally .
Playing away from Merton at a supposedly temporary home , Wimbledon set a record for the lowest @-@ ever English top @-@ flight attendance on 26 January 1993 , drawing only 3 @,@ 039 fans to a Tuesday @-@ night match against Everton . However the general trend was one of a sharp rise — the club 's average home attendance more than doubled at Selhurst Park from around 8 @,@ 000 during the last years at Plough Lane to a peak of over 18 @,@ 000 during the 1998 – 99 Premier League season . Wimbledon 's fans were a blend between locals who had supported the club since its non @-@ League days and supporters who had defected from other London teams . According to statistics compiled in 2000 , 56 % of Wimbledon season @-@ ticket holders were locally born ( the second lowest in the Premier League ) , and only 12 % had fathers who were Wimbledon fans . Many attended Wimbledon matches as it was cheaper and safer than other clubs in the capital — Wimbledon had more women and children at their games than any other top @-@ flight club . In 2000 , 23 % of Wimbledon season @-@ ticket holders earned over £ 50 @,@ 000 a year , the second @-@ highest in the division after Chelsea ( 33 % ) .
Hammam sold Wimbledon to two Norwegian businessmen , Kjell Inge Røkke and Bjørn Rune Gjelsten , for a reported £ 26 million in June 1997 , while remaining at the club in an advisory role . In December that year , Wimbledon were reported to be considering the football and greyhounds option again . Ownership of Plough Lane was transferred from the club to Rudgwick Limited — a company founded in 1993 with Hammam serving as director . With political control of Merton Council having changed , Hammam secured the £ 8 million sale of Plough Lane to Safeway supermarkets in 1998 . He unsuccessfully attempted to gain permission to redevelop a former gas works in Merton during the same year , and soon after entered abortive negotiations over a site in Beddington .
Frustrated by the lack of progress , Hammam shifted his focus to Dublin and other locations outside London — Basingstoke , " Gatwick " , Belfast , Cardiff , Manchester , Wigan , Bristol , and Scotland . He later claimed that
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in history to head the world body . Female activist Ghada Jamsheer said " The government used women 's rights as a decorative tool on the international level . " She referred to the reforms as " artificial and marginal " and accused the government of " hinder [ ing ] non @-@ governmental women societies " .
In 2006 , Lateefa Al Gaood became the first female MP after winning by default . The number rose to four after the 2011 by @-@ elections . In 2008 , Houda Nonoo was appointed ambassador to the United States making her the first Jewish ambassador of any Arab country . In 2011 , Alice Samaan , a Christian woman was appointed ambassador to the UK .
= = = Media = = =
Bahraini journalists risk prosecution for offences which include " undermining " the government and religion . Self @-@ censorship is widespread . Journalists were targeted by officials during anti @-@ government protests in 2011 . Three editors from opposition daily Al @-@ Wasat ( Bahraini newspaper ) were sacked and later fined for publishing " false " news . Several foreign correspondents were expelled .
Most domestic broadcasters are state @-@ run . An independent commission , set up to look into the unrest , found that state media coverage was at times inflammatory . It said opposition groups suffered from lack of access to mainstream media , and recommended that the government " consider relaxing censorship " . Bahrain will host the Saudi @-@ financed Alarab News Channel , expected to launch in December 2012 . It will be based at a planned " Media City " . An opposition satellite station , Lualua TV , operates from London but has found its signals blocked .
By June 2012 , Bahrain had 961 @,@ 000 internet users . The platform " provides a welcome free space for journalists , although one that is increasingly monitored " , according to Reporters Without Borders . Rigorous filtering targets political , human rights , religious material and content deemed obscene . Bloggers and other netizens were among those detained during protests in 2011 .
= = = Military = = =
The kingdom has a small but well equipped military called the Bahrain Defence Force ( BDF ) , numbering around 13 @,@ 000 personnel . The supreme commander of the Bahraini military is King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa and the deputy supreme commander is the Crown Prince , Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa .
The BDF is primarily equipped with United States equipment , such as the F16 Fighting Falcon , F5 Freedom Fighter , UH60 Blackhawk , M60A3 tanks , and the ex @-@ USS Jack Williams , an Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate renamed the RBNS Sabha .
The Government of Bahrain has close relations with the United States , having signed a cooperative agreement with the United States Military and has provided the United States a base in Juffair since the early 1990s , although a US naval presence existed since 1948 . This is the home of the headquarters for Commander , United States Naval Forces Central Command ( COMUSNAVCENT ) / United States Fifth Fleet ( COMFIFTHFLT ) , and around 6 @,@ 000 United States military personnel .
Bahrain participates in Saudi Arabian @-@ led intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh , who was deposed in the 2011 Arab Spring uprising .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
Bahrain established bilateral relations with 190 countries worldwide . As of 2012 , Bahrain maintains a network of 25 embassies , 3 consulates and 4 permanent missions to the Arab League , United Nations and European Union respectively . Bahrain also hosts 36 embassies . Bahrain plays a modest , moderating role in regional politics and adheres to the views of the Arab League on Middle East peace and Palestinian rights by supporting the two state solution . Bahrain is also one of the founding members of the Gulf Cooperation Council . Relations with Iran tend to be tense as a result of a failed coup in 1981 which Bahrain blames Iran for and occasional claims of Iranian sovereignty over Bahrain by ultra @-@ conservative elements in the Iranian public .
Saudi Arabian troops were sent into Bahrain to crush a pro @-@ democracy protests in 2011 .
= = = Governorates = = =
The first municipality in Bahrain was the 8 @-@ member Manama municipality which was established in July 1919 . Members of the municipality were elected annually ; the municipality was said to have been the first municipality to be established in the Arab world . The municipality was in charge of cleaning roads and renting buildings to tenants and shops . By 1929 , it undertook road expansions as well as opening markets and slaughterhouses . In 1958 , the municipality started water purification projects . In 1960 , Bahrain comprised four municipalities including Manama , Hidd , Al Muharraq , and Riffa . Over the next 30 years , the 4 municipalities were divided into 12 municipalities as settlements such as Hamad Town and Isa Town grew . These municipalities were administered from Manama under a central municipal council whose members are appointed by the king .
The first municipal elections to be held in Bahrain after independence in 1971 , was in 2002 . The most recent was in 2010 . The municipalities are listed below :
After 3 July 2002 , Bahrain was split into five administrative governorates , each of which has its own governor . These governorates are :
The Central Governorate was abolished in September 2014 , its territory divided between the Northern Governorate , Southern Governorate , and Capital Governorate .
The United States designated Bahrain a major non @-@ NATO ally in 2001 . As of October 2014 , Bahrain is ruled by an " authoritarian regime " and is rated as " Not Free " by the U.S.-based non @-@ governmental Freedom House .
= = Economy = =
According to a January 2006 report by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia , Bahrain has the fastest growing economy in the Arab world . Bahrain also has the freest economy in the Middle East and is twelfth freest overall in the world based on the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom published by the Heritage Foundation / Wall Street Journal .
In 2008 , Bahrain was named the world 's fastest growing financial center by the City of London 's Global Financial Centres Index . Bahrain 's banking and financial services sector , particularly Islamic banking , have benefited from the regional boom driven by demand for oil . Petroleum production and processing is Bahrain 's most exported product , accounting for 60 % of export receipts , 70 % of government revenues , and 11 % of GDP . Aluminium production is the second most exported product , followed by finance and construction materials .
Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing price of oil since 1985 , for example during and following the Persian Gulf crisis of 1990 – 91 . With its highly developed communication and transport facilities , Bahrain is home to a number of multinational firms and construction proceeds on several major industrial projects . A large share of exports consist of petroleum products made from imported crude oil , which accounted for 51 % of the country 's imports in 2007 . Bahrain depends heavily on food imports to feed its growing population ; it relies heavily on meat imports from Australia and also imports 75 % of its total fruit consumption needs . Since only 2 @.@ 9 % of the country 's land is arable , agriculture contributes to 0 @.@ 5 % of Bahrain 's GDP . In 2004 , Bahrain signed the US @-@ Bahrain Free Trade Agreement , which will reduce certain trade barriers between the two nations . Due to the combination of the global financial crisis and the recent unrest , the growth rate decreased to 2 @.@ 2 % which is the lowest growth rate since 1994 .
Unemployment , especially among the young , and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long @-@ term economic problems . In 2008 , the jobless figure was at 4 % , with women over represented at 85 % of the total . In 2007 Bahrain became the first Arab country to institute unemployment benefits as part of a series of labour reforms instigated under Minister of Labour , Dr. Majeed Al Alawi .
= = = Tourism = = =
As a tourist destination , Bahrain received over eight million visitors in 2008 though the exact number varies yearly . Most of these are from the surrounding Arab states although an increasing number hail from outside the region due to growing awareness of the kingdom 's heritage and its higher profile as a result of the Bahrain International F1 Circuit .
The kingdom combines modern Arab culture and the archaeological legacy of five thousand years of civilisation . The island is home to forts including Qalat Al Bahrain which has been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site . The Bahrain National Museum has artefacts from the country 's history dating back to the island 's first human inhabitants some 9000 years ago and the Beit Al Quran ( Arabic : بيت القرآن , meaning : the House of Qur 'an ) is a museum that holds Islamic artefacts of the Qur 'an . Some of the popular historical tourist attractions in the kingdom are the Al Khamis Mosque , which is the one of the oldest mosques in the region , the Arad fort in Muharraq , Barbar temple , which is an ancient temple from the Dilmunite period of Bahrain , as well as the A 'ali Burial Mounds and the Saar temple . The Tree of Life , a 400 @-@ year @-@ old tree that grows in the Sakhir desert with no nearby water , is also a popular tourist attraction .
Bird watching ( primarily in the Hawar Islands ) , scuba diving and horse riding are popular tourist activities in Bahrain . Many tourists from nearby Saudi Arabia and across the region visit Manama primarily for the shopping malls in the capital Manama , such as the Bahrain City Centre and Seef Mall in the Seef district of Manama . The Manama Souq and Gold Souq in the old district of Manama are also popular with tourists .
Since 2005 , Bahrain annually hosts a festival in March , titled Spring of Culture , which features internationally renowned musicians and artists performing in concerts . Manama was named the Arab Capital of Culture for 2012 and Capital of Arab Tourism for 2013 by the Arab League . The 2012 festival featured concerts starring Andrea Bocelli , Julio Iglesias and other musicians .
= = Infrastructure = =
Bahrain has one main international airport , the Bahrain International Airport ( BIA ) which is located on the island of Muharraq , in the north @-@ east . The airport handled more than 100 @,@ 000 flights and more than 8 million passengers in 2010 . Bahrain 's national carrier , Gulf Air operates and bases itself in the BIA .
Bahrain has a well @-@ developed road network , particularly in Manama . The discovery of oil in the early 1930s accelerated the creation of multiple roads and highways in Bahrain , connecting several isolated villages , such as Budaiya , to Manama .
To the east , a bridge connected Manama to Muharraq since 1929 , a new causeway was built in 1941 which replaced the old wooden bridge . Currently there are three modern bridges connecting the two locations . Transits between the two islands peaked after the construction of the Bahrain International Airport in 1932 . Ring roads and highways were later built to connect Manama to the villages of the Northern Governorate and towards towns in central and southern Bahrain .
The four main islands and all the towns and villages are linked by well @-@ constructed roads . There were 3 @,@ 164 km ( 1 @,@ 966 mi ) of roadways in 2002 , of which 2 @,@ 433 km ( 1 @,@ 512 mi ) were paved . A causeway stretching over 2 @.@ 8 km ( 2 mi ) , connect Manama with Muharraq Island , and another bridge joins Sitra to the main island . The King Fahd Causeway , measuring 24 km ( 15 mi ) , links Bahrain with the Saudi Arabian mainland via the island of Umm an @-@ Nasan . It was completed in December 1986 , and financed by Saudi Arabia . In 2008 , there were 17 @,@ 743 @,@ 495 passengers transiting through the causeway .
Bahrain 's port of Mina Salman is the main seaport of the country and consists of 15 berths . In 2001 , Bahrain had a merchant fleet of eight ships of 1 @,@ 000 GRT or over , totaling 270 @,@ 784 GRT . Private vehicles and taxis are the primary means of transportation in the city .
= = = Telecommunications = = =
The telecommunications sector in Bahrain officially started in 1981 with the establishment of Bahrain 's first telecommunications company , Batelco and until 2004 , it monopolised the sector . In 1981 , there were more than 45 @,@ 000 telephones in use in the country . By 1999 , Batelco had more than 100 @,@ 000 mobile contracts . In 2002 , under pressure from international bodies , Bahrain implemented its telecommunications law which included the establishment of an independent Telecommunications Regulatory Authority ( TRA ) . In 2004 , Zain ( a rebranded version of MTC Vodafone ) started operations in Bahrain and in 2010 VIVA ( owned by STC Group ) became the third company to provide mobile services .
Bahrain has been connected to the internet since 1995 with the country 's domain suffix is ' .bh ' . The country 's connectivity score ( a statistic which measures both Internet access and fixed and mobile telephone lines ) is 210 @.@ 4 percent per person , while the regional average in Arab States of the Persian Gulf is 135 @.@ 37 percent . The number of Bahraini internet users has risen from 40 @,@ 000 in 2000 to 250 @,@ 000 in 2008 , or from 5 @.@ 95 to 33 percent of the population . As of August 2013 , the TRA has licensed 22 Internet Service Providers .
= = Demographics = =
In 2010 , Bahrain 's population grew to 1 @.@ 2 million , of which 568 @,@ 399 were Bahraini and 666 @,@ 172 were non @-@ nationals . It had risen from 1 @.@ 05 million ( 517 @,@ 368 non @-@ nationals ) in 2007 , the year when Bahrain 's population crossed the one million mark . Though a majority of the population is Middle Eastern , a sizeable number of people from South Asia live in the country . In 2008 , approximately 290 @,@ 000 Indian nationals lived in Bahrain , making them the single largest expatriate community in the country . Bahrain is the fourth most densely populated sovereign state in the world with a population density of 1 @,@ 646 people per km2 in 2010 . The only sovereign states with larger population densities are city states . Much of this population is concentrated in the north of the country with the Southern Governorate being the least densely populated part . The north of the country is so urbanised that it is considered by some to be one large metropolitan area .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
Bahraini people are ethnically diverse . Shia Bahrainis are divided into two main ethnic groups : Baharna and Ajam . Most Shia Bahrainis are ethnic Baharna . The Ajam are ethnic Persian Shias . Shia Persians form large communities in Manama and Muharraq . A tiny minority of Shia Bahrainis are ethnic Hasawis from Al @-@ Hasa .
Sunni Bahrainis are mainly divided into two main ethnic groups : Arabs ( al Arab ) and Huwala . Sunni Arabs are the most influential ethnic group in Bahrain , they hold most government positions and the Bahraini monarchy are Sunni Arabs . Sunni Arabs have traditionally lived in areas such as Zallaq , Muharraq , Riffa and Hawar islands . The Huwala are descendants of Sunni Iranians ; some of them are Sunni Persians , while others Sunni Arabs . There are also Sunnis of Baloch origin . Most Bahrainis of African origin come from east Africa and have traditionally lived in Muharraq Island and Riffa .
= = = Religion = = =
The state religion of Bahrain is Islam and most Bahraini citizens are Muslim . There are no official figures for the proportion of Shia and Sunni among the Muslims of Bahrain , but approximately 65 – 75 % percent of Bahraini Muslims are Shia .
There is a native Christian community in Bahrain . Non @-@ Muslim Bahraini residents numbered 367 @,@ 683 per the 2010 census , most of whom are Christians . Expatriate Christians make up the majority of Christians in Bahrain , while native Christian Bahrainis ( who hold Bahraini citizenship ) make up a smaller community . Alees Samaan , a former Bahraini ambassador to the United Kingdom is a native Christian . Bahrain also has a native Jewish community numbering thirty @-@ seven Bahraini citizens . Various sources cite Bahrain 's native Jewish community as being from 36 to 50 people .
Due to an influx of immigrants and guest workers from southern Asian countries , such as India , the Philippines and Sri Lanka , the overall percentage of Muslims in the country has declined in recent years . According to the 2001 census , 81 @.@ 2 % of Bahrain 's population was Muslim , 10 % were Christian , and 9 @.@ 8 % practised Hinduism or other religions . The 2010 census records that the Muslim proportion had fallen to 70 @.@ 2 % ( the 2010 census did not differentiate between the non @-@ Muslim religions ) . Bahrain government officials rejected reports from Bahraini opposition that the administration was trying to alter the country 's demographics by naturalizing Sunni Syrians . Baha 'is constitute approximately 1 % of Bahrain 's total population .
= = = Languages = = =
Arabic is the official language of Bahrain , though English is widely used . Bahrani Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect of the Arabic language , though it differs widely from standard Arabic , like all Arabic dialects . Arabic plays an important role in political life , as , according to article 57 ( c ) of Bahrain 's constitution , an MP must be fluent in Arabic to stand for parliament . Among the Bahraini and non @-@ Bahraini population , many people speak Persian , the official language of Iran , or Urdu , the official language of Pakistan . Nepali is also widely spoken in the Nepalese workers and Gurkha Soldiers community . Malayalam , Tamil and Hindi are spoken among significant Indian communities . All commercial institutions and road signs are bilingual , displaying both English and Arabic .
= = = Education = = =
Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14 . Education is free for Bahraini citizens in public schools , with the Bahraini Ministry of Education providing free textbooks . Coeducation is not used in public schools , with boys and girls segregated into separate schools .
At the beginning of the 20th century , Qur 'anic schools ( Kuttab ) were the only form of education in Bahrain . They were traditional schools aimed at teaching children and youth the reading of the Qur 'an . After World War I , Bahrain became open to western influences , and a demand for modern educational institutions appeared . 1919 marked the beginning of modern public school system in Bahrain when the Al @-@ Hidaya Al @-@ Khalifia School for boys opened in Muharraq . In 1926 , the Education Committee opened the second public school for boys in Manama , and in 1928 the first public school for girls was opened in Muharraq . As of 2011 , there are a total of 126 @,@ 981 students studying in public schools .
In 2004 , King Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa introduced the " King Hamad Schools of Future " project that uses Information Communication Technology to support K – 12 education in Bahrain . The project 's objective is to connect all schools within the kingdom with the Internet . In addition to British intermediate schools , the island is served by the Bahrain School ( BS ) . The BS is a United States Department of Defense school that provides a K @-@ 12 curriculum including International Baccalaureate offerings . There are also private schools that offer either the IB Diploma Programme or United Kingdom 's A @-@ Levels .
Bahrain also encourages institutions of higher learning , drawing on expatriate talent and the increasing pool of Bahrain nationals returning from abroad with advanced degrees . The University of Bahrain was established for standard undergraduate and graduate study , and the King Abdulaziz University College of Health Sciences , operating under the direction of the Ministry of Health , trains physicians , nurses , pharmacists , and paramedics . The 2001 National Action Charter paved the way for the formation of private universities such as the Ahlia University in Manama and University College of Bahrain in Saar . The Royal University for Women ( RUW ) , established in 2005 , was the first private , purpose @-@ built , international University in Bahrain dedicated solely to educating women . The University of London External has appointed MCG ( Management Consultancy Group ) as the regional representative office in Bahrain for distance learning programmes . MCG is one of the oldest private institutes in the country . Institutes have also opened which educate South Asian students , such as the Pakistan Urdu School , Bahrain and the Indian School , Bahrain . A few prominent institutions are DePaul University , Bentley University , the Ernst & Young Training Institute , NYIT and the Birla Institute of Technology International Centre . In 2004 , the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland ( RCSI ) set up a constituent medical university in the country . In addition to the Arabian Gulf University , AMA International University and the College of Health Sciences , these are the only medical schools in Bahrain .
= = = Health = = =
Bahrain has a universal health care system , dating back to 1960 . Government @-@ provided health care is free to Bahraini citizens and heavily subsidised for non @-@ Bahrainis . Healthcare expenditure accounted for 4 @.@ 5 % of Bahrain 's GDP , according to the World Health Organisation . Bahraini physicians and nurses form a majority of the country 's workforce in the health sector , unlike neighbouring Gulf states . The first hospital in Bahrain was the American Mission Hospital , which opened in 1893 as a dispensary . The first public hospital , and also tertiary hospital , to open in Bahrain was the Salmaniya Medical Complex , in the Salmaniya district of Manama , in 1957 . Private hospitals are also present throughout the country , such as the International Hospital of Bahrain .
The life expectancy in Bahrain is 73 for males and 76 for females . Compared to many countries in the region , the prevalence of AIDS and HIV is relatively low . Malaria and tuberculosis ( TB ) do not constitute major problems in Bahrain as neither disease is indigenous to the country . As a result , cases of malaria and TB have declined in recent decades with cases of contractions amongst Bahraini nationals becoming rare . The Ministry of Health sponsors regular vaccination campaigns against TB and other diseases such as hepatitis B.
Bahrain is currently suffering from an obesity epidemic as 28 @.@ 9 % of all males and 38 @.@ 2 % of all females are classified as obese . Bahrain also has one of the highest prevalence of diabetes in the world ( 5th place ) , with more than 15 % of the Bahraini population suffering from the disease , and accounting for 5 % of deaths in the country . Cardiovascular diseases account for 32 % of all deaths in Bahrain , being the number one cause of death in the country ( the second being cancer ) . Sickle cell anaemia and thalassaemia are prevalent in the country , with a study concluding that 18 % of Bahrainis are carriers of sickle cell anaemia while 24 % are carriers of thalassaemia .
= = Culture = =
Islam is the main religion , and Bahrainis are known for their tolerance towards the practice of other faiths . Intermarriages between Bahrainis and Expatriates are not uncommon , there are many Filipino @-@ Bahrainis like that of Filipino chlid actress Mona Marbella Al @-@ Alawi
Rules regarding female attire are generally relaxed compared to regional neighbours ; the traditional attire of women usually include the hijab or the abaya . Although the traditional male attire is the thobe which also includes traditional headdresses such as the keffiyeh , ghutra and agal , Western clothing is common in the country .
Although Bahrain legalized homosexuality in 1976 , many homosexuals have since been arrested .
= = = Art = = =
The modern art movement in the country officially emerged in the 1950s , culminating in the establishment of an art society . Expressionism and surrealism , as well as calligraphic art are the popular forms of art in the country . Abstract expressionism has gained popularity in recent decades . Pottery @-@ making and textile weaving are also popular products that were widely made in Bahraini villages . Arabic calligraphy grew in popularity as the Bahraini government was an active patron in Islamic art , culminating in the establishment of an Islamic museum , Beit Al Quran . The Bahrain national museum houses a permanent contemporary art exhibition . The architecture of Bahrain is similar to that of its neighbours in the Persian Gulf . The wind tower , which generates natural ventilation in a house , is a common sight on old buildings , particularly in the old districts of Manama and Muharraq .
= = = Literature = = =
Literature retains a strong tradition in the country ; most traditional writers and poets write in the classical Arabic style . In recent years , the number of younger poets influenced by western literature are rising , most writing in free verse and often including political or personal content . Ali Al Shargawi , a decorated longtime poet , was described in 2011 by Al Shorfa as the literary icon of Bahrain .
In literature , Bahrain was the site of the ancient land of Dilmun mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh . Legend also states that it was the location of the Garden of Eden .
= = = Music = = =
The music style in Bahrain is similar to that of its neighbours . The Khaliji style of music , which is folk music , is popular in the country . The sawt style of music , which involves a complex form of urban music , performed by an Oud ( plucked lute ) , a violin and mirwas ( a drum ) , is also popular in Bahrain . Ali Bahar was one of the most famous singers in Bahrain . He performed his music with his Band Al @-@ Ekhwa ( The Brothers ) . Bahrain was also the site of the first recording studio amongst the Persian Gulf states .
= = = Sports = = =
Association football is the most popular sport in Bahrain . Bahrain 's national football team has competed multiple times at the Asian Cup , Arab Nations Cup and played in the FIFA World Cup qualifiers , though it has never qualified for the World Cup . Bahrain has its own top @-@ tier domestic professional football league , the Bahraini Premier League . Basketball , Rugby and horse racing are also widely popular in the country .
Bahrain has a Formula One race @-@ track , which hosted the inaugural Gulf Air Bahrain Grand Prix on 4 April 2004 , the first in an Arab country . This was followed by the Bahrain Grand Prix in 2005 . Bahrain hosted the opening Grand Prix of the 2006 season on 12 March of that year . Both the above races were won by Fernando Alonso of Renault . The race has since been hosted annually , except for 2011 when it was cancelled due to ongoing anti @-@ government protests . The 2012 race occurred despite concerns of the safety of the teams and the ongoing protests in the country . The decision to hold the race despite ongoing protests and violence has been described as " controversial " by Al Jazeera English , CNN , AFP and Sky News . The Independent named it " one of the most controversial in the history of the sport " .
In 2006 , Bahrain also hosted its inaugural Australian V8 Supercar event dubbed the " Desert 400 " . The V8s returned every November to the Sakhir circuit until 2010 , in which it was the second event of the series . The series has not returned since . The Bahrain International Circuit also features a full @-@ length dragstrip where the Bahrain Drag Racing Club has organised invitational events featuring some of Europe 's top drag racing teams to try to raise the profile of the sport in the Middle East .
= = = Holidays = = =
On 1 September 2006 , Bahrain changed its weekend from being Thursdays and Fridays to Fridays and Saturdays , in order to have a day of the weekend shared with the rest of the world . Notable holidays in the country are listed below :
= Walkabout ( Millennium ) =
" ' Walkabout " is the seventeenth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on March 28 , 1997 . The episode was written by Chip Johannessen and Tim Tankosic , and directed by Cliff Bole . " Walkabout " featured guest appearances by Željko Ivanek and Gregory Itzin .
Forensic profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , a member of the private investigative organisation Millennium Group , finds himself suffering from amnesia after taking part in a nightmarish drug trial . Fearing that someone may have died as a result , Black attempts to track down the doctor responsible .
" Walkabout " was the only episode of the series to feature contributions from either Bole or Tankosic . The episode , which opens with a quotation from Cicero , was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 1 million households in its initial broadcast , and earned mixed to positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
In a medical clinic , a nurse escapes to the shops from a room , locking it just before someone inside can rape her . Inside the room , a group of people are screaming , panicking and self @-@ mutilating ; one man — Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) — begins pounding on a reinforced glass window until his fists bleed .
Millennium Group investigator Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) visits Catherine Black ( Megan Gallagher ) to tell her that Frank , her husband and a fellow Group member , disappeared on his way to Yakima , Washington . Watts combs Black 's computer history for information , finding emails back and forth between Black — using the pseudonym " David Marx " — and a doctor called Daniel Miller . Catherine reveals that the pseudonym Black has been using is one he had also used to check into hotels during a previous mental breakdown .
Black is discovered at a bus depot by a police , his hands injured and bandaged . His pseudonym is found on a hospital bracelet ; and he has no recollection of events save for the suspicion that someone died during the gap in his memory . Watts helps Black trace Dr. Miller ( Željko Ivanek ) to a hotel , where he informs them that Black was seeking a cure for his " gift " ; a seemingly @-@ psychic ability to understand others ' psyches . Miller had been helping Black join a clinical trial for a drug called Proloft which would treat temporal lobe abnormalities ; however , Black refutes that he would be interested in such a thing . Visiting a clinic , Black 's ability reveals to him that he has been there before , during the nightmarish drug trial he cannot remember . From there , he is able to use the Millennium Group to persuade the drug company to release records which allow him to trace other participants . He finds that one participant died after gouging his own eyes out ; the body of the supervising nurse is later found in a dumpster .
Research on the drug given to the trial participants reveals it to be a chiral chemical , with two enantiomer forms ; one is the harmless and beneficial Proloft , the other is the dangerous hallucinogen which Black and the others ingested . Dr Miller tells Black that he had been working on drugs to cure his own visions , which he believes are similar to Black 's . One night , years earlier , Miller 's left him after he ran into the road amidst oncoming traffic , almost killing himself in a hallucinatory state . After Black leaves , Hans Ingram ( Gregory Itzin ) , the doctor responsible for the trial , breaks into Miller 's room .
Later , Miller is killed in a traffic accident after once again running onto a busy highway ; Black finds a photograph of Ingram on his body . Watts and the police investigate Ingram 's home , finding the eyeless body of the dead trial participant and sachets of something called " Smooth Time " , which they ascertain to be the nightmarish enantiomer of Proloft . Watts and the Millennium Group receive news that workers at a city office building are rioting and panicking . Black realizes that Ingram had been distributing " Smooth Time " under the guise of a sweetener in order to drug a large number of people . Tracking Ingram to the office building 's surveillance room , Black learns that the doctor believes that the country 's dependence on antidepressants has created a nation of " zombies " , and he is attempting to " wake them up " with violent hallucinogens . The doctor is arrested and taken into custody .
At home with his family , Black 's motives for visiting the drug trials return to him — he is concerned about his young daughter Jordan , believing that she has inherited his abilities . He is now dissuaded from using pharmaceuticals to suppress this , opting instead to guide her to understand her gift .
= = Production = =
" Walkabout " is the third Millennium episode penned by Chip Johannessen , after " Blood Relatives " and " Force Majeure " . Johannessen would go on to write an additional ten episodes across all three seasons , including the series ' final episode " Goodbye to All That " . After Millennium 's cancellation , Johannessen would also contribute an episode to its sister show The X @-@ Files , 1999 's " Orison " .
Co @-@ writer Tim Tankosic 's contribution to this episode was his only involvement in Millennium . The episode also marked the only contribution to the series by director Cliff Bole . Bole also contributed episodes to The X @-@ Files and Millennium creator Chris Carter 's series Harsh Realm . Guest star Željko Ivanek had also previously appeared in " Roland " , an episode of The X @-@ Files .
Lance Henriksen was concerned that it would be out of character for Frank Black to recklessly take untested drugs , and suggested adding a line of dialogue — " I don 't even take aspirin " — to the script to help clue the audience in to the fact that his involvement in the clinical trial was an attempt to aid his daughter . The episode begins with a quotation translated from classical Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero 's treatise De finibus bonorum et malorum — " I remember the very things I do not wish to ; I cannot forget the things I wish to forget " . The phrase is found at the beginning of Book II of the work .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Walkabout " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on March 28 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 3 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 3 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented 6 @.@ 1 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ seventh most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five , comparing it to " Demons " , an episode of The X @-@ Files which was broadcast during the same season . Shearman and Pearson found " Walkabout " the better episode of the two , but felt that it became " a curiously passionate affair " after the first act — from the cold open until Black is found by the police . Shearman also noted that Željko Ivanek 's guest performance " lacked subtlety " , though praised Henriksen for a " bravura performance . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated " Walkabout " 4 out of 5 , describing it as " a fine outing " . Gibron felt that the episode " forces us to confront uneasy questions " , likening the narrative to " a giant puzzle with the pieces tossed at us from all angles " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , rated " Walkabout " an A − . Handlen noted that he was pleasantly surprised that the episode did not play on clichéd amnesia tropes as he had expected , and felt that involving Black so heavily in the cold open was a good method of changing the series ' usual formula .
= 1907 Tour de France =
The 1907 Tour de France was the 5th running of the annual Tour de France , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . From 8 July to 4 August , the 93 cyclists cycled 4488 km ( 2 @,@ 788 mi ) in fourteen stages around France . The winner , Lucien Petit @-@ Breton , completed the race at an average speed of 28 @.@ 47 km / h ( 17 @.@ 69 mi / h ) . For the first time , climbs in the Western Alps were included in the Tour de France . The race was dominated at the start by Émile Georget , who won five of the first eight stages . In the ninth stage , he borrowed a bicycle from a befriended rider after his own broke . This was against the rules ; initially he received only a small penalty and his main competitors left the race out of protest . Georget 's penalty was then increased and Lucien Petit @-@ Breton became the new leader . Petit @-@ Breton won two of the remaining stages and the overall victory of the Tour .
= = Changes from the 1906 Tour de France = =
The 1907 Tour de France incorporated 14 stages , which was one more than in 1906 . For the first time , roads in Switzerland were included . The mountain stages in 1906 had been so successful , according to the organiser Henri Desgrange , that the western Alps were included in the race for the first time . The 1907 race was also the first time that a car with bicycle repairmen drove behind the riders , to give assistance in solving mechanical problems on bicycles .
As in 1906 , the race was decided by a points system . At the end of every stage , the winner was given one point , the next cyclist two points , and so on . After the eighth stage , when there were only 49 cyclists left in the race , the points given in the first eight stages were redistributed among the remaining cyclists , according to their positions in those stages .
= = Participants = =
René Pottier , the winner of the 1906 Tour de France , did not defend his title because he had committed suicide in early 1907 . Although the riders officially rode the Tour as individuals , some shared the same sponsor and cooperated as if they rode in teams . At the start of the race , it was expected that the riders sponsored by Alcyon and the riders sponsored by Peugeot would compete for the overall victory . Alcyon started with three main contenders : Louis Trousselier , Marcel Cadolle and Léon Georget ; Peugeot counted on Emile Georget .
As in the previous years , there were two classes of cyclists , the coureurs de vitesse and the coureurs sur machines poinçonnées . Of the 93 cyclists starting the race , 82 were in the poinçonnée category , which meant that they had to finish the race on the same bicycle as they left , and if it was broken they had to fix it without assistance . The coureurs de vitesse could get help from the car with bicycle repairmen when they had to fix a bicycle , and when a bicycle was beyond repair , they could change it to a new one .
Not all cyclists were competing for the victory ; some only joined as tourists . The most notable of them was Henri Pépin . Pépin had hired two riders , Jean Dargassies and Henri Gauban , to ride with him . They treated the race as a pleasure ride , stopping for lunch when they chose and spending the night in the best hotels they could find . Dargassies and Gaubin became the first cyclists in the history of the Tour de France to ride not for their own placings but for another rider 's interest . During the race , they found another Tour de France competitor , Jean @-@ Marie Teychenne , lying in a ditch . They helped him get up and fed him ; from then on Teychenne also helped Pépin .
= = Race details = =
Early in the race , Trousselier , François Faber and Emile Georget were the main contenders . Trousselier , winner of the 1905 Tour de France and eager to win again , won the first stage . In the second stage , the Tour passed the French @-@ German border to finish in Metz , which was then part of Germany . The German authorities allowed the cyclists to finish there , but did not allow the French flag to be flown or the cars of race officials to enter the city . At the end of the stage , Emile Georget seemingly beat Trousselier with a very small margin . After inquiry , Desgrange , the Tour 's organiser , decided to put both cyclists in first place , to keep both sponsors satisfied .
In the third stage , the Tour returned to France ; at the border , the riders were stopped by two French customs officers and the delay took so long that the stage had to be restarted . During the stage in the Alps , Émile Georget was better than his competitors ; he won the stage and became leader of the general classification . Georget won five of the first eight stages , and had a commanding lead . In the seventh stage , Marcel Cadolle , at that time in second place , fell and his handlebar penetrated his knee , after which he had to give up .
During the ninth stage , when Georget was leading the race , he broke the frame of his bicycle at a checkpoint . According to the rules , Georget should have fixed his bicycle alone ; he knew this would take him more than five hours , so he switched bicycles with Pierre @-@ Gonzague Privat . This was against the rules , so Georget was given a fine of 500 francs . After this stage , won by Petit @-@ Breton , the general classification was as follows :
Unsatisfied with the fine given to Georget , Trousselier and the other riders sponsored by Alcyon left the Tour in protest .
After the tenth stage , the organisers gave Georget an additional penalty for the bicycle change in the ninth stage . They changed the classification of the ninth stage , moving Georget from 4th on the stage to last ( 48th place ) . This effectively cost him 44 points in the general classification and moved him from first to third place . The new classification , after the tenth stage , was
Lucien Petit @-@ Breton became the new leader of the race . Although he had already finished in fifth place and fourth place in previous years , he was still relatively unknown , and had started in the coureurs sur machines poinçonnées category . Petit @-@ Breton finished in the top three in the next stages , so no other cyclist was able to challenge him for the overall victory . At the end of the race , he had increased his lead to a margin of 19 points ahead of Garrigou and 27 points ahead of Georget .
= = Results = =
= = = Stage results = = =
In the first and final stages , the cyclists were allowed to have pacers .
= = = General classification = = =
Although 110 riders were on the starting list , 17 did not show up , so the race started with 93 cyclists . At the end of the Tour de France , 33 cyclists remained . The cyclists officially were not grouped in teams ; some cyclists had the same sponsor , even though they were not allowed to work together .
The total prize money was 25000 French francs , of which 4000 francs were given to Petit @-@ Breton for winning the Tour . In total , he received more than 7000 francs .
= = = Other classifications = = =
Lucien Petit @-@ Breton was also the winner of the " machines poinçonnées " category .
The organising newspaper l 'Auto named Emile Georget the meilleur grimpeur . This unofficial title is the precursor to the modern @-@ day mountains classification .
= = Aftermath = =
Petit @-@ Breton also started the 1908 Tour de France . He won five stages and the general classification , and became the first cyclist to win the Tour de France two times .
= River Tone =
The River Tone is a river in the English county of Somerset . The river is about 33 kilometres ( 21 mi ) long . Its source is at Beverton Pond near Huish Champflower in the Brendon Hills , and is dammed at Clatworthy Reservoir . The reservoir outfall continues through Taunton and Curry and Hay Moors , which are designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest . Finally , it flows into the River Parrett at Burrowbridge .
An act of Parliament granted in 1699 authorised work that made the river navigable as far as Taunton . The act specified that profits should be used to benefit the poor of Taunton , but the Proprietors succeeded in avoiding their obligation until 1843 , when they used the proceeds from the sale of the navigation to fund a wing of the Taunton and Somerset Hospital , and to aid the Taunton Market Trust .
The Bridgwater and Taunton Canal opened in 1827 , which provided an easier route than the river , and protracted legal battles followed over ownership of the river and water rights for the canal . These were not finally resolved until 1832 , when the Canal Company formally took over the river navigation . The ability to navigate the river gradually deteriorated , not helped by the abandonment of the River Parrett as a navigation in 1878 . Following flooding in Taunton in 1960 , much of the river between there and its mouth was straightened , and the navigation locks were removed . That at Ham was blown up by the Territorial Army . Navigation rights were repealed in 1967 .
= = Course = =
The river is about 33 kilometres ( 21 mi ) long . Its source is at Beverton Pond . Over its first 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) it follows a south @-@ easterly course and drops around 490 feet ( 150 m ) before discharging into Clatworthy Reservoir , which also impounds the waters of 5 other streams .
The river continues as the outflow from the main dam of the reservoir , passing to the west of the village of Clatworthy before following a southerly course which passes to the east of Huish Champflower . The river enters a steeply wooded section at Washbattle bridge . The B3227 road from Wiveliscombe crosses from the east to the west side of the valley at Waterrow bridge . By the time it reaches Stawley bridge and turns south @-@ east , it has lost another 410 ft ( 120 m ) and is just 330 ft ( 100 m ) above sea level . At Tracebridge , the river turns to the north @-@ east and then the north . Here the course of the derelict Grand Western Canal crossed the Tone on an aqueduct which now carries a footpath .
The river passes over weirs at Greenham , Tone and Nynehead , after which it is crossed by the aqueduct of the Grand Western Canal and the railway , both on their own routes to Taunton . A disused bridge , constructed in 1817 , spans the river at Nynehead . The river turns to the north @-@ east near Bradford on Tone , with its two listed bridges , including the Bradford Bridge which was originally built by the 15th century , and then to the east near Upcott bridge , where there were two mills . At Roughmoor its course is crossed by Silk Mills Road . There is a scheme to make the river navigable from here to the town centre as a way of encouraging transport with less environmental impact .
The French weir in Taunton is the head of navigation as boats can not be taken upstream of this point . As it makes its way through the town centre to Firepool weir and the junction with the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal , it passes under the North Bridge , which was constructed in 1895 , and Priory Bridge Road . Next comes the A358 Obridge viaduct , the A38 Bathpool Bridge and the M5 motorway bridge . Firepool weir was reconstructed in 1967 as part of the plans to straighten the river through the town centre and down to Bathpool in order to provide better flood defences . These works swept away the remains of the original navigation . There is a disused five @-@ arched railway bridge built in 1863 at Creech St Michael . Nearby is the aqueduct that carried the Chard Canal over the river from 1842 until 1866 . The Brewhouse Theatre & Arts Centre , is close to the riverside . Ham weir stands as a reminder of the location of the lock there . After Knapp bridge , the sluice at Newbridge marks the upper tidal limit of the river . Curry and Hay Moors , an area of low @-@ lying fenland close to the river , are a Site of Special Scientific Interest . A railway bridge carries the Taunton to Castle Cary railway line over the river , after which is the Curry Moor pumping station . Two more road bridges at Athelney and Stanmoor cross the river before it joins the River Parrett at Burrowbridge , where the junction is overshadowed by Burrow Mump .
= = Geography and geology = =
The catchment area of the river is approximately 414 square kilometres ( 160 sq mi ) and the average daily flow for the entire catchment is estimated to be 4 @.@ 76 cubic metres per second ( 168 cu ft / s ) . Water from tributaries such as Hillfarrance Brook , Halse Water , Haywards Water , Three Bridges Stream , Sherford Stream and Broughton Brook feed the river but are supplemented by controlled releases from Clatworthy and Luxhay Reservoirs during dry periods . The tributaries flowing into the Tone from the south bring water from the Blackdown Hills .
The rivers source is in the Brendon Hills which fall within the Exmoor National Park . The hills are quite heavily cultivated unlike their neighbouring upland areas of Exmoor and the Quantock Hills . The Brendon Hills are largely formed from the Morte Slates , a thick faulted and folded sequence of Devonian age sedimentary rocks . It then flows through an alluvial floodplain underlain by sub @-@ alluvial gravels , underlain by rocks of the Mercia Mudstone Group . The floodplain is between 5 metres ( 16 ft ) and 50 metres ( 160 ft ) above the ordnance datum ( mean sea level ) . The surrounding land is dominated by wet meadow and wooded areas including willow trees .
Water quality in the river can be affected by dredging work .
= = Hydrology and water quality = =
The Environment Agency is responsible for monitoring water quality on the river and its tributaries , which have been divided into seventeen separate water bodies . In 2013 , seven water bodies were assessed as having good quality and ten as being moderate . The reasons for not achieving good status included pollution from waste water , pollution from agriculture and physical modifications . The physical modifications include dredging work on the lower reaches , near the junction with the Parrett to increase the channel flow to reduce flooding . The use and storage of the dredged material in bank restoration may also have an impact . In 1998 improvements were sought to treatment works and surface water outfalls to improve water quality . A vegetable washing plant on the Chelston stream at Wellington was also identified as a source of pollution . The waters of the Upper Tone have been classified as having good ecological status , whereas the section from Wellington to Taunton and downstrean of Taunton are rated as moderate .
There are three monitoring stations on the river tracking the water levels . At Greenham the normal level of the river in average weather conditions is between 0 @.@ 15 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and 0 @.@ 50 metres ( 1 ft 8 in ) with the highest recorded being 2 @.@ 2 metres ( 7 ft 3 in ) on 7 December 2000 . At Bishops Hull the normal range is 0 @.@ 09 metres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) to 0 @.@ 54 metres ( 1 ft 9 in ) and the high 2 @.@ 59 metres ( 8 ft 6 in ) on 30 October 2000 . At Taunton market the normal range is 0 @.@ 88 metres ( 2 ft 11 in ) to 0 @.@ 93 metres ( 3 ft 1 in ) with a high of 2 @.@ 77 metres ( 9 ft 1 in ) on 24 December 2013 .
The flow in two tributaries and two points on the river is also monitored , primarily to act as an early flood warning system for Taunton . On Halsewater the mean flow is 1 @.@ 128 cubic metres per second ( 39 @.@ 8 cu ft / s ) while at Milverton on the Hillfarrance Brook it is 0 @.@ 53 cubic metres per second ( 19 cu ft / s ) and at Greenham on the river itself it is 1 @.@ 025 cubic metres per second ( 36 @.@ 2 cu ft / s ) . At Clatworthy Reservoir near the source the flow rate is 0 @.@ 322 cubic metres per second ( 11 @.@ 4 cu ft / s ) .
= = History = =
The river has a long history of improvements to facilitate navigation from Bridgwater to Taunton , and has also been used to power mills along its length . These two objectives are often antagonistic , and this has been the case on the River Tone .
The earliest known record of improvements to the river is recorded in a document of 1325 from the Dean and Chapter of Wells Cathedral , where it was proposed to widen the river between Ham Mill and a new mill which was to be built at Knapp . The Dean and Chapter owned the river as far as Athelney weir , which was presumably a fish weir , as the river was an important source of fish for the local population . Records from 1494 record the intent to build a new mill at North Curry , which was operational in 1504 , and caused flooding in 1505 , resulting in the Bishop of Winchester having to complain to the Dean and Chapter of Wells . There is also mention of boats using the river at this time , as their use was restricted by the construction of the new mill at Ham .
= = = River improvements = = =
Navigation on the first 7 miles ( 11 km ) from Burrowbridge to Ham Mill was much easier than on the final stretch to Taunton , and in 1638 , John Mallett , the Sheriff of Somerset and member of parliament for Bath , obtained a Commission under the Great Seal from King Charles II . This granted him and his heirs sole navigation rights from Bridgwater to Ham Mills , and allowed him to improve the river at his own expense . He saw this as a philanthropic action , as it reduced the price of coal to the poor people of Taunton , as well as improving the transport infrastructure .
With the death of Mallett and later his son , work on the maintenance of the river ceased , and its condition declined . By 1697 , trade was threatened , and a group of 34 merchants and traders petitioned parliament for powers to take over the navigation . An Act of Parliament dated 24 March 1699 created the Conservators of the River Tone , giving them powers " for making and keeping the River Tone navigable from Bridgewater to Taunton , in the county of Somerset " , which included the purchase of the navigation rights from Bridgwater to Ham Mills from the Mallett estate , for which a price of £ 330 was agreed .
The Conservators applied for a second act of parliament in 1707 , as they needed a further £ 3 @,@ 800 to finance projects including the building of a half @-@ lock and the removal of a shoal just below Knapp Bridge . Boats carrying 15 tons of cargo could reach Taunton by 1717 . The navigation included a lock and two or more half @-@ locks , consisting of a pair of gates to hold back the water , and an agreement to build a towpath between Ham Mills and Taunton was reached in 1724 .
The number of locks on the navigation varied over the years , and by 1804 there were four full or pound locks , situated at Ham , Creech St Michael , Bathpool and Obridge . In addition , there were at least four half locks . Curry Moor gates were the lowest on the river , which were followed by a second half lock 100 yards ( 91 m ) further upstream , just below Newbridge . A third gate was located 450 yards ( 410 m ) below Ham lock , and the fourth one was just below the lock at Bathpool .
= = = Profits = = =
The 1699 act of parliament had stipulated that the Conservators could receive dividends of six per cent on the money they had invested into the undertaking , until the capital was repaid , and that after that the tolls were to be reduced , while profits were to be used for " the benefit and advantage of the poor of Taunton " , particularly by the building of hospitals . Local landowners complained about rights of access across their land and increased flooding in a petition of 1707 , however in 1708 another act was passed to allow the completion of the navigation to Taunton .
Because the receipts were initially insufficient to cover the six per cent dividend on the £ 5 @,@ 697 that the Conservators had invested , they added the difference to the capital , so that the debt steadily increased . This state of affairs was challenged in 1735 , when it was decreed that the original capital had been repaid , and the poor should now benefit , but the decision was overturned in 1738 on appeal .
Profits for the undertaking showed a steady rise , due in part to the low maintenance costs of the river . Income from tolls rose from £ 321 in 1712 to £ 1 @,@ 137 by 1802 . By this time , traffic consisted of about 11 @,@ 500 tons of coal carried from Bridgwater upstream out of a total tonnage of 14 @,@ 000 tons . Dividends for 1797 were 11 @.@ 5 % , but the capital debt had risen to £ 85 @,@ 466 by 1800 , when the auditors refused to examine the accounts , because the likelihood of the poor ever benefitting from the navigation was receding . After much negotiation , the capital debt was reduced to £ 13 @,@ 000 . An act of parliament dated 14 July 1804 enshrined this position , and ensured that interest was limited to six percent , with profits being used to reduce the debt . By 1828 , the amount owing had reduced to £ 4 @,@ 426 .
= = = Canal Company Takeover = = =
The building of the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal , which opened in 1827 , directly affected the River Tone Navigation , as it provided a more direct route between Taunton and Bridgwater . The Conservators attempted to limit the supply of water from the river to the canal , while the canal company breached the river bank near Firepool lock , in order to ensure that boats could reach Taunton Bridge wharf from the canal . In order to compete with the canal , they chose to reduce the tolls , although they were unsure of the legality of this action while they had outstanding debts . The canal company challenged their right to reduce the tolls in court , but the action was defeated , and the tolls remained at the lower level .
On 28 August 1827 , the canal company announced that they were taking over the River Tone Navigation , under the terms of their acts of parliament of 1811 and 1824 . This they did in November , when William Goodland , the river superintendent , was evicted from his cottage , the tolls were raised again , and maintenance ceased . This action was ruled to be illegal by the Court of King 's Bench , as the canal company had not complied with the time limits enshrined in the act , but the canal company held on to the river despite the order to give it back to the conservators . Both sides took their case to the High Court , which ruled that the Conservators should have the river in February 1830 . A further series of legal actions followed , after which the canal company attempted to obtain a new act of parliament to obtain the Tone by compulsory purchase . The Conservators then decided to negotiate , and an act of parliament passed in July 1832 authorised the takeover .
Under the terms of the act , the canal company inherited the debts of the Conservators , and paid them an additional £ 2 @,@ 000 . They were required to rebuild part of the North Town Bridge in Taunton , and to return the Tone Navigation to good order . The Conservators were empowered to carry out an annual inspection , and to re @-@ possess the river if the canal was not properly maintained . The £ 2 @,@ 000 was held by the Conservators until 1838 , when they applied for an order to dispose of it , but it was not until 1843 that the order was granted . £ 1 @,@ 000 was used to build a new wing for the Taunton and Somerset Hospital , and £ 1 @,@ 000 was invested in the Taunton Market Trust , in line with the intentions of the 1699 act .
= = = Decline = = =
Traffic on the river in 1823 was 39 @,@ 516 tons , which generated tolls of £ 2 @,@ 194 . After the construction of the canal , traffic steadily declined , until income was insufficient to cover maintenance by the early 1860s . The canal company used a similar accounting practice to manage the Tone debt , inflating it at six per cent each year , to ensure that they could demonstrate that the river was unprofitable .
Navigation was further affected by the passing of the Somersetshire Drainage Act on 1 July 1878 , which resulted in the River Parrett being taken over by the Drainage Commissioners , and abandoned as a navigation . Limited traffic continued to use the lower reaches of the Tone , with the last barge using the Burrowbridge to Ham Mills section in 1929 . In 1967 the Somerset River Authority applied to the Ministry of Agriculture for permission to remove the navigation rights , and the original acts of parliament were repealed under section 41 of the Land Drainage Act ( 1930 ) . This allowed the river through Taunton to be straightened , and a weir to be constructed at Firepool , to improve the flood defences for Taunton . Above the weir , the river is still navigable as far as French Weir .
= = = Watermills = = =
Ham Mills was a site of milling activity from mediaeval times until about 1914 . The mill was situated on an island in the middle of the river , with a weir and bypass channel to the north and the lock channel to the south . The Conservators were required to light the area after a boatman fell into the river and drowned while attempting to use the lock after dark in March 1826 . The coroner who instructed that the lighting should be installed noted that " boats were passing at all hours of the night . " Water levels in the river fell as more water was extracted further upstream , and by the 1890s the waterwheels were assisted by a steam @-@ driven turbine which the miller installed . Milling ceased in 1914 , when the boiler which supplied the steam was removed by the War Department , so that it could be fitted into a minesweeper . A surviving mill house which dates from the early 19th century has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II listed building .
There had been a mill at Bathpool for several centuries , which had been rebuilt or adapted as required . In March 1812 , the structure was burnt down by a fire , caused , according to the Taunton Courier , by " the excessive friction excited in the stones used in the process of shelling clover seeds " . Stocks of flour , grain and flax valued at £ 2 @,@ 500 were destroyed . The mill was rebuilt and later owned by Captain George Beadon . The mill was purchased by Thomas Redler in 1889 on the death of Beadon , but another fire damaged much of it two years later . Redler rebuilt it with safety in mind , and as at Ham , installed a steam @-@ driven turbine as water levels were often inadequate to power the wheels . Two more turbines followed , and the water wheels were removed . Steam from the turbines was also used to heat bread ovens , which were amongst the first in the country to be heated in this way . In September 1915 , another fire gutted the building , which was not rebuilt , and the ruins were demolished in the 1920s .
There were originally mills at Firepool and Obridge as well . Because of the difficulties of navigating past the mill pools , the Conservators of the River Tone decided to buy the mill at Firepool in December 1793 with a view to demolishing it " for the benefit of the navigation " , and they obtained it for just £ 32 . In 1797 , they decided to follow the same course with Obridge Mill . The mill at Creech St Michael was the subject of a court action at the King 's Bench . In October 1830 , while replacing the mill stones , the millers had opened the flood gates for 16 days , and built a dam across the river , thus preventing navigation . The case was heard in 1831 , and the judgement was that both parties were obligated to use the water in a way that did not cause injury to the other party .
= = Flood defences = =
The first Curry Moor pumping station was built in 1864 , to house a steam engine and pump . A cottage for the operator was built next to it at the same time . This installation lasted until 1955 , when a new pumphouse was constructed to house two diesel pumps . The steam engine was retained for historical reasons , and is located in part of the new building . The diesel pumps were supplemented by an electric pump in 1983 , and a programme of refurbishment was carried out in 2008 , which included the construction of a new outfall into the river .
In 1951 , very heavy rainfall resulted in large portions of the Tone valley below Taunton flooding . Analysis of what had happened indicated that the channel was of insufficient size to carry the volume of water , which fell on the hills to the west and then flowed down the river . The easy solution of widening the channel was not available , as there were houses built along the south @-@ eastern bank for around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) above the junction with the River Parrett . The flooding revealed that although these properties were not normally affected by floods , there was significant seepage through the banks . There was no likelihood of sufficient money being available to buy all the houses to demolish them , and so a program of constructing concrete cores in the centre of the banks began in 1956 and continued until 1964 .
Rainfall in October 1960 was even heavier , when 9 @.@ 72 inches ( 247 mm ) fell on the Somerset Levels , representing 249 % of the normal levels . Again the valley flooded , and large areas of Taunton were under water to a depth of 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) . Plans for a flood relief channel centred at first on the Bridgwater to Taunton Canal , which follows a slightly higher course to the west , and does not run through peat , but the estimated cost of £ 1 @.@ 7 million was prohibitive , and so a scheme to upgrade the river costing around one third of that was implemented . This involved straightening of the river where it meandered , widening the bridge openings , and the demolition of navigation locks and weirs .
A new sluice was constructed at Newbridge , incorporating tidal gates , which effectively prevent tides from passing further up the river . The removal of the navigation works at Ham proved particularly difficult , and acted as a training exercise for the Territorial Royal Engineers . Men from the 205 ( Wessex ) Field Squadron RE ( TA ) used 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) of explosives to blow up the half @-@ lock and a mud @-@ filled barge which could not be moved . The river banks were raised to give more protection to the villages of Creech St Michael , Ham and Ruishton , but the channel was still only capable of discharging 2 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 71 m3 / s ) , whereas the channels through Taunton were designed to handle 4 @,@ 500 cu ft / s ( 130 m3 / s ) , and were unlikely to overflow until discharges reached 6 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 170 m3 / s ) . Curry Moor is therefore used as a washland , and excess water floods over it , to be pumped out at a later date by the Curry Moor pumping station , situated on the banks of the river below the railway bridge . The programme began in 1965 and was completed in 1967 .
During the winter flooding of 2013 – 14 on the Somerset Levels , the River Tone overflowed at new year , during the rain and storms from Storm Dirk , with many residents asking for the Environment Agency to resume river dredging . On 24 January 2014 , in light of the continued flooded extent of the Somerset Moors and forecast new rainfall as part of the winter storms of 2013 – 14 in the United Kingdom , both Somerset County Council and Sedgemoor District Council declared a major incident , as defined under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 . As a result of the extensive flooding dredging work was carried out . In addition plans were developed for a flood storage area or " Superpond " with a capacity of 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 64 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) , on the Tone at Taunton . Studies of the potential impact on the hydromorphology were carried out .
= = Biology = =
Clatworthy Reservoir is an important wildlife habitat managed by Wessex Water , and offers facilities for fishing and walking . The river and its tributaries support populations of European water vole ( Arvicola amphibius ) . There may also be populations of white @-@ clawed crayfish ( Austropotamobius pallipes ) and northern crested newts ( Triturus cristatus ) . The fish species in the river include : chub , carp , grayling , roach , tench , rudd , perch and pike .
Curry and Hay Moors is a 472 @.@ 8 hectares ( 1 @,@ 168 acres ) biological Site of Special Scientific Interest adjacent to the Tone . They form part of the complex of grazing marshes known as the Somerset Levels and Moors . The low @-@ lying site is situated adjacent to the River Tone which annually overtops , flooding the fields in winter . Soils are predominantly alluvial clays overlying Altcar series peats . The flora and fauna of the ditches and rhynes is of national importance . Over 70 aquatic and bankside vascular plants have been recorded including frogbit ( Hydrocharis morsus @-@ ranae ) , flowering rush ( Butomus umbellatus ) , wood club @-@ rush ( Scirpus sylvaticus ) and lesser water @-@ plantain ( Baldellia ranunculoides ) . Over 100 species of aquatic invertebrates inhabit the ditches including one nationally rare soldier fly , ( Odontomyia ornata ) and 13 nationally scarce species including the water beetles Agabus uliginosus , Hydaticus transversalis and Helophorus nanus . In winter the flooded fields provide food for large numbers of waterfowl with several thousand lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus ) , hundreds of snipe ( Gallinago gallinago ) and smaller numbers of golden plover ( Pluvialis apricaria ) and dunlin ( Calidris alpina ) regularly present . Over two hundred Bewick 's swans ( Cygnus bewickii ) have been recorded , making the site an internationally important wintering ground for this species . Raptor species such as short @-@ eared owl ( Asio flammeus ) , merlin ( Falco columbarius ) and peregrine ( Falco peregrinus ) regularly hunt over the site in winter . Vertebrate species present include grass snake ( Natrix natrix ) and common frog Rana temporaria . Otters ( Lutra lutra ) are regularly recorded on the site .
Southlake Moor is another biological Site of Special Scientific Interest , this one covering 196 @.@ 1 hectares ( 485 acres ) near the junction of the Tone and Parrett at Burrow Mump and Burrowbridge . Southlake Moor is unusual in that , when conditions in the River Parrett are suitable , it may be deliberately flooded in winter by means of a sluice in the river floodbank . Some 96 species of aquatic and bankside vascular plant species have been recorded from Southlake Moor , of particular interest is the greater water @-@ parsnip ( Sium latifolium ) . When the moor is flooded , large numbers of wildfowl may be present ; with up to 22 @,@ 000 wigeon ( Anas penelope ) , 250 Bewick 's swan ( Cygnus bewickii ) and good numbers of pochard ( Aythya ferina ) , teal ( Anas crecca ) and tufted duck ( Aythya fuligula ) . Regular signs of the otter ( Lutra lutra ) are to be seen on the muddy banks of the River Parrett . The ditches on the east side of the site contain a population of the palmate newt ( Triturus helveticus ) .
= No. 90 Wing RAAF =
No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing that operated during the early years of the Malayan Emergency . Its purpose was to serve as an umbrella organisation for the RAAF units deployed in the conflict , No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron , flying Avro Lincolns , and No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . The wing was established in July 1950 and headquartered at Changi , on the east coast of Singapore . No. 1 Squadron operated from Tengah , in Singapore 's west . No. 38 Squadron was based at Changi and , from April 1951 to February 1952 , at Kuala Lumpur in central Malaya . The Lincolns generally conducted area bombing missions , as well as precision strikes , to harass communist insurgents . The Dakotas were tasked with airlifting cargo , VIPs , troops and casualties , as well as courier flights and supply drops . Following No. 38 Squadron 's departure in December 1952 , No. 90 Wing was disbanded , leaving No. 1 Squadron to carry on as the sole RAAF unit in the Malayan air campaign until its withdrawal to Australia in July 1958 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and formation = = =
In April 1950 , the British government requested Australia 's assistance to combat communist insurgents during the Malayan Emergency . In response , the Australian Defence Committee determined that it was possible to commit a squadron of eight Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakota transports and a flight of four to six Avro Lincoln heavy bombers . The Federal government formally announced the decision to send the Dakotas soon afterwards ; in late June , it confirmed the allocation of six Lincolns . No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron , operating the Lincolns , would be detached from the control of No. 82 Wing at RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland , and be based at Tengah airfield in the west of Singapore . No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron , operating Dakotas , would be detached from No. 86 Wing at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , and be based at Changi , in Singapore 's east . The transport commitment was rendered possible by the recent return of ten Australian Dakota crews from service during the Berlin Airlift .
It was agreed that RAAF operations during the Emergency would be directed by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) through Air Headquarters Malaya ( later No. 224 Group RAF ) . The British also wanted the Australian squadrons attached to an RAF wing . However , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal George Jones , was mindful of repeating the experience of World War II , when RAAF units and personnel based in Britain had been absorbed by the RAF , rather than operating as a national group led by high @-@ ranking Australian officers . He therefore decided that Nos. 1 and 38 Squadrons should be formed into a " composite " organisation ( one made up of disparate elements such as bomber , fighter , or reconnaissance units ) and administered by an overarching RAAF headquarters , and put this requirement to the British Air Ministry . The Air Ministry agreed , and No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing was duly established at Richmond on 10 July 1950 , under the command of Group Captain Paddy Heffernan .
= = = Operations = = =
No. 38 Squadron 's Dakotas began arriving at Changi on 19 June 1950 , and No. 1 Squadron 's Lincolns at Tengah on 16 July . No. 90 Wing staff departed Richmond by air and established the headquarters at Changi on 22 July . The Dakotas had flown their first mission the previous day ; the Lincolns undertook their initial operations on 26 July . Nos. 1 and 38 Squadrons were responsible for their own routine maintenance ; aircraft rotated back to Australia for major work . The RAF provided base support facilities , including messing and accommodation .
The Lincolns generally conducted area bombing missions , as well as strikes against pinpoint targets . They operated singly and in formations , sometimes in concert with RAF bombers . Not having to contend with anti @-@ aircraft fire , the Lincolns flew mainly by day . After completing a bomb run , they would make another pass over the target to strafe with machine guns and 20 mm cannon . The Lincolns were considered well suited to the campaign , owing to their range and ability to fly at low speeds to search for targets , as well as their firepower and heavy bomb load . No. 1 Squadron also flew night missions — the only Commonwealth air force unit authorised to do so — of up to six hours duration , dropping one bomb every half hour or so . To reduce the risk of collateral damage , all air strikes had to be approved by the Joint Operation Centre , located at Kuala Lumpur in central Malaya and staffed by military , police and civilian personnel . Although the original purpose of the bombing campaign was to kill as many insurgents as possible , the impracticality of achieving this in operations over dense jungle resulted in a shift towards harassing and demoralising the communists , driving them out of their bases and into areas held by Commonwealth ground troops .
The Dakotas were tasked with airlifting cargo , VIPs , troops and casualties , as well as courier flights , supply drops to friendly forces and aerial despatch of propaganda leaflets . On other missions they acted as pathfinders for No. 1 Squadron , dropping smoke canisters on suspected communist hideouts that the Lincolns following above and behind would attempt to bomb . Airlifting and supplying troops was a key part of the strategy to defeat the insurgency , by ensuring that security forces could maintain a semi @-@ permanent presence in the jungle . No. 38 Squadron 's operations ranged throughout Malaya and into Borneo , the Philippines , Japan and Korea . Transport requirements in the Korean War led to a reduction in No. 90 Wing 's strength when four of the Dakotas were transferred to Iwakuni , Japan , headquarters of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing , in November 1950 . The same month , Group Captain Frank Headlam was appointed to take over command of No. 90 Wing from Heffernan . Headlam co @-@ piloted a Dakota on a supply drop on 20 December ; he was slightly injured and the aircraft badly damaged following a crash @-@ landing at Kampong Aur in Pahang as a result of engine failure .
No. 1 Squadron 's complement was increased from six to eight aircraft after the British Air Ministry requested in February 1951 that Australia augment its bomber force to partly offset the imminent withdrawal of the RAF 's Lincolns to Bomber Command in Europe . In April , No. 38 Squadron 's four Dakotas relocated to Kuala Lumpur , where they undertook supply drops in cooperation with No. 41 Squadron RNZAF . One of No. 1 Squadron 's Lincolns was written off after overshooting the runway at Tengah on 30 November . Wing Commander ( later Group Captain ) Redmond Green was appointed the new commanding officer of No. 90 Wing the following month , replacing Headlam . On 4 April 1952 , Green participated in a Lincoln sortie in place of an injured pilot . The first aircraft he took off in had to turn back owing to engine failure . The second completed the mission but was found to have lost brake power as it was returning to Tengah , and there was a danger of the aircraft overrunning the landing strip and sustaining heavy damage ; the crew was able to slow the Lincoln on the runway by trailing a parachute from the rear turret upon touching down .
= = = Disbandment = = =
No. 38 Squadron relocated from Kuala Lumpur to its former base at Changi in February 1952 . As the year progressed , RAAF transport priorities altered owing to the increasing demands of the Korean War , and the Malayan commitment was no longer considered sustainable . Having airlifted more than 17 @,@ 000 passengers and almost 1 @,@ 900 tonnes of cargo , dropped some 750 tonnes of supplies and evacuated over 300 injured troops , No. 38 Squadron departed for Australia on 8 December and rejoined No. 86 Wing at Richmond three days later . Following this withdrawal , No. 90 Wing was disbanded at Changi , and No. 1 Squadron became the only Australian flying unit in Malaya . It continued the bombing campaign against the communists until it was withdrawn to Australia in July 1958 , having flown almost 4 @,@ 000 sorties in its eight years of operation and dropped over 14 @,@ 000 tonnes of bombs — 85 per cent of the total delivered by Commonwealth forces during the Emergency . No. 1 Squadron was relieved by No. 2 Squadron , operating English Electric Canberra jet bombers out of Butterworth in north @-@ west Malaya .
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 90 Wing was commanded by the following officers :
= Rose Tyler =
Rose Tyler is a fictional character portrayed by Billie Piper in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , and was created by series producer Russell T Davies . With the revival of Doctor Who in 2005 , Rose was introduced as a new travelling companion of series protagonist , the Doctor , in his ninth and tenth incarnations . The companion character , intended to act as an audience surrogate , was key in the first series to introduce new viewers to the mythos of Doctor Who , which had not aired regularly since 1989 . Piper received top billing alongside Christopher Eccleston and David Tennant for the duration of her time as a regular cast member . A regular for all of series one ( 2005 ) and series two ( 2006 ) , Piper later returned for three episodes of the programme 's fourth series ( 2008 ) and appeared in feature @-@ length specials in both 2010 and 2013 .
In the series ' narrative , Rose is introduced in the eponymous series one premiere as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old working class shop assistant from London , alongside her own supporting cast in the form of her mother Jackie Tyler ( Camille Coduri ) and her boyfriend Mickey Smith ( Noel Clarke ) . Over the course of the first series Rose 's human actions and responses contrast with the Doctor 's alien perspectives . Rose grows increasingly trusting of the Doctor and comes to realise she has fallen in love with him . He comes to value and depend on her and sacrifices his Ninth incarnation for her . Rose forms a similar bond with the new Doctor , but the two appear to be forever separated in the series two finale , although Rose 's temporary return in the fourth series gives her relationship with the Doctor a resolution .
In promoting the series , both Piper and Eccleston stressed Rose 's heroic characteristics whilst Davies highlighted her down to earth qualities and quintessential Britishness . Critical reaction noted that the character was more developed , independent and equal to the Doctor than previous companions had been , whilst the character 's overall role in the narrative of the first two series was praised . However , reaction to the character 's 2008 return was more mixed . Piper won numerous awards for her portrayal of Rose — including two National Television Awards — and since her initial role in the series has ranked highly in numerous ' best companion ' polls . After leaving as a series regular , Piper experienced success in other high @-@ profile roles as an actress which has been partly attributed to her performances in Doctor Who .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
Rose is introduced in the eponymous premiere episode of the 2005 series . There , she is saved from an Auton attack by the mysterious alien Time Lord known as the Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) , and assists him in preventing an invasion of Earth . Subsequently , the Doctor invites Rose to be his travelling companion , taking her to the end of the world and giving her a " superphone " so she can remain in contact with her mother Jackie ( Camille Coduri ) , and boyfriend Mickey ( Noel Clarke ) . In their travels through time and space , Rose learns the importance of not tampering with history , when she attempts to save the life of her father Pete Tyler ( Shaun Dingwall ) , who had died when she was a baby . Throughout these journeys , she and the Doctor are haunted by two mysterious recurring words : ' Bad Wolf ' . Rose , the Doctor , and new companion Captain Jack ( John Barrowman ) come to understand the meaning of this phrase when they encounter an unstoppable army of evil alien Daleks on the space station Satellite 5 . To return to the Doctor after he sends her home to Earth in series finale " The Parting of the Ways " , Rose tears open the console of the Doctor 's time machine , the TARDIS , and becomes suffused with the power of the time vortex . Returning , she uses her power over the infinity of time and space to spread the words " Bad Wolf " over its entirety , then saving the universe from the Dalek invasion . Rose resurrects Jack , who died from Dalek fire , and destroys the Dalek fleet before the Doctor drains the energy out of her — by kissing her — to save her life from its harmful effects . Rose is horrified as the Doctor appears to die and regenerates into a new man ( David Tennant ) , who proceeds to take the TARDIS and a terrified Rose to Earth , abandoning Jack on Satellite 5 .
The new Doctor and Rose arrive on Earth on Christmas Day , where he passes out from the strain of regeneration in the midst of a Sycorax invasion in the 2005 Christmas special " The Christmas Invasion " . Having woken up and saved Earth , the Doctor enjoys Christmas dinner with Rose before the two once again depart to parts unknown . Over the second series ( 2006 ) , Rose and the Doctor grow increasingly close to one another . After defeating a werewolf , they are knighted by Queen Victoria ( Pauline Collins ) , who banishes them as threats to the Empire whilst setting up the Torchwood Institute , which aims to track the Doctor and other aliens . Their relationship proves a source of tension once Mickey joins the pair in their travels , at the suggestion of the Doctor 's former companion Sarah Jane Smith ( Elisabeth Sladen ) . Whilst stranded in a parallel universe , Rose meets a rich , entrepreneur version of her father who never died . Mickey decides to stay behind on this world to battle the Cybermen — emotionless cyborgs which seek to convert humans to their ranks — as he no longer wants to feel like a spare part . Alone with the Doctor again , Rose faces the mythical Beast ( Gabriel Woolf ) , who prophesies that Rose will soon die in battle . This day comes when , in the present day , the Torchwood Institute 's director Yvonne Hartman ( Tracy @-@ Ann Oberman ) accidentally allows the Cybermen army and Dalek Cult of Skaro into Rose 's reality , where they begin a war . In sealing the Cybermen and Daleks back into the " void " through which they came , Rose is transported to the parallel universe by Pete , to save her from also being pulled into the void . Rose becomes trapped in the parallel universe with Jackie and the alternate universe Pete as the walls between universes seal ; she is later declared dead in her own universe . Months later , the Doctor is able to transmit Rose a goodbye message . She reveals she now works for that universe 's Torchwood , and confesses her love for him . Before he can reply , their connection is lost .
In spin @-@ off series Torchwood ( 2006 – 2011 ) , the audience learns that Rose 's act of resurrecting Jack cursed him with being unable to die . Her absence and the Doctor 's pained estrangement from her proves a point of contention for the Doctor 's series 3 companion Martha ( Freema Agyeman ) ; when Martha protects the Doctor , living as a human without his memories , it is still Rose that he dreams of . When the Doctor is reunited with Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) in the show 's fourth series ( 2008 ) , Rose mysteriously begins to appear in the Doctor 's life — first seen only by Donna , and later in silent video messages which the Doctor fails to notice . When a " Time Beetle " creates an alternate universe in which Donna never meets the Doctor and the Doctor dies , Rose travels from her parallel world to this world , working alongside the organisation UNIT to send Donna back in time , and make Donna 's younger self turn left at a junction and not right . Rose tells Donna to say two words to The Doctor ; ' Bad Wolf ' . The Doctor concludes this is a sign that the Universe , and reality itself is under threat . Later , in the midst of Davros ' ( Julian Bleach ) plot to obliterate existence , Rose unites with the Doctor and his companions Donna , Martha , Jack and Sarah Jane to make a stand against him and his army of Daleks . In the midst of the battle , a part @-@ human Doctor is created and destroys the Daleks . The Doctor returns Rose to the parallel universe along with Jackie , and his part @-@ human counterpart . Rose challenges the Doctor to say the words he did not say to her during their previous farewell . The Doctor does not answer , but his part @-@ human counterpart whispers in her ear and Rose kisses him . The Doctor retreats , leaving Rose behind with his part @-@ human counterpart . In the closing scenes of the The End of Time ( 2010 ) , just prior to his regeneration , the Doctor travels to Rose 's housing estate in the first minutes of 2005 . He speaks to her from the shadows , asking her what year it is . She tells him it 's January 1st 2005 . The Doctor promises her that she will have a really great year .
Piper returned for the show 's 50th anniversary episode " The Day of the Doctor " ( 2013 ) as the interface of a sentient weapon of mass destruction known as " the Moment " . The War Doctor ( John Hurt ) intends to end the raging Time War by using the Moment to destroy both the Daleks and the Time Lords . Using Rose 's image , chosen for her future significance to the Doctor , the Moment attempts to persuade him to seek an alternative course of action by showing him how the decision will affect his future .
= = = Literature = = =
Rose is featured in the first twelve Doctor Who New Series Adventures novels , which expand on her characterisation . The first three of these novels — The Clockwise Man , The Monsters Inside and Winner Takes All — were published in May 2005 and feature solely the Ninth Doctor and Rose . The Monsters Inside depicts Rose 's first visit to an alien planet , her travels previously having been confined to earth and orbiting space stations . Rose mentions this visit to the planet Justicia in the first series television episode " Boom Town " which aired 4 June 2005 . The second batch of Ninth Doctor novels — comprising The Deviant Strain , Only Human and The Stealers of Dreams — were released in September 2005 and expand on the Doctor and Rose 's travels with Jack Harkness . The novel Only Human mentions that Rose was engaged to a previous love interest before becoming involved with Mickey . The events of " Boom Town " are addressed in The Stealers of Dreams in which Jackie complains that Rose did not alert her to her recent visit to modern day Cardiff . The first three novels to feature Rose and the Tenth Doctor — The Stone Rose , The Feast of the Drowned and The Resurrection Casket — were released in April 2006 to coincide with the broadcast of the second television series . The Feast of the Drowned explores the context of Rose 's shifting relationship with Jackie and Mickey in light of her frequent absences from earth . Her relationship with a school friend , Keisha , is also explored ; Rose is irritated to find out she and Mickey have become involved in her absence . The last three New Series Adventures novels to feature Rose — The Nightmare of Black Island , The Art of Destruction and The Price of Paradise — were published in September 2006 . In addition to the regular range of novels , Rose is featured in the first Doctor Who Quick Reads Initiative novella , I am a Dalek in which she and the Doctor must deal with a human @-@ Dalek hybrid .
The Doctor Who Annual 2006 , published in August 2005 , gives further biographical information on Rose in an article written by the programme 's chief writer and executive producer Russell T Davies , including the middle name " Marion " , and information about her mother , school life and ex @-@ boyfriends . The character also appears in short stories featured in the Doctor Who annuals for 2006 and 2007 , in addition to an issue of the series ' sanctioned companion magazine , Doctor Who Magazine . She has additionally been featured in comic book sequences which feature in the annuals , Doctor Who Magazine , and children 's magazines Doctor Who Adventures and Doctor Who – Battles in Time . In one Doctor Who Magazine comic strip , " The Green @-@ Eyed Monster " , Rose is possessed by a creature that feeds on jealousy . In order to arouse enough jealousy to defeat this creature the Tenth Doctor feigns a romance with Rose 's mother and sets up Mickey with a group of actors who pose as beautiful amazonian girlfriends . The character also appears in a panel of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight 's second story , " No Future for You " .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting = = =
Lead writer and executive producer Russell T Davies chose the name Rose because he considered it a " good luck charm " after he used it for Lesley Sharp 's character in Bob & Rose . His desire to make the show " essentially British " was another justification : he considered Rose to be " the most British name in the world " and feminine enough to subvert a recent trend of female companions having " boyish " names , such as Peri , Benny , Charley , and Ace . Davies also frequently uses the surname " Tyler " in his work — previous characters he created with the surname include Ruth Tyler in Revelations ( 1994 ) , Vince Tyler in Queer as Folk ( 1999 ) , and Johnny Tyler in The Second Coming ( 2003 ) — due to his affection for how the surname is spelled and pronounced . The casting of Piper as Rose was announced on by the BBC on 24 May 2004 . Head of Drama for BBC Wales Julie Gardner commented that the former pop star " fits the bill perfectly " as a " unique , dynamic partner for Christopher Eccleston " . Whilst some fans — including a representative of the Doctor Who Appreciation Society — were enthusiastic about the announcement , others felt it was " publicity stunt " casting and questioned Piper 's acting credentials . One of the factors that influenced Piper 's acceptance of the role was that she was able to relate the character of Rose to her own experiences as a teenager .
The British media had regularly released conflicting reports about how long Piper would be staying with the programme . In March 2006 , she claimed that she would continue on Doctor Who into its third series in 2007 . The BBC announced on 15 June 2006 that Piper was to depart in the final episode of the second series , " Doomsday " . Piper 's decision to leave had been taken a year previously but remained a secret until news of her departure became public . Following " Doomsday " , Piper as Rose was greenlit to be the star of the spin @-@ off series Rose Tyler : Earth Defence , set in her parallel universe and to air as a bank holiday special , but Davies deemed the concept " a spin @-@ off too far " after Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures . Piper 's eventual return during series four was planned during filming of the second series ; in January 2006 , she made a pact promising to return to film several more episodes . Davies and Piper cited her commitment to other projects — specifically , her roles as Belle de Jour in Secret Diary of a Call Girl , the lead character in the BBC adaptations of Philip Pullman 's Sally Lockhart quartet , and Fanny Price in the ITV adaptation of Mansfield Park — as explanations behind her departure appearing permanent . Davies ' successor as executive producer , Steven Moffat praised the creation and casting of the character in advance of the series ' 50th anniversary in 2013 . He stated that the character of Rose helped secure the return of the show by allowing " an audience who would not naturally have watched Doctor Who " to become invested in the show . Moffat suggested that during the first two years of the revival Doctor Who " was Billie Piper ’ s show " and that this has given her an " iconic status " above other Doctor Who companions .
= = = Characterisation = = =
Rose is used by Davies as an introduction to the shows mythos and fantasy elements . He later underlined similarities between Rose and Gwen Cooper — the leading lady he created for Torchwood — describing both as " the ordinary person who stumbles into something extraordinary and finds herself their equal . " Like her successor Martha , Rose is from London ; Brett Mills from the University of East Anglia makes the assumption that this is because characters from the capital of the country are " relatable to all British people " because they are seen as " neutral " . Rose is introduced alongside a supporting cast in the form of her boyfriend Mickey and mother Jackie which James Chapman cites as " evidence of Davies ' attempt to create a social context for the companion " . Davies states that the inclusion of these two characters was part of his desire to " make her real " and to " give her a life " . He later stated that in giving Rose a mother , a boyfriend and a " sad story with her father " the character has " her own mythology , to match the Doctor . " Lindy A. Orthia observes that Rose , like the other companions in Davies ' era of Doctor Who , is " drawn from a cosmopolitan vision " in her case because of her class background . Orthia contends that whilst working @-@ class companions had featured previously in the show " none were unskilled workers nor chronically under- or unemployed like Rose , Jackie and Donna " . Looking back at the two characters , Davies felt Jackie to be someone who is " holding Rose back " right from the first episode due to her suggestions her daughter be content with menial employment . Piper states that this causes Rose to resent her mum somewhat , although she loves her .
Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times felt Rose to resemble " the Bridget Jones type of Englishwoman , albeit a few pegs down the socioeconomic scale " waiting to be awakened " not by some Mark Darcy ... but by adventure incarnate . " Piper stated that at the start of the series Rose is " looking for something to happen " and that once the Doctor arrives she becomes " ruthless " in her decision to " completely drop her life as she knows it . " At a media preview of the series she characterised Rose as being " positive , ambitious and full of conviction and confidence . " She felt additionally that Rose is " a good character to relate to or aspire to . " In a 2013 retrospective on her time on Doctor Who Piper stated Rose 's feminine characteristics contributed to her being a balanced representation of a female character . She felt that Rose as a character could be both " strong @-@ willed and vulnerable " and ventured that her emotional response made her more interesting than " a female character endlessly striving towards perfection " . Eccleston , who played the Ninth Doctor described the character as a " heroine " who " teaches [ the Doctor ] huge emotional lessons " . In an episode of Doctor Who Confidential he expanded on this , describing her as " the Doctor 's equal in every way " except for the fact she lacks his scientific knowledge . He felt that the relationship between the two characters was " love at first sight " although in a more mysterious fashion than a conventional love affair . Davies summarised the relationship between the two characters as " soul mates " who " understand and complement each other " .
Lynette Porter , in her book Tarnished Heroes , Charming Villains and Modern Monsters : Science Fiction in Shades of Gray on 21st Century Television observed that Rose 's role " humanizes the Doctor and makes him less alien , not only to other characters , but to the audience " . In the first series finale , Rose takes on deadly energies to save the Doctor and planet Earth . Script editor Helen Raynor felt the episode gave Rose a chance to “ again be the Doctor ’ s equal ” and “ to finally match him with a gesture that is so noble , and strong , and heroic , and clever ” . Davies describes Rose in the context of this scene , and the whole of the first series , as being “ braver than brave and more loyal than anyone else in the universe ” . The Doctor repays her loyalty by sacrificing his ninth incarnation in turn to save her ; Davies
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, this scene begins with a description of planting chrysanthemums at Michinaga 's mansion in preparation for the Emperor 's visit . In the second part of the section , Murasaki Shikibu is musing about her melancholic life because of an " extraordinary sorrow " , wishing to be more adaptable and mindless . Wondering whether she is too sinful , she yearns for a religious life . Seeing waterfowl playing heedlessly in a pond , she writes the following waka :
= = = = Day of the Imperial visit ( Tanaka Shinbi copy ) = = = =
A sixth text section of the Fujita scroll has been preserved in the form of a copy from the original manuscript made by Tanaka Shinbi ( 田中親美 ) ( 1875 – 1975 ) , researcher and collector of Japanese fine arts who also assisted in the reproduction of old writings and ancient paintings including the Genji Monogatari Emaki . Starting in 1894 he worked on the reproduction of the Murasaki Shikibu Nikki Emaki . This text fragment does not include any illustration and is in possession of the Tanaka family .
The scene , which in the diary directly follows the fifth scene of the Fujita scroll , tells of an exchange of letters between Murasaki Shikibu and the Lady Koshosho . Writing her response at the time of a brisk shower in a hurry in order not to keep the messenger waiting as the " sky looked threatening " , Murasaki Shikibu adds the following poem to her letter :
After dark she receives the following reply from Lady Koshosho :
Changing topic , Murasaki Shikibu mentions shortly that at the same day , Michinaga inspected two new boats , one with a dragon 's head the other with a phoenix head at the prow , reminding her of animated living figures . The painting located in the emaki after the fifth text section , at the end of the extant Fujita scroll and originally before the sixth scene , illustrates this inspection of boats . Penelope Mason sees this diverse composition as a nostalgic representation of the 13th century Imperial Court past its golden age , as despite of the " gaiety and splendor the scene is permeated with fleeting nature of joy and pleasure . "
= = = Matsudaira or former Morikawa scroll = = =
In 1920 Morikawa Kanichirō ( 森川勘一郎 , 1887 – 1980 ) from Nagoya discovered a 5 @-@ segment scroll of the Murasaki Shikibu Diary Emaki consisting of alternatingly five illustrations and five captions . Formerly in possession of the Matsudaira clan , rulers of the Saijō Domain in Iyo Province , this scroll is referred to as " Matsudaira clan edition " or after its finder as " Former Morikawa edition " ( not to be confused with the Morikawa edition below which refers to the Morikawa family ) . Two years after discovery Morikawa sold the scroll to the Niigata businessman and master of the tea ceremony , Masuda Donō ( 益田鈍翁 , 1847 － 1938 , who had it cut into parts . One part ( Morikawa edition ) , the fifth segment , is bequeathed to the Morikawa family and today in a private collection . A year later , in 1933 , Donō detached the third segment and reformatted it as a hanging scroll ( now in possession of the Agency for Cultural Affairs ) . The remaining three scenes ( numbers 1 , 2 , 4 ) were framed in 1934 , changed owner once more , eventually ( via the Takanashi family ) ending up in the collection of the Gotoh Museum . They are known collectively as " Gotoh edition " . Today 's Matsudaira scroll is spread over three locations and includes one National Treasure and two Important Cultural Properties . While this scroll has not survived in one piece , a 20th @-@ century reproduction measures in at 453 @.@ 1 cm ( 178 @.@ 4 in ) long . With the exception of the first scene of the Gotoh edition , the Matsudaira clan scroll depicts events on Kankō 5 , 11th month , 1st day ( December 1 , 1008 ) , the day of the ika @-@ no @-@ iwai , the 50th day of birth celebration of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō , the later Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō .
= = = = Gotoh edition = = = =
The Gotoh edition corresponds to scenes 1 , 2 and 4 of the Matsudaira clan scroll and had been partitioned off from the scroll in 1932 and 1933 by Masuda Donō . It consists of 3 paintings and 3 associated captions each framed individually ( six items in total ) . This set has been designated as National Treasure on June 28 , 1956 and is located at the Gotoh Museum .
= = = = = Moonlit night = = = = =
The scene dated to Kankō 5 , 10th month , 17th day ( November 17 , 1008 ) , shows two drunk courtiers trying to gain entrance to Murasaki Shikibu quarters after she had enjoyed the garden outside her apartment . In the illustration , Murasaki holds her window shut against the men . First to arrive at the scene is the palace steward Sangi Fujiwara no Sanenari ( 藤原実成 ) ( on right ) who opens the upper part of Murasaki 's lattice door and inquires whether anybody is at home . According to Murasaki Shikibu his intention is to be mentioned to Akiko . Sanenari is joined by the consort 's steward ( associated with Akiko ) , Sangi Fujiwara no Tadanobu ( 藤原斉信 ) who also calls out : " Is anyone here ? " Murasaki replies faintly , avoiding anything that could be regarded as flirting . Together the two courtiers are requesting her to open the lower part of the door . Such behaviour , somebody of higher rank trying to enter the house of somebody of lower rank , was in the Heian period considered disgraceful and only excused by the young age of the two courtiers .
In the top right corner , Murasaki 's friend , the maid Saishō no Kimi , is visible . The large garden occupying the left half of the painting and the diagonally positioned building are considered to be a bold scene arrangement . According to Penelope Mason , this is " one of the saddest and most beautiful [ scenes ] in the scroll " , contrasting the beauty of the moonlit garden and pond on the left with the constraints of court life . The lattice window and the stewards separate Murasaki Shikibu from the outside world , keeping her a prisoner in the room .
= = = = = 50 day celebration of the birth of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō = = = = =
As with all but the first scene of the Matsudaira scroll , this scene is set on the evening of Kankō 5 , 11th month , 1st day ( December 1 , 1008 ) , the day of the Ika @-@ no @-@ iwai of the Imperial Prince Atsuhira @-@ shinnō , the later Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō . The painting shows a room inside a shinden partitioned off by kichō room dividers featuring the design of decaying trees . Empress Shōshi , with the baby in her arms , is partially visible at the top . Court ladies are serving various types of ritual food .
The third scene held by the Gotoh museum was originally the fourth segment of the Matsudaira clan scroll . It is therefore preceded by the segment held by the Agency for Cultural Affairs and followed by the 5th segment of the Matsudaira clan scroll which is in possession of the Morikawa family . Like those segments , this scene is dated to the evening of the Ika @-@ no @-@ iwai celebration of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō . It shows drunk and disordered court nobles amusing themselves with court ladies . This painting is particularly notable for its lifelike depiction of facial expressions and shapes of each figure in the scene .
= = = = Former Ōkura family fragment = = = =
This item , consisting of one painting and associated caption / text , was originally the third scene of the Matsudaira clan scroll before being reshaped into a hanging scroll by Masuda Donō in 1933 . At some point it was in possession of the Ōkura clan ( 大倉家 ) , but it is now owned by the Agency for Cultural Affairs and in custody of the Tokyo National Museum . It was designated an Important Cultural Property on March 31 , 1953 . Like its preceding and successive scenes ( scenes 2 and 3 from the Gotoh edition ) , the painting depicts the celebration for the 50th day of the birth of the Imperial Prince Atsuhira @-@ shinnō , the later Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō in the evening of Kankō 5 , 11th month , 1st day ( December 1 , 1008 ) . The main characters are in full dress in a room decorated with kichō partitioners and the prince 's grandfather , Fujiwara no Michinaga at the bottom is offering rice cake ( mochi ) to the prince in a form of ceremonial ritual . The female servant at the bottom right is presumably the author of the diary Murasaki Shikibu .
= = = = Morikawa family fragment = = = =
The 5th segment of the five @-@ segment Matsudaira clan scroll was separated in 1932 and mounted as hanging scroll . This fragment is 73 @.@ 7 cm ( 29 @.@ 0 in ) wide . Named after their present owners , it is known as the Morikawa clan edition . It consists of a single scene with a very short illustration showing the inside of a traditional Japanese style room with fusuma sliding doors , tatami and a curtain . Like all but the first segment of this scroll , the scene is set in the evening of Kankō 5 , 11th month , 1st day ( December 1 , 1008 ) on occasion of the 50th day celebration of the birth of Atsuhira @-@ shinnō , the later Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō . Murasaki Shikibu and Saishō no Kimi had been hiding from the drunken carousal of that evening , but were discovered by Michinaga , Saishō no Chūjō and others . The painting is dominated by the massive figure of Fujiwara no Michinaga dressed in brocade jacket and trousers and placed in the centre of the room . Murasaki Shikibu and Saishō no Kimi are huddled near the border of the painting with heads bent down as a sign of submission and deference . On discovering the two court ladies in hiding , Michinaga demands a poem from each of them . Murasaki being frightened and helpless in this situation recites the following waka :
On the fiftieth day how should one number those that follow ?
May the Prince 's life span more than eight thousand years .
Despite being drunk , Michinaga answered quickly with another poem :
O would I might live the life of a crane —
Then might I reckon the years of the Prince
Up to one thousand !
which according to Murasaki 's diary " came from his innermost desire " . Based on the topic , this scene resembles the Azumaya edition of the Genji emaki where another court noble demands a response from a woman . This part of the scroll was designated Important Cultural Property on July 19 , 1952 .
= = = Hinohara or former Hisamatsu scroll = = =
Formerly in possession of the Hisamatsu @-@ Matsudaira clan , a branch of the Matsudaira clan and rulers of the Iyo @-@ Matsuyama Domain , this scroll is now privately owned by the Hinohara family ( 日野原家 ) . Due to this ancestral heritage it is variously referred to as " former Hisamatsu scroll " or " Hinohara scroll " . The scroll is 531 @.@ 6 cm ( 209 @.@ 3 in ) long and consists of alternatingly six sections of text and six associated paintings on 13 sheets of paper . The fourth text part is relatively long and has been split in two . The scroll has been designated as an Important Cultural Property of Japan .
= = = = Day of the Bird festival = = = =
Murasaki Shikibu tells of an anecdote at the festival of the Kamo Shrine held on Kankō 5 , 11th month , 28th day ( December 28 , 1008 ) , the last Day of the Bird ( 酉の日 , tori no hi ) . On this day , Fujiwara no Norimichi , son of Michinaga , had the role of the Emperor 's substitute . After a night of merriment , a joke is played on the Naidaijin by making him believe that a present he had received is directly from the Empress ; thus requiring an open return . Murasaki Shikibu goes on to describe how noble and dignified Norimichi looked on that day and how his nurse was overwhelmed by his appearance . In a sacred dance performed at night , the mediocre performance of one dancer who had been " very handsome last year " reminded Murasaki Shikibu " of the fleeting life of us all " . The illustration associated with this scene shows the Imperial Messenger , Fujiwara no Norimichi , his head decorated with wisteria branches on the top of a staircase of a shrine building . The train of his garment is flowing down the staircase and he is watched by three courtiers positioned near the bottom of the stairs .
= = = = Thinking of the first time at court = = = =
Set on the evening of Kankō 5 , 12th month , 29th day ( January 27 , 1009 ) , in this scene , Murasaki Shikibu returns to the Imperial Court after a visit to her parents ' home . As it is the anniversary of her coming to the court she is looking back at her former life nostalgically . Feeling lonely she goes to sleep murmuring the following waka :
My life and the year are closing together .
At the sound of the wind dreary is my heart .
The painting following this text section shows a man on the stairs of a house and two men on a boat just outside the house . The illustration matching the scene described in the text is now the fifth painting of the Hachisuka scroll .
= = = = Incident at night = = = =
This scene from an unknown day in the year Kankō 6 ( 1009 ) shows Murasaki asleep at night in a room close to the corridor ; a man is knocking on the door . Afraid to open , she spends the night without making a sound . The next morning her nightly visitor reveals himself as Michinaga through a poem he sent to her . She replies with the lines :
A cause of deep regret , indeed ,
Had the door opened at the knocking of the water @-@ rail !
= = = = 50th day celebration of Atsunaga @-@ shinnō = = = =
Scenes four to six describe the 50th day celebration of the birth of Atsunaga @-@ shinnō , the later Emperor Go @-@ Suzaku , on Kankō 7 , 1st month , 15th day ( February 1 , 1010 ) . The lengthy fourth section of text is split into two parts . Murasaki Shikibu briefly mentions her friendly relationship with Lady Kokosho and that they join their rooms separating them by kichō partitions only when both are at home . This behaviour made Michinaga believe that they are gossiping about other people . Murasaki Shikibu then describes the day 's festivities : the Queen and her audience , the clothing , names and titles of the participants which included the Emperor , the infant prince and various court ladies . Dazzled in their presence , she escapes to an inner room . As the nurse , Madam Nakadaka comes away from the Emperor and Queen under the canopy , carrying the prince in her arms , Murasaki Shikibu praises her dignified demeanour , tranquility and earnestness . The painting associated with this scene shows four courtiers on the balcony ( engawa ) of a Japanese style building outside fabric enclosed rooms , which are not visible . Two of the men are shown walking , the others are kneeling and appear to be talking to a person inside the building or to be handing something to someone inside . Two of the men ( one standing , one walking ) carry trays with cups .
In the subsequent scene , the dais at which the main persons are seated , covered by misu , is opened and Murasaki Shikibu notes that the people present at the event and seated around the dais on the balcony were either of high rank or court ladies . Lower rank officials later joined them on the steps below where the royalty is seated to perform music with a lute ( biwa ) , harp ( koto ) and flute ( shō ) . The painting corresponding to this scene shows two ladies on the balcony with rolled up misu . Both are squeezed in the corner of the image and appear to be talking to each other .
A short text section follows , which is the final scene of the scroll and the final part of the known diary . The official musicians mentioned in the previous scene are joined by outsiders , one of which " made a mistake in the notes and was hissed " . The Minister of the Right made a great mistake in praising the six @-@ stringed koto . The emaki text ( and diary ) ends abruptly with mention of Michinaga 's gift of flutes in two boxes . The illustration to this scene shows three courtiers seated in a row on the balcony with their backs facing the outside . The left figure is shown with a Japanese harp ( koto ) in front of him , his head is turned toward the other two who appear to be concentrating on something in front of them ( likely instruments ) .
= = = General = = =
Grilli , Elise ( 1962 ) . Rouleaux peints japonais [ Japanese painted scrolls ] ( in French ) . Trans . Marcel Requien . Arthaud .
Shibuya , Eiichi ( 2011 @-@ 12 @-@ 01 ) . " Genjimonogatari Cloud Computing Library " . Murasaki Shikibu Nikki ( in Japanese ) . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 12 @-@ 03 . : Original text , Romaji , Modern Japanese , Annotated version , Reprint , Emaki
= Eddie Costa =
Edwin James " Eddie " Costa ( August 14 , 1930 – July 28 , 1962 ) was an American jazz pianist , vibraphonist , composer and arranger . In 1957 he was chosen as Down Beat jazz critics ' new star on piano and vibes – the first time that one artist won two categories in the same year . He became known for his percussive , driving piano style that concentrated on the lower octaves of the keyboard .
Costa had an eight @-@ year recording career , during which he appeared on more than 100 albums ; five of these were under his own leadership . As a sideman he appeared in orchestras led by Manny Albam , Gil Evans , Woody Herman and others ; played in smaller groups led by a diverse range of musicians , including Tal Farlow , Coleman Hawkins , Gunther Schuller , and Phil Woods ; and accompanied vocalists including Tony Bennett and Chris Connor . Costa died , aged 31 , in a car accident in New York City .
= = Early life = =
Eddie Costa was born in Atlas , Pennsylvania , near Mount Carmel , in Northumberland County . He was taught and influenced on piano by his older , musically trained brother , Bill , and a local piano teacher . Eddie took paid jobs as a pianist from the age of 15 . In contrast to his piano training , he was self @-@ taught on vibes . In 1949 Costa played and toured for a few months with violinist Joe Venuti . He then worked for his brother in New York until , in 1951 , Eddie was drafted into the army . During his time in the armed forces , Costa performed in Japan and Korea . Upon release after two years , Costa again worked around the New York area , including for bands led by Kai Winding , Johnny Smith , and Don Elliott .
= = Playing and recording career = =
= = = 1954 – 1957 = = =
In 1954 Costa made his first recordings , with guitarist Sal Salvador , to whom he had been recommended by trombonist Winding . The first of these sessions , in July , featured one of Costa 's compositions , " Round Trip " . The following year , Costa recorded a series of piano duets with John Mehegan ; differences in playing style meant that several rehearsals were required to organize which pianist would be responsible for what aspects of the performances .
Costa 's first recording as leader was in 1956 , with his trio featuring bassist Vinnie Burke and drummer Nick Stabulas . This was released under slightly differing titles by Josie Records and Jubilee Records , and was well received : critic John S. Wilson , for instance , commented on the " roaring , spitting piano solos by Eddie Costa " . Around this time , Costa was nicknamed " The Bear " by Burke for his powerful playing . Also in 1956 , Costa and Burke joined guitarist Tal Farlow , forming a resident trio to play at the Composer , a club on West 58th Street in New York . Farlow 's comment on the absence of a drummer from the trio was that " Eddie 's feeding , comping or whatever you want to call it was so fierce that there was no doubt at all where the time was , so I didn 't miss the drums at all " . The trio stayed together , recording several albums under Farlow 's name , until , in 1958 , the Composer closed . Costa was often in recording studios as a sideman around this time : he appeared on approximately 20 albums in both 1956 and 1957 . These included small group settings with Herbie Mann , Oscar Pettiford , and Phil Woods , and accompanying vocalists such as Tony Bennett and Chris Connor .
In 1957 Costa was again leader , recording Eddie Costa Quintet with Woods , Art Farmer , Teddy Kotick , and Paul Motian . Their repertoire featured interpretations of " I Didn 't Know What Time It Was " and Dave Brubeck 's recent composition " In Your Own Sweet Way " ; the latter focused on Costa 's vibes and Farmer 's muted trumpet , with Woods switching from his usual alto saxophone to the piano . The Billboard review was positive , calling it " a first rate jazz set " on which " Costa swings as ever on piano " . A trio appearance at the 1957 Newport Jazz Festival also brought Costa greater attention . Some of his playing at the festival – as a trio with Ernie Furtado ( bass ) and Al Beldini ( drums ) , and as a quintet with the addition of Rolf Kühn and Dick Johnson – was released later in 1957 as part of a Verve album . Billboard commented that " Costa [ ... ] will attract many new endorsers with the musicianship displayed " .
= = = 1958 – 1962 = = =
Costa 's next recording as leader , this time exclusively on vibes , was 1958 's Guys and Dolls Like Vibes , recorded over three sessions in January , with Bill Evans , Wendell Marshall and Motian . This album contained six songs from the show Guys and Dolls , which was familiar to listeners from the musical and film versions that had opened a few years earlier . From 1958 to 1959 Costa was with Woody Herman 's band on and off , including as part of a sextet . Over these two years , Costa continued recording prolifically , including in orchestras led by Herman , Manny Albam ( one album , A Gallery of Gershwin , included a piano quartet of Costa , the unrelated Johnny Costa , Hank Jones , and Dick Marx ) , Michel Legrand , and Ernie Wilkins . Costa 's final recording as leader was The House of Blue Lights , a piano trio album with Marshall and Motian , in 1959 . Billboard was again positive , highlighting Costa 's " highly inventive and imaginative piano stylings " . After this , although he continued to play in clubs such as the Half Note on Hudson Street , Costa concentrated mainly on studio work , on both piano and vibes , for other leaders . He was much in demand for recording sessions because of the excellence of his sight @-@ reading and playing on both of his instruments .
The quantity of studio work created a conflict between Costa 's need and desire to support his family , sometimes achieved through working day and night in studios , and his belief in developing his jazz talents , which would have required playing more in clubs and dealing with the people – agents , club owners , artists and repertoire men , and so on – whose goals seldom matched those of creative musicians . Notable examples of Costa 's studio work from this period are being part of Gigi Gryce 's final recordings as leader , appearances on Gunther Schuller 's Third Stream album Jazz Abstractions , a series of small @-@ group recordings with saxophonist Coleman Hawkins , and two tracks of Shelly Manne 's 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 , with Costa featuring on piano for one track and vibes on the other , both with just George Duvivier and Manne . Costa also contributed on vibes to Gryce 's music for Fred Baker 's short dance film On the Sound . A long association with pianist and arranger Ralph Sharon meant that Costa was the vibraphonist in the Sharon orchestra on June 9 , 1962 , when it played with Bennett at Carnegie Hall . Costa 's final recording session was on July 12 , 1962 , as part of a group assembled by saxophonist Al Cohn mainly from the Benny Goodman band that had toured the Soviet Union earlier that year .
Late at night on July 28 , 1962 , Costa was killed in a car crash , involving no other vehicles , on New York 's Westside Highway at 72nd Street . He was survived by his wife and four children . This loss to music was summarized years later in the liner notes to one of his recordings : " No pianist with his combination of strength , humor , and drive has developed in the sixties or seventies , and as the years go by it becomes more apparent that we lost a unique creative musician " . In his eight @-@ year recording career , Costa appeared on more than 100 albums . He never recorded a solo album .
= = Playing style = =
Costa 's overall style allowed him to play in a great variety of settings . According to critic Alun Morgan , " his mind was never cluttered up with thoughts of stylistic divisions . He was at home with any jazz group , provided it swung and generated a feeling of happiness " . On piano , his " trademark sound " , remarked Ken Dryden , " was the emphasis of the middle and lower registers while nearly ignoring the top two octaves " . Some of Costa 's more linear , right @-@ hand playing was influenced by his listening to Bud Powell records while in the army . Costa 's playing was more than just one @-@ handed lines : during a period when the typical approach to jazz piano was to concentrate on right @-@ hand solos while adding only basic left @-@ hand support , Costa used both hands in creating his own vigorous sound . His piano playing on the informally recorded album Fuerst Set is typical of his style ; it was later described by critic Whitney Balliett :
Each improvisation resembled an excellent drum solo in its rhythmic intensity , pattern of beats , and elements of surprise . Costa liked to use octave chords in the left hand and single @-@ note lines in the right , and he liked to thunder endlessly down in the lower registers of the piano . At such times , he played chords in both hands and with stunning effect . He would let loose a staccato passage and then an impossible two @-@ handed arpeggio , or he would deliver on @-@ the @-@ beat or offbeat chords – seesawing them , making them into sixty @-@ fourth notes , somehow slurring them , and developing great drive and momentum .
On vibes , Costa 's style was somewhat different . John S. Wilson commented in 1959 that " In contrast to the stirring forays into the lower register that he is fond of making on piano , Costa 's vibraphone style is light and dancing , closer to the Red Norvo manner than most current vibists . " After Costa 's death , Alun Morgan also compared his playing on the two instruments : " As a vibraphonist Eddie carried over the pulsating elements of his piano style but also continued to employ a sensitive gradation of touch where necessary " .
= = Recognition = =
Costa was chosen as Down Beat jazz critics ' new star on piano and vibes for 1957 ; this was the first time that one artist had won two categories in the same year . In 1962 he was invited to play at the first International Jazz Festival in Washington , D.C. by the President 's Music Committee of the People to People program . An indication of the esteem in which Costa was held by musicians is the caliber of those who performed at his memorial concert at The Village Gate on October 8 , 1962 : Cohn , Benny Golson , Zoot Sims , Charlie Byrd , Jim Hall , Mundell Lowe , Farmer , Clark Terry and Hawkins were among those who played . The playing of the bands led by the last two was recorded and released as an LP . Hawkins did not usually play at benefit concerts , but his feelings for Costa meant that he did what he could to make the seven @-@ hour event a success .
= = Discography = =
= = = As leader = = =
= = = As sideman = = =
Costa played piano , vibes , or both on the albums listed in the table below . Other recordings , where his presence is disputed or the music is classical , are not listed .
Sources :
= Jacques Gershkovitch =
Jacques Gershkovitch ( 1884 – 1953 ) was a Russian conductor and musician who became the first music director of the Portland Junior Symphony ( now known as the Portland Youth Philharmonic ) , the first youth orchestra in the United States , based in Portland , Oregon . Born to a musical family in Irkutsk , Gershkovitch was sent to Saint Petersburg in his late teens to study at the Imperial Conservatory . In 1913 , he graduated with honors in flute and conducting , and was awarded the Schubert Scholarship for a year of study under German conductor Arthur Nikisch in Berlin . Gershkovitch returned to Irkutsk to enlist during World War I , and by 1916 he had become head of the Imperial Russian Army 's military symphony orchestra . He held this position through the Russian Revolution and thereafter , as concerts were often presented as benefits for orphans and the Red Cross .
Gershkovitch married in Irkutsk in 1918 . There , he established a fine arts conservatory and symphony orchestra which continued under the Bolshevik regime . In 1921 , he and his wife crossed the border in China to escape from Russia . Ballerina Anna Pavlova offered Gershkovitch the assistant conductor position with her orchestra , which was touring throughout Asia . Gershkovitch remained in Japan to lead the newly organized Tokyo Symphony Orchestra . However , the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake disrupted the organization and caused Gershkovitch and his wife to emigrate to the United States . The couple arrived in San Francisco in November 1923 and made their way to Portland in 1924 . There , Gershovitch was approached to lead the Portland Junior Symphony . Known for his discipline and high performance standards , Gershkovitch conducted the orchestra for twenty @-@ nine years , gaining national attention for the ensemble and pioneering the youth orchestra movement until his death in 1953 .
= = Early life and education = =
Jacques Gershkovitch was born in 1884 to a Jewish family in Irkutsk near Lake Baikal in Siberia , Russia . His father , an amateur violinist " who made up in enthusiasm what he lacked in skill " , and mother had seven children , six of whom became professional conductors or singers . Chamber music was a common activity in the household .
Gershkovitch was sent to Saint Petersburg in his late teens to study at the Imperial Conservatory . The 4 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 6 @,@ 400 km ) journey took two weeks via the newly constructed Trans @-@ Siberian Railway , and Gershkovitch arrived with " 17 rubles in his pocket and his flute under his arm " . He auditioned and was awarded a scholarship . There he learned from respected Russian composers such as Alexander Glazunov , Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Nikolai Tcherepnin , and completed coursework in opera and ballet production . To pay his own expenses , and to assist in paying the expenses of two of his siblings who were also studying at the Conservatory , Gershkovitch performed with bands and orchestras . This delayed his undergraduate work , but in 1913 he graduated with the title of " laureate " ( the conservatory 's highest honor ) with honors in flute and conducting , and was awarded the Schubert Scholarship for a year of study under German conductor Arthur Nikisch in Berlin . However , this period was shortened due to World War I , and Gershkovitch returned to Irkutsk to enlist .
= = Early career = =
In 1916 , Gershkovitch became head of the Imperial Russian Army 's military symphony orchestra , a position he held through the Russian Revolution . Army duties continued after the war as concerts were often given as benefits for orphans and the Red Cross , and it was during this period that Gershkovitch met his future wife Lucia . Then an engineer working on a construction project near Khabarovsk , she had previously been a piano student at the Conservatory during the same period Gershkovitch was there . The two met in 1917 , and in 1918 they married in Irkutsk . In Irkutsk , he organized a fine arts conservatory and symphony orchestra . The institute was successful , and by 1920 enrollment had reached more than 1 @,@ 550 students . Following a successful takeover of the city by the Bolsheviks , Gershkovitch conducted bands for funeral services under the new regime . During a service rehearsal , Gershkovitch removed a man causing numerous interruptions . As a result , Gershkovitch was commanded to visit the Cheka , the presiding chief of which was the victim of the previous day 's incident . However , the chief was a devotee of music and requested that Gershkovitch produce a grand opera . He provided a collection of musical instruments previously confiscated by the Bolsheviks . Gershkovitch 's conservatory , orchestra , and newly established opera continued under the Bolshevik regime .
= = Relocation = =
When living conditions deteriorated , Gershkovitch traveled to Chita and obtained permission to visit Vladivostok via Manchuria . After crossing the border to China in 1921 , he remained in Harbin , where he met Lucia , who had also escaped from Russia . Together they made their way to Tientsin , where they met and became close friends with composer Aaron Avshalomov . When ballerina Anna Pavlova heard that Gershkovitch had escaped from Russia , she offered him a position as assistant conductor with her orchestra , which was touring throughout Asia . Following three months of touring , Gershkovitch settled in Tokyo to undertake the newly organized Tokyo Symphony Orchestra under the patronage of Baron Okura , a wealthy nobleman and relative of the Mikado .
The orchestra 's premiere concert took place at the Imperial Hotel auditorium ; many concerts followed and were well received until the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923 " disorganized all the business and musical interests of the city " . Gershkovitch and his wife , guests at Baron Okura 's home , endured the earthquake for six days before leaving for Kobe . With assistance from Americans , the Norwegian consul , and financial aid from Baron Okura , the couple left for San Francisco , arriving in November 1923 . Following the advice of San Francisco Symphony conductor Alfred Hertz , Gershkovitch and his wife made their way to Portland , Oregon , in 1924 . It was here that Gershkovitch was approached by Mary Dodge and two of her students to lead the Portland Junior Symphony ( PJS ) . He taught flute and conducted the Ellison @-@ White Conservatory 's student orchestra , at the time directed by Jacob Avshalomov , until the PJS duties required his full attention .
= = Portland Youth Philharmonic = =
Under Gershkovitch 's leadership , the Portland Junior Symphony ( now known as the Portland Youth Philharmonic ) was founded in late 1924 as the first youth orchestra in the United States . The symphony performed for the first time on February 14 , 1925 , at the Lincoln High School Auditorium ( which later became Portland State University 's Lincoln Hall ) , playing Schubert 's Unfinished Symphony . Gershkovitch allegedly introduced the composition and stated " You play , or I keel [ sic ] you " in his heavy accent at the ensemble 's first rehearsal . Concert attendees reportedly surged the stage after the concert to congratulate the musicians , Gershkovitch and Dodge , who was present and called to the stage . One reviewer for the Oregon Sunday Journal wrote the following day that the " audience that almost filled the auditorium to capacity broke into storm upon storm of applause " . According to Ronald Russell , author of A New West to Explore ( 1938 ) , the audience " had experienced a new emotional thrill , and forthwith became strong advocates and supporters of the junior symphony cause " .
Gershkovitch , known for his discipline and high performance standards , conducted the orchestra for twenty @-@ nine years , gaining national attention for the ensemble and pioneering the youth orchestra movement . By the 1930s , PJS concerts were broadcast nationally on the CBS Radio Network . In 1956 and 1958 both NBC and CBS transmitted broadcasts of the orchestra 's programs across the United States , and three transcribed programs were broadcast overseas from Voice of America in Washington , D.C. Gershkovitch was also responsible for adding a Preparatory Orchestra ( later renamed the Conservatory Orchestra ) due to increased membership . He tried to incorporate at least one American composition in each concert . Gershkovitch had a distinctive personality and a unique way with words , using expressions such as " More nicely , can 't you more ? " and " Debussy is beauty , French beauty " ( as recollected in one former student 's diary ) . For twenty @-@ five years , David Campbell served as Master of Ceremonies for the Children 's Concerts since Gershkovitch " never gained a command of English sufficient enough for public use " . Gershkovitch 's often @-@ quoted philosophy was that he did " not teach music " , but rather he taught " young people through music " . Though there were times he desired to conduct professional ensembles , Gershkovitch 's primary concern was educating the youth . Apart from music education , he stressed the importance of proper conduct , manners , and " values in life and art " in order to build character . Following Gershkovitch 's death in 1953 , guest conductors led the orchestra for its thirtieth season – one conductor was Jacob Avshalomov , a Columbia University teacher and PJS alumnus who had studied under Gershkovitch while a student at Reed College ( 1939 – 1941 ) .
= American bittern =
The American bittern ( Botaurus lentiginosus ) is a species of wading bird of the heron family ( Ardeidae ) . It has a Nearctic distribution , breeding in Canada and the northern and central parts of the United States , and wintering in the southern United States , the Caribbean islands and parts of Central America .
It is a well @-@ camouflaged , solitary brown bird that unobtrusively inhabits marshes and the coarse vegetation at the edge of lakes and ponds . In the breeding season it is chiefly noticeable by the loud , booming call of the male . The nest is built just above the water , usually among bulrushes and cattails , where the female incubates the clutch of olive @-@ buff eggs for about four weeks . The young leave the nest after two weeks and are fully fledged at six or seven weeks .
The American bittern feeds mostly on fish , but also eats other small vertebrates as well as crustaceans and insects . It is fairly common over its wide range but its numbers are thought to be decreasing , especially in the south , due to habitat degradation . However the total population is large , and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of " Least Concern " .
= = Description = =
The American bittern is a large , chunky , brown bird , very similar to the Eurasian bittern ( Botaurus stellaris ) , though slightly smaller , and the plumage is speckled rather than being barred . It is 58 – 85 cm ( 23 – 33 in ) in length , with a 92 – 115 cm ( 36 – 45 in ) wingspan and a body mass of 370 – 1 @,@ 072 g ( 0 @.@ 816 – 2 @.@ 363 lb ) .
The crown is chestnut @-@ brown with the centers of the feathers being black . The side of the neck has a bluish @-@ black elongated patch which is larger in the male than in the female . The hind neck is olive and the mantle and scapulars are dark chestnut @-@ brown , barred and speckled with black , some feathers being edged with buff . The back , rump and upper tail @-@ coverts are similar in color but more @-@ finely speckled with black and with grey bases to the feathers . The tail feathers are chestnut @-@ brown , with speckled edges , and the primaries and secondaries are blackish @-@ brown with buff or chestnut tips . The cheeks are brown and there is a buff superciliary stripe and a similarly colored mustachial stripe . The chin is creamy @-@ white with a chestnut central stripe , and the feathers of the throat , breast and upper belly are buff and rust @-@ colored , finely outlined with black , giving a striped effect to the underparts . The eye is surrounded by yellowish skin and the iris is pale yellow . The long , robust bill is yellowish @-@ green , the upper mandible being darker than the lower , and the legs and feet are also yellowish @-@ green . Juveniles resemble adults but the sides of their necks are less olive .
= = Taxonomy = =
The American bittern was first described in 1813 by the English clergyman Thomas Rackett from a vagrant individual he examined in Dorset , England . No subspecies are accepted today , however , fossils found in the Ichetucknee River , Florida , and originally described as a new form of heron ( Palaeophoyx columbiana ; McCoy , 1963 ) were later recognized to be a smaller , prehistoric subspecies of the American bittern which lived during the Late Pleistocene ( Olson , 1974 ) and would thus be called B. l. columbianus . Its closest living relative is the pinnated bittern ( Botaurus pinnatus ) from Central and South America .
The generic name Botaurus was given by the English naturalist James Francis Stephens , and is derived from Medieval Latin butaurus , " bittern " , itself constructed from the Middle English name for the Eurasian bittern , botor . Pliny gave a fanciful derivation from Bos ( ox ) and taurus ( bull ) , because the bittern 's call resembles the bellowing of a bull . The species name lentiginosus is Latin for " freckled " , from lentigo , " freckle " , and refers to the speckled plumage .
Many of the folk names are given for its distinctive call ; In his book on the common names of American birds , Ernest Choate lists " bog bumper " and " stake driver " , and other vernacular names include " thunder pumper " and " bog bull " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of this bittern includes much of North America . It breeds in southern Canada as far north as British Columbia , the Great Slave Lake and Hudson Bay , and in much of the United States and possibly central Mexico . It migrates southward in the fall and overwinters in the southern United States , the Caribbean Islands and Mexico , with past records also coming from Panama and Costa Rica . As a long @-@ distance migrant , it is a very rare vagrant in Europe , including Great Britain and Ireland . It is an aquatic bird and frequents bogs , marshes and the thickly @-@ vegetated verges of shallow @-@ water lakes and ponds , both with fresh and brackish or saline water . It sometimes feeds out in the open in wet meadows and pastures .
= = Behavior = =
The American bittern is a solitary bird , and although common in much of its range , usually keeps itself well @-@ hidden and is difficult to observe . It usually hunts by walking stealthily in shallow water and among the vegetation , stalking its prey , but sometimes stands still , in ambush . If it senses that it has been seen , the American bittern remains motionless , with its bill pointed upward , its cryptic coloration causing it to blend into the surrounding foliage . It is mainly nocturnal and is most active at dusk . More often heard than seen , the male bittern has a loud , booming call that resembles a congested pump , and which has been rendered as " oong , kach , oonk " . While uttering this sound , the bird 's head is thrown convulsively upward and then forward , and the sound is repeated up to seven times .
The exact process by which the bittern makes its distinctive sound is not fully understood . It has been suggested that the bird gradually puffs out its neck by inflating its esophagus with air accompanied by a mild clicking or hiccuping sound . The esophagus is kept inflated by means of flaps beside the tongue . Once this action is completed and the esophagus is fully inflated , the distinctive gulping sound is made in the syrinx . When the sound is finished , the bird deflates its oesophagus .
Like other members of the heron family , the American bittern feeds in marshes and shallow ponds , preying mainly on fish , but also consuming amphibians , reptiles , small mammals , crustaceans and insects . It is a territorial bird and has a threat display which involves slowly erecting long , white , previously @-@ concealed , plumes on its shoulders , to form wing @-@ like extensions that nearly meet across its back , resembling a ruff . The bird then stands still in a threatening posture , or stalks the intruder in a crouching position , with its head retracted and a gliding gait .
This bird nests solitarily in marshes among coarse vegetation such as bulrushes ( Scirpus ) and cattails , with the female building the nest and the male guarding it . The nest is usually about 15 cm ( 6 in ) above the water surface and consists of a rough platform of dead stalks and rushes , sometimes with a few twigs mixed in , and lined with bits of coarse grass . Up to about six eggs are laid and are incubated by the female for twenty @-@ nine days . The eggs are bluntly ovoid in shape , olive @-@ buff and unspeckled , averaging 49 by 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 93 by 1 @.@ 46 in ) in size . The chicks are fed individually , each in turn pulling down the female 's beak , and receiving regurgitated food directly into its beak . They leave the nest at about two weeks and are fully @-@ fledged at six to seven weeks .
= = Status = =
This bird 's numbers are declining in many parts of its range due to habitat loss . This is particularly noticeable in the southern part where chemical contamination and human development are reducing the area of suitable habitat . However , the bird has an extremely large range and a large total population , and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of " Least Concern " . The American bittern is protected under the United States Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 . It is also protected under the Canadian Migratory Birds Convention Act of 1994 to which both Canada and the United States are signatories .
= 1968 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1968 Atlantic hurricane season was one of five Atlantic hurricane seasons during the satellite era not to feature a major hurricane , the others being 1972 , 1986 , 1994 , and 2013 . The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30 , dates which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . It was a below average season in terms of tropical storms , with a total of eight nameable storms . The first system , Hurricane Abby , developed in the northwestern Caribbean Sea on June 1 . Abby moved northward and struck Cuba , bringing heavy rainfall and flooding to western portions of the island . Making landfall in Florida on June 4 , Abby caused flooding and spawned four tornadoes , but left behind little damage . Overall , the hurricane resulted in six deaths and about $ 450 @,@ 000 ( 1968 USD ) in damage . In late June , Tropical Storm Candy brought minor flooding and spawned several tornadoes across portions of the Southern United States . Overall damage from the cyclone reached approximately $ 2 @.@ 7 million .
Despite three named storms in June , cyclone activity slowed throughout the subsequent month , with only one tropical depression . During late August and early September , Tropical Depression Eleven brought flooding to the Jacksonville area of Florida . Hurricane Gladys , the final and also the strongest named storm of the season , developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October 13 . Peaking as a Category 1 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , the system resulted in flooding across western Cuba , particularly in Havana , where the storm caused six deaths and about $ 12 million in damage . Rough seas , gusty winds , tornadoes , and heavy rainfall resulted in generally minor impact in Florida , with three fatalities and damage totaling $ 6 @.@ 7 million . Gladys also provided relief for one of North Carolina 's worst droughts . Several other storms left negligible impact on land . Overall , the storms of the season collectively caused approximately $ 21 @.@ 8 million in damage and killed 17 people .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , with Hurricane Abby developing that day . It was a below average season in which eight tropical storms formed , compared to the 1966 – 2009 average of 11 @.@ 3 named storms . Four of these reached hurricane status , slightly below the 1966 – 2009 average of 6 @.@ 2 . None of the hurricanes strengthened into a major hurricane ; only four other seasons since the satellite era began featured no major hurricanes : 1972 , 1986 , 1994 , and 2013 . Further , no hurricanes exceeded Category 1 intensity on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ; this would not occur again until 2013 . Despite an active beginning , this season had the fewest hurricane days since 1962 . Four hurricanes and one tropical storm made landfall during the season , causing 17 deaths and about $ 21 @.@ 8 million in damage . The last storm of the season , a tropical depression , dissipated on November 25 , five days before the official end of hurricane season on November 30 .
Tropical cyclogenesis began in June , with three named storms during that month – hurricanes Abby and Brenda and Tropical Storm Candy – tying the record set in 1886 , 1936 , and 1959 . Despite the quick start , activity abruptly slowed , with only a tropical depression in July . The next named storm , Hurricane Dolly , existed from August 10 to August 17 , while Tropical Depression Eleven formed later that month . September was the most active month , with five tropical depressions , two tropical storms , and one subtropical storm , which peaked with an intensity equivalent to a Category 1 . In October , Hurricane Gladys became the strongest tropical cyclone of the season , despite maximum sustained winds of only 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 45 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Abby = = =
The interaction of a mid @-@ tropospheric trough and a cold front spawned a tropical depression on June 1 . The initial circulation was not embedded within the convection , but as it moved slowly north @-@ northeastward , it was able to strengthen and become better organized , reaching tropical storm strength on June 2 . It crossed the western tip of Cuba , and upon reaching the southeast Gulf of Mexico , Abby achieved hurricane strength . It weakened to a tropical storm before landfall in Punta Gorda , Florida on June 4 . Abby moved across the state and then reached the western Atlantic . On June 6 , it made another landfall near Jacksonville . Abby weakened to a tropical depression as it moved over Georgia , and over the next six days , it drifted over The Carolinas , finally dissipating on June 13 east of Virginia .
As Abby crossed Cuba , moderate rainfall and relatively high winds were reported . In addition , Abby dropped heavy rainfall across the state of Florida , peaking at 14 @.@ 65 in ( 372 mm ) in Hart Lake . However , the rain was almost entirely beneficial , as Florida was suffering from a severe drought . Despite winds gusts up to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , no significant wind damage was reported . Abby spawned several tornadoes in Florida , though losses rarely exceeded $ 5 @,@ 000 . One twister in Monroe , North Carolina , damaged 20 cars , and destroyed three homes and impacted 20 others . Elsewhere , the storm dropped relatively light rainfall and produced a few tornadoes throughout the Southeastern United States . Overall , the storm caused approximately $ 450 @,@ 000 in damage and led to six indirect fatalities .
= = = Hurricane Brenda = = =
The trough that spawned Abby persisted , with another tropical depression developing over the Straits of Florida on June 17 . Early the following day , the depression crossed the Florida Keys and later made landfall in a rural area of Monroe County . Wind shear levels became increasingly favorable , causing the depression to maintain its intensity while crossing Florida . Because the heaviest shower and thunderstorm activity remained well offshore the state , little impact was reported . Up to 8 @.@ 61 in ( 219 mm ) of precipitation fell at the Homestead Experiment Station . Early on June 20 , the depression emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Flagler Beach . Shortly thereafter , a weak trough in the westerlies forced the storm to curve eastward . Intensification then occurred , with the depression becoming Tropical Storm Brenda early on June 21 .
Later on June 21 and into June 22 , the Bermuda high built southwestward as a weak trough passed to the north , resulting in Brenda turning northeastward . With persistent favorable conditions , the storm reached hurricane status at 12 : 00 UTC on June 23 . Early the next day , Brenda attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) . Thereafter , a ridge of high pressure blocked moist air from reaching the storm , causing it to weaken . By June 25 , Brenda fell to tropical storm intensity and deteriorated further to a tropical depression on June 26 . Later that day , it was absorbed by a large extratropical cyclone , while located about 360 mi ( 580 km ) west @-@ southwest of Flores Island in the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Candy = = =
A tropical disturbance located in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico developed into a tropical depression on June 22 . Gradual strengthening occurred , with the depression being upgraded to Tropical Storm Candy on the following day . On June 23 , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Hours later , Candy made landfall near Port Aransas , Texas at the same intensity , before quickly weakening to a tropical depression by early on June 24 . However , it persisted for a few more days , until transitioning into an extratropical cyclone over Michigan on June 26 .
Due to rainfall from a previous weather system , the ground was already saturated throughout Texas . As a result , Candy caused flooding , with precipitation exceeding 11 in ( 280 mm ) in some areas . Minor damage to crops , roads , and bridges was reported in the eastern portions of the state . Agricultural losses alone were slightly less than $ 2 million . Storm surge along the coast of Texas caused " cuts " on Padre Island . The storm spawned 24 tornadoes , though only one caused significant impact . Candy and its remnants dropped rainfall in 24 other states , reaching as far north as New Hampshire . Overall , Candy caused $ 2 @.@ 7 million in damage and no fatalities .
= = = Hurricane Dolly = = =
In late July , a tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa . After tracking west @-@ northwestward and westward , the wave reached the Straits of Florida on August 9 , where it began interacting with an upper @-@ level low . Early on August 10 , the system developed into a tropical depression , while located near Andros Island in the Bahamas . Shortly thereafter , the depression made landfall near Fort Lauderdale , Florida . The depression quickly re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic . Initially , the depression did not strengthen and was nearby absorbed by a cold front . After paralleling part of the East Coast of the United States , the depression moved further out to sea . By early on August 12 , the depression finally strengthened into Tropical Storm Dolly , and further developed into a hurricane later that day .
Dolly briefly weakened back to a tropical storm on August 13 amid unfavorable atmospheric conditions , only to reattain hurricane intensity later that day . On August 14 , Dolly peaked with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . After remaining a minimal hurricane until August 16 , the unfavorable conditions prevailed , causing Dolly to rapidly weaken to a tropical depression . By early on August 17 , Dolly became extratropical while about 300 mi ( 480 km ) north of the Azores . Impact from Hurricane Dolly was minimal , with only rainfall being reported on land . Precipitation peaked at 3 @.@ 89 in ( 99 mm ) at Palm Beach International Airport in West Palm Beach , Florida . Although it was mostly limited to the east coast of Florida , isolated areas of rain were reported in the Panhandle and on the west coast . Elsewhere , rainfall from Dolly was also recorded in North and South Carolina , though it did not exceed or reach 3 in ( 76 mm ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Edna = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 10 . A weak high @-@ level trough and a warm anticyclone to the east @-@ northeast generated low wind shear , allowing a tropical depression to developin at 18 : 00 UTC on September 11 , while located about 225 mi ( 360 km ) southeast of Praia , Cape Verde . Although satellite imagery indicated a well @-@ defined tropical depression , it did not organize further until at least September 13 . Two days later , the ship Sal Mela observed wind speeds of 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) . Thus , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Edna on September 15 . Around that time , Edna attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1001 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . By September 18 , upper level cold trough began producing unfavorable conditions , with the storm weakening to a tropical depression that day . Edna degenerated into a tropical wave early the following day , while situated about 395 mi ( 635 km ) east of Barbuda .
= = = Subtropical Storm One = = =
A subtropical depression developed at 12 : 00 UTC on September 14 , while located about 295 mi ( 475 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina and initially moved east @-@ northeastward . Early on September 16 , it briefly curved north @-@ northwestward and strengthened into a subtropical storm , before turning back to the east @-@ northeastward later that day . By September 17 , the storm re @-@ curved to the southeast and decelerated but began to accelerate on September 19 . Strengthened continued , with the storm attaining an intensity equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane early the following day . At 00 : 00 UTC on September 12 , it peaked with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Accelerating northeastward , a weakening trend soon commenced . The subtropical storm became extratropical by 12 : 00 UTC on September 23 , while located about 320 mi ( 510 km ) northwest of Corvo Island in the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Frances = = =
A tropical depression developed east of the Bahamas at 12 : 00 UTC on September 23 . Convection was enhanced by a mid @-@ tropospheric trough , though further strengthening was initially slow . Initially , the depression headed northward , but curved northeastward on September 25 . A reconnaissance aircraft late on September 26 reported a warm core , sustained winds of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 001 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Therefore , it is estimated that the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Frances around that time . The storm intensified slightly further to winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , before beginning to weaken on September 28 . Later that day , steering flow from an upper low pressure area caused Frances to curve almost due eastward . The storm weakened further to a tropical depression early on September 29 , shortly before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Gladys = = =
In early October , a tropical wave interacted with the intertropical convergence zone while located in the southwestern Caribbean Sea , spawning multiple low pressure areas . One of the lows developed into a tropical depression while centered near San Andrés on October 13 . The depression moved north @-@ northwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Gladys on October 15 . By the following day , it became a hurricane , shortly before striking Cuba . Gladys later peaked with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , just before making landfall near Homosassa , Florida on October 19 . The hurricane crossed the state and continued northeastward , passing just east of Cape Hatteras on October 20 . The next day , Gladys became extratropical and was absorbed by a cold front over Nova Scotia .
In Cuba , Gladys caused flash flooding and heavily damaged the tobacco crop . Damage in the country was estimated at $ 12 million , and there were six deaths . While passing west of the Florida Keys , the hurricane produced strong winds that briefly cut communications to the Dry Tortugas , but damage was minor . Near where Gladys made landfall , winds gusted to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and tides reached 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) above normal . There was heavy beach erosion and flooding along the coast , while the winds knocked down trees and caused power outages . Across the state , damage was estimated at $ 6 @.@ 7 million , and three people were indirectly killed . Heavy rainfall in South Carolina caused minor river flooding . When paralleling just off the coast of North Carolina , Gladys was responsible for breaking the state 's worst drought since 1932 , and proved more beneficial than the minor storm damage there . Later , Gladys killed two people in Atlantic Canada and caused coastal damage in Prince Edward Island .
= = = Tropical depressions = = =
A total of seven tropical cyclones remained below tropical storm intensity during the 1968 Atlantic hurricane season . The first such system formed in the north @-@ central Gulf of Mexico at 00 : 00 UTC on July 4 . Moving east @-@ northeastward , it dissipated offshore St. George Island , Florida , about 24 hours later . On August 26 , Tropical Depression Eleven developed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico . Drifting northeastward , the depression was situated offshore Central Florida on August 28 , shortly before it trekked southward and made three landfalls in Florida near Clearwater , Holmes Beach , and Venice . By early on August 29 , the depression began moving northeast to north @-@ northeastward across the state . Late on August 31 , the system emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Atlantic Beach and dissipated shortly thereafter . Due to the depression 's slow movement across Florida , heavy rainfall was observed , including 15 @.@ 46 in ( 393 mm ) of rainfall in Jacksonville . Considerable flooding was reported in Clay and Duval counties . Along the upper Cedar River in the latter , many homes and businesses were flooded . Eleven bridges were inundated with water ranging from a few inches to 4 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) . Peak discharge amounts were higher than during Hurricane Dora in 1964 . However , soil moisture and streamflow conditions during Dora were much more conducive to producing floods than antecedent conditions associated with this depression . Further south in Daytona Beach , a tornado destroyed a motel and several homes .
The next tropical depression formed on September 7 , while centered about 820 mi ( 1 @,@ 320 km ) north @-@ northeast of Fortaleza , Ceará . Moving generally west to west @-@ northwestward , the depression approached the Lesser Antilles , but dissipated well east @-@ southeast of the islands on September 10 . Another tropical depression developed on September 17 , while situated about 205 mi ( 330 km ) south of Santiago , Cape Verde . The depression moved northwestward and did not strengthen . By September 21 , it dissipated about 1 @,@ 135 mi ( 1 @,@ 830 km ) west @-@ northwest of the northernmost islands of Cape Verde . The next tropical depression originated on September 23 , while located approximately 670 mi ( 1 @,@ 080 km ) east @-@ northeast of Cayenne , French Guiana . Approaching the Windward Islands , it crossed through Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , before dissipating on September 25 . That day , Tropical Depression Eighteen formed in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . While a tropical cyclone , it struck Cuba and Florida . Generally light rainfall was reported in the state , with up to 7 @.@ 53 in ( 191 mm ) at the Royal Palm Ranger Station in Everglades National Park . Thereafter , the depression tracked northeastward and dissipated on September 29 . The final tropical depression developed on November 24 near Mayaguana . Moving north @-@ northeastward to northeastward , the depression dissipated southwest of Bermuda about 24 hours later .
Additionally , another tropical depression was tracked during the season , though it was not included in the Atlantic hurricane best track . Classified as Tropical Depression Fourteen , the system developed from a low pressure area offshore the Southeastern United States on September 8 . It headed generally north @-@ northeastward ahead of a mid @-@ level cyclone that moved south @-@ southeastward into the central Appalachian Mountains . While the storm passed just offshore the Outer Banks of North Carolina , the depression dropped 5 @.@ 8 in ( 150 mm ) of precipitation on Bodie Island . Thereafter , the cyclone began losing tropical characteristics and became extratropical on September 11 while making landfall on Long Island , New York . Winds gusts of 33 and 46 mph ( 53 and 74 km / h ) were observed between Boston and New York City . The remnants of this storm entered Atlantic Canada and was absorbed by a larger extratropical cyclone shortly before emerging into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence on September 12 .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1968 . The list is mostly the same as the 1964 season , except for Candy , Dolly , Edna , Frances , Hannah , and Ingrid . A storm was named Candy for the first time in 1968 . No names were retired this season . However , the name Edna was later retroactively retired because of the Hurricane Edna of the 1954 season , and has not been used since . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= You and I ( Lady Gaga song ) =
" You and I " ( stylized as " Yoü and I " ) is a song by American singer Lady Gaga , taken from her second studio album , Born This Way ( 2011 ) . Written by Gaga , " You and I " samples Queen 's " We Will Rock You " ( 1977 ) and features electric guitar by Queen 's Brian May . The song was debuted by Gaga in June 2010 during her performance at Elton John 's White Tie and Tiara Ball . Footage of the performance appeared on the Internet , and positive response encouraged her to incorporate the song into her setlist for The Monster Ball Tour . She subsequently performed the song on Today to a record crowd in July 2010 , and on The Oprah Winfrey Show in May 2011 . The song was released as the fourth single from the album , on August 23 , 2011 by Interscope .
" You and I " is a slow tempo song featuring instrumentation from electric guitars and piano , with Gaga and Lange providing background vocals . The song received critical acclaim , with reviewers listing it as one of the highlights from Born This Way . After the release of the parent album , " You and I " charted in Canada , United Kingdom and the United States , due to digital downloads from the parent album . Season ten American Idol contestant Haley Reinhart performed " You and I " in May 2011 prior to its release , earning positive reviews . Her studio recording was released to the iTunes Store as a single , and appeared on the compilation album , American Idol Top 5 Season 10 . " You and I " was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 54th Grammy Awards , which was held on February 12 , 2012 .
The accompanying music video for " You and I " was released on August 16 , 2011 and was shot by Gaga 's long @-@ time collaborator Laurieann Gibson in Springfield , Nebraska . The video features Jo Calderone , Gaga 's male alter ego , who is also featured on the single 's cover , and Yüyi , her mermaid alter ego . The main concept behind the video was Gaga 's journey to be with her beloved one ; she is portrayed through an assortment of scenes displaying her in various avatars , including Calderone and Yuyi . After its release , the video was met with positive reception .
= = Production and release = =
" You and I " was written by Lady Gaga and produced by Gaga and Robert John " Mutt " Lange , and was one of the first songs previewed from the album . Gaga said that the song was written in New York , while she was busy playing her old piano . The singer had first played " You and I " at Elton John 's White Tie and Tiara Ball in June 2010 . She said that the song was bit of a " rock @-@ and @-@ roll tune " , predicting that it may not be released as a single from Born This Way , but that it will remain " very dear " to her heart . Footage of the performance appeared on the Internet soon after , and positive response encouraged Lady Gaga to perform the song during the first concert of the North American leg of The Monster Ball Tour in Montreal . Gaga told MSNBC 's Meredith Vieira and Ann Curry that " ' You and I ' was written about the most important person that I ever met " , allegedly Lüc Carl , her ex @-@ boyfriend .
" You and I " was announced by Gaga on July 22 , 2011 as the fourth single from Born This Way . The single cover for " You and I " was released on August 5 , 2011 , via TwitPic , accompanied with the line : " You will never find what you are looking for in love , if you don 't love yourself . " It features two black @-@ and @-@ white images of Gaga 's male alter ego Jo Calderone , while smoking a cigarette and sporting sideburns . Previously the character of Calderone had made an appearance in June 2011 , when Gaga posed as him for a series of photos in London by photographer Nick Knight and arranged by stylist Nicola Formichetti . One shot features him wearing a blazer and white T @-@ shirt with his head down and smoking a cigarette . The other image is of Jo Calderone in silhouette puffing out a cloud of smoke . A writer for The Daily Telegraph of Australia described the images as giving a moody and scruffy look , and felt that Gaga had become " bored with being an outrageous woman and has decided to switch gender instead . " Rap @-@ Up 's David Jones commented that Gaga 's Calderone character looked similar to musician Bob Dylan on the cover . Although Steve Pond of Reuters did not like the song , he stated about the artwork , " Lady Gaga loves herself even when she 's dressed as a guy . "
= = Composition = =
" You and I " has rock music and country music influences , and features British rock band Queen 's guitarist Brian May . It was recorded by Tom Ware and Horace Ward at the Warehouse Productions Studio in Omaha , Nebraska , and Allertwon Hill in the United Kingdom , respectively . Along with May , Justin Shirley Smith also played guitars , while Gene Grimaldi did the mastering of the track . Additional recording and programming were done by Olle Romo . Before production credits were announced in April 2011 , Gaga had teased that " someone legendary " would be producing the track . Gaga , a Queen fan ( even taking her stage name from the Queen song " Radio Ga Ga " ) , admitted to " [ falling ] to the floor crying and laughing " when she found out that May agreed to the collaboration . Lange requested that Gaga record a " rough lead vocal " for the track while she was touring . Gaga later recalled : " I had about 30 cigarettes and a couple of glasses of Jameson and just put on a click track and sang my face off , thinking we 'd redo the vocals . " However , Lange was satisfied with Gaga 's recording and it was used as the final recorded vocals for the track . Ware recalled that the song was recorded the night after Gaga 's March 17 , 2011 , concert for The Monster Ball Tour . Gaga welcomed his opinions and encouraged his input , which according to him , helped make the four @-@ hour session the best working experience he has had with a celebrity . " She was flattering toward the studio — and Omaha , too , for that matter . She is a bright young lady with remarkable music instincts who charts her own path , " he added .
According to the sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " You and I " is set in common time with a slow tempo of 60 beats per minute . It is written in the key of A major , and during the song , Gaga 's voice spans from the notes of E3 to C ♯ 5 . The song begins with an A – G – A chord progression , which changes to A – Bm / A – D / A – B ♯ m during the chorus , and back to the former chords afterwards . The opening lyrics — " It 's been a long time since I came around / It 's been a long time , but I 'm back in town / And this time , I 'm not leaving without you " — describe a whiskey @-@ breathed lover for whom she is pining . Gil Kaufman from MTV News described it as the " tune eschewed most of her dance flavor , right down to a rollicking barrel @-@ house piano solo . " Her voice sounded like growling during the main verses , where she sings the lines " He said , ' Sit back down where you belong , in the corner of my bar with your high heels on , Sit back down on the couch where we made love the first time , and you said to me . " Noting the differences between live performances of the song and the studio version , Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph observed that the piano parts were replaced mostly by " fizzing synths , a stomping beat sampled from " We Will Rock You " , thundering electric guitars and backing vocals stacked into shimmering choral walls . " Music critic Kitty Empire , while writing for The Guardian , described the song as an " umlaut @-@ toting digital country power ballad " with two Bruce Springsteen references : " born to run " and Nebraska .
= = Critical reception = =
" You and I " received critical acclaim from music critics . After hearing the White Tie and Tiara Ball performance , Entertainment Weekly 's Leah Greenblatt complimented the song for its " torchy , slow @-@ burn cabaret quality " and for lacking " Auto @-@ Tune , fancy production , or performance gimmicks " . McCormick , who noted the differences between Gaga 's live and studio versions of the song , described the studio version as " bigger , bolder and less quirkily emotive , a custom @-@ built radio rock ballad to induce hand claps in packed stadiums . This is not music for the underground : it is cheesy , high @-@ gloss , pop rock for the mainstream middle , a kind of instant Eighties retro classic to seduce middle @-@ aged rockers – possibly the last demographic to remain sceptical about her appeal . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone called the song a confessional power ballad " with a torrid , Sturm und Drang vocal turn " . In his review for The Guardian , Tim Jonze said the song " aims for a ' Hey Jude ' style singalong but – owing to its determination to have someone playing kitchen sink in the background – ends up as bloated as Oasis ' ' All Around the World ' . " Dan Aquilante of The New York Post wrote a less @-@ than @-@ favorable review of Born This Way but complimented " You and I " and the " uniquely earthy quality " that Lange brought to the album . Kitty Empire said the song is Gaga 's " unlikely heartland moment – a bid , perhaps , to locate herself as an all @-@ American balladeer as well as an art @-@ disco avatar with tent pegs under her skin " , referring to the implants featured in the music video for the song " Born This Way " .
The Dartmouth 's Kate Sullivan wrote that " You and I " may be Gaga 's most honest song to date . Shirley Halperin from The Hollywood Reporter wondered whether pop radio would play the song , considering Gaga 's popularity . Halperin felt that the track emoted " a sense of grandness that listeners don 't always get with Gaga 's RedOne @-@ produced heavily @-@ synthetic sounds . " Conversely , she felt that the addition of live piano and background vocals by Gaga and Lange added " an undeniably lush quality , while the lyrics drives the song home and potentially into hit territory . " Kerri Mason from Billboard felt that the " country ballad " made no contextual sense . Nekesa Mumbi Moody , while reviewing Born This Way for Florida Today , compared the song to " Speechless " , a similar tempo song included on The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) . Robert Copsey , a writer for the website Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars calling it a " torchy , retro @-@ classic , all @-@ American power ballad custom @-@ built for the masses – and one we suspect Stefani would be proud to call her own . " Amy Sciarretto of Artistdirect concluded that the song was " a bit bluesier than anything you 'd expect from the dance floor icon . " AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine chose the song as a highlight on Born This Way saying that Gaga shows her vulnerability in it .
" You and I " was nominated for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 54th Grammy Awards , which was held on February 12 , 2012 .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " You and I " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 36 on the chart dated June 11 , 2011 , after selling 83 @,@ 000 downloads . The song re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 96 on the issue dated August 27 , 2011 , while debuting on the Pop Songs chart at number 35 . The next week , the song was the greatest gainer on the digital chart , entering at number 24 by selling 56 @,@ 000 copies , while moving to number 35 on the Hot 100 . It also gained airplay and became the highest debuting song on the Radio Songs chart , entering at number 58 with 22 million audience impressions . Following the performance of the song on the MTV Video Music Awards , " You and I " moved up to number 16 on the Hot 100 , with a 92 % increase in digital sales to 109 @,@ 000 and 50 % increase in airplay to 32 million , according to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems . The following week , it moved to number six on the Hot 100 with a 61 % increase in digital sales to 175 @,@ 000 and a 32 % increase in radio play to 41 million audience impressions , reaching number four and number 23 on the Digital Songs and Radio Songs charts , respectively . " You and I " became Gaga 's eleventh consecutive top ten single on the Hot 100 . In October 2011 it became Gaga 's tenth song to sell 1 million in the U.S. As of April 2015 , " You and I " has sold 2 @,@ 310 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US becoming Gaga 's tenth two @-@ million seller . In June 2012 " You and I " received a double platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America .
In Canada , the song entered the Hot Digital Songs chart at number 14 , consequently debuting on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 27 . It entered the charts again at number 45 , and has reached a peak of number 10 . Before the single was officially released , it started selling digital downloads in Australia , and subsequently entered the ARIA Singles Chart at number 56 on August 15 , 2011 . The next week , the song moved up to number 34 , and has reached a peak of number 14 . Following the album 's release on May 23 , 2011 , " You and I " entered the UK Singles Chart at number 89 , due to digital downloads from Born This Way . The song jumped up to number 70 from its previous week 's position of number 187 , on the issue dated September 3 , 2011 , and has reached a peak of number 23 . In Japan , the song had initially entered the digital chart at number 98 , but after the MTV Video Music Awards performance , it entered the Japan Hot 100 at number eight .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video for " You and I " was filmed in Springfield , Nebraska in July 2011 and was directed by Lady Gaga 's choreographer Laurieann Gibson . In the video , Gaga walks from New York City to Nebraska to get her boyfriend back . According to Gaga : " I 'm walking with no luggage and no nothing and it 's just me and my ankles are bleeding a little bit and there 's grass stuck in my and I 've got this outfit on and it 's real sort of New York clothing and I 'm sprinting ... And the [ video is about the ] idea that when you 're away from someone you love , it 's torture , " she continued . " I knew I wanted the video to be about me sprinting back and walking hundreds of thousands of miles to get him back . "
The music video was announced to be released alongside the 1,000th message posted by Gaga on her Twitter account . Gaga confirmed to MTV News that the video was set to premiere on August 18 , 2011 on MTV . However , two days before the video 's television premiere , parts of the clip leaked on the Internet , prompting Gaga to post three tweets which , together , read " FUCK THURS DAY " . The messages were immediately followed by her 1,000th Twitter message , " You must love all + every part of me , as must I , for this complex + incomprehensible force to be true , " including a link to the full music video , which was uploaded onto Gaga 's YouTube channel two days earlier than the scheduled premiere . The video features Gaga 's two alter egos : Jo Calderone , Gaga 's male ego , and Yüyi , a mermaid that was hinted to appear in the video in July 2011 .
Following the premiere of the video on MTV , Gaga explained some of her inspirations and scenes of the video ; " The video is quite complex in the way that the story is told , and it 's meant to be slightly linear and slightly twisted and confusing , which is the way that love is " , she added . Regarding the sexual intercourse scenes between actor Taylor Kinney and the singer as a mermaid , Gaga explained that metaphorically it emphasized the fact that sometimes relationships did not work . " No matter what you do , there 's this giant boundary between you and someone else . So that 's what it 's about , perceiving in your imagination that there 's something magical inside of you that you can make it work . " After revealing that the wedding dress in the video belonged to her mother , Gaga explained the scenes involving the ice cream truck . According to her , it represented the destruction of her youth , experiences of which she had shared in her earlier interviews . Detailing her decision to include it , Gaga said :
That 's how I wanted to open the video , because I think it really sets up the rest of the story . It allows you to imagine you yourself are not just one person ; you 're so many . That person has so many stories and memories to draw from , and they all affect your journey profusely . I 'm battered quite brutally at the beginning of the video , but at the end , I 'm not battered ; I 'm a bit strange . It 's not meant to be an answer video ; it 's meant to be a profuse number of the question .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video begins with Gaga , dressed in black clothing , sunglasses , bloody feet and seemingly bionic features , walking through a field in Nebraska ; having returned on foot after years of absence . Gaga goes to buy ice cream from an ice cream truck , but she suddenly drops it as a toothless man grins at her with a doll in his hand . She begins to then have flashbacks to her time spent in Nebraska as scenes of Gaga having a wedding , being tortured by a man inside a barn and being inside a water tank are shown in quick succession . The song starts playing as the camera slowly zooms towards Gaga , who is standing bent forward as she begins singing . The video continually switches to scenes where Gaga , with little make up , a simple gray @-@ colored hair style and a white dress , plays a piano in the middle of a cornfield , while her male alter ego , Jo Calderone sits on top of the piano , smoking and drinking a beer . As Calderone pulls up his sleeves , present day Gaga is shown still walking through the desert .
During the second verse , a mad scientist , portrayed by Kinney seemingly tortures Gaga , who is wearing a yellow dress with glasses made of barbwire , as another version of the singer with teal @-@ colored hair does a dance routine with her backup dancers in a barn . As the chorus begins for the second time , Gaga is portrayed as Yüyi the Mermaid , with gills on her face and neck , as she lies in a tub filled with dirty water . At the end of the chorus , the camera zooms to a brunette Gaga inside a water tank while she sings " You and I " in the desert scene and in the cornfield with Calderone . Interspersing scenes again show Gaga having her wedding , Yüyi in her tub , and Gaga seated on a chair with a conveyor belt . During May 's guitar solo , Gaga is seen dancing in the cornfield with other dancers dressed in the same white dress , as Yüyi and the scientist kiss . While singing the chorus for the final time , Gaga kisses Calderone in one sequence and runs across the field in another . As the video reaches its conclusion , the tortured Gaga is seen being slid down as the conveyor belt turns on . The video ends with Yüyi and the scientist together in the bath tub , as a depiction of their dream wedding flash across , before a final shot of the barn as the screen turns black .
= = = Reception = = =
Following its premature release on the web , the music video for " You and I " was met with positive reviews . Matthew Perpetua from Rolling Stone felt that the video was an improvement from her previous videos , " Judas " and " The Edge of Glory " , saying , " the best moments of the video put a distinctly Gaga @-@ ish spin on the iconography of Americana and traditional love stories . " Jillian Mapes from Billboard wrote , " torture contraptions , mermaid sex , a wedding , bondage in a barn , an ice cream truck , and to top it all off , ' Children of the Corn ' and religious overtones thrown in for good measure , " and thought of the video as the strangest representation of Nebraska , the video 's setting . Leah Collins from Dose named the video a " great opportunity for the singer to finally find out what it 's like to make out with herself . " Kyle Anderson from Entertainment Weekly made note of the video 's scene in which Gaga plays a piano in a cornfield alongside her male alter ego : " She 's just Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta , playing a piano in the middle of a corn field — with a little making out on the side , of course . " Gil Kaufman from MTV News believed that Gaga was not joking when she talked about the video being about the " torture " of being away from the one you love . " And , man , based on the bruising final product , she wasn 't kidding , " Kaufman concluded .
Jocelyn Vena from MTV found influences of Gaga 's past videos , in the various avatars that she plays in the music video . She explained that " when [ Gaga ] stands at a crossroads in a big hat , the image is reminiscent of ' Telephone ' Gaga . When she sits nearly makeup @-@ free at her piano in the cornfields , there are of the teary @-@ eyed makeup @-@ less Gaga from the ' Bad Romance ' video . Flashes of her wedding may remind fans of the wedding dress she wore in the ' Judas ' clip . Robot Gaga 's facial structures recall some of the steampunk looks of her ' Alejandro ' video . Those are only a few of the nods to past personae from her own videography . " Devin Brown from CBS News felt that Gaga had finally returned to form with the video . " After some visually pleasing but generally lackluster videos , she has finally come out with something to write home about . ' You and I ' is arguably the best song on her sophomore release , Born This Way , and now has a video to match . " A writer from Slant Magazine commented that the publication had a mixed reaction to the video , saying that it " is essentially a collection of disconnected images we couldn 't make heads or tails of . "
= = = Fashion films = = =
On September 1 , 2011 , Gaga announced on her Twitter account that she had shot five " fashion films " related to the music video of the song , with Dutch photographer duo Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin . The characters are : Jo Calderone ( gaga 's alter ego ) , Yuyi ( a mermaid ) , Nymph , Bride , and finally Barn Hooker and Mother . After the tweet , Gaga released the first video , titled " Haus of Ü Featuring Nymph " . The two @-@ minute black @-@ and @-@ white video featured Gaga with minimal make @-@ up and performing ballet choreography , while wearing a short dress . As wind blows around her , the singer looks intently towards the camera , with the parting shot being in color film . The second video featured her as the bride from the opening sequence of the original video . The fashion film portrayed her in the same costume , gradually removing it and her wig . At the end , she becomes topless with her hand covering her breasts . Interspersed between are scenes portraying people dressed like Gaga , and appearances by Taylor Kinney from the music video and the singer 's stylist Nicola Formichetti . The third fashion film portrayed the singer as the mermaid Yüyi . She sits on a director 's chair , flopping her tail . Furthermore , it shows two crew members carrying Yuyi toward the barn , where the original video was filmed . Formichetti also makes a cameo in this video too . In March 2012 , the fourth film featuring Jo Calderone was published to Gaga 's YouTube channel , and in August 2012 , the fifth and final film titled " Haus of Ü feat . Barn Hooker and Mother " was officially published ; The film , also featured Taylor Kinney and people characterized as Gaga .
= = Live performances = =
After the first performance of " You and I " at Elton John 's White Tie and Tiara Ball , Gaga performed the song live on television program Today on July 9 , 2010 , before an estimated crowd of 18 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 people , the largest ever to pack Rockefeller Plaza . It was next performed on the July 31 , 2010 , Phoenix stop of the Monster Ball Tour , where Gaga contested Arizona 's immigration law SB 1070 — which mandates that state police officers " question any person they suspect to be an illegal immigrant and imprison any aliens not carrying one of four allowed forms of proper identification " — and dedicated her performance of " You and I " to a boy whose family was affected by the law . Gaga performed the album version of the track on The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 5 , 2011 , using a piano constructed from a wire high @-@ heel structure while sitting on a high stool . The " less organic " version for the final " Harpo Hookups " episode featured an electric guitar and modified lyrics to include Oprah 's name .
The song was included in the setlist of the HBO television special , Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden , which originally aired on May 7 , 2011 , in the United States . Gaga 's performance of " You and I " from the HBO special aired on American Idol , the night after she mentored the four remaining contestants and the week following Haley Reinhart 's performance of the song . A jazz version of " You and I " was performed by her at Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle , Cumbria on May 18 , 2011 . The album version of the song , was the third performance on the Paul O 'Grady Live show in London , on June 17 , 2011 . Wearing a dress by the late Gianni Versace , Gaga was perched atop a New York City inspired fire escape , from where she sang the song . Ryan Love of Digital Spy had a preview of the show 's recording , and said that it was a " real treat " to hear Gaga sing the song . In August 2011 , Gaga performed " You and I " on the American talk show program The View . On August 28 , 2011 , Gaga attended the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards dressed as Jo Calderone . As Calderone , Gaga opened the show with a four @-@ minute monologue , explaining his broken relationship with Gaga . Following the monologue , she performed " You and I " while joined on stage by Brian May . On October 6 , 2011 , she filmed a pre @-@ recorded interview and performance for the single on The Jonathan Ross Show . Later , on October 16 , 2011 she performed the song during a concert at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles for the Clinton Foundation .
On the ABC special , A Very Gaga Thanksgiving , the singer performed the song with a " piano @-@ and @-@ trumpet arrangement " . On November 30 , during the CBS special titled The Grammy Nominations Concert Live ! – Countdown to Music 's Biggest Night — where the nominations for the 54th Grammy Awards were revealed — Gaga performed " You and I " along with Jennifer Nettles of the country band Sugarland while Kristian Bush played the guitar . During the performance she changed the lyrics to fit the occasion : " With your high cowboy boots on . Oh Sugarland , it 's been six whole years . " According to James Montgomery of MTV News , she performed a " husky , musky version " of " You and I " . The song was performed on her 2012 Born This Way Ball tour . During the performance Gaga played the piano . Like previous concert tours , the piano was an elaborate prop that tied into the theme of her show . In keeping with the hair metal theme of Born This Way , the piano was fused to a motorcycle .
= = Cover versions = =
Prior to the release of Born This Way , season ten American Idol contestant Haley Reinhart sang " You and I " as one of two performances for the " Songs from Now and Then " episode . It was requested by Jimmy Iovine , head of Gaga 's record label and Reinhart received Gaga 's permission prior to the performance . Reviews of Reinhart 's performance were mostly positive . Len Melisurgo from The Star @-@ Ledger considered the selection to be risky , since the song had not been released , but accepted that Reinhart " sounded amazing " by hitting " some really high notes " . Brian Mansfield from USA Today described Reinhart 's performance as an " old @-@ fashioned dance @-@ hall groove , kind of like a mid- ' 70s Elton John number . It 's perfectly suited to that slippery growl that such a distinctive component of Haley 's style . By the end of the song , she turns it into a gospel @-@ style rocker , and she takes it to the house . " Mansfield also noted that the American Idol judges — Randy Jackson , Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler — reacted positively to it . On the contrary , Jim Farber from New York Daily News considered the choice as risky and was thankful when Reinhart performed a more familiar song for her second round . On May 5 , 2011 , Reinhart 's studio recording of " You and I " was released as a digital single to the iTunes Store , and also appeared on the compilation album American Idol Top 5 Season 10 . Mansfield , who had initial misgivings about Reinhart as a singer , complimented her studio recording of the track , feeling that if Reinhart could " get another 10 songs this good when it comes time to cut the record , then all my initial misgivings about this girl will vanish into thin air . "
British singer Amelia Lily covered the song in November 2011 during her time on UK talent show The X Factor . In November 15 , 2011 , comedy @-@ drama musical TV series Glee featured a mash @-@ up of Gaga 's " You and I " and Eddie Rabbitt and Crystal Gayle 's " You and I " in episode " Mash Off " , performed by Matthew Morrison and Idina Menzel ( respectively as their characters Will Schuester and Shelby Corcoran ) . The mash @-@ up sold 23 @,@ 000 digital downloads , and debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 69 , on the issue dated December 3 , 2011 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and management
Recorded at Warehouse Productions ( Omaha , Nebraska ) and Allertown Hill ( United Kingdom )
Mastered at Oasis Mastering ( Burbank , California )
Contains elements of the composition " We Will Rock You " , written by Brian May and sung by band Queen
Published by Stefani Germanotta P / K / A Lady Gaga , Sony / ATV Songs LLC , House of Gaga Publishing Inc . , GloJoe Music Inc. and Sony / ATV Music Publishing
All rights on behalf of itself and Interscope Records , a division of UMG Recordings , Inc .
Brian May appears courtesy of Hollywood Records ( for US and Canada distribution ) and Universal International ( for worldwide distribution )
Personnel
Lady Gaga – lead vocals , songwriter , producer , background vocals , piano and keyboards
Robert John " Mutt " Lange – producer , background vocals , audio mixing
Tom Ware and Horace Ward – recording
Olle Romo – programming , recording
Brian May – guitar
Justin Shirley Smith – guitar recording
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering
Credits adapted from Born This Way album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Rocks and Honey =
Rocks and Honey is the sixteenth studio album by Welsh singer Bonnie Tyler , first released by ZYX Music on March 8 , 2013 . Eight years since Wings was released in 2005 , this was the longest gap between album releases in Tyler 's career , and is the first of her studio albums to chart in the United Kingdom since 1988 . With tracks written by Nashville @-@ based songwriters such as Frank J. Myers , Desmond Child , Brett James and Beth Hart , the album consists of a number of country songs reminiscent to Tyler 's country albums from the 1970s with elements of rock .
The album received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised Tyler 's vocals as well as the album 's consistency . Rocks and Honey charted in Europe , reaching number 28 in Denmark , number 52 in the UK and number 59 in Germany and Switzerland . Tyler embarked on her South Africa Tour 2013 following the Eurovision Song Contest . The single " Believe in Me " represented the United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmö , Sweden on 18 May 2013 , and has charted in the UK Singles Chart at number 93 . The album was named in reference to the contrast between the voices of Tyler and duet partner Vince Gill on the track " What You Need From Me " . The follow @-@ up singles , " This Is Gonna Hurt " and " Love Is the Knife " , were released in August and September 2013 respectively .
= = Background = =
Plans for the release of Rocks and Honey date back to as early as 2008 , where an interview with Tyler was published in a Turkish newspaper precessing a concert in Northern Cyprus . She announced that she would be working with Jim Steinman for her new album and was aiming for a release in summer 2009 . Due to health reasons , Steinman did not end up working on the album . Then in September 2008 , Tyler was interviewed on an internet radio show called The Bat Segundo Show , where she stated that she had recorded demos for several tracks and had approached Bryan Adams to do a duet for the album , but he said that it was " not the right time " .
During a 2010 interview in New Zealand when preparing to perform at a charity concert , Tyler stated that she had recorded six tracks for the album , expecting a release at some point in 2011 . In years leading up to the album 's release , Tyler has performed new songs such as " You Are The One " , " Don 't Tell Me It 's Over Now " , " It 's My Name " , and " Is That Thing Loaded ? " . However , none of these songs were added to the album , despite Tyler announcing during various concerts that they had been recorded , or were due to be recorded for it . " Under One Sky " was also due to be released on the new album , but was instead released on Tyler 's 2011 compilation album , Best of 3 CD . During an interview while promoting the album in the UK , she said that it was a possibility that " Is That Thing Loaded ? " may be included on a future album .
On 22 February 2012 , Desmond Child announced
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on his Twitter account that Tyler had been recording some of his songs in Nashville with David Huff as producer . An update about news of the new album was posted on Tyler 's old website on 13 February 2012 , where it was announced that Tyler had been recording in Nashville . News of a demo recording of " What You Need From Me " was added on 16 April 2012 , where it also said that she had visited Los Angeles to help with the mixing of some tracks . Tyler made the title of the album public during an interview in Norway in July later that year .
Between the release of Rocks and Honey and Wings in 2005 , Tyler had released a number of compilations including Best Of 3 CD with Stick Music , her previous record company . ZYX Music , the first record company to release Rocks and Honey , first signed Tyler in 2011 and released Live in Germany 1993 , a CD and DVD .
= = = Album title = = =
" What You Need From Me " was written by Jon Randall and Jessi Alexander and a demo was played to Tyler when visiting a publishing company in Nashville in 2011 . After hearing the song she approached Vince Gill to record the track as a duet . After recording the song , Tyler stated that someone compared her and Gill 's voices to a combination of rocks and honey , which led Tyler to name the album " Rocks and Honey " . American singer @-@ songwriters Melissa Bollea and Bill DiLuigi wrote a song with the same title for Tyler , though she had already finalised the naming of the album and turned down the song .
= = Development = =
The majority of songs were recorded in various studios in Tennessee between February and May 2012 . Tyler has already stated that she has enough remaining material from Nashville @-@ based publishers for a seventeenth studio album .
Two songs were written by Desmond Child . This was the first time Tyler had worked with Child since 1988 , on her Hide Your Heart album . All thirteen tracks were newly recorded by Tyler , with the inclusion of two covers ; " Flat on the Floor " was originally recorded by Carrie Underwood on her 2007 album Carnival Ride , and " All I Ever Wanted " was first recorded by Beau Davidson in 2010 .
While Tyler and her manager were living in Nashville , they visited the Bluebird Cafe on a songwriters ' evening where she first discovered some tracks that would be included on Rocks and Honey .
" You have to cue up to get in there , it was like a tiny little house , and all these songwriters sit around a table with their guitars and they all sing their original material . This is where I heard one of the songwriters on the album - I do a song on there called " Mom " , it 's all about a baby talking to God before it 's born . - I heard this singer there , and he was just amazing . There 's so much talent there , it 's just fabulous . I want to do another album there before the end of my career . "
= = Release and promotion = =
Tyler first announced the title of the album on BBC Radio Wales in August 2012 . On the same show , " What You Need From Me " became the first track of the album to be played on radio internationally . The second track to be made public was " All I Ever Wanted " , which Tyler performed live in Germany for a New Year 's Eve show , and again in February , though the middle eight was cut .
Rocks and Honey was due to be released in October 2012 , though after Tyler was asked to participate in the Eurovision Song Contest , the release was postponed for five months . The album was first made available for sale on the French Amazon store in February 2013 . A promotional album artwork was later added before the official artwork was made public .
= = = Singles = = =
" Believe in Me " was announced to be the UK 's Eurovision Song Contest entry on 7 March , and was released in the UK as a download single on 13 March and on a maxi CD on 15 March in Europe . The song was well received by BBC Radio 2 , who A @-@ listed the single on their music playlist . On March 28 , 2013 , they also listed the single as " record of the week " . In an interview with Female First Magazine in April 2013 , Tyler announced that it was likely that the track " Sunshine " will be a second single for the album . However it was later announced that " This Is Gonna Hurt " would be the second single , and was released in August 2013 . On 16 September it was announced via Bonnie 's unofficial fan page that " Love Is the Knife " would be the third single , and would be performed on the Danish TV show , Charlies Hjertegalla broadcast on Danish TV2 , along with another one of her hit singles .
Although Tyler herself did not release the song , " Mom " was later released as a single by Garth Brooks on his 2014 album Man Against Machine .
= = = Touring = = =
Tyler has expressed her wishes to tour with the new album in the UK and France . While promoting the album in France , she met with a tour company on 1 June 2013 to discuss a tour of France . In August 2013 , Tyler began her South Africa Tour 2013 , in which she performed at five concerts in three different South African cities .
= = = Bonnie Tyler in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 = = =
On 28 April , Tyler underwent several interviews with media organisations including Digital Spy , The Sun , and the Daily Mail . At mid @-@ day , Tyler was interviewed and then performed an acoustic version of the song on BBC Radio 2 's Weekend Wogan with her Eurovision group .
For further promotion , Tyler was a guest on The One Show on March 19 , 2013 , and was interviewed on several British radio stations leading up to the Grand Final . On 19 May , a day after the Eurovision Song Contest , the Official Charts Company announced that Tyler 's song charted highest of all Eurovision entries in the UK .
After the contest finished , the BBC published the reaction of several journalists and singers towards Tyler finishing 19th . Irish entrant and three @-@ time winner of Eurovision Johnny Logan complimented Tyler , but argued that the song wasn 't strong enough . He continued , " If you 're going to win Eurovision , to go through some of the incredible voting I 've noticed over the last few years , you have to have something that 's going to stand out above everything else . Otherwise you 're just going to hope to pick up 10 or 11 votes . " Similarly , Nathan Moore agreed that the song was not strong enough , but said " It was a great idea to get Bonnie involved , there 's a lot of love for Bonnie out there . " Mick Dalley ( of Yahoo ! News ) agreed that " although Tyler herself was on form , singing beautifully and rousing the crowd with her podiumed finale , " Believe in Me " was simply not good enough as a song " . 1997 UK winner Katrina Leskanich ( of Katrina and the Waves ) stated that she was underwhelmed by Denmark 's entry , and expected Tyler to have scored higher than she did . British journalist Dave Goodman acknowledged that Tyler 's entry was an improvement on the previous year , though argued that it was a combination of a poor position in the running order and the song that kept the UK from scoring higher .
= = Critical reception = =
Rocks and Honey has received mixed reviews from critics since its release . Dirk Neuhaus of Country Rock Magazine published a favourable review of the album , crediting David Huff and Matt Davis for the album production and called " What You Need From Me " a " fantastic track . " Norbert Schiegel of G + J Entertainment Media highlighted the tracks " Sunshine " as a " pleasantly catchy " song , and " What You Need From Me " as " sensational . " He described the whole album as " outstanding . " Jeremy Williams of The Yorkshire Times gave the album a 5 / 5 rating . He asks , " has the gritty vocal of Bonnie Tyler still got what it takes to make you tingle ? The simple answer is YES , " and marks the album as an " impressive return to her country roots " . He also questions that the track " Little Superstar " was not chosen for the UK 's Eurovision song over " Believe in Me " . Similarly , Music @-@ News ' Andy Snipper suggested that the track " Mom " would have been better suited as the Eurovision song , though describes Rocks and Honey as " a fine album . "
The album received a mixed review from Adam Carroll from Seen It Heard It . He says that " This is Gonna Hurt " provides a solid start to the album , with " Sunshine " being his favourite song , and though not keen on ballads , describes " Believe in Me " as a fantastic song . However , he considers " What You Need From Me " to be one of the weakest tracks on the album , describing Tyler 's voice as " rough and beaten " and that her and Vince Gill 's voices do not go together well . Despite this , he still describes the album as solid , and ends with " Bonnie Tyler proves that she is still one of the greatest vocalists out there . " Virgin Media 's Ian Gittins gave the album 3 stars . He stated that the album has nothing new to offer , and could have been recorded any time between 1978 and the present day . The most critical of the album has been Thomas Ingham from OMH Media , who gave the album 2 and a half stars , described the album 's format as " simple – loud , quiet , loud , quiet " and is compiled of a mixture of " cheesy ballads " and " country pop @-@ rock " songs , describing " Flat On The Floor " as " clichéd , but worryingly catchy . " He ended with predicting that Tyler will not be able to take the UK out of its poor Eurovision results trend .
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic :
= = Release history = =
= Walls of Constantinople =
The Walls of Constantinople are a series of defensive stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city of Constantinople ( today Istanbul in Turkey ) since its founding as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine the Great . With numerous additions and modifications during their history , they were the last great fortification system of antiquity , and one of the most complex and elaborate systems ever built .
Initially built by Constantine the Great , the walls surrounded the new city on all sides , protecting it against attack from both sea and land . As the city grew , the famous double line of the Theodosian Walls was built in the 5th century . Although the other sections of the walls were less elaborate , when well @-@ manned , they were almost impregnable for any medieval besieger , saving the city , and the Byzantine Empire with it , during sieges from the Avars , Arabs , Rus ' , and Bulgars , among others ( see Sieges of Constantinople ) . The advent of gunpowder siege cannons rendered the fortifications vulnerable , but cannon technology was not sufficiently advanced to capture the city on its own , and the walls could be repaired between reloading . Ultimately the city fell from sheer weight of numbers of the Ottoman forces on 29 May 1453 after a six @-@ week siege .
The walls were largely maintained intact during most of the Ottoman period , until sections began to be dismantled in the 19th century , as the city outgrew its medieval boundaries . Despite the subsequent lack of maintenance , many parts of the walls survived and are still standing today . A large @-@ scale restoration program has been under way since the 1980s .
= = Land Walls = =
= = = Walls of Greek and Roman Byzantium = = =
According to tradition , the city was founded as Byzantium by Greek colonists from Megara , led by the eponymous Byzas , around 658 BC . At the time the city consisted of a small region around an acropolis , located on the easternmost hill ( corresponding to the modern site of the Topkapı Palace ) . According to the late Byzantine Patria of Constantinople , ancient Byzantium was enclosed by a small wall , which began on the northern edge of the acropolis , extended west to the Tower of Eugenios , then went south and west towards the Strategion and the Baths of Achilles , continued south to the area known in Byzantine times as Chalkoprateia , and then turned , in the area of the Hagia Sophia , in a loop towards the northeast , crossed the regions known as Topoi and Arcadianae and reached the sea at the later quarter of Mangana . This wall was protected by 27 towers , and had at least two landward gates , one which survived to become known as the Arch of Urbicius , and one where the Milion monument was later located . On the seaward side , the wall was much lower . Although the author of the Patria asserts that this wall dated to the time of Byzas , the French researcher Raymond Janin thinks it more likely that it reflects the situation after the city was rebuilt by the Spartan general Pausanias , who conquered the city in 479 BC . This wall is known to have been repaired , utilising tomb stones , under the leadership of a certain Leo in 340 BC , against an attack by Philip II of Macedon .
Byzantium was relatively unimportant during the early Roman period . Contemporaries described it as wealthy , well peopled and well fortified , but this affluence came to an end due to its support for Pescennius Niger ( r . 193 – 194 ) in his war against Septimius Severus ( r . 193 – 211 ) . According to the account of Cassius Dio ( Roman History , 75 @.@ 10 @-@ 14 ) , the city held out against Severan forces for three years , until 196 , with its inhabitants resorting even to throwing bronze statues to the besiegers when they ran out of other projectiles . Severus punished the city harshly : the strong walls were demolished and the city was deprived of its civic status , being reduced to a mere village dependent on Heraclea Perinthus . However , appreciating the city 's strategic importance , Severus eventually rebuilt it and endowed it with many monuments , including a Hippodrome and the Baths of Zeuxippus , as well as a new set of walls , located some 300 – 400 m to the west of the old ones . Little is known of the Severan Wall save for a short description of its course by Zosimus ( New History , II.30.2 @-@ 4 ) and that its main gate was located at the end of a porticoed avenue ( the first part of the later Mese ) and shortly before the entrance of the later Forum of Constantine . The wall seems to have extended from near the modern Galata Bridge in the Eminönü quarter south through the vicinity of the Nuruosmaniye Mosque to curve around the southern wall of the Hippodrome , and then going northeast to meet the old walls near the Bosporus . The Patria also mention the existence of another wall during the siege of Byzantium by Constantine the Great ( r . 306 – 337 ) during the latter 's conflict with Licinius ( r . 308 – 324 ) , in 324 . The text mentions that a fore @-@ wall ( proteichisma ) was running near the Philadephion , located at about the middle of the later , Constantinian city , suggesting the expansion of the city beyond the Severan Wall by this time .
= = = Wall of Constantine = = =
Like Severus before him , Constantine began to punish the city for siding with his defeated rival , but soon he too realized the advantages of Byzantium 's location . During 324 – 336 the city was thoroughly rebuilt and inaugurated on 11 May 330 under the name of " Second Rome " . The name that eventually prevailed in common usage however was Constantinople , the " City of Constantine " ( Gk . Κωνσταντινούπολις , Konstantinoupolis ) . The city of Constantine was protected by a new wall about 2 @.@ 8 km ( 15 stadia ) west of the Severan wall . Constantine 's fortification consisted of a single wall , reinforced with towers at regular distances , which began to be constructed in 324 and was completed under his son Constantius II ( r . 337 – 361 ) . Only the approximate course of the wall is known : it began at the Church of St. Anthony at the Golden Horn , near the modern Atatürk Bridge , ran southwest and then southwards , passed east of the great open cisterns of Mocius and of Aspar , and ended near the Church of the Theotokos of the Rhabdos on the Propontis coast , somewhere between the later sea gates of St. Aemilianus and Psamathos .
Already by the early 5th century however , Constantinople had expanded outside the Constantinian Wall , in the extramural area known as the Exokionion or Exakionion . The wall survived during much of the Byzantine period , even though it was replaced by the Theodosian Walls as the city 's primary defence . An ambiguous passage refers to extensive damage to the city 's " inner wall " from an earthquake on 25 September 478 , which likely refers to the Constantinian wall , and Theophanes the Confessor reports renewed earthquake damage in 557 . It appears that large parts survived relatively intact until the 9th century : the 11th @-@ century historian Kedrenos records that the " wall at Exokionion " , likely a portion of the Constantinian wall , collapsed in an earthquake in 867 . Only traces of the wall appear to have survived in later ages , although Van Millingen states that some parts survived in the region of the İsakapı until the early 19th century . The recent construction of Yenikapı Transfer Center has unearthed a section of the foundation of the wall of Constantine .
= = = = Gates = = = =
The names of a number of gates of the Constantinian Wall survive , but scholars debate their identity and exact location .
The Old Golden Gate ( Latin : Porta Aurea , Ancient Greek : Χρυσεία Πύλη ) , known also as the Xerolophos Gate and the Gate of Saturninus , is mentioned in the Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae , which further states that the city wall itself in the region around it was " ornately decorated " . The gate stood somewhere on the southern slopes of the Seventh Hill . Its construction is often attributed to Constantine , but is in fact of uncertain age . It survived until the 14th century , when the Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras described it as being built of " wide marble blocks with a lofty opening " , and crowned by a kind of stoa . In late Byzantine times , a painting of the Crucifixion was allegedly placed on the gate , leading to its later Ottoman name , İsakapı ( " Gate of Jesus " ) . It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1509 , but its approximate location is known through the presence of the nearby İsakapı Mescidi mosque .
The identity and location of the Gate of At [ t ] alos ( Πόρτα Ἀτ [ τ ] άλου , Porta At [ t ] alou ) are unclear . Cyril Mango identifies it with the Old Golden Gate ; van Millingen places it on the Seventh Hill , at a height probably corresponding to one of the later gates of the Theodosian Wall in that area ; and Raymond Janin places it further north , across the Lycus and near the point where the river passed under the wall . In earlier centuries , it was decorated with many statues , including one of Constantine , which fell down in an earthquake in 740 .
The only gate whose location is known with certainty , aside from the Old Golden Gate , is the Gate of Saint Aemilianus ( Πόρτα τοῦ ἀγίου Αἰμιλιανοῦ , Porta tou hagiou Aimilianou ) , named in Turkish Davutpaşa Kapısı . It lay at the juncture with the sea walls , and served the communication with the coast . According to the Chronicon Paschale , the Church of St Mary of Rhabdos , where the rod of Moses was kept , stood next to the gate .
The Old Gate of the Prodromos ( Παλαιὰ Πόρτα τοῦ Προδρόμου , Palaia Porta tou Prodromou ) , named after the nearby Church of St John the Baptist ( called Prodromos , " the Forerunner " , in Greek ) , is another unclear case . Van Millingen identifies it with the Old Golden Gate , while Janin considers it to have been located on the northern slope of the Seventh Hill .
The last known gate is the Gate of Melantias ( Πόρτα τῆς Μελαντιάδος , Porta tēs Melantiados ) , whose location is also debated . Van Millingen considered it to be a gate of the Theodosian Wall ( the Pege Gate ) , while more recently , Janin and Mango have refuted this , suggesting that it was located on the Constantinian Wall . Again however , while Mango identifies it with the Gate of the Prodromos , Janin considers the name to have been a corruption of the ta Meltiadou quarter , and places the gate to the west of the Mocius cistern . Other authors identified it with the Gate of Adrianople ( A. M. Schneider ) or with the Gate of Rhesios ( A. J. Mordtmann ) .
= = = Theodosian Walls = = =
The double Theodosian Walls ( Greek : τείχος Θεοδοσιακόν , teichos Theodosiakon ) , located about 2 km to the west of the old Constantinian Wall , were erected during the reign of Emperor Theodosius II ( r . 408 – 450 ) , after whom they were named . The work was carried out in two phases , with the first phase erected during Theodosius ' minority under the direction of Anthemius , the praetorian prefect of the East , and was finished in 413 according to a law in the Codex Theodosianus . An inscription discovered in 1993 however records that the work lasted for nine years , indicating that construction had already begun ca . 404 / 405 , in the reign of Emperor Arcadius ( r . 395 – 408 ) . This initial construction consisted of a single curtain wall with towers , which now forms the inner circuit of the Theodosian Walls .
Both the Constantinian and the original Theodosian walls were severely damaged , however , in two earthquakes , on 25 September 437 and on 6 November 447 . The latter was especially powerful , and destroyed large parts of the wall , including 57 towers . Subsequent earthquakes , including another major one in January 448 , compounded the damage . Theodosius II ordered the praetorian prefect Constantine to supervise the repairs , made all the more urgent as the city was threatened by the presence of Attila the Hun in the Balkans . Employing the city 's " Circus factions " in the work , the walls were restored in a record 60 days , according to the Byzantine chroniclers and three inscriptions found in situ . It is at this date that the majority of scholars believe the second , outer wall to have been added , as well as a wide moat opened in front of the walls , but the validity of this interpretation is questionable ; the outer wall was possibly an integral part of the original fortification concept .
Throughout their history , the walls were damaged by earthquakes and floods of the Lycus river . Repairs were undertaken on numerous occasions , as testified by the numerous inscriptions commemorating the emperors or their servants who undertook to restore them . The responsibility for these repairs rested on an official variously known as the Domestic of the Walls or the Count of the Walls ( Δομέστικος / Κόμης τῶν τειχέων , Domestikos / Komēs tōn teicheōn ) , who employed the services of the city 's populace in this task . After the Latin conquest of 1204 , the walls fell increasingly into disrepair , and the revived post @-@ 1261 Byzantine state lacked the resources to maintain them , except in times of direct threat .
= = = = Course and topography = = = =
In their present state , the Theodosian Walls stretch for about 5 @.@ 7 km from south to north , from the " Marble Tower " ( Turkish : Mermer Kule ) , also known as the " Tower of Basil and Constantine " ( Gk . Pyrgos Basileiou kai Kōnstantinou ) on the Propontis coast to the area of the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus ( Tr . Tekfur Sarayı ) in the Blachernae quarter . The outer wall and the moat terminate even earlier , at the height of the Gate of Adrianople . The section between the Blachernae and the Golden Horn does not survive , since the line of the walls was later brought forward to cover the suburb of Blachernae , and its original course is impossible to ascertain as it lies buried beneath the modern city .
From the Sea of Marmara , the wall turns sharply to the northeast , until it reaches the Golden Gate , at about 14 m above sea level . From there and until the Gate of Rhegion the wall follows a more or less straight line to the north , climbing the city 's Seventh Hill . From there the wall turns sharply to the northeast , climbing up to the Gate of St. Romanus , located near the peak of the Seventh Hill at some 68 m above sea level . From there the wall descends into the valley of the river Lycus , where it reaches its lowest point at 35 m above sea level . Climbing the slope of the Sixth Hill , the wall then rises up to the Gate of Charisius or Gate of Adrianople , at some 76 m height . From the Gate of Adrianople to the Blachernae , the walls fall to a level of some 60 m . From there the later walls of Blachernae project sharply to the west , reaching the coastal plain at the Golden Horn near the so @-@ called Prisons of Anemas .
= = = = Construction = = = =
The Theodosian Walls consist of the main inner wall ( μέγα τείχος , mega teichos , " great wall " ) , separated from the lower outer wall ( ἔξω τείχος , exō teichos or μικρόν τείχος , mikron teichos , " small wall " ) by a terrace , the peribolos ( περίβολος ) . Between the outer wall and the moat ( σοῦδα , souda ) there stretched an outer terrace , the parateichion ( τὸ ἔξω παρατείχιον ) , while a low breastwork crowned the moat 's eastern escarpment . Access to both terraces was possible through posterns on the sides of the walls ' towers .
The inner wall is a solid structure , 4 @.@ 5 – 6 m thick and 12 m high . It is faced with carefully cut limestone blocks , while its core is filled with mortar made of lime and crushed bricks . Between seven and eleven bands of brick , approximately 40 cm thick , traverse the structure , not only as a form of decoration , but also strengthening the cohesion of the structure by bonding the stone façade with the mortar core , and increasing endurance to earthquakes . The wall was strengthened with 96 towers , mainly square but also a few octagonal ones , three hexagonal and a single pentagonal one . They were 15 – 20 m tall and 10 – 12 m wide , and placed at irregular distances , according to the rise of the terrain : the intervals vary between 21 and 77 m , although most curtain wall sections measure between 40 and 60 meters . Each tower had a battlemented terrace on the top . Its interior was usually divided by a floor into two chambers , which did not communicate with each other . The lower chamber , which opened through the main wall to the city , was used for storage , while the upper one could be entered from the wall 's walkway , and had windows for view and for firing projectiles . Access to the wall was provided by large ramps along their side . The lower floor could also be accessed from the peribolos by small posterns . Generally speaking , most of the surviving towers of the main wall have been rebuilt either in Byzantine or in Ottoman times , and only the foundations of some are of original Theodosian construction . Furthermore , while until the Komnenian period the reconstructions largely remained true to the original model , later modifications ignored the windows and embrasures on the upper store and focused on the tower terrace as the sole fighting platform .
The outer wall was 2 m thick at its base , and featured arched chambers on the level of the peribolos , crowned with a battlemented walkway , reaching a height of 8 @.@ 5 – 9 m . Access to the outer wall from the city was provided either through the main gates or through small posterns on the base of the inner wall 's towers . The outer wall likewise had towers , situated approximately midway between the inner wall 's towers , and acting in supporting role to them . They are spaced at 48 – 78 m , with an average distance of 50 – 66 m . Only 62 of the outer wall 's towers survive . With few exceptions , they are square or crescent @-@ shaped , 12 – 14 m tall and 4 m wide . They featured a room with windows on the level of the peribolos , crowned by a battlemented terrace , while their lower portions were either solid or featured small posterns , which allowed access to the outer terrace . The outer wall was a formidable defensive edifice in its own right : in the sieges of 1422 and 1453 , the Byzantines and their allies , being too few to hold both lines of wall , concentrated on the defence of the outer wall .
The moat was situated at a distance of about 20 m from the outer wall . The moat itself was over 20 m wide and as much as 10 m deep , featuring a 1 @.@ 5 m tall crenellated wall on the inner side , serving as a first line of defence . Transverse walls cross the moat , tapering towards the top so as not to be used as bridges . Some of them have been shown to contain pipes carrying water into the city from the hill country to the city 's north and west . Their role has therefore been interpreted as that of aqueducts for filling the moat and as dams dividing it into compartments and allowing the water to be retained over the course of the walls . According to Alexander van Millingen , however , there is little direct evidence in the accounts of the city 's sieges to suggest that the moat was ever actually flooded . In the sections north of the Gate of St. Romanus , the steepness of the slopes of the Lycus valley made the construction maintenance of the moat problematic ; it is probable therefore that the moat ended at the Gate of St. Romanus , and did not resume until after the Gate of Adrianople .
The weakest section of the wall was the so @-@ called Mesoteichion ( Μεσοτείχιον , " Middle Wall " ) . Modern scholars are not in agreement over the extent of this portion of the wall , which has been variously defined from as narrowly as the stretch between the Gate of St. Romanus and the Fifth Military Gate ( A.M. Schneider ) to as broad as from the Gate of Rhegion to the Fifth Military Gate ( B. Tsangadas ) or from the Gate of St. Romanus to the Gate of Adrianople ( A. van Millingen ) .
= = = = Gates = = = =
The wall contained nine main gates , which pierced both the inner and the outer walls , and a number of smaller posterns . The exact identification of several gates is debatable for a number of reasons . The Byzantine chroniclers provide more names than the number of the gates , the original Greek names fell mostly out of use during the Ottoman period , and literary and archaeological sources provide often contradictory information . Only three gates , the Golden Gate , the Gate of Rhegion and the Gate of Charisius , can be established directly from the literary evidence .
In the traditional nomenclature , established by Philipp Anton Dethier in 1873 , the gates are distinguished into the " Public Gates " and the " Military Gates " , which alternated over the course of the walls . According to Dethier 's theory , the former were given names and were open to civilian traffic , leading across the moat on bridges , while the latter were known by numbers , restricted to military use , and only led to the outer sections of the walls . Today however , this division is , if at all , retained only as a historiographical convention . First , there is sufficient reason to believe that several of the " Military Gates " were also used by civilian traffic . In addition , a number of them have proper names , and the established sequence of numbering them , based on their perceived correspondence with the names of certain city quarters lying between the Constantinian and Theodosian walls which have numerical origins , has been shown to be erroneous : for instance , the Deuteron , the " Second " quarter , was not located in the southwest behind the Gate of the Deuteron or " Second Military Gate " as would be expected , but in the northwestern part of the city .
= = = = = First Military Gate = = = = =
The gate is a small postern , which lies at the first tower of the land walls , at the junction with the sea wall . It features a wreathed Chi @-@ Rhō Christogram above it . It was known in late Ottoman times as the Tabak Kapı .
= = = = = Golden Gate = = = = =
Following the walls from south to north , the Golden Gate ( Greek : Χρυσεία Πύλη , Chryseia Pylē ; Latin : Porta Aurea ; Turkish : Altınkapı or Yaldızlıkapı ) , is the first gate to be encountered . It was the main ceremonial entrance into the capital , used especially for the occasions of a triumphal entry of an emperor into the capital on the occasion of military victories or other state occasions such as coronations . On rare occasions , as a mark of honor , the entry through the gate was allowed to non @-@ imperial visitors : papal legates ( in 519 and 868 ) and , in 710 , to Pope Constantine . The Gate was used for triumphal entries until the Komnenian period ; thereafter , the only such occasion was the entry of Michael VIII Palaiologos into the city on 15 August 1261 , after its reconquest from the Latins . With the progressive decline in Byzantium 's military fortunes , the gates were walled up and reduced in size in the later Palaiologan period , and the complex converted into a citadel and refuge . The Golden Gate was emulated elsewhere , with several cities naming their principal entrance thus , for instance Thessaloniki ( also known as the Vardar Gate ) or Antioch ( the Gate of Daphne ) , as well as the Kievan Rus ' , who built monumental " Golden Gates " at Kiev and Vladimir . The entrance to San Francisco Bay in California was similarly named the Golden Gate in the middle of the nineteenth century , in a distant historical tribute to Byzantium .
The date of the gate 's construction is uncertain , with scholars divided between Theodosius I and Theodosius II . Earlier scholars favored the former , but the current majority view tends to the latter , meaning that the gate was constructed as an integral part of the Theodosian Walls . The debate has been carried over to a Latin inscription in metal letters , now lost , which stood above the doors and commemorated their gilding in celebration of the defeat of an unnamed usurper :
Haec loca Theudosius decorat post fata tyranni .
aurea saecla gerit qui portam construit auro .
( English translation )
Theodosius adorned these places after the downfall of the tyrant .
He brought a golden age who built the gate from gold .
Curiously , the legend has not been reported by any Byzantine author . However , an investigation of the surviving holes wherein the metal letters were riveted verified its accuracy . It also showed that the first line stood on the western face of the arch , while the second on the eastern . According to the current view , this refers to the usurper Joannes ( r . 423 – 425 ) , while according to the supporters of the traditional view , it indicates the gate 's construction as a free @-@ standing triumphal arch in 388 – 391 to commemorate the defeat of the usurper Magnus Maximus ( r . 385 – 388 ) , and which was only later incorporated into the Theodosian Walls .
The gate , built of large square blocks of polished white marble fitted together without cement , has the form of a triumphal arch with three arched gates , the middle one larger than the two others . The gate is flanked by large square towers , which form the 9th and 10th towers of the inner Theodosian wall . With the exception of the central portal , the gate remained open to everyday traffic . The structure was richly decorated with numerous statues , including a statue of Theodosius I on an elephant @-@ drawn quadriga on top , echoing the Porta Triumphalis of Rome , which survived until it fell down in an earthquake in 740 . Other sculptures were a large cross , which fell in an earthquake in 561 or 562 ; a Victory , which was cast down in the reign of Michael III ; and a crowned Fortune of the City . In 965 , Nikephoros II Phokas installed the captured bronze city gates of Mopsuestia in the place of the original ones .
The main gate itself was covered by an outer wall , pierced by a single gate , which in later centuries was flanked by an ensemble of reused marble reliefs . According to descriptions of Pierre Gilles and English travelers from the 17th century , these reliefs were arranged in two tiers , and featured mythological scenes , including the Labours of Hercules . These reliefs , lost since the 17th century with the exception of some fragments now in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum , were probably put in place in the 9th or 10th centuries to form the appearance of a triumphal gate . According to other descriptions , the outer gate was also topped by a statue of Victory , holding a crown .
Despite its ceremonial role , the Golden Gate was one of the stronger positions along the walls of the city , withstanding several attacks during the various sieges . With the addition of transverse walls on the peribolos between the inner and outer walls , it formed a virtually separate fortress . Its military value was recognized by John VI Kantakouzenos ( r . 1347 – 1354 ) , who records that it was virtually impregnable , capable of holding provisions for three years and defying the whole city if need be . He repaired the marble towers and garrisoned the fort with loyal Catalan soldiers , but had to surrender it to John V Palaiologos ( r . 1341 – 1391 ) when he abdicated in 1354 . John V undid Kantakouzenos ' repairs and left it unguarded , but in 1389 – 90 he too rebuilt and expanded the fortress , erecting two towers behind the gate and extending a wall some 350 m to the sea walls , thus forming a separate fortified enceinte inside the city to serve as a final refuge . In the event , John V was soon after forced to flee there from a coup led by his grandson , John VII . The fort held out successfully in the subsequent siege that lasted several months , and in which cannons were possibly employed . In 1391 however , John V was compelled to raze the fort by Sultan Bayezid I ( r . 1382 – 1402 ) , who otherwise threatened to blind his son Manuel , whom he held captive . Emperor John VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1425 – 1448 ) attempted to rebuild it in 1434 , but was thwarted by Sultan Murad II .
According to one of the many Greek legends about the Constantinople 's fall to the Ottomans , when the Turks entered the city , an angel rescued the emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos , turned him into marble and placed him in a cave under the earth near the Golden Gate , where he waits to be brought to life again to conquer the city back for Christians . The legend explained the later walling up of the gate as a Turkish precaution against this prophecy .
= = = = = Yedikule Fortress = = = = =
After his conquest of Constantinople in 1453 , Sultan Mehmed II built a new fort in 1458 . By adding three larger towers to the four pre @-@ existing ones ( towers 8 to 11 ) on the inner Theodosian wall , he formed the Fortress of the Seven Towers ( Turkish : Yedikule Hisarı or Zindanları ) . It lost its function as a gate , and for much of the Ottoman era , it was used as a treasury , archive , and state prison . It eventually became a museum in 1895 .
= = = = = Xylokerkos Gate = = = = =
The Xylokerkos or Xerokerkos Gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Ξυλοκέρκου / Ξηροκέρκου ) , now known as the Belgrade Gate ( Belgrat Kapısı ) , lies between towers 22 and 23 . Alexander van Millingen identified it with the Second Military Gate , which however is located further north . Its name derives from the fact that it led to a wooden circus ( amphitheatre ) outside the walls . The gate complex is approximately 12 m wide and almost 20 m high , while the gate itself spans 5 m .
According to a story related by Niketas Choniates , in 1189 the gate was walled off by Emperor Isaac II Angelos , because according to a prophecy , it was this gate that Western Emperor Frederick Barbarossa would enter the city through . It was re @-@ opened in 1346 , but closed again before the siege of 1453 and remained closed until 1886 , leading to its early Ottoman name , Kapalı Kapı ( " Closed Gate " ) .
= = = = = Second Military Gate = = = = =
The gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Δευτέρου ) is located between towers 30 and 31 , little remains of the original gate , and the modern reconstruction may not be accurate .
= = = = = Gate of the Spring = = = = =
The Gate of the Spring or Pēgē Gate ( Πύλη τῆς Πηγῆς ) was named after a popular monastery outside the Walls , the Zōodochos Pēgē ( " Life @-@ giving Spring " ) in the modern suburb of Balıklı . Its modern Turkish name , Gate of Selymbria ( Tr . Silivri Kapısı , Gk . Πύλη τῆς Συλημβρίας ) , appeared in Byzantine sources shortly before 1453 . It lies between the heptagonal towers 35 and 36 , which were extensively rebuilt in later Byzantine times : its southern tower bears an inscription dated to 1439 commemorating repairs carried out under John VIII Palaiologos . The gate arch was replaced in the Ottoman period . In addition , in 1998 a subterranean basement with 4th / 5th century reliefs and tombs was discovered underneath the gate .
Van Millingen identifies this gate with the early Byzantine Gate of Melantias ( Πόρτα Μελαντιάδος ) , but more recent scholars have proposed the identification of the latter with one of the gates of the city 's original Constantinian Wall ( see above ) .
It was through this gate that the forces of the Empire of Nicaea , under General Alexios Strategopoulos , entered and retook the city from the Latins on 25 July 1261 .
= = = = = Third Military Gate = = = = =
The Third Military Gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Τρίτου ) , named after the quarter of the Triton ( " the Third " ) that lies behind it , is situated shortly after the Pege Gate , exactly before the C @-@ shaped section of the walls known as the " Sigma " , between towers 39 and 40 . It has no Turkish name , and is of middle or late Byzantine construction . The corresponding gate in the outer wall was preserved until the early 20th century , but has since disappeared . It is very likely that this gate is to be identified with the Gate of Kalagros ( Πύλη τοῦ Καλάγρου ) .
= = = = = Gate of Rhegion = = = = =
Modern Yeni Mevlevihane Kapısı , located between towers 50 and 51 is commonly referred to as the Gate of Rhegion ( Πόρτα Ῥηγίου ) in early modern texts , allegedly named after the suburb of Rhegion ( modern Küçükçekmece ) , or as the Gate of Rhousios ( Πόρτα τοῦ Ῥουσίου ) after the hippodrome faction of the Reds ( ῥούσιοι , rhousioi ) which was supposed to have taken part in its repair . From Byzantine texts however it appears that the correct form is Gate of Rhesios ( Πόρτα Ῥησίου ) , named according to the 10th @-@ century Suda lexicon after an ancient general of Greek Byzantium . A.M. Schneider also identifies it with the Gate of Myriandr [ i ] on or Polyandrion ( " Place of Many Men " ) , possibly a reference to its proximity to a cemetery . It is the best @-@ preserved of the gates , and retains substantially unaltered from its original , 5th @-@ century appearance .
= = = = = Fourth Military Gate = = = = =
The so @-@ called Fourth Military Gate stands between towers 59 and 60 , and is currently walled up . Recently , it has been suggested that this gate is actually the Gate of St. Romanus , but the evidence is uncertain .
= = = = = Gate of St. Romanus = = = = =
The Gate of St. Romanus ( Πόρτα τοῦ Ἁγίου Ρωμάνου ) was named so after a nearby church and lies between towers 65 and 66 . It is known in Turkish as Topkapı , the " Cannon Gate " , after the great Ottoman cannon , the " Basilic " , that was placed opposite it during the 1453 siege . With a gatehouse of 26 @.@ 5 m , it is the second @-@ largest gate after the Golden Gate . It is here that Constantine XI Palaiologos , the last Byzantine emperor , was killed on 29 May 1453 .
= = = = = Fifth Military Gate = = = = =
The Fifth Military Gate ( Πόρτα τοῦ Πέμπτου ) lies immediately to the north of the Lycus stream , between towers 77 and 78 , and is named after the quarter of the Pempton ( " the Fifth " ) around the Lycus . It is heavily damaged , with extensive late Byzantine or Ottoman repairs evident . It is also identified with the Byzantine Gate of [ the Church of ] St. Kyriake , and called Sulukulekapı ( " Water @-@ Tower Gate " ) or Hücum Kapısı ( " Assault Gate " ) in Turkish , because there the decisive breakthrough was achieved on the morning of 29 May 1453 . In the late 19th century , it appears as the Örülü kapı ( " Walled Gate " ) .
Some earlier scholars , like J. B. Bury and Kenneth Setton , identify this gate as the " Gate of St. Romanus " mentioned in the texts on the final siege and fall of the city .
= = = = = Gate of Charisius = = = = =
The Gate of Char [ i ] sius ( Χαρ [ ι ] σίου πύλη / πόρτα ) , named after the nearby early Byzantine monastery founded by a vir illustris of that name , was , after the Golden Gate , the second @-@ most important gate . In Turkish it is known as Edirnekapı ( " Adrianople Gate " ) , and it is here where Mehmed II made his triumphal entry into the conquered city . This gate stands on top of the sixth hill , which was the highest point of the old city at 77 meters . It has also been suggested as one of the gates to be identified with the Gate of Polyandrion or Myriandrion ( Πύλη τοῦ Πολυανδρίου ) , because it led to a cemetery outside the Walls . The last Byzantine emperor , Constantine XI , established his command here in 1453 .
= = = = = Minor gates and posterns = = = = =
Known posterns are the Yedikule Kapısı , a small postern after the Yedikule Fort ( between towers 11 and 12 ) , and the gates between towers 30 / 31 , already walled up in Byzantine times , and 42 / 43 , just north of the " Sigma " . On the Yedikule Kapısı , opinions vary as to its origin : some scholars consider it to date already to Byzantine times , while others consider it an Ottoman addition .
= = = = = Kerkoporta = = = = =
According to the historian Doukas , on the morning of 29 May 1453 , the small postern called Kerkoporta was left open by accident , allowing the first fifty or so Ottoman troops to enter the city . The Ottomans raised their banner atop the Inner Wall and opened fire on the Greek defenders of the peribolos below . This spread panic , beginning the rout of the defenders and leading to the fall of the city . In 1864 , the remains of a postern located on the Outer Wall at the end of the Theodosian Walls , between tower 96 and the so @-@ called Palace of the Porphyrogenitus , were discovered and identified with the Kerkoporta by the Greek scholar A.G. Paspates . Later historians , like van Millingen and Steven Runciman have accepted this theory as well . However , excavations at the site have uncovered no evidence of a corresponding gate in the Inner Wall ( now vanished ) in that area , and it may be that Doukas ' story is either invention or derived from an earlier legend concerning the Xylokerkos Gate , which several earlier scholars also equated with the Kerkoporta .
= = = = Later history = = = =
The Theodosian Walls were without a doubt among the most important defensive systems of Late Antiquity . Indeed , in the words of the Cambridge Ancient History , they were " perhaps the most successful and influential city walls ever built – they allowed the city and its emperors to survive and thrive for more than a millennium , against all strategic logic , on the edge of [ an ] extremely unstable and dangerous world ... " .
With the advent of siege cannons , however , the fortifications became obsolete , but their massive size still provided effective defence , as demonstrated during the Second Ottoman Siege in 1422 . In the final siege , which led to the fall of the city to the Ottomans in 1453 , the defenders , severely outnumbered , still managed to repeatedly counter Turkish attempts at undermining the walls , repulse several frontal attacks , and restore the damage from the siege cannons for almost two months . Finally , on 29 May , the decisive attack was launched , and when the Genoese general Giovanni Giustiniani was wounded and withdrew , causing a panic among the defenders , the walls were taken . After the capture of the city , Mehmed had the walls repaired in short order among other massive public works projects , and they were kept in repair during the first centuries of Ottoman rule .
= = = Walls of Blachernae = = =
The Walls of Blachernae connect the Theodosian Walls , which terminate at the height of the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus ( Turkish : Tekfur Sarayı ) , with the sea wall at the Golden Horn . They consist of a series of single walls built in different periods , which cover the suburb of Blachernae . Generally they are about 12 – 15 meters in height , thicker than the Theodosian Walls and with more closely spaced towers . Situated on a steep slope , they lacked a moat , except on their lower end towards the Golden Horn , where Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos had dug one .
The question of the original fortifications in this area has been examined by several scholars , and several theories have been proposed as to their course . It is known from the Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae that the XIV region , which comprised Blachernae , stood apart and was enclosed all around by a wall of its own . Further it is recorded that originally , and at least as late as the Avar siege of 626 , when they were burned down , the important sanctuaries of Panagia Blachernitissa and St. Nicholas lay just outside the quarter 's fortifications . Traces of the quarter 's walls have been preserved , running from the area of the Porphyrogenitus Palace in straight line to the so @-@ called Prison of Anemas . The original fortified quarter can thereby be roughly traced to have comprised the two northern spurs of the city 's Seventh Hill in a triangle , stretching from the Porphyrogenitus Palace to the Anemas Prison , from there to the church of St. Demetrios Kanabos and thence back to the Porphyrogenitus Palace . These fortifications were apparently older than the Theodosian Walls , probably dating to sometime in the 4th century , and were then connected to the new city walls under Theodosius II , with the western wall forming the outer face of the city 's defenses and the eastern wall fell into disrepair .
Today , the Theodosian Walls are connected in the vicinity of the Porphyrogenitus Palace with a short wall , which features a postern , probably the postern of the Porphyrogenitus ( πυλὶς τοῦ Πορφυρογεννήτου ) recorded by John VI Kantakouzenos , and extends from the Palace to the first tower of the so @-@ called Wall of Manuel Komnenos . As recorded by the historian Niketas Choniates , that wall was built by Emperor Manuel I Komnenos ( r . 1143 – 1180 ) as a protection to the imperial Palace of Blachernae , since the late 11th century the emperors ' preferred residence . It is an architecturally excellent fortification , consisting of a series of arches closed on their outer face , built with masonry larger than usual and thicker than the Theodosian Walls , measuring some 5 m at the top . It features eight round and octagonal towers , while the last is square . The wall stretches for 220 m , beginning at an almost right angle from the line of the Theodosian Walls , going westward up to the third tower and then turning sharply north . The quality of the wall 's construction was shown in the final Ottoman siege , when repeated attacks , intensive bombardment ( including the large bombard of Orban ) and attempts at undermining it came to naught . The Komnenian wall lacks a moat , since the difficult terrain of the area makes it unnecessary . The wall features one postern , between the second and third towers , and one large gate , the Eğri Kapı ( " Crooked Gate " ) , between the sixth and seventh towers . Its Turkish name comes from the sharp bend of the road in front of it to pass around a tomb which is supposed to belong to Hazret Hafiz , a companion of Muhammad who died there during the first Arab siege of the city . It is usually , but not conclusively , identified with the Byzantine Kaligaria Gate ( πόρτα ἐν τοῖς Καλιγαρίοις , porta en tois Kaligariois ) , the " Gate of the Bootmakers ' Quarter " ( cf . Latin caliga , " sandal " ) .
From the last tower of the Wall of Manuel Komnenos to the so @-@ called Prison of Anemas stretches another wall , some 150 m in length , with four square towers . It is probably of later date , and of markedly inferior quality than the Komnenian wall , being less thick and with smaller stones and brick tiles utilized in its construction . It also bears inscriptions commemorating repairs in 1188 , 1317 and 1441 . A walled @-@ up postern after the second tower is commonly identified with the Gyrolimne Gate ( πύλη τῆς Γυρολίμνης , pylē tēs Gyrolimnēs ) , named after the Argyra Limnē , the " Silver Lake " , which stood at the head of the Golden Horn . It probably serviced the Blachernae Palace , as evidenced by its decoration with three imperial busts . Schneider however suggests that the name could refer rather to the Eğri Kapı .
Then comes the outer wall of the Anemas Prison , which connects to a double stretch of walls . The outer wall is known as the Wall of Leo , as it was constructed by Leo V the Armenian ( r . 813 – 820 ) in 813 to safeguard against the siege by the Bulgarian ruler Krum . This wall was then extended to the south by Michael II ( r . 820 – 829 ) . The wall is a relatively light structure , less than 3 m thick , buttressed by arches which support its parapet and featuring four towers and numerous loopholes . Behind the Leonine Wall lies an inner wall , which was renovated and strengthened by the additions of three particularly fine hexagonal towers by Emperor Theophilos ( r . 829 – 842 ) . The two walls stand some 26 m apart and are pierced by a gate each , together comprising the Gate of Blachernae ( πόρτα τῶν Βλαχερνῶν , porta tōn Blachernōn ) . The two walls form a fortified enclosure , called the Brachionion or Brachiolion ( " bracelet " ) of Blachernae ( βραχιόνιον / βραχιόλιον τῶν Βλαχερνῶν ) by the Byzantines , and known after the Ottoman capture of the city in Greek as the Pentapyrgion ( Πενταπύργιον , " Five Towers " ) , in allusion to the Yedikule ( Gk . Heptapyrgion ) fortress . The inner wall is traditionally identified by scholars like van Millingen and Janin with the Wall of Heraclius , built by Emperor Heraclius ( r . 610 – 641 ) after the Avar siege to enclose and protect the Church of the Blachernitissa . Schneider however identified it in part with the Pteron ( Πτερόν , " wing " ) , built at the time of Theodosius II to cover the northern flank of the Blachernae ( hence its alternate designation as proteichisma , " outwork " ) from the Anemas Prison to the Golden Horn . Consequently , Schneider transferred the identity of the Heraclian Wall on the short stretch of sea wall directly attached to it to its east , which displays a distinct architecture . The identity of the Pteron remains an unresolved question among modern scholars , however .
Another , short wall was added in later times , probably in the reign of Theophilos , stretching from the junction of the land and sea walls to the sea itself , and pierced by the so @-@ called Wooden Gate ( Ξυλίνη πύλη , Xylinē pylē , or Ξυλόπορτα , Xyloporta ) . Both this wall and the gate were demolished in 1868 .
= = = Preservation and restoration work on the Land Walls = = =
The land walls run through the heart of modern Istanbul , with a belt of parkland flanking their course . They are pierced at intervals by modern roads leading westwards out of the city . Many sections were restored during the 1980s , with financial support from UNESCO , but the restoration program has been criticized for destroying historical evidence , focusing on superficial restoration , the use of inappropriate materials and poor quality of work . This became apparent in the 1999 earthquakes , when the restored sections collapsed while the original structure underneath remained intact . The threat posed by urban pollution , and the lack of a comprehensive restoration effort , prompted the World Monuments Fund to include them on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world .
= = Sea Walls = =
The seaward walls ( Greek : τείχη παράλια , teichē paralia ) enclosed the city on the sides of the Sea of Marmara ( Propontis ) and the gulf of the Golden Horn ( χρυσοῦν κέρας ) . Although the original city of Byzantium certainly had sea walls , traces of which survive , the exact date for the construction of the medieval walls is a matter of debate . Traditionally , the seaward walls have been attributed by scholars to Constantine I , along with the construction of the main land wall . However , the first actual reference to their construction comes in 439 , when the urban prefect Cyrus of Panopolis ( in sources often confused with the praetorian prefect Constantine ) was ordered to repair the city walls and complete them on the seaward side . This activity is certainly not unconnected to the fact that in the same year , Carthage fell to the Vandals , an event which signaled the emergence of a naval threat in the Mediterranean . This two @-@ phase construction remains the general consensus ; Cyril Mango however doubts the existence of any seaward fortifications during Late Antiquity , as they are not specifically mentioned as extant by contemporary sources until much later , around the year 700 .
The Sea Walls were architecturally similar to the Theodosian Walls , but of simpler construction . They were formed by a single wall , considerably lower than the land walls , with inner circuits in the locations of the harbours . Enemy access to the walls facing the Golden Horn was prevented by the presence of a heavy chain or boom , installed by Emperor Leo III ( r . 717 – 741 ) , supported by floating barrels and stretching across the mouth of the inlet . One end of this chain was fastened to the Tower of Eugenius , in the modern suburb of Sirkeci , and the other in Galata , to a large , square tower , the Kastellion , the basement of which was later turned into the Yeraltı ( underground ) Mosque . At the same time , on the Marmara coast , the city 's defence was helped by strong currents , which made an attack by a fleet almost impossible . According to Geoffrey of Villehardouin , it was for this reason that the Fourth Crusade did not attack the city from this side .
During the early centuries of its existence , Constantinople faced few naval threats . Especially after the wars of Justinian , the Mediterranean had again become a " Roman lake " . It was during the first siege of the city by the Avars and the Sassanid Persians that for the first time , a naval engagement was fought off the city itself . However , after the Arab conquests of Syria and Egypt , a new naval threat emerged . In response , the sea walls were renovated in the early 8th century under Tiberios III ( r . 698 – 705 ) or Anastasios II ( r . 713 – 715 ) . Michael II ( r . 820 – 829 ) initiated a wide @-@ scale reconstruction , eventually completed by his successor Theophilos ( r . 829 – 842 ) , which increased their height . As these repairs coincided with the capture of Crete by the Saracens , no expense was spared : As Constantine Manasses wrote , " the gold coins of the realm were spent as freely as worthless pebbles " . Theophilos ' extensive work , essentially rebuilding the sea walls , is testified to by the numerous inscriptions found or otherwise recorded that bear his name , more than those of any other emperor . Despite future changes and restorations , these walls would essentially protect the city until the end of the empire .
During the siege of the city by the Fourth Crusade , the sea walls nonetheless proved to be a weak point in the city 's defences , as the Venetians managed to storm them . Following this experience , Michael VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1259 – 1282 ) took particular care to heighten and strengthen the seaward walls immediately after the Byzantine recapture of the city in 1261 , since a Latin attempt to recover the city was regarded as imminent . Furthermore , the installation of the Genoese at Galata across the Golden Horn , agreed upon in the Treaty of Nymphaeum , posed a further potential threat to the city . Time being short , as a Latin attempt to recover the city was expected , the sea walls were heightened by the addition of two @-@ meter high wooden and hide @-@ covered screens . Ten years later , facing the threat of an invasion by Charles d 'Anjou , a second line of walls was built behind the original maritime walls , although no trace of them survives today .
The walls were again restored under Andronikos II Palaiologos ( r . 1282 – 1328 ) and again under his successor Andronikos III Palaiologos ( r . 1328 – 1341 ) , when , on 12 February 1332 , a major storm caused breaches in the wall and forced the seaward gates open . In 1351 , when the empire was at war with the Genoese , John VI Kantakouzenos again repaired the walls , and even opened a moat in front of the wall facing the Golden Horn . Other repairs are recorded for 1434 , again against the Genoese , and again in the years leading up to the final siege and fall of the city to the Ottomans , partly with funds provided by the Despot of Serbia , George Brankovic .
= = = Golden Horn Wall = = =
The wall facing towards the Golden Horn , where in later times most seaborne traffic was conducted , stretched for a total length of 5 @,@ 600 metres from the cape of St. Demetrius to the Blachernae , where it adjoined the Land Walls . Although most of the wall was demolished in the 1870s , during the construction of the railway line , its course and the position of most gates and towers is known with accuracy . It was built further inland from the shore , and was about 10 metres tall . According to Cristoforo Buondelmonti it featured 14 gates and 110 towers , although 16 gates are known that are of Byzantine origin . The northern shore of the city was always its more cosmopolitan part : a major focal point of commerce , it also contained the quarters allocated to foreigners living in the imperial capital . Muslim traders had their own lodgings ( mitaton ) there , including a mosque , while from the time of Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) on , the emperors granted to the various Italian maritime republics extensive trading quarters which included their own wharfs ( skalai ) beyond the sea walls .
The known gates of the Golden Horn wall may be traced in order from the Blachernae eastwards to the Seraglio Point , as follows :
The first gate , very near the land walls , was the Koiliomene Gate ( Κοιλιωμένη Πόρτα , Koiliōmēnē Porta , " Rolled Gate " ) , in Turkish Küçük Ayvansaray Kapısı . Shortly after stood the Gate of St. Anastasia ( Πύλη τῆς ἁγίας Ἀναστασίας , Pylē tēs hagias Anastasias ) , located near the Atik Mustafa Pasha Mosque , hence in Turkish Atik Mustafa Paşa Kapısı . In close proximity on the outer side of the walls lay the Church of St. Nicholas Kanabos , which in 1597 – 1601 served as the cathedral of the Patriarch of Constantinople .
Further down the coast was the gate known in Turkish as Balat Kapı ( " Palace Gate " ) , preceded in close order by three large archways , which served either as gates to the shore or to a harbour that serviced the imperial palace of Blachernae . Two gates are known to have existed in the vicinity in Byzantine times : the Kynegos Gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Κυνηγοῦ / τῶν Κυνηγῶν , Pylē tou Kynēgou / tōn Kynēgōn , " Gate of the Hunter ( s ) " ) , whence the quarter behind it was named Kynegion , and the Gate of St. John the Forerunner and Baptist ( Πόρτα τοῦ ἁγίου Προδρόμου και Βαπτιστοῦ , Porta tou hagiou Prodromou kai Baptistou ) , though it is not clear whether the latter was distinct from the Kynegos Gate . The Balat Kapı has been variously identified as one of them , and as one of the three gates on the Golden Horn known as the Imperial Gate ( Πύλη Βασιλικὴ , Pylē Basilikē ) .
Further south was the Gate of the Phanarion ( Πύλη τοῦ Φαναρίου , Pylē tou Phanariou ) , Turkish Fener Kapısı , named after the local light @-@ tower ( phanarion in Greek ) , which also gave its name to the local suburb . The gate also marked the western entrance of the Petrion Fort ( κάστρον τῶν Πετρίων , kastron tōn Petriōn ) , formed by a double stretch of walls between the Gate of the Phanarion and the Petrion Gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Πετρίου , Pylē tou Petriou ) , in Turkish Petri Kapısı . According to Byzantine tradition , the area was named thus after Peter the Patrician , a leading minister of Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) . A small gate of the western end of the fort 's inner wall , near the Phanarion Gate , led to the city , and was called the Gate of Diplophanarion . It was at the Petrion Gate that the Venetians , under the personal leadership of Doge Enrico Dandolo , scaled the walls and entered the city in the 1204 sack . In the 1453 siege however , an Ottoman attack on the same place was repelled .
The next gate , Yeni Ayakapı ( " New Gate of the Saint " ) , is not Byzantine , unless it replaces an earlier Byzantine entrance . It was constructed by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan in 1582 . Shortly after it lies the older Ayakapı ( " Gate of the Saint " ) , known in Greek as the St. Theodosia Gate ( Πύλη τῆς Ἁγίας Θεοδοσίας ) after the great earby church of St. Theodosia ( formerly identified with the Gül Mosque ) . The next gate is that of Eis Pegas ( Πύλη εἰς Πηγάς , Pylē eis Pēgas ) , known by Latin chroniclers as Porta Puteae or Porta del Pozzo , modern Cibali Kapısı . It was named so because it looked towards the quarter of Pegae ( Πηγαὶ , Pēgai , " springs " ) on the other shore of the Golden Horn . Next was the now @-@ demolished Gate of the Platea ( Πόρτα τῆς Πλατέας , Porta tēs Plateas ) follows , rendered as Porta della Piazza by Italian chroniclers , and called in Turkish Unkapanı Kapısı ( " Gate of the Flour Depot " ) . It was named after the local quarter of Plate [ i ] a ( " broad place " , signifying the broad shoreline at this place ) . The next gate , Ayazma Kapısı ( " Gate of the Holy Well " ) , is in all probability an Ottoman @-@ era structure .
The next gate is the Gate of the Drungaries ( Πύλη τῶν Δρουγγαρίων , Pylē tōn Droungariōn ) , modern Odunkapısı ( " Wood Gate " ) . Its Byzantine name derives from the high official known as the Drungary of the Watch . It marked the western end of the Venetian quarter . It is followed by the Gate the Forerunner , known as St. John de Cornibus by the Latins , named after a nearby chapel . In Turkish it is known as Zindan Kapısı ( " Dungeon Gate " ) . The destroyed Gate of the Perama ( Πόρτα τοῦ Περάματος , Porta tou Peramatos ) lay in the suburb of Perama ( " Crossing " ) , from which the ferry to Pera ( Galata ) sailed . It marked the eastern limit of the Venetian quarter of the city , and the beginning of the Amalfitan quarter to its east . In Buondelmonti 's map , it is labelled Porta Piscaria , on account of the fishmarket that used to be held there , a name that has been preserved in its modern Turkish appellation , Balıkpazarı Kapısı , " Gate of the Fish @-@ market " . This gate is also identified with the Gate of the Jews ( Ἑβραϊκὴ Πόρτα , Hebraïkē Porta ) , Porta Hebraica in Latin sources , although the same name was apparently applied over time to other gates as well . In its vicinity was probably also the Gate of St. Mark , which is recorded in a single Venetian document of 1229 . Its identity is unclear , as is the question whether the gate , conspicuously named in honour of the patron saint of Venice , was pre @-@ existing or opened after the fall of the city to the Crusaders in 1204 .
To the east of the Perama Gate was the Hikanatissa Gate ( Πόρτα τῆς Ἱκανατίσσης , Porta tēs Hikanatissēs ) , a name perhaps derived from the imperial tagma of the Hikanatoi . The gate marked the eastern end of the Amalfitan quarter of the city and the western edge of the Pisan quarter . Further east lay the Gate of the Neorion ( Πόρτα τοῦ Νεωρίου , Porta tou Neōriou ) , recorded as the Horaia Gate ( Πύλη Ὡραία , Pylē Horaia , " Beautiful Gate " ) in late Byzantine and Ottoman times . As its names testifies , it led to the leading to the Neorion , the main harbour of ancient Byzantium and the oldest naval arsenal of the
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I Komnenos returned from his victorious campaign against Hungary .
Next was the gate known in Turkish as Değirmen Kapı ( " Mill [ stone ] Gate " ) , whose Byzantine name is unknown . Close by and to its north stood the great Tower of Mangana , which was intended to hold the one end of the chain , planned ( but probably never actually installed ) by Manuel I Komnenos to close off the Bosphorus , the other end being at a tower erected on the island of the modern Maiden 's Tower ( Kız Kulesi ) off Chrysopolis ( modern Üsküdar ) , known as Damalis ( Δάμαλις ) or Arkla ( Ἄρκλα ) in Byzantine times . The next gate is now known as the Demirkapı ( " Iron Gate " ) , and is an Ottoman @-@ era structure . A Greek name is not known , and it is not known whether a gate stood there in Byzantine times . Behind these two gates extended the quarter of the Mangana ( Μάγγανα , " Arsenal " ) , with its numerous monasteries , the most famous of which were those of St. George of Mangana , the Church of Christ Philanthropos , and of the Theotokos Hodegetria , and the Palace of Mangana . Four small posterns , in two pairs of two , stand at the southern edge of the Mangana quarter , and probably serviced the numerous churches . The names , but not the identity , of two of them have been recorded , the Postern of St. Lazarus ( πυλίς τοῦ ἁγίου Λαζάρου , pylis tou hagiou Lazarou ) , and the Small Gate of the Hodegetria ( μικρά πύλη τῆς Ὁδηγήτριας , mikra pylē tēs Hodēgētrias ) , both named after the respective monasteries located near them . It is also probable that one of them is to be identified with the Postern of Michael the Protovestiarios ( παραπυλίς τοῦ Μιχαήλ τοῦ πρωτοβεστιαρίου , parapylis tou Michaēl tou prōtovestiariou ) .
Further south , at the point where the shore turns westwards , are two further gates , the Balıkhane Kapısı ( " Gate of the Fish @-@ House " ) and Ahırkapısı ( " Stable Gate " ) . Their names derive from the buildings inside the Topkapı Palace they led to . Their Byzantine names are unknown . The next gate , on the southeastern corner of the city , was the gate of the imperial Boukoleon Palace , known in Byzantine times as the Gate of the Lion ( Gk . Πόρτα Λέοντος , Porta Leontos , in Latin Porta Leonis ) after the marble lions that flanked its entrance , as well as Gate of the Bear ( πόρτα τῆς ἀρκούδας , porta tēs arkoudas ) after depictions of that animal at the quay . In Turkish it is known as Çatladıkapı ( " Broken Gate " ) .
To the west of the Bucoleon Palace lies the Church of SS . Sergius and Bacchus , and the first of the harbours of the city 's southern shore , that of the Sophiae , named after the wife of Emperor Justin II ( r . 565 – 578 ) and known originally as the Port of Julian . A small postern is situated in front of the church , while the first larger gate , the Gate of the Sophiae ( Πόρτα τῶν Σοφιῶν , Porta tōn Sophiōn ) or Iron Gate ( Πόρτα Σιδηρᾶ , Porta Sidēra ) , opened to the harbour . In Turkish , it is known as Kadırgalimanı Kapısı , " Gate of the Harbour of the Galleys " . Next was the Gate of Kontoskalion ( Πόρτα τοῦ Κοντοσκαλίου ) , modern Kumkapısı ( " Sand Gate " ) , which opened to the late Byzantine harbour of the same name , intended to replace the long silted @-@ up Harbour of the Sophiae .
The next harbour to the west is the large Harbour of Eleutherius or Theodosius , in the area known as Vlanga . The harbours are now silted up and known as the Langa Bostan park . Immediately before it to the east stands the gate known in Turkish as the Yenikapı ( " New Gate " ) . A Latin inscription commemorates its repair after the 447 earthquake It is usually identified with the Jewish Gate of late Byzantine times . Immediately to the west after the harbour lies the next gate , Davutpaşa Kapısı ( " Gate of Davut Pasha " ) , usually identified with the Gate of Saint Aemilianus ( Πόρτα τοῦ ἀγίου Αἰμιλιανοῦ , Porta tou hagiou Aimilianou ) , which is known to have stood at the junction of the sea wall with the city 's original Constantinian Wall . That view however is disputed by Janin , as the junction of the walls occurred considerably to the west from the modern gate 's location .
Further to the west , where the shoreline turns sharply south , stood the Gate of Psamathia ( Πόρτα τοῦ Ψαμαθᾶ / Ψαμαθέως , Porta tou Psamatha / Psamatheos ) , modern Samatya Kapısı , leading to the suburb of the same name . Further south and west lies the gate known today as Narlıkapı ( " Pomegranate Gate " ) . Its Byzantine name is unknown , but is prominent on account of its proximity to the famed Monastery of Stoudios .
= = Garrisons of the city = =
During the whole existence of the Byzantine Empire , the garrison of the city was quite small : the imperial guards and the small city watch ( the pedatoura or kerketon ) under the urban prefect were the only permanent armed force available . Any threat to the city would have to be dealt with by the field armies in the provinces , before it could approach the city itself . In times of need , such as the earthquake of 447 or the raids by the Avars in the early 7th century , the general population , organized in the guilds and the hippodrome factions , would be conscripted and armed , or additional troops would be brought in from the provincial armies .
In the early centuries , the imperial guard consisted of the units of the Excubitores and Scholae Palatinae , which by the late 7th century had declined to parade @-@ ground troops . At about that time Justinian II established the first new guards units to protect the imperial palace precinct , while in the 8th century the emperors , faced with successive revolts by the thematic armies and pursuing deeply unpopular iconoclastic policies , established the imperial tagmata as an elite force loyal to them . As the tagmata were often used to form the core of imperial expeditionary armies , they were not always present in or near the city . Only two of them , the Noumeroi and the Teicheiōtai , the palace guard units established by Justinian II , remained permanently stationed in Constantinople , garrisoned around the palace district or in various locations , such as disused churches , in the capital . The units present in the city at any one time were thus never very numerous , numbering a few thousands at best , but they were complemented by several detachments stationed around the capital , in Thrace and Bithynia .
The small size of the city 's garrison was due to the uneasiness of emperors and populace alike towards a permanent large military force , both for fear of a military uprising and because of the considerable financial burden its maintenance would entail . Furthermore , a large force was largely unnecessary , because of the inherent security provided by the city walls themselves . As historian John Haldon notes , " providing the gates were secured and the defenses provided with a skeleton force , the City was safe against even very large forces in the pre @-@ gunpowder period . "
= = Fortifications around Constantinople = =
Several fortifications were built at various periods in the vicinity of Constantinople , forming part of its defensive system . The first and greatest of these is the 56 km long Anastasian Wall ( Gk. τεῖχος Ἀναστασιακόν , teichos Anastasiakon ) or Long Wall ( μακρὸν τεῖχος , makron teichos , or μεγάλη Σοῦδα , megalē Souda ) , built in the mid @-@ 5th century as an outer defence to Constantinople , some 65 km westwards of the city . It was 3 @.@ 30 m thick and over 5 m high , but its effectiveness was apparently limited , and it was abandoned at some time in the 7th century for want of resources to maintain and men to garrison it . For centuries thereafter , its materials were used in local buildings , but several parts , especially in the remoter central and northern sections , are still extant .
In addition , between the Anastasian Wall and the city itself , there were several small towns and fortresses like Selymbria , Rhegion or the great suburb of Hebdomon ( " Seventh " , modern Bakırköy , so named from its distance of seven Roman miles from the Milion , the city 's mile @-@ marker ) , the site of major military encampments . Beyond the Long Walls , the towns of Bizye and Arcadiopolis covered the northern approaches . These localities were strategically situated along the main routes to the city , and formed the outer defenses of Constantinople throughout its history , serving to muster forces , confront enemy invasions or at least buy time for the capital 's defenses to be brought in order . It is notable that during the final Ottoman siege , several of them , such as Selymbria , surrendered only after the fall of Constantinople itself . In Asia Minor , their role was mirrored by the cities of Nicaea and Nicomedia , and the large field camp at Malagina .
= = = Walls of Galata = = =
Galata , then the suburb of Sykai , was an integral part of the city by the early 5th century : the Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae of ca . 425 names it as the city 's 13th region . It was probably fortified with walls in the 5th century , and under Justinian I it was granted the status of a city . The settlement declined and disappeared after the 7th century , leaving only the great tower ( the kastellion tou Galatou ) in modern Karaköy , that guarded the chain extending across the mouth of the Golden Horn . After the sack of the city in 1204 , Galata became a Venetian quarter , and later a Genoese extraterritorial colony , effectively outside Byzantine control . Despite Byzantine opposition , the Genoese managed to surround their quarter with a moat , and by joining their castle @-@ like houses with walls they created the first wall around the colony . The Galata Tower , then called Christea Turris ( " Tower of Christ " ) , and another stretch of walls to its north were built in 1349 . Further expansions followed in 1387 , 1397 and 1404 , enclosing an area larger than that originally allocated to them , stretching from the modern district of Azapkapı north to Şişhane , from there to Tophane and thence to Karaköy . After the Ottoman conquest , the walls were maintained until the 1870s , when most were demolished to facilitate the expansion of the city . Today only the Galata Tower , visible from most of historical Constantinople , remains intact , along with several smaller fragments .
= = = Anadolu and Rumeli Fortresses = = =
The twin forts of Anadoluhisarı and Rumelihisarı lie to the north of Istanbul , at the narrowest point of the Bosphorus . They were built by the Ottomans to control this strategically vital waterway in preparation for their final assault on Constantinople . Anadoluhisarı ( Turkish for " Fortress of Anatolia " ) , also called Akçehisar and Güzelcehisar ( " beautiful fortress " ) in earlier times , was constructed by Sultan Bayezid I in 1394 , and initially consisted of just a 25 m high , roughly pentagonal watchtower surrounded by a wall . The much larger and more elaborate Rumelihisarı ( " Fortress of Rumeli " ) was built by Sultan Mehmed II in just over four months in 1452 . It consists of three large and one small towers , connected by a wall reinforced with 13 small watchtowers . When seen from a bird 's eye view , the walls and the towers are placed accordingly to write Muhammad in Arabic letters . With cannons mounted on its main towers , the fort gave the Ottomans complete control of the passage of ships through Bosporus , a role evoked clearly in its original name , Boğazkesen ( " cutter of the strait " ) . After the conquest of Constantinople , it served as a customs checkpoint and a prison , notably for the embassies of states that were at war with the Empire . After suffering extensive damage in the 1509 earthquake , it was repaired , and was used continuously until the late 19th century .
= Stone @-@ Age Poland =
The Stone Age in territory of today 's Poland is divided into the Paleolithic , Mesolithic and Neolithic eras . The Paleolithic extended from about 500 @,@ 000 BCE to 8000 BCE . The Paleolithic is subdivided into periods , the Lower Paleolithic , 500 @,@ 000 to 350 @,@ 000 BCE , the Middle Paleolithic , 350 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 BCE , the Upper Paleolithic , 40 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 BCE , and the Final Paleolithic , 10 @,@ 000 to 8000 BCE . The Mesolithic lasted from 8000 to 5500 BCE , and the Neolithic from 5500 to 2300 BCE . The Neolithic is subdivided into the Neolithic proper , 5500 to 2900 BCE , and the Copper Age , 2900 to 2300 BCE .
The Stone Age era lasted 800 @,@ 000 years , and involved three different human species : Homo erectus , Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens . The Stone Age cultures ranged from early human groups with primitive tools to advanced agricultural societies , which used sophisticated stone tools , built fortified settlements and developed copper metallurgy . As elsewhere in eastern and central Europe , the Stone Age human cultures went through the stages known as the Paleolithic , Mesolithic and Neolithic , each bringing new refinements of the stone tool making techniques . The Paleolithic period human activities ( the earliest sites are about 500 @,@ 000 years old ) were intermittent because of the recurring periods of glaciation . With the recession of the last glaciation , a general climate warming and the resulting increase in ecologic environment diversity was characteristic of the Mesolithic ( from 9000 @-@ 8000 BCE ) . The Neolithic brought the first settled agricultural communities ; their founders migrated from the Danube River area ( from 5500 BCE ) . Later the native post @-@ Mesolithic populations also adopted and further developed the agricultural way of life ( from 4400 to about 2000 BCE ) .
= = Paleolithic = =
= = = Glaciation = = =
The Pleistocene colder ( glacial ) and warmer ( interglacial ) periods in Poland began with the South Poland glaciation ( San River glaciation , until 450 @,@ 000 BCE ) , followed by the Masovian interglacial ( 450 @,@ 000 @-@ 370 @,@ 000 BCE ) , the Middle Poland glaciation ( 370 @,@ 000 @-@ 128 @,@ 000 BCE ) , the Eemian interglacial ( 128 @,@ 000 @-@ 115 @,@ 000 BCE ) , and the Vistula glaciation ( 115 @,@ 000 @-@ 10 @,@ 000 BCE ) .
= = = Homo erectus = = =
Human settlements on Polish lands occurred later than in the more climatically hospitable regions of southern and western Europe and were dependent on the recurring episodes of glaciation . Gatherer @-@ hunter Homo erectus campsites , together with their inhabitants ' primitive stone tools ( choppers and microliths ) , bones of the large mammals they hunted and the fish they caught , were found below the San River glaciation period sediments in Trzebnica and are about 500 @,@ 000 years old . Younger sites related to the same species were found at Rusko near Strzegom , located , like Trzebnica , in the Lower Silesia region . This represents the microlithic complexes of the Lower Paleolithic period . Homo erectus , earlier known as Pithecanthropus erectus , was a species of early humans .
= = = Homo neanderthalensis = = =
Now often also considered a distinct species , Homo neanderthalensis ( otherwise known as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis ) lived in the southern half of Poland during the Middle Paleolithic period , that is between 300 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 BCE . Various relics were found and different Neanderthal cultures are distinguished . Acheulean handaxes from Silesia dated 200 @,@ 000 @-@ 180 @,@ 000 years ago are among the older tools . Gatherer @-@ hunter sporadic groups of Neanderthals penetrated southern Poland also during the Eemian interglacial , 128 @,@ 000 @-@ 115 @,@ 000 BCE . Examination of the Micoquien @-@ Prądnik culture ( East Micoquien complex ) sites in the Prądnik River Valley north of Kraków and in Zwoleń near Radom from about 85 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 BCE ( early phase of the Vistula River glaciation period ) shows that some Neanderthals were skilled collective hunters , able to kill numerous large mammals characteristic of the cold Pleistocene climate and process the meat , skin and bones using specialized tools .
= = = Homo sapiens = = =
Homo sapiens proper ( Homo sapiens sapiens , the Cro @-@ Magnon type ) appears in the Upper Paleolithic , which lasted from 40 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 BCE . During the coldest part of this Ice age period , 20 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 BCE , humans did not inhabit Poland . The latter , warmer part , after the climatic discontinuity and the reappearance of humans , is considered the Late Paleolithic .
Upper Paleolithic people specialized in organized , group hunting of large mammals ; they sometimes pursued and drove entire herds into traps . Their nutritional needs were met largely by meat consumption , as the vegetation was limited to tundra and steppe and the land was covered by ice and snow ( Vistula final glaciation ) for long periods . More sophisticated tool making methods resulted in the production of long ( some over two feet ) , narrow and sharp flintstone splits . In a cave near Nowy Targ ( East @-@ Gravettian culture ) , a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old boomerang , the world 's oldest , was found . It is a crescent @-@ shaped 70 cm long object with a fine finish , made of mammoth tusk . Mammoths were hunted in the Kraków area during 25 @,@ 000 @-@ 20 @,@ 000 BCE . Also 30 @,@ 000 years old are the so @-@ called Mladeč blades of the Aurignacian culture , made of bone , found in Wierzchowie , Kraków County .
A 27 @,@ 500 @-@ year old burial of an 18 @-@ month old child , complete with burial gift decorative artifacts , pendant or necklace elements made of teeth of large ungulates , was discovered in Borsuk Cave near Kraków ( southern Kraków @-@ Częstochowa Upland ) . It is believed to be the oldest intentional burial located in Poland .
Rydno is a complex of archeological sites along the Kamiennna River valley between Skarżysko @-@ Kamienna and Wąchock . Several hundred Paleolithic campsites have been located there , which makes it the world 's largest accumulation of such finds . They extend over a number of periods , beginning with the Mousterian ( Neanderthal ) culture , followed by the Hamburg culture of reindeer hunters . The Final Paleolithic is represented there by the Komornica culture , named after a village in Legionowo County . The best known Late Paleolithic campsites in the area , which include some dugout huts , belonged to the people preoccupied with hematite ore mining , from which ochre pigment used for body painting was being made . The red dye was widely traded , which is why rocks and minerals originating from distant regions of today 's Poland , Slovakia and Hungary are found at Rydno . Pieces of " chocolate " flint brought into this area for processing were stored in quantities that were always multiples of three . Because of this and other evidence , it is believed that the Paleolithic people developed a counting system based on this number . A 12 @,@ 600 BCE Hamburg culture site with tents , camp @-@ fire and stone meat baking devices was discovered in Olbrachcice , Wschowa County .
A rich source of Late Paleolithic sites and artifacts ( the Magdalenian culture of 14 @,@ 500 BCE ) is the Prądnik River Valley . The Maszycka Cave there contained the remains of a typical ( at that time ) social unit of several families , 20 @-@ 30 people , as well as numerous tools and other artifacts of their culture , including ornamented bone utensils . Remnants of a 15 @,@ 000 to 17 @,@ 000 years old Magdalenian culture dwelling ( a dugout cabin site with traces of supporting posts , a hearth and imported materials ) were discovered recently in Ćmielów , Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski County . Traces of younger ( Final Paleolithic ) campsites identified with the Swiderian , Federmesser and Ahrenburgian cultures were located at Stare Marzy near Świecie , among other places .
= = Mesolithic = =
The Mesolithic lasted from 9000 BCE ( rapid climate warming ) to 5500 BCE ( arrival of first farmers from the Danube River area ) . It was the last period when the food production economy was entirely opportunistic , based on assimilation of plant and animal material found in nature , that is gathering and hunting . Because of warmer temperatures , complex forest ecosystems and wetlands developed and this natural diversity necessitated new hunting and fishing strategies . As new populations entered Poland from the west , hunters and fishermen working individually or in small groups had to pursue single large and small animals using traps , javelins , bows and arrows , boats and fishing equipment , and utilizing dogs . Women engaged in gathering of such products as roots , herbs , nuts , bird eggs , mollusks , fruit or honey , which possibly was even more important than hunting . Mesolithic human settlements became quite numerous and by the end of this period the economy of harvesting nature became very highly developed . Tools and devices were made of materials such as stone ( flint strip mines have been found at the northern edge of Świętokrzyskie Mountains ) , bone , wood , horn , or plant material for rope and baskets , and included such fine utensils as fishing hooks and sewing needles . Animal figurines were made of amber . At least during the later Mesolithic , the dead were placed in graves and outfitted with familiar objects of their surroundings . One such well preserved grave of an apparent tool @-@ maker , together with his tools and other items , was found in Janisławice near Skierniewice and dated 5500 BCE .
= = Neolithic = =
= = = Introduction of agriculture - Danubian cultures of farming communities = = =
Early Neolithic era began around 5500 BCE with the arrival from the middle Danube area of people , who kept livestock , cultivated crops , made pottery and smooth @-@ surface tools . Their land tilling predecessors had been coming into the Balkans and then the Danube region from Anatolia beginning a thousand years earlier . They formed the first settled rural communities , thus forging the most fundamental civilizational advance .
The original newcomers represented the Linear Pottery culture . Their uniform culture survived in Poland in its original form until about 4600 BCE . Despite the big impact they made , the first waves came in small numbers - hundreds , or at most a few thousand people , judging by the sizes of the known settlements . They populated mainly fertile soils of southern highlands and river valleys further north , all the way to the Baltic Sea . They lived alongside the more numerous native people who were still pursuing the Mesolithic lifestyle , but during the Linear Pottery culture times there wasn 't much interaction , as the two groups inhabited different environments . Their villages consisted of several , but sometimes up to a dozen or so rectangular communal long @-@ houses , some over 30 meters long , supported by wooden posts , the oldest of which come from the Lower Silesia region . One such location from about 5000 BCE was also unearthed at Olszanica , which is now at the west end of Kraków just within the city limits .
Large Danubian complexes were in recent years excavated in the Targowisko and Szarów ( Wieliczka County ) area of fertile loessial hills . The settlements , which included massive post construction houses even over 50 meters long as well as industrial facilities , extended continuously over a stretch of land more than three kilometers long . Some of the identified structures functioned together , as was the case when the buildings were connected by a courtyard and protected by a common fence .
Plants were cultivated mostly in small nearby gardens , but wheat and barley were also grown on small fields obtained by burning the forest . In the absence of animal @-@ drawn plowing devices , soil was being hoed manually . The forest burning activity brought about significant ecological and environmental changes in Lesser Poland , Silesia and Kujawy . Further out were the pastures , the entire area utilized by a single settlement having a radius of about 5 km . Cattle , sheep and goats were even more numerous in the northern flatlands , where the land was less fertile . The Danubian people communities kept in touch and exchanged goods over large areas , all the way to their regions of origin beyond the Carpathian Mountains .
After 5000 BCE new waves of immigrants arrived from the south again , which accelerated the process of differentiation of the agrarian society into several distinct cultures during the first half of 5th millennium BC and afterwards . In the Oder River basin mostly there was the culture named after the punctured variety of Linear Band pottery - Stroked Pottery culture , while in the Vistula River basin the Lengyel and Polgár cultures appeared . The two regions developed in some separation , but within them the different cultural traditions of the younger Danubian circle often overlapped . The houses were now of an elongated trapezoidal shape , up to 40 meters long , grouped in larger complexes , often protected by beam and earth walls , moats and other fortifications , as such defensive measures apparently became necessary against people from the still Mesolithic native population or other Danubian settlements . These defensive structures , built from the mid 5th millennium BCE on , were complicated and consumed significant time and resources . Their design followed that of the similar construction that was taking place in the Danube River areas , starting in the early part of this millennium . Large cemeteries and graves supplied with fancier objects such as jewelry , including the first so @-@ called " princely " graves ( the princesses had imported copper necklaces , earrings and diadems in addition to locally made decorations ) , testify to the emergence of a relatively more affluent society . Cattle raising and trading ( large varieties resulted from cross @-@ breeding with the aurochs ) and land tillage provided basic sustenance . Salt was obtained and traded and became a much sought after commodity , at first probably to help preserve stored food . The salt springs around Wieliczka were utilized already by the Lengyel culture people , who left ceramic vessels used in salt production there . The Danubian people produced many richly decorated objects , including clay containers with animal head ornaments and figurines of women .
A settlement and cemetery of the Lengyel @-@ Polgár cultural zone , dated around or after 4600 BCE , was discovered in Ślęza , Wrocław County . It consisted of a central long trapezoidal house accompanied by several post @-@ built supporting structures . Among the large explored settlements of the Lengyel culture from the 4400 @-@ 4000 BCE period , there is one in Brześć Kujawski , and another one in Osłonki , solidly fortified about 4200 BCE after an assault incident involving arson and murder , both located in the Kujawy region . At the Osłonki settlement nearly 30 trapezoidal houses and over 80 graves were located , some of them with many copper ornaments . The agricultural and construction activities of the communities centered on the two large settlements ( hunting and fishing were also practiced ) caused very likely an accumulation of environmental damage , which eventually forced them to abandon the area . 4th millennium BC constructions reinforced with ditches and palisades and ceramics molded into figural representations of the Lengyel @-@ Polgár culture were located in Podłęże , Wieliczka County .
The Malice farming culture of southern Poland ( all of 5th millennium and until 3800 BCE , named after a site in Malice near Sandomierz ) was the first Neolithic culture to originate north of the Carpathian Mountains and spread south . A rare discovery of 5th millennium Malice culture buildings and decorated pottery was made in Targowisko , Wieliczka County .
= = = Neolithic cultures developed by native populations = = =
After 4500 BCE the Ertebølle culture of northwestern origin entered a ceramic phase with its own forms of pottery ( characteristic pointed bottoms ) . They lived by the Baltic Sea shores and were specialized in utilizing the resources of the sea , thus still representing the Mesolithic ways of life . At their settlement in Dąbki near Koszalin Stroke @-@ ornamented pottery was found , obtained probably through trade with the Danubian people .
The native Mesolithic populations were slow in gradually assimilating the agricultural way of life , beginning with just the use of ceramics . It took a thousand years into the Neolithic period before they adopted animal husbandry ( which became especially important to them ) and plant cultivation to any appreciable degree . When they eventually developed interest in the more fertile areas utilized by the late Danubian cultures , they became the threat that compelled the Danubian farmers to fortify their settlements . The native post @-@ Mesolithic groups expanded beyond the traditional Danubian areas of agricultural development , moving also into ecologically less favorable environments , which included utilization of sandy soils .
The first truly native Neolithic culture was the Funnelbeaker culture , named after the shape of their typical clay vessels . It developed starting around 4400 BCE and lasted some two thousand years . Like other post @-@ Mesolithic cultures , the Funnelbeaker culture was Megalithic . They built tombs of large stones , some of them huge ( for example trapezoidal structures up to 150 meters long ) and resembling pyramids . Few survived until now because of the demand for stone as building material , but a well @-@ preserved one from the first half of 4th millennium BC was found in Wietrzychowice near Włocławek . From this place and period came the skull , on which the trepanation procedure was performed for medical or magic reasons . Timewise the beginnings of the post @-@ Mesolithic cultures in Poland coincide with the beginnings of the Eneolithic period in the Balkans . Copper objects , mostly ornamental or luxurious items , were traded and then developed locally , first by the Danubian and then by the indigenous people . Copper metallurgy facilities were identified in Złota near Sandomierz . Clay decorative objects include realistic representations of animals and containers with images engraved on them . A pot from Bronocice , Pińczów County ( 3400 BCE ) has a unique narrative scene and the world 's oldest semblance of a four @-@ wheeled cart drawn on its surface . Stone tools became most highly developed and acquired their then characteristic smooth surfaces . Well preserved settlements with rectangular buildings were unearthed in Gródek Nadbużny near Hrubieszów ( where remnants of a vertical loom for weaving were found ) , in Niedźwiedź near Kraków , and in northern Poland in Barłożno , Starogard Gdański County , where the structures are similar to the ones in Niedźwiedź . In Barłożno three post supported houses were discovered , the largest of which had the main part 16 meters long and 6 @.@ 5 meters wide . As dated from the ceramics found , they represent the developed , " Wiórecka " phase of the Funnelbeaker culture .
Originating from central European lowlands , the Funnelbeaker people were able to utilize large expanses of less fertile soils , obtained by extensive reduction of forested areas , with the increased role of livestock . They moved south into the regions previously developed by the Danubian cultures , all the way to Bohemia and Moravia . Being more numerous , better fit for the environment , organized and economically more productive , the Funnelbeaker culture people replaced the Danubian cultures in their late phase .
The Globular Amphora culture was the next major Neolithic culture . It originated in the Polish lowlands during the first half of 4th millennium BC , lasted to about 2400 BCE in parallel with the Funnelbeaker culture , and is named after the bulging shape of its representative pottery . They specialized in breeding domestic animals and lived in a semi @-@ settled state , seeking optimal pastures and moving as needed . This semi @-@ nomadic lifestyle was probably necessitated by the poor condition of the soils , by that time depleted and rendered infertile because of the preceding centuries of forest burning and extensive exploitation . Globular Amphora were the first culture in Poland known for utilizing the domesticated horse , and swine became important as the source of food . Ritual animal , especially cattle burial sites , often with two or more individuals buried together and supplied with objects as strange as drums have been discovered , but their role is not well understood . Globular Amphora people were involved in the north @-@ south amber trade . Their megalithic burials included ceramics , stone tools and ornamental gifts .
The Baden culture in southern Poland was the latest of the Danubian ancestry cultures and continued between 3200 and 2600 BCE . They made vessels with characteristic protruding radial ornaments . A large fortified Baden culture settlement of around 3000 BCE was found in Bronocice near Pińczów .
Finally there were still in existence the forest zone cultures , representing the ceramic phase of hunting and gathering communities . Some of them lasted into the early Bronze Age .
The major industry of this period was flintstone mining . One of the largest Neolithic ( middle to late periods ) flint mines in Europe with over 700 vertical shafts and preserved underground passages was located in Krzemionki Opatowskie near Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski . The axes produced from the material obtained there were exported to distant parts of the continent .
= = = Late Neolithic arrivals from eastern and western regions of Europe = = =
The Corded Ware culture , in existence in central Europe between 3000 and 2000 BCE , originated most likely from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European nomadic people of the Black Sea steppes . It was a pastoral culture at least in its early stages , for the most part lacking permanent settlements and known primarily from the burial grounds ( a large one with many richly furnished graves was discovered in Złota near Sandomierz ) . They moved together with their herds of cattle , sheep , goats and horses along the river valleys of southern Poland , but also engaged in flint mining and manufacturing of tools and weapons for their own use and trade .
A Corded Ware culture princely burial was found in Szczytna , Subcarpathian Voivodeship . The grave , well @-@ secured three meters below the surface , contained a man 's skeleton and a funerary gift collection of highly valuable copper decorations , containers , stone tools and arrowheads . The uniquely equipped burial of a warrior @-@ chief has close analogies with finds from Transylvania , a testimony to geographically extensive contacts of Corded Ware culture nomadic people .
The Rzucewo culture ( named after the village near Puck where the discoveries took place ) developed from northern populations of the Corded Ware culture as an offshoot specialized in exploitation of the sea resources and lasted in parallel with their mother culture for a comparable period of time . Their settlements consisting of characteristic sea erosion reinforced houses were located along the Bay of Gdańsk and east of there . They engaged in fishery and hunting , especially of seals , then numerous along the Baltic coast . The Rzucewo culture people produced in special shops the widely used and traded amber decorative items .
From the opposite end of Europe ( the Iberian Peninsula ) came the few people who formed during the 2500 @-@ 1900 BCE period the Bell @-@ Beaker culture . It was named after the shape of their typical , carefully finished and precisely ornamented pottery . Southwestern Poland was at the eastern edge of their range . Because of their mobility , the Bell @-@ Beaker people helped spread new inventions , including developing metallurgy , over large areas of Europe .
= Mara Carfagna =
Maria Rosaria " Mara " Carfagna ( born December 18 , 1975 ) is an Italian politician and former showgirl and model . After obtaining a degree in law , Carfagna worked for several years on Italian television shows and as a model . She later entered politics and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for Forza Italia party in 2006 . From 2008 to 2011 she served as Minister for Equal Opportunity in Berlusconi IV Cabinet . Carfagna had been named " the most beautiful minister in the world " , and was ranked number one on Maxim 's " World ´ s Hottest Politicians " .
= = Background = =
Carfagna was born in Salerno , where she attended the Liceo scientifico Giovanni da Procida . In 2001 she graduated in law from the University of Salerno , with a thesis on information law and broadcasting systems .
= = Career as showgirl and model = =
After having studied dance and piano , she participated in the Miss Italy contest in 1997 , finishing in sixth place . About the experience she later said : " That competition makes you as a woman , it matures you ... all that stress , that desire to win , it makes you understand who you are . "
Later she started working in television for the company Mediaset , controlled by the family of Silvio Berlusconi . From 2000 to 2006 she participated as a showgirl in the television program La domenica del villaggio ( " Sunday in the Village " ) with Davide Mengacci . In 2006 she led the program Piazza grande ( " Main Square " ) together with Giancarlo Magalli . Carfagna has also been part of the television programs I cervelloni , Vota la voce and Domenica in .
Mara Carfagna has in the past posed nude on several occasions , for magazines such as Maxim . Reluctant to talk about her modeling past , she has nevertheless suggested that she had certain reservations about the work . On one occasion she said : " I am a bit of a prude and I found getting undressed in front of a camera not a pleasant experience . " She states that she is a firm believer in family values , and claimed in an interview that she once refused to take part in a movie directed by erotic filmmaker Tinto Brass .
= = Political career = =
Carfagna entered politics in 2004 , and became responsible for the women 's movement in the political party Forza Italia ( presently The People of Freedom ) . In the elections of 2006 she was elected into the Chamber of Deputies for Forza Italia , and in the 2008 elections – running as the third candidate from The People of Freedom in the district " Campania 2 " – she was reelected . When she first entered parliament Berlusconi jokingly commented that Forza Italia practiced the law of primae noctis ; the right of a feudal lord to take the virginity of his female subjects . As a deputy she was secretary of the Commission for Constitutional Affairs , and has been described as a diligent , hard @-@ working parliamentarian . On May 8 , 2008 she was appointed Minister for Equal Opportunity , in the fourth cabinet of Silvio Berlusconi , an appointment that was widely publicised internationally , with focus on her special background .
Carfagna has been vocal on certain issues , such as the level of crime in her home town of Salerno , after having herself been the victim of burglary on three different occasions . She describes herself as an antifeminist , as she believes that " liberty " depends not on independence , but on rules and discipline . She opposes gay marriage , and says that matrimonial rights should be tied to reproduction . Soon after her accession she refused to back a gay pride march , arguing that discrimination was no longer a problem for homosexuals in Italy because the homophobia was just a thinking offence , a statement that was strongly criticised by gay rights groups .
In September 2008 , Carfagna introduced proposal for a new law making street prostitution a crime , with fines for both clients and prostitutes . The bill was her first major initiative as a minister . She said that at present in Italy , " as in the great majority of Western countries " , brothels and the exploitation of prostitutes by pimps were illegal but prostitution as such was not . She described street prostitution as a " shameful phenomenon " . Carfagna was criticized by prostitutes ' representatives and other charities for introducing the bill . However , some Catholic charities praised her for having the courage to " take on prostitution as a serious social evil " .
In 2009 she became the first political promoter of the law against stalking offence . This law was finally approved on 23 February 2009 , introduced as a package of bills known as the Decreto Maroni . In the same year she signed a campaign against homophobia in Italy , with television spots , images on magazines and wall attachments on cities . She also proposed a bill against homophobia , in which homophobia was considered as an aggravating circumstance in bullying events . This bill was next refused by the Parliament .
In 2010 during political debate for the 8th March celebration she claimed that women gained the right to vote in Italy in 1960 ( while they did in 1946 ) and that the law that rules intrahousehold relationship was reformed in 1970 ( while it was in 1975 )
= = Controversies = =
In January 2007 , Carfagna was at the center of a controversy that received international attention . On the evening of the Telegatto award show , Berlusconi said about Carfagna that " If I was not already married I would have married her immediately " . The comment caused Berlusconi 's wife , Veronica Lario , to demand an apology through a national newspaper , something which she also received . Carfagna herself has later described the comment as " gallant and harmless , " and said that she did not quite understand Lario 's reaction .
On July 5 , 2008 , the Argentine journal Clarín reported about telephone wiretap records authorized for an anti @-@ corruption investigation . Reporter Julio Algañaraz wrote that Carfagna and Silvio Berlusconi engaged in a telephone conversation with explicit allusions to oral sex . The wiretap transcripts have not been published , but the Italian newspaper La Repubblica interviewed the former vice @-@ minister of Foreign Affairs in the Berlusconi II Cabinet and socialist executive Margherita Boniver , who admitted the existence of some messages .
= History of Georgetown University =
The history of Georgetown University spans nearly four hundred years , from the early settlement of America to the present day . Georgetown University has grown with both its city , Washington , D.C. , and the United States , each of which date their founding to the period from 1788 to 1790 . Georgetown 's origins are in the establishment of the Maryland colony in the seventeenth @-@ century . Bishop John Carroll established the school at its present location by the Potomac River after the American Revolution allowed for free religious practice .
The role of the Society of Jesus in the school 's operation has evolved from that of founders and financiers to faculty and advisers . Their focus on liberal studies and religious pluralism have helped to give the school its identity . Georgetown was also affected by its times , including the American Civil War , which disrupted the growing school and significantly changed its student body . University presidents like Patrick Francis Healy modernized the institution into an active research university with several graduate and undergraduate schools , and oversaw the expansion of educational opportunities on campus , around the city , and abroad .
= = Founding = =
The history of Georgetown University traces back to two formative events , in 1634 and 1789 . Until 1851 , the school used 1788 , the start of construction on the Old South building , as its founding date . In that year a copy @-@ edit in the college catalog began mislabeling the construction as beginning in 1789 . This was discovered in preparation for the centennial celebration in 1889 , at which point rather than correct the annual , the date of Georgetown 's foundation was fixed to the date January 23 , 1789 .
= = = First establishments = = =
On November 22 , 1633 Jesuits Andrew White , John Altham Gravenor , and Thomas Gervase set sail on The Ark for British North America under the leadership and financing of the Lord Baltimore , Leonard Calvert . Their landing on March 25 , 1634 on St. Clement 's Island marks the birth of the Maryland colony , this anniversary now celebrated as Maryland Day . These Jesuits were joined in 1637 by Thomas Copley and Ferdinand Poulton , together establishing near St. Mary 's City some means of Christian education for the native Yaocomico tribe .
Inquiring about patronage for their school , Poulton wrote to Vincenzo Carafa , the Superior General of the Society of Jesus in Rome under Pope Urban VIII , who on September 15 , 1640 approved the institution of a school in principle . That year they moved to a permanent building at Calverton Manor on in the Wicomico River . This early establishment was burnt in 1645 as part of the English Civil War , and the remaining Jesuits were brought to trial in England . The new Protestant administration had their school outlawed , though it was functioning by 1648 , when Thomas Copley managed to return there .
Newtown Manor , also known as " Bretton 's Neck " , near modern @-@ day Leonardtown , Maryland , become available to the Jesuits in 1677 . This house served as the Jesuit schoolhouse until 1704 when its existence was alerted to British authorities . The school afterward conducted itself periodically and in secrecy at the new Jesuit colony of Bohemia Manor . John Carroll attended this school from 1745 until 1748 . Carroll then left for studies in Europe . He joined the Jesuits in 1753 , and was ordained in 1769 , but in 1774 Pope Clement XIV ordered the suppression of the Jesuit order , forcing Carroll to return to Maryland . This put Carroll in the right place at the right time , when the American Revolution pushed out the English administration , opening up new possibilities for scholastic expansion .
= = = Georgetown Heights = = =
After returning in 1774 to live on the Rock Creek in Maryland , Carroll established Saint John the Evangelist Church , in Silver Spring , Maryland . In 1776 , his cousin , Charles Carroll , a signer of the Declaration of Independence , invited John to join him , Samuel Chase , and Benjamin Franklin in traveling to Quebec and attempt to persuade the French Canadian population to join the revolution . The mission was unsuccessful , but John Carroll 's association with Benjamin Franklin proved useful . In 1784 , Franklin , as ambassador to France , recommended Carroll to the papal nuncio in Paris as the head of the Catholic Church in America , and on June 9 , 1784 Carroll was anointed Superior of Missions in the United States of North America . On November 6 , 1789 Carroll 's authority was confirmed after being elected by the clergy as the first Bishop of Baltimore .
Beginning in 1783 , Carroll convened meetings of area clergy , mostly ex @-@ Jesuits , at Sacred Heart Church in White Marsh , outside Annapolis , Maryland . This body , known as the General Chapters , resolved on November 13 , 1786 , that " a school be erected for the education of youth " and that the location for the school would be in Georgetown . The site was influenced by Carroll 's experience with Jesuit colleges in Europe , which were located in urban centers . Port towns were used by Jesuits because of their missionary focus . By March 1787 , they formed a fund raising committee , and Carroll solicited formal proposals for an " academy , at George @-@ town , Patowmack @-@ River , Maryland . " The District of Columbia 's borders wouldn 't be defined until the passage and implementation of the Residence Act in 1790 .
On April 24 , 1787 , Georgetown landowner John Threlkeld donated a plot of land to Carroll , which was ultimately where he founded Holy Trinity Church . In April 1788 , construction began at a larger neighboring plot on Georgetown 's first building , later called " Old South " , leading Carroll to write " We shall begin the building of our Academy this summer . On this Academy are built all my hopes of permanency and success of our holy religion in the United States . " On January 23 , 1789 , John Carroll , Robert Molyneux and John Ashton completed the purchase from Threlkeld and William Deakins , Jr. for " seventy five pounds current money " of the acre and a half on which construction had already started . This land became the core of Georgetown 's campus . As a result , the University celebrates this date as its founding .
Carroll had difficulty filling the position of president of the university , with many candidates declining the job before Robert Plunkett first took the office in 1791 , though he only served 18 months . He oversaw the division of the academy into " college " , " preparatory " , and " elementary " , with the youngest starting at age eight . Jean @-@ Edouard de Mondésir became the first teacher in late October 1791 , and the first student , William Gaston , was enrolled on November 22 , 1791 . Classes commenced on January 2 , 1792 , with around 69 students attending in its first year . Georgetown 's second building , Old North , which survives to this day , began construction in 1794 . At three times the size of Old South , it greatly increased the number of classrooms and sleeping space on campus . Upon the building 's completion , George Washington visited and spoke from the porch , a position since reserved for U.S. Presidents .
= = Early growth = =
In its early years , Georgetown suffered from considerable financial strain , relying on private sources of funding and the limited profits from local farms that had been donated to the Jesuits by wealthy landowners . Some of these farms included African slaves . By September 1792 , tuition had to be increased for the first time . In 1796 , Louis William Valentine Dubourg arrived and became president . Dubourg brought with him a collection of books from his own collection and others from St. Mary 's Seminary , the Baltimore Society of Saint @-@ Sulpice , and these books formed the nucleus of Georgetown 's library . On January 1 , 1798 , Dubourg released the first prospectus to advertise the college abroad , but also drove the school into debt by hiring numerous new faculty , including fencing teachers , and by buying silver and a school piano . The first board of directors organized in 1797 , and quickly became antagonized with Dubourg because of his spending and preference for French faculty , particularly during the Quasi @-@ War . The board forced him to resign in December 1798 .
Beginning in 1798 , Leonard Neale and his brother Francis Neale oversaw the growth of the university as presidents for a combined eleven years . At Carroll 's request , Neale was also appointed coadjutor bishop by Pope Pius VI in 1800 . In 1799 Neale invited three sisters of the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary to open a monastery at Georgetown . On June 24 , 1799 , the young Georgetown Visitation Monastery under Mother Teresa Lalor began a Saturday school for young women . This developed into an academy , now Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School , in 1802 . Leonard Neale remained as president of Georgetown until 1806 when he was succeeded by Robert Molyneux , who died in 1808 . Leonard Neale 's brother , Francis Neale , then became president of Georgetown College in 1809 .
When the suppression of the Society of Jesus in Maryland ended in 1805 , several former Jesuits rejoined , including Leonard Neale , and Carroll commenced a series of agreements to ensure Jesuit involvement in the school . Carroll however never rejoined the Society . In 1806 the school began a novitiate for Jesuit recruits moving from Russia , which had harbored the Society during the suppression .
Carroll didn 't seek civil recognition for Georgetown until after the suppression of the international Society ended in 1814 . Instead of a state charter , he went to the federal government , then in charge of the District of Columbia . William Gaston , now a Congressman , sponsored the legislation , and Georgetown received the first federal charter on March 1 , 1815 . This allowed Georgetown to grant academic degrees , and the college 's first two recipients , a pair of brothers from New York named Charles and George Dinnies , were awarded the degree of bachelor of arts in 1817 . Graduate degrees were first awarded in 1821 , and other Jesuit schools conferred degrees under Georgetown 's charter for many years afterward . In 1833 , the Holy See empowered Georgetown to confer degrees in philosophy and theology .
Founder John Carroll died December 3 , 1815 , at age eighty , and in his will he left Georgetown four @-@ hundred pounds sterling , which marked the beginning of Georgetown 's endowment . In 1830 , construction of an infirmary in the new Gervase Building brought the first hospital beds to Georgetown . In 1838 , school presidents Thomas F. Mulledy and William McSherry organized the sale of 272 slaves from a Jesuit owned tobacco plantation in Maryland to a Louisiana plantation , and funds from that sale were used to repay debts from recent school expansion . Mulledy was later disciplined in Rome by the Jesuit Society for ignoring their order to keep families of slaves intact . The slaves were shipped to the Deep South in the domestic slave trade , sold primarily to two sugar cane plantations . Some of the money was also used to found two Catholic high schools in New York City and Philadelphia , as the Jesuits saw a demand for urban ministry to serve the increasing number of immigrants from Europe , including Catholics from Ireland .
On June 10 , 1844 , the growing school was reincorporated by Congress under the name The President and Directors of Georgetown College . Georgetown 's Observatory , completed in 1844 , was used in 1846 to determine the latitude and longitude of Washington , D.C. , which was the first such calculation for the nation 's capital . In 1849 , four Catholic doctors frustrated with what they felt were discriminatory practices at neighboring Columbian College petitioned Georgetown President James Ryder to found a medical program . A building for this purpose was purchased at 12th and F Streets , and the School of Medicine was founded in 1850 , holding its first classes the following year .
= = = Early student life = = =
From its beginning , Georgetown was not intended to be exclusively Catholic , and over its first ten years , nearly one @-@ fifth of students were Protestant . A fifth of students were also from the Caribbean . By 1830 , Jewish students were known to be attending . European immigrants and Napoleonic War refugees also made up significant parts of the early student body . School rules were harshly enforced . Leonard Neale , a strict moralist , regulated students ' movements such that founder John Carrol accused him of running Georgetown " on the principles of a convent . " There were three student organized rebellions against the Georgetown administration in the antebellum period . The most notable of these occurred in January 1850 , against the administration of James A. Ryder over the school food . Students damaged the dormitories and took charge of a local hotel .
The first student society , the Sodality of Our Lady , was founded in 1810 as a religious devotional group . A strict revision of school rules in 1829 forbade personal conversations or particular associations . Despite this the Philodemic Society was founded in 1830 as the school 's debating and literary society , the oldest of its kind in America and the oldest secular group at Georgetown . Other debating societies were founded in its model , or in opposition to it in later years , such as the short lived Philisorian Society and the Philonomosian Society , which lasted from 1839 until 1935 . The College Cadets were officially organized in 1836 , becoming the oldest military unit native to the District of Columbia . The Dramatic Association of Georgetown College , renamed the Mask and Bauble Dramatic Society after World War I , was founded in 1852 , and is itself the oldest surviving student dramatic society in America .
= = The Civil War = =
The Civil War was an important and tragic time for the University . Beginning on December 11 , 1859 the Philodemic Society debated whether or not the southern states should secede . The debate lasted weeks , and after the Society affirmed secession , a brawl ensued , and debates were canceled for the rest of 1860 . Fist fights on campus between northern and southern students soon became common . Beginning in 1861 , many students left their studies to join the war . 925 students ultimately enlisted with the Confederate Army and 216 with the Union Army ; between them 106 died in the war . Enrollment dropped from 313 students in 1859 to only 17 late in 1861 . By 1862 , Georgetown only had 120 total students , about ten percent of what it was just a few years earlier . Only seven students graduated in 1869 , down from over 300 a decade prior .
Responding to lack of adequate hospital beds and housing for soldiers needed to protect the District , the Union commandeered University buildings , and by the time of President Abraham Lincoln 's May 1861 visit to campus , 1 @,@ 400 Union Army troops were stationed in temporary quarters there . Of these 1 @,@ 300 were from the 69th Infantry Regiment , which established itself in Maguire Hall from May 4 , 1841 to June when the unit was replaced by the 79th New York Volunteer Infantry . The occupation ended in July when the unit left to fight in the First Battle of Bull Run , but the university remained home to soldiers as an infirmary for the remainder of the war .
Georgetown would later be connected to the assassination of Abraham Lincoln . Several of John Wilkes Booth 's conspirators had associations to Georgetown : David Herold , who accompanied Booth in his escape , attended the school between 1855 and 1858 and received a certificate in pharmacology in 1860 , while Samuel Arnold , who conspired with Booth to kidnap Lincoln , attended in the mid @-@ 1840s , and Dr. Samuel Mudd , who set Booth 's broken ankle following the assassination , studied medicine between 1851 and 1854 . Charles H. Liebermann , one of the founders of the medical school , was among the doctors who treated Lincoln the night he died .
The war drastically changed Georgetown , making it both more northern and more Catholic . Increasingly larger percentages of the student body came from northern cities , more populated with Catholic immigrants , while the student body had been primarily southern before the war . This dynamic is expressed in Georgetown 's official school colors . In 1876 , Georgetown College Boat Club , the school 's rowing team , adopted blue , from the uniform of the Union Army , and gray , from the uniforms of the Confederate States military forces , as their team colors in order to signify the peaceful unity between students from the North and those from the South . Students at Georgetown Visitation wove the first blue and gray uniforms for the team . Georgetown 's motto Utraque Unum , " both into one , " though used before the war , helped capture the unity spirit .
= = Expansion = =
In 1874 , Patrick Francis Healy became president of Georgetown University , becoming the first African American president of a predominantly white university . Healy 's influence on Georgetown was so far @-@ reaching that he is often referred to as the school 's " second founder . " He modernized the curriculum by requiring courses in the sciences , particularly chemistry and physics . Healy and his successors sought to bind the professional schools into a university , and concentrate on higher education . The most visible result of Healy 's presidency was the construction of a large building begun in 1877 and first used in 1881 , later named Healy Hall in his honor .
A school of law was approved by the Board of Directors in March 1870 , and graduated its first students in 1872 . In 1884 the " Law Department " moved to 6th and F Streets , N.W. , not far from the Medical School , and then again in 1891 to 506 E Street , N.W. In 1870 , Georgetown raised the raise the minimum age of enrollment at Georgetown Preparatory School from eight to twelve . This was raised again in 1894 to thirteen . As part of the focus on higher education , Georgetown Preparatory School relocated from campus in 1919 to nearby North Bethesda , Maryland , and fully separated from the University in 1927 . Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School has remained attached to the university campus , and while independently run , the two occasionally share facilities .
Numerous new schools were founded during twentieth @-@ century . The School of Foreign Service ( SFS ) was founded in 1919 by Edmund A. Walsh to prepare students for leadership in foreign commerce and diplomacy . The School of Languages and Linguistics was organized in 1949 and the School of Business was created out of the SFS in 1957 . New developments also came to School of Medicine . In 1898 , Georgetown University Hospital was first established on campus . Georgetown obtained the Washington Dental College in 1901 , and integrated it with the medical school . In 1903 , Georgetown University began an undergraduate medical program with the School of Nursing . A new Medical @-@ Dental Building on Reservoir Road was completed in 1930 and classes then moved to the main campus . In 1951 the School of Dentistry separated from the School of Medicine as an independent unit of Georgetown University .
On October 4 , 1966 , Congress passed a bill that recognized the school 's name as " Georgetown University " for the first time . The 1844 bill in effect until then had referred only to " Georgetown College " , which at that point was known as the College of Arts and Sciences and was just one branch of the university . In 1970 Lauinger Library was also completed , bringing space for a rapidly growing library collection . In 1971 , following the completion of the Bernard P. McDonough Hall , the law school moved to its present location at 1st and F Streets at 600 New Jersey Avenue .
= = Across borders = =
The 1960s saw major changes in administration as well as in the student body . Female students have been admitted to the School of Medicine since 1880 , to the School of Nursing since its founding , to the Graduate School since 1943 , and to the School of Foreign Service since 1944 . While most of the university was made available to women on a limited basis by 1952 , it wasn 't until the College of Arts and Sciences welcomed its first female students in the 1969 – 1970 academic year that Georgetown became fully coeducational .
Freshmen hazing rituals , long tolerated by the administration , were banned in 1962 after one student brought suit against the school for injuries he sustained . President Lawrence C. Gorman phased out restrictions on attendance by African Americans , and Samuel Halsey Jr. became the first black undergraduate in 1950 . The Black Student Alliance was formed in 1968 , and in 1969 Georgetown named the first black member of the Board of Directors since Patrick Francis Healy .
Modern Georgetown is largely a product of substantial changes during the 1980s . In 1982 , the School of Foreign Service moved into its new home in the Edward B. Bunn S.J. Intercultural Center . The 1984 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament championship by Georgetown 's men 's basketball team helped make Georgetown University a household name with stars such as Patrick Ewing and Dikembe Mutombo under Coach John Thompson . Georgetown ended its bicentennial year of 1989 by electing Leo J. O 'Donovan as president . He subsequently launched the Third Century Campaign to build the school 's endowment . In December 2003 , Georgetown completed the campaign , joining twenty other universities worldwide to raise at least $ 1 billion in a single fund drive . The campaign supported financial aid , academic chair endowment , and new capital projects .
In 1987 , the University decided to close the School of Dentistry following the class of 1990 for financial reasons , as the number of dental students dropped nationwide . Supplies and equipment from the school were sent to Pontifical Xavierian University in Bogotá , Colombia . In 1994 , the School of Languages and Linguistics was folded into the College , and is now the Faculty of Languages and Linguistics . On October 7 , 1998 , the School of Business was renamed the McDonough School of Business in honor of alumnus Robert Emmett McDonough and in 2009 , it moved into the newly constructed Rafik B. Hariri Building . In 1999 the School of Nursing added three other health related majors and appended its name to become the School of Nursing and Health Studies .
John J. DeGioia , Georgetown 's first lay president , has led the school since 2001 . DeGioia has continued its financial modernization and has sought to " expand opportunities for intercultural and interreligious dialogue . " In October 2002 , Georgetown University began studying the feasibility of opening a campus of the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service in Qatar , when the non @-@ profit Qatar Foundation first proposed the idea . The School of Foreign Service in Qatar opened in 2005 along with four other U.S. universities in the Education City development . That same year , Georgetown began hosting a two @-@ week workshop at Fudan University 's School of International Relations and Public Affairs in Shanghai , China . This later developed into a more formal connection when Georgetown opened a liaison office at Fudan on January 12 , 2008 to further collaboration .
DeGioia also founded the annual Building Bridges Seminar in 2001 , which brings global religious leaders together , and is part Georgetown 's effort to promote religious pluralism . In 1974 , Woodstock College was refounded as the Woodstock Theological Center on Georgetown 's campus . The Center for Contemporary Arab Studies was opened on September 3 , 1975 with grants from Oman , the United Arab Emirates , Egypt , and Mobil Oil . In 1993 the Center for Muslim @-@ Christian Understanding was opened and after a $ 20 million grant from Saudi Prince Al @-@ Waleed bin Talal in 2005 , the center was renamed the " Prince Alwaleed Center for Muslim – Christian Understanding " . The Berkley Center for Religion , Peace , and World Affairs was begun as an initiative in 2004 , and after a grant from William R. Berkley , was launched as an independent organization in 2006 . Additionally , The Center for International and Regional Studies opened in 2005 at the new Qatar campus .
= = Fictional depictions = =
Georgetown , as a major world university , has been featured in many media over the years . The most prominent example is the 1971 horror novel , The Exorcist , written by William Peter Blatty , who received an English degree from Georgetown in 1950 . The novel is loosely based on a series of 1949 exorcisms conducted on a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old boy at Georgetown University Hospital , nearby Maryland , and in St. Louis , Missouri . In 1973 , Blatty 's bestselling novel was made into a film , also titled The Exorcist . Like the novel , the film was set at Georgetown and filmed on campus during the fall semester in 1972 . The climatic scene uses a steep staircase between Prospect Street and Canal Road , previously know popularly as the " Hitchcock Steps " for their spooky appeal . However , since the film 's release they have been called the " Exorcist steps . "
The 1985 " Brat Pack " film St. Elmo 's Fire also revolved around a group of students who had just graduated from Georgetown . The bar that much of the film takes place in is based on The Tombs , a bar and restaurant known for its large student clientele and rowing decòr , located one block from Georgetown 's front gates in a historic university owned house . Georgetown denied the producers the rights to film on campus , so parts of the film were shot at the nearby University of Maryland , College Park . Additionally , Georgetown University has been a destination for characters in films such as Above the Rim , Save the Last Dance , Election , and The Girl Next Door , as well as television shows such as The Sopranos and The West Wing , which also filmed scenes on campus . The film Memento was written by Jonathan Nolan , a Georgetown alumnus , and the main character 's nemesis , John G. , is said to be named after John Glavin , a full professor of Victorian literature and screenwriting in Georgetown 's Department of English .
= Wehrmacht forces for the Ardennes Offensive =
This is a sub @-@ article of Battle of the Bulge
The Wehrmacht forces for the Ardennes Offensive were the product of a German recruitment effort targeting German males between the ages of 16 and 60 , to replace troops lost during the past five months of fighting the Western Allies on the Western Front . Although the Wehrmacht ( German Armed Forces ) was keeping the Allied forces contained along the Siegfried Line , the campaign had cost the Wehrmacht nearly 750 @,@ 000 casualties , mostly irreplaceable . However , the rapid advance of the Allied armies in August and September after Operation Overlord had created a supply problem for the Allies . By October , the progress of the Western Allies ' three army groups had slowed considerably , allowing the Germans to partly rebuild their strength and prepare for the defense of Germany itself . The German leader , Adolf Hitler , decided that the only way to reverse his fortunes would be to launch a counter @-@ offensive on the Western Front , forcing both the United States and Great Britain to an early peace , and allowing the Wehrmacht to shift its forces to the Eastern Front , where it could defeat the Soviet Red Army .
Hitler earmarked three field armies for the offensive : the Sixth Panzer , Fifth Panzer and Seventh . These accumulated over 240 @,@ 000 soldiers , spread over seven panzer divisions , two panzer brigades and thirteen infantry divisions . The bulk of the offensive 's armored strength was in the Sixth Panzer Army , which was tasked with the capture of the Belgian port of Antwerp . To its south was the Fifth Panzer Army , outfitted to protect the Sixth 's flank while it crossed the Meuse river . The southernmost flank was covered by the Seventh Army , composed of three infantry corps and ordered to protect the Fifth Army 's southern flank and tie down American reserves in Luxembourg .
Apart from these three armies the Wehrmacht also designed two special units to aid the offensive . One of these was a battalion @-@ sized airborne formation tasked with dropping behind American lines during the first day of the offensive , allowing a panzer division from the Sixth Panzer Army easy access across the Meuse . The second unit was a panzer brigade , intending to go behind enemy lines dressed in American uniforms to give false orders and spread confusion among American defenders in the Ardennes . Also earmarked for the offensive were around 800 aircraft , deployed by the Luftwaffe ( German Air Force ) , to provide air support to German forces and destroy much of the Allied air power on the ground .
To prepare these forces the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( German High Command ) increased the call @-@ up age range and recruited from Eastern European countries controlled by German forces , increasing manpower on the Western Front from roughly 400 @,@ 000 to just over 1 million soldiers . Hastily organized into new divisions , these infantrymen lacked training and sometimes even weapons . Despite an immense German effort in the face of intense Allied bombing to build the necessary stocks for the offensive , there were shortages of fuel , ammunition , weapons and manpower by the scheduled date of the counterattack . Even the elite Waffen @-@ SS divisions were often deficient in manpower .
= = Background = =
By 1 December 1944 , the only sector of the front where the Western Allies were not on the offensive was along the Ardennes . In late July 1944 , Allied forces in fighting in Normandy were able to break out of the Normandy beachhead in Operation Cobra , forcing a general eastwards retreat of German forces . General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Supreme Allied Commander on the Western Front , used the opportunity to encircle the German army in Normandy . In an effort to reverse their misfortunes , the Wehrmacht launched Operation Lüttich on 7 August in the vicinity of the town of Mortain . Despite efforts to break through the U.S. 30th Infantry Division to cut off Allied forces in Northern France , by 13 August it was clear that the offensive had failed . Even while battle was raging around Mortain , Allied armies continued the encirclement of the Wehrmacht in Normandy , closing what would be known as the Falaise Pocket on 20 August ; the encirclement cost the Germans an estimated 10 @,@ 000 dead and another 50 @,@ 000 wounded . Although a much larger number of German soldiers were able to escape eastwards , they were forced to leave behind their heavy weapons and equipment . Paris was liberated on 25 August 1944 , marking the end of Operation Overlord .
Almost immediately , the Allied drive across the Seine River continued , although the Wehrmacht was able to prevent a complete rout ; according to the Germans , the equipment abandoned as they retreated from the Seine was as much of a disaster as the Falaise Pocket . Field Marshal Walter Model , who had temporarily replaced Gerd von Rundstedt as commander of German troops in France , reported that some panzer divisions only had five to ten operational tanks , while he could not match the Western Allies ' mobility with his poorly outfitted infantry divisions . By early September , as the Allies pushed to the German border , Model calculated that the actual strength of the 74 divisions at his disposal was no more than that of 25 . In an effort to stabilize German lines in the West , von Rundstedt was reappointed as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief West on 7 September 1944 . Approaching the Belgian border in early September the Allied offensive came to a grinding halt , as its supply lines struggled to keep up with the pace of the advance . For example , on 2 September , Lieutenant General George Patton 's U.S. Third Army requested 2 @,@ 840 @,@ 000 liters ( 750 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ) of gasoline , and received 96 @,@ 000 liters ( 25 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ) .
The Wehrmacht began to reorganize itself along a defensive front known as the Siegfried Line . Eisenhower felt that he could relieve the supply problem by using Antwerp to unload supplies in Europe ; however , German troops held the Scheldt estuary and consequently Allied shipping could not get through to the Belgian port city . In an effort to open the Scheldt estuary , Eisenhower approved Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery 's Operation Market Garden , which was launched on 17 September . However , by 21 September the operation had failed to dislodge German defenders from the southern Netherlands and open the seaway to Antwerp ; the supply problem was at its worst .
Using the opportunity to rebuild their strength , the German Army in the West was able to accumulate a strength of around 500 tanks and assault guns by late September , despite prioritization of new equipment for the Eastern Front . This was in stark contrast to the estimated 100 which had been available before . German defenses along the Siegfried Line continued to strengthen , and the Wehrmacht was able to establish a defensive depth of an average of 4 @.@ 8 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) , with the strongest defenses built opposite of Patton 's Third Army .
Despite Germany 's reorganization , their manpower was still incomparable to that of the Western Allies . While Germany 's Army Group B was able to increase their armored strength from 100 to 239 vehicles , these were opposed by 2 @,@ 300 Allied tanks . Field Marshal Model reported that only 6 @,@ 500 replacements had been sent to cover the 75 @,@ 000 casualties suffered during the month of September . General Eisenhower commanded three army groups , totaling eight field armies with 55 divisions ; these provided a two @-@ to @-@ one advantage in artillery guns and a twenty @-@ to @-@ one advantage in tanks , and could count on almost 14 @,@ 000 combat aircraft , as compared to the Luftwaffe 's 573 .
= = = Battles along the Siegfried Line = = =
Patton 's Third Army was tasked with the capture of Metz and the Lorraine ; his first obstacle was Fort Driant , built in 1902 and improved over the years by both the French and the Germans . Expecting only a small garrison , the Third Army launched its attack on 27 September 1944 . Despite heavy aerial and artillery bombardment , no appreciable damage was done to the giant fortress . Several ground attacks carried out between 27 September and 11 October failed in taking the fort , and ultimately General Patton was forced to call off the attack and look for another route to Metz . Fort Driant did not fall until after Patton had successfully taken Metz and the majority of forts around Driant . The Third Army 's battle around Metz had cost an estimated 47 @,@ 000 American casualties . This was reflected in the fact that , while in August the Third Army had advanced 600 kilometers ( 370 mi ) , it advanced only 35 kilometers ( 22 mi ) between September and December 1944 .
The 256 @,@ 300 man strong U.S. First Army , commanded by General Courtney Hodges , was ordered to break through the Siegfried Line around the area of Aachen , in order to reach the Rur river . Although the First Army began to encircle the area around Aachen in early September , the Battle of Aachen did not end until 21 October . The city cost the Americans roughly 3 @,@ 000 casualties , but had opened the path to the Rur ( river ) river . Despite the casualties taken the ground gained was comparatively worthless , and the fighting for Aachen had not necessarily brought German defeat any closer .
The Germans , too , had suffered heavy casualties ; the 116th Panzer Division , for example , had lost its offensive capabilities after countless attempts to break the U.S. First Army 's encirclement of Aachen . This gave American and British commanders a false sense of security , believing that the Wehrmacht did not have the strength to launch a counteroffensive . Given their view on the state of the German armed forces and their need to push to the Rur , the First Army decided to drive German forces out of the Hürtgen Forest — located on the Belgian – German border — in an attempt to take a series of dams which could be used by the Germans to flood the valley below .
The Battle of Hürtgen Forest began on 19 September , with the assault of the 3rd Armored and 9th Infantry Divisions . The battle quickly turned into one of attrition ; by mid @-@ October the two Allied divisions had lost nearly 80 % of their total combat strength , or roughly 4 @,@ 500 men , while the Germans had lost close to 3 @,@ 300 . On 2 November the U.S. 28th Infantry Division entered the fight , but was not able to make headway and was forced to defend itself against German counterattacks between 5 – 7 November . The 28th Infantry Division lost over 6 @,@ 100 combat casualties in Hürtgen .
Unable to pry the Hürtgen from German hands , the Americans pitted the 4th Infantry Division into the battle and between 7 November and 3 December this division lost over 7 @,@ 000 personnel . After also throwing the 8th Infantry Division into the attack it was able to take the town of Hürtgen , but was not able to advance much farther given the amount of casualties it had sustained . In total , American forces suffered 24 @,@ 000 combat casualties and had failed to reach their original objectives , the dams .
The Germans also suffered heavily ; the 47th Panzer Corps had committed its last reserves into the battle and could hardly afford to maintain its defensive line , while the 47th Volksgrenadier Division had suffered over 4 @,@ 300 casualties during the fighting and the 340th Division had lost nearly 2 @,@ 000 soldiers . This latter division was replaced by the 363rd Volksgrenadier and 10th SS Panzer Divisions , as the 340th was pulled out in order to be rebuilt .
While the Allied armies continued their slow eastward drive between September and November 1944 , the Germans prepared for a counteroffensive . Adolf Hitler , the German leader , believed that by launching an offensive in the West he could force the United States and Great Britain to an early peace , and thereby transfer the entirety of the Wehrmacht to the Eastern Front , where he could bring the Soviet offensive to a standstill and defeat it .
A German victory would be of greater magnitude against the Western Allies than it would against the Soviet Union . According to General Alfred Jodl , " The Russians had so many troops that even if we had succeeded in destroying thirty divisions it would have made no difference . On the other hand , if we destroyed thirty divisions in the West , it would amount to more than a third of the whole invasion Army . " Hitler believed that inaction in the West would only conclude in an inevitable German defeat . His basic plan involved an early morning breakthrough along the lightly defended sector of the Ardennes Forest , with the eventual task of crossing the Meuse River and capturing Antwerp in order to deny the Western Allies a crucial port .
= = Wehrmacht dispositions = =
By December 1944 , German forces defending against continued Western Allied offensives were organized into four separate army groups ; three ( Army Groups H , B. and G ) fell under the command of Field Marshal von Rundstedt , while the fourth ( Army Group Öberrhein ) fell under the command of Heinrich Himmler . Army Group H , containing the Twenty @-@ fifth and First Parachute Armies was commanded by Luftwaffe Colonel General Kurt Student , while to his south lay Model 's Army Group B , containing the Fifteenth , Sixth Panzer , Fifth Panzer and Seventh Armies . The Sixth and Fifth Panzer armies , as well as the Seventh Army , were slated to take part in the upcoming Ardennes offensive . Model 's southern flank was protected by Army Group G , commanded by General Hermann Balck , which was composed of the German First Army . In total , the attack would involve thirty divisions , including twelve panzer divisions — roughly 240 @,@ 000 men .
The offensive 's main effort would come from the Sixth Panzer Army , commanded by SS General Sepp Dietrich . The core of the Sixth Panzer Army , composed of four Schutzstaffel ( SS ) panzer divisions , had been withdrawn from battle early and had gone through a period of rest and refit , redeploying to the front in early November . This army was made up of the I SS Panzer Corps , commanded by General Hermann Priess ; this corps included the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler , 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend , 3rd Panzergrenadier Division , and the 12th and 277th Volksgrenadier divisions . The I SS Panzer Corps also included a number of ad hoc vanguard units , including Kampfgruppe Peiper ( forming part of the 1st SS Panzer Division ) , which contained a panzer battalion ( 72 mixed Panzer IV and Panther tanks ) from the 1st SS Panzer Regiment , the 501st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion ( 45 Tiger Is ) and the 3rd SS Panzer Grenadier Battalion . Under the 12th SS Panzer Division was Battle Group Kuhlmann , containing the 1st SS Panzer Battalion ( 80 tanks ) and the 560th SS Heavy Panzer Battalion . Also in the Sixth Panzer Army was the II SS Panzer Corps , offering the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich and the 9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen . Finally , Dietrich 's army also included the 326th and 246th Volksgrenadier divisions , forming the 67th ( LXVII ) Infantry Corps under the command of General Otto Hitzfeld .
South of Dietrich 's forces was General Hasso von Manteuffel 's Fifth Panzer Army . Manfteuffel 's army was formed up by the 66th Infantry Corps ( 18th and 62nd Volksgrenadier divisions ) , 58th Panzer Corps ( 116th Panzer Division and 560th Volksgrenadier Division ) , the 47th Panzer Corps ( 2nd Panzer Division and 26th Volksgrenadier Division ) , the Panzer @-@ Lehr @-@ Division and the Führer Begleit Brigade . Although held as a reserve , the Panzer @-@ Lehr @-@ Division was officially attached to the 47th Panzer Corps . The Fifth Panzer Army was tasked with supporting the Sixth Panzer Army 's left flank , and breach the Meuse River by the third day of the offensive . The Fifth Panzer Army was positioned directly opposite the American 28th Infantry Division .
The third army which was to take part in the impending German offensive was General Erich Brandenberger 's Seventh Army , which was tasked with protecting the Fifth Panzer Army 's left flank and tying down Allied reserves in Luxembourg . This army included General Baptist Kniess ' 85th Infantry Corps ( consisting of the 5th Fallschirmjäger and 352nd Volksgrenadier divisions ) , General Franz Beyer 's 80th Infantry Corps ( 276th and 212th Volksgrenadier Divisions ) and Kavallerie Graf von Rothkirch und Trach 's 8th Infantry Corps . These three armies offered five panzer divisions , thirteen infantry @-@ type divisions ( airborne and volksgrenadier ) for immediate assault , and another two panzer divisions and a panzer brigade in immediate support ; these represented 70 % of the strength which Hitler had originally decided to allot to the Ardennes offensive .
= = = Special units = = =
The Germans also planned an airborne operation ( Operation Stösser ) in the area north of Malmédy in order to take the road junction at Baraque Michel , allowing the Sixth Army 's 12th SS Panzer Division to advance to the Belgian city of Liège . The operation would be undertaken by a special unit formed up of one hundred paratroopers from each battalion of Army Group H 's First Parachute Army . The battalion @-@ sized unit would be commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich August Freiherr von der Heydte and was named Battle Group von der Heydte . Although von der Heydte originally requested to use the entirety of the 6th Parachute Regiment , this was denied on the basis that it would alert the Western Allies to the intentions of the Wehrmacht ; ultimately , however , the German general was allowed to hand pick his platoon and company commanders .
Unfortunately , many of the men to choose from were not even airborne qualified , and about 20 % of those chosen for the operation were not qualified to jump with weapons . General von der Heydte immediately dismissed the worst 150 men given to him and replaced them with volunteers from the parachute school , some of whom did not have any jump experience . In the little time available some men received basic jump training , although matters were complicated by the lack of transport aircraft . Kampfgruppe von der Heydte also had at their disposal some 300 dummy parachutists , meant to be dropped north of the actual drop zone in order to confuse American forces . By 15 December 1944 , von der Heydte was able to put together a decent fighting force .
Operation Greif , commanded by Otto Skorzeny 's 150th Panzer brigade , was designed to capture certain bridges over the Meuse River . Skorzeny was ordered to dress his brigade in American and British uniforms , while using Western Allied vehicles and speaking English , in an effort to not only capture those bridges , but to pass on false orders and confuse Allied forces defending the breakthrough sector . The unit 's men were not alerted to the intentions of the offensive until the very last minute ; they were warned that their preparations were for an impending Allied offensive . The effort to recruit for the unit was nearly compromised by an army @-@ wide order requesting the names of English @-@ speaking personnel and any captured Allied vehicles ; although Skorzeny originally attempted to cancel the operation , he later turned the misfortune around by allowing rumors of the unit to circulate freely in order to hide the truth . Skorzeny was also wary of the fact that he and his men would have to wear American uniforms , which risked having them shot as spies if captured ; ultimately , his men were allowed to wear German uniforms under their American clothing .
Ultimately , of the 500 men attached to the force , only around 10 were able to speak English fluently , while 30 – 40 could speak it well enough , 120 – 150 fairly well and the rest only what they had learned in grade school . With only two working M4 Sherman tanks available , 13 Panther tanks were doctored to resemble American tanks and attached to the unit ; Skorzeny was also given 10 Allied scout cars , with six of them breaking down during the training period . The unit was also low on American small @-@ arms and ammunition , not to mention American uniforms ; nevertheless , the unit continued training .
= = = Luftwaffe deployments = = =
Hitler promised his army commanders complete air support , reporting that Goering had told him that the Luftwaffe was able to deploy some 3 @,@ 000 fighters for the operation ; although the German leader also commented to discount 1 @,@ 000 from the report , due to Goering 's tendency to exaggerate , he said that there would be nonetheless at least 2 @,@ 000 fighters to protect German ground forces . These aircraft were to support the Fifth and Sixth Panzer Armies , as well as launch a preemptive aerial offensive aimed at destroying Allied aircraft on the ground , before they had a chance to be used against the Germans . This figure was later revised to 800 – 900 aircraft , which would be taken from squadrons slotted to defend against Allied bombing raids over German cities . The offensive had also been scheduled to take place when the weather prohibited Allied air support .
= = Mobilization and movements = =
The Wehrmacht suffered nearly 750 @,@ 000 casualties between June and November 1944 , forcing the German leadership to recruit from the Kriegsmarine , Luftwaffe , and industry , while extending the call @-@ up age to all males between 16 and 60 years of age . This extension allowed the Germans to increase their manpower in Western Europe from around 410 @,@ 000 on 1 December to just over 1 @.@ 3 million on 15 December . These new soldiers were poorly trained , and this was exacerbated by the fact that most did not know of the offensive until days before it was launched , meaning many were not even informed of their objectives . The volksgrenadier divisions ordered to protect the flanks of the three advancing armies were not even properly reinforced , because the Germans found it difficult to detach these units from areas of the front being pressured by the slow Allied advance .
Field Marshal von Rundstedt made repeated requests for more men , noting that the Western Allies were completely superior in manpower , yet was denied by Wehrmacht High Command . Rundstedt noted the difficulty of holding encircled American troops once the operation began , due to the lack of sufficient infantrymen . New infantrymen received a maximum of eight weeks worth of training , and the new divisions were deficient of anti @-@ tank and artillery weapons ; their make @-@ up was at best eclectic , as divisions were formed from the remnants of units which had taken heavy casualties in fighting in the West or on the Eastern Front . Some new infantrymen had been recruited from occupied territories in the East , and so many new soldiers did not even know German .
The forces in best condition , earmarked for the Ardennes Offensive , were those which belonged to the Waffen @-@ SS ; these forces were refitted and trained inside Germany , and then deployed to the front . But , even these were sometimes undermanned ; the 2nd SS Panzer Division , for example , was 10 % below the established manpower requirements . Even by 15 December , the transfer of personnel to the West had not been completed .
Although Western Allied bomber missions increased in intensity as the war progressed , 1944 was marked with some of the highest production rates for German industry ; for example , while in January 1944 1 @,@ 017 fighter aircraft had been manufactured , in September of that year 2 @,@ 878 were built . Similarly , in 1943 6 @,@ 083 tanks of all types had been produced , while 8 @,@ 466 were manufactured in 1944 . However , the effects of the air raids did deal damage ; for example , Panzer IV production decreased from 300 in August 1944 to only 180 in September , because the steel plant producing the tank 's armor had been destroyed by Allied bombers . Panther tank production also decreased since July 1944 due to the Allied bombing raids .
Nevertheless , the Germans amassed close to 1 @,@ 400 armored fighting vehicles for the offensive . Allied bombers also affected the movement of supplies to the front , though some 500 trainloads of equipment , fuel and ammunition were delivered without being discovered , despite Allied control of the skies . This , however , was not able to cope with the shortage of small @-@ arms ; 1 @.@ 5 million infantry weapons were required to arm the new volksgrenadiers . Ammunition was in dire need , as well , and ultimately the rail system was forced to stop troop movements in favor of moving more supplies to the front .
Fuel was in considerable shortage , as well ; although the Germans stockpiled the 2 @,@ 303 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 507 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of fuel required for the initial phase of the offensive , half of it was not delivered because of transportation shortages . Of the petroleum stocked for the offensive , much of it was released to units operating along the front , fighting against American and British actions in the Lorraine and around Aachen . Some 18 @,@ 184 @,@ 360 litres ( 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ) were supposed to be accumulated for the first days of the offensive , in the hope that much more would be captured by the advance ; by early December less than 9 @,@ 092 @,@ 180 litres ( 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ) were available , and only around 14 @,@ 411 @,@ 100 litres ( 3 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 imp gal ) were available by the start of the offensive . Furthermore , initial fuel consumption estimates were incorrect because they had not taken into account the increase in fuel consumption which resulted from movement over the terrain of the Ardennes , including the snow .
= = Impact on the Eastern Front = =
On the eve of the Soviet Vistula – Oder Offensive , in January 1945 , the Red Army had an impressive force of 1 @,@ 670 @,@ 000 soldiers , 28 @,@ 360 artillery guns and heavy mortars , over a thousand Katyusha rocket launchers , 3 @,@ 300 armored fighting vehicles and nearly 3 @,@ 000 aircraft . Against this , two out of five army groups positioned on the Eastern Front , Army Group Center and Army Group A , lay in the path of the Soviet offensive ; together , they could count on roughly 980 @,@ 000 personnel , 1 @,@ 800 armored fighting vehicles , and nearly 900 combat aircraft . During December 1944 the Wehrmacht had concentrated the bulk of its mechanized forces and logistical support on the Western Front , reducing its ability to defend Germany 's eastern border from the Soviet Union . For example , 2 @,@ 299 new and refitted tanks had been delivered to the Western Front by December 1944 , while German forces in the East had only received approximately 920 . In January 1945 the Wehrmacht was roughly 800 @,@ 000 men short of complete strength , despite the reorganization of German units in order to take into consideration manpower losses , much if its strength used for the Ardennes Offensive .
This was made clear to the German Armed Forces ' high command when General Heinz Guderian presented them with intelligence on the impending Soviet assault , and on a comparison of strength ; the German general claimed that the Red Army had an advantage of eleven to one in infantry , seven to one in armor and twenty to one in artillery . It was then mentioned that the defense of the Eastern Front would require the redeployment of armored divisions from the Ardennes . In fact , von Rundstedt had asked for the Ardennes Offensive to be called off on 22 December 1944 , in favor of reorienting Germany 's armored strength to the East , but this was flatly refused by Hitler . The offensive against American forces in the Ardennes forest had preoccupied Hitler 's mind , and the Eastern Front had suddenly become of secondary importance to the Wehrmacht High Command For example , the Sixth Panzer Army would not be transferred to the Eastern Front until 16 January 1945 .
= 2007 USC Trojans football team =
The 2007 USC Trojans football team ( variously " Trojans " or " USC " ) represented the University of Southern California during the 2007 NCAA Division I FBS football season , winning a share of the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference ( Pac @-@ 10 ) championship and winning the 2008 Rose Bowl . The team was coached by Pete Carroll and played its home games at the Los Angeles Coliseum .
The team entered the season with high expectations . It was ranked No. 1 in all national pre @-@ season polls , picked unanimously to win the Pac @-@ 10 Conference and expected to contend for a national championship . Those hopes were dealt a major blow when the Trojans lost to 41 @-@ point underdog Stanford in a mid @-@ season game that was named one of the greatest upsets in a season that became defined by them . After their second loss , there were questions as to whether the team would be able to even win their own conference , let alone compete nationally . However , USC defied mid @-@ season expectations and rallied , finishing the season ranked No. 2 in the Coaches ' Poll and No. 3 in the Associated Press ( AP ) Poll . By the end of the season various sports journalists said the Trojans were playing the best football of anyone in the country .
The Trojans accomplished two major feats : They became the first team to win ( or share ) six straight Pac @-@ 10 titles , and were the first team in major college football to achieve six straight 11 @-@ win seasons . After the season , ten USC players were selected in the 2008 NFL Draft , with a school @-@ record seven players selected in the first two rounds . As of the completion of the 2012 NFL Draft , 39 players from the 2007 USC Trojans football team were drafted into the NFL .
= = Before the season = =
= = = Pre @-@ season outlook = = =
The Trojans ended the 2006 season with a victory in the 2007 Rose Bowl Game and a No. 4 ranking in both AP and Coaches polls , their fifth straight year winning the Pac @-@ 10 Championship and finishing in the top 4 . During that 5 @-@ year period , the team won two national championships ( 2003 , 2004 ) . Prior to the 2007 season , the Trojans were ranked No. 1 in all national pre @-@ season polls and were expected to challenge for the National Championship . The team received a boost in the offseason when many draft @-@ eligible juniors decided to return to school for their senior seasons ; the holdover of talented veterans was a major factor in the Trojans being considered preeminent favorites for a national championship . As expected , USC was at the top of the first Coaches Poll of the season , released on August 3 , 2007 , with 45 of a possible 60 first @-@ place votes ; other teams receiving first @-@ place votes were No. 2 Louisiana State University ( LSU ) with 4 votes , No. 3 Florida with 6 votes , and No. 5 Michigan with 2 votes . USC was also at the top of the first AP Poll , released on August 18 , with 62 of 65 first @-@ place votes , with No. 2 LSU receiving 2 votes and No. 3 West Virginia receiving one . In mid @-@ August , all twelve experts polled by ESPN picked USC to win the season 's BCS Championship Game . On August 29 , 2007 , the day before the season began , three of four experts at SI.com predicted USC would win the BCS Championship Game , attributing the decision to the Trojans defense .
In terms of overall talent , Carroll stated that the 2007 squad is the " most competitive team we 've had " during his six @-@ year tenure as coach . Senior starting quarterback John David Booty entered the season as a front @-@ runner for the Heisman Trophy . Booty , along with returning senior tackle Sam Baker , were ranked as two of the " Top 20 Players Heading Into 2007 " by Sports Illustrated .
The Trojans entered pre @-@ season fall camp well stocked at the running back position , with 10 former high school Super Prep All @-@ Americans , nine of whom were Prep Star all @-@ Americans and seven were Parade all @-@ Americans . The exceptional running back situation at USC was a major factor in Sports Illustrated forecasting the 2007 season as " The Year of the Running Back . " In judging USC as a pre @-@ season favorite , particular emphasis was made on the defense . Considered to be one of the best defenses during the 2006 season , the Trojans entered 2007 with 10 returning starters and key backups . After a one @-@ season experiment with the 3 – 4 defense formation , the defense returned to using the 4 – 3 . The highlight of the defense was the linebacking corp , led by Brian Cushing , Keith Rivers and Rey Maualuga .
At the Pacific @-@ 10 Conference media day , the Trojans were the unanimous pre @-@ season pick to win the conference ; this was USC 's fifth year in a row as the favorite to win the conference title , and only the third time in conference history that a team had been picked unanimously ( the other two were USC in 2004 and 2005 ) .
= = = Recruiting class = = =
USC 's stellar recruiting class was highlighted by the three highest ranked players from the " ESPN 150 " : No. 1 Joe McKnight ( RB ) ; No. 2 Chris Galippo ( LB ) ; and No. 3 Marc Tyler ( RB ) . The Trojans also landed Scout.com 's National Player of the Year and top overall prospect for 2007 , Everson Griffen . Other notable signees included Rivals.com 's No. 1 WR Ronald Johnson and 5 @-@ star OL Kristofer O 'Dowd . Despite recruiting substantially fewer players than other programs , USC signed the No. 1 or No. 2 recruiting class in various rankings , along with the Florida Gators , the winners of the 2006 National Championship . In the pre @-@ season , McKnight and Johnson were named two of the top @-@ 10 impact freshman for 2007 .
The football program received 18 letters of intent on National Signing Day , February 7 , 2007 , listed below :
= = = Transfers = = =
In May , the Trojans were joined by former Arkansas quarterback Mitch Mustain , who had an 8 – 0 win / loss record as a starter during his freshman ( and only ) year with the team . Mustain joined fellow Arkansas teammate and wide receiver Damian Williams , who transferred from Arkansas before the 2006 bowl season . Due to NCAA transfer rules all would be unable to compete until 2008 , although they would be allowed on the scout team .
In early summer , Jordan Cameron , a former freshman basketball player from Brigham Young University , also transferred to USC to play football as a wide receiver . However , when USC refused to accept some of Cameron 's credits from Brigham Young , he was forced to withdraw and attend Ventura College . He missed the football season but was given the option to try to rejoin the team in 2008 . Even if he had stayed at USC , due to NCAA transfer rules he would have been ineligible to play in 2007 . Cameron ended up enrolling at USC a year later .
With the late 2006 dismissal of Troy Van Blarcom ( academics ) and the death of Mario Danelo , USC was left with only one experienced kicker : David Buehler , a 2006 junior college transfer from Santa Ana College who competed mainly at fullback and safety , but was used for one successful field goal attempt the previous season . In July 2007 , Joe Houston , a junior college kicker from El Camino College , joined the team as a " preferred walk @-@ on " , guaranteed a non @-@ scholarship spot on the team . As a junior college transfer , Houston would be able to play for the Trojans immediately . USC also recruited former University of Nebraska kicker , Jordan Congdon , who was not eligible for the 2007 season ; and Brad Smith , formerly of Davidson College . Smith was able to play immediately under an NCAA rule that permits non @-@ scholarship players who have already received a degree to transfer once with immediate eligibility .
= = = Departures = = =
Following the 2006 season , several players graduated , including starting senior All @-@ Americans Steve Smith ( wide receiver ) and Ryan Kalil ( center ) , as well as all @-@ conference linebackers Dallas Sartz and Oscar Lua . Junior All @-@ American Dwayne Jarrett , who was their leading receiver in 2005 and 2006 , renounced his eligibility and joined the NFL .
The Trojans entered fall training camp with a high number of scholarship running backs ( 10 ) , all of whom were highly touted recruits . In August , midway through camp , running back Emmanuel Moody announced he was leaving USC . Moody , who was the second @-@ leading rusher in the 2006 season , had gained 458 yards on 79 carries in a rotating platoon of running backs in 2006 and had recently been one of three USC running backs appearing on the regional cover of Sports Illustrated 's college football preview edition . Injuries had limited his playing and practice time : he suffered an ankle injury that caused him to miss the team 's last four games of the 2006 season , then missed almost all of spring practice due to a hamstring injury . Halfway through the summer training camp , Moody bruised his knee and was forced to stop practicing . He wished to be a featured player and stated he had " felt forgotten " coming into training camp due to his recent lack of playing and practice time . After looking at several schools , including Oklahoma State and North Carolina , Moody transferred to the University of Florida .
At about the same time , backup receiver and redshirt freshman Jamere Holland was dismissed from the team , although not for any violation of team rules . He was allowed to stay on scholarship for the year . Holland redshirted the previous season after breaking his collarbone , reinjured it during spring practice and had clashed with coaches during his return to fall camp . He would later transfer to the University of Oregon .
= = = Offseason news = = =
On January 6 , 2007 , Shortly after the Trojans ended their 2006 season with a win at the 2007 Rose Bowl , two @-@ year starting placekicker Mario Danelo was found dead at the bottom of a cliff in San Pedro , California . Danelo had been expected to start during the 2007 season . For the 2007 season , USC players wore a # 19 sticker on their helmets in honor of Danelo ; in addition the Kennedy @-@ Jones practice field had the number " 19 " sprayed onto its end zones and the Coliseum hung a banner above the player 's tunnel with Danelo 's name and also paid tribute to him on the goal @-@ post pads .
The Trojans lost their offensive coordinator , Lane Kiffin , on January 23 , 2007 , when he was hired to be the new head coach of the Oakland Raiders ; the 31 @-@ year @-@ old Kiffin became the youngest head coach in Raiders history , and the youngest head coach since the formation of the modern NFL . The following week , Pete Carroll named Steve Sarkisian as his team 's new offensive coordinator . Sarkisian had interviewed with the Raiders for their vacant head coach position but withdrew from the process to stay at USC , where he had been the assistant head coach and quarterbacks coach .
Intra @-@ conference controversy arose in March 2007 , when Stanford coach Jim Harbaugh was quoted as saying " [ Pete Carroll ] ' s only got one more year , though . He 'll be there one more year . That 's what I 've heard . I heard it inside the staff . " Upon further questions , Harbaugh claimed he had heard it from staff at USC . At the Pac @-@ 10 Conference media day ( July 26 , 2007 ) , Harbaugh praised the Trojans , stating " There is no question in my mind that USC is the best team in the country and may be the best team in the history of college football " ; the declaration , especially in light of his earlier comment , garnered more media attention .
In early July , LSU coach Les Miles stirred inter @-@ conference controversy when he publicly criticized USC 's 2007 schedule in front of LSU boosters ; though the two schools had not played each other since 1984 , the LSU Tiger faithful maintained a strong grudge against the Trojans after they shared the national title in the controversial 2003 season . LSU and Michigan were ranked as the pre @-@ season No. 2 team in various polls .
= = Schedule = =
The 2007 Trojans schedule was ranked the 8th hardest in the country . Before the season , the road schedule was ranked as the 6th toughest . Within the Pac @-@ 10 , the schedule ranked as the 2nd toughest .
= = Roster = =
= = Coaching staff = =
= = Game notes = =
= = = Idaho = = =
USC opened its season hosting the University of Idaho Vandals of the Western Athletic Conference , under first year coach Robb Akey . Trojans Defensive Coordinator Nick Holt had previously been the head coach of the Idaho Vandals for two seasons ( 2004 – 05 ) ; before that he was USC 's linebackers coach from 2001 – 03 under Carroll ( Holt had been an assistant coach at Idaho for eight seasons , from 1990 to 1997 ) . The game was scheduled in 2005 , during Holt 's tenure with the Vandals . After Holt 's sudden resignation in early 2006 , Idaho tried to get out of the game to no avail ; the Vandals athletic program received $ 600 @,@ 000 for their appearance in the game . The last time the Vandals played USC , in 1929 , they were in the same conference , the Pacific Coast Conference . During their time as conference rivals , USC dominated the Vandals , winning all seven games between 1922 and 1929 by a combined score of 215 – 20 . USC entered the 2007 contest as six @-@ touchdown favorites .
USC controlled the game , but did not exert the level of domination expected . After taking a 21 – 0 lead into the second quarter , the offense showed signs of sputtering ; the second teams took over for the 4th quarter . Booty completed 21 of 32 passes for 206 yards , threw for three touchdowns and one interception ; though he did not convert on a fourth down play in short yardage and was unable to find a rhythm . Primary receiver Patrick Turner was held out of the game to recover from a stinger received in the previous week 's practice ; cornerback Josh Pinkard was also held out to recover from knee soreness . As a result , young receivers David Ausberry and Vidal Hazelton handled the primary wide receiver duties . The highlight of the Trojans offense was the running game , which rushed for 214 yards while Idaho was held to 98 . The role was run by committee : with the debut of redshirt freshman Stafon Johnson ( 64 yards in 12 carries , two touchdown runs ) , who scored the first touchdown of the game , as well as C.J. Gable ( 68 yards in eight carries , one touchdown reception ) , who made an impressive 33 @-@ yard run , and fullback Stanley Havili who made several receptions , including one for a touchdown . The game marked the debut of USC true freshman running back Joe McKnight , who made a spectacular run in the third quarter that was likened to those of predecessor Reggie Bush . Kristofer O 'Dowd became the first true freshman to start at center for the Trojans due to an injury to Matt Spanos , earning positive reviews for his performance . Although the defense did not cause many turnovers and lost key linebacker Brian Cushing to an ankle sprain in the first quarter , it met enough expectations to remain ranked among the top defenses in the country .
In honor of Trojans kicker Mario Danelo , who died just after the 2006 season , a special ceremony was held before the beginning of the game . Also , after scoring its first touchdown , USC intentionally lined up for the PAT without a kicker in tribute to their late teammate , taking a 5 @-@ yard delay of game penalty before David Buehler came on the field to kick the extra point . The moment was chosen by ESPN as one of the Pac @-@ 10 's Top 10 Moments Of BCS Era .
= = = Nebraska = = =
After a bye week , the Trojans visited the Nebraska Cornhuskers in Lincoln , Nebraska . In the pre @-@ season , the game was named as one of the candidates for the 10 most important games of 2007 . For the Huskers , the game was especially critical to their hopes of showing progress under 4th year head coach Bill Callahan . The game marked the first time a No. 1 @-@ ranked team visited Lincoln since 1978 . Because of the game 's significance , ESPN College GameDay chose it as the site of its weekly broadcast .
Callahan had been criticized for his conservative play @-@ calling during the 2006 game in Los Angeles ; instead of playing to win , it appeared the Huskers were playing to not get blown out by the then @-@ favored Trojans . In that game the normally prolific West Coast offense of Nebraska , which had produced 541 yards a game , was corralled on the ground and attempted only 17 passes in a 28 – 10 Husker loss . For 2007 , Callahan pledged to play more aggressively , using running back Marlon Lucky and quarterback Sam Keller . Keller , the Huskers redshirt senior starting quarterback , was a 2006 transfer from Arizona State ; as a Sun Devil Keller started the first seven games of his 2005 junior season , throwing for 2 @,@ 165 yards , before a disastrous game against USC where , after leading ASU to a 21 – 3 halftime lead , he and the offense fell apart on the way to a 38 – 28 loss where he was sacked five times and threw five interceptions . Due to NCAA transfer rules , Keller spent the 2006 season on the Huskers ' scout team .
The Trojans stayed in nearby Omaha and practiced at a local high school ; Carroll took the rare step of closing practice to outsiders after a local radio station announced the location . The game marked the return of primary receiver Patrick Turner and running back Chauncey Washington from injury ; linebacker Brian Cushing , who injured his ankle early against Idaho , had not fully recovered but was allowed to suit @-@ up as a reserve . Senior center Matt Spanos remained injured , and true freshman Kris O 'Dowd was called to start again . Veteran secondary member Josh Pinkard was lost for the season after his sore knee gave out during a bye week practice , resulting in a torn ACL requiring surgery .
Anticipation for the game was high in Lincoln , fueling strong demand for tickets and accommodations ; the game brought celebrities including USC fans Will Ferrell ( also an alumnus ) and Keanu Reeves , Nebraska fans Larry the Cable Guy , Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas , Rush Limbaugh , and Ward Connerly ; past Husker Heisman @-@ winner Mike Rozier , Trojans Heisman @-@ winner Marcus Allen and star Trojans safety Ronnie Lott were also on hand for the game . The game fell on Pete Carroll 's 56th birthday ; as a surprise , Carroll was treated to a recorded message by actor Kiefer Sutherland , star of his favorite television show , 24 . The morning recording of College GameDay attracted 13 @,@ 293 fans , second to the all @-@ time record of 15 @,@ 808 set by Nebraska in 2001 . With 84 @,@ 959 in attendance , Nebraska recorded its NCAA @-@ record 284th consecutive home sellout dating back to 1962 .
USC dominated the game 49 – 31 , in a game that was not as close as the final score indicated : the Trojans led 42 – 10 going into the fourth quarter ; Nebraska scored two touchdowns in the final five minutes during garbage time . The Trojans dominated on the ground , as they out @-@ gained Nebraska 313 – 31 in rushing yards and averaged 8 @.@ 2 yards per carry , the most ever against a Nebraska team . Stafon Johnson led USC running backs with a career @-@ best 144 yards in 11 carries with one touchdown ; other major contributors were C.J. Gable ( 69 yards in four carries , including a 40 yard run ) , Washington ( 43 yards in 12 carries with two touchdowns ) , and another versatile performance by fullback Stanley Havili ( 52 rushing yards in two rushes with one touchdown , and three pass receptions for 22 yards with one touchdown ) . The Trojans passing game again did not find a rhythm , with several dropped passes , but the defense was able to frustrate the Husker offense for most of the game and cause two pivotal 3rd quarter interceptions .
The Trojans did not escape injuries , as linebacker Clay Matthews , substituting for the recovering Brian Cushing , broke his thumb , causing Cushing to enter the game as his replacement . The Trojans also suffered two injuries on kick returns : fullback Alfred Rowe suffered a mild concussion , and there was a moment of worry when returner Vincent Joseph , after being tackled and fumbling the ball , lay on the turf for over 10 minutes before being removed by stretcher with a bruised larynx and a neck sprain , but no serious injuries . Linebacker Rey Maualuga was flagged during a field goal attempt for the rarely called penalty of " disconcerting " , which is given for " words or signals that disconcert opponents when they are preparing to put the ball in play " .
After losing first place votes in the polls during the bye week , USC 's performance regained six after their performance against the Huskers in a hostile environment . Receiving specific praise was the Trojans offensive line , as well as the continued poise and ability of freshman center O 'Dowd .
= = = Washington State = = =
USC opened Pac @-@ 10 conference play by hosting the Washington State Cougars . Entering the game , Trojans quarterback John David Booty and the receiver corp remained unproven after an uninspiring performance against Idaho and a run @-@ dominated game against Nebraska . Hoping to take advantage , Washington State elected to go into the game using a man @-@ to @-@ man pass coverage to allow more focus on stopping the Trojans running game . The Cougars had given the then @-@ No. 3 Trojans a scare in their 2006 meeting , with the game coming down to the final seconds .
In the end , USC routed the Cougars 47 – 14 , with a primarily aerial attack . Booty reestablished his presence , completing 28 of 35 passes for 279 yards and four touchdowns before leaving the game early in the fourth quarter . Tight end Fred Davis had a career night with nine receptions for 124 yards and two touchdowns . Davis ' performance marked the most yards receiving ever in a game by a Trojans tight end . The Trojans ' first offensive drive set the tone with 13 plays , 83 yards and a touchdown on fourth down ; mostly coming from the air . Receivers Patrick Turner and Vidal Hazelton were able to find a groove and make plays after sputtering against Nebraska . In the rushing game , Chauncey Washington started and rushed for 84 of USC 's 207 yards . Stafon Johnson , who led the Trojans ground game against Nebraska , had nine carries and finished with 48 yards . Joe McKnight also got his first extended work and gained 48 yards in seven carries . USC built a 27 – 7 halftime lead and then scored on its first three possessions in the second half . The Trojans defense kept the Cougars in check , putting pressure on quarterback Alex Brink and limiting Washington State to 64 yards rushing .
Junior cornerback Cary Harris dislocated his right shoulder during the game and was replaced by Shareece Wright . Linebacker Brian Cushing reinjured the ankle he sprained in the opener against Idaho . Sixth @-@ year senior running back Hershel Dennis played for the first time since the 2004 season during the fourth quarter , gaining 14 yards in four carries ; he had sat out the two previous seasons due to injury .
The victory continued the Trojans ' domination of the series , 55 – 8 – 4 ; it also extended the record of top @-@ ranked USC teams against the Cougars to 5 – 0 . The game marked the first time it had ever rained during a USC game in September ; as a result the attendance was 86 @,@ 876 , the first time in 16 home games that the Trojans failed to draw at least 90 @,@ 000 . USC extended its home winning streak to 35 games .
= = = Washington = = =
The Trojans played their first Pac @-@ 10 road game of the season , visiting the Washington Huskies under coach Tyrone Willingham , at Husky Stadium in Seattle , Washington . In
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be moved . It was Tatiana who persuaded her mother to " stop tormenting herself " and make a decision to go with her father and leave Alexei behind . Alexandra decided that level @-@ headed Tatiana must be left behind to manage the household and look after Alexei .
During the month of separation from their parents and sister , Tatiana , Olga , Anastasia , and ladies in waiting busied themselves sewing precious stones and jewelry into their clothing , hoping to hide them from their captors , since Alexandra had written she , Nicholas and Maria had been heavily searched upon arrival in Ekaterinburg , and items confiscated . A letter from Demidova to Tegleva gave the instructions on how to deal with the ' medicines ' , a predetermined code name for the jewels . The concealments were successful , as the Bolsheviks were never aware of the jewels in the clothes until after the executions .
Pierre Gilliard later recalled his last sight of the imperial children at Yekaterinburg . " The sailor Nagorny , who attended to Alexei Nikolaevitch , passed my window carrying the sick boy in his arms , behind him came the Grand Duchesses loaded with valises and small personal belongings . I tried to get out , but was roughly pushed back into the carriage by the sentry . I came back to the window . Tatiana Nikolayevna came last carrying her little dog and struggling to drag a heavy brown valise . It was raining and I saw her feet sink into the mud at every step . Nagorny tried to come to her assistance ; he was roughly pushed back by one of the commisars ... "
= = Death = =
At Yekaterinburg , Tatiana occasionally joined her younger sisters in chatting with some of the guards over tea , asking them questions about their families and talking about her hopes for a new life in England when they were released . On one occasion one of the guards forgot himself and told the grand duchesses an off @-@ color joke . The shocked Tatiana ran from the room , " pale as death , " and her younger sister Maria scolded the guards for their bad language . She " would be pleasant to the guards if she thought they were behaving in an acceptable and decorous manner , " recalled another of the guards in his memoirs . Later , when a new commander was placed in charge of the Ipatiev House , the family was forbidden from fraternizing with the guards and the rules of their confinement became more strict . Tatiana , still the family leader , was often sent by her parents to question the guards about rules or what would happen next to the family . She also spent a great deal of time sitting with her mother and ill brother , reading to her mother or playing games to occupy the time . At the Ipatiev House , Tatiana and her sisters were required to do their own laundry and make bread . Her nursing skills were called upon at the end of June 1918 when she gave an injection of morphine to Dr. Eugene Botkin to ease his kidney pain .
On 14 July 1918 , local priests at Yekaterinburg conducted a private church service for the family and reported that Tatiana and her family , contrary to custom , fell on their knees during the prayer for the dead . The final entry in Tatiana 's final notebook at Yekaterinburg was a saying she had copied from the words of a well @-@ known Russian Orthodox holy man , Father Ioann of Kronstadt : " Your grief is indescribable , the Savior 's grief in the Gardens of Gethsemane for the world 's sins is immeasurable , join your grief to his , in it you will find consolation . " The following day , on 15 July , Tatiana and her sisters appeared in good spirits as they joked with one another and moved the beds in their room so visiting cleaning women could scrub the floor . They got down on their hands and knees to help the women and whispered to them when the guards weren 't looking . All four young women wore long black skirts and white silk blouses , the same clothing they had worn the previous day . Their short hair was " tumbled and disorderly . " They told the women how much they enjoyed physical exertion and wished there was more of it for them to do in the Ipatiev House . On the afternoon of 16 July 1918 , the last full day of her life , Tatiana sat with her mother and read from the Biblical Books of Amos and Obadiah , Alexandra noted in her diary . Later , mother and daughter sat and just talked . As the family was having dinner that night , Yakov Yurovsky , the head of the detachment , came in and announced that the family 's kitchen boy and Alexei 's playmate , 14 @-@ year @-@ old Leonid Sednev , must gather his things and go to a family member . The boy had actually been sent to a hotel across the street because the guards did not want to kill him along with the rest of the Romanov party . The family , unaware of the plan to kill them , was upset and unsettled by Sednev 's absence . Tatiana went that evening to Yurovsky 's office , for what was to be the last time , to ask for the return of the kitchen boy who kept Alexei amused during the long hours of captivity . Yurovsky placated her by telling her the boy would return soon , but the family was unconvinced .
Late that night , on the night of 16 July , the family was awakened and told to come down to the lower level of the house because there was unrest in the town at large and they would have to be moved for their own safety . The family emerged from their rooms carrying pillows , bags , and other items to make Alexandra and Alexei comfortable . The family paused and crossed themselves when they saw the stuffed mother bear and cubs that stood on the landing , perhaps as a sign of respect for the dead . Nicholas told the servants and family " Well , we 're going to get out of this place . " They asked questions of the guards but did not appear to suspect they were going to be killed . Yurovsky , who had been a professional photographer , directed the family to take different positions as a photographer might . Alexandra , who had requested chairs for herself and Alexei , sat to her son 's left . The Tsar stood behind Alexei , Dr. Botkin stood to the Tsar 's right , Tatiana and her sisters stood behind Alexandra along with the servants . They were left for approximately half an hour while further preparations were made . The group said little during this time , but Alexandra whispered to the girls in English , violating the guard 's rules that they must speak in Russian . Yurovsky came in , ordered them to stand , and read the sentence of execution . Tatiana and her family had time only to utter a few incoherent sounds of shock or protest before the death squad under Yurovsky 's command began shooting . It was the early hours of 17 July 1918 .
The initial round of gunfire killed only the Tsar , the Empress and two male servants , and wounded Grand Duchess Maria , Dr Botkin and the Empress ' maidservant , Demidova . At that point the gunmen had to leave the room because of smoke and toxic fumes from their guns and plaster dust their bullets had released from the walls . After allowing the haze to clear for several minutes , the gunmen returned . Dr Botkin was killed , and a gunman named Ermakov repeatedly tried to shoot Tsarevich Alexei , but failed because jewels sewn into the boy 's clothes shielded him . Ermakov tried to stab Alexei with a bayonet but failed again , and finally Yurovsky fired two shots into the boy 's head . Yurovsky and Ermakov approached Olga and Tatiana , who were crouched against the room 's rear wall , clinging to each other and screaming for their mother . Ermakov stabbed both young women with his 8 @-@ inch bayonet , but had difficulty penetrating their torsos because of the jewels that had been sewn into their chemises . The sisters tried to stand , but Tatiana was killed instantly when Yurovsky shot her in the back of her head . A moment later , Olga too died when Ermakov shot her in the head .
Author Michael Occleshaw made the claim in his 1995 book The Romanov Conspiracies : The Romanovs and the House of Windsor that Tatiana might have been rescued and transported to England , where she married a British officer and lived under the name Larissa Tudor . Occleshaw based this claim on studying the diaries of the British agent Richard Meinertzhagen , who hinted at the successful liberation of a Grand Duchess , allegedly Tatiana . However , historians discount this claim . Survival stories persist because two bodies were missing from the mass grave found in the forest outside Yekaterinburg and exhumed in 1991 . Those bodies were identified as Tsarevich Alexei and one of the four grand duchesses , generally thought by Russians to be Grand Duchess Maria and by Americans to be Grand Duchess Anastasia . Most historians believe that all of the Romanovs , including Tatiana , were assassinated at Ekaterinburg .
On 23 August 2007 , a Russian archaeologist announced the discovery of two burned , partial skeletons at a bonfire site near Yekaterinburg that appeared to match the site described in Yurovsky 's memoirs . The archaeologists said the bones are from a boy who was roughly between the ages of ten and thirteen years at the time of his death and of a young woman who was roughly between the ages of eighteen and twenty @-@ three years old . Anastasia was seventeen years , one month old at the time of the assassination , while her sister Maria was nineteen years , one month old and their brother Alexei was two weeks shy of his fourteenth birthday . Olga and Tatiana were twenty @-@ two and twenty @-@ one years old at the time of the assassinations . Along with the remains of the two bodies , archaeologists found " shards of a container of sulfuric acid , nails , metal strips from a wooden box , and bullets of various caliber . " The bones were found using metal detectors and metal rods as probes .
Preliminary testing indicated a " high degree of probability " that the remains belonged to the Tsarevich Alexei and to one of his sisters , Russian forensic scientists announced on 22 January 2008 . The Yekaterinburg region 's chief forensic expert Nikolai Nevolin indicated the results would be compared against those obtained by foreign experts . On 30 April 2008 , Russian forensic scientists announced that DNA testing proved that the remains belong to the Tsarevich Alexei and to one of his sisters . With this result , all of the Tsar 's family are accounted for .
= = Sainthood = =
For more information , see Romanov sainthood
In 2000 , Tatiana and her family were canonized as passion bearers by the Russian Orthodox Church . The family had previously been canonized in 1981 by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad as holy martyrs .
The bodies of Tsar Nicholas II , Tsarina Alexandra , and three of their daughters were finally interred at St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg on 17 July 1998 , eighty years to the day after they were murdered .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Books = =
Bokhanov , Alexander and Dr. Knodt , Manfred and Oustimenko , Vladimir and Peregudova , Zinaida and Tyutyunnik , Lyubov ; Xenofontova , Lyudmila ( translator ) ; The Romanovs : Love , Power , and Tragedy . Leppi Publications , 1993 . ISBN 0 @-@ 9521644 @-@ 0 @-@ X
Christopher , Peter , Kurth , Peter , and Radzinsky , Edvard . Tsar : The Lost World of Nicholas and Alexandra ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 50787 @-@ 3
Dehn , Lili . The Real Tsaritsa . 1922 .
De Malama , Peter . The Romanovs : The Forgotten Romance in Royalty Digest . December 2004 , p . 184 .
Eagar , Margaret . Six Years at the Russian Court , 1906 .
Fuhrmann , Joseph T. The Complete Wartime Correspondence of Nicholas and Alexandra : April 1914 – March 1917 . Greenwood Press , 1999 .
Gilliard , Pierre . Thirteen Years at the Russian Court . ISBN 0 @-@ 405 @-@ 03029 @-@ 0
King , Greg and Wilson , Penny . The Fate of the Romanovs , 2003 . ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 20768 @-@ 3
Kurth , Peter , Anastasia : The Riddle of Anna Anderson , Back Bay Books , 1983 , ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 50717 @-@ 2
Livadia.org
Mager , Hugo . Elizabeth : Grand Duchess of Russia . Carroll and Graf Publishers , Inc . , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 7867 @-@ 0678 @-@ 3
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Massie , Robert K. The Romanovs : The Final Chapter . 1995 . ISBN 0 @-@ 679 @-@ 43572 @-@ 7
Maylunas , Andrei and Mironenko , Sergei , Galy ( editors ) ; Darya ( translator ) . A Lifelong Passion : Nicholas and Alexandra : Their Own Story . 1997 , Doubleday , ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 48673 @-@ 1 .
Occleshaw , Michael , The Romanov Conspiracies : The Romanovs and the House of Windsor , Orion , 1993 , ISBN 1 @-@ 85592 @-@ 518 @-@ 4
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= Bradley Wiggins =
Sir Bradley Marc Wiggins , CBE ( born 28 April 1980 ) is a British professional road and track racing cyclist who rides for the UCI Continental team WIGGINS , after leaving Team Sky . Nicknamed " Wiggo " , he began his cycling career on the track , but has made the transition to road cycling and is one of the few cyclists to gain significant elite level success in both those forms of professional cycling .
The son of the Australian cyclist Gary Wiggins , Wiggins was born to a British mother in Ghent , Belgium , and raised in London from the age of two . He competed on the track from the early part of his career until 2008 . He has won seven gold medals at the track world championships , his first in 2003 and his most recent in 2016 ; three in the individual pursuit , two in the team pursuit and two in the Madison . He won a gold in the individual pursuit at the 2004 Olympic Games and two golds in the individual and team pursuit at the 2008 Olympic Games . Wiggins returned to the track at the 2014 Commonwealth Games , and has announced his intention to compete in track cycling at the 2016 Summer Olympics .
After the 2008 Olympics , Wiggins took a break from the track to focus on the road . Initially viewed as a time trial specialist and as a rouleur , he showed his ability in stage races when he came fourth in the 2009 Tour de France ; he was later promoted to third after Lance Armstrong 's results were annulled in 2012 . In 2011 he claimed his first victory in a major stage race in the Critérium du Dauphiné , and he also finished third in the Vuelta a España . In 2012 , Wiggins won the Paris – Nice , the Tour de Romandie , the Critérium du Dauphiné , and became the first British cyclist to win the Tour de France and the time trial at the Olympic Games . Following his success in 2012 , Wiggins was the subject of several honours and awards ; the Vélo d 'Or award for best rider of the year , the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award and awarded a knighthood as part of the 2013 New Year Honours . In 2014 he won gold in the time trial at the 2014 road world championships . In June 2015 he set a new hour record with a distance of 54 @.@ 526 km ( 33 @.@ 881 mi ) .
= = Early life and amateur career = =
Wiggins was born on 28 April 1980 in Ghent , Belgium , to an Australian father , Gary Wiggins and a British mother , Linda . His father lived in Belgium as a professional cyclist . His father left the family when Bradley was two . Bradley moved with his mother to her parents ' flat in Kilburn , north @-@ west London , then to a Church Commission flat at Dibdin House estate in neighbouring Maida Vale . He was educated at St Augustine 's junior school and then St Augustine 's Church of England High School in Kilburn , where his mother was a secretary . He has a younger half @-@ brother , Ryan , from his mother and her partner Brendan , who separated when Bradley was in his late teens .
Wiggins played football in his youth and was an Arsenal fan , although he would watch rivals Tottenham Hotspur play because his friends supported them . He had trials as a junior at West Ham . He discovered cycling when his mother told him to watch the television coverage of the individual pursuit final of the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona , which Briton Chris Boardman won . She explained it was one of the events at which his father had been successful . He watched the rest of the Olympics and fell in love with cycling and the Olympics itself .
In 1992 , aged 12 , he entered his first race , the West London Challenge 92 , on the unopened A312 dual carriageway in Hayes , west London . Later that year he broke a collarbone in a road accident . He received £ 1 @,@ 700 compensation for his injuries . He gave his mother £ 700 and used the rest to buy his first racing bicycle . " At 12 " , he recalled , " I told my art teacher , I 'm going to be Olympic champion , I 'm going to wear the yellow jersey in the Tour . " He joined the Archer Road Club , where his father had been a member in the late 1970s . He raced at Herne Hill Velodrome and on the road around Crystal Palace National Sports Centre . He gained domestic sponsorship from Condor Cycles 's Olympia Sport and then Team Brite . He represented Westminster in the London Youth Games as a teenager , and in 2010 he was inducted into the London Youth Games Hall of Fame .
At 16 , he won the 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) time trial at the 1996 junior national track championships at Saffron Lane sports centre in Leicester . Selectors invited him to train at weekends at Manchester Velodrome . After leaving school he enrolled on a BTEC foundation course in business studies , but left due to cycling commitments . At the 1997 junior national track championships he won the one @-@ kilometre time trial , 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) individual pursuit , points race and scratch race . He was the only British competitor for the 1997 junior track world championships in Cape Town , coming 16th in the individual pursuit and fourth in the points race .
His breakthrough came in June 1998 , winning the three @-@ kilometre individual pursuit at the junior track world championships in Cuba , aged 18 . The following week , he retained his titles at the junior national track championships in Manchester . He represented England at the Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur , finishing fourth in the individual pursuit , and was a member of the team that won a silver medal in the team pursuit , his first senior medal . He became a full @-@ time Lottery @-@ funded athlete , with a grant of nearly £ 20 @,@ 000 a year ( equivalent to £ 32000 in 2016 ) .
In 1999 he began training with the Great Britain team pursuit squad and rode the PruTour – now known as the Tour of Britain , his first stage race at that level . In October he competed in the track world championships in Berlin , coming fifth in the team pursuit , and with partner Rob Hayles , came tenth in the Madison , securing qualification for the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney . At the Olympics he won a bronze medal in the team pursuit , beating France in the bronze medal match , and came fourth in the Madison with Hayles . In October 2000 , he took silver in the team pursuit at the track world championships in Manchester , losing to Germany in the final by under half a second .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2001 – 2004 : Early years = = =
In 2001 he signed for the Linda McCartney Racing Team , a British professional road cycling team , but it disbanded after internal problems . He was briefly seen in Sigma Sport colours after the collapse of the Linda McCartney team , but then secured further lottery funding , and began racing for the British national team . He came second in the prologue of the Tour of Rhodes , two seconds behind Fabian Cancellara of Mapei – Quick @-@ Step , before winning the general classification in the Cinturón a Mallorca and Flèche du Sud . In September he crashed his bike , requiring two metal pins in his right wrist . Two weeks later he went to the track world championships in Antwerp , managing seventh place in the individual pursuit and consecutive silver in the team pursuit .
He joined the French team Française des Jeux in 2002 , relocating to Nantes , and soon became homesick , finding it a huge contrast to the British Cycling set @-@ up . At the Commonwealth Games in Manchester he won silver medals in the individual pursuit , losing to Française des Jeux team @-@ mate Bradley McGee ( Australia ) in the final , and team pursuit , beaten by Australia , who set a new world record with a time of three minutes and 59 @.@ 583 seconds . At the track world championships in Copenhagen , he came fifth in the individual pursuit and won a bronze medal in the team pursuit . Wiggins was frustrated with his result in the individual pursuit at the world championships and became disillusioned with his future with Française des Jeux . British Cycling then enlisted the newly retired Chris Boardman as his mentor .
In May 2003 , Wiggins made his Grand Tour debut at the Giro d 'Italia . On the 18th stage he was eliminated from the race , finishing outside of the time limit in a group of 53 riders . In the summer he competed in the track world championships in Stuttgart , qualifying fastest in the individual pursuit , before beating Russia 's Alexey Markov in the first round , setting up a place in the final against Australia 's Luke Roberts . He beat Roberts by 0 @.@ 736 seconds to win the gold medal , his first senior world title . He also came away with a silver medal in the team pursuit , beaten by Australia in the final , who broke their own world record with a time of three minutes and 57 @.@ 280 seconds . In September he won stage one of the Tour de l 'Avenir , beating team @-@ mate Benoît Vaugrenard and Rabobank 's Joost Posthuma by 14 seconds . In November he won the Six Days of Ghent with Matthew Gilmore of Vlaanderen – T Interim .
Wiggins signed with Crédit Agricole for the 2004 season , advised by Boardman , who rode for them his entire professional road career . He began training for the Olympic Games in Athens , at first struggling with illness and fitness , he arrived in peak form ; he qualified for the individual pursuit with a time of four minutes and 15 @.@ 165 seconds , an Olympic record and fifth fastest time in history . In the final he beat McGee by over four seconds to win the gold medal . Wiggins was brought in to the team pursuit squad for the first round against France , replacing Bryan Steele , and advanced into the final , where the team were beaten by Australia , settling for the silver medal . Wiggins then partnered Rob Hayles in the Madison . With 90 laps left of the 200 , Hayles crashed with Dutchman Robert Slippens , returning after a few laps . They lost a lap to their rivals , but with 30 to go Wiggins attacked , and they regained the lost lap , moving into second place . They lost points in the final sprint , moving them down to third , taking the bronze medal with 12 points , behind Switzerland on 15 and Australia on 22 . Wiggins became the first British athlete in 40 years to win three medals at one Games , the last being Mary Rand at the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo . On 31 December 2004 he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2005 New Year Honours , for services to sport .
= = = 2005 – 2007 : On the road = = =
In early 2005 , he revealed his desire to compete in road cycling , and in April won the 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) time trial around the town of Briey in northeastern France , on the second stage of the Circuit de Lorraine . In September he won his first race stage since 2001 , stage eight of the Tour de l 'Avenir ; finishing with team @-@ mate Saul Raisin , with third @-@ placed Steve Cummings ( Landbouwkrediet – Colnago ) coming in three minutes and 24 seconds later . Wiggins competed in the Giro d 'Italia , finishing 123rd overall . He came seventh in the time trial at the road world championships in Madrid , one minute and 31 seconds down on winner Michael Rogers of Australia . He moved to Cofidis for the 2006 season , and was selected to ride in the Tour de France , finishing his first Tour in 124th place .
In 2007 March , Wiggins returned to the track for the track world championships in Palma , Majorca , his first appearance at the championships since 2004 . In the qualifying round for the individual pursuit , he set his second fastest time since his personal best at the Olympics in Athens , with a time of four minutes and 15 @.@ 976 seconds ; he beat Germany 's Robert Bartko in the final to win the gold , catching him after 2750 m . He then went on to win gold in the team pursuit , beating Ukraine in the final . He finished in 13th place in the Madison , with Rob Hayles .
On the road he won stage one of the Four Days of Dunkirk and the prologue of the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré , before competing in the Tour de France and finishing fourth in the prologue in London . On stage six Wiggins launched a solo breakaway after 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of racing , leading the race for 190 @.@ 5 km ( 118 @.@ 4 mi ) , before being caught by the peloton with 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining . It was seen as a tribute to British rider Tom Simpson , on the 40th anniversary of his death in the 1967 Tour de France , but was a gift to his wife on her birthday , with Wiggins only finding out about the date 's significance after the race . He received the stage 's combativity award , for the most aggressive rider . Cofidis withdrew from the race before stage 16 after Cristian Moreni failed a doping test . Wiggins and his team @-@ mates were interviewed by police and had their hotel rooms searched . In the aftermath of the positive drug tests on Moreni and on race leader Alexander Vinokourov of Astana , Wiggins spoke out against dopers in the Tour and threw away his Cofidis kit in a bin in Pau Pyrénées Airport , vowing never to race for the team again .
Despite this Wiggins continued racing for Cofidis , and in August he won the time trial on stage four of the Tour du Poitou @-@ Charentes . In September , with team @-@ mate Michiel Elijzen , he won the Duo Normand , a two @-@ man team time trial over a course of 53 @.@ 4 km ( 33 @.@ 2 mi ) . His season on the road ended riding for Great Britain at the road world championships in Stuttgart , coming tenth in the time trial , two minutes and ten seconds behind winner Cancellara of Switzerland ; a result he was disappointed with , after hoping to finish on the podium .
In September he signed for the T @-@ Mobile Team – later known as Team High Road – for the 2008 season , joining compatriot Mark Cavendish , forming a partnership in the Madison . Their first race was the Six Days of Ghent in November , finishing in tenth place ; Wiggins still riding for Cofidis . Wiggins then made his only appearance for the T @-@ Mobile Track Team – which is separate from the road team – at the Beijing round of the 2007 – 2008 Track World Cup Classics in December , winning gold in the individual pursuit and silver in the Madison with Cavendish .
= = = 2008 : Back to the track = = =
For the 2008 season , Wiggins 's focus was on the track and on the Olympic Games in Beijing , deciding not to compete in the Tour de France . In February he travelled to the United States to train , and rode the Tour of California , coming second in the prologue , behind Cancellara ( Team CSC ) .
In March Wiggins competed in the track world championships in Manchester , defending his individual pursuit title by beating Dutchman Jenning Huizenga to win , his third world title in the discipline . He then won the team pursuit , setting a new world record of three minutes and 56 @.@ 32 seconds in the final against Denmark . Wiggins was due to partner with Hayles in the Madison , but Hayles failed a routine blood test , and was subsequently banned for two weeks . Cavendish was then brought in as his replacement . At around halfway through the race they appeared to be out of contention , with their closest rivals all gaining a lap ; but with 35 laps left to race , Wiggins launched an attack which helped them reach the field ten laps later , taking the lead , due to their superior points they had collected in the sprints . They held on to win the gold medal , finishing with 19 points , ahead of Germany on 13 .
Wiggins then rode the Tour de Romandie and the Giro d 'Italia , as preparation for the Olympics in August . At the Giro he was part of the lead @-@ out train that helped Cavendish win two stages . Wiggins came fourth in the final stage 's 28 @.@ 5 km ( 17 @.@ 7 mi ) -long time trial in Milan , six seconds behind team @-@ mate Marco Pinotti , finishing the race in 134th place , three hours , one minute and 39 seconds down on overall winner Alberto Contador of Astana .
At the Olympics he began the defence of his title in the individual pursuit , qualifying with a time of four minutes and 15 @.@ 031 seconds , breaking his own Olympic record from 2004 . In the semi @-@ final he beat Russia 's Alexander Serov , before taking gold in the final against Hayden Roulston of New Zealand , becoming the first rider to defend an Olympic pursuit title successfully . He was a member of the team pursuit that broke the world record in the heats with a time of three minutes and 55 @.@ 202 seconds . The following day , the team won the gold medal , beating Denmark by 6 @.@ 7 seconds with another new world record of three minutes and 53 @.@ 314 seconds , averaging a speed of 61 @.@ 719 km / h ( 38 @.@ 4 mph ) . He paired with Cavendish in the Madison , and as the reigning world champions , they were favourites for the gold medal , but they only finished ninth . Cavendish felt that Wiggins had not performed to the best of his ability in the Madison .
In September Wiggins joined the American team Garmin – Slipstream for the 2009 season . On 14 December he came ninth in the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award , with 5 @,@ 633 votes , and was a member of the British cycling team that won the Team of the Year Award . On 31 December he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2009 New Year Honours .
= = = 2009 : Tour de France breakthrough = = =
Wiggins switched his focus to road and moved with his family to the city of Girona in north @-@ east Spain , where Garmin – Slipstream were based . He started the season in February by helping the team win the opening team time trial of the Tour of Qatar , crossing the line first to take the leaders jersey . In March he came second to Contador in the opening time trial of Paris – Nice , before riding Milan – San Remo and then placing second in the time trial at Critérium International . In April he won the time trial on the final stage of the Three Days of De Panne , twenty seconds ahead of Vacansoleil rider Lieuwe Westra in second place , then had top @-@ 30 finishes in the Classics : Gent – Wevelgem and Paris – Roubaix . After finishing in 71st position in the Giro d 'Italia and taking second place in the 14 @.@ 4 km ( 8 @.@ 9 mi ) -long time trial on the final stage in Rome , he won the Beaumont Trophy , a domestic one @-@ day race in Northumberland , using it as preparation for the Tour de France three weeks later .
Wiggins arrived at the Tour de France having lost 6 kg ( 13 @.@ 2 lb ) , and was nicknamed " Twiggo " , instead of the usual " Wiggo " . He came third in the time trial on stage one in Monaco , 19 seconds behind Team Saxo Bank 's Cancellara and one behind Contador . He then helped Garmin – Slipstream to second in stage four 's team time trial , despite losing four riders . On stage seven he finished 12th in the first mountain finish and was in fifth place overall at the beginning of the second week . On stage fifteen in Verbier – the second mountain finish , Wiggins finished fifth , rising to third place overall . On stage 17 Contador , Andreas Klöden ( Astana ) and Team Saxo Bank riders Fränk and Andy Schleck attacked on the final climb – the Col de la Colombière , measuring 7 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) at an average gradient of 8 @.@ 5 % , and was left with Astana 's Lance Armstrong and Vincenzo Nibali of Liquigas , who let Wiggins do all the work before attacking one @-@ kilometre from the summit . Wiggins failed to gain time on the descent and finished three minutes and seven seconds down on winner Fränk Schleck , dropping to sixth overall .
Wiggins moved back up to fourth , after finishing in second place in the time trial on stage 19 , finishing in sixth place 42 seconds down on winner Contador . On stage 20 to Mont Ventoux , Wiggins was dropped by the yellow jersey group 1 @.@ 4 km ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) from the summit , finishing in tenth place and kept fourth overall , three seconds ahead of Fränk Schleck ; he held that position in the final stage , equalling Robert Millar 's highest ever finish by a British rider in the Tour . In October 2012 , following the disqualification of Armstrong , who had originally placed third in the general classification , Wiggins was promoted to third place overall . This decision retroactively gave him the first podium finish by a British rider in Tour de France history .
In September Wiggins won the national time trial championship in Buckinghamshire , and in September at the road world championships in Mendrisio , Switzerland , was on course for a bronze medal in the time trial , until a mechanical problem and a delay getting a replacement bike ended with him finishing in 21st place . In October he ended the season by winning the Herald Sun Tour in Victoria , Australia , after helping team @-@ mates for most of the race . He led the race after winning the time trial on stage five in Geelong , beating second @-@ placed team @-@ mate Svein Tuft by fourteen seconds .
Wiggins had been contracted to ride for Garmin Slipstream again in 2010 , but it was announced on 10 December that he was to leave to join Team Sky , having signed a four @-@ year contract with the new British team .
= = = 2010 : Move to Team Sky = = =
Wiggins began 2010 as a team leader for the first time and his main target was to win the Tour de France . In February he was part of the team that won the opening team time trial of the Tour of Qatar , before taking second place in the time trial on stage four of the Vuelta a Andalucía , behind Alex Rasmussen of Team Saxo Bank . He then went on to finish third at the Tour of Murcia in March , behind winner Frantisek Rabon of Team HTC – Columbia and Rabobank rider Denis Menchov in second .
In May Wiggins took his first Grand Tour victory on the wet streets of Amsterdam in the opening time trial of the Giro d 'Italia , becoming the second Briton to wear the pink jersey after Cavendish in 2009 . A series of crashes on the second stage put him 32 seconds behind in the general classification to the new leader Cadel Evans ( BMC Racing Team ) . Another crash on stage three cost him a further three minutes and 58 seconds . He recovered time on stage 11 , finishing fourth , from a group of 56 riders , and lay tenth overall . He faded quickly towards the end of the race , however , losing time in the final stages . He came seventh in the 15 @.@ 3 km ( 9 @.@ 5 mi ) final time trial in Verona . He finished the race 40th overall , one hour , 47 minutes and 58 seconds behind overall winner Ivan Basso of Liquigas – Doimo . Throughout the race he told the press he was saving himself for the Tour de France , when asked about his form , but in fact felt physically unfit .
Wiggins then went to a training camp in the Alps , testing the mountain stages used for the Tour ; he struggled to find his fitness . He made a poor start in the Tour , taking 77th place in the prologue after an early starting position left him exposed to poor conditions . He finished eighth on stage three , as cobblestones troubled a number of favourites , but on stage eight at Morzine @-@ Avoriaz , the first mountain summit finish of the Tour , he could only manage 19th place , losing one minute and 45 second to stage winner Andy Schleck ( Team Saxo Bank ) . The following day he lost more time , coming 13th and losing four minutes and 55 seconds to the main contenders . He finished in 36th place on stage fourteen , falling to 18th overall , 11 minutes and 30 seconds behind race leader Andy Schleck ; to the press he described his form as " consistently mediocre " . On stage 19 's time trial from Bordeaux to Pauillac , he finished in ninth place , three minutes and 33 seconds behind winner Cancellara . Wiggins finished the Tour in 24th place , 39 minutes and seven seconds down on winner Contador and seven places behind team @-@ mate Thomas Löfkvist . In February 2012 , Contador was found guilty of doping and Wiggins 's overall position was upgraded to 23rd .
He returned to racing in August , at the GP Ouest @-@ France in Plouay . In September retained his title at the national time trial championships , around the 52 @.@ 7 km ( 32 @.@ 7 mi ) -long course in South Wales , before finishing the season at the Tour of Britain . His season ended at the Giro di Lombardia , where he was forced abandon following a crash . Over the winter he trained with the Great Britain squad at Manchester Velodrome .
= = = 2011 : Dauphiné and Vuelta = = =
Wiggins was team leader of Team Sky again at the start of 2011 . He opted not to enter the Giro d 'Italia , concentrating instead on shorter events and the classics before undertaking altitude training to improve his climbing for the Tour de France . His season began at the Tour of Qatar in February , before winning the team pursuit at the Manchester round of the 2009 – 2010 Track World Cup Classics , with a time of three minutes 55 @.@ 438 , the fifth @-@ fastest time . He then came second in the 27 km ( 16 @.@ 8 mi ) -long time trial on the sixth stage of the Paris – Nice in March , 20 seconds behind Tony Martin of HTC – Highroad . He finished third overall , behind Martin and Team RadioShack rider Andreas Klöden . In April he rode Paris – Roubaix , and then the Tour de Romandie , finishing third in time trial on stage and helped lead @-@ out team @-@ mate Ben Swift to victory on the final stage . In March he finished second in the time trial on the third stage of the Critérium International , four seconds down on Klöden . In May he won the 26 km ( 16 @.@ 2 mi ) -long time trial on stage four of the Bayern @-@ Rundfahrt , beating Leopard Trek 's Cancellara by 33 seconds , and finished the event in 14th place overall , while also helping team @-@ mate Geraint Thomas to win the event .
He then went for altitude training in the Alps , in preparation for the Tour . He took the overall lead in the Critérium du Dauphiné after finishing second in the time trial on stage three . On the final three mountain stages , Wiggins maintained his lead over second @-@ placed Evans to win the race , at that time his biggest victory on the road . In June Wiggins won the national road race championship in Northumberland . On the seventh stage of the Tour , a crash around 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) from the finish in Châteauroux forced Wiggins to retire from the race with a broken collarbone .
After he had recovered from his injuries , Team Sky confirmed that Wiggins would ride in the Vuelta a España for the first time , as well as in the road world championships . Wiggins also confirmed that he would take part the Tour in 2012 , even though the Olympics would follow soon after . The Vuelta and the world championships were seen as a dress rehearsal for 2012 . He had a difficult start to the Vuelta , as Team Sky finished 42 seconds behind winners Leopard Trek in the opening team time trial in Benidorm , but a strong first week brought him back into contention , leaving him twentieth overall after stage eight . On stage nine , Wiggins and team @-@ mate Chris Froome attacked on the final climb to finish fourth and fifth respectively , gaining time on Team Katusha rider Joaquim Rodríguez , Michele Scarponi ( Lampre – ISD ) and other contenders . Wiggins was expected to take the overall lead in the time trial on the following day , but Froome confounded expectations by finishing second on the stage , and Wiggins only rose to third overall . He eventually took the lead after the rest day . Stage fourteen saw Wiggins and Froome gaining on most of their rivals . However , Wiggins lost the lead to Geox – TMC 's Juan José Cobo on stage fifteen , when he finished fifth on the climb up the Angliru and dropped to third in the standings , behind Froome , who was second . Wiggins finished the Vuelta in third place – his first podium finish in a Grand Tour .
In September he competed in the road world championships in Copenhagen , he won the silver medal in the 46 @.@ 3 km ( 28 @.@ 8 mi ) time trial , finishing one minute and fifteen seconds behind Germany 's Martin , and four seconds ahead of reigning champion Cancellara ( Switzerland ) in third . Four days later , he was part of the Great Britain team that set up Cavendish 's victory in the road race ; Wiggins took over lead on the final lap of 17 around the 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) circuit , setting a high pace to chase down the breakaway and stop attacks from developing .
= = = 2012 : Tour de France and Olympic gold = = =
In 2012 Wiggins continued to focus on road racing . The individual pursuit was removed from the programme at the Olympics later in the year , and in December 2011 coach Rod Ellingworth told The Guardian , " The chances of him doing the team pursuit are really slim now " . He began his 2012 season with third place in the Volta ao Algarve , including victory in the concluding time trial , edging out world champion Martin ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) by less than a second .
In March Wiggins finished second in the opening time trial of the Paris – Nice , one second behind Vacansoleil – DCM 's Gustav Larsson , who avoided the wet conditions , unlike Wiggins and the other favourites that set off later in the day . The following day he took the lead in the race after being part of a 30 @-@ man breakaway as the peloton split into echelons . He held the lead for the rest of the event , winning the final stage , a time @-@ trial on the Col d 'Èze , to win the race by eight seconds overall and become the first British rider to win the race since Tom Simpson in 1967 . His final stage victory was also good enough to give him the points classification . Wiggins ' time is the fastest time for the traditional time @-@ trial on the Col d 'Èze .
On the stage one of the Tour de Romandie in April , Wiggins took a rare sprint victory from a group of 59 riders . He lost the jersey to Rabobank rider Luis León Sánchez after Sánchez won two consecutive stages , but won the final time trial , despite suffering a dropped chain , to take the overall victory and become the first Briton to win the race in its 65 @-@ year history .
In June Wiggins competed in the Critérium du Dauphiné , and began the defence of his title with a second @-@ place finish in the prologue , one second behind Orica – BikeExchange 's Luke Durbridge . He took the overall lead the following day , after Durbridge was dropped on one of the stage 's six climbs . Wiggins won the fourth stage of the race , a time trial over a course of 53 @.@ 5 km ( 33 @.@ 2 mi ) , 34 seconds ahead of Martin , his nearest rival , extending his lead over him to 38 seconds . He held the lead to the end , eventually winning by over a minute , with team @-@ mate Rogers in second place .
Wiggins entered the Tour de France as one of the favourites to win it . Wiggins began the Tour with second place in the prologue , behind Cancellara of RadioShack – Nissan . He took over the yellow jersey by finishing third on stage seven , the first mountaintop finish , becoming the fifth British rider to wear the jersey , and first since David Millar in 2000 . Wiggins won the time trial on stage nine . On stage ten , he and his team staved off an attack by Nibali on the descent of the Col du Grand Colombier , leading Nibali to accuse Wiggins of disrespecting him . Wiggins extended his lead on stage 11 after Froome helped him to bridge across to his rivals , who had attacked on the finishing climb to La Toussuire . Froome accelerated about 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the finish , and was ordered via his team radio to wait for his leader .
During stage fourteen , a mountain stage , a spectator threw carpet tacks onto the narrow road at the top of the Mur de Péguère climb . Several riders suffered punctures , including Evans , the defending champion , who lost approximately two minutes while his team repaired his bicycle . Wiggins and his fellow members of Team Sky emerged without a puncture . Believing that a puncture resulting from an unfortunate incident should not determine the fate of a competitor , Wiggins then had his team @-@ mates and the rest of the peloton slow down to allow Evans and other affected cyclists to catch up . It was perceived as a generous act of sportsmanship and Wiggins was called " Le Gentleman " as a result . On stage 16 , Wiggins and Froome were able to follow attacks by Nibali on the final climb of the day and finished with the same time as the Italian . On stage 17 , the final mountain stage , Froome and Wiggins finished together in second and third place respectively , with Nibali coming in 19 seconds later . Wiggins won the time trial on stage 19 , giving him a lead of three minutes and 21 seconds at the start of the final stage . On that stage , Wiggins helped team @-@ mate Cavendish achieve his fourth consecutive victory on the Champs @-@ Élysées and confirmed his own overall victory in the process . Wiggins became the first , and is currently the only person in history to win the Paris – Nice , the Tour de Romandie , the Critérium du Dauphiné and the Tour de France in a single season .
Wiggins was selected to participate in two road cycling events at the Olympic Games in London – the time trial and the road race . Wiggins finished 103rd in the road race . Wiggins won gold in the time trial ahead of Martin of Germany and Froome of Britain . By doing so he became the most decorated British Olympian , with seven medals , surpassing the six won by Sir Steve Redgrave . This record is now shared with Sir Chris Hoy , who also obtained his seventh Olympic medal in 2012 . Wiggins entered the Guinness World Records , becoming the first cyclist to win an Olympic gold medal and the Tour de France in the same year . Wiggins 's boyhood idol Miguel Indurain won five consecutive Tours between 1991 and 1995 , and won a gold medal at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta .
Wiggins returned to racing at the Tour of Britain in September , pulling out on the sixth stage with a stomach bug . The road race at the road world championships in Limburg , Netherlands , was his last of the season . In October he was awarded the prestigious Vélo d 'Or trophy in recognition of his achievements in 2012 . In November he was involved in a road accident and taken to hospital with suspected broken ribs , but was released next day with only minor injuries . In December he won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award with 492 @,@ 064 ( 30 @.@ 25 % ) of the votes cast . Wiggins was knighted in the 2013 New Years Honours for services to cycling , although he claimed he would use the title for ' comedy purposes ' , stating that he felt " a little bit inferior " to others receiving knighthoods saying " I ’ ve won a bike race , you know , and I feel a little bit inferior to everyone " , saying " I was just talking to some of the other people getting stuff , and asking them what they ’ ve been honoured for , and they ’ re historic things , ground @-@ breaking sciences or whatever " . He was among the nominees for the Laureus World Sports Award for Sportsman of the Year , with Jamaican athlete Usain Bolt taking the prize .
= = = 2013 : Giro d 'Italia and Tour of Britain = = =
It was widely expected that Wiggins would ride to retain his Tour de France title in 2013 . However , in February he asserted that his focus for the season would be the Giro d 'Italia , after which he would ride the Tour de France in support of team @-@ mate Froome . In April he let it be known that he desired to win another Tour , and had hopes of achieving the Tour and Giro double – a feat that has not been achieved since Marco Pantani in 1998 .
Wiggins participated in a winter training camp in Mallorca . His first race of the season was the Tour of Oman in February . On the first stage he was caught behind a crash , the time delay pushing him back to the back of the field . For the remainder of the race Wiggins helped Froome , who won the overall classification . Wiggins opted not to defend his title at the Paris – Nice , or ride the Tirreno @-@ Adriatico , instead participating in a training camp on Mount Teide in Tenerife . He returned to action at the Volta a Catalunya in March , finishing the race in fifth place overall , 54 seconds behind winner Dan Martin of Garmin – Sharp .
In April Wiggins rode the four @-@ day Giro del Trentino in Northern Italy as preparation for the Giro d 'Italia . The first day 's race schedule consisted of a road race followed by a team time trial . An unexpected breakaway in the road race caused Wiggins to lose over six minutes . However he led the team to victory later in the day during the team time trial . On stage two he cut his deficit to race leader Maxime Bouet of Ag2r – La Mondiale in half , lifting Wiggins into the top @-@ five overall . On the fourth and final stage Wiggins suffered a mechanical problem at the foot of the final 14 @.@ 6 km ( 9 @.@ 1 mi ) climb . He ended up finishing the race in fifth place , one minute and 40 seconds down on winner Nibali ( Astana ) .
Wiggins entered the Giro d 'Italia as one of the favourites for the general classification . Team Sky won the stage two team time trial on the island of Ischia , covering the distance of 17 @.@ 4 km ( 10 @.@ 8 mi ) 14 seconds quicker than Nibali 's Astana squad . On stage four Wiggins lost 17 seconds after being delayed by a crash within the final 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , dropping him in the standings from second to sixth . A wet stage seven saw Wiggins crash while making a descent some 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from the finish , placing him in difficulty . Team @-@ mates Rigoberto Urán and Sergio Henao helped pace him back toward the leaders , but could not close the gap . Wiggins finished 90 seconds down on the race favourites , dropping him out of the race 's top 20 . In the following stage , a 54 @.@ 8 km ( 34 @.@ 1 mi ) time trial , Wiggins placed second to compatriot Alex Dowsett of Movistar Team . A bike change compelled by a puncture cost Wiggins some time , and he ended up finishing the race ten seconds down on Dowsett . Wiggins struggled on the wet roads of stage nine , losing touch with the peloton on the descent of the Vallombrosa some 60 km ( 37 @.@ 3 mi ) from the finish . A group of team @-@ mates helped pace him back , and the gap was closed . Following stage 11 Wiggins revealed that he was suffering from a chest infection . He withdrew from the race the following day , after losing over three minutes on the day 's stage .
The presence of a knee injury was disclosed to the public on 31 May , which forced Wiggins to forgo defending his title in the Tour de France . He subsequently suggested he may never ride the Tour again . He returned to racing at the Tour de Pologne , winning stage seven 's 37 km ( 23 @.@ 0 mi ) time trial , 56 seconds ahead of second placed Cancellara .
In September , Wiggins led Team Sky at his home race , the Tour of Britain . He won the time trial on stage three on roads around Knowsley Safari Park , close to his home in Lancashire . He held the lead for the rest of the week to win the race for the first time , and take his first stage race victory of the season . The following week at the world championships , he took the silver medal in the time trial , behind winner Tony Martin and ahead of Cancellara in a repeat of the 2011 podium . Wiggins was also selected to ride the road race , but abandoned after one lap , and was soon followed by the other British riders as none finished the race .
= = = 2014 : World time trial champion and track return = = =
Wiggins had stated that his main targets for 2014 were the Paris @-@ Roubaix one day Classic , the Tour of California and the road world championships , as well as riding the Tour de France in support of defending champion Chris Froome .
Wiggins was called up to ride the Tour of Flanders as a replacement for the injured Ian Stannard , and finished 32nd , one minute 43 seconds behind the winner Fabian Cancellara , having helped Geraint Thomas on his way to eighth . Wiggins contested Paris – Roubaix for the first time since 2011 , becoming the first former Tour de France winner to compete at the race since Greg LeMond in 1992 , and secured a hard @-@ fought ninth position , finishing as part of a group twenty seconds down on race winner Niki Terpstra .
At the Tour of California , Wiggins won the time trial on stage two by a margin of 40 seconds over second placed Rohan Dennis ( Garmin – Sharp ) to move into the overall lead which he would keep for the rest of the race . Despite that good result , Wiggins was not selected by his team to be riding the Tour de France , prompting his return to the track cycling team as preparation for the Commonwealth Games in Glasgow .
At the Commonwealth Games in July , Wiggins participated in the 4000m team pursuit with Steven Burke , Ed Clancy and Andy Tennant , managing to win the Silver Medal . The following day Wiggins announced that he was " done with the road " and that he would likely never ride a grand tour again . He did not rule out some road events but wants to concentrate his training on preparation for the team pursuit at the 2016 Olympic Games .
In September Wiggins rode the Tour of Britain , winning the final 8 @.@ 8 km ( 5 @.@ 5 mi ) time trial in London and ending the race in third overall behind the winner , Garmin – Sharp 's Dylan van Baarle , and Michał Kwiatkowski ( Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step ) . Wiggins then won gold in the time trial at the world road championships in Ponferrada , Spain , with a winning margin of 26 seconds over Tony Martin over the 47 @.@ 1 km ( 29 @.@ 3 mi ) course .
= = = 2015 : Paris – Roubaix , WIGGINS and hour record = = =
In January 2015 it was confirmed that Wiggins had signed a contract extension with Team Sky to the end of April 2015 , with a focus on attempting to win Paris @-@ Roubaix , before transferring to his newly founded WIGGINS team in order to prepare alongside other members of the British track endurance squad for the team pursuit at the 2016 Summer Olympics . It was also confirmed that he would attempt to break the hour record in 2015 . In March he confirmed that he would make his debut with his eponymous team at the inaugural Tour de Yorkshire at the start of May .
Early in the season , Wiggins rode the Tour of Qatar , in which he lost out on contention for the general classification after being caught out by a split in the peloton and then finished third in the race 's individual time trial stage behind Cancellara and Niki Terpstra , his first opportunity to wear his rainbow skinsuit . Wiggins then took part in the traditional opening race of the classics season , Omloop Het Nieuwsblad , finishing 44th as his team @-@ mate Ian Stannard took victory .
Wiggins returned to Paris – Nice , a race he had won in 2012 . The race opened and closed with time @-@ trials ; Wiggins finished 12th in the prologue , did not feature in the following five stages , often riding at the back of the peloton , and then withdrew before the traditional mountain time @-@ trial up the Col d 'Èze , a stage for which Wiggins holds the fastest ever time , a legacy of his 2012 victory there . Again , his team @-@ mate Richie Porte was victorious in the race .
Wiggins was set to ride E3 Harelbeke in March , a return to the cobbled classics in the lead up to his main objective of Paris @-@ Roubaix , but withdrew . Instead he rode Gent – Wevelgem two days later ; however , he abandoned the race , which was hit by severe weather conditions with much heavy wind and rain , and only 39 riders finished the race . During the mid @-@ week Three Days of De Panne , which began on 31 March , Wiggins acted as a lead @-@ out man of Sky 's sprinter , Elia Viviani , and then convincingly won the final stage 's short time trial , expected to be his last in Sky colours , which also gave him 3rd place overall in the race .
At Paris @-@ Roubaix , Wiggins 's much publicised last race with Sky and primary goal of the early season , he finished in 18th position . He attacked with 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) left to race , but was reabsorbed by the peloton . A few days after the race it was announced that Wiggins would make his bid to break the hour record on 7 June at Lee Valley VeloPark . He participated to the Tour de Yorkshire with WIGGINS Team , but did not register a significant result . A few weeks after leaving Team Sky , Wiggins said he felt " liberated " and " happier " . On 7 June 2015 Wiggins broke the hour record , riding 54 @.@ 526 km ( 33 @.@ 881 mi ) , surpassing Dowsett 's mark of 52 @.@ 937 km ( 32 @.@ 894 mi ) set five weeks earlier .
On 16 August , Wiggins joined Cavendish on the track for the first time since the 2008 Olympics , winning the Madison in the first round of the Revolution cycling series at the newly opened Derby Velodrome . In October Wiggins took his first gold medal at the European track championships when he was part of the British squad that won the team pursuit .
= = = 2016 = = =
Wiggins competed at the 2016 UCI Track Cycling World Championships in London , where he took two medals : in the team pursuit , he was part of the British squad that qualified for the final , where they took the silver behind Australia despite leading with 500 metres to go and going on to set the fastest time in competition by a British quartet since 2012 . However Wiggins said that he was happy with his performance , stating " that ( was ) the strongest I ’ ve been in a team pursuit , so there ’ s a bit of life left in me yet , and I ’ ve got another four or five months to get a bit better " . Subsequently he raced with Cavendish in the madison , where they clinched their second world title in the discipline as a pairing using similar tactics to their 2008 win : accumulating points in the sprints in the early stages of the race , before making up a one lap deficit on their French , Colombian and Swiss rivals by working with the Spanish pairing of Sebastián Mora and Albert Torres in a breakaway , taking the lead and holding on for the win despite Cavendish crashing with 11 laps to go .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
Wiggins is married to Catherine ( née Cockran ) , whom he met during the 2002 Commonwealth Games , after first meeting as juniors in 1997 ; they have two children together , Ben and Isabella . The family lives in Eccleston , Lancashire , close to the Manchester Velodrome , the home of British Cycling and Team Sky .
Wiggins endured a difficult relationship with his father Gary Wiggins , who made no effort to contact Bradley for fourteen years , since leaving the family when Bradley was two years old . Bradley only knew his father had been a professional cyclist . Their first meeting was in 1999 , when Bradley was at a training camp in Australia ; also meeting his two half @-@ sisters from relationships his father had in Australia before and after the one with his mother . They next met the following year , when Bradley was back in Australia training and had gone out three weeks in advance to stay with Gary . Bradley quickly became disillusioned at his father 's alcohol and drug problems , and they never met again . Gary Wiggins died in Aberdeen , New South Wales in 2008 , aged 55 . Bradley did not attend the funeral .
= = = Interests = = =
He is a well @-@ known mod and owns a collection of classic motor scooters and guitars from the 1960s and 1970s . He is a keen musician and guitarist and in December 2012 he made a surprise appearance at a Paul Weller charity concert , playing guitar on " That 's Entertainment " ; and together recorded a special for BBC Radio 6 Music discussing their love of music and mod culture , broadcast on Boxing Day . He supports Liverpool Football Club and Wigan Warriors rugby league club , and in 2012 the latter gave him a life membership , which he described as his highlight of the year . Wiggins presented the winner of the Super League 's 2012 Man of Steel Award to the Warriors player Sam Tomkins .
In July 2012 it was announced that Wiggins would collaborate with the Fred Perry clothing label " to develop an authentic , non @-@ technical range of cycle wear " . The clothing range , known as the Bradley Wiggins X Fred Perry Collaboration , was launched in July 2012 under a six @-@ year contract .
In 2012 Wiggins launched the Bradley Wiggins Foundation to draw people into sport and regular exercise . The foundation backs the professional women 's team Wiggle High5 , which launched for the 2013 season . However , in February 2015 Wiggins announced that the Foundation would be wound down in the run @-@ up to the 2016 Summer Olympics .
On 10 May 2015 , Wiggins was interviewed by Kirsty Young as guest " castaway " on BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs ; his favourite musical piece was Sound and Vision by David Bowie , his book choice was Slaying the Dragon : How to Turn Your Small Steps to Great Feats by Michael Johnson and his luxury item was a family photo album .
Wiggins served as guest editor of Radio 4 's The Today Programme on 29 December 2015 : as part of this he interviewed Paul Smith about fashion , Gary Lineker about making the transition from being a sportsman to working in the media , and discussed cycling with Jeremy Corbyn and Steve Hilton .
= = = Other = = =
Wiggins speaks fluent French through his participation with French cycling teams and after living in France for a number of years .
In a period after the 2004 Olympics , Wiggins started to drink heavily as he struggled to cope with his newfound fame . He stopped when his son Ben was born . " We had a baby . So then it was a case of , ' well , I 've got to earn some fucking money ' and the responsibility takes over , " he explained .
At the 2012 Olympics , Wiggins rang the Olympic Bell to mark the start of the opening ceremony inside the Olympic Stadium .
Wiggins has written multiple books about his career . The first , entitled " In Pursuit of Glory " , covers his success as a track cyclist at the Beijing Olympics where he won two gold medals in the team pursuit and the individual pursuit . It also talks about his triumph at the 2009 Tour de France where he finished in fourth place . In " My Time " he talks about the setbacks he faced at the 2010 Tour de France . He also talks about the " golden year " ( 2012 ) , in which he won the Tour de France and then , just days later , the Olympic individual time trial gold medal in front of a British crowd at the London Olympics . ( " My Story " is the junior edition of " My Time " . ) His fourth book , " My Hour " , is an account of his attempt on the hour record in 2015 , covering the record 's history , his training , and the attempt itself .
Wiggins ' power output has been measured to be over 450 watts at anaerobic threshold .
In March 2014 Wiggins made an appearance as himself in an episode of BBC Radio 4 's soap opera The Archers as part of the Sport Relief charitable appeal . Two years later he appeared in a comedy sketch filmed at the London Olympic Velodrome with Michael Crawford on Sport Relief 2016 where Crawford reprised his Some Mothers Do ' Ave ' Em character Frank Spencer .
A sculpture dedicated to and inspired by Wiggins was unveiled in 2014 at St Augustine ’ s CE High School , his former school .
= = Career achievements = =
= = = Major results = = =
Source :
= = = Grand Tour general classification results timeline = = =
Source :
= = = Major stage race general classification results timeline = = =
= = = Individual Time Trial timeline = = =
Source :
= = = World records = = =
= = = Awards and honours = = =
Cycling Weekly Cyclist of the Year : 2000
Officer of the Order of the British Empire : 2005
Commander of the Order of the British Empire : 2009
London Youth Games Hall of Fame : 2010
GQ Lifetime Achievement : 2012
Vélo d 'Or : 2012
Sports Journalists ' Association 's Sportsman of the Year : 2012
Cyclingnews.com Rider of the Year : 2012
International Flandrien of the Year : 2012
Bidlake Memorial Prize : 2012
BBC Sports Personality of the Year : 2012
Laureus World Sports Sportsman of the Year Award ( nominated ) : 2013
Knight Bachelor : 2013
= 32nd Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 32nd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . It was first raised in 1915 as part of the Australian Imperial Force and was initially made up of personnel from South Australia and Western Australia . The battalion served in France and Belgium during the First World War before being disbanded in 1919 .
It was re @-@ raised in 1921 as the " 32nd Battalion ( Footscray Regiment ) " , a unit of the part @-@ time Militia , and between the wars the battalion served as a home defence unit in Victoria . During the Second World War the battalion was merged with the 14th Battalion to become the 14th / 32nd Battalion ( Prahran / Footscray Regiment ) , serving firstly as garrison troops in Australia and New Guinea before taking part in the fighting during the New Britain campaign . In July 1945 , that battalion was disbanded .
After the war , the battalion was not re @-@ raised in its own right when the Citizens Military Force ( the forerunner to the Australian Army Reserve ) was formed in 1948 , however , it was raised as an amalgamated unit known as the " 58th / 32nd Battalion ( City of Essendon Regiment ) " . This unit remained in existence until 1960 when it was subsumed into the Royal Victoria Regiment . The battalion 's honours and traditions are now maintained by the 5th / 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = First World War = = =
The 32nd Battalion was raised on 9 August 1915 in Mitcham , South Australia , for overseas service with the all volunteer Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . Its first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Donald Coghill . While ' A ' and ' B ' Companies were made up of recruits from South Australia , ' C ' and ' D ' Companies were formed in Perth , Western Australia , and underwent training at the Blackboy Hill Training Camp before sailing on the transport Indarra and joining the rest of the battalion in Adelaide at the end of August . Most the battalion 's recruits had previously worked as miners or farmers . After completing basic training , the battalion left Australia in November aboard the HMAT Geelong , bound for Egypt . It arrived amidst the aftermath of the failed Gallipoli campaign , which saw a reorganisation and expansion of the AIF in preparation for its dispatch to France and Belgium to take part in the fighting against the Germans along the Western Front .
In Egypt , the battalion became part of the newly formed 8th Brigade , which was attached to the 5th Division . After a further period of training , the battalion was shipped to France in June 1916 , to join the fighting on the Western Front . The following month , after spending a short period in the Armentières sector , the battalion was committed to the front for the first time on 16 July 1916 . Three days after taking up position in the trenches the 32nd took part in the fighting around Fromelles , being committed as part of the 8th Brigade 's initial assault on the extreme left of the Australian front that was focused around a position known as the " Sugarloaf " , during which it suffered 718 casualties — a third of the battalion 's total casualties for the entire war — which equalled roughly 90 percent of its effective strength . As a result of these losses , the 32nd Battalion was used mainly in a support role throughout the remainder of 1916 , during which time , while they were not committed to any attacks in an assault role , they continued to suffer further casualties through the attrition of trench warfare .
After spending a bitter winter undertaking defensive duties on the Somme , during early 1917 the battalion took part in the operations in pursuit of the German forces as they retreated towards the Hindenburg Line , but found itself in the flank protection role during the Second Battle of Bullecourt in May . On 26 September 1917 , the battalion was heavily committed to the fighting around Polygon Wood near Ypres in Belgium during the Battle of Passchendaele ; again they were employed in a support role , as the 8th Brigade 's assault was led by the 29th and 31st Battalions . Following the assault , the brigade adopted a defensive posture , supporting further efforts around Zillebeke and Anzac Ridge .
For the remainder of 1917 and the first half of 1918 the 5th Division mainly undertook a reserve role and as a result the 32nd Battalion had little involvement during the German Spring Offensive ; after the winter of 1917 – 18 , the battalion had re @-@ entered the trenches in the Messines sector , occupying positions near Warneton in January 1918 , remaining there until March . In April , the 8th Brigade had been moved to the Somme , taking up defensive positions around the canal between Corbie and Vaux . After the German advance stalled the 32nd Battalion was involved in a series of minor advances along the Bray – Corbie Road throughout July , taking part in operations around Morlancourt and the Morcourt Valley as the Allies sought to regain the initiative . Later , the Allies launched their own offensive around Amiens beginning on 8 August 1918 . During this offensive the 32nd Battalion took part in operations in the Peronne area throughout August and September as the Allies sought to breach the Hindenburg Line , fighting its final engagement of the war between 29 September and 1 October 1918 as part of a joint Australian and American attack along the St Quentin Canal .
After this , the Australian Corps was removed from the line for rest and training in preparation for further operations . In order to make up for the losses the Australians had suffered during the previous months , a number of Australian battalions were disbanded at this time to provide reinforcements to those that remained . The 32nd Battalion received a large number of reinforcements from the all @-@ Victorian 29th Battalion , which was subsequently disbanded . It was still out of the line when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 . During the battalion 's final series of battles , the battalion was led by Major Blair Wark , who was later awarded the Victoria Cross for his leadership and bravery .
Throughout the conflict the battalion suffered 2 @,@ 079 casualties of which 613 were killed . In March 1919 , after most of its personnel had been repatriated to Australia , the battalion merged with the 30th Battalion before subsequently being disbanded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Victoria Cross , one Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) , one Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBEs ) , three Officers of the Order of the British Empire ( OBEs ) , 27 Military Crosses ( MCs ) with two Bars , 16 Distinguished Conduct Medals ( DCMs ) ; 66 Military Medals with four Bars ; seven Meritorious Service Medals ; 26 Mentions in Despatches ( MIDs ) and 10 foreign awards .
= = = Inter war years = = =
In 1921 , when the part @-@ time Citizens Force ( later known as the Militia ) was re @-@ organised to perpetuate the numerical designations of the wartime AIF battalions , the 32nd Battalion was re @-@ formed in Melbourne , Victoria , through an amalgamation of the 5th Battalion , 8th Infantry Regiment with part of the 2nd Battalion , 32nd Infantry Regiment , and part of the 29th ( Port Philip ) Light Horse Regiment . The battalion drew most of its personnel from Footscray and several other south @-@ west and western suburbs of Melbourne and in 1927 , when territorial designations were adopted , the unit came to be known as the 32nd Battalion ( Footscray Regiment ) . The same year , the battalion motto , Audax Pro Patria , was approved and it formed an alliance with the Leicestershire Regiment . During this time , it was part of the 2nd Brigade , within the 3rd Military District . Initially the battalion 's manpower was maintained through the compulsory training scheme , but this was suspended in 1929 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , and after this the force was maintained on a volunteer @-@ only basis .
= = = Second World War = = =
Following Japan 's entry into the Second World War in December 1941 , the battalion was called up for defensive duties . Attached to the 2nd Brigade , the battalion provided garrison troops to vital installations around Melbourne until August 1942 when it was transferred to Western Australia , being attached to the 6th Brigade , which was based around Gerald
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a cottage at the base of Holy Loly Mountain , Ana pulls Ninten aside and asks him to be with her always . The two dance and profess their mutual love . When about to leave , the party is attacked by a powerful robot that knocks out the entire party . Lloyd arrives with a tank and destroys the robot , but accidentally attacks the party and critically wounds Teddy , so Lloyd rejoins the party . They take a boat out on Holy Loly Lake and a whirlpool pulls them into an underwater laboratory where they find a robot who claims to have been built by George to protect Ninten . When the laboratory floods , they leave for the mountain and the robot helps them ascend . On the way , they find a cave with human prisoners including Ana 's mother . They need to defeat the Mother Ship to free the prisoners . Another robot attacks at the summit , and George 's robot is sacrificed in the struggle . Ninten learns the final melody at the mountain 's summit . The party is warped to Magicant , where Ninten sings the Eight Melodies to Queen Mary . She recalls the rest of the song and reminisces about an alien named Gyiyg that she loved as her own child . Queen Mary reveals that she is George 's wife , Maria , and vanishes . Magicant , a mirage created by her conscience , vanishes with her .
The party is warped back to the top of Holy Loly Mountain , where the party discovers George 's grave . Large rocks block the entrance to a cave inside Holy Loly Mountain , but are cleared by the power of Maria 's conscience . The party encounters the Mother Ship and a fluid @-@ filled tank that contains Gyiyg . The alien expresses its gratefulness to Ninten 's family for raising it , but explains that George stole vital information from its people that could have been used to betray them , and proceeds to accuse Ninten of interfering with their plans . Gyiyg offers to save Ninten alone if he boards the Mother Ship . When Ninten declines , Gyiyg attempts to put Ninten to sleep . The party begins to sing the Eight Melodies while Gyiyg tries to quiet the party through an attack . When the party finishes the lullaby , Gyiyg is overcome with emotion at the thought of Maria 's motherly love . Gyiyg says they will meet again and flies off in the Mother Ship . The game ends with Ninten , Ana , and Lloyd facing the player as the credits roll behind them .
= = Development = =
Mother was developed by Ape and published by Nintendo . While visiting Nintendo for other work , copywriter Shigesato Itoi pitched his idea for a role @-@ playing game set in contemporary times to the company 's Shigeru Miyamoto . He thought the setting would be unique for its incongruence with role @-@ playing genre norms , as daily life lacked the pretense for magic powers and they could not simply give the child characters firearms as weapons . Itoi 's project proposal suggested how the natural limitations could be circumvented . Miyamoto met with him and praised the idea , though he was not sure whether Itoi " could pull it off " . As an advertiser , Itoi was used to concept proposals preceding the staffing process , but Miyamoto explained that video game concepts needed people who signed on to " make " the product . Itoi was overcome with " powerlessness " .
Miyamoto was also hesitant to work with Itoi at a time when companies were pushing major celebrity product endorsements , as Itoi 's involvement would be for such a game . When the two met next , Miyamoto brought the documentation from a text adventure game and told Itoi that he would have to write similar documentation himself . Miyamoto said that he knew from his own experience that the game would only be as good as the effort Itoi invested , and that he knew Itoi could not invest the appropriate time with his full @-@ time job . Itoi restated his interest and reduced his workload , so Miyamoto assembled a development team . Upon assessing for compatibility , they began production in Ichikawa , Chiba . Itoi had said earlier that he wanted his work environment to feel like an extracurricular club consisting of volunteers and working out of an apartment , which Miyamoto tried to accommodate . Itoi wrote the game 's script and commuted from Tokyo , a process he found " exhausting " . Even with asking Itoi to prioritize the development process , Miyamoto received criticism of acquiescing to celebrity and of hiring a copywriter not up for the task . Miyamoto said that his decision to pursue the project was based on his confidence in Itoi . Mother was released in Japan on July 27 , 1989 for the Famicom ( known as the Nintendo Entertainment System outside Japan ) .
= = = English @-@ language release = = =
The game was scheduled for localization into the English language for a North American release as Earth Bound , but was abandoned when the team chose to localize Mother 2 instead . Critics noted in retrospect that the game 's release would have been a waste of money if launched as planned alongside the acclaimed Final Fantasy III on an outdated console in a " niche " genre . Years later , a version of the completed , original Mother localization was found and uploaded to the Internet , where it unofficially became known as EarthBound Zero . The unreleased localization featured tweaks to the original Japanese version . On June 14 , 2015 , before the Nintendo World Championships , Nintendo released the much @-@ awaited official English version of Mother , with the title EarthBound Beginnings , on the Wii U Virtual Console in North America and Europe .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's soundtrack was composed by Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka . Tanaka was a video game composer working for Nintendo who had previously composed for games such as Super Mario Land and Metroid , while Suzuki was a composer and musician for bands of many different genres . The NES was only able to play three notes at a time , which Suzuki has noted greatly limited what he was able to produce , as he could not create some of the sounds he wanted .
An eleven @-@ track album of songs inspired by the game 's soundtrack was recorded in Tokyo , London , and Bath and released by CBS / Sony Records on August 21 , 1989 . The album contained mostly vocal arrangements in English and was likened by RPGFan reviewer Patrick Gann to compositions by the Beatles and for children 's television shows . He found the lyrics " cheesy and trite " but appreciated the " simple statements " in " Eight Melodies " and the " quirky and wonderful " " Magicant " . Only the last song on the album is in chiptune . Gann ultimately recommended the 2004 remastered release over this version . The game 's soundtrack contains several tracks later used in subsequent series games .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Mother received a " Silver Hall of Fame " score of 31 / 40 from Japanese reviewer Weekly Famitsu . Reviewers noted the game 's similarities with the Dragon Quest series and its simultaneous " parody " of the genre 's tropes . They thought the game 's sequel , EarthBound , to be very similar and a better implementation of Mother 's gameplay ideas . Critics also noted the game 's high difficulty level and balance issues . Mother sold 150 @,@ 000 copies .
Jeremy Parish of USgamer described the game as a mild @-@ mannered parody ( " between satire and pastiche " ) of the role @-@ playing game genre , specifically the Dragon Quest series . He noted that Mother , like many Japanese role @-@ playing games , emulated the Dragon Quest style : the windowed interface , first @-@ person perspective in combat , and graphics , but differed in its contemporary setting and non @-@ fantasy story . Parish commented that Atlus 's 1987 Digital Devil Story : Megami Tensei was similarly set in the modern day , though it devolved into science fiction and fantasy in ways Mother did not . He added that the game has " a sense of wonder and magic realism ... in the context of childhood imagination " as Ninten can feel more like someone " pretending " to be a Dragon Quest @-@ style hero than a hero in his own right . Parish said this makes the player wonder which game events are real and which are Ninten 's imagination . Parish cited Itoi 's interest in entering the games industry to make a " satirical " role @-@ playing game as proof of the genre 's swift five @-@ year rise to widespread popularity in Japan .
Cassandra Ramos of RPGamer praised the game 's graphics and music , and considered it among the console 's best , with " rich , ... nicely detailed " visuals , Peanuts @-@ style characters , and " simple but effective " audio . In contrast , she found the battle sequences aesthetically " pretty bland " and , otherwise , the game 's " least interesting " aspect . Overall , she found Mother " surprisingly complex ... for its time " , and considered its story superior to ( but less " wacky " than ) its sequel . She especially recommended the game for EarthBound fans .
Parish credited Itoi for the game 's vision and compared his ability and literary interests with American author Garrison Keillor . Parish felt that Itoi 's pedigree as a writer and copywriter was well suited for the space @-@ limited , 8 @-@ bit role @-@ playing game medium , which privileged Mother ahead of other games written by non @-@ writers . USgamer 's Parish noted how the game 's non @-@ player characters would " contemplate the profound and trivial " instead of reciting the active plot . He added that the game 's lack of an official North American release has bolstered the reputation and revere of its immediate sequel .
While Parish said Mother 's script was " as sharp as EarthBound 's " , he felt that the original 's game mechanics did not meet the same level of quality . Mother lacked the " rolling HP counter " and non @-@ random encounters for which later entries in the series were known . Parish also found the game 's balance to be uneven , as the statistical character attributes and level of difficulty scaled incorrectly with the game 's progression . Rose Colored Gaming , a company that made custom reproductions of the NES cartridge , noted that the Japanese release 's was more challenging than the unreleased English localization . RPGamer 's Ramos similarly found balance issues , with a high amount of battles , difficult enemies , reliance on grinding , and some oversized levels . Parish wrote earlier for 1UP.com that in comparison to EarthBound , Mother is " worse in just about every way " , a clone where its sequel was " a satirical deconstruction of RPGs " . He wrote that the game 's historical significance is not for its actual game but for the interest it generated in video game emulation and the preservation of unreleased games .
Mother was rereleased in Japan as the single @-@ cartridge Mother 1 + 2 for the Game Boy Advance in 2003 . This version uses the extended ending of the unreleased English prototype , but is only presented in Japanese . Starmen.net hosted a Mother 25th Anniversary Fanfest in 2014 with a livestream of the game and plans for a remixed soundtrack . Later that year , fans released a 25th Anniversary Edition ROM hack that updated the game 's graphics , script , and gameplay balance .
= Paul Tremo =
Paul Tremo ( 1733 / 34 – 1810 ) was the head chef at the court of King Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski of Poland . He was born in Berlin , in a family of French Huguenots . As the king 's favourite cook , he was responsible for the culinary side of royal banquets , including Thursday Dinners to which Stanislaus Augustus invited Warsaw 's leading intellectuals . He followed the king to Saint Petersburg after the latter 's abdication in 1795 , but returned to Warsaw after his death in 1798 . His cooking style combined Polish , French and other west European influences . As a mentor to aspirant Polish chefs and author of recipes which circulated in handwritten copies , he was instrumental in the development of modern Polish cuisine that was more moderate and cosmopolitan than old Polish cookery .
= = Life = =
Paul Tremo was born on 1 April 1733 or 1734 in Berlin as the middle son of Elie Tremeau and his wife , Louise Dinant . Elie 's father , of the same name , was a Huguenot from the French province of Poitou , who at the turn of the 18th century fled religious persecution in France following the Edict of Fontainebleau and settled in Berlin , encouraged by the Edict of Potsdam . Both Paul Tremo 's father and grandfather worked in cotton processing , but two of Elie Junior 's sons – the eldest Jacques ( 1729 – 1788 ) and Paul – chose to pursue their careers as cooks . Their family name is variously noted in Berlin church records as Tremeau , Treinau or Tremon , but Jacques and Paul Polonized its spelling to Tremo upon their migration to the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth .
In 1762 , Paul Tremo landed a job as a court chef to Stanisław Poniatowski , a Polish aristocrat and titular grand pantler of Lithuania . Two years later , in 1764 , Poniatowski was elected and crowned king of Poland , taking the regnal name Stanislaus Augustus . Paul Tremo and his brother , Jacques , were employed at the royal court in Warsaw , with their jobs titles variously listed in court payrolls as maître d 'hôtel or kuchmistrz ( master chef ) . Of all chefs working at the court , it was Paul Tremo who enjoyed the status of the king 's favourite cook , accompanying him in all his travels . This status can be inferred from his salary compared with those of his colleagues ; in 1795 , he received a payment of 902 @.@ 15 florins , while two other royal master chefs earned 560 and 144 florins , respectively .
Tremo lived in apartments at the Royal Castle of Warsaw and in the Royal Baths Park . Additionally , in 1789 , as a token of royal favour , Tremo was given a manor house in the Warsaw suburb of Grzybów ( now the part of Warsaw in the vicinity of Grzybowski Square ) . While Jacques Tremo was married with at least one daughter and two sons , both of whom served in Polish military formations , Paul Tremo remained single and childless . At home , he employed a female cook who prepared simple meals for him , as he never consumed the dishes he concocted at work .
Following Stanislaus Augustus 's abdication brought about by the Third Partition of Poland in 1795 , Tremo accompanied the former king to his exile in Grodno and then in Saint Petersburg . After Poniatowski 's death in 1798 , Tremo declined a job offer from Emperor Paul I of Russia on the pretext of travelling to a spa for health reasons and returned to Warsaw . He died in 1810 in his Grzybów manor and was buried at an unknown location in the cemetery of the Evangelical Reformed ( Calvinist ) Church in Warsaw .
= = Work = =
Tremo gained Poniatowski 's trust as the cook able to satisfy both his palate and his dietary requirements . The teetotal king suffered from gastric ailments from an early age . He usually started his day with a cup of hot chocolate or bouillon . His favourite dish was roast or stewed mutton , which he washed down with spring water . Tremo often consulted royal menus with the court physician and occasionally prepared separate dishes specifically for the king to accommodate his sensitive stomach . Tomatoes , for example , were considered detrimental to the monarch 's health and were never used in Tremo 's recipes .
In the royal kitchen , Tremo oversaw all stages of meal preparation , from procuring ingredients to composing menus , directing the work of cooks and kitchen boys , to personally seasoning the dishes before serving . To broaden his culinary knowledge , he studied classic cookbooks , such as the ancient Roman Apicius , and also set out on international learning trips , which familiarized him with contemporary German , French and English cooking practices . He introduced novel French flavours and cooking techniques to Polish cuisine , making it lighter and more moderate in the use of fat , sugar , vinegar , salt and expensive exotic spices . His repertoire combined old Polish dishes with French specialities . The former included clear borscht ( beetroot soup ) served over uszka ( ear @-@ shaped stuffed dumplings ) , Polish tripe soup , roast capon , and pike in the Polish style ; the latter , soupe bourgeoise , roast duck , and bœuf à la mode . At royal banquets , such as the Thursday Dinners to which Stanislaus Augustus invited Warsaw 's leading intellectuals , he served the king 's favourite mutton , cold cuts , pâtés , as well as game bird dishes , such as larded hazel grouse , wood grouse with red cabbage or black grouse with braised beetroots .
In Warsaw , Tremo enjoyed the reputation of being one of the finest chefs in Europe . However , some of his contemporaries complained that his meats were too tough , his sauces too heavy , and his idea of west European culinary trends not always up @-@ to @-@ date . British traveller Elizabeth Craven could not conceal her amusement when , at a banquet given by the Polish king , she was served meat and fish doused generously with melted butter , supposedly in the English style . German @-@ Polish traveller Georg Forster was surprised when a peasant boy whom he had given Tremo 's almond cake , did not enjoy the treat .
Tremo wrote at least two books in Polish , which he failed to publish during his lifetime . His Botanika kuchenna ( Kitchen botany ) , about the culinary uses of various vegetables , fruits and herbs , has not survived . The other was a cookbook with about 86 recipes , which was widely circulated in manuscript copies , at least two of which have been preserved . One of them , which bears a long , Baroque title translating as " The exact study of the methods of cooking and preparing dishes of meat , fish , vegetables , flour , as well as seasoning of various sauces , making punch essence , etc . " , contains the author 's humorous motto , " not everyone thinks , but everyone eats . " Both copies were published in 1991 in two independent editions .
He also influenced the development of modern Polish cuisine by helping raise the next generation of Polish chefs , many of whom worked with him as apprentices . Tremo 's and his brother 's signatures can be found on a master craftsman 's diploma issued in Warsaw in 1783 . One of Tremo 's apprentices was Jan Szyttler , who went on to become a prolific food writer , best known for his Kuchnia myśliwska ( Hunter 's cuisine ) ; published in 1845 , it is the first Polish cookbook devoted solely to game dishes .
= = Publications = =
Tremo 's cookbook has been published posthumously in two independent editions , based on two surviving manuscript copies , in the following volumes :
Dębska , Danuta ; Dębski , Henryk ( 1991 ) . Kuchnia królewska [ Royal cuisine ] ( in Polish ) . Wrocław : Condor . ISBN 8385071105 .
Kowecki , Jerzy , ed . ( 1991 ) . Kuchnia na sześć osób podług przepisu JP Tremona , pierwszego kuchmistrza Stanisława Augusta króla Polskiego [ Cooking for six according to recipes by the Hon. Mr Tremo , first master chef to King Stanislaus Augustus of Poland ] ( in Polish ) . Prefaced by Marek Kwiatkowski . Warszawa .
= Wignacourt Arch =
The Wignacourt Arch known as the Fleur @-@ De @-@ Lys Gate ( Maltese : L @-@ Arkata ta ' Wignacourt magħrufa bħala l @-@ Bieb ta ' Fleur @-@ De @-@ Lys ) is an ornamental arch located on the boundary between Fleur @-@ de @-@ Lys ( a suburb of Birkirkara ) and Santa Venera , Malta . The arch was originally built in 1615 as part of the Wignacourt Aqueduct , but it was destroyed between 1943 and 1944 . A replica of the arch was constructed in 2015 , being inaugurated on 28 April 2016 .
= = Original arch = =
The Wignacourt Aqueduct was constructed between 1610 and 1615 to carry water from springs in Dingli and Rabat to the Maltese capital Valletta . It was named after Alof de Wignacourt , the Grand Master of the Order of St. John , who partially financed its construction .
The aqueduct was carried through underground pipes or over a series of stone arches where there were depressions in the ground level . To commemorate the construction of the aqueduct , the Wignacourt Arch was constructed at an area where the aqueduct crossed the road leading from Valletta to Mdina . The Baroque archway had a large arch in the centre , and a smaller arch on either side . It was decorated with three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis , a relief of Wignacourt 's coat of arms , and two marble plaques with Latin inscriptions . The plaque on the side facing Santa Venera reads :
HAC VALLETTA TENUS FUNCTUM JACUISSE CADAVER
VISA EST NUNC LATICIS SPIRITUS INTUS ALIT
INCUBUIT PRIMUS OLIM CEU SPIRITUS UNDIS
SPIRITUS ENIXA SIC MODO FERTUR AQUA
( meaning So far Valletta lay as a corpse . Today the spirit of water has brought life to her . The primordial spirit floated on water . Now water has been drawn to her and that spirit reappears . )
The plaque on the side facing Birkirkara reads :
FRI . ALOPHIO DE WIGNACOURT
MAGNO MAGISTRO
VALLETTAM URBEM
ET ARCEM DULCISSIMIS AQUIS
VIVIFICANTI AETERNA SALUS
REN . IN 1739
( meaning Fra Alof de Wignacourt , Grand Master . Valletta city and citadel , the sweetest waters revive eternal salvation . Renovated in 1739 . )
The area around the arch remained rural until the early 20th century . A tram used to pass near the arch between 1905 and 1929 . After World War II , the suburb of Fleur @-@ de @-@ Lys developed in the area , and it got its name from the heraldic symbols on the arch .
= = = Destruction = = =
On 18 April 1943 , a Royal Air Force breakdown lorry heading to the airfield at Ta ' Qali hit the arch and severely damaged its Santa Venera @-@ facing façade . The central arch was dismantled by military personnel under the supervision of the Public Works Department about two months later . The arch was completely destroyed on 12 February 1944 , when a Royal Army Service Corps truck hit the remaining parts of the structure . A roundabout with a fountain was later built on the site of the arch . Some arches of the aqueduct were demolished in order to widen the road and make way for this roundabout . The arch 's two marble plaques reportedly survived its destruction .
= = Reconstruction = =
The surviving arches of the Wignacourt Aqueduct were restored between 2004 and 2005 . The chairman of the Bank of Valletta , whose headquarters is located close to the arch , promised to build a replica of the arch but initially nothing materialized .
In 2012 , the Fleur @-@ de @-@ Lys Administrative Committee and the Birkirkara Local Council announced that they were planning to rebuild the arch to the same dimensions of the original . The plans were approved by the Malta Environment and Planning Authority in October of the same year , but they were placed on hold since a tender appeal had to be sorted out . In April 2013 , the tender was awarded to Vaults Ltd instead of V & C Contractors who had originally won the tender . The replica arch cost € 280 @,@ 000 to build , and € 100 @,@ 000 of these were donated by the Bank of Valletta . € 40 @,@ 000 were taken from the Good Causes Fund , while the remaining € 140 @,@ 000 were paid by the Birkirkara Local Council .
While preparations were being made for rebuilding the arch , a dispute arose between the Birkirkara and Santa Venera Local Councils on what to call the arch . The former said that it should be called Fleur @-@ de @-@ Lys Gate , while the latter insisted on using the name Wignacourt Arch . In September 2013 , the Santa Venera council took the Birkirkara council to court and accused it of causing " historical damage " by calling the arch with an incorrect name . The councils agreed on using the name The Wignacourt Arch known as the Fleur @-@ de @-@ Lys Gate in August 2014 .
Reconstruction of the arch began on 1 August 2014 , but work stopped soon afterwards after part of the original arch 's foundations was found . Reconstruction continued in January 2015 , and it was complete by the end of November 2015 . Some finishing touches were made in February 2016 , including the installation of two marble plaques . The arch was inaugurated on 28 April 2016 by Prime Minister Joseph Muscat and mayor of Birkirkara Joanne Debono Grech .
A plaque with the coat of arms of Birkirkara and the following inscription was installed to commemorate the reconstruction :
IL @-@ KUNSILL LOKALI
TA ' BIRKIRKARA
IL @-@ PRIM MINISTRU
JOSEPH MUSCAT ,
FLIMKIEN MAS @-@ SINDKU , IS @-@ SINJURA
JOANNE DEBONO GRECH ,
INAWGURAW DIN L @-@ ARKATA TA'
WIGNACOURT MAGĦRUFA
BĦALA L @-@ BIEB TA ' FLEUR DE LYS
ILLUM 28 TA ' APRIL 2016
( meaning Birkirkara Local Council . Prime Minister Joseph Muscat , together with the mayor , Mrs. Joanne Debono Grech , inaugurated the Wignacourt Arch known as the Fleur @-@ De @-@ Lys Gate , today 28 April 2016 )
= = Commemorations = =
In 2015 , the Central Bank of Malta minted a € 10 silver coin , and MaltaPost issued a set of two stamps to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the Wignacourt Aqueduct . The Wignacourt Arch is depicted on the coin and one of the stamps .
= Kansas City Chiefs =
The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football team based in Kansas City , Missouri . They compete in the National Football League ( NFL ) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference ( AFC ) West division . The team was founded in 1960 as the Dallas Texans by businessman Lamar Hunt and was a charter member of the American Football League ( AFL ) . In 1963 , the team relocated to Kansas City and assumed their current name . The Chiefs joined the NFL in the 1970 AFL – NFL merger . The team is valued at just under $ 1 billion .
The Chiefs have won three AFL championships , in 1962 , 1966 , and 1969 and became the second AFL team ( after the New York Jets ) to defeat an NFL team in an AFL – NFL World Championship Game , when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV . The team 's victory on January 11 , 1970 , remains the club 's last championship game victory and appearance to date , and occurred in the final such competition prior to the leagues ' merger coming into full effect . The Chiefs were also the second team , after the Green Bay Packers , to appear in more than one Super Bowl ( and the first AFL team to do so ) and the first to appear in the championship game in two different decades . In the 2015 AFC Wild @-@ Card playoff game , held at NRG Stadium in Houston , Texas on January 9 , 2016 , the Chiefs defeated the Houston Texans 30 – 0 to earn their first NFL playoff win in 23 seasons , dating back to the 1993 – 94 NFL playoffs . The Chiefs ' Wild @-@ Card playoff victory ended what was at the time the third @-@ longest drought in the NFL , and it also ended an NFL record eight @-@ game playoff losing streak .
As of 2016 , the Chiefs are the only NFL team based in Missouri , as a result of the St. Louis Rams ' relocation back to Los Angeles .
= = Franchise history = =
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1959 , Lamar Hunt began discussions with other businessmen to establish a professional football league that would rival the National Football League . Hunt 's desire to secure a football team was heightened after watching the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the New York Giants and Baltimore Colts . After unsuccessful attempts to purchase and relocate the NFL 's Chicago Cardinals to his hometown of Dallas , Texas , Hunt went to the NFL and asked to create an expansion franchise in Dallas . The NFL turned him down , so Hunt then established the American Football League and started his own team , the Dallas Texans , to begin play in 1960 . Hunt hired a little @-@ known assistant coach from the University of Miami football team , Hank Stram , to be the team 's head coach after the job offer was declined by Bud Wilkinson and Tom Landry .
Also hired was Don Klosterman as head scout , credited by many for bringing a wealth of talent to the Texans after luring it away from the NFL , often hiding players and using creative means to land them .
The Texans shared the Cotton Bowl with the NFL 's cross @-@ town competition Dallas Cowboys for three seasons . The Texans were to have exclusive access to the stadium until the NFL put an expansion team , The Dallas Cowboys , there . While the team averaged a league @-@ best 24 @,@ 500 at the Cotton Bowl , the Texans gained less attention due to the AFL 's relatively lower profile compared to the NFL . In the franchise 's first two seasons , the team managed only a 14 – 14 record . In their third season , the Texans strolled to an 11 – 3 record and a berth in the team 's first American Football League Championship Game , against the Houston Oilers . The game was broadcast nationally on ABC and the Texans defeated the Oilers 20 – 17 in double overtime . The game lasted 77 minutes and 54 seconds , which still stands as the longest championship game in professional football history .
It turned out to be the last game the team would play as the Dallas Texans . Despite competing against a Cowboys team that managed only a 9 – 28 – 3 record in their first three seasons , Hunt decided that the Dallas – Fort Worth media market could not sustain two professional football franchises . He considered moving the Texans to either Atlanta , Georgia or Miami , Florida for the 1963 season . However , he was ultimately swayed by an offer from Kansas City Mayor Harold Roe Bartle . Bartle promised to triple the franchise 's season ticket sales and expand the seating capacity of Municipal Stadium to accommodate the team .
Hunt agreed to relocate the franchise to Kansas City on May 22 , 1963 , and on May 26 the team was renamed the Kansas City Chiefs . Hunt and head coach Hank Stram initially planned to retain the Texans name , but a fan contest determined the new " Chiefs " name in honor of Mayor Bartle 's nickname that he acquired in his professional role as Scout Executive of the St. Joseph and Kansas City Boy Scout Councils and founder of the Scouting Society , the Tribe of Mic @-@ O @-@ Say . A total of 4 @,@ 866 entries were received with 1 @,@ 020 different names being suggested , including a total of 42 entrants who selected " Chiefs . " The two names that received the most popular votes were " Mules " and " Royals " ( which , 6 years later , would be the name of the city 's Major League Baseball expansion franchise in 1969 , after the Athletics left Kansas City for Oakland following the 1967 season ) .
The franchise became one of the strongest teams in the now thriving American Football League , with the most playoff appearances for an AFL team ( tied with the Oakland Raiders ) , and the most AFL Championships ( 3 ) . The team 's dominance helped Lamar Hunt become a central figure in negotiations with NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle to agree on an AFL – NFL merger . In the meetings between the two leagues , a merged league championship game was agreed to be played in January 1967 following the conclusion of the leagues ' respective 1966 seasons . Hunt insisted on calling the game the " Super Bowl " after seeing his children playing with a popular toy at the time , a Super Ball . While the first few games were designated the " AFL – NFL World Championship Game , " the Super Bowl name became its officially licensed title in years to come .
The Chiefs cruised to an 11 – 2 – 1 record in 1966 , and defeated the defending AFL Champion Buffalo Bills in the AFL Championship Game . The Chiefs were invited to play the NFL 's league champion Green Bay Packers in the first AFL – NFL World Championship Game . Kansas City and Green Bay played a close game for the first half , but Green Bay took control in the final two quarters , winning the game by a score of 35 – 10 . The Chiefs lost the game but gained the respect of several Packers opponents following the game . The Chiefs ' interleague match @-@ up with the Packers was not the last time that they would face an NFL opponent , especially on the championship stage . The following August , Kansas City hosted the NFL 's Chicago Bears in the 1967 preseason and won the game 66 – 24 .
Despite losing to the division rival Oakland Raiders twice in the regular season in 1969 , the two teams met for a third time in the AFL Championship Game where Kansas City won 17 – 7 . Backup quarterback Mike Livingston led the team in a six @-@ game winning streak after Len Dawson suffered a leg injury which kept him out of most of the season 's games . While getting plenty of help from the club 's defense , Dawson returned from the injury and led the Chiefs to Super Bowl IV . Against the NFL champion Minnesota Vikings , who were favored by 12 ½ , the Chiefs dominated the game 23 – 7 to claim the team 's first Super Bowl championship . Dawson was named the game 's Most Valuable Player after completing 12 @-@ of @-@ 17 passes for 142 yards and one touchdown , with 1 interception . The following season , the Chiefs and the rest of the American Football League merged with the National Football League after the AFL – NFL merger became official . The Chiefs were placed in the American Football Conference 's West Division .
From 1960 to 1969 , the Chiefs / Texans won 87 games , which is the most in the 10 year history of the AFL .
= = = 1970s = = =
In 1970 , the Chiefs won only seven games in their first season in the NFL and missed the playoffs . The following season , the Chiefs tallied a 10 – 3 – 1 record and won the AFC West Division . Head coach Hank Stram considered his 1971 Chiefs team as his best , but they failed to capture their championship dominance from 1969 . Most of the pieces of the team which won Super Bowl IV two years earlier were still in place for the 1971 season . The Chiefs tied with the Miami Dolphins for the best record in the AFC , and both teams met in a Christmas Day playoff game which the Chiefs lost 27 – 24 in double overtime . The Dolphins outlasted the Chiefs with a 37 @-@ yard field goal . The game surpassed the 1962 AFL Championship Game as the longest ever at 82 minutes and 40 seconds . The game was also the final football game at Kansas City 's Municipal Stadium .
In 1972 , the Chiefs moved into the newly constructed Arrowhead Stadium at the Truman Sports Complex outside of Downtown Kansas City . The team 's first game at Arrowhead was against the St. Louis Cardinals , a preseason game which the Chiefs won 24 – 14 . Linebacker Willie Lanier and quarterback Len Dawson won the NFL Man of the Year Award in 1972 and 1973 , respectively . The Chiefs would not return to the post @-@ season for the remainder of the 1970s , and the 1973 season was the team 's last winning effort for seven years . Hank Stram was fired following a 5 – 9 season in 1974 , and many of the Chiefs ' future Hall of Fame players would depart by the middle of the decade . From 1975 to 1988 , the Chiefs had become a laughing stock of the NFL and provided Chiefs fans with nothing but futility . Five head coaches struggled to achieve the same success as Stram , compiling an 81 – 121 – 1 record .
= = = 1980 – 1988 = = =
In 1980 , Coach Marv Levy cut future Hall of Fame Kicker Jan Stenerud for little known Nick Lowery , who would become the most accurate kicker in NFL History over the next 14 years . In 1981 , running back Joe Delaney rushed for 1 @,@ 121 yards and was named the AFC Rookie of the Year . The Chiefs finished the season with a 9 – 7 record and entered the 1982 season with optimism . However , the NFL Players Association strike curbed the Chiefs ' chances of returning to the postseason for the first time in over a decade . The Chiefs tallied a 3 – 6 record and in the off @-@ season , Joe Delaney died while trying to save several children from drowning in a pond near his home in Louisiana .
The Chiefs made a mistake in drafting quarterback Todd Blackledge over future greats such as Jim Kelly and Dan Marino in the 1983 NFL Draft . Blackledge never started a full season for Kansas City while Kelly and Marino played Hall of Fame careers . While the Chiefs struggled on offense in the 1980s , the Chiefs had a strong defensive unit consisting of Pro Bowlers such as Bill Maas , Albert Lewis , Art Still and Deron Cherry .
John Mackovic took over head coaching duties for the 1983 season after Marv Levy was fired . Over the next four seasons , Mackovic coached the Chiefs to a 30 – 34 record , but took the team to its first post @-@ season appearance in 15 years in the 1986 NFL playoffs . Following the team 's loss to the New York Jets in the playoffs , Mackovic was fired . Frank Gansz served as head coach for the next two seasons , but won only eight of 31 games .
= = = 1989 – 2008 = = =
On December 19 , 1988 , owner Lamar Hunt hired Carl Peterson as the team 's new president , general manager , and chief executive officer . Peterson fired head coach Frank Gansz two weeks after taking over and hired Marty Schottenheimer as the club 's seventh head coach . In the 1988 and 1989 NFL Drafts , the Chiefs selected both defensive end Neil Smith and linebacker Derrick Thomas , respectively . The defense that Thomas and Smith anchored in their seven seasons together was a big reason why the Chiefs reached the postseason in six straight years .
In Schottenheimer 's tenure as head coach , ( 1989 – 1998 ) , the Chiefs became a perennial playoff contender , featuring offensive players including Steve DeBerg , Christian Okoye , Stephone Paige and Barry Word , a strong defense , anchored by Thomas , Smith , Albert Lewis and Deron Cherry , and on special teams , Nick Lowery , most accurate kicker in NFL History . The team recorded a 101 – 58 – 1 record , and clinched seven playoff berths . The Chiefs ' 1993 season was the franchise 's most successful in 22 years . With newly acquired quarterback Joe Montana and running back Marcus Allen — two former Super Bowl champions and MVPs — the Chiefs further strengthened their position in the NFL . The 11 – 5 Chiefs defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers and Houston Oilers on their way to the franchise 's first and to date only AFC Championship Game appearance against the Buffalo Bills . The Chiefs were overwhelmed by the Bills and lost the game by a score of 30 – 13 . The Chiefs ' victory on January 14 , 1994 , against the Oilers remained the franchise 's last post @-@ season victory for 21 years until their 30 – 0 victory over the Houston Texans on January 9 , 2016 .
In the 1995 NFL playoffs , the 13 – 3 Chiefs hosted the Indianapolis Colts in a cold , damp night game at Arrowhead Stadium . Kansas City lost the game 10 – 7 against the underdog Colts , after kicker Lin Elliot missed three field goal attempts and quarterback Steve Bono threw three interceptions . The Chiefs selected tight end Tony Gonzalez with the 13th overall selection in the 1997 NFL Draft , a move which some considered to be a gamble being that Gonzalez was primarily a basketball player at California . During a 1997 season full of injuries to starting quarterback Elvis Grbac , backup quarterback Rich Gannon took the reins of the Chiefs ' offense as the team headed to another 13 – 3 season . Head coach Marty Schottenheimer chose Grbac to start the playoff game against the Denver Broncos despite Gannon 's successes in previous weeks . Grbac 's production in the game was lacking , and the Chiefs lost to the Broncos 14 – 10 . Denver went on to capture their fifth AFC Championship by defeating Pittsburgh , and then defeated the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXII .
Coach Schottenheimer announced his resignation from the Chiefs following the 1998 season , and defensive coordinator Gunther Cunningham took over coaching duties for the next two seasons , compiling a 16 – 16 record . By the end of the Chiefs ' decade of regular @-@ season dominance , Gannon had signed with the Oakland Raiders , Neil Smith signed with the Denver Broncos , and Derrick Thomas was paralyzed from a car accident on January 23 , 2000 . Thomas died from complications of his injury weeks later . After allegedly reading online that he would be relieved of duties , head coach Gunther Cunningham was fired .
Looking to change the Chiefs ' game plan which relied on a tough defensive strategy for the past decade , Carl Peterson contacted Dick Vermeil about the Chiefs ' head coaching vacancy for the 2001 season . Vermeil previously led the St. Louis Rams to a victory in Super Bowl XXXIV . Vermeil was hired on January 12 . The Chiefs then traded a first round draft pick in the 2001 NFL Draft to St. Louis for quarterback Trent Green and signed free agent running back Priest Holmes to be the team 's cornerstones on offense .
In 2003 , Kansas City began the season with nine consecutive victories , a franchise record . They finished the season with a 13 – 3 record and the team 's offense led the NFL in several categories under the direction of USA Today 's Offensive Coach of the Year honoree , Al Saunders . Running back Priest Holmes surpassed Marshall Faulk 's single @-@ season touchdown record by scoring his 27th rushing touchdown against the Chicago Bears in the team 's regular season finale . The team clinched the second seed in the 2004 NFL playoffs and hosted the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Divisional Playoffs . In a game where neither team punted , the Chiefs lost the shoot @-@ out 38 – 31 . It was the third time in nine seasons that the Chiefs went 8 – 0 at home in the regular season , and earned home field advantage throughout the playoffs , only to lose their post @-@ season opener at Arrowhead .
After a disappointing 7 – 9 record in 2004 , the 2005 Chiefs finished with a 10 – 6 record but no playoff berth . They were the fourth team since 1990 to miss the playoffs with a 10 – 6 record . Running back Larry Johnson started in place of the injured Priest Holmes and rushed for 1 @,@ 750 yards in only nine starts . Prior to the Chiefs ' final game of the season , head coach Dick Vermeil announced his retirement . The Chiefs won the game 37 – 3 over the playoff @-@ bound Cincinnati Bengals .
Within two weeks of Vermeil 's resignation , the Chiefs returned to their defensive roots with the selection of its next head coach . The team introduced Herman Edwards , a former Chiefs scout and head coach of the New York Jets , as the team 's tenth head coach after trading a fourth @-@ round selection in the 2006 NFL Draft to the Jets . Quarterback Trent Green suffered a severe concussion in the team 's season opener to the Cincinnati Bengals which left him out of play for eight weeks . Backup quarterback Damon Huard took over in Green 's absence and led the Chiefs to a 5 – 3 record .
Kansas City was awarded a Thanksgiving Day game against the Denver Broncos in response to owner Lamar Hunt 's lobbying for a third Thanksgiving Day game . The Chiefs defeated the Broncos 19 – 10 in the first Thanksgiving Day game in Kansas City since 1969 . Hunt was hospitalized at the time of the game and died weeks later on December 13 due to complications with prostate cancer . The Chiefs honored their owner for the remainder of the season , as did the rest of the league .
Trent Green returned by the end of the season , but struggled in the final stretch , and running back Larry Johnson set an NFL record with 416 carries in a season . Kansas City managed to clinch their first playoff berth in three seasons with a 9 – 7 record and a bizarre sequence of six losses from other AFC teams on New Year 's Eve , culminating with a Broncos loss to the 49ers . The Indianapolis Colts hosted the Chiefs in the Wild Card playoffs and defeated Kansas City 23 – 8 .
In 2007 , Trent Green was traded to the Miami Dolphins leaving the door open for either Damon Huard or Brodie Croyle to become the new starting quarterback . After starting the season with a 4 – 3 record , the Chiefs lost the remaining nine games when running back Larry Johnson suffered a season @-@ ending foot injury and the quarterback position lacked stability with Huard and Croyle . Despite the team 's 4 – 12 record , tight end Tony Gonzalez broke Shannon Sharpe 's NFL record for touchdowns at the position ( 63 ) and defensive end Jared Allen led the NFL in quarterback sacks with 15 @.@ 5 .
The Chiefs began their 2008 season with the youngest team in the NFL . The starting lineup had an average of 25 @.@ 5 years of age . By releasing several veteran players such as cornerback Ty Law and wide receiver Eddie Kennison and trading defensive end Jared Allen , the Chiefs began a youth movement . The Chiefs had a league @-@ high thirteen selections in the 2008 NFL Draft and chose defensive tackle Glenn Dorsey and offensive lineman Branden Albert in the first round . Analysts quickly called Kansas City 's selections as the best of the entire draft . Entering the season , the Chiefs were unsure if injury @-@ prone quarterback Brodie Croyle , who was the incumbent starter , could be their quarterback in the long @-@ term . Croyle was injured in the team 's first game of the season and Damon Huard started in Croyle 's absence . Tyler Thigpen become the third Chiefs starting quarterback in as many games for a start against the Atlanta Falcons . After a poor performance by Thigpen , in which he threw three interceptions against the Falcons defense , Huard was retained as the starting quarterback . The Chiefs struggled off the field as much as on as tight end Tony Gonzalez demanded a trade and running back Larry Johnson was involved in legal trouble .
Croyle returned for the Chiefs ' game against the Tennessee Titans , but both he and Damon Huard suffered season @-@ ending injuries in the game . The Chiefs reorganized their offense to a new spread offense game plan focused around Tyler Thigpen . The Chiefs ' new offense was implemented to help Thigpen play to the best of his abilities and also following the absence of Larry Johnson , who was suspended for his off @-@ field conduct . The Chiefs made a huge gamble by using the spread offense , as most in the NFL believe that it cannot work in professional football , and also head coach Herman Edwards was traditionally in favor of more conservative , run @-@ oriented game plans .
= = = 2009 – 2012 = = =
The 2008 season ended with a franchise worst 2 – 14 record , where the team suffered historic blowout defeats nearly week @-@ in and week @-@ out. a 34 – 0 shut @-@ out to the Carolina Panthers , and allowed a franchise @-@ high 54 points against the Buffalo Bills . The team 's general manager , chief executive officer , and team president Carl Peterson resigned at the end of the season , and former New England Patriots vice president of player personnel Scott Pioli was hired as his replacement for 2009 . Upon his arrival , Pioli made an effort to bring in coaches and administrators from his successful past with the New England Patriots , where he won three Super Bowl titles .
On January 23 , 2009 , Herman Edwards was fired as head coach , and two weeks later Todd Haley signed a four @-@ year contract to become Edwards ' successor . Haley had a background with Pioli , which made him an attractive hire for Pioli 's first coach in Kansas City .
In April 2009 Tony Gonzalez was traded to the Atlanta Falcons after failed trade attempts over the previous two seasons . Notably , head coach Todd Haley fired offensive coordinator Chan Gailey just weeks before the start of the 2009 season and chose to take on the coordinator duties himself . Throughout 2009 the Chiefs acquired veterans to supplement the Chiefs ' young talent including Matt Cassel , Mike Vrabel , Bobby Engram , Mike Brown , Chris Chambers , and Andy Alleman . The team finished with a 4 – 12 record , just a two @-@ game improvement upon their record from the 2008 season .
For the 2010 season , the Chiefs made significant hires for their coaching staff , bringing on former Patriots assistant coaches Charlie Weis and Romeo Crennel to coach the offense and defense , respectively . The coaching additions proved to be very successful , as the Chiefs would go on to secure their first AFC West title since 2003 . Their ten victories in the 2010 season combined for as many as the team had won in their previous three seasons combined .
On January 9 , 2011 , the Chiefs lost their home Wild Card playoff game to the Baltimore Ravens 30 – 7 . Six players were chosen for the Pro Bowl : Dwayne Bowe , Jamaal Charles , Brian Waters , Tamba Hali , Matt Cassel and rookie safety Eric Berry . Jamaal Charles won the FEDEX ground player of the year award and Dwayne Bowe led the NFL in Touchdown Receptions .
For their first pick in the 2011 NFL draft , and 26th overall , the team selected Jonathan Baldwin , Wide Receiver from Pitt . After a poor start , Haley was relieved of duties as Head Coach on December 12 . Clark Hunt made note of " bright spots at different points this season , " but felt that overall the Chiefs were not progressing . The highest point of the 2011 season was an upset win against the Packers , who at that time , were undefeated with a 13 – 0 record .
The Chiefs became the first team since the 1929 Buffalo Bisons to not lead in regulation through any of their first nine games . The Chiefs tied their franchise worst record of 2 – 14 and clinched the No. 1 overall pick in the 2013 NFL Draft . It is the first time in franchise history they have held the first overall pick .
= = = 2013 – 2014 = = =
Following the 2012 season , the Chiefs fired head coach Romeo Crennel and general manager Scott Pioli . Former Philadelphia Eagles head coach Andy Reid was brought in as head coach to work with new general manager John Dorsey , a former Green Bay Packers head scout .
The Chiefs acquired quarterback Alex Smith from the San Francisco 49ers for the Chiefs ' second @-@ round pick , 34th overall , in the 2013 draft and a conditional pick in 2014 draft . Matt Cassel was released shortly after . The Chiefs selected Eric Fisher with the first overall pick of the 2013 NFL Draft .
The Chiefs started 9 – 0 for the second time in team history . They would lead their wildcard game against the Indianapolis Colts 38 – 10 shortly after halftime , but they would collapse late and lose , 45 – 44 .
= = = 2015 = = =
After a promising win for the Chiefs against Houston in Week 1 , Kansas City went on a five @-@ game losing streak culminating in a 16 – 10 loss to Minnesota and the loss of Jamaal Charles to a torn ACL . However , they managed one of the most improbable season comebacks in the NFL and won ten straight to improve their record from 1 – 5 to 11 – 5 . The team clinched a playoff berth after a 17 – 13 win over Cleveland in Week 16 to become only the second NFL team to do so after the merger .
The streak achieved by the Chiefs broke a franchise record for 9 straight ( 2003 , 2013 ) and second under Reid . After a Week 17 win over Oakland 23 – 17 , the Chiefs achieved their longest winning streak in franchise history at ten games . They qualified for the playoffs , and started out by beating the Houston Texans in the AFC Wild @-@ Card round , 30 – 0 . It was their first playoff win since 1994 , and incidentally , in the same city as their last playoff win . Riddled with injuries , they were defeated by the New England Patriots 27 – 20 in the AFC Divisional Round .
= = = Season @-@ by @-@ season records = = =
This is a partial list of the last five seasons ( 2011 – 15 ) completed by the Chiefs . For the full season @-@ by @-@ season franchise results , see List of Kansas City Chiefs seasons .
Note : The Finish , Wins , Losses , and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play .
Record as of the end of the 2015 NFL season
= = Logos and uniforms = =
When the Texans began playing in 1960 , the team 's logo consisted of the state of Texas in white with a yellow star marking the location of the city of Dallas . Originally , Hunt chose Columbia blue and orange for the Texans ' uniforms , but Bud Adams chose Columbia blue and scarlet for his Houston Oilers franchise . Hunt reverted to red and gold for the Texans ' uniforms , which even after the team relocated to Kansas City , remain as the franchise 's colors to this day .
The state of Texas on the team 's helmet was replaced by an arrowhead design originally sketched by Lamar Hunt on a napkin . Hunt 's inspiration for the interlocking " KC " design was the " SF " inside of an oval on the San Francisco 49ers helmets . Unlike the 49ers ' logo , Kansas City ’ s overlapping initials appear inside a white arrowhead instead of an oval and are surrounded by a thin black outline . From 1960 to 1973 , the Chiefs had grey facemask bars on their helmets , but changed to white bars in 1974 , making them one of the first teams in the NFL to use a non @-@ gray facemask .
The Chiefs ' uniform design has essentially remained the same throughout the club 's history . It consists of a red helmet , and either red or white jerseys with the opposite color numbers and names . White pants were used with both jerseys from 1960 to 1967 and 1989 to 1999 . Beginning in 2009 , during the Pioli / Haley era , the team has alternated between white and red pants for road games during the season . Prior to September 15 , 2013 , the Chiefs always wore white pants with their red jerseys . The Chiefs have never worn an alternate jersey in a game , although custom jerseys are sold for retail .
The Chiefs wore their white jerseys with white pants at home for the 2006 season opener against the Cincinnati Bengals . The logic behind the uniform selection that day was that the Bengals would be forced to wear their black uniforms on a day that forecasted for steamy temperatures . The only other time the Chiefs wore white at home was throughout the 1980 season under Marv Levy .
In 2007 , the Kansas City Chiefs honored Lamar Hunt and the AFL with a special patch . It features the AFL 's logo from the 1960s with Hunt 's " LH " initials inside the football . In 2008 , the patch became permanently affixed to the left chest of both Kansas City 's home and away jerseys .
In select games for the 2009 season , the Chiefs , as well as the other founding teams of the American Football League , wore " throwback " uniforms to celebrate the AFL 's 50th anniversary .
For the first time in team history , the Chiefs wore their red jersey with red pants forming an all red combo in their home opener against the Dallas Cowboys on September 15 , 2013 .
= = Arrowhead Stadium = =
Arrowhead Stadium has been the Chiefs ' home field since 1972 and has a capacity of 76 @,@ 416 , which makes it the sixth @-@ largest stadium in the NFL . The stadium underwent a $ 375 million renovation , completed in mid @-@ 2010 , which included new luxury boxes , wider concourses and enhanced amenities . The stadium renovation was paid for by $ 250 million in taxpayer money and $ 125 million from the Hunt Family . The stadium cost $ 53 million to build in 1972 , and an average ticket in 2009 costs $ 81 . Centerplate serves as the stadium 's concession provider and Sprint Nextel , Anheuser @-@ Busch and Coca @-@ Cola are major corporate sponsors .
Dating back to the Chiefs ' home opener in 1991 to mid @-@ 2009 , the Chiefs had 155 consecutive sellout games . The streak ended with the final home game of the 2009 season against the Cleveland Browns , resulting in the first local TV blackout in over 19 years . Arrowhead has been called one of the world 's finest stadiums and has long held a reputation for being one of the toughest and loudest outdoor stadiums for opposing players to play in . All noise is directly attributed to its fans and was once measured at 116 decibels by the Acoustical Design Group of Mission , Kansas . By way of comparison , take @-@ off of aircraft may lead to a sound level of 106 decibels at the ground . Sports Illustrated named Arrowhead Stadium the " toughest place to play " for opposing teams in 2005 . The tailgate party environment outside the stadium on gameday has been compared to a " college football " atmosphere . Arrowhead Stadium features frequent fly @-@ overs from a B @-@ 2 Spirit stealth bomber from nearby Whiteman Air Force Base . Since the 1994 NFL season , the stadium has had a natural grass playing surface . From 1972 to 1993 , the stadium had an artificial AstroTurf surface .
During the game against the Oakland Raiders on October 13 , 2013 , Arrowhead Stadium once again became the loudest stadium in the world when the fans set the Guinness Book of World Records record for loudest crowd in an outdoor stadium ( 137 @.@ 5 dB ) , breaking the record set by the Seattle Seahawks just four weeks prior . A few weeks after , Seattle re @-@ gained the record by reaching a noise level of 137 @.@ 6 decibels . Chiefs fans have reclaimed the record once again ; on September 29 , 2014 , on Monday Night Football against the New England Patriots , the fans recorded a sound reading of 142 @.@ 2 decibels . As of the end of the 2014 season , the Chiefs are unbeaten at Arrowhead against the Arizona Cardinals ( 4 – 0 ) and Washington Redskins ( 3 – 0 ) , but winless there against the Baltimore Ravens ( 0 – 3 ) .
= = Training camp and practice facility = =
When the franchise was based in Dallas , the team conducted their inaugural training camp at the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell , New Mexico . They moved camp to Southern Methodist University , owner Lamar Hunt 's alma mater , for 1961 and continued to practice there until 1965 . From 1966 to 1971 , the Chiefs practiced in Swope Park in Kansas City , and from 1972 to 1991 held camp at William Jewell College in Clay County , Missouri – where Lamar Hunt had extensive business dealings including Worlds of Fun , Oceans of Fun and SubTropolis .
From 1991 to 2009 the Chiefs conducted summer training camp at the University of Wisconsin – River Falls in River Falls , Wisconsin . The Chiefs ' 2007 training camp was documented in the HBO / NFL Films documentary reality television series , Hard Knocks . Following the passage of a $ 25 million state tax credit proposal , the Chiefs moved their training camp to Missouri Western State University in St. Joseph , Missouri , in 2010 . The bulk of the tax credits went for improvements to Arrowhead Stadium with $ 10 million applied to the move to Missouri Western . A climate @-@ controlled , 120 @-@ yard NFL regulation grass indoor field , and office space for the Chiefs was constructed at Missouri Western adjacent to the school 's Spratt Stadium before the 2010 season .
Outside of training camp and during the regular season , the Chiefs conduct practices at their own training facility nearby Arrowhead Stadium . The facility is located near the Raytown Road entrance to the Truman Sports Complex just east of Interstate 435 and features three outdoor fields ( two grass and one artificial turf ) as well as an indoor facility with its own full @-@ size field .
= = Mascots and cheerleaders = =
The Chiefs ' first mascot was Warpaint , a nickname given to several different breeds of pinto horse . Warpaint served as the team 's mascot from 1963 to 1988 . The first Warpaint ( born in 1955 , died in 1992 ) was ridden bareback by rider Bob Johnson who wore a full Native American headdress . Warpaint circled the field at the beginning of each Chiefs home game and performed victory laps following each Chiefs touchdown . On September 20 , 2009 , a new Warpaint horse was unveiled at the Chiefs ' home opener against the Oakland Raiders . Warpaint is now ridden by a cheerleader , Susie .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , the Chiefs featured a short @-@ lived unnamed " Indian man " mascot which was later scrapped in 1988 . Since 1989 the cartoon @-@ like K. C. Wolf , portrayed by Dan Meers in a wolf costume , has served as the team 's mascot . The mascot was named after the Chiefs ' " Wolfpack , " a group of rabid fans from the team 's days at Municipal Stadium . K. C. Wolf is one of the most popular NFL mascots and was the league 's first mascot inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame in 2006 .
The Chiefs have employed a cheerleading squad since the team 's inception in 1960 . In the team 's early days , the all @-@ female squad was referred to as the Chiefettes . In addition to the Cheerleaders , in the early 1970s , there was also a dance / drill team that performed for pre @-@ game and halftime . From 1986 to 1992 , the cheerleader squad featured a mix of men and women . Since 1993 , the all @-@ female squad has been known as the Chiefs Cheerleaders .
= = Notable players = =
= = = Roster = = =
Before adding a newly acquired player 's number on the active roster or practice squad check to see if a player already has that number . If the number is already taken do not add the number . Per NFL regulations 2 players on the same side of the ball cannot have the same number in the preseason , during the regular season only 1 player can have a number ( see http : / / static.nfl.com / static / content / public / image / rulebook / pdfs / 8 _ Rule5 _ Players _ Subs _ Equip _ GeneralRules.pdf ) Do not add the number if it is retired by the Chiefs , those numbers are 3 , 16 , 18 , 28 , 33 , 36 , 58 , 63 , 78 , and 86 .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
= = = Pro Football Hall of Fame enshrinees = = =
= = = Chiefs Hall of Fame = = =
The Chiefs are one of 16 organizations that honor their players , coaches and contributors with a team Hall of Fame or Ring of Honor . Established in 1970 , the Chiefs Hall of Fame has inducted a new member in an annual ceremony with the exception of the 1983 season . Several of the names were featured at Arrowhead Stadium in the stadium 's architecture prior to renovations in 2009 . The requirements for induction are that a player , coach , or contributor must have been with the Chiefs for four seasons and been out of the NFL for four seasons at the time of induction . There are some exceptions , such as Joe Delaney and Derrick Thomas , Delaney was with the team for only two seasons before his death , Thomas was inducted 1 year after his death in January 2000 ( 2 years after his final season ) . The Chiefs have the second @-@ most enshrinees of any NFL team in their team hall of fame behind the Green Bay Packers , who have enshrined over 100 players and team contributors over the years in the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame .
1970s
1970 : Lamar Hunt , team founder and owner
1971 : # 36 Mack Lee Hill , RB
1972 : # 75 Jerry Mays , DT
1973 : # 84 Fred Arbanas , TE
1974 : # 42 Johnny Robinson , S
1975 : # 88 Chris Burford , WR
1976 : # 55 E.J. Holub , C / LB
1977 : # 77 Jim Tyrer , OT
1978 : # 21 Mike Garrett , RB
1979 : # 16 Len Dawson , QB
1980s
1980 : # 78 Bobby Bell , LB
1981 : # 86 Buck Buchanan , DT
1982 : # 89 Otis Taylor , WR
1983 : No induction
1984 : # 71 Ed Budde , G
1985 : # 63 Willie Lanier , LB
1986 : # 18 Emmitt Thomas , CB
1987 : Hank Stram , Coach
1988 : # 44 Jerrel Wilson , P
1989 : # 14 Ed Podolak , RB
1990s
1990 : # 51 Jim Lynch , LB
1991 : # 28 Abner Haynes , RB
1992 : # 3 Jan Stenerud , K
1993 : # 69 Sherrill Headrick , LB
1994 : # 58 Jack Rudnay , C
1995 : # 32 Curtis McClinton , RB
1996 : # 20 Deron Cherry , S
1997 : # 73 Dave Hill , OT
1998 : # 67 Art Still , DE
1999 : # 34 Lloyd Burruss , S
2000s
2000 : # 35 Christian Okoye , RB
2001 : # 58 Derrick Thomas , LB
2002 : # 76 John Alt , OT
2003 : # 59 Gary Spani , LB
2004 : # 37 Joe Delaney , RB
2005 : Jack Steadman , team administrator
2006 : # 90 Neil Smith , DE
2007 : # 29 Albert Lewis , CB
2008 : # 61 Curley Culp , DT
2009 : # 8 Nick Lowery , K
2010s
2010 : Marty Schottenheimer , Coach
2011 : # 31 Kevin Ross , CB
2012 : # 68 Will Shields , OG
2013 : # 26 Gary Barbaro , S
2014 : # 31 Priest Holmes , RB
2015 : # 24 Gary Green , CB
= = Head coaches = =
Thirteen head coaches have served the Texans / Chiefs franchise since their first season in 1960 . Hank Stram , the team 's first head coach , led the Chiefs to three AFL championship victories and two appearances in the Super Bowl . Stram was the team 's longest @-@ tenured head coach , holding the position from 1960 to 1974 . Marty Schottenheimer was hired in 1989 and led Kansas City to seven playoff appearances in his 10 seasons as head coach . Schottenheimer had the best winning percentage ( .634 ) of all Chiefs coaches . Gunther Cunningham was on the Chiefs ' coaching staff in various positions from 1995 to 2008 , serving as the team 's head coach in between stints as the team 's defensive coordinator . Dick Vermeil coached the team to a franchise @-@ best 9 – 0 start in the 2003 season . Of the ten Chiefs coaches , Hank Stram and Marv Levy have been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame . Herman Edwards served as the team 's head coach from 2006 to 2008 , compiling a 15 – 33 record and a franchise worst 6 – 26 record over a two @-@ year span . Todd Haley compiled a 19 – 26 record with the team from 2009 – 2011 , including an AFC West division title in 2010 . Haley was fired with three games left in the 2011 season . Romeo Crennel was named interim coach , and was promoted to full @-@ time coach in January 2012 . Crennel was fired on Monday , December 31 , 2012 , after finishing the 2012 season with a 2 – 14 record . On January 5 , 2013 , the Chiefs hired Andy Reid to be their next head coach . In Reid 's first season with the Chiefs , they started the season with a 9 – 0 record while having the No. 1 defense in the league .
= = Ownership and administration = =
The franchise was founded in 1959 by Lamar Hunt after a failed attempt by Hunt to purchase an NFL franchise and relocate them to Texas . Hunt purchased the franchise for $ 25 @,@ 000 in 1960 and remained the team 's owner until his death in 2006 . The Hunt family kept ownership of the team following Lamar 's death and Clark Hunt , Lamar 's son , represents the family 's interests . While Hunt 's official title is Chairman of the Board , he serves as the franchise 's de facto owner . In 2010 , Hunt assumed role as CEO alongside his role as Chairman of the Board . According to Forbes , the team is valued at just under $ 1 billion and ranks 20th among NFL teams in 2010 .
Owner Lamar Hunt served as the team 's president from 1960 to 1976 . Because of Lamar Hunt 's contributions to the NFL , the AFC Championship trophy is named after him . He promoted general manager Jack Steadman to become the team 's president in 1977 . Steadman held the job until Carl Peterson was hired by Hunt in 1988 to replace him . Peterson resigned the title as team president in 2008 . Denny Thum became the team 's interim president following Peterson 's departure and was officially given the full position in May 2009 . Thum resigned from his position on September 14 , 2010 .
Don Rossi served as the team 's general manager for half of the 1960 season , resigning in November 1960 . Jack Steadman assumed duties from Rossi and served in the position until 1976 . Steadman was promoted to team president in 1976 and despite being relieved of those duties in 1988 , he remained with the franchise until 2006 in various positions . Jim Schaaf took over for Steadman as general manager until being fired in December 1988 . Carl Peterson was hired in 1988 to serve as the team 's general manager , chief executive officer and team president . Peterson remained in the position for 19 years until he announced his resignation from the team in 2008 . Denny Thum served as interim general manager until January 13 , 2009 , when the Chiefs named New England Patriots executive Scott Pioli the team 's new general manager . Pioli was released in early January after the hiring of Andy Reid , and was replaced by John Dorsey . Pioli 's record as the Chief 's general manager was 23 – 41 .
= = = Staff = = =
= = Media = =
= = = Radio and television = = =
Since 1989 , KCFX , a.k.a. " 101 The Fox " , has broadcast all Chiefs games on FM radio under the moniker of The Chiefs Fox Football Radio Network . Since 1994 , Mitch Holthus has served as play @-@ by @-@ play announcer and former Chiefs quarterback Len Dawson serves as color commentator . Former Chiefs longsnapper Kendall Gammon serves as the field reporter . Former Chiefs broadcaster Bob Gretz also contributes to the broadcasts . KCFX holds broadcast rights to Chiefs games through the 2009 season . The Chiefs and KCFX hold the distinction of being the longest FM radio broadcast partnering tenure in the NFL . The Chiefs Radio Network extends throughout the six @-@ state region of Missouri , Kansas , Iowa , Nebraska , Oklahoma , and Arkansas , with 61 affiliate stations .
KCTV Channel 5 ( CBS ) broadcasts most Chiefs regular season games , with exceptions as following . KCTV also broadcasts all Chiefs pre @-@ season games . WDAF Channel 4 ( Fox ) broadcasts games in which the Chiefs host an NFC opponent . KSHB Channel 41 ( NBC ) broadcasts all games in which the Chiefs play on NBC Sunday Night Football or NBC 's NFL playoffs coverage . KMBC Channel 9 ( ABC ) has aired Monday Night Football games locally since 1970 .
Prior to the 1994 season , WDAF was the primary station for the Chiefs as an NBC affiliate ( they aired on KMBC when ABC had the AFL package through 1964 ) , since NBC had the AFC package . The inter @-@ conference home games aired on KCTV starting in 1973 ( when the NFL allowed local telecasts of home games ) . After week one of the 1994 season , WDAF switched to Fox ( which got the NFC package ) , and has aired the Chiefs ' inter @-@ conference home games since . The bulk of the team 's games moved to KSHB through the end of the 1997 season . Since that time , they have aired on KCTV .
As of the 2015 preseason , the Chiefs preseason broadcasters were Paul Burmeister who serves as the play @-@ by @-@ play announcer , former Chiefs quarterback Trent Green serves as the color commentator , and KCChiefs.com insider B.J. Kissel is the sideline reporter .
= = = = Radio affiliates = = = =
Chiefs games are broadcast in Missouri and Kansas as well as parts of Iowa , Oklahoma , Nebraska , Arkansas , and South Dakota . Stations in major cities are listed below .
= = = Preseason game affiliates = = =
= = Culture = =
= = = Fan base = = =
The Chiefs boast one of the most loyal fan bases in the NFL . Kansas City is the sixth @-@ smallest media market with an NFL team , but they have had the second @-@ highest attendance average over the last decade . Studies by Bizjournals in 2006 gave the Chiefs high marks for consistently drawing capacity crowds in both good seasons and bad . The Chiefs averaged 77 @,@ 300 fans per game from 1996 to 2006 , second in the NFL behind the Washington Redskins . The franchise has an official fan club called Chiefs Kingdom which gives members opportunities to ticket priority benefits and VIP treatment .
At the end of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " before home games , many Chiefs fans intentionally yell out " CHIEFS ! " rather than singing " brave " as the final word . In 1996 , general manager Carl Peterson said " We all look forward , not only at Arrowhead , but on the road , too , to when we get to that stanza of the National Anthem ... Our players love it . " After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , Chiefs fans refrained from doing so in honor of those who lost their lives in the tragedy and continued to do so for the remainder of the 2001 season . At the Chiefs ' September 23 , 2001 , home game against the New York Giants , fans gave the opposing Giants a standing ovation .
After every Chiefs touchdown at home games , fans chant while pointing in the direction of the visiting team and fans , " We 're gonna beat the hell outta you ... you ... you , you , you , you ! " over the song " Rock and Roll Part 2 . " The chant starts after the third " hey ! " in the song . The original version of the song by Gary Glitter was previously used until the NFL banned his music from its facilities in 2006 following the British rocker 's conviction on sexual abuse charges in Vietnam . A cover version of the song played by Tube Tops 2000 has been played since 2006 at every home game . Chiefs fans also occasionally carry on a tradition that began at Florida State University in the mid 1980s by using the Seminole WarChant as a rallying cry during key moments in their football games .
The Chiefs ' fan base has expanded across the world like many other NFL teams . However , there is a Twitter account dedicated to Chiefs fans in the UK and has been recognized by the Kansas City Chiefs and is their official UK fan page . They have many dedicated fans writing articles and interviewing players of the team such as Tamba Hali .
Arrowhead Stadium is also recognized by Guinness World Records as having the loudest outdoor stadium in the world . This was achieved on September 29 , 2014 in a Monday Night Football game against the New England Patriots when the crowd achieved a roar of 142 @.@ 2 decibels which is comparable to standing 100 feet from a jet engine , which even with short term exposure , can cause permanent damage .
= = = Tony DiPardo = = =
From various periods between 1963 and the 2008 season , trumpeter Tony DiPardo and The T.D. Pack Band played live music at every Chiefs home game . The band was known as The Zing Band when the team was located at Municipal Stadium . DiPardo was honored by head coach Hank Stram in 1969 with a Super Bowl ring for the team 's victory in Super Bowl IV . When his health was declining , DiPardo took a leave of absence from the band from 1983 to 1988 . DiPardo 's daughter took over as bandleader in 1989 , by which time DiPardo returned to the band by popular demand . For the 2009 season , due to renovations at Arrowhead Stadium , the band did not return to perform at the stadium .
DiPardo died on January 27 , 2011 , at age 98 . He had been hospitalized since December 2010 after suffering a brain aneurysm .
= Jean de Florette =
Jean de Florette ( French pronunciation : [ ʒɑ ̃ də flɔʁɛt ] ) is a 1986 French period drama film directed by Claude Berri , based on a novel by Marcel Pagnol . It is followed by Manon des Sources . The film takes place in rural Provence , where two local farmers scheme to trick a newcomer out of his newly inherited property . The film starred three of France 's most prominent actors – Gérard Depardieu , Daniel Auteuil , who won a BAFTA award for his performance , and Yves Montand in one of the last roles before his death .
The film was shot , together with Manon des Sources , over a period of seven months . At the time the most expensive French film ever made , it was a great commercial and critical success , both domestically and internationally , and was nominated for eight César awards , and ten BAFTAs . The two films helped promote Provence as a tourist destination .
= = Plot = =
The story takes place in a small village in Provence , France , shortly after the First World War . Ugolin Soubeyran ( Auteuil ) returns early in the morning from his military service , and wakes up his uncle César — known as ' Le Papet ' ( Montand ) . Ugolin stays only briefly to talk , as he is eager to get to his own place farther up in the mountains . Here he throws himself into a project that — at first — he keeps secret from Papet . He eventually reveals that the project consists of growing carnations . Papet is at first skeptical , but he is convinced when the flowers get a high price at the local market . They decide the project is worthy of expansion , and together they go to see the local farmer Pique @-@ Bouffigue , to buy his land .
The land in question is apparently " dry " , but Papet knows of a source of water , a spring , that can solve that problem . The neighbour does not want to sell , and an altercation breaks out when he insults the Soubeyran family . In the fight Pique @-@ Bouffigue is killed , but rather than feeling remorse , Papet sees this as an opportunity . After the funeral , they dig out the rubble that is blocking the spring , plug the hole , and cover it with cement and then earth . Unknown to them , they are seen blocking the spring by a poacher inside the house .
The property descends to the dead man 's sister , Florette de Berengere , a childhood friend of Papet ; who married the blacksmith in another village , Crespin , whilst Papet was recovering in a military Hospital in Africa . He writes to Grafignette — a common friend — for news on Florette , and finds that she died the same day his letter arrived . The property thereby descends to her son Jean , who is a tax collector and " unfortunately , by God 's will ... he 's a hunchback " . To discourage the new owner from taking up residence , Ugolin breaks many tiles on the roof of the residence .
Florette 's son ( Depardieu ) arrives with his wife Aimée and young daughter Manon , and Soubeyran 's hopes of an easy takeover are
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Berri came across Pagnol 's book by chance in a hotel room , and was captivated by it . He decided that in order to do the story justice it had to be made in two parts .
Jean de Florette was filmed in and around the Vaucluse department of Provence , where a number of different places have been mentioned as filming locations . La Treille , east of Marseille , in the Bouches @-@ du @-@ Rhône department , was the village where Pagnol had shot the original film . The village is now within the city limits of Marseille and has undergone extensive development since the 1950s , so Berri had to find alternatives . For the village of the story he settled on Mirabeau ( 65 km to the north ) , while Jean de Florette 's house is located in Vaugines , where the church from the film can also be found . The market scenes were filmed in Sommières in the Gard , and the story 's Les Romarins was in reality Riboux in the Var .
Extensive work was put into creating a genuine and historically correct atmosphere for the film . The facades of the houses of Mirabeau had to be replaced with painted polystyrene , to make them look older , and all electric wires were put underground . Meanwhile , in Vaugines , Berri planted a dozen olive trees twelve months before filming started , and watered them throughout the waiting period , and for the second installment planted 10 @,@ 000 carnations on the farm .
Jean de Florette and Manon des Sources were filmed together , over a period of thirty weeks , from May to December 1985 . This allowed Berri to show the dramatic seasonal changes of the Provençal landscape . At $ 17 million , it was at the time the most expensive film project in French history . The long filming period and the constantly increasing cost put a great burden on the actors , many of whom frequently had to return to Paris for television or theatre work . Once completed , the release of the film was a great national event . A special promotional screening before the film 's official release 27 August 1986 , was attended by then Minister of Culture Jack Lang . The musical score is based around the aria Invano Alvaro from Giuseppe Verdi 's 1862 opera La forza del destino .
= = Reception = =
The film was a great success in its native France , where it was seen by over seven million people . It also performed very well internationally ; in the United States it grossed nearly five million US $ , placing it among the 100 most commercially successful foreign @-@ language films shown there .
Critical reception for Jean de Florette was almost universally positive . Rita Kempley , writing for The Washington Post , compared the story to the fiction of William Faulkner . Allowing that it could indeed be " a definitive French masterwork " , she reserved judgement until after the premiere of the second part , as Jean de Florette was only a " half @-@ movie " , " a long , methodic buildup , a pedantically paced tease " . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times commented on Berri 's exploration of human character , " the relentlessness of human greed , the feeling that the land is so important the human spirit can be sacrificed to it " . Ebert gave the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars .
The staff reviewer for the entertainment magazine Variety highlighted – as other reviewers did as well – the cinematography of Bruno Nuytten ( an effort that won Nuytten a BAFTA award and a César nomination ) . The reviewer commended Berri particularly for the work done with the small cast , and for his decision to stay true to Pagnol 's original story . Richard Bernstein , reviewing the film for The New York Times , wrote it was " like no other film you 've seen in recent years " . He called it an updated , faster @-@ paced version of Pagnol , where the original was still recognisable . The newspaper lists the film among the " Best 1000 Movies Ever Made " . Later reviews show that the film has stood up to the passage of time . Tasha Robinson , reviewing the DVD release of the two films for The A.V. Club in 2007 , called the landscape , as portrayed by Berri and Nuytten , " almost unbearably beautiful " . Grading the films ' A ' , she called them " surprisingly tight and limber " for a four @-@ hour film cycle .
= = = Awards = = =
Nominated for a total of eight César awards in 1987 – including ' Best Film ' , ' Best Director ' and ' Best Cinematography ' – Jean de Florette won only one , ' Best Actor ' for Daniel Auteuil . At the BAFTA awards the next year it fared better , winning awards for ' Best Actor in a Supporting Role ' ( Auteuil ) , ' Best Cinematography ' , ' Best Film ' and ' Best Adapted Screenplay ' . The film also earned six more nominations , including both Depardieu and Montand in the ' Best Actor ' -category , as well as ' Best Direction ' and ' Best Foreign Language Film ' . Amongst other honours for the film were a U.S. National Board of Review award for ' Best Foreign Language Film ' , and a ' Best Foreign Language Film ' nomination at the 1988 Golden Globes . It was also nominated for the Golden Prize at the 15th Moscow International Film Festival .
= = Legacy = =
Jean de Florette and Manon des Sources have been interpreted as part of a wider trend in the 1980s of so @-@ called ' heritage cinema ' : period pieces and costume dramas that celebrated the history , culture and landscape of France . It was the official policy of President François Mitterrand , elected in 1981 , and particularly his Minister of Culture Jack Lang , to promote these kinds of films through increased funding of the ailing French film industry . Berri 's pair of films stand as the most prominent example of this effort . It has also been suggested that the treatment given the outsider Jean de Florette by the locals was symbolic of the growing popularity of the anti @-@ immigration movement , led by politicians like Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen .
The two films are often seen in conjunction with Peter Mayle 's book A Year in Provence , as causing increased interest in , and tourism to , the region of Provence , particularly among the British . The films inspired a vision of the area as a place of rural authenticity , and were followed by an increase in British home ownership in southern France . As late as 2005 , the owners of the house belonging to Jean de Florette in the movie were still troubled by tourists trespassing on their property .
Ranked No. 60 in Empire magazine 's " The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema " in 2010 .
= Texas annexation =
The Texas annexation was the 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States of America , which was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on December 29 , 1845 .
The Republic of Texas declared independence from the Republic of Mexico on March 2 , 1836 . At the time the vast majority of the Texian population favored the annexation of the Republic by the United States . The leadership of both major American political parties , the Democrats and the Whigs , opposed the introduction of Texas , a vast slave @-@ holding region , into the volatile political climate of the pro- and anti @-@ slavery sectional controversies in Congress . Moreover , they wished to avoid a war with Mexico , whose government refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of its rebellious northern province . With Texas 's economic fortunes declining by the early 1840s , the President of the Texas Republic , Sam Houston , arranged talks with Mexico to explore the possibility of securing official recognition of independence , with Great Britain mediating .
In 1843 , U.S. President John Tyler , unaligned with any political party , decided independently to pursue the annexation of Texas in a bid to gain a base of popular support for another four years in office . His official motivation was to outmaneuver suspected diplomatic efforts by the British government for emancipation of slaves in Texas , which would undermine slavery in the United States . Through secret negotiations with the Houston administration , Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844 . When the documents were submitted to the US Senate for ratification , the details of the terms of annexation became public and the question of acquiring Texas took center stage in the presidential election of 1844 . Pro @-@ Texas @-@ annexation southern Democratic delegates denied their anti @-@ annexation leader Martin Van Buren the nomination at their party 's convention in May 1844 . In alliance with pro @-@ expansion northern Democratic colleagues , they secured the nomination of James K. Polk , who ran on a pro @-@ Texas Manifest Destiny platform .
In June 1844 , the Senate , with its Whig majority , soundly rejected the Tyler – Texas treaty . The pro @-@ annexation Democrat Polk narrowly defeated anti @-@ annexation Whig Henry Clay in the November 1844 presidential election . In December 1844 , lame @-@ duck President Tyler called on Congress to pass his treaty by simple majorities in each house . The Democratic @-@ dominated House of Representatives complied with his request by passing an amended bill expanding on the pro @-@ slavery provisions of the Tyler treaty . The Senate narrowly passed a compromise version of the House bill ( by the vote of the minority Democrats and several southern Whigs ) , designed to provide the incoming President @-@ elect Polk the options of immediate annexation of Texas or new talks to revise the annexation terms of the House @-@ amended bill .
On March 1 , 1845 , President Tyler signed the annexation bill , and on March 3 ( his last day in office ) , he forwarded the House version to Texas , offering immediate annexation ( which preempted Polk ) . When Polk took office the next day , he encouraged Texas to accept the Tyler offer . Texas ratified the agreement with popular approval from Texans . The bill was signed by Polk on December 29 , 1845 , accepting Texas as the 28th state of the Union . Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 19 , 1846 .
= = Background = =
= = = U.S. Territorial expansion and Texas = = =
First mapped by Spain in 1519 , Texas was part of the Spanish empire for over 300 years . When the Louisiana territory was acquired by the United States from France in 1803 , many in the U.S. believed the new territory included parts or all of present @-@ day Texas . The US @-@ Spain border along the northern frontier of Texas took shape in the 1817 – 1819 negotiations between Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and the Spanish ambassador to the United States , Luis de Onís y González @-@ Vara . The boundaries of Texas were determined within the larger geostrategic struggle to demarcate the limits of the United States ' extensive western lands and of Spain 's vast possessions in North America . The Florida Treaty of February 22 , 1819 emerged as a compromise that excluded Spain from the lower Columbia River watershed , but established southern boundaries at the Sabine and Red Rivers , " legally extinguish [ ing ] " any American claims to Texas . Nonetheless , Texas remained an object of fervent interest to American expansionists , among them Thomas Jefferson , who anticipated the eventual acquisition of its fertile lands .
The Missouri crisis of 1819 – 1821 sharpened commitments to expansionism among the country 's slaveholding interests , when the so @-@ called Thomas proviso established the 36 ° 30 ' parallel , imposing free @-@ soil and slave @-@ soil futures in the Louisiana Purchase lands . While a majority of southern congressmen acquiesced to the exclusion of slavery from the bulk of the Louisiana Purchase , a significant minority objected . Virginian editor Thomas Ritchie of the Richmond Enquirer predicted that with the proviso restrictions , the South would ultimately require Texas : " If we are cooped up on the north , we must have elbow room to the west . " Representative John Floyd of Virginia in 1824 accused Secretary of State Adams of conceding Texas to Spain in 1819 in the interests of Northern anti @-@ slavery advocates , and so depriving the South of additional slave states . Then @-@ Representative John Tyler of Virginia invoked the Jeffersonian precepts of territorial and commercial growth as a national goal to counter the rise of sectional differences over slavery . His " diffusion " theory declared that with Missouri open to slavery , the new state would encourage the transfer of underutilized slaves westward , emptying the eastern states of bondsmen and making emancipation feasible in the old South . This doctrine would be revived during the Texas annexation controversy .
When Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821 , the United States did not contest the new republic 's claims to Texas , and both presidents John Quincy Adams ( 1825 – 1829 ) and Andrew Jackson ( 1829 – 1837 ) persistently sought , through official and unofficial channels , to procure all or portions of provincial Texas from the Mexican government , without success .
= = = Texas settlement and independence = = =
Anglo @-@ American immigrants , primarily from the Southern United States , began emigrating to Mexican Texas in the early 1820s at the invitation of the Mexican government , which sought to populate the sparsely inhabited lands of its northern frontier . Colonizing empresario Stephen F. Austin managed the regional affairs of the mostly American @-@ born population – 20 % of them slaves – under the terms of the generous government land grants . Mexican authorities were initially content to govern the remote province through salutary neglect , " permitting slavery under the legal fiction of ' permanent indentured servitude ' , similar to Mexico 's peonage system .
A general lawlessness prevailed in the vast Texas frontier , and Mexico 's civic laws went largely unenforced . Mexican authorities , perceiving that they were losing control over Texas and alarmed by the unsuccessful Fredonian Rebellion of 1826 , abandoned the policy of benign rule . New restrictions were imposed in 1829 – 1830 , outlawing slavery throughout the nation and terminating further American immigration to Texas . Military occupation followed , sparking local uprisings and a civil war . Texas conventions in 1832 and 1833 submitted petitions for redress of grievances to overturn the restrictions , with limited success . In 1835 , an army under Mexican President Santa Anna entered its territory of Texas and abolished self @-@ government . Texans responded by declaring their independence from Mexico on March 2 , 1836 . On April 20 – 21 , rebel forces under Texas General Sam Houston defeated the Mexican army at the Battle of San Jacinto . In June 1836 , Santa Anna agreed to Texas independence , but the Mexican government refused to honor Santa Anna 's pledge . Texans , now de facto independent , recognized that their security and prosperity could never be achieved while Mexico denied the legitimacy of their revolution .
In the years following independence , the migration of white settlers and importation of black slave labor into the vast republic was deterred by Texas 's unresolved international status and the threat of renewed warfare with Mexico . American citizens who considered migrating to the new republic perceived that " life and property were safer within the United States " than in an independent Texas . The situation led to labor shortages , reduced tax revenue , large national debts and a diminished Texas militia .
= = Jackson and Van Buren administrations = =
The Anglo @-@ American immigrants residing in newly @-@ independent Texas overwhelmingly desired immediate annexation by the United States . But , despite his strong support for Texas independence from Mexico , then @-@ President Andrew Jackson delayed recognizing the new republic until the last day of his presidency to avoid raising the issue during the 1836 general election . Jackson 's political caution was informed by northern concerns that Texas could potentially form several new slave states and undermine the North @-@ South balance in Congress .
Jackson 's successor , President Martin Van Buren , viewed Texas annexation as an immense political liability that would empower the anti @-@ slavery northern Whig opposition – especially if annexation provoked a war with Mexico . Presented with a formal annexation proposal from Texas minister Memucan Hunt , Jr. in August 1837 , Van Buren summarily rejected it . Annexation resolutions presented separately in each house of Congress were either soundly defeated or tabled through filibuster . After the election of 1838 , new Texas president Mirabeau B. Lamar withdrew his republic 's offer of annexation due to these failures . Texans were at an annexation impasse when John Tyler entered the White House in 1841 .
= = John Tyler administration = =
William Henry Harrison , Whig Party presidential nominee , defeated US President Martin Van Buren in the 1840 general election . Upon Harrison 's death shortly after his inauguration , Vice @-@ President John Tyler assumed the presidency . President Tyler was expelled from the Whig party in 1841 for repeatedly vetoing their domestic finance legislation . Tyler , isolated and outside the two @-@ party mainstream , turned to foreign affairs to salvage his presidency , aligning himself with a southern states ' rights faction that shared his fervent slavery expansionist views .
In his first address to Congress in special session on June 1 , 1841 , Tyler set the stage for Texas annexation by announcing his intention to pursue an expansionist agenda so as to preserve the balance between state and national authority and to protect American institutions , including slavery , so as to avoid sectional conflict . Tyler 's closest advisors counseled him that obtaining Texas would assure him a second term in the White House , and it became a deeply personal obsession for the president , who viewed the acquisition of Texas as the " primary objective of his administration " . Tyler delayed direct action on Texas to work closely with his Secretary of State Daniel Webster on other pressing diplomatic initiatives .
With the Webster @-@ Ashburton Treaty ratified in 1843 , Tyler was ready to make the annexation of Texas his " top priority " . Representative Thomas W. Gilmer of Virginia was authorized by the administration to make the case for annexation to the American electorate . In a widely circulated open letter , understood as an announcement of the executive branch 's designs for Texas , Gilmer described Texas as a panacea for North @-@ South conflict and an economic boon to all commercial interests . The slavery issue , however divisive , would be left for the states to decide as per the US Constitution . Domestic tranquility and national security , Tyler argued , would result from an annexed Texas ; a Texas left outside American jurisdiction would imperil the Union . Tyler adroitly arranged the resignation of his anti @-@ annexation Secretary of State Daniel Webster , and on June 23 , 1843 appointed Abel P. Upshur , a Virginia states ' rights champion and ardent proponent of Texas annexation . This cabinet shift signaled Tyler 's intent to pursue Texas annexation aggressively .
= = = Tyler – Upshur – Calhoun campaign for Texas = = =
In late September 1843 , in an effort to cultivate public support for Texas , Secretary Upshur dispatched a letter to the US Minister to Great Britain , Edward Everett , conveying his displeasure with Britain 's global anti @-@ slavery posture , and warning their government that forays into Texas 's affairs would be regarded as " tantamount to direct interference ' with the established institutions of the United States ' " . In a breach of diplomatic norms , Upshur leaked the communique to the press to inflame popular Anglophobic sentiments among American citizens .
In the spring of 1843 , the Tyler administration had sent executive agent Duff Green to Europe to gather intelligence and arrange territorial treaty talks with Great Britain regarding Oregon ; he also worked with American minister to France , Lewis Cass , to thwart efforts by major European powers to suppress the maritime slave trade . Green reported to Secretary Upshur in July 1843 the he had discovered a " loan plot " by American abolitionists , in league with Lord Aberdeen , British Foreign Secretary , to provide funds to the Texas in exchange for the emancipation of its slaves . Minister Everett was charged with determining the substance of these confidential reports alleging a Texas plot . His investigations , including personal interviews with Lord Aberdeen , concluded that British interest in abolitionist intrigues was weak , contradicting Secretary of State Upshur 's conviction that Great Britain was manipulating Texas . Though unsubstantiated , Green 's unofficial intelligence so alarmed Tyler that he requested verification from the US minister to Mexico , Waddy Thompson .
John C. Calhoun of South Carolina , a pro @-@ slavery extremist , counseled Secretary Upshur that British designs on American slavery were real and required immediate action to preempt a takeover of Texas by Great Britain . When Tyler confirmed in September that the British Foreign Secretary Aberdeen had encouraged détente between Mexico and Texas , allegedly pressing Mexico to maneuver Texas towards emancipation of its slaves , Tyler acted at once . On September 18 , 1843 , in consultation with Secretary Upshur , he ordered secret talks opened with Texas Minister to the United States Isaac Van Zandt to negotiate the annexation of Texas . Face @-@ to @-@ face negotiations commenced on October 16 , 1843 .
= = = = Texas – Mexico – Great Britain negotiations = = = =
By the summer of 1843 Sam Houston 's Texas administration had returned to negotiations with the Mexican government to consider a rapprochement that would permit Texas self @-@ governance , possibly as a state of Mexico , with Great Britain acting as mediator . Texas officials felt compelled by the fact that the Tyler administration appeared unequipped to mount an effective campaign for Texas annexation . With the 1844 general election in the United States approaching , the leadership in both the Democratic and Whig parties remained unequivocally anti @-@ Texas . Texas @-@ Mexico treaty options under consideration included an autonomous Texas within Mexico 's borders , or an independent republic with the provision that Texas should emancipate its slaves upon recognition .
Van Zandt , though he personally favored annexation by the United States , was not authorized to entertain any overtures from the US government on the subject . Texas officials were at the moment deeply engaged in exploring settlements with Mexican diplomats , facilitated by Great Britain . Texas 's predominant concern was not British interference with the institution of slavery – English diplomats had not alluded to the issue – but the avoidance of any resumption of hostilities with Mexico . Still , US Secretary of State Upshur vigorously courted Texas diplomats to begin annexation talks , finally dispatching an appeal to President Sam Houston in January 1845 . In it , he assured Houston that , in contrast to previous attempts , the political climate in the United States , including sections of the North , was amenable to Texas statehood , and that a two @-@ thirds majority in Senate could be obtained to ratify a Texas treaty .
Texans were hesitant to pursue a US @-@ Texas treaty without a written commitment of military defense from America , since a full @-@ scale military attack by Mexico seemed likely when the negotiations became public . If ratification of the annexation measure stalled in the US Senate , Texas could face a war alone against Mexico . Because only Congress could declare war , the Tyler administration lacked the constitutional authority to commit the US to support of Texas . But when Secretary Upshur provided a verbal assurance of military defense , President Houston , responding to urgent calls for annexation from the Texas Congress of December 1843 , authorized the reopening of annexation negotiations .
= = = The US – Texas treaty negotiations = = =
As Secretary Upshur accelerated the secret treaty discussions , Mexican diplomats learned that US @-@ Texas talks were taking place . Mexican minister to the U.S. Juan Almonte confronted Upshur with these reports , warning him that if Congress sanctioned a treaty of annexation , Mexico would break diplomatic ties and immediately declare war . Secretary Upshur evaded and dismissed the charges , and pressed forward with the negotiations . In tandem with moving forward with Texas diplomats , Upshur was secretly lobbying US Senators to support annexation , providing lawmakers with persuasive arguments linking Texas acquisition to national security and domestic peace . By early 1844 , Upshur was able to assure Texas officials that 40 of the 52 members of the Senate were pledged to ratify the Tyler @-@ Texas treaty , more than the two @-@ thirds majority required for passage . Tyler , in his annual address to Congress in December 1843 , maintained his silence on the secret treaty , so as not to damage relations with the wary Texas diplomats . Throughout , Tyler did his utmost to keep the negotiations secret , making no public reference to his administration 's single @-@ minded quest for Texas .
The Tyler @-@ Texas treaty was in its final stages when its chief architects , Secretary Upshur and Secretary of the Navy Thomas W. Gilmer , died in an accident aboard USS Princeton on February 28 , 1844 , just a day after achieving a preliminary treaty draft agreement with the Texas Republic . The Princeton disaster proved a major setback for Texas annexation , in that Tyler expected Secretary Upshur to elicit critical support from Whig and Democratic Senators during the upcoming treaty ratification process . Tyler selected John C. Calhoun to replace Upshur as Secretary of State and to finalize the treaty with Texas . The choice of Calhoun , a highly regarded but controversial American statesman , risked introducing a politically polarizing element into the Texas debates , but Tyler prized him as a strong advocate of annexation .
= = = = Robert J. Walker and the " safety @-@ valve " = = = =
With the Tyler @-@ Upshur secret annexation negotiations with Texas near consummation , Senator Robert J. Walker of Mississippi , a key Tyler ally , issued a widely distributed and highly influential letter , reproduced as a pamphlet , making the case for immediate annexation . In it , Walker argued that Texas could be acquired by Congress in a number of ways – all constitutional – and that the moral authority to do so was based on the precepts for territorial expansion established by Jefferson and Madison , and promulgated as doctrine by Monroe in 1823 . Senator Walker 's polemic offered analysis on the significance of Texas with respect to slavery and race . He envisioned Texas as a corridor through which both free and enslaved African @-@ Americans could be " diffused " southward in a gradual exodus that would ultimately supply labor to the Central American tropics , and in time , empty the United States of its slave population .
This " safety @-@ valve " theory " appealed to the racial fears of northern whites " who dreaded the prospect of absorbing emancipated slaves into their communities in the event that the institution of slavery collapsed in the South . This scheme for racial cleansing was consistent , on a pragmatic level , with proposals for overseas colonization of blacks , which were pursued by a number of American presidents , from Jefferson to Lincoln . Walker bolstered his position by raising national security concerns , warning that in the event annexation failed , imperialist Great Britain would maneuver the Republic of Texas into emancipating its slaves , forecasting a dangerous destabilizing influence on southwestern slaveholding states . The pamphlet characterized abolitionists as traitors who conspired with the British to overthrow the United States .
A variation of the Tyler 's " diffusion " theory , it played on economic fears in a period when slave @-@ based staple crop markets had not yet recovered from the Panic of 1837 . The Texas " escape route " conceived by Walker promised to increase demand for slaves in fertile cotton @-@ growing regions of Texas , as well as the monetary value of slaves . Cash @-@ poor plantation owners in the older eastern South were promised a market for surplus slaves at a profit . Texas annexation , wrote Walker , would eliminate all these dangers and " fortify the whole Union . "
Walker 's pamphlet brought forth strident demands for Texas from pro @-@ slavery expansionists in the South ; in the North , it allowed anti @-@ slavery expansionists to embrace Texas without appearing to be aligned with pro @-@ slavery extremists . His assumptions and analysis " shaped and framed the debates on annexation but his premises went largely unchallenged among the press and public .
= = Tyler @-@ Texas treaty and the election of 1844 = =
The Tyler @-@ Texas treaty , signed on April 12 , 1844 , was framed to induct Texas into the Union as a territory , following constitutional protocols . To wit , Texas would cede all its public lands to the United States , and the federal government would assume all its bonded debt , up to $ 10 million . The boundaries of the Texas territory were left unspecified . Four new states could ultimately be carved from the former republic – three of them likely to become slave states . Any allusion to slavery was omitted from the document so as not to antagonize anti @-@ slavery sentiments during Senate debates , but it provided for the " preservation of all [ Texas ] property as secured in our domestic institutions . "
Upon the signing of the treaty , Tyler complied with the Texans ' demand for military and naval protection , deploying troops to Fort Jesup in Louisiana and a fleet of warships to the Gulf of Mexico . In the event that the Senate failed to pass the treaty , Tyler promised the Texas diplomats that he would officially exhort both houses of Congress to establish Texas as a state of the Union upon provisions authorized in the Constitution . Tyler 's cabinet was split on the administration 's handling of the Texas agreement . Secretary of War William Wilkins praised the terms of annexation publicly , touting the economic and geostrategic benefits with relation to Great Britain . Secretary of the Treasury John C. Spencer was alarmed at the constitutional implications of Tyler 's application of military force without congressional approval , a violation of the separation of powers . Refusing to transfer contingency funds for the naval mobilization , he resigned .
Tyler submitted his treaty for annexation to the Senate , delivered April 22 , 1844 , where a two @-@ thirds majority was required for ratification . Secretary of State Calhoun ( assuming his post March 29 , 1844 ) had sent a letter to British minister Richard Packenham denouncing British anti @-@ slavery interference in Texas . He included the Packenham Letter with the Tyler bill , intending to create a sense of crisis in Southern Democrats . In it , he characterized slavery as a social blessing and the acquisition of Texas as an emergency measure necessary to safeguard the " peculiar institution " in the United States . In doing so , Tyler and Calhoun sought to unite the South in a crusade that would present the North with an ultimatum : support Texas annexation or lose the South .
= = = Tyler and the Polk presidential nomination = = =
President Tyler expected that his treaty would be debated secretly in Senate executive session . However , less than a week after debates opened , the treaty , its associated internal correspondence , and the Packenham letter were leaked to the public . The nature of the Tyler @-@ Texas negotiations caused a national outcry , in that " the documents appeared to verify that the sole objective of Texas annexation was the preservation of slavery . " A mobilization of anti @-@ annexation forces in the North strengthened both major parties ' hostility toward Tyler 's agenda . The leading presidential hopefuls of both parties , Democrat Martin Van Buren and Whig Henry Clay , publicly denounced the treaty . Texas annexation and the reoccupation of Oregon territory emerged as the central issues in the 1844 general election .
In response , Tyler , already ejected from the Whig party , quickly began to organize a third party in hopes of inducing the Democrats to embrace a pro @-@ expansionist platform . By running as a third @-@ party candidate , Tyler threatened to siphon off pro @-@ annexation Democratic voters ; Democratic party disunity would mean the election of Henry Clay , a staunchly anti @-@ Texas Whig . Pro @-@ annexation delegates among southern Democrats , with assistance from a number of northern delegates , blocked anti @-@ expansion candidate Martin Van Buren at the convention , which instead nominated the pro @-@ expansion champion of Manifest Destiny , James K. Polk of Tennessee . Polk unified his party under the banner of Texas and Oregon acquisition .
In August 1844 , in the midst of the campaign , Tyler withdrew from the race . The Democratic Party was by then unequivocally committed to Texas annexation , and Tyler , assured by Polk 's envoys that as President he would effect Texas annexation , urged his supporters to vote Democratic . Polk narrowly defeated Whig Henry Clay in the November election . The victorious Democrats were poised to acquire Texas under President @-@ elect Polk 's doctrine of Manifest Destiny , rather than on the pro @-@ slavery agenda of Tyler and Calhoun .
= = Congressional debate over annexation = =
= = = Tyler @-@ Texas Treaty defeat in the Senate = = =
As a treaty document with a foreign nation , the Tyler @-@ Texas annexation treaty required the support of a two @-@ thirds majority in the Senate for passage . But in fact , when the Senate voted on the measure on June 8 , 1844 , fully two @-@ thirds voted against the treaty ( 16 – 35 ) . The vote went largely along party lines : Whigs had opposed it almost unanimously ( 1 – 27 ) , while Democrats split , but voted overwhelmingly in favor ( 15 – 8 ) . The election campaign had hardened partisan positions on Texas among Democrats . Tyler had anticipated that the measure would fail , due largely to the divisive effects of Secretary Calhoun 's Packenham letter . Undeterred , he formally asked the House of Representatives to consider other constitutional means to authorize passage of the treaty . Congress adjourned before debating the matter .
= = = Reintroduction as a joint resolution = = =
The same Senate that had rejected the Tyler – Calhoun treaty by a margin of 2 : 1 in June 1844 reassembled in December 1844 in a short lame @-@ duck session . ( Though pro @-@ annexation Democrats had made gains in the fall elections , those legislators – the 29th Congress – would not assume office until March 1845 . ) Lame @-@ duck President Tyler , still trying to annex Texas in the final months of his administration , wished to avoid another overwhelming Senate rejection of his treaty . In his annual address to Congress on December 4 , he declared the Polk victory a mandate for Texas annexation and proposed that Congress adopt a joint resolution procedure by which simple majorities in each house could secure ratification for the Tyler treaty . This method would avoid the constitutional requirement of a two @-@ thirds majority in the Senate . Bringing the House of Representatives into the equation boded well for Texas annexation , as the pro @-@ annexation Democratic Party possessed nearly a 2 : 1 majority in that chamber .
By resubmitting the discredited treaty through a House @-@ sponsored bill , the Tyler administration reignited sectional hostilities over Texas admission . Both northern Democratic and southern Whig Congressmen had been bewildered by local political agitation in their home states during the 1844 presidential campaigns . Now , northern Democrats found themselves vulnerable to charges of appeasement of their southern wing if they capitulated to Tyler 's slavery expansion provisions . On the other hand , Manifest Destiny enthusiasm in the north placed politicians under pressure to admit Texas immediately to the Union .
Constitutional objections were raised in House debates as to whether both houses of Congress could constitutionally authorize admission of territories , rather than states . Moreover , if the Republic of Texas , a nation in its own right , were admitted as a state , its territorial boundaries , property relations ( including slave property ) , debts and public lands would require a Senate @-@ ratified treaty . Democrats were particularly uneasy about burdening the United States with $ 10 million in Texas debt , resenting the deluge of speculators , who had bought Texas bonds cheap and now lobbied Congress for the Texas House bill . House Democrats , at an impasse , relinquished the legislative initiative to the southern Whigs .
= = = Brown – Foster House amendment = = =
Anti @-@ Texas Whig legislators had lost more than the White House in the general election of 1844 . In the southern states of Tennessee and Georgia , Whig strongholds in the 1840 general election , voter support dropped precipitously due to the pro @-@ annexation excitement in the Deep South – and Clay lost every Deep South state to Polk . Northern Whigs ' uncompromising hostility to slavery expansion increasingly characterized the party , and southern members , by association , had suffered from charges of being " soft on Texas , therefore soft on slavery " by Southern Democrats . Facing congressional and gubernatorial races in 1845 in their home states , a number of Southern Whigs sought to erase that impression with respect to the Tyler @-@ Texas bill .
Southern Whigs in the Congress , including Representative Milton Brown and Senator Ephraim Foster , both of Tennessee , and Representative Alexander Stephens of Georgia collaborated to introduce a House amendment on January 13 , 1845 that was designed to enhance slaveowner gains in Texas beyond those offered by the Democratic @-@ sponsored Tyler @-@ Calhoun treaty bill . The legislation proposed to recognize Texas as a slave state which would retain all its vast public lands , as well as its bonded debt accrued since 1836 . Furthermore , the Brown amendment would delegate to the U.S. government responsibility for negotiating the disputed Texas @-@ Mexico boundary . The issue was a critical one , as the size of Texas would be immensely increased if the international border were set at the Rio Grande River , with its headwaters in the Rocky Mountains , rather than the traditionally recognized boundary at the Nueces River , 100 miles to the north . While the Tyler @-@ Calhoun treaty provided for the organization of a total of four states from the Texas lands – three likely to qualify as slave states – Brown 's plan would permit Texas state lawmakers to configure a total of five states from its western region , south of the 36 ° 30 ' Missouri Compromise line , each pre @-@ authorized to permit slavery upon statehood , if Texas designated them as such .
Politically , the Brown amendment was designed to portray Southern Whigs as " even more ardent champions of slavery and the South , than southern Democrats . " The bill also served to distinguish them from their northern Whig colleagues who cast the controversy , as Calhoun did , in strictly pro- versus anti @-@ slavery terms . While almost all Northern Whigs spurned Brown 's amendment , the Democrats quickly co @-@ opted the legislation , providing the votes necessary to attach the proviso to Tyler 's joint resolution , by a 118 – 101 vote . Southern Democrats supported the bill almost unanimously ( 59 – 1 ) , while Northern Democrats split strongly in favor ( 50 – 30 ) . Eight of eighteen Southern Whigs cast their votes in favor . Northern Whigs unanimously rejected it . The House proceeded to approve the amended Texas treaty 120 – 98 on January 25 , 1845 . The vote in the House had been one in which party affiliation prevailed over sectional allegiance . The bill was forwarded the same day to the Senate for debate .
= = = Benton Senate compromise = = =
By early February 1845 , when the Senate began to debate the Brown @-@ amended Tyler treaty , its passage seemed unlikely , as support was " perishing " . The partisan alignments in the Senate were near parity , 28 – 24 , slightly in favor of the Whigs . The Senate Democrats would require undivided support among their colleagues , and three or more Whigs who would be willing to cross party lines to pass the House @-@ amended treaty . The fact that Senator Foster had drafted the House amendment under consideration improved prospects of Senate passage .
Anti @-@ annexation Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri had been the only Southern Democrat to vote against the Tyler @-@ Texas measure in June 1844 . His original proposal for an annexed Texas had embodied a national compromise , whereby Texas would be divided in two , half slave @-@ soil and half free @-@ soil . As pro @-@ annexation sentiment grew in his home state , Benton retreated from this compromise offer . By February 5 , 1845 , in the early debates on the Brown @-@ amended House bill , he advanced an alternative resolution that , unlike the Brown scenario , made no reference whatsoever to the ultimate free @-@ slave apportionment of an annexed Texas and simply called for five bipartisan commissioners to resolve border disputes with Texas and Mexico and set conditions for the Lone Star Republic 's acquisition by the United States .
The Benton proposal was intended to calm northern anti @-@ slavery Democrats ( who wished to eliminate the Tyler @-@ Calhoun treaty altogether , as it had been negotiated on behalf of the slavery expansionists ) , and allow the decision to devolve upon the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ inaugurated Democratic President @-@ elect James K. Polk . President @-@ elect Polk had expressed his ardent wish that Texas annexation should be accomplished before he entered Washington in advance of his inauguration on March 4 , 1845 , the same day Congress would end its session . With his arrival in the capital , he discovered the Benton and Brown factions in the Senate " paralyzed " over the Texas annexation legislation . On the advice of his soon @-@ to @-@ be Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker , Polk urged Senate Democrats to unite under a dual resolution that would include both the Benton and Brown versions of annexation , leaving enactment of the legislation to Polk 's discretion when he took office . In private and separate talks with supporters of both the Brown and Benton plans , Polk left each side with the " impression he would administer their [ respective ] policy . Polk meant what he said to Southerners and meant to appear friendly to the Van Burenite faction . " Polk 's handling of the matter had the effect of uniting Senate northern Democrats in favor of the dual alternative treaty bill .
On February 27 , 1845 , less than a week before Polk 's inauguration , the Senate voted 27 – 25 to admit Texas , based on the Tyler protocols of simple majority passage . All twenty @-@ four Democrats voted for the measure , joined by three southern Whigs . Benton and his allies were assured that Polk would act to establish the eastern portion of Texas as a slave state ; the western section was to remain unorganized territory , not committed to slavery . On this understanding , the northern Democrats had conceded their votes for the dichotomous bill . The next day , in an almost strict party line vote , the Benton @-@ Milton measure was passed in the Democrat @-@ controlled House of Representatives . President Tyler signed the bill the following day , March 1 , 1845 ( Joint Resolution for annexing Texas to the United States , J.Res. 8 , enacted March 1 , 1845 , 5 Stat . 797 ) .
= = Annexation and admittance = =
Senate and house legislators who had favored Benton 's renegotiated version of the Texas annexation bill had been assured that President Tyler would sign the joint house measure , but leave its implementation to the incoming Polk administration . But , during his last day in office , President Tyler , with the urging of his Secretary of State Calhoun , decided to act decisively to improve the odds for the immediate annexation of Texas . On March 3 , 1845 , with his cabinet 's assent , he dispatched an offer of annexation to the Republic of Texas by courier , exclusively under the terms of the Brown – Foster option of the joint house measure . Secretary Calhoun apprised President @-@ elect Polk of the action , who demurred without comment . Tyler justified his preemptive move on the grounds that Polk was likely to come under pressure to abandon immediate annexation and reopen negotiations under the Benton alternative .
When President Polk took office on March 4 , he was in a position to recall Tyler 's dispatch to Texas and reverse his decision . On March 10 , after conferring with his cabinet , Polk upheld Tyler 's action and allowed the courier to proceed with the offer of immediate annexation to Texas . The only modification was to exhort Texans to accept the annexation terms unconditionally . Polk 's decision was based on his concern that a protracted negotiation by US commissioners would expose annexation efforts to foreign intrigue and interference . While Polk kept his annexation endeavors confidential , Senators passed a resolution requesting formal disclosure of the administration 's Texas policy . Polk stalled , and when the Senate special session had adjourned on March 20 , 1845 , no names for US commissioners to Texas had been submitted by him . Polk denied charges from Senator Benton that he had misled Benton on his intention to support the new negotiations option , declaring " if any such pledges were made , it was in a total misconception of what I said or meant . "
On May 5 , 1845 , Texas President Jones called for a convention on July 4 , 1845 , to consider the annexation and a constitution . On June 23 , the Texan Congress accepted the US Congress 's joint resolution of March 1 , 1845 , annexing Texas to the United States , and consented to the convention . On July 4 , the Texas convention debated the annexation offer and almost unanimously passed an ordinance assenting to it . The convention remained in session through August 28 , and adopted the Constitution of Texas on August 27 , 1845 . The citizens of Texas approved the annexation ordinance and new constitution on October 13 , 1845 .
President Polk signed the legislation making the former Lone Star Republic a state of the Union on December 29 , 1845 ( Joint Resolution for the admission of the state of Texas into the Union , J.Res. 1 , enacted December 29 , 1845 , 9 Stat . 108 ) . Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 14 , 1846 .
= = Joint resolution precedent and legacy : Hawaii = =
The formal controversy over the legality of the annexation of Texas stems from the fact that Congress approved the annexation of Texas as a state , rather than a territory , with simple majorities in each house , instead of annexing the land by Senate treaty , as was done with Native American lands . Tyler 's extralegal joint resolution maneuver in 1844 exceeded strict constructionist precepts , but was passed by Congress in 1845 as part of a compromise bill . The success of the joint house Texas annexation set a precedent that would be applied to Hawaii 's annexation in 1897 .
Republican President Benjamin Harrison ( 1889 – 1893 ) attempted , in 1893 , to annex Hawaii through a Senate treaty . When this failed , he was asked to consider the Tyler joint house precedent ; he declined . Democratic President Grover Cleveland ( 1893 – 1897 ) did not pursue the annexation of Hawaii . When President William McKinley took office in 1897 , he quickly revived expectations among territorial expansionists when he resubmitted legislation to acquire Hawaii . When the two @-@ thirds Senate support was not forthcoming , committees in the House and Senate explicitly invoked the Tyler precedent for the joint house resolution , which was successfully applied to approve the annexation of Hawaii in July 1898 .
= Forensic anthropology =
Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of anthropology and its various subfields , including forensic archaeology and forensic taphonomy , in a legal setting . A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed , burned , mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable , as might happen in a plane crash . Forensic anthropologists are also instrumental to the investigation and documentation of genocide and mass graves . Along with forensic pathologists , forensic dentists , and homicide investigators , forensic anthropologists commonly testify in court as expert witnesses . Using physical markers present on a skeleton , a forensic anthropologist can potentially determine a victim 's age , sex , stature , and ancestry . In addition to identifying physical characteristics of the individual , forensic anthropologists can use skeletal abnormalities to potentially determine cause of death , past trauma such as broken bones or medical procedures , as well as diseases such as bone cancer .
The methods used to identity a person from a skeleton relies on the past contributions of various anthropologists and the study of human skeletal differences . Through the collection of thousands of specimens and the analysis of differences within a population , estimations can be made based on physical characteristics . Through these , a set of remains can potentially be identified . The field of forensic anthropology grew during the twentieth century into a fully recognized forensic specialty involving trained anthropologists as well as numerous research institutions gathering data on decomposition and the effects it can have on the skeleton .
= = Modern uses = =
Today , forensic anthropology is a well established discipline within the forensic field . Anthropologists are called upon to investigate remains and to help identify individuals from bones when other physical characteristics which could be used to identify a body no longer exist . Forensic anthropologists work in conjunction with forensic pathologists to identify remains based on their skeletal characteristics . If the victim is not found for a lengthy period of time or has been eaten by scavengers , flesh markers used for identification would be destroyed , making normal identification difficult if not impossible . Forensic anthropologists can provide physical characteristics of the person to input into missing person databases such as that of the National Crime Information Center in the US or INTERPOL 's yellow notice database .
In addition to these duties , forensic anthropologists often assist in the investigation of war crimes and mass fatality investigations . Anthropologists have been tasked with helping to identify victims of the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks as well as plane crashes such as the Arrow Air Flight 1285 disaster and the USAir Flight 427 disaster where the flesh had been vaporized or so badly mangled that normal identification was impossible . Anthropologists have also helped identify victims of genocide in countries around the world , often long after the actual event . War crimes anthropologists have helped investigate include the Rwandan Genocide and the Srebrenica Genocide . Organizations such as the Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe , the British Association for Forensic Anthropology , and the American Society of Forensic Anthropologists continue to provide guidelines for the improvement of forensic anthropology and the development of standards within the discipline .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The use of anthropology in the forensic investigation of remains grew out of the recognition of anthropology as a distinct scientific discipline and the growth of physical anthropology . The field of anthropology began in the United States and struggled to obtain recognition as a legitimate science during the early years of the twentieth century . Earnest Hooton pioneered the field of physical anthropology and became the first physical anthropologist to hold a full @-@ time teaching position in the United States . He was an organizing committee member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists along with its founder Aleš Hrdlička . Hooton 's students created some of the first doctoral programs in physical anthropology during the early 20th century . In addition to physical anthropology , Hooton was a proponent of criminal anthropology . Now considered a pseudoscience , criminal anthropologists believed that phrenology and physiognomy could link a person 's behavior to specific physical characteristics . The use of criminal anthropology to try to explain certain criminal behaviors arose out of the eugenics movement , popular at the time . It is because of these ideas that skeletal differences were measured in earnest eventually leading to the development of anthropometry and the Bertillon method of skeletal measurement by Alphonse Bertillon . The study of this information helped shape anthropologists ' understanding of the human skeleton and the multiple skeletal differences that can occur .
Another prominent early anthropologist , Thomas Wingate Todd , was primarily responsible for the creation of the first large collection of human skeletons in 1912 . In total , Todd acquired 3 @,@ 300 human skulls and skeletons , 600 anthropoid skulls and skeletons , and 3 @,@ 000 mammalian skulls and skeletons . Todd 's contributions to the field of anthropology remain in use in the modern era and include various studies regarding suture closures on the skull and timing of teeth eruption in the mandible . Todd also developed age estimates based on physical characteristics of the pubic symphysis . Though the standards have been updated , these estimates are still used by forensic anthropologists to narrow down an age range of skeletonized remains . These early pioneers legitimized the field of anthropology , but it was not until the 1940s , with the help of Todd 's student , Wilton M. Krogman , that forensic anthropology gained recognition as a legitimate subdiscipline .
= = = The growth of forensic anthropology = = =
During the 1940s , Krogman was the first anthropologist to actively publicize anthropologists ' potential forensic value , going as far as placing advertisements in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin informing agencies of the ability of anthropologists to assist in the identification of skeletal remains . This period saw the first official use of anthropologists by federal agencies including the FBI . During the 1950s , the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps employed forensic anthropologists in the identification of war casualties during the Korean War . It was at this time that forensic anthropology officially began . The sudden influx of available skeletons for anthropologists to study , whose identities were eventually confirmed , allowed for the creation of more accurate formulas for the identification of sex , age , and stature based solely on skeletal characteristics . These formulas , developed in the 1940s and refined by war , are still in use by modern forensic anthropologists .
The professionalization of the field began soon after , during the 1950s and 1960s . This move coincided with the replacement of coroners with medical examiners in many locations around the country . It was during this time that the field of forensic anthropology gained recognition as a separate field within the American Academy of Forensic Sciences and the first forensic anthropology research facility and body farm was opened by William M. Bass . Public attention and interest in forensic anthropology began to increase around this time as forensic anthropologists started working on more high @-@ profile cases . One of the major cases of the era involved anthropologist Charles Merbs who helped identify the victims murdered by Ed Gein .
= = Methods = =
One of the main tools forensic anthropologists use in the identification of remains is their knowledge of osteology and the various differences that occur within the human skeleton . During the course of an investigation , anthropologists are often tasked with helping to determinate an individual 's sex , stature , age , and ancestry . To do this , anthropologists must be aware of how the human skeleton can differ between individuals .
= = = Determination of sex = = =
Depending on which bones are present , sex can be determined by looking for distinctive sexual dimorphisms . When available , the pelvis is extremely useful in the determination of sex and when properly examined can achieve sex determination with a great level of accuracy . The examination of the pubic arch and the location of the sacrum can help determine sex .
However , the pelvis is not always present , so forensic anthropologists must be aware of other areas on the skeleton that have distinct characteristics between sexes . The skull also contains multiple markers that can be used to determine sex . Specific markers on the skull include the temporal line , the eye sockets , the supraorbital ridge , as well as the nuchal lines , and the mastoid process . In general , male skulls tend to be larger and thicker than female skulls , and to have more pronounced ridges .
It is important for forensic anthropologists to take into account all available markers in the determination of sex due to the differences that can occur between individuals of the same sex . For example , it is possible that a female may have a slightly more narrow than normal pubic arch . It is for this reason that anthropologists usually classify sex as one of five possibilities : male , may be male , indeterminate , may be female , or female . In addition , forensic anthropologists are generally unable to make a sex determination unless the individual was an adult at the time of death . The sexual dimorphisms present in the skeleton begin to occur during puberty and are not fully pronounced until after sexual maturation .
= = = Determination of stature = = =
The determination of stature by anthropologists is based off a series of formulas that have been developed over time by the examination of multiple different skeletons from a multitude of different regions and backgrounds . Stature is given as a range of possible values , in centimeters , and typically computed by measuring the bones of the leg . The three bones that are used are the femur , the tibia , and the fibula . In addition to the leg bones , the bones of the arm , the humerus , ulna , and radius can be used . The formulas that are used to determine stature rely on various information regarding the individual . Sex , ancestry , and age should be determined before attempting to ascertain height , if possible . This is due to the differences that occur between populations , sexes , and age groups . By knowing all the variables associated with height , a more accurate estimate can be made . For example , a male formula for stature estimation using the femur is 2 @.@ 32 × femur length + 65 @.@ 53 ± 3 @.@ 94 cm . A female of the same ancestry would use the formula , 2 @.@ 47 × femur length + 54 @.@ 10 ± 3 @.@ 72 cm . It is also important to note an individual 's approximate age when determining stature . This is due to the shrinkage of the skeleton that naturally occurs as a person ages . After age 30 , a person loses approximately one centimeter of their height every decade .
= = = Determination of age = = =
The determination of an individual 's age by anthropologists depends on whether or not the individual was an adult or a child . The determination of the age of children , under the age of 21 , is usually performed by examining the teeth . When teeth are not available , children can be aged based on which growth plates are sealed . The tibia plate seals around age 16 or 17 in girls and around 18 or 19 in boys . The clavicle is the last bone to complete growth and the plate is sealed around age 25 . In addition , if a complete skeleton is available anthropologists can count the number of bones . While adults have 206 bones , the bones of a child have not yet fused resulting in a much higher number .
The aging of adult skeletons is not as straightforward as aging a child 's skeleton as the skeleton changes little once adulthood is reached . One possible way to estimate the age of an adult skeleton is to look at bone osteons under a microscope . New osteons are constantly formed by bone marrow even after the bones stop growing . Younger adults have fewer and larger osteons while older adults have smaller and more osteon fragments . Another potential method for determining the age of an adult skeleton is to look for arthritis indicators on the bones . Arthritis will cause noticeable rounding of the bones . The degree of rounding from arthritis coupled with the size and number of osteons can help an anthropologist narrow down a potential age range for the individual .
= = = Determination of ancestry = = =
The determination of an individual 's ancestry is typically grouped into three historical groups , Caucasoid , Mongoloid , and Negroid . However , the use of these classifications is becoming much harder as the rate of interracial marriages increases and markers become less defined . By measuring distances between landmarks on the skull as well as the size and shape of specific bones anthropologists can use a series of equations to estimate ancestry . Typically , the maxilla is used to help anthropologists determine an individual 's ancestry due to the three basic shapes , hyperbolic , parabolic , and rounded , belonging to the three historical ancestries , Negroid , Caucasoid , and Mongoloid respectively . In addition to the maxilla , the zygomatic arch and the nasal opening have been used to narrow down possible ancestry . A program called FORDISC has been created that will calculate the most likely ancestry using complex mathematical formulas . This program is continually updated with new information from known individuals to maintain a database of current populations and their respective measurements .
= = = Other markers = = =
Anthropologists are also able to see other markers present on the bones . Past fractures will be evident by the presence of bone remodeling . The examination of any fractures on the bones can potentially help determine cause of death as well by determining if a fracture occurred ante @-@ mortem ( before death ) , peri @-@ mortem ( at the time of death ) , or post @-@ mortem ( after death ) . Ante @-@ mortem fractures will show signs of healing while peri- and post @-@ mortem fractures will not . Peri @-@ mortem fractures will usually appear clean while post @-@ mortem breaks will appear brittle . Diseases such as bone cancer might be present in bone marrow samples and can help narrow down the list of possible identifications .
= = Subfields = =
= = = Forensic archaeology = = =
Forensic archaeologists employ their knowledge of proper excavation techniques to ensure that remains are recovered in a controlled and forensically acceptable manner . When remains are found partially or completely buried the proper excavation of the remains will ensure that any evidence present on the bones will remain intact . The difference between forensic archaeologists and forensic anthropologists is that where forensic anthropologists are trained specifically in human osteology and recovery of human remains , forensic archaeologists specialize more broadly in the processes of search and discovery . In addition to remains , archaeologists are trained to look for objects contained in and around the excavation area . These objects can include anything from wedding rings to potentially probative evidence such as cigarette butts or shoe prints . Their training extends further to observing context , association and significance of objects in a crime scene and drawing conclusions that may be useful for locating a victim or suspect . A forensic archaeologist must also be able to utilize a degree of creativity and adaptability during times when crime scenes can not be excavated using traditional archaeological techniques . For example , one particular case study was conducted on the search and recovery of the remains of a missing girl who was found in a septic tank underground . This instance required unique methods unlike those of a typical archeological excavation in order to exhume and preserve the contents of the tank .
Forensic archaeologists are involved within three main areas . Assisting with crime scene research , investigation , and recovery of evidence and / or skeletal remains is only one aspect .
Processing scenes of mass fatality or incidents of terrorism ( i.e. homicide , mass graves and war crimes , and other violations of human rights ) is a branch of work that forensic archaeologists are involved with as well .
Forensic archaeologists can help determine potential grave sites that might have been overlooked . Differences in the soil can help forensic archaeologists locate these sites . During the burial of a body , a small mound of soil will form from the filling of the grave . The loose soil and increasing nutrients from the decomposing body encourages different kinds of plant growth than surrounding areas . Typically , grave sites will have looser , darker , more organic soil than areas around it . The search for additional grave sites can be useful during the investigation of genocide and mass graves to search for additional burial locations .
One other implement to the career of a forensic archaeologist is teaching and research . Educating law enforcement , crime scene technicians and investigators , as well as undergraduate and graduate students is a critical part of a forensic archaeologist ’ s career in order to spread knowledge of proper excavation techniques to other forensic personnel and to increase awareness of the field in general . Crime scene evidence in the past has been compromised due to improper excavation and recovery by untrained personnel . Forensic anthropologists are then unable to provide meaningful analyses on retrieved skeletal remains due to damage or contamination . Research conducted to improve archaeological field methods , particularly to advance nondestructive methods of search and recovery are also important for the advancement and recognition of the field .
There is an ethical component that must be considered . The capability to uncover information about victims of war crimes or homicide may present a conflict in cases that involve competing interests . Forensic archaeologists are often contracted to assist with the processing of mass graves by larger organisations that have motives related to exposure and prosecution rather than providing peace of mind to families and communities . These projects are at times opposed by smaller , human rights groups who wish to avoid overshadowing memories of the individuals with their violent manner ( s ) of death . In cases like these , forensic archaeologists must practice caution and recognize the implications behind their work and the information they uncover .
= = = Forensic taphonomy = = =
The examination of skeletal remains often takes into account environmental factors that affect decomposition . Forensic taphonomy is the study of these postmortem changes to human remains caused by soil , water , and the interaction with plants , insects , and other animals . In order to study these effects , body farms have been set up by multiple universities . Students and faculty study various environmental effects on the decomposition of donated cadavers . At these locations , cadavers are placed in various situations and their rate of decomposition along with any other factors related to the decomposition process are studied . Potential research projects can include whether black plastic causes decomposition to occur faster than clear plastic or the effects freezing can have on a dumped body .
Forensic taphonomy is divided into two separate sections , biotaphonomy and geotaphonomy . Biotaphonomy is the study of how the environment affects the decomposition of the body . Specifically it is the examination of biological remains in order to ascertain how decomposition or destruction occurred . This can include factors such as animal scavenging , climate , as well as the size and age of the individual at the time of death . Biotaphonomy must also take into account common mortuary services such as embalming and their effects on decomposition .
Geotaphonomy is the examination of how the decomposition of the body affects the environment . Geotaphonomy examinations can include how the soil was disturbed , pH alteration of the surrounding area , and either the acceleration or deceleration of plant growth around the body . By examining these characteristics , examiners can begin to piece together a timeline of the events during and after death . This can potentially help determine the time since death , whether or not trauma on the skeleton was a result of peri or post @-@ mortem activity , as well as if scattered remains were the result of scavengers or a deliberate attempt to conceal the remains by an assailant .
= = Education = =
Individuals looking to become forensic anthropologists first obtain a bachelor 's degree in anthropology from an accredited university . During their studies they should focus on physical anthropology as well as osteology . In addition it is recommended that individuals take courses in a wide range of sciences such as biology , chemistry , anatomy , and genetics .
Once undergraduate education is completed the individual should proceed to graduate level courses . Typically , forensic anthropologists obtain doctorates in physical anthropology and have completed coursework in osteology , forensics , and archaeology . It is also recommended that individuals looking to pursue a forensic anthropology profession get experience in dissection usually through a gross anatomy class as well as useful internships with investigative agencies or practicing anthropologists . Once educational requirements are complete one can become certified by the forensic anthropology society in the region . This can include the IALM exam given by the Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe or the certification exam given by the American Board of Forensic Anthropology .
Typically , most forensic anthropologists perform forensic casework on a part @-@ time basis , however there are individuals who work in the field full @-@ time usually with federal or international agencies . Forensic anthropologists are usually employed in academia either at a university or a research facility .
= = Ethics = =
Like other forensic fields , forensic anthropologists are held to a high level of ethical standards due to their work in the legal system . Individuals who purposefully misrepresent themselves or any piece of evidence can be sanctioned , fined , or imprisoned by the appropriate authorities depending on the severity of the violation . Individuals who fail to disclose any conflict of interests or who fail to report all of their findings , regardless of what they may be , can face disciplinary actions . It is important that forensic anthropologists remain impartial during the course of an investigation . Any perceived bias during an investigation could hamper efforts in court to bring the responsible parties to justice .
In addition to the evidentiary guidelines forensic anthropologists should always keep in mind that the remains they are working with were once a person . If possible , local customs regarding dealing with the dead should be observed and all remains should be treated with respect and dignity .
= = Notable forensic anthropologists = =
= Melodifestivalen =
Melodifestivalen ( / mɛlʊˈdiːfɛstɪvɑːlɛn / ; literally " The Melody Festival " ) is an annual music competition organised by Swedish public broadcasters Sveriges Television ( SVT ) and Sveriges Radio ( SR ) . It determines the country 's representative for the Eurovision Song Contest , and has been staged almost every year since 1959 . Since 2000 , the competition has been the most popular television programme in Sweden ; it is also broadcast on radio and the Internet . In 2012 , the semifinals averaged 3 @.@ 3 million viewers , and over an estimated four million people in Sweden watched the final , almost half of the Swedish population .
The festival has produced six Eurovision winners and eighteen top @-@ five placings for Sweden at the contest . The winner of the Melodifestival has been chosen by panels of jurors since its inception . Since 1999 , the juries have been joined by a public telephone vote which has an equal influence over the final outcome . The competition makes a considerable impact on music charts in Sweden .
The introduction of semifinals in 2002 raised the potential number of contestants from around twelve to thirty @-@ two . A children 's version of the competition , Lilla Melodifestivalen , also began that year . Light orchestrated pop songs , known locally as schlager music , are so prevalent that the festival is sometimes referred to as Schlagerfestivalen ( " The schlager festival " ) by the Swedish media . However , other styles of music such as rap , reggae , and glam rock have made an appearance since the event 's expansion . The introduction of a grand final in Stockholm has attracted substantial tourism to the city .
= = Origins = =
With seven nations competing , the first Eurovision Song Contest took place in Lugano , Switzerland in May 1956 . Sweden 's first contest was the third , in 1958 . Without broadcasting a selection , Sveriges Radio ( SR ) chose to send Alice Babs to the contest in Hilversum . The song selected was " Samma stjärna lyser för oss två " , later renamed " Lilla stjärna " . It finished fourth at Eurovision on 12 March 1958 .
The first Melodifestival , incorporated into the Säg det med musik radio series , took place on 29 January 1959 at Cirkus in Stockholm ; eight songs participated . Four " expert " juries in Stockholm , Gothenburg , Malmö , and Luleå decided the winner . The competition was won by Siw Malmkvist performing " Augustin " , but SR decided that the winning song — regardless of its original performer — would be performed by Brita Borg at Eurovision . This policy , of selecting the artist for Eurovision internally and having other artists perform potential Swedish entries at Melodifestivalen , was stopped in 1961 . The competition became a stand @-@ alone television programme in 1960 , known as the Eurovisionschlagern , svensk final . In the event 's early years , it was broadcast to Norway and Denmark through the Nordvision network . The competition adopted its current name , Melodifestivalen , in 1967 .
The Melodifestival has failed to be staged on three occasions . In 1964 , the competition was cancelled due to an artist 's strike ; Sweden did not send a song to Eurovision that year . Sweden was absent at Eurovision for a second time in 1970 because of a Nordic boycott of the voting system , which had led to a four @-@ way tie for first place at the 1969 contest . After SR staged the 1975 contest in Stockholm , left @-@ wing groups argued that Sweden should not spend money to win and host Eurovision again . This led to mass demonstrations against commercial music and the organisation of an anti @-@ commercial Alternativfestivalen . Therefore , Sweden decided not send a song to Eurovision 1976 , but returned in 1977 .
= = Participation = =
Hundreds of songs and performers have entered Melodifestivalen since its debut . Although songwriters living outside Sweden were once not allowed to enter Melodifestivalen , the 2012 contest marked the first time foreign songwriters could submit entries , provided that they collaborated with a Swedish songwriter . To be eligible , songwriters and performers must be at least sixteen years of age on the day of the first Eurovision semifinal .
Until 2001 , participation in the festival was limited to a single night . The number of contestants ranged from five to twelve . A two @-@ round system was used intermittently between 1981 and 1998 , in which all but five of the contestants were eliminated in a first round of voting . Failure to reach the second round under this system was seen as a major failure for a prominent artist ; when Elisabeth Andreassen failed to qualify in 1984 , it almost ended her career . The introduction of weekly semifinals in 2002 increased the number of contestants to thirty @-@ two . At least ten of the contestants must perform in Swedish . A CD of each year 's competing songs has been released since 2001 , and a DVD of the semifinals and final since 2003 .
Melodifestivalen has been the launch @-@ pad for the success of popular local acts , such as ABBA , Tommy Körberg , and Lisa Nilsson . The competition has played host to performers from outside Sweden , including Baccara , Alannah Myles , and Cornelis Vreeswijk . Melodifestivalen participants have also represented — and unsuccessfully tried to represent — other countries at Eurovision . While local success for Melodifestivalen winners is common , most contestants return to obscurity and few have major international success . The impact that the competition makes on the Swedish charts means an artist need not win the competition to earn significant domestic record sales . For example , the song which finished last at Melodifestivalen 1990 , " Symfonin " by Loa Falkman , topped the Swedish singles chart . The most recent occurrence was 2016 with Samir & Viktor 's song " Bada Nakna " . In 2007 , twenty @-@ one participants reached Sverigetopplistan . The week after the 2008 final , songs from the festival made up the entire top fifteen on the domestic singles chart .
= = Selection of contestants = =
The process of narrowing thousands of potential entries down to thirty @-@ two lasts over seven months . SVT directly selects sixteen entries from amongst the submissions from the public at large . Fifteen additional entries come from special invitations made by SVT or other entries that SVT has selected from amongst the submissions . Finally , the thirty @-@ second entry is selected via the online " Webbjoker " competition , open to artists whose music has not available for sale in Sweden prior to the deadline . The entire process can begin as early as May of the previous year and is finished by January .
= = = Songs = = =
SVT begins looking for songs nine months before the start of the televised Melodifestival ( within days of the previous year 's Eurovision final ) . The deadline for submission is in September and songs can be in any language . In the pre @-@ selection , song length is limited to three minutes and twenty seconds ; songs must be shortened to three minutes if they reach the final twenty @-@ eight and qualifying songs may also be remixed .
The submission process is overseen by members of the Swedish Music Publishers Association ( SMFF ) , whose task is to reduce the number of songs , which have numbered over 3 @,@ 000 a year since 2002 , to around 1 @,@ 200 . The 3 @,@ 440 entries received in the preselection for Melodifestivalen 2009 is the most in the competition 's history . The SMFF 's choices are then given to a sixteen @-@ person jury of music professionals , SVT staff and other members of the public . The jury ranges from teenagers to people in their fifties . The songs that qualify , along with their composers and lyricists , are announced at the end of September . This is often followed by fervent speculation over who will perform the songs . Songwriters that qualify must provide interviews to SVT , attend a press conference before the competition , and remain open to promotional appearances if their song reaches the final .
= = = Artists and wildcards = = =
SVT selects performers for the entries . Artists who perform the demo of a song automatically enter the competition ; they must perform their songs if suitable alternate performers cannot be found . The artists ' songs risk disqualification if they refuse . In the past , this rule led to the disqualification of , among others , Carola 's " När löven faller " in 2003 and Stephen Simmonds 's " So Good " in 2006 . SVT may also give songs to other performers without considering the interests of the demo artist . This prevented the Brandsta City Släckers ( in 2004 ) and Pernilla Wahlgren ( in 2005 ) from performing the songs they had submitted . Replacements for disqualified songs fare unpredictably at the competition . In 2006 , " Naughty Boy " by Hannah Graaf ( the replacement for Simmonds ' song ) finished second to last in its semifinal . In 2002 and 2007 , by contrast , the replacements performed by Jan Johansen and Måns Zelmerlöw reached the final ten . The contestants that will perform the twenty @-@ eight qualifiers from the preselection are announced in late November . Singer @-@ songwriters are common . As such , artists often confirm that they will participate before the official announcement .
The wildcard ( joker ) system was introduced in 2004 to diversify the music featured . Four artists , one in each semifinal , are invited by SVT to enter a song of their choice into the competition , provided it does not breach the rules . The wildcard songs and artists are announced in January . Since the wildcards ' introduction , three have won the competition . Today in 2011 there are 15 wildcards .
= = Hosting = =
The venues for each year 's Melodifestival are announced in September of the preceding year . The semifinals are held in towns and cities throughout Sweden . The 16 @,@ 300 @-@ capacity Ericsson Globe in Stockholm has hosted the final since the semifinals were introduced in 2002 , through to 2012 . In 2013 , the final moved to the newly built Friends Arena in Solna Municipality , Stockholm County . The Scandinavium in Gothenburg was offered the 2005 final , but turned it down as it clashed with a Frölunda ice hockey match .
The event spent its early years at one venue : Cirkus in Stockholm , which hosted the first ten competitions . It has hosted the final of Melodifestivalen seventeen times in total . The Stockholm Globe Arena has hosted seven finals , and SVT 's headquarters in Stockholm has staged five . The competition first took place outside Stockholm in 1975 as part of a decentralisation policy at SR . Stockholm has hosted thirty @-@ seven finals in total , including the first fourteen . Gothenburg has hosted eight , and Malmö seven . The competition 's final has never been held outside these cities . Before the expansion , the host of the previous year 's Melodifestival would host the Eurovision Song Contest in the event of a Swedish victory . Hence , the 1985 Eurovision was held in Gothenburg , and the 1992 contest in Malmö . Since 2002 , the only venue that has hosted more than three semifinals is Gothenburg 's Scandinavium , which has hosted one every year since 2003 . In 2008 , Andra Chansen was held in Kiruna , north of the Arctic Circle .
= = Televised rounds = =
The televised Melodifestival lasts five weeks and consists of six live shows : four semifinals , in which eight songs compete ; a Second Chance round featuring songs which narrowly missed out on qualification from the semifinals ; and a grand final . Ten songs comprise the final : two automatic qualifiers from each of the semifinals , and the two most popular songs in the Second Chance round . In 2015 , there are seven songs for each semifinal , and twelve ( eight winners and four from Andra Chansen ) in the final .
= = = Semifinals and Second Chance = = =
Prior to the introduction of the current format of semifinals ( deltävlingar ) in 2002 , the competition was usually a single live show . Under the current system , four semifinals are broadcast at 20 : 00 CET on consecutive Saturday nights . The semifinals begin in early February , and eight songs compete in each show .
Unlike in the final , no juries are used ; televoting decides the results . The songs are performed live with telephone lines open for the first round of voting ; the song receiving the most votes in the first round automatically qualifying to the final , skipping the second round . The remaining top 4 battled again for a place in the final and Andra chansen round - the 2nd placed song qualifying to the final , and the 3rd and 4th placed songs progressing to Andra chansen . Both finalists reprise their entries at the end of the broadcast . The organisation of a semifinal system for Melodifestivalen popularised televised heats at national Eurovision selections . A similar system was adopted by the Eurovision itself in 2004 .
The Second Chance round ( Andra chansen ) is the fifth heat in which the ninth and tenth places in the final are decided . The third- and fourth @-@ placed songs from each semifinal ( eight songs in total ) compete in the event . The first Second Chance round in 2002 had a panel of former winners decide the two finalists . Between 2003 and 2006 , the semifinal performances were re @-@ broadcast , and a round of voting narrowed the songs to three or four . Another round then determined the two finalists . The programme was broadcast on the Sunday afternoon after the fourth semifinal . It was held in a smaller venue than those that would have hosted the semifinals — such as Berns Salonger in Stockholm , which hosted the Second Chance round in 2005 .
In 2007 , the Second Chance round became a full semifinal , taking
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